ntsn

III. Ng ngha ca
lun l v t
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Chng 3
Din dch ca 1 cng thc
Xc nh mt din dch I cho cng thc F l xc
nh cc yu t sau :
1. Chn min i tng D.
2. nh ngha cc hm (gn gi tr cho hng).
3. nh ngha cc v t ca F.
ntsn
Chng 3
Din dch ca 1 cng thc
Th d : F = x (p(x) q(f(x), a)).
F c : hng a, hm f(_), v t p(_), q(_,_).
Mt din dch ca F :
Chn D = {1, 2, 3}. Chn hng a = 2.
Chn f(1) = 2, f(2) = 1, f(3) = 3.
Chn {p(1), p(2), p(3)}.
Chn {q(1,1), q(1,2), q(1,3),
q(2,1), q(2,2), q(2,3),
q(3,1), q(3,2), q(3,3)}.
ntsn
Chng 3
nh gi cng thc trong 1 dd
Cng thc v t F = x p(x).
Cho din dch I :
D = {1, 2}, {p(1), p(2)}.
F gm {p(1), p(2)} vi p(1) ng, p(2) sai.
Vy F l ng hay sai trong dd I ?.
Lm sao xc nh tnh ng sai ca cng thc
trong lun l v t ?.

ntsn
Chng 3
nh gi cng thc trong 1 dd
Tnh ng, sai ca cng thc ng trong mt
din dch I c xc nh nh lng t.
x F l ng, nu F ng, x e D.
-x F l ng, nu F[a/x] ng, -a e D.
Khng xc nh c tnh ng, sai trong 1 din
dch ca cng thc t do.
Khi ni mt cng thc F l ng, hay sai ngha
l ng hay sai trong mt din dch.
Din dch c th khng c nhc n nhng
phi c ngm hiu.
ntsn
Chng 3
nh gi CT ng trong 1 dd
Th d :
F = x y ( (p(x) v q(y)) (-t q(t) . z q(z)) )
Cho din dch : D = {o, |}, {p(o), p(|), q(o), q(|)}.
Ly x = o,
* ly y = o : p(o)vq(o) (-t)q(t).(z)q(z).
(1 v 1) (1 . 1) = 1.
* ly y = | : p(o)vq(|) (-t)q(t).(z)q(z).
(1 v 1) (1 . 1) = 1.
ntsn
Chng 3
nh gi CT ng trong 1 dd
Ly x = |,
* ly y = o : (p(|)vq(o)) (-t q(t) . z q(z)).
(0 v 1) (1 . 1) = 1.
* ly y = | : (p(|)vq(|)) (-t q(t) . z q(z)).
(0 v 1) (1 . 1) = 1.
Vy cng thc F ng trong din dch trn.
ntsn
Chng 3
nh gi CT ng trong 1 dd
Th d :
F = x y ( (p(x) v q(y)) (-t q(t) . z q(z)) )
Din dch I :
D = {o, |, },
{p(o), p(|), p(), q(o), q(|), q()}.
Ly x = o,
ly y = o : (p(o) v q(o)) (-t q(t) . z q(z)).
(1 v 1) (1 . 0).
Vy cng thc F sai trong din dch I.
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Chng 3
Ng ngha
Cc khi nim :
Hng ng
Hng sai
Kh ng-Kh sai
M hnh
Tng ng (=)
H qu lun l ()
c nh ngha tng t nh trong LLM.
ntsn
Chng 3
Cng thc tng ng
F, P l cng thc v P khng cha hin hu t
do ca x (i vi P).
1. (x F) v P = x (F v P)
1'. (-x F) v P = -x (F v P)
2. (x F) . P = x (F . P)
2'. (-x F) . P = -x (F . P)
ntsn
Chng 3
Cng thc tng ng
Chng minh : (x F) v P = x (F v P)
Tng ng vi vic chng minh 2 bi ton :
1. (x F) v P x (F v P)
2. x (F v P) (x F) v P
Cc cng thc tng ng khc c chng
minh tng t.
ntsn
Chng 3
Cng thc tng ng
Chng minh : (x F) v P x (F v P)
Ly 1 m hnh I ca (x F) v P.
Nu (x F) ng th F[o/x] v P ng oeD
I

(D
I
l min i tng ca I).
Do x (F v P) ng.
Nu (x F) sai th P phi ng.
Do F[o/x] v P ng oeD
I
,
hay x (F v P) ng.
Vy (x F) v P x (F v P)
ntsn
Chng 3
Cng thc tng ng
Th d :
(x p(x)) v q(y) = x (p(x) v q(y))
(-x p(x) . q(x)) v r(y) = -x ((p(x) . q(x)) v r(y) )
(x p(x)) . q(x, y) = x (p(x) . q(x, y))
v q cha hin hu t do ca x.
q(y, z) . -x p(x, y) = -x (q(y, z) . p(x, y))

ntsn
Chng 3
Hi giao m rng
Hi, giao m rng.
K hiu A
ieI
= A
1
A
2
A
3
,
A
ieI
= A
1
A
2
A
3
, vi I = {1, 2, 3}
nh ngha giao m rng :
x e A
ieI
i (x e A
i
)
nh ngha hi m rng :
x e A
ieI
-i (x e A
i
)
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Chng 3
???
Ch :
Cc th d t slide ny tr i nu c dnh dng
ti nhng bi ton ca l thuyt tp hp, chng
qua l minh ha mt ng dng ca logic
trong l thuyt tp hp. Nu khng hiu c
c th b qua m khng nh hng n vic
hiu cc ni dung ang trnh by.
Nhng nu hiu c
tht khng ph cng tc gi !.
ntsn
Chng 3
Cng thc tng ng
Th d minh ha ng dng cng thc
(xF) v P = x (F v P)
A
1
, A
2
, A
3
, B l cc tp hp.
t I = {1, 2, 3} v B
i
= (A
i
B)
(A
1
A
2
A
3
) B = (A
1
B) (A
2
B) (A
3
B )
vit li (A
i
B) = B
i
.
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Chng 3
Cng thc tng ng
Th d :
Chng minh A
i
B _ B
i
.
Ly x e A
ieI
B,
(x e A
ieI
) v (x e B)
i (x e A
i
) v (x e B)
t p(i) = x e A
i
, p
1
= x e B
i p(i) v p
1

i (p(i) v p
1
) v ((x F) v P = x (F v P))
x e B
i
.
ntsn
Chng 3
Cng thc tng ng
Nhn xt :
i (x e A
i
) v (x e B) = i ((x e A
i
) v (x e B)).
Cu hi :
i v x c phi l bin hay khng ?.
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Chng 3
Cng thc tng ng
3. (x F) = -x F
3. (-x F) = x F
Th d :
(x p(x, y)) = -x p(x, y)
(-x p(x)) = x p(x)
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Chng 3
Cng thc tng ng
Nhn xt :
Lut Morgan trong LLVT ging nh trong LLM
(F v G) = F . G
(F . G) = F v G
Th d :
(x p(x) v -y q(y)) = (-x p(x) . y q(y))
(x p(x) -y q(y)) = (x p(x) . y q(y))
ntsn
Chng 3
Cng thc tng ng
Ch :
Trong thc t khi s dng cc lng t
thng c vit km theo min xc nh
ca bin.
Th d :
nh ngha giao m rng :
A
ieI
= { x | (i eI) (x e A
i
)}
Do khi ly ph nh s l
((x e I) (x e A
i
)) = (-x e I) (x e A
i
)
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Chng 3
Cng thc tng ng
4. x (F . H) = (x F) . (x H)
4. -x (F v H) = (-x F) v (-x H)
Th d :
x (x
*
e A . x
*
e B) = x (x
**
e A) . x (x
**
e B)
-x (x e A v x e B) = -x (x e A) v -x (x e B)
Cc hin hu ca x ti cc v tr (
*
) phi ly
cng 1 gi tr trong mi lc, nhng cc hin hu
ti (
**
) khng cn phi ly cng 1 gi tr ti cng
mt thi im.

ntsn
Chng 3
Cng thc tng ng
5. (x F v x H) x (F v H)
5. -x (F . H) (-x F . -x H)
Th d :
A
i
, B
i
l cc tp hp ly ch s trn I.
i (x e A
i
) v i (x e B
i
) i (x e A
i
v x e B
i
).
i (x e A
i
v x e B
i
) / i (x e A
i
) v i(x e B
i
).
-i (x eA
i
. x eB
i
) (-i, x eA
i
) . (-i, x eB
i
).
-i (x eA
i
) . -i (x eB
i
) / (-i, x eA
i
. x eB
i
).
ntsn
Chng 3
Cng thc tng ng
Chng minh (A
i
B
i
) = (A
i
) (B
i
),
vi A
i
, B
i,
l cc tp hp.
Ly x e (A
i
B
i
) (1)
(i) (x e A
i
B
i
) (2)
(i) (x e A
i
v x e B
i
) (3)
(i) (x e A
i
) v (i)(x e B
i
) (4)
x e (A
i
) v x e (B
i
) (5)
x e (Ai) (Bi) (6)
Chng minh c li ?.
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Chng 3
Cng thc tng ng
Chng minh (A
i
B
i
) = (A
i
) (B
i
).
Ly x e (A
i
B
i
) (1)
(i) (x e A
i
B
i
) (2)
(i) (x e A
i
v x e B
i
) (3)
(i) (x e A
i
) v (i)(x e B
i
) (4)
x e (A
i
) v x e (B
i
) (5)
x e (Ai) (Bi) (6)
Dng (3) chuyn xung (4) sai.
Vy ch c : (A
i
B
i
) (A
i
) (B
i
).
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Chng 3
Cng thc tng ng
Th d minh ha :
Ly tp ch s I = {1, 2}.
(A
1
B
1
) (A
2
B
2
) . (A
1
A
2
) (B
1
B
2
).
ntsn
Chng 3
Cng thc tng ng
6. x (y H) = y (x H)
6. -x (-y H) = -y (-x H)
7. x H -x H
Th d :
x y p(x, y)) = y x p(x, y)
-x -y (p(x) . q(y)) = -y -x (p(x) . q(y))
Ch thch :
Ngi ta thch vit x y H thay v x (y H).
c thm [4]
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Chng 3
Cng thc tng ng
Nhn xt :
Khng th hon v cc lng t v -.
Th d :
p(x,y) l s nguyn x bng s nguyn y.
y -x p(x, y) ng, nhng
-x y p(x, y) sai.

Cu hi :
2 cng thc trn ng v sai trong din dch no ?.
ntsn
Chng 3
Cng thc tng ng
Nhn xt :
C trng hp hon v c lng t v -.
Th d :
F = x p(x) v -y q(y)
Cch 1. Cch 2.
F = x (p(x) v -y q(y)) F = -y (x p(x) v q(y))
F = x -y (p(x) v q(y)) F = -y x (p(x) v q(y)).
ntsn
Chng 3
Cng thc tng ng
Nhn xt :
-x y K y -x K (*)
/ y -x K -x y K (**)
Chng minh (*) ?



(*) tng ng vi -x y K y -x K.
(**) tng ng vi y -x K / -x y K.
ntsn
Chng 3
Cng thc tng ng
-x y K y -x K
Chng minh
Ly 1 din dch I.
Nu -x y K ng.
Gi s y -x K sai, ngha l -y
0
-x K sai, hay
-x -y
0
K sai.
Mu thun vi -x y K ng.
Vy y -x K ng.
ntsn
Chng 3
Cc b > Ton b
Lng t ton b khng nh hng n phm
vi ca lng t cc b.
C th i tn bin ca lng t cc b v cc
hin hu nm trong phm vi nh hng ca n.
Th d :
F = x (p(x) -x q(x))
= x (p(x) -y q(y)).
ntsn
Chng 3
Dng chun Prenex
Dng chun Prenex c dng :
F = (Q
1
x
1
) ... (Q
n
x
n
) M
M l cng thc khng cha lng t.
Q
i
l hoc -.
Th d :
F = -x -y (p(x) v q(y))
G = x -y (p(x) q(y))
H = -x -y (p(x) v q(y))
F, G, H ang dng chun Prenex.
ntsn
Chng 3
Dng chun Prenex
Qui trnh chuyn v dng chun Prenex :
1. Thay th ton t bng v, s dng
cng thc tng ng X Y = X v Y.
2. y tt c lng t ra pha tri
(nu cn th i tn bin cc b).
ntsn
Chng 3
Dng chun Prenex
Th d :
Chuyn v dng chun Prenex :
F = x (p(x) -x y (q(y) v r(x)))
F = x (p(x) v -x y (q(y) v r(x)))
i tn bin cc b.
F = x (p(x) v -z y (q(y) v r(z)))
F = x -z y (p(x) v (q(y) v r(z))).
ntsn
Chng 3
Soundness & Completeness
Soundness & Completeness ca LLM vn c
gi tr i vi LLVT.
Tng quan gia 2 khi nim v H.
nh l (soundness).
Nu F H th F H.
nh l (completeness).
Nu F H th F H.
ntsn
Bi tp
Chng 3 : Lun l v t
ntsn
Chng 3
Min i tng
1. Th gii tht c cc i tng sau :
D = {, , , +}, hng : cMinh, hm : fnn(_).
V t : ptrn(_,_), ptrn(_), pvung(_), pthoi(_).
Cho 1 din dch I :
D = {, , , +}, cMinh =.
ptrn = {(, ), (, +)}. ptrn = {}.
pthoi = {, +}. pvung = {}.
fnn = {(, ), (+, ), (, ), (, )}
ntsn
Chng 3
Min i tng
a. Hy nh gi cc CT sau trong din dch I :
pvung(cMinh),
ptrn(cMinh, fnn(cMinh)),
-x pvung(x),
x -y (ptrn(x, y) ptrn(y, x)) trong dd I.
b. Chng minh KB dn xut H :
KB : x ( pvung(x) pthoi(x)) .
(x)( ptrn(x) pthoi(x)).
H = x ( ptrn(x) pthoi(x)).
ntsn
Chng 3
Din dch
2. Cho din dch I c :
D = {a,b},
{p(a, a), p(a, b), p(b, a), p(b, b)}.
nh gi cc cng thc sau :
a. x -y p(x, y) b. x y p(x, y)
c. -x y p(x, y) d. -y p(a, y)
e. x y (p(x, y) p(y, x)) f. x p(x, x)
ntsn
Chng 3
Din dch
3. Tm mt din dch trn D = {a,b} cng thc
F = x y (p(x,y) p(y,x)) c gi tr sai.
4. Cho din dch I :
D = {1, 2}, a = 1, b = 2, f(1) = 2, f(2) = 1,
{p(1,1), p(1,2), p(2,1), p(2,2)}.
nh gi cng thc sau trong din dch I :
a. p(a, f(a)) . p(b, f(b))
b. x -y p(y,x)
c. x y (p(x, y) p(f(x), f(y))).
ntsn
Chng 3
Dng chun Prenex
5. Tm dng chun Prenex ca cc cng thc :
a. (x p(x)) -y z q(y, z)
b. (x p(x) -y p(y)).
c. x y (-z p(x,y,z) . (-u q(x,u) -v q(y,v))).
6. Cho bit -x H H[a/x] c hng ng hay
khng vi a l mt hng.
ntsn
Chng 3
Ht slide
ntsn
Chng 3
Model ca M.Huth&M.Ryan
Huth v Ryan nh ngha khi nim model.
Ly = tp hp cc k hiu hm
= tp hp cc k hiu v t.
Model ca (, ) gm tp hp d liu sau :
1. Tp hp A khng rng.
2. Vi f (e ) n thng s c mt nh x
f

: A
n
A, n > 0.
3. Vi p (e ) n thng s c mt tp con
p

_ A
n
, n > 0.
ntsn
Chng 3
Model ca M.Huth&M.Ryan
Nhn xt v nh ngha ca Huth v Ryan.
1. Khi nim Model khng nh ngha trn 1
cng thc c th.
2. Trng hp n = 0 :
- f

: A
0
A, f

c xc nh bi 1 phn t
ca A.
- p

_ A
0
th p

= C (qui c cho gi tr sai)

hoc p

= {C} (qui c cho gi tr

ng).
ntsn
Chng 3
Model ca M.Huth&M.Ryan
Nhn xt v nh ngha ca Huth v Ryan (tt).
3. Nu F c bin x t do F[o/x] khng l cng
thc, v o khng phi l nguyn t m ch
l mt gi tr ca model. V vy phi dch F
vo mt mi trng (environment).
4. Mt mi trng c th l mt bng tra
(look-up table) e.
Bng e kt hp mi bin vi mt gi tr e(x)
ca model.
Vy mi trng l hm e : var A vi var
l tp hp cc bin.
ntsn
Chng 3
Model ca M.Huth&M.Ryan
Nhn xt v nh ngha ca Huth v Ryan (tt).
5. K hiu :
e[x] l e : var {x} A
e(t) thay tt c bin trong t

bng cc
gi tr trong e.
Nhn xt tp var l khng xc nh, khng
th xc nh c tt c cc bin ca lp
cc cng thc trn (, ). Mi trng e
nn c xc nh theo mt cng thc c
th.
ntsn
Chng 3
Model ca M.Huth&M.Ryan
F e (, ) c model v mi trng e.

e
F nu F l :
p(t
1
, , t
n
) th (e(t
1
), , e(t
n
)) e p

.
x G th
e[x]
G vi mi x e A.
-x G th
e[x]
G vi mt x e A.
G th /
e
G.
G v H th
e
G
e
H.
G . H th
e
G
e
H.
G H th nu
e
G th
e
H.
ntsn
Chng 3
Model ca M.Huth&M.Ryan
Th d :
= {alma()}, = {loves(-, -)}, model gm A
= {a, b, c}, alma

= a, loves

= {(a, a), (b, a), (c,

a)}. Model tho
None of almas lovers lovers love her.
xy (loves(x,alma) . loves(y,x) loves(y,
alma).
Chn x = a, y = b, (loves(a,a) . loves(b,a)
loves(b, a)