III.

Ng ngha ca lun l mnh

Chng 2
ntsn

Truth Assignments[*]
Truth Assignments (Environments) A truth assignment assigns a value T or F to each propositional variable. Computer scientists call any assignment of values to variables an environment. If we know the environment, we can find the value of any propositional formula. Example: Suppose environment, v, assigns v(P) = T, v(Q)= T, v(R) = F.
[*] Sept. 10, 2007 Copyright Albert R. Meyer, 2007. All rights reserved. lec 2M.17 @Nguyn Thanh Sn
ntsn

Din dch
Cng thc ca LLM t thn khng c gi tr ng sai. Khi nhng cng thc vo mt th gii thc th cng thc s ly gi tr ng sai ca ci tng ng ca n lm gi tr ng sai ca cng thc. Khi kho st cng thc trong 1 th gii thc, ci quan tm hng u l gi tr ng sai. Do mi hot ng u hng v vic tm gi tr ng sai v ch c mt hng duy nht l gi tr ng sai.

@Nguyn Thanh Sn

ntsn

Din dch
Din dch ca mt cng thc l th gii thc cng vi cch nhng tng yu t ca cng thc vo th gii thc . Ni cch khc din dch l gn cho cng thc mt ngha ca th gii thc m cng thc c nhng vo. Mt s ti liu nh ngha khi nim din dch ca mt lp cc cng thc.

@Nguyn Thanh Sn

ntsn

Din dch
Th d : Cng thc ((H O) W) cha c gi tr ng sai.
Th gii Lun l mnh (H O) W
Nu H H Dznh l nh th

H2 + O2 H2O Th gii thc (ho hc)

th

v
O Gi qu l 1 tp th W H Dznh l tc gi ca Gi qu

Th gii thc (vn hc s)

@Nguyn Thanh Sn

ntsn

Din dch
Vic kho st cng thc ch quan tm n gi tr ng sai ca cng thc trong tng th gii thc. D s th gii thc l v hn, nhng mi cng thc ch c hu hn cc CTN, nn ch c hu hn trng hp nh gi ng sai cho mi cng thc trong mi th gii thc.

@Nguyn Thanh Sn

ntsn

Din dch
Din dch trong LLM c hu hn trng hp nh gi.
A sai, B ng A sai, B sai

(A B) A

A sai, B sai

A ng, B ng

A ng, B sai

S trng hp tng ng vi vi s dng ca bng thc tr.

@Nguyn Thanh Sn
ntsn

Din dch
C th c trng din dch ca LLM bng 1 hm nh gi trn cc CTN c trong cng thc. Th d : Qui c CT ng c gi tr 1 v sai l 0. Cng thc (P Q) R c din dch I c c trng bng hm nh gi nh sau : (P) = 1, (Q) = 0, (R) = 1. tin cho vic trnh by, cn s dng k hiu F thay cho (F).
@Nguyn Thanh Sn
ntsn

Thc tr ca mt cng thc

Nu A = 1, B = 0 v C = 0 th ((AB) (C A)) l ng hay sai ?. Nu A = 0, B = 1 v C = 0 th ((A B) C) l ng hay sai ?. Nu A = 0, B = 1, C = 0 v D = 1 th (((A C) B) D) l ng hay sai. Cn phi xc nh qui tc nh gi ca cc ton t : , , , .

@Nguyn Thanh Sn

ntsn

Bng thc tr
P, Q l cc cng thc nguyn.
P 1 1 0 0 Q 1 0 1 0 P 0 0 1 1 PQ 1 1 1 0 PQ 1 0 0 0 PQ 1 0 1 1

Tt c din dch ca mt cng thc trong LLM tng ng vi cc dng ca bng thc tr.
@Nguyn Thanh Sn

ntsn

Bng thc tr
P Q, ti sao l , s l s, s l , s s l ???. Th d : P = Tri ma, Q = Phong mang d. Tnh trng 1 : Tri ma v Phong mang d. Tnh trng 2 : Tri ma v Phong khng mang d. Tnh trng 3 : Tri khng ma v Phong mang d. Tnh trng 4 : Tri khngma v Phong khngmang d. Nguyn tc khng vi phm.

@Nguyn Thanh Sn

ntsn

Bng thc tr
Mt cch nh ngha khc, bng thc tr l mt hm trn tp 2 phn t ng, sai ({, s}). Cc ton t lun l l cc hm : : {, s} {, s} : {, s} {, s} {, s} : {, s} {, s} {, s} : {, s} {, s} {, s}

@Nguyn Thanh Sn

ntsn

Thc tr ca mt cng thc

Th d : Tnh thc tr ca cng thc (X (YZ)) X
X 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 Y 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 Z 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 YZ 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 X(YZ) 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 CT 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1

@Nguyn Thanh Sn

ntsn

Th tc s hc
Chuyn cng thc vo <Z2, +, .> tnh thc tr. (P Q) = P + Q + PQ trong Z2, (P Q) = PQ trong Z2, P = 1 + P trong Z2, (P Q) = 1 + P + PQ trong Z2. H qu : P + P = 0. P.P = P. P.P = 0.
@Nguyn Thanh Sn

ntsn

Thc tr ca mt cng thc

Th d : tnh thc tr ca cng thc (X (Y Z)) X ((X (Y Z)) X) = (X (Y Z))(X) = (1 + X + X(Y Z))(X) = (1 + X + X.((Y) + Z + (Y)Z))(X) = (1 + X + X(Y) + XZ + X(Y)Z)(X) = (X) + (X)X + (X)X(Y) + (X)XZ + (X)X(Y)Z = (X) + 0 + 0.(Y) + 0.Z + 0.(Y)Z = (X) = 1 + X.
@Nguyn Thanh Sn

ntsn

Cy phn tch
nh gi CT nh cy phn tch. Th d : nh gi cng thc (X (Y Z)) X, vi X, Y, Z ln lt c gi tr , s, . s

X

s
ntsn

@Nguyn Thanh Sn

Phn loi cng thc

Da trn din dch, cc cng thc c chia lm 3 nhm.
Cng thc hng ng Cng thc kh ng, kh sai Cng thc hng sai Khng gian LLM

@Nguyn Thanh Sn

ntsn

Phn loi cng thc

I l din dch ca cng thc X. X hng ng (I) X = 1, trong I. X hng sai (I) X = 0, trong I. X kh ng (I) X = 1, trong I. X kh sai (I) X = 0, trong I.

@Nguyn Thanh Sn

ntsn

Phn loi cng thc

Nhn xt : Ph nh ca mt cng thc hng ng l cng thc hng sai. Cng thc hng ng c gi l tautology. (X hng ng) ((I) X = 1, trong I) ?. (X hng sai) ((I) X = 0, trong I) ?. (X kh ng) ((I) X = 1, trong I) ?. (X kh sai) ((I) X = 0, trong I) ?.

@Nguyn Thanh Sn

ntsn

Cng thc tng ng

Cng thc X v Y tng ng nu ng b trong vic nh gi thc tr i vi mi din dch. Ly din dch I ca X v Y. Nu X ng trong I th Y cng ng trong I v ngc li. Nu X sai trong I th Y cng sai trong I v ngc li. K hiu X = Y. Hai cng thc tng ng c cng s CTN hay khng ?
@Nguyn Thanh Sn
ntsn

Thut ng
Valid formula Contradiction Satisfiable Falsiable = tautology = hng ng (validity). = hng sai. = consistent = kh ng. = unsatisfiable = inconsistent = kh sai.

@Nguyn Thanh Sn

ntsn

M hnh
M hnh I ca cng thc F l din dch I ca F v F = 1 trong I. Ch : Din dch = interpretation, valuation (ting Anh). M hnh = model (ting Anh). Mt s ti liu dng t model cho khi nim din dch.

@Nguyn Thanh Sn

ntsn

Cc cng thc tng ng

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. (F) FG FG FG (F G) (F G) =F = (F G) (G F) = F G = G F = (F) (G) (DeMorgan) = (F) (G) (DeMorgan)

@Nguyn Thanh Sn

ntsn

Hng ng
Tt c cc cng thc sau l hng ng ngoi tr cng thc 1 l hng sai. 1. (F F) hng sai 2. (F F) 3. F (F G) 4. (F G) F 5. ((F G) F) G 6. ((F G) G) F

@Nguyn Thanh Sn

ntsn

Hng ng
7. 8. 9. 10. 11. ((FG) (GH)) (FH) (tnh truyn) ((FG) (FG)) F (phn chng) (FG) ((F H)(G H)) (FG) ((F H) (G H)) ...

@Nguyn Thanh Sn

ntsn

Hng ng
Chng minh ((F G) F) G hng ng Ly din dch I, nu F ng trong I, nu G ng trong I, CT ng trong I, nu G sai trong I , CT ng trong I, nu F sai trong I, nu G ng trong I , CT ng trong I, nu G sai trong I , CT ng trong I, Vy CT hng ng.

@Nguyn Thanh Sn

ntsn

Lng nguyn
Lng nguyn (literal) l CTN hoc ph nh CTN. Th d : A, B, C l cc cng thc nguyn. A, B, C, A, B, C l cc lng nguyn.

@Nguyn Thanh Sn

ntsn

Din dch
Din dch c cho di dng tp hp cc lng nguyn. Thay v vit F1 = , , Fn = th vit l {signF1, , signFn}. Nu l 1 th signFi l Fi. Nu l 0 th signFi l Fi.

@Nguyn Thanh Sn

ntsn

Din dch
Th d : F = (A B) (B A) Din dch I = {A, B, C} ngha l A = 1, B = 1, C = 1. Din dch J = {A, B, C} ngha l A = 1, B = 0, C = 0. Din dch K = {A, B, C} ngha l A = 0, B = 0, C = 0.

@Nguyn Thanh Sn

ntsn

Dng chun giao - CNF

Conjunctive normal form (CNF) c dng : (P1Pn)1 (Q1Qm)p, vi n, m, p 1, v Pi, Qi l cc lng nguyn. Th d : F = (P R) (Q S T) Q. G = P Q (R) H = (P R S)

@Nguyn Thanh Sn

ntsn

Horn clause - DNF

Horn form : Conjunction of Horn clauses. Horn clause : mnh ch c 1 lng nguyn dng (positive literal). Th d : (A B) (C D E) thng c vit di dng H = (B A) v ((C E) D) Disjunctive normal form (DNF) i ngu vi CNF.
@Nguyn Thanh Sn
ntsn

Mnh
Mi khi (P1 Pn)i ca CNF c gi l 1 mnh . Mnh c 1 lng nguyn c gi l mnh n v. Th d : F = (P R) (Q S T) Q c 3 mnh , mnh (P R), (Q S T) v mnh n v Q . H = (P R S) c 1 mnh l chnh n.
@Nguyn Thanh Sn
ntsn

Dng chun giao - CNF

Cc bc chuyn v dng CNF Th d : F = (A B) (B A) = (A B) (B A) = (A B) (B A) = (A B) (B A) = (A (B A)) (B (B A)) = (A B A) (B B A) = (B A)
@Nguyn Thanh Sn

ntsn

Dng chun giao - CNF

Nhn xt : Mi cng thc c th chuyn v dng chun CNF. Dng chun giao khng duy nht. X h = X (h, cng thc hng ng). X hs = X (hs, cng thc hng sai). Mnh rng l mnh khng c lng nguyn. Mnh rng l cng thc hng sai.
@Nguyn Thanh Sn
ntsn

Dng chun giao - CNF

CNF c th c xy dng t bng thc tr. Th d : F = (A B) (B A)
A 1 1 0 0 B 1 0 1 0 F 1 0 1 1

(A B)

F = (A B)

@Nguyn Thanh Sn

ntsn

Dng chun giao - CNF

Th d : Cng thc F c bng thc tr :
A 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 B 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 C 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 F 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1

(A B C) (A B C) (A B C)

c CNF l F = (A B C) (A B C) (A B C)
@Nguyn Thanh Sn

ntsn

Dng chun giao - CNF

CT (dng CNF) l hng ng nu tt c mnh cha hoc c 1 cp lng nguyn i du. Nu khng, l kh sai (falsiable). CT (dng DNF) l hng sai nu tt c thnh phn giao cha hoc c 1 cp lng nguyn i du. Nu khng, l kh ng (SATisfiable). Nhn xt : Bin i v dng DNF (CNF) tn km c v thi gian v khng gian.
@Nguyn Thanh Sn

ntsn

Dng NNF

[*]

Cng thc dng NNF(negation normal form) khi cng thc khng cha ton t : 1. Thay dng (X Y) = (X Y). 2. Khai trin ton t dng X = X, dng (X Y) = (X Y) dng (X Y) = (X Y).

[*] Logic and Proof - Computer Science Tripos Part IB Michaelmas Term @Nguyn Thanh Sn Lawrence C Paulson - Computer Laboratory University of Cambridge lcp@cl.cam.ac.uk

ntsn

Dng NNF
Th d : F = (A B) (B A) F = (A B) (B A) (thay ) F = (A B) (B A) (thay ) F = (A B) (B A) (khai trin )

[*] Logic and Proof - Computer Science Tripos Part IB Michaelmas Term @Nguyn Thanh Sn Lawrence C Paulson - Computer Laboratory University of Cambridge lcp@cl.cam.ac.uk

ntsn

T NNF n CNF

[*]

y vo trong, dng F (G H) = (F G) (F H) n gin ha : Xa mnh cha 2 lngnguyn tri du. eg : (F G F) (H K) = H K. Xa mnh cha mnh khc. eg : (H K F) (H K) = H K. Thay (F G) (F G) bng G.

[*] Logic and Proof - Computer Science Tripos Part IB Michaelmas Term Lawrence C Paulson - Computer Laboratory University of Cambridge lcp@cl.cam.ac.uk @Nguyn Thanh Sn

ntsn

H qu lun l
Nu mi m hnh ca ca F cng l m hnh ca H th H c gi l h qu lun l ca F. K hiu F H. F l KB, c gi l tin v H c gi l kt lun. Logical Consequence = Entailment = H qu lun l (HQLL).

@Nguyn Thanh Sn

ntsn

H qu lun l
chng minh H l h qu lun l ca F : Lit k tt c din dch. Chn cc din dch l m hnh ca F. Kim tra xem cc m hnh ny c cn l m hnh ca H hay khng.
H qu lun l
F
tha Tp cc Din dch
@Nguyn Thanh Sn

Tp con

H
tha Tp cc Din dch
ntsn

H qu lun l
Th d : {A, B} {A, B} {A, B} {A, A B} {A B, A B} {A B, A B} {A B, A B} {B, A B}
@Nguyn Thanh Sn

AB AB AB AB A B AB AB

ntsn

H qu lun l
Kim tra X Y, X Y.
X 1 1 0 0 Y 1 0 1 0 XY 1 0 1 1 X 1 1 0 0 Y 1 Khng l m hnh ca KB Khng l m hnh ca KB Khng l m hnh ca KB

@Nguyn Thanh Sn

ntsn

K hiu hng ng
K hiu cng thc H l hng ng : H K hiu H c ngha l H. H thng { F1, , Fn } H { F1, , Fn } {CThHngng} H F1, , Fn CTHngng H Do khi { F1, , Fn } = th CTHngng H.

@Nguyn Thanh Sn

ntsn

Cng thc hng ng

Nu F H th cng thc (F H) hng ng. Mt cng thc hng ng : F H (F H) F H ( F H) ( F1, , Fn H ) (F2, , Fn F1 H) ( F H v H K ) (F K) (truyn)

@Nguyn Thanh Sn

ntsn

L thuyt chng minh

[7]

Bng thc tr xc nh ng ngha, trong khi cc h thng chng minh c gi l l thuyt chng minh (proof theory). H thng chng minh c gi l ng n (sound) nu mi sequent (F H) pht sinh (F H) l hng ng. V vy tin phi l hng ng v mi lut suy din s pht sinh hng ng. H thng chng minh pht sinh mi hng ng c gi l y (complete).

@Nguyn Thanh Sn

ntsn

Soundness & Completeness

Tng quan gia 2 khi nim v H. F nh l (soundness). Nu F H th F H. nh l (completeness). Nu F H th F H.
@Nguyn Thanh Sn

ntsn

L thuyt chng minh

[7]

Tnh y (completeness) kh t c v kh minh ha. nh l v tnh khng y (incompleteness) ca Gdel ni rng khng c h thng chng minh no mnh nh ngha cc tnh cht ca s t nhin.

@Nguyn Thanh Sn

ntsn

Bi tp Chng 2 : Lun l mnh

Chng 2
ntsn

Lp bng thc tr
Cho cc cng thc sau : 1. (P Q) ((P Q)) 2. (P Q) (Q P) 3. (P Q) (Q P) 4. P (P Q) 5. (P (Q P)) P 6. P (Q P) 7. (P Q) (P Q) ((P Q))

@Nguyn Thanh Sn

ntsn

Tng quan gia cc ton t

So snh cc cng thc sau : 1. (P (Q)) v (P Q) 2. (P Q) v (P Q) Nhn xt g v s lin h ca cc ton t ?

@Nguyn Thanh Sn

ntsn

Tng quan gia cc ton t

Vit ra cc cng thc sau ch dng v : 1. (P Q) (Q P) 2. (P Q) ((P Q)) 3. P (P Q) 4. (P (Q P)) P 5. P (Q P) 6. (P Q) (P Q) ((P Q))

@Nguyn Thanh Sn

ntsn

Dng th tc s hc
Tnh cc cng thc : 1. (P Q) ((P Q)) 2. (P Q) (Q P) 3. (P Q) (Q P) 4. P (P Q) 5. (P (Q P)) P 6. P (Q P) 7. (P Q) (P Q) ((P Q))

@Nguyn Thanh Sn

ntsn

S tng ng
Chng minh s tng ng ca cc cng thc : 1. (P Q) (P Q) = (P Q) (Q P) 2. P Q (P Q) = P Q (P Q) 3. (P Q) (P R) = (P (Q R)) 4. P (P (P Q)) = P Q (P Q)

@Nguyn Thanh Sn

ntsn

Hng ng - Hng sai

Xc nh tnh hng ng, hng sai ca cc cng thc : 1. (S) S 2. (S T) T 3. (ST) (T S) 4. P (P Q) 5. (P (Q P)) P 6. P ((P Q)) 7. ((A B) (A C)) (B C).
@Nguyn Thanh Sn

ntsn

M hnh
Tm mt m hnh cho mi cng thc : 1. (S) S 2. (S T) T 3. (ST) (T S) 4. P (P Q) 5. (P (Q P)) P 6. P ((P Q)) 7. ((A B) (A C)) (B C).

@Nguyn Thanh Sn

ntsn

M hnh
Din dch no : I1 = {S} I2 = {S, T} I3 = {A, B, C} I4 = {S, T, A, B, C, P, Q} l m hnh ca cc cng thc sau : 1. (S) S 2. (ST) T 3. P (P Q) 4. (P Q) (Q P) 5. ((A B) (A C)) (B C).
@Nguyn Thanh Sn

ntsn

Dng chun CNF

Chuyn thnh dng CNF 1. (P Q) 2. (P Q) (P Q) 3. (P Q) R 4. (P Q) (P Q) 5. (P Q) R 6. P ((Q R) S) 7. P (P Q R) 8. (P Q) (P Q) 9. (P Q) (P Q).

@Nguyn Thanh Sn

ntsn

Hng ng - Hng sai

Chng minh cc cng thc sau y l hng ng, hng sai, hay kh ng kh sai : 1. (S) S 2. (ST) T 3. (ST)(T S)

@Nguyn Thanh Sn

ntsn

M hnh
Tm mt m hnh I cho cng thc F. F = ((AB) B) A M rng I n cng l m hnh ca G. G = ((AC) C) A.

@Nguyn Thanh Sn

ntsn

H qa lun l
Chng minh K l h qu lun l ca h thng {F1, F2, F3, F4} : F1 = J P T, F2 = K Q J, F3 = T A, F4 = P A.

@Nguyn Thanh Sn

ntsn

H qa lun l
Cng thc no l h qu lun l ca h thng {A, B, A C } 1. A B. 2. A B. 3. B C. 4. (A B) C.

@Nguyn Thanh Sn

ntsn

Hng ng
Cng thc no sau y l hng ng : 1. (x x) 2. (x x) 3. (((P Q) (P Q)) Q) 4. (A (B A)) 5. ((A B) (B A)) 6. ((P Q) (Q P)) 7. (((X Y) X) Y).

@Nguyn Thanh Sn

ntsn

Ht slide

@Nguyn Thanh Sn

ntsn