ntsn

Chng 2
III. Ng ngha ca
lun l mnh
ntsn
@Nguyn Thanh Sn
Gn thc tr
[*]
Mi trng (Environments)
Gn thc tr l gn gi tr T (ng) hoc F (sai)
cho mi bin mnh .
Nhng nh khoa hc my tnh gi vic gn gi
tr cho cc bin l mt mi trng.
[*] Sept. 10, 2007 Copyright Albert R. Meyer, 2007. All rights reserved. lec 2M.17
ntsn
@Nguyn Thanh Sn
Gn thc tr

Th d :
cng thc P (Q v R)
Mi trng v gn cc bin P, Q, R :
v(P) = T, v(Q)= T, v(R) = F.
Mi trng gn cc bin P, Q, R :
(P) = F, (Q)= T, (R) = F.

ntsn
@Nguyn Thanh Sn
Din dch
Din dch trong LLM c hu hn trng hp
nh gi.





S trng hp tng ng vi vi s dng ca
bng thc tr.


A ng, B ng
A ng, B sai
A sai, B ng
A sai, B sai
(A . B) A
A sai, B sai
ntsn
@Nguyn Thanh Sn
Din dch
C th c trng din dch ca LLM bng 1
hm nh gi v trn cc CTN c trong cng
thc.
Th d :
Qui c CT ng c gi tr 1 v sai l 0.
Cng thc (P . Q) R c din dch I c c
trng bng hm nh gi v nh sau :
v(P) = 1, v(Q) = 0, v(R) = 1.
tin cho vic trnh by, cn s dng k hiu
vF thay cho v(F).
ntsn
@Nguyn Thanh Sn
Thc tr ca mt cng thc
Nu vA = 1, vB = 0 v vC = 0 th
v((AB) . (C vA)) l ng hay sai ?.
Nu vA = 0, vB = 1 v vC = 0 th
v((A v B) C) l ng hay sai ?.
Nu vA = 0, vB = 1, vC = 0 v vD = 1 th
v(((A v C) . B) D) l ng hay sai.
Cn phi xc nh qui tc nh gi ca cc ton
t : v, ., , .
ntsn
@Nguyn Thanh Sn
Bng thc tr
P, Q l cc cng thc nguyn.






Tt c din dch ca mt cng thc trong LLM
tng ng vi cc dng ca bng thc tr.
P Q P PvQ P.Q PQ
1

1 0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1
0
0
0 1 1 1 0 1
0 0
1
0 0 1
ntsn
@Nguyn Thanh Sn
Bng thc tr
P Q, ti sao l , s l s,
s l , s s l ???.
Th d :
P = Tri ma, Q = Phong mang d.
Tnh trng 1 : Tri ma v Phong mang d.
Tnh trng 2 : Tri ma v Phong khng mang d.
Tnh trng 3 : Tri khng ma v Phong mang d.
Tnh trng 4 : Tri khngma v Phong khngmang d.
Nguyn tc khng vi phm.
ntsn
@Nguyn Thanh Sn
Bng thc tr
Mt cch nh ngha khc, bng thc tr l mt
hm trn tp 2 phn t ng, sai ({, s}).
Cc ton t lun l l cc hm :
: {, s} {, s}
. : {, s} {, s} {, s}
v : {, s} {, s} {, s}
: {, s} {, s} {, s}
ntsn
@Nguyn Thanh Sn
Thc tr ca mt cng thc
Th d :
Tnh thc tr ca cng thc (X (YvZ)) . X
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
1 1
1 1
1 0
1 0
0 1
0 1
0 0
0 0
0
1 1
0
0
1 1
1 1
1
1
0 1
1 1
1 1
Z X Y YvZ X(YvZ) CT
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
ntsn
@Nguyn Thanh Sn
Th tc s hc
Chuyn cng thc vo <Z
2
, +, .> tnh thc tr.
v(P v Q) = vP + vQ + vPvQ trong Z
2
,
v(P . Q) = vPvQ trong Z
2
,
vP = 1 + vP trong Z
2
,
v(P Q) = 1 + vP + vPvQ trong Z
2
.
H qu :
vP + vP = 0.
vP.vP = vP.
vP.vP = 0.
ntsn
@Nguyn Thanh Sn
Thc tr ca mt cng thc
Th d : tnh thc tr ca cng thc (X (Y v Z)) . X
v((X (Y v Z)) . X)
= v(X (Y v Z))v(X)
= (1 + vX + vXv(Y v Z))v(X)
= (1 + vX + vX.(v(Y) + vZ + v(Y)vZ))v(X)
= (1 + vX + vXv(Y) + vXvZ + vXv(Y)vZ)v(X)
= v(X) + v(X)vX + v(X)vXv(Y) + v(X)vXvZ +
v(X)vXv(Y)vZ
= v(X) + 0 + 0.v(Y) + 0.vZ + 0.v(Y)vZ
= v(X) = 1 + vX.
ntsn
@Nguyn Thanh Sn
Cy phn tch
nh gi cng thc nh cy phn tch.
Th d :
nh gi cng thc (X (Y v Z)) . X, vi
X, Y, Z ln lt c gi tr , s, .
.


X

v

Y

Z

X



s
s



s

ntsn
@Nguyn Thanh Sn
Phn loi cng thc
I l din dch ca cng thc X.
X hng ng (I) vX = 1, trong I.
X hng sai (I) vX = 0, trong I.
X kh ng (-I) vX = 1, trong I.
X kh sai (-I) vX = 0, trong I.
ntsn
@Nguyn Thanh Sn
Phn loi cng thc
Nhn xt :
Ph nh ca mt cng thc hng ng l
cng thc hng sai.
Cng thc hng ng c gi l tautology.
(X hng ng) ((I) vX = 1, trong I) ?.
(X hng sai) ((I) vX = 0, trong I) ?.
(X kh ng) ((-I) vX = 1, trong I) ?.
(X kh sai) ((-I) vX = 0, trong I) ?.
ntsn
@Nguyn Thanh Sn
Cng thc tng ng

Cng thc X v Y tng ng nu ng b trong
vic nh gi thc tr i vi mi din dch.
Ly din dch I ca X v Y.
Nu X ng trong I th Y cng ng trong I v ngc li.
Nu X sai trong I th Y cng sai trong I v ngc li.
K hiu X = Y.
Hai CT tng ng c cng s CTN hay khng ?
ntsn
@Nguyn Thanh Sn
M hnh
M hnh I ca cng thc F l
din dch I ca F v
vF = 1 trong I.
Ch :
Din dch = interpretation, valuation (ting Anh).
M hnh = model (ting Anh).
Mt s ti liu dng t model cho khi nim din
dch.
ntsn
@Nguyn Thanh Sn
Cc cng thc tng ng
1. (F) = F
2. F G = (F G) . (G F)
3. F G = F v G
4. F G = G F
5. (F v G) = (F) . (G) (DeMorgan)
6. (F . G) = (F) v (G) (DeMorgan)
ntsn
@Nguyn Thanh Sn
Hng ng
Tt c cc cng thc sau l hng ng ngoi
tr cng thc 1 l hng sai.
1. (F . F) hng sai
2. (F v F)
3. F (F v G)
4. (F . G) F
5. ((F G) . F) G
6. ((F G) . G) F
ntsn
@Nguyn Thanh Sn
Hng ng
7. ((FG) . (GH)) (FH) (tnh truyn)
8. ((FG) . (FG)) F (phn chng)
9. (FG) ((F v H)(G v H))
10. (FG) ((F . H) (G . H))
11. ...
ntsn
@Nguyn Thanh Sn
Hng ng
Chng minh ((F G) . F) G hng ng
Ly din dch I,
nu F ng trong I,
nu G ng trong I, CT ng trong I,
nu G sai trong I , CT ng trong I,
nu F sai trong I,
nu G ng trong I , CT ng trong I,
nu G sai trong I , CT ng trong I,
Vy CT hng ng.
ntsn
@Nguyn Thanh Sn
Lng nguyn
Lng nguyn (literal) l CTN hoc ph nh
CTN.
Th d :
A, B, C l cc cng thc nguyn.
A, B, C, A, B, C l cc lng nguyn.
ntsn
@Nguyn Thanh Sn
Din dch
Din dch c cho di dng tp hp cc
lng nguyn.
Thay v vit vF
1
= o, , vF
n
= o
(o = 1 hoc o = 0)
th vit l {signF
1
, , signF
n
}.
Nu o l 1 th signF
i
l F
i
.
Nu o l 0 th signF
i
l F
i
.
ntsn
@Nguyn Thanh Sn
Din dch
Th d :
F = (A B) (B v C)
Din dch I = {A, B, C} ngha l
vA = 1, vB = 1, vC = 1.
Din dch J = {A, B, C} ngha l
vA = 1, vB = 0, vC = 0.
Din dch K = {A, B, C} ngha l
vA = 0, vB = 0, vC = 0.
ntsn
@Nguyn Thanh Sn
Dng chun giao - CNF
Conjunctive normal form (CNF) c dng :
(P
1
vvP
n
)
1
.. (Q
1
vvQ
m
)
p
, vi n, m, p > 1,
v P
i
, Q
i
l cc lng nguyn.
Th d :
F = (P v R) . (Q v S v T) . Q.
G = P . Q . (R)
H = (P v R v S)
ntsn
@Nguyn Thanh Sn
Dng chun giao - CNF
Cc bc chuyn v dng CNF
Th d :
F = (A B) (B v A)
= (A B) v (B v A)
= (A v B) v (B v A)
= (A . B) v (B v A)
= (A v (B v A)) . (B v (B v A))
= (A v B v A) . (B v B v A)
= (B v A)
ntsn
@Nguyn Thanh Sn
Dng chun giao - CNF
CNF c th c xy dng t bng thc tr.
Th d :
F = (A v B) (A . B)





c CNF l F = (A v B) . (A v B)
A B F
1

1 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0
1
(A v B)
(A v B)
ntsn
@Nguyn Thanh Sn
Dng chun giao - CNF
Th d :
Cng thc F c bng thc tr :





c CNF l
F = (A v B v C) . (A v B v C) . (A v B v C)

A B C
1

1 1
1 1 0
1 0 1
1 0
0
(A v B v C)
0

1 1
0 1 0
0 0 1
0 0
0
F
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
1
(A v B v C)
(A v B v C)
ntsn
@Nguyn Thanh Sn
Dng chun giao - CNF
Nhn xt :
Mi cng thc c th chuyn v dng chun
CNF.
Dng chun giao khng duy nht.
ntsn
@Nguyn Thanh Sn
Mnh
Mi khi (P
1
v v P
n
)
i
ca CNF c gi l 1
mnh .
Th d :
F = (P v R) . (Q v S v T) . Q
F c 3 mnh : (P v R), (Q v S v T) v
mnh Q.
H = (P v R v S) c 1 mnh l chnh n.
ntsn
@Nguyn Thanh Sn
Mnh
Mnh c 1 lng nguyn c gi l mnh
n v.
Th d :
F = (P v R) . (Q v S v T) . Q
F c Q l mnh n v Q .
ntsn
@Nguyn Thanh Sn
Mnh
Mnh rng l mnh khng c lng
nguyn no.
Nhn xt :
Vi mi cng thc X,
X . h = X (h, cng thc hng ng).
X v hs = X (hs, cng thc hng sai).
Mnh rng l cng thc hng sai.
ntsn
@Nguyn Thanh Sn
Dng chun hi - DNF
Disjunctive normal form (DNF) i ngu vi
CNF.
Th d :
F = (P . R) v (Q . S . T) v Q.
G = (P . Q . (R))
H = P v R v S
ntsn
@Nguyn Thanh Sn
Horn clause
Dng Horn : giao ca cc mnh Horn.
Mnh Horn l mnh ch c 1 lng
nguyn dng (positive literal).
Th d :
(A

v B) . (C

v D

v E)
thng c vit di dng
H = (B A) v ((C . E) D)
Dng Horn gm cc cu trc iu kin c hu
qu l mt cng thc nguyn v nguyn nhn
l giao cc cng thc nguyn.
ntsn
@Nguyn Thanh Sn
Dng chun giao - CNF
CT (dng CNF) l hng ng nu tt c mnh
cha hoc c 1 cp lng nguyn i
du. Ngc li, l kh sai (falsiable).
CT (dng DNF) l hng sai nu tt c thnh
phn giao cha hoc c 1 cp lng nguyn
i du. Ngc li, l kh ng (SATisfiable).
Nhn xt :
Bin i v dng DNF (CNF) tn km c v thi
gian v khng gian.
ntsn
@Nguyn Thanh Sn
Dng NNF
[*]
Cng thc dng NNF(negation normal form)
khi cng thc khng cha ton t :
1. Thay
dng (X Y) = (X v Y).
2. Khai trin ton t
dng X = X,
dng (X v Y) = (X . Y)
dng (X . Y) = (X v Y).
[*] Logic and Proof - Computer Science Tripos Part IB Michaelmas Term
Lawrence C Paulson - Computer Laboratory University of Cambridge lcp@cl.cam.ac.uk
ntsn
@Nguyn Thanh Sn
Dng NNF
Th d :
F = (A B) (B v A)
F = (A B) v (B v A) (thay )
F = (A v B) v (B v A) (thay )
F = (A . B) v (B v A) (khai trin )

[*] Logic and Proof - Computer Science Tripos Part IB Michaelmas Term
Lawrence C Paulson - Computer Laboratory University of Cambridge lcp@cl.cam.ac.uk
ntsn
@Nguyn Thanh Sn
T NNF n CNF
[*]
y v vo trong, dng
F v (G . H) = (F v G) . (F v H)
n gin ha :
Xa mnh cha 2 lngnguyn tri du.
eg : (F v G v F) . (H v K) = H v K.
Xa mnh cha mnh khc.
eg : (H v K v F) . (H v K) = H v K.
Thay (F v G) . (F v G) bng G.

[*] Logic and Proof - Computer Science Tripos Part IB Michaelmas Term
Lawrence C Paulson - Computer Laboratory University of Cambridge lcp@cl.cam.ac.uk
ntsn
@Nguyn Thanh Sn
H qu lun l
Nu mi m hnh ca F cng l m hnh ca H
th H c gi l h qu lun l ca F.
K hiu F H.
F l KB, c gi l tin v H c gi l
kt lun.
Logical Consequence = Entailment
= H qu lun l (HQLL).
ntsn
@Nguyn Thanh Sn
H qu lun l
chng minh H l h qu lun l ca F :
Lit k tt c din dch.
Chn cc din dch l m hnh ca F.
Kim tra xem cc m hnh ny c cn l m
hnh ca H hay khng.
F H
Tp cc Din dch Tp cc Din dch Tp con
tha tha
H qu lun l

ntsn
@Nguyn Thanh Sn
H qu lun l
Th d :
{A, B} A v B
{A, B} A . B
{A, B} A B
{A, A v B} A B
{A v B, A . B} A
{A v B, A . B} B
{A v B, A . B} A B
{B, A B} A v B
ntsn
@Nguyn Thanh Sn
H qu lun l
Kim tra X Y, X Y.
Khng l m hnh ca KB 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 1
Y X X Y Y X
0 1 1 0
0 1 0 0
Khng l m hnh ca KB
Khng l m hnh ca KB
ntsn
@Nguyn Thanh Sn
K hiu hng ng
K hiu cng thc H l hng ng :
H
K hiu H c ngha l C H.
H thng { F
1
, , F
n
} H
{ F
1
, , F
n
} {CTHngng} H
F
1
, . . , F
n
. CTHngng H
Do khi { F
1
, , F
n
} = C th
CTHngng H.
ntsn
@Nguyn Thanh Sn
Cng thc hng ng
Nu F H th cng thc (F H) hng ng.
Mt cng thc hng ng :
F H (F H)
F H ( F . H)
( F
1
, , F
n
H ) (F
2
, , F
n
F
1
H)
( F H v H K ) (F K) (truyn)
ntsn
@Nguyn Thanh Sn
L thuyt chng minh
[7]
Bng thc tr xc nh ng ngha, trong khi cc
h thng chng minh c gi l l thuyt
chng minh (proof theory).
H thng chng minh c gi l ng n
(sound) nu mi sequent (F H) pht sinh
(F H) l hng ng.
V vy tin phi l hng ng v mi lut suy
din s pht sinh hng ng.
H thng chng minh pht sinh mi hng ng
c gi l y (complete).
ntsn
@Nguyn Thanh Sn
Soundness & Completeness
Tng quan gia 2 khi nim v H.




nh l (soundness).
Nu F H th F H.
nh l (completeness).
Nu F H th F H.

F
H

ntsn
@Nguyn Thanh Sn
Soundness
Th tc c F H c gi l sound nu c
F H th F H.
Mt s trng hp, th tc c tnh sound khng
tm thy li gii, mc d li gii tn ti (*).



(*) Description Logics Deduction in Propositional Logic
Enrico Franconi, franconi@cs.man.ac.uk
http://www.cs.man.ac.uk/.franconi
ntsn
@Nguyn Thanh Sn
Completeness
Th tc c F H c gi l complete nu
F H th c F H.
Mt s trng hp, th tc c tnh complete ni
c th tm thy li gii, mc d li gii khng
tn ti (*).
(*) Description Logics Deduction in Propositional Logic
Enrico Franconi, franconi@cs.man.ac.uk
http://www.cs.man.ac.uk/.franconi
ntsn
@Nguyn Thanh Sn
Soundness & Completeness
Bng thc tr cung cp mt th tc c tnh
sound v complete kim tra tnh kh ng,
hng ng v h qu lun l trong LLM.
Tm tnh kh ng, hng ng v h qu lun l
trong LLM l loi decidable problems.
(*) Description Logics Deduction in Propositional Logic
Enrico Franconi, franconi@cs.man.ac.uk
http://www.cs.man.ac.uk/.franconi
ntsn
Chng 2
Bi tp
Chng 2 : Lun l mnh
ntsn
@Nguyn Thanh Sn
Lp bng thc tr
Cho cc cng thc sau :
1. (P v Q) . ((P . Q))
2. (P Q) (Q P)
3. (P Q) (Q P)
4. P v (P Q)
5. (P . (Q P)) P
6. P v (Q P)
7. (P v Q) . (P v Q) . ((P Q))
ntsn
@Nguyn Thanh Sn
Tng quan gia cc ton t
So snh cc cng thc sau :
1. (P (Q)) v (P . Q)
2. (P Q) v (P v Q)
Nhn xt g v s lin h ca cc ton t ?
ntsn
@Nguyn Thanh Sn
Tng quan gia cc ton t
Vit ra cc cng thc sau ch dng v :
1. (P v Q) . (Q P)
2. (P v Q) . ((P . Q))
3. P v (P Q)
4. (P . (Q P)) P
5. P v (Q P)
6. (P v Q) . (P v Q) . ((P Q))
ntsn
@Nguyn Thanh Sn
Dng th tc s hc
Tnh cc cng thc :
1. (P v Q) . ((P . Q))
2. (P Q) (Q P)
3. (P Q) (Q P)
4. P v (P Q)
5. (P . (Q P)) P
6. P v (Q P)
7. (P v Q) . (P v Q) . ((P Q))
ntsn
@Nguyn Thanh Sn
S tng ng
Chng minh s tng ng ca cc cng thc :
1. (P Q) (P . Q) = (P Q) . (Q P)
2. P . Q . (P v Q) = P . Q . (P v Q)
3. (P Q) . (P R) = (P (Q . R))
4. P . (P (P . Q)) = P v Q v (P . Q)
ntsn
@Nguyn Thanh Sn
Hng ng - Hng sai
Xc nh tnh hng ng, hng sai ca cc cng
thc :
1. (S) S
2. (S v T) v T
3. (ST) (T S)
4. P v (P Q)
5. (P . (Q P)) P
6. P . ((P Q))
7. ((A v B) . (A v C)) (B v C).
ntsn
@Nguyn Thanh Sn
M hnh
Tm mt m hnh cho mi cng thc :
1. (S) S
2. (S v T) v T
3. (ST) (T S)
4. P v (P Q)
5. (P . (Q P)) P
6. P . ((P Q))
7. ((A v B) . (A v C)) (B v C).
ntsn
@Nguyn Thanh Sn
M hnh
Din dch no :
I
1
= {S}
I
2
= {S, T}
I
3
= {A, B, C}
I
4
= {S, T, A, B, C, P, Q}
l m hnh ca cc cng thc sau :
1. (S) S 2. (SvT) v T
3. P v (P Q) 4. (P Q) (Q P)
5. ((A v B) . (A v C)) (B v C).
ntsn
@Nguyn Thanh Sn
Dng chun CNF
Chuyn thnh dng CNF
1. (P Q) 2. (P v Q) . (P v Q)
3. (P . Q) R 4. (P . Q) . (P v Q)
5. (P Q) R 6. P ((Q . R) S)
7. P v (P . Q . R) 8. (P Q) v (P v Q)
9. (P . Q) v (P . Q).
ntsn
@Nguyn Thanh Sn
Hng ng - Hng sai
Chng minh cc cng thc sau y l hng ng,
hng sai, hay kh ng kh sai :
1. (S) S
2. (SvT) vT
3. (ST)(T S)
ntsn
@Nguyn Thanh Sn
M hnh
Tm mt m hnh I cho cng thc F.
F = ((AvB) . B) A
M rng I n cng l m hnh ca G.
G = ((A.C) v C) A.
ntsn
@Nguyn Thanh Sn
H qa lun l
Chng minh K l h qu lun l ca h thng
{F
1
, F
2
, F
3
, F
4
} :
F
1
= J P v T,
F
2
= K v Q J,
F
3
= T A,
F
4
= P . A.
ntsn
@Nguyn Thanh Sn
H qa lun l
Cng thc no l h qu lun l ca h thng
{A, B, A C }
1. Av B.
2. A . B.
3. B C.
4. (A . B) v C.

ntsn
@Nguyn Thanh Sn
Hng ng
Cng thc no sau y l hng ng :
1. (x x)
2. (x x)
3. (((P Q) . (P Q)) Q)
4. (A (B A))
5. ((A v B) (B A))
6. ((P . Q) . (Q P))
7. (((X Y) X) Y).
ntsn
@Nguyn Thanh Sn
Ht slide