DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF A TWIN FLUORESCENT FITTING TO REDUCE STROBOSCOPIC EFFECT IN WORKSHOPS

SULEIMAN A. A SALIFU ISHMAEL QUAYSON MBIR

01052249D 01052206D

SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT FOR THE AWARD OF HIGHER NATIONAL DIPLOMA IN ELECTRICAL/ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT OF ELECRICAL/ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING ACCRA POLYTECHNIC SEPTAMBER 2008

CERTIFICATION BY SUPERVISOR
I hereby certify that this project work was carried out under my supervision. I therefore approve that the work is adequate in scope and quality for the partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of a Higher National Diploma (HND) in Electrical/Electronics Engineering.

SUPERVISOR: SIGN. DATE

DEDICATION
This project is dedicated to

II

DECLARATION
I .. Declares that the work was undertaken whilst in Accra Polytechnic. I further affirm that, this work so far as I know has not been submitted to any institution for the award of any certificate and the source of information has been fully acknowledged

NAME.. SIGN. DATE

III

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

IV

ABSTRACT
The project in question is a Twin Fluorescent Fitting to Reduce Stroboscopic Effect in Workshops. The report is to investigates and solve the visual illusions caused by the stroboscopic effects of lighting on rotating and reciprocating machinery. The lamps studied were fluorescent, mercury vapor, and incandescent. The results from the experimentation showed stroboscopic effects for the fluorescent and the mercury vapor lamps. No stroboscopic effects were observed from the incandescent lamps. The lights are powered by the same source of a power, but are timed to a different frequency to create variation in movement of the rotating part of the machine.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CONTENT CHAPTER ONE 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 INTRODUCTION BACKGROUND DEFINATION OBJECTIVES SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY METHOLOGY

PAGE

1 2 3 4 5 6

CHAPTER TWO
2.1

VI

CHAPTER THREE 3.1

CHAPTER FOUR 4.1 4.2

4.3 4.4 4.5

GENERAL MODE OF OPERATION IMPORTANT PRECAUTIONS SUMMARY RECORMENDATIONS

REFERNCE

VII

CHAPTER ONE
1.1 INTRODUCTION In an installation where rotating machinery is present and where discharge lamps are used, there is a risk that, the raotating parts may appear stationary. This effect is known as stroboscopic effect. It only occurs on discharge lamp, because their discharge is being extinguished twice every cycle, which causes them to flicker 10ms. This does not happen in incandescent lamps because their filament does not cool fast enough to show any signed of cycle variation.

The simplest way to understand stroboscopic effect is to consider the spoke of rotating wheel. At the moment in time the discharge lamp is receiving zero voltage, a spoke is always in the position that was occupied by another spoke whose particular time difference is equal to one half-cycle of the supply frequency.

1.2 BACKGROUND With the achievement of technological aspect, the present inventions are relative to stroboscopic effects. These effects can be minimized by two methods. If a three phase supply is available this effect can be reduced by connecting the lamps to alternate phase. As the lamp attain their maximum and minimum values of light output in sequence, the overall illumination is kept practically constant thereby keeping the stroboscopic effect to minimum. If a single-phase supply is available the head-lag circuit can be used. In this case we are not going to deal with the single-phase. The construction of a twin circuit these lamps A and B are supplied by an oscillating source with frequency different from that of the phase supplied to the machine.

1.3

DEFINITION

The mentioned project is a twin fluorescent light which is oscillated to different frequency as compared to the frequency of the supply power to the rotating machine to make a rotating part of a machine visible. Even though most industrial machine uses three phase supply, theres no guarantee that the problem could be solved by giving the lighting system to a single phase out of the three. Lamps like filament bulbs could had been used to solve this problem because the coil in the bulbs does not cool down, but because of the high power loss, heat and power consumption it also has become impossible that type of light to be approved for our industries. The best way so far is to construct a twin fluorescent lighting system which is powered with power supply with different frequency from the main supply.

1.4

OBJECTIVES

The main objective of this is to keep stroboscopic effect in Ghana in to minimum such as our industries and local workshop where there is so much revolving machines operating all the time. The aim of this project is to minimize the dangerous situation which could let ignorant people come in contact with these rotating parts.

1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY The main significance of this project is that: 1. 2. 3. the lighting system is easy to operate the system is lass expensive as compared to hazards that this project helps to avoid it consumes less expensive and consumes less power.

1.6 METHODOLOGY The required electronics components for this project shall be acquired from a market at hand and the rest imported via Maplin Electronics UK. All important information needed for this project to takeoff was acquired form two main source namely primary and secondary sources. Primary source were sources were the personal interactions with my supervisor and workers of a well equipped and well knowledgeable on this project. Secondary sources were the research at the library and the internet.

CHAPTER TWO
2.1 TEMPORAL ALIASING

Temporal aliasing is the term applied to a visual phenomenon also known as the stroboscopic effect. It also accounts for the "wagonwheel effect", so called because in video or motion pictures, spoke wheels on horse-drawn wagons sometimes appear to be turning backwards. Temporal aliasing is one example of a range of phenomena called aliasing that occur when continuous motion is represented by a series of short or instantaneous samples. It occurs when (a) the view of a moving object is represented by a series of short samples as distinct from a continuous view, and (b) the moving object is in rotational or other cyclic motion at a rate close to the sampling rate.

2.2

EXPLANATION

Consider the stroboscope as used in mechanical analysis. This may be a "strobe light" that is fired at an adjustable rate. Suppose you are looking at something rotating at 60 revolutions per second: if you view it with a series of short flashes at 60 times per second, each flash illuminates the object at the same position in its rotational cycle, so it appears that the object is stationary. Furthermore, at a frequency of 60 flashes per second, persistence of vision smoothes out the sequence of flashes so that the perceived image is continuous. If you view the same rotating object at 61 flashes per second, each flash will illuminate it at a slightly earlier part of its rotational cycle. Sixty-one flashes will occur before you see the object in the same position again, and you will perceive the series of images as if it is rotating backwards once per second. The same effect occurs if you view the object at 59 flashes per second, except that each flash illuminates it a little later in its rotational cycle and so, it seems to be slowly rotating forwards. In the case of motion pictures, action is captured as a rapid series of still images and the same stroboscopic effect can occur.

2.3

WAGON-WHEEL EFFECT

The wagon-wheel effect, (alternatively, or stagecoach-wheel effect, stroboscopic effect) is an optical illusion in which a spoked wheel appears to rotate differently from its true rotation. The wheel can appear to rotate more slowly than the true rotation, it can appear stationary, or it can appear to rotate in the opposite direction from the true rotation. This last form of the effect is sometimes called the reverse rotation effect. The wagon-wheel effect is most often seen in film or television depictions of stagecoaches or wagons in Western movies, although recordings of any regularly spoked wheel will show it, such as helicopter rotors and aircraft propellers. It can also commonly be seen when a rotating wheel is illuminated by flickering light. These forms of the effect are known as stroboscopic effects and they arise from temporal aliasing: the original smooth rotation of the wheel is visible only intermittently. 9

A version of the wagon-wheel effect can also be seen under continuous illumination. Wagon-wheel Effect under stroboscopic conditions Stroboscopic conditions ensure that the visibility of a rotating wheel is broken into a series of brief episodes in which its motion is either absent (in the case of movie cameras) or minimal (in the case of stroboscopes), interrupted by longer episodes of invisibility. It is customary to call the former episodes frames. A movie camera typically operates at 24 frames per second, and standard television operates at 59.94 or 50 images per second (a video frame is two separate images; see interlace.) A stroboscope can typically have its frequency set to any value. Artificial lighting that is temporally modulated when powered by alternating current, such as gas discharge lamps (including neon, mercury vapor, sodium vapor and fluorescent tubes), flicker at twice the frequency of the power line (for example 120 times per second on a 60 cycle line). In each cycle of current the power peaks twice (once with positive voltage and once with negative voltage) and twice goes to zero, and the light output varies accordingly. In all of these cases, a person sees a rotating wheel under stroboscopic conditions. Imagine that the true rotation of a four-spoke wheel is clockwise.

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The first instance of visibility of the wheel may occur when one spoke is at 12 o'clock. If by the time the next instance of visibility occurs, the spoke previously at 9-o'clock has moved into the 12o'clock position, then a viewer will perceive the wheel to be stationary. If at the second instance of visibility, the next spoke has moved to the 11:30 position, then a viewer will perceive the wheel to be rotating backwards. If at the second instance of visibility, the next spoke has moved to the 12:30 position, then a viewer will perceive the wheel to be rotating forwards, however more slowly than the wheel is actually rotating. The effect relies on a motion perception property called beta movement: motion is seen between two objects in different positions in the visual field at different times providing the objects are similar (which is true of spoked wheels - each spoke is essentially identical to the others) and providing the objects are close (which is true of the originally 9-o'clock spoke in the second instant - it is closer to 12 o'clock than the originally 12-o'clock spoke). The wagon-wheel effect is exploited in some engineering tasks, such as adjusting the timing of an engine. This same effect can make some rotating machines, such as lathes, dangerous to operate under artificial lighting because at certain speeds the machines will falsely appear to be stopped or to be moving slowly. 11

Finlay, Dodwell, and Caelli (1984) and Finlay and Dodwell (1987) studied perception of rotating wheels under stroboscopic illumination when the duration of each frame was long enough for observers to see the real rotation. Despite this, the rotation direction was dominated by the wagon-wheel effect. Finlay and Dodwell (1987) argued that there are some critical differences between the wagonwheel effect and Beta motion, but their argument has not troubled the consensus.

2.4

ETYMOLOGY

In electrical engineering, when a continuous signal is replaced by a series of samples say, a 24.1 Hz signal is sampled 24 times per second the result seems the same as if a 0.1 Hz signal were sampled 24 times per second, so 0.1 Hz is said to be an "alias" of 24.1 Hz.

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2.5

STROBOSCOPE

A stroboscope, also known as a strobe, is an instrument used to make a cyclically moving object appear to be slow-moving, or stationary. The principle is used for the study of rotating, reciprocating, oscillating or vibrating objects. Machine parts and vibrating strings are common examples. In its simplest form, a rotating disc with evenly-spaced holes is placed in the line of sight between the observer and the moving object. The rotational speed of the disc is adjusted so that it becomes synchronized with the movement of the observed system, which seems to slow and stop. The illusion is caused by temporal aliasing, commonly known as the "stroboscopic effect". In electronic versions, the perforated disc is replaced by a lamp capable of emitting brief and rapid flashes of light. The frequency of the flash is adjusted so that it is equal to, or a unit fraction below or above the object's cyclic speed, at which point the object is seen to be either stationary or moving backward or forward, depending on the flash frequency.

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APPLICATIONS Stroboscopes play an important role in the study of stresses on machinery in motion, and in many other forms of research. They are also used as measuring instruments for determining cyclic speed. As a timing light they are used to set the ignition timing of internal combustion engines. In medicine, stroboscopes are used to view the vocal cords for diagnosis. The patient hums or speaks into a microphone which in turn activates the stroboscope at either the same or a slightly different frequency. The light source and a camera are positioned by endoscope. Another application of the stroboscope can be seen on many gramophone turntables. The edge of the platter has marks at specific intervals so that when viewed by incandescent lighting powered at mains frequency, and provided the platter is rotating at the correct speed, the marks appear to be stationary. Flashing lamp strobes are also adapted for pop use, as a lighting effect for discotheques and night clubs where they give the impression of dancing in slow motion.

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OTHER EFFECTS Rapid flashing can give the illusion that white light is tinged with colour, known as Fechner colour. Within certain ranges, the apparent colour can be controlled by the frequency of the flash, but it is an illusion generated in the mind of the observer and not a real colour. The Benham's top demonstrates the effect. At certain frequencies, flashing light can trigger epileptic seizures in some people. STROBE LIGHT Strobe light or stroboscopic lamp, commonly called a strobe, is a device used to produce regular flashes of light. It is one of a number of devices that can be used as a stroboscope. The word originated from the Greek strobes, meaning "act of whirling." Strobe lights have many uses, including scientific and industrial applications, but are particularly popular in clubs where they are used to give an illusion of slow motion (cf. temporal aliasing). Other well-known applications are in alarm systems, theatrical lighting (most notably to simulate lightning), and as high-visibility running lights. They are still widely used in law enforcement and other emergency vehicles, though they are slowly being replaced by LED 15

technology in this application, as they themselves largely replaced halogen lighting. Strobe lighting has also been used to see the movements of the vocal cords in slow motion during speech, a procedure known as video-stroboscopy. Special calibrated strobe lights, capable of flashing up to hundreds of times per second, are used in industry to stop the motion of rotating and other repetitivelyoperating machinery and to measure the rotation speeds or cycle times. Strobelights are often used in nightclubs and raves, and are available for home use for special effects or entertainment. A typical commercial strobe light has a flash energy in the region of 10 to 150 joules, and discharge times as short as a few milliseconds, often resulting in a flash power of several kilowatts. Larger strobe lights can be used in continuous mode, producing extremely intense illumination. The light source is commonly a xenon flash lamp, which has a complex spectrum and a color temperature of approximately 5,600 Kelvins. In order to obtain colored light, colored gels must be used.

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CHAPTER THREE 3.1 Stages of Operation

There are two main stages involved in the operation of this system. These are
1. 2.

Converting 50Hz To 0Hz (AC to DC) Converting 0Hz to 50Hz (DC to AC) Converting 50Hz to 0Hz (AC to DC)

3.2

In the conversion of the mains from 50Hz to 0Hz there three stages involves namely a. Stepping Down
b.

Rectification

c. Smoothing a. Stepping Down

In stepping down a transformer is used to step the voltage of the mains from 220V/50Hz to 12Volts. A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another through inductively coupled electrical conductors. A changing current in the first circuit (the primary) creates a changing magnetic field; in turn, this magnetic field induces a changing voltage in the second circuit (the secondary). 17

By adding a load to the secondary circuit, one can make current flow in the transformer, thus transferring energy from one circuit to the other. The secondary induced voltage VS, of an ideal transformer, is scaled from the primary VP by a factor equal to the ratio of the number of turns of wire in their respective windings: Vs/Vp = Ns/Np By appropriate selection of the numbers of turns, a transformer thus allows an alternating voltage to be stepped up by making NS more than NP or stepped down, by making it less. Transformers are some of the most efficient electrical 'machines', with some large units able to transfer 99.75% of their input power to their output. Transformers come in a range of sizes from a thumbnail-sized coupling transformer hidden inside a stage microphone to huge units weighing hundreds of tons used to interconnect portions of national power grids. All operate with the same basic principles, though a variety of designs exist to perform specialized roles throughout home and industry.

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b.

Rectification

Rectifier diodes are used in power supplies to convert alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC), a process called rectification. Bridge rectifiers There are several ways of connecting diodes to make a rectifier to convert AC to DC. The bridge rectifier is one of them and it is available in special packages containing the four diodes required. Bridge rectifiers are rated by their maximum current and maximum reverse voltage. They have four leads or terminals: the two DC outputs are labelled + and -, the two AC inputs are labelled . The diagram below shows the operation of a bridge rectifier as it converts AC to DC. Notice how alternate pairs of diodes conduct.

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c.

The Smoothing Capacitor

The full-wave bridge rectifier however, gives us a greater mean d.c. value (0.637Vmax) with less superimposed ripple while the output wveform is twice that of the frequency of the input supply frequency. We can therefore increase its average d.c. output level even higher by connecting a suitable smoothing capacitor across the output of the bridge circuit as shown below.

The smoothing capacitor converts the full-wave rippled output of the rectifier into a smooth d.c. output voltage.

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Two important parameters to consider when choosing a suitable a capacitor are its Working Voltage, which must be higher than the noload output value of the rectifier and its Capacitance Value, which determines the amount of ripple that will appear superimposed ontop of the d.c. voltage. Too low a value and the capacitor has little effect. As a general rule of thumb, we are looking to have a ripple voltage of less than 100mV peak to peak.The main advantages of a full-wave bridge rectifier is that it has a smaller a.c. ripple value for a given load and a smaller reservoir or smoothing capacitor than an equivalent half-wave rectifier. The fundamental frequency of the ripple voltage is twice that of the a.c. supply frequency (100Hz) where for the half-wave rectifier it is exactly equal to the supply frequency (50Hz). The amount of ripple voltage that is superimposed on top of the d.c. supply voltage can be virtually eliminated by adding an an improved -filter (pi-filter) to the ouput terminals of the bridge rectifier. This type of low-pass filter consists of two smoothing capacitors, usually of the same value and a choke or inductance across them to introduce a high impeadance path to the alternating ripple component.

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3.2

Converting 0Hz to 50Hz (DC to AC).

The DC to AC converter also known as power inverter operates in four stages namely (a) Regulating (b) Pulse generation (oscillating), (c) Amplification and (d)Stepping Up. (a)Regulating Since the amplitude of the oscillator is determined by the Vcc. or the power supplied to it, is very important to regulate it to match the Gate to Source voltage of the Mosfets which would be used to amplify the signals from the Oscillator. The simplest voltage regulator uses just a resistor and a zener diode. In the circuit diagram you can see a resistor (R1) and a zener diode (ZD1) connected across a power supply. The resistor is connected to the positive (+ve) supply wire and the zener diode anode is connected to the zero volt (ground) wire. At the junction of these two components the voltage is clamped by the zener diode to its specified voltage - in this case 5.6 volts but can be changed to 9.1 or any voltage to suit the Vbe of the transistor(Mosfets) in the amplifier. This method is OK for low currents but the resistor becomes too hot if larger currents are needed. To cope with this problem we can add the NPN transistor (Q1) . 22

Now the transistor passes the current required at the output.

What is the output voltage? It is easy to calculate. The voltage at Q1 base connection is 5.6 volts. The voltage between base and emitter of a silicon transistor is always 0.6 volts if the transistor is "on". So the voltage at the Q1 emitter (Vout) must be 5.6 - 0.6 = 5.0 volts. The output voltage will remain at a constant voltage of 5.0 volts provided that the input voltage from the supply is more than 6 volts (the zener voltage plus a little to compensate for that "lost" across the resistor). 23

In fact the input voltage can be swinging up and down between, say, 6 volts and 12 volts and the output voltage at Q1 emitter will still be a steady 5.0 volts. The limiting factors are the amount of heat generated by R1, ZD1 and Q1 since all excess voltage must be shed as heat. The "wattage" ratings of the individual components must be calculated to suit: 1. The average input current (through R1 and ZD1) and the output current (through Q1). can be calculated from Ohms Law and is decided by whatever the regulator is to supply voltage to. V = Volts Ohms Law I = V/R I = Amps if R = Ohms or I = mA if R = k Let's assume the following: The circuit which this regulator is driving needs 9.0v at a current of 200A. A TIP41 transistor is suitable since it can handle current up to 15 A. Its gain at 40 is listed as 40 (typ) so it's easy to see that it will need at least 1mA into its base to allow 15A to flow from collector to emitter.

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Watts = Volts x Amps milliWatts = Volts x milliAmps Volts x Amps = Watts Since the regulating voltage is 9volts and the maximum current from the transistor is 15A 9volts x 15A = 135watts.

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(b) Pulse Generation (oscillating) Since the DC power haves no frequency, theres a need for an introduction of an oscillator such as an astable multivibrator to change the frequency from zero to 50Hz. A multivibrator is an electronic circuit used to implement a variety of simple two-state systems such as oscillators, timers and flip-flops. It is characterized by two amplifying devices (transistors, electron tubes or other devices) cross-coupled by resistors and capacitors. The most common form is the astable or oscillating type, which generates a square wave - the high level of harmonics in its output is what gives the multivibrator its common name. Astable Multivibrator circuit

+Ve R1 C1 R2 R3 C2 R4

Q1 0V
26

Q2

This circuit shows a typical simple astable circuit, with an output from the collector of Q1, and an inverted output from the collector of Q2. Suggested values which will yield a frequency of about 48 to 50Hz:

R1, R4 = 220 R2, R3 = 10K C1, C2 = 1F Q1, Q2 = BC547 or C945 NPN switching transistor

Basic mode of opera tion The circuit keeps one transistor switched on and the other switched off. Suppose that initially, Q1 is switched on and Q2 is switched off. State 1:

Q1 holds the bottom of R1 (and the left side of C1) near ground (0V). The right side of C1 (and the base of Q2) is being charged by R2 from below ground to 0.6V. R3 is pulling the base of Q1 up, but its base-emitter diode prevents the voltage from rising above 0.6V.

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R4 is charging the right side of C2 up to the power supply voltage (+V). Because R4 is less than R2, C2 charges faster than C1.

When the base of Q2 reaches 0.6V, Q2 turns on, and the following positive feedback loop occurs:

Q2 abruptly pulls the right side of C2 down to near 0V. Because the voltage across a capacitor cannot suddenly change, this causes the left side of C2 to suddenly fall to almost -V, well below 0V. Q1 switches off due to the sudden disappearance of its base voltage. R1 and R2 work to pull both ends of C1 toward +V, completing Q2's turn on. The process is stopped by the B-E diode of Q2, which will not let the right side of C1 rise very far.

This now takes us to State 2, the mirror image of the initial state, where Q1 is switched off and Q2 is switched on. Then R1 rapidly pulls C1's left side toward +V, while R3 more slowly pulls C2's left side toward +0.6V. When C2's left side reaches 0.6V, the cycle repeats

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Multivibrator Frequency Where...

f is frequency in Hertz. R2 and R3 are resistor values in ohms. C1 and C2 are capacitor values in farads. T is period time (In this case, the sum of two period durations). f is frequency in Hertz. R2 and R3 are resistor values in ohms. C1 and C2 are capacitor values in farads. T is period time (In this case, the sum of two period durations).

(c) Amplification Angle of flow or conduction angle 50% of the input signal is used ( = 180 or , i.e. the active element works in its linear range half of the time and is more or less turned off for the other half). In most Class B, there are two output devices (or sets of output devices), each of which conducts alternately (pushpull) for exactly 180 deg (or half cycle) of the input signal; selective RF amplifiers can also be implemented using a single active element.

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These amplifiers are subject to crossover distortion if the handoff from one active element to the other is not perfect, as when two complimentary transistors (i.e. one PNP, one NPN) are connected as two emitter followers with their base and emitter terminals in common, requiring the base voltage to slew across the region where both devices are turned off. The amplifier is built from a class B push to push amplifier with independent inputs unlike the normal audio amplifier because in the normal system, the inputs are bridged together to one input and the output also bridged. But to obtain a angle of 3600 of input used the two inputs has to be separated to for the inputs to swing at 90-9090-90 making the out put still maintained as a sinodial signal.

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(d) Stepping Up. For stepping up the signal amplified it is important to use a transformer which has low power loss. One ideal type of transformer is a sandwich double wounded transformer with laminated core. The transformer is made 12-0-12 or 9-0-9 at the primary and 220240 at the secondary.
9V T1 0V

0V

9V

220/240V

Laminated core This is the most common type of transformer, widely used in appliances to convert mains voltage to low voltage to power electronics

Widely available in power ratings from 1.2w to several kilowatts Insulated laminations minimize eddy current losses Most use a split bobbin, giving a high level of insulation between the windings Rectangular core 31

Core laminate stampings are usually in EI shape pairs. Other shape pairs are sometimes used. Mumetal shields can be fitted to reduce EMI (electromagnetic interference) A screen winding is occasionally used between the 2 power windings Many such transformers have a thermal cut out built in, many don't 4 turns per volt is typical for continuous use Occasionally seen in low profile format for use in restricted spaces laminated core made with silicon steel with high permeability

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3.3

Schematic Diagram

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3.4

COMPONENT LIST DESCRIPTION 9-0-9/220V STEP-UP TRANSFORMER T2 220V /12vSTEP-DOWN TRANSFORMER ZD1 D1 LED 1-3 Q2-Q6 C1,C2 Q1 R1 SCK1 F1 9v ZENER DIODE BRIDGE DIODE[GBU8M] LED(LIGHT EMITTING DIODE) RFP40N10 15000uf C2580 1k Dual 13amps 3pin 20A Circuit Breaker 1 1 3 4 2 1 1 1 1 1 QUANTITY 1

COMPONENT T1

34 Component List for Oscillator Q1,Q2 C1,C2 R1,R4 R2,R3 C945 1uf 220 10K 2 2 2 2

PCB Cable R4,R5,R7,R8 Heat sink

Vero Board Auxiliaries 6mm Auto flex 470 resistor Aluminum heat sink with fins

1 2

NOTE: R T Q RESISTOR TRANSFORMER TRANSISTOR C D ZDCAPACITOR DIODE ZINER DIODE

35 3.5 CABLE SELECTION

Cables are the main material that connects on component to the other so it is very important that the right cable is used to deliver the right amount of power needed at a particular place. Cables for dc applications should not be less than 6mm in diameter and colors are also very important because to clearly explain to

someone the type of signal passing through the cable whether it is positive or negative. For example a Red cable clearly explains that the power passing through the cable is positive.

36 3.6 LIMITATIONS

The difficulties involved in getting the major component from an original source was very difficult because all the companies who manufactures these components do not sell components in small quantities and it was very hectic getting all these components.

37 4.5 CIRCUIT CONSTRUCTION

This circuit was first divided into four stages and each stage was carefully tested with electronics stimulator software and then assembled. The oscillator circuit was assembled on a Vero board (PCB) and then tested with a signal generator and an oscilloscope to check the

frequency response. This circuit was finally tested after all he four parts were puts together to check and correct its short falls. Much consideration was given to meter readings or voltages and current.

38 4.6 GENERAL MODE OF OPERATION

220 volts AC (alternating current) /50Hz is connected to a transformer to step it down to 15 volts AC. The supply is then rectified and smoothened. The smoothened power is then connected to an oscillator to change its frequency back to 50Hz. The output of the oscillator is then

amplified by a push pull amplifier which has a step-up transformer to raise the signal from 12volts AC to 220volts AC.

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4.7

PRECAUTIONS

In other to arrive at a good and a successful project, the following precautions were taken into consideration: 1. The circuit was built under supervision to ensure accuracy. 2. The circuit diagram was first tested with schematic circuit stimulator software and then mounted on a Vero board and

then rechecked for accuracy to prevent damage of any component. 3. The right size of cables was used at high current lines like the main positive input which is connected from and to the battery.
4. The entire component were thoroughly checked and tested for

consistency and efficiency. 5. Correct soldering techniques were ensured as well as the usage of a correct solder. 6. The right tools and equipment were used for this project. 7. Suitable equivalent replacement of components was ensured at places where the original components were not available.

40 4.8 CONCLUSION

The entire project was finally concluded that; this lighting system could enhance the sight of worker who use4s rotating machine to caution them that theres a rotating machine.

This project could go a long way to help reduce accident caused by this problem in the workshop and also help in creating employment for the youth if encouraged in the country.

41 SUMMARY From the above project it was realized that, when the supply given to lights have different phase angle to the supply of the rotating machine the rotating parts would be more visible to avoid accidents in the workshop.

42 RECOMMENDATIONS My recommendations for workshops, machine shops and industries who uses rotating machine or machines with rotating parts and also

for industries who work in the night with machines which uses three phases.

43 REFERENCES 1. 2. Carols Advance Electronics and Training Centre. www.wikipedia.com/english