IV.

Phn gii

ntsn

Tnh hng sai

Mc tiu :
S din dch ca 1 cng thc LLVT l v hn.
Lm sao bit c mt cng thc l hng
ng, hng sai, kh ng, kh sai ?.
Da vo nh ngha ?
Gii php ?

ntsn

Tnh hng sai

Thut ton
kim tra
hng sai

yes

Thut ton
kim tra
hng ng

yes

no

Cng thc LLVT

no

C cn thit phi c 2 thut ton ?

ntsn

Tnh hng sai

Ch cn 1 thut ton :

Cng thc F hng sai ?

Cng thc F hng ng ?

Thut ton
kim tra
hng sai

yes
no

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Tnh hng sai

Ch cn 1 thut ton hng sai :
F + yes
F hng sai.
F + yes
F hng ng.
F + no v F + no F kh ng, kh sai.

ntsn

Tnh hng sai

L do chn hng sai :

H thng F

H thng F

? H

Hng sai ?

H
ntsn

Tnh hng sai

Mc tiu :
Bit c cng thc l hng sai.
Gii php :
* Bin i cng thc (vn cn tnh hng sai).
* Co nh khng gian din dch.

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Tnh hng sai

Din dch I

Cng thc LLVT

Din dch M

Din dch L

Din dch J
Din dch M

Din dch N

Din dchI K
Din dch P

Hn
g
Yes sai
/No

Di
n
d
ch
I

ch
d

Co nh

n
DiDin dch M

Din d

ch L

Din dch P

Hn
g
Yes sai
/No

(Khng gian Herbrand)

ntsn

Tnh hng sai

Cng thc LLVT

Din dch I
Din dch M

Bin i

Din dch L

Din dch J
Din dch M

Din dch N

Din dchI K
Dng chun Skolem

Din dch P

Hng sai
Yes/No

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Tnh hng sai

Lu :
Ch cng thc ng mi c nh gi ng
sai trong mt din dch.
Do , cc cng thc c cp t y tr i
mc nhin l cng thc ng.

ntsn

Dng chun Skolem

Cng thc F c chuyn v dng :
1. Chun Prenex.
2. Chun giao.
3. Ln lt xa cc lng t -.
Vi mi x, thay tt c cc hin hu ca x bng
hm fx. Hm fx c thng s l cc bin ca cc
lng t , vi ch nhng lng t ng
trc x.
4. Tp SF c phn t l cc thnh phn giao.
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Dng chun Skolem

Th d :
F = x y z t s v (p(x, y, z, t) q(s, v))
Xa lng t z, thay z bng hm fz(x, y)
x y t s v (p(x, y, fz(x, y), t) q(s, v))
Xa lng t s, thay s bng hm fs(x, y)
x y t v (p(x, y, fz(x, y), t) q(fs(x, y, t), v))
Chuyn thnh dng tp hp
SF = {p(x, y, fz(x, y), t), q(fs(x, y, t), v)}
dng chun Skolem

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Dng chun Skolem

Th d :
F = x y z t p(a, x, y, z, f(t))
Xa lng t x, thay x bng hng b
y z t p(a, b, y, z, f(t))
Xa lng t z, thay z bng hm fz(y)
y t p(a, b, y, fz(y), f(t))
Chuyn thnh dng tp hp
SF = {p(a, b, y, fz(y), f(t)} dng chun Skolem

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Dng chun Skolem

Th d :
F = x y (p(a, x, f(y)) y z u q(y, z, u))
F = x y (p(a, x, f(y)) y z u q(y, z, u))
F = x y (p(a, x, f(y)) t z u q(t, z, u))
F = x y t z u (p(a, x, f(y)) q(t, z, u))
y z (p(a, b, f(y)) q(g(y), z, h(y, z)))
SF = {p(a, b, f(y)) q(g(y), z, h(y, z))}.

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Dng chun Skolem

Nhn xt :
Cc hm c t tn fx khng trng tn vi
cc hm c ca cng thc.
Nu trc x khng c lng t ph dng th
thay bng hm khng thng s. Hm khng
thng s l mt hng.
T kt qu ca bc 4 c th to li kt qu
ca bc 3.

ntsn

Dng chun Skolem

Nhn xt :
Cng thc dng chun Prenex vn cn
tng ng vi cng thc ban u.
Kt qu ca bc chuyn v dng chun giao
vn cn tng ng vi cng thc ban u.
Kt qu ca bc xa lng t khng phi l
cng thc, d nhin l khng tng ng vi
cng thc ban u.

ntsn

Dng chun Skolem

ngha ca vic thay bin x ca lng t x.
- Thay x bng hng.
c x c tnh cht p l cng thc x p(x)
ly c c tnh cht p l cng thc p(c) vi mc
ch l lm n gin cng thc.

ntsn

Dng chun Skolem

ngha ca vic thay bin x ca lng t x.
- Thay x bng hm.
Everyone has a mother (mi ngi u c
m) l cng thc x y mother(x, y).
Nu thay y bng hng th cng thc x
mother(x, c) mang ngha khc. Phn t y ph
thuc vo x nn phi thay bng hm theo x.

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Mnh
Mi phn t ca dng chun Skolem c gi
l 1 mnh .
Do mnh c nh ngha l hi cc
lng nguyn.
Mnh n v l mnh c 1 lng nguyn.
Mnh rng l cng thc hng sai.
Nhc li :
F = F ( l cng thc hng sai), F.
F = F ( l cng thc hng ng), F.
ntsn

Tnh hng sai

nh l :
Cng thc F hng sai nu v ch nu dng
chun Skolem SF hng sai.
Nhn xt :
T nh l trn c th ni : cng thc F v dng
chun Skolem SF l tng ng theo ngha
hng sai, ngha l dng chun Skolem duy tr
c tnh hng sai.
ntsn

Tnh hng sai

Ghi ch :
Tnh hng sai ch c nh ngha cho khi
nim cng thc.
Dng chun Skolem c gi l hng sai da
vo cng thc cui bc 3 trong qu trnh
bin i v dng chun Skolem.

ntsn

Nguyn tc phn gii

Mt h thng hng sai nu sn sinh c
mnh hng sai.
Qui tc truyn
(P Q), (Q R) (P R),
thay P bng T :

(T Q), (Q R) (T R).

ntsn

Nguyn tc phn gii

(T Q), (Q R) (T R).
C th c hiu l :
* Mnh (T R) c sinh ra t 2 mnh
(T Q) v (Q R).
* Phng thc sinh ra l b i 2 lng nguyn
i du ca mi mnh , hi nhng phn cn
li ca 2 mnh .
* Mnh c sinh ra l h qu lun l ca 2
mnh sinh ra n.
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Nguyn tc phn gii

Th d :
p(x) q(y), q(y) r(x)
Nhng,
p(x) q(y), q(z) r(x)
p(x) q(y), q(a) r(x)
p(x) q(y), q(f(x)) r(x)

p(x) r(x).

? p(x) r(x).
? p(x) r(x).
? p(x) r(x).

ntsn

Thay th
Th d :
S = {p(x), p(y) q(h(x)), p(t), p(f(x)) q(z)}
Thay
t bng x,
y bng f(x) v
z bng h(x).
S tr thnh : {p(x), p(f(x)) q(h(x))}
(s mnh ca tp S gim).

ntsn

Thay th
Thay th (substitution) l mt tp hp
= {s1/x1, ..., sn/xn}, vi x1, ..., xn l cc bin cn
s1, ..., sn l cc nguyn t tha iu kin :
i
si xi,
xi xj,
i, j
Th d :
= {x/t, f(x)/y, h(x)/z}.
S = {p(x), p(y) q(h(x)), p(t), p(f(x)) q(z)}
S = {p(x), p(f(x)) q(h(x))}
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Thay th
Khi tc ng 1 thay th ln 1 tp S hay 1
nguyn t t th cc bin trong S hay t c thay
bng cc nguyn t tng ng c trong .
Cc bin ny ch c thay th 1 ln.
Th d :
= {y/x, f(x)/y, a/z}.
S = {p(x) q(y), p(z) q(x)}
S = {p(y) q(f(x)), p(a) q(y)}

ntsn

Thay th
Th d :
S = {p(x), p(y) q(h(t)), p(f(x)) q(z)}
= {a/x, f(x)/y, h(x)/z}
S = {p(a), p(f(x)) q(h(t)), p(f(a)) q(h(x))}
(S) = {p(a), p(f(a)) q(h(t)), p(f(a)) q(h(a))}

ntsn

Hp ni
Hp ni 2 thay th :
= {s1/x1, ..., sn/xn}
= {t1/y1, ..., tm/ym}
l thay th.
= {s1/x1, ..., sn/xn, t1/y1, ..., tm/ym}
Ch ly cc phn s khng c
mu xut hin trong cc bin x1, , xn

Th d :
= {f(y)/x, z/y} v = {a/x, b/y, y/z}.
= {f(b)/x, y/z}, = {a/x, b/y}.

ntsn

ng nht th
S = {E1, ..., Ek}.
Nu S = {E1} (ngha l E1 = ... = Ek) th
c gi l ng nht th (unifier) ca S.
Th d :
S = {p(a, y), p(x, f(b))} v = {a/x, f(b)/y}
S = {p(a, f(b))} l ng nht th ca S.
 S c gi l kh ng nht th (unifiable).

ntsn

mgu
ng nht th l mgu (most general unifier)
ca {E1, ..., Ek} nu
( ng nht th )( thay th ) ( = )
{E1, ..., Ek}

{E1, ..., Ek}

{E1, ..., Ek}

||

{E1, ..., Ek}

ntsn

Tp bt ng
ng nht cc mnh ca 1 tp hp, so
snh tng k t, nu gp s khc bit th ly 2
thnh phn c ngha hnh thnh nn tp hp
gi l tp bt ng (disagreement).
Th d :
S = {p(x, f(y, z)), p(x, a), p(x, g(h(k(x))))}

{f(y, z), a} l tp bt ng.
T = {p(f(x), h(y), a, t(c)), p(f(x), z, k(x), h(y)),
p(f(x), h(x), b, g(h(x)))}

{h(y), z} l tp bt ng.
ntsn

Thut ton ng nht

Thut ton
1. Tm tp bt ng
2. Chn thay th.
3. Quay li bc 1 nu khng cn tp bt
ng.
Kt qu ca thut ton ng nht l mt ng
nht th v cn l mt mgu.

ntsn

Thut ton ng nht

Th d :
S = {p(a, x, h(g(z))), p(b, h(y), h(y))},
{a, b} thay th 0 =
T = {p(a, f(x), h(g(a)), p(a, h(y), h(y)},
{f(x), h(y)} thay th 0 =
H = {p(a, x, h(g(a)), p(a, h(x), h(y)},
{x, h(x)} thay th 0 = {h(x)/x}
H0 = {p(a, h(x), h(g(a)), p(a, h(h(x)), h(y)}

ntsn

Thut ton ng nht

c c mt mgu t tp bt ng th tp bt
ng phi c :
1. Mt bin.
2. Bin biu thc.

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mgu
Th d :
S = {p(x, y, z), p(f(y), z, g(w)), p(f(g(a)), z, t)}
{x, f(y)} 0 = {f(y)/x}
S0 = {p(f(y), y, z), p(f(y), z, g(w)), p(f(g(a)), z, t)}
{y, z} 1 = 0.{z/y} = {f(z)/x, z/y}
S1 = {p(f(z), z, z), p(f(z), z, g(w)), p(f(g(a)), z, t)}
{z, g(w)} 2 = 1.{g(w)/z}
= {f(g(w))/x, g(w)/y, g(w)/z}
S2 = {p(f(g(w)), g(w), g(w)), p(f(g(a)), g(w), t)}
ntsn

mgu
{z, g(w)} 2 = {f(g(w))/x, g(w)/y, g(w)/z}
S2 = {p(f(g(w)), g(w), g(w)), p(f(g(a)), g(w), t)}
{w, a} 3 = 2.{a/w}
= {f(g(a))/x, g(a)/y, g(a)/z, a/w}
S3 = {p(f(g(a)), g(a), g(a)), p(f(g(a)), g(a), t)}
{g(a), t} 4 = 3.{g(a)/t}
= {f(g(a))/x, g(a)/y, g(a)/z, a/w, g(a)/t}
S4 = {p(f(g(a)), g(a), g(a))}
mgu(S) ={f(g(a))/x, g(a)/y, g(a)/z, a/w, g(a)/t}

ntsn

Tha s
Tha s (factor) ca mt mnh .
D = p(x) p(f(y)) q(x) p(z)
p(x) v p(f(y)) c mgu = {f(y)/x}.
D = p(f(y) q(f(y)) p(z) l tha s.
p(z) v p(f(y)) c mgu = {f(y)/z}.
D = p(x) p(f(y) q(x) l mt tha s.
p(x) v p(z) c mgu = {x/z}.
D = p(x) p(f(y) q(x) l mt tha s.

ntsn

Phn gii nh phn

Phn gii nh phn ca 2 mnh .
C = p(x) q(x)
D = p(a) r(x).
LC = p(x) v
LD = p(a).
LC v LD c mgu = {a/x}.
(C LC) (D LD) = q(a) r(a).
 pgb(C, D) = (q(a) r(a)) l phn gii nh phn
ca C v D.

ntsn

Phn gii nh phn

Th d
C = p(x) r(a)
D = p(b) p(f(y)) r(x).
pgb(C, D) = r(a) p(f(y)) r(b), vi = {b/x}.
pgb(C, D) = r(a) p(b) r(f(y)),
vi = {f(y)/x}.
pgb(C, D) = p(a) p(b) p(f(y)), vi ={a/x}.

ntsn

Phn gii
Phn gii ca hai mnh C, D :
1. Phn gii nh phn ca C v D.
2. Phn gii nh phn ca C v 1 tha s ca D.
3. Phn gii nh phn ca 1 tha s ca C v 1
tha s ca D.
K hiu pg(C, D)

ntsn

Phn gii
Th d
C = p(x) q(a)
D = p(z) p(f(y)) r(x).
pg(C, D) = q(a) p(f(y)) r(x).
pg(C, D) = q(a) p(z) r(f(y)),
pg(C, D) = q(a) r(f(y)).

ntsn

Phn gii
nh l
Phn gii l h qu lun l ca 2 mnh c
phn gii.
C, D pg(C, D)
H qu
Mt h thng hng sai nu phn gii ra c
mnh hng sai ().
Qu trnh phn gii s dng nu khng sinh ra
c mnh mi.
ntsn

Chng minh
Chng minh H l h qa lun l ca F v G :
F = x (p(x) (w(x) r(x)))
G = x (p(x) q(x))
H = x (q(x) r(x))
Chuyn F, G v H thnh dng chun.
F = x ((p(x) w(x)) (p(x) r(x)))
G = x (p(x) q(x))
H = x (q(x) r(x))

ntsn

Chng minh
H thng mi l :
(1) (p(x) w(x))
(2) (p(x) r(x)))
(3) p(a)
(4) q(a)
(5) q(x) r(x).
pg(2, 3) = r(a)
pg(4, 5) = r(a)
pg(6, 7) = .

(6)
(7)

ntsn

Problem-solving[13]
If one number is less than or equal to a second
number, and the second number is less than or
equal to a third, then the first number is not
greater than the third. A number is less than or
equal to a second number if and only if the
second number is greater than the first or the
first is equal to the second. Given a number,
there is another number that it is less than or
equal to. Therefore, every number is less than
or equal to itself.
[13] The essence of logic John Kelly. Prentice Hall 1997
ntsn

Problem-solving[13]
Biu din di dng k hiu ton hc.
If x y and y z then not x > z.
x y if and only if y > x or x = y.
For every x, there is a y such that x y.
Therefore, x x for every x.

ntsn

Problem-solving[13]
Biu din di dng logic.
Cc v t le (), gt (>), eq (=)
x y z ((le(x, y) le(y, z)) gt(x, z))
x y (le(x, y) (gt(y, x) eq(x, y)))
x y le(x, y)
x le(x, x).

ntsn

Problem-solving[13]
Biu din di dng logic.
x y z ((le(x, y) le(y, z)) gt(x, z))
x y (le(x, y) (gt(y, x) eq(x, y)))
x y ((gt(y, x) eq(x, y))) le(x, y)
x y le(x, y)
(x le(x, x)).

ntsn

Problem-solving[13]
Biu din di dng logic.
x y z (le(x, y) le(y, z) gt(x, z))
x y (le(x, y) gt(y, x) eq(x, y))
x y ((gt(y, x) eq(x, y)) le(x, y))
x y le(x, y)
x le(x, x).

ntsn

Problem-solving[13]
Biu din di dng logic.
x y z (le(x, y) le(y, z) gt(x, z))
x y (le(x, y) gt(y, x) eq(x, y))
x y ((gt(y,x) le(x,y)) (eq(x,y) le(x,y))
x y le(x, y)
x le(x, x).

ntsn

Problem-solving[13]
Bin i v dng chun Skolem.
{le(x, y) le(y, z) gt(x, z),
le(x, y) gt(y, x) eq(x, y),
gt(y, x) le(x, y),
eq(x, y) le(x, y),
le(x, f(x)),
le(a, a)}

ntsn

Problem-solving[13]
Bin i v dng chun Skolem.
le(x, y) le(y, z) gt(x, z) (1)
le(x, y) gt(y, x) eq(x, y)
(2)
gt(y, x) le(x, y)
(3)
eq(x, y) le(x, y)
(4)
le(x, f(x))
(5)
le(a, a)
(6)

ntsn

Problem-solving[13]
Bin i v dng chun Skolem.
/* le(x, y) le(y, z) gt(x, z) (1)
le(x, x) gt(x, x)
(1)
le(x, y) gt(y, x) eq(x, y)
(2)
gt(y, x) le(x, y)
(3)
eq(x, y) le(x, y)
(4)
le(x, f(x))
(5)
le(a, a)
(6)

*/

ntsn

Using Resolution[13]
Phn gii.
pg(1, 2), pg(1, 3), pg(1, 4), pg(1, 5), pg(1, 6),
pg(2, 3), pg(2, 4), pg(2, 5), pg(2, 6),
pg(3, 4), pg(3, 5), pg(3, 6),
pg(4, 5), pg(4, 6),
pg(5, 6)

ntsn

Using Resolution[13]
Phn gii pg(1, 2).
M1 = le(x, x) gt(x, x)
M2 = le(x, y) gt(y, x) eq(x, y)
= {x/y}
M1 = le(x, x) gt(x, x)
M2 = le(x, x) gt(x, x) eq(x, x)
pg(1, 2) = le(x, x) eq(x, x)

(1)
(2)

ntsn

Problem-solving[13]
Some students attend logic lectures diligently.
No student attends boring logic lectures
diligently. Seans lectures on logic are attended
diligently by all students. Therefore none of
Seans logic lectures are boring.
Chn cc v t :
lec(x) : x l bi ging v logic
st(x) : x l student, s : Sean,
at(x, y) : x tham d y chm ch,
bor(x) : x t nht, gv(x, y) : x c cho bi y
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Problem-solving[13]
Chuyn v LLVT
Some students attend logic lectures diligently.
There is an x who is a student and, for every y,
if y is a logic lecture, then x attends y diligently.
x (st(x) y (lec(y) at(x, y)))
Nu dch :
x y (st(x) lec(y) at(x, y)))
y x (st(x) lec(y) at(x, y)))

???
???

ntsn

Problem-solving[13]
Chuyn v LLVT
No student attends boring logic lectures
diligently.
For every x, if x is a student, then, for every y, if
y is a lecture which is boring, then x does not
attend y.
x (st(x) y (lec(y) bor(y) at(x, y)))

ntsn

Problem-solving[13]
Chuyn v LLVT
Seans lectures on logic are attended diligently
by all students.
If x is a lecture given by s then every student z
attends it.
x (lec(x) gv(x, s) z (st(z) at(z, x)))

ntsn

Problem-solving[13]
Chuyn v LLVT
Therefore none of Seans logic lectures are
boring.
Every lecture given by s is not boring.
x ((lec(x) gv(x, s)) bor(x))

ntsn

Problem-solving[13]
Tng kt
x (st(x) y (lec(y) at(x, y)))
x (st(x) y (lec(y) bor(y) at(x, y)))
x (lec(x) gv(x, s) z (st(z) at(z, x)))

x (lec(x) gv(x, s) bor(x))

ntsn

Problem-solving[13]
Bin i
x (st(x) y (lec(y) at(x, y)))
x (st(x) y (lec(y) bor(y) at(x, y)))
x (lec(x) gv(x, s) z (st(z) at(z, x)))
x (lec(x) gv(x, s) bor(x))
chng minh h thng hng sai.

ntsn

Problem-solving[13]
Bin i
x y (st(x) (lec(y) at(x, y)))
x y (st(x) lec(y) bor(y) at(x, y))
x z (lec(x) gv(x, s) st(z) at(z, x))
x (lec(x) gv(x, s) bor(x))

ntsn

Problem-solving[13]
Bin i
st(a) (lec(y) at(a, y))
st(x) lec(y) bor(y) at(x, y)
lec(x) gv(x, s) st(z) at(z, x)
lec(b) gv(x, s) bor(b)

ntsn

Problem-solving[13]
Bin i
st(a)
lec(y) at(a, y)
st(x) lec(y) bor(y) at(x, y)
lec(x) gv(x, s) st(z) at(z, x)
lec(b)
gv(x, s)
bor(b)

(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)

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Problem-solving[13]
Phn gii
st(a)
lec(y) at(a, y)
st(x) lec(y) bor(y) at(x, y)
lec(x) gv(x, s) st(z) at(z, x)
lec(b)
gv(x, s)
bor(b)

(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)

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Problem-solving[13]
Phn gii
st(a)
lec(y) at(a, y)
st(x) lec(y) bor(y) at(x, y)
lec(x) gv(x, s) st(z) at(z, x)
lec(b)
gv(x, s)
bor(b)
Nhn xt : d (4) v (6) !!!.

(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)

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Structured programming
Tm mt con ng trn 1 th
Tm ng AD ?
E
B
F
A
D

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Structured programming
Imperative approach
Thut ton Dijstra
Ly cy <t> = (A)
nh k ca <t> l B, C : <t> = (A), (AB), (AC)
nh k ca <t> l C, E, D : <t> = (A), (AB), (AC),
(ABC), (ABE), (ACD).
E

B
F
A
D

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Logic programming
Declarative approach
Chng trnh prolog
connect(A, B).
B
connect(A, C).
connect(B, C).
A
connect(B, E).
C
connect(C, D).
D
connect(E, C).
connect(E, F).
path(X, Y) :- connect(X, Y).
path(X, Y) :- connect(X, Z), path(Z, Y).
goal path(A, D) ?

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Logic programming[13]

Prolog thc hin goal path(A, D)

connect(A, B).
connect(A, C).
connect(B, C).
connect(B, E).
connect(C, D).
connect(E, C).
connect(E, F).
path(X, Y) :- connect(X, Y).
path(X, Y) :- connect(X, Z), path(Z, Y).
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Higher Order Logic[13]

Tin truy chng ca h tin Peano
Vi mi P = (Pi) = (P(i)),
nu
c P(1) v
nu c P(n) th c P(n+1) vi mi integer n,
th c P(i) vi mi integer i.
Biu din di dng k hiu ca FOL :
(P)( P(1) n (P(n) P(n)) ) i P(i)

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Higher Order Logic[13]

Mt c im ca FOL l lng t ch kt hp
vi bin. Khng kt hp vi v t v hm.
Biu din ca tin truy chng khng hp l
trong FOL
(P)( P(1) n (P(n) P(n)) ) i P(i)
Nhng c chp nhn trong second order
logic.
Lun l mnh c xem l zeroth order
logic.
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Bi tp
Chng 4 : Phn gii

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Dng chun Skolem

1. Chuyn v dng chun Skolem :
F = xy ((S(x,y) T(x,y)) x T(x,y))
H = (x (p(x) yx q(y,z)))
G = xy (z K(x,y,z) v (H(y,v)u H(u,v)))
K = x ( e(x,0)
(y ( e(y, g(x)) z (e(z, g(x)) e(y, z)) )))

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Thay th
= {f(y)/x, z/y, g(x)/z},
= {a/x, b/y, x/t},
= {y/z, h(x)/y, f(x)/t }.
Tm hp ni v .
3. Dng thut ton ng nht tm mgu ca cng
thc P :
P = {q(f(x),y,u), q(u,v,h(x)), q(t,y,z)}.

2. Cho 3 thay th

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Tha s
4. Cho thay th ={a/x, b/y, g(x,y)/z} v
E = p(h(x),z), Tnh E.
5. Tm cc tha s ca T :
T = p(h(x)) r(y) p(f(y)) q(x) r(g(a))
r(y) p(a).
6. Dng phn gii kho st tnh hng sai, kh
ng ca cng thc :
(r(x,y,z) v(f(y),w)) v(x,y) t(x,z) (t(x,y)
v(x,y))
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Chng minh
7. Bng phn gii chng minh tp S l hng sai
S = {p(x) q(y), p(a) r(x), p(a) r(x), p(x)
q(b), r(a) q(y), r(x) q(b)}.
8. Dng phn gii cho bit cng thc F l hng sai
hay kh ng :
F ={(q(c) p(b)) (q(c) r(c)) (q(c) r(c))
(q(c) p(b)) (r(c) p(b)) (r(c)
p(b))}.

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Ht slide

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