ntsn

IV. Phn gii

ntsn
Tnh hng sai
Mc tiu :
S din dch ca 1 cng thc LLVT l v hn.
Lm sao bit c mt cng thc l hng
ng, hng sai, kh ng, kh sai ?.
Da vo nh ngha ?

Gii php ?
ntsn
Tnh hng sai

Cng thc LLVT
no
Thut ton
kim tra
hng sai
yes
no
yes
C cn thit phi c 2 thut ton ?
Thut ton
kim tra
hng ng
ntsn
Tnh hng sai
Ch cn 1 thut ton :
F
no
Thut ton
kim tra
hng sai
yes
Cng thc F hng sai ?
F
Cng thc F hng ng ?
ntsn
Tnh hng sai
Ch cn 1 thut ton hng sai :
F + yes F hng sai.
F + yes F hng ng.
F + no v F + no F kh ng, kh sai.
ntsn
Tnh hng sai
Mc tiu :
Bit c cng thc l hng sai.

Gii php :
* Bin i cng thc (vn cn tnh hng sai).
* Co nh khng gian din dch.
ntsn
Tnh hng sai
Lu :
Ch cng thc ng mi c nh gi ng
sai trong mt din dch.
Do , cc cng thc c cp t y tr i
mc nhin l cng thc ng.
ntsn
Dng chun Skolem
Cng thc F c chuyn v dng :
1. Chun Prenex.
2. Chun giao.
3. Ln lt xa cc lng t --.
Vi mi -x, thay tt c cc hin hu ca x bng
hm f
x
. Hm f
x
c thng s l cc bin ca cc
lng t , vi ch nhng lng t ng
trc -x.
4. Tp S
F
c phn t l cc thnh phn giao.
ntsn
Dng chun Skolem
Th d :
F = x y -z t -s v (p(x, y, z, t) . q(s, v))
Xa lng t -z, thay z bng hm f
z
(x, y)
x y t -s v (p(x, y, f
z
(x, y), t) . q(s, v))
Xa lng t -s, thay s bng hm f
s
(x, y)
x y t v (p(x, y, f
z
(x, y), t) . q(f
s
(x, y, t), v))
Chuyn thnh dng tp hp
S
F
= {p(x, y, f
z
(x, y), t), q(f
s
(x, y, t), v)}
dng chun Skolem
ntsn
Dng chun Skolem
Th d :
F = -x y -z t p(a, x, y, z, f(t))
Xa lng t -x, thay x bng hng b
y -z t p(a, b, y, z, f(t))
Xa lng t -z, thay z bng hm f
z
(y)
y t p(a, b, y, f
z
(y), f(t))
Chuyn thnh dng tp hp
S
F
= {p(a, b, y, f
z
(y), f(t)} dng chun Skolem
ntsn
Dng chun Skolem
Th d :
F = -x y (p(a, x, f(y)) -y z -u q(y, z, u))
F = -x y (p(a, x, f(y)) v -y z -u q(y, z, u))
F = -x y (p(a, x, f(y)) v -t z -u q(t, z, u))
F = -x y -t z -u (p(a, x, f(y)) v q(t, z, u))
y z (p(a, b, f(y)) v q(g(y), z, h(y, z)))
S
F
= {p(a, b, f(y)) v q(g(y), z, h(y, z))}.
ntsn
Dng chun Skolem
Nhn xt :
Cc hm c t tn f
x
khng trng tn vi
cc hm c ca cng thc.
Nu trc -x khng c lng t ph dng th
thay bng hm khng thng s. Hm khng
thng s l mt hng.
T kt qu ca bc 4 c th to li kt qu
ca bc 3.
ntsn
Dng chun Skolem
Nhn xt :
Cng thc dng chun Prenex vn cn
tng ng vi cng thc ban u.
Kt qu ca bc chuyn v dng chun giao
vn cn tng ng vi cng thc ban u.
Kt qu ca bc xa lng t khng phi l
cng thc, d nhin l khng tng ng vi
cng thc ban u.
ntsn
Dng chun Skolem
ngha ca vic thay bin x ca lng t -x.
- Thay x bng hng.
c x c tnh cht p l cng thc -x p(x)
ly c c tnh cht p l cng thc p(c) vi mc
ch l lm n gin cng thc.
ntsn
Dng chun Skolem
ngha ca vic thay bin x ca lng t -x.
- Thay x bng hm.
Everyone has a mother (mi ngi u c
m) l cng thc x -y mother(x, y).
Nu thay y bng hng th cng thc x
mother(x, c) mang ngha khc. Phn t y ph
thuc vo x nn phi thay bng hm theo x.
ntsn
Mnh
Mi phn t ca dng chun Skolem c gi
l 1 mnh .
Do mnh c nh ngha l hi cc
lng nguyn.
Mnh n v l mnh c 1 lng nguyn.
Mnh rng l cng thc hng sai.
Nhc li :
F v = F ( l cng thc hng sai), F.
F . = F ( l cng thc hng ng), F.
ntsn
Tnh hng sai
nh l :
Cng thc F hng sai nu v ch nu dng
chun Skolem S
F
hng sai.

Nhn xt :
T nh l trn c th ni : cng thc F v dng
chun Skolem S
F
l tng ng theo ngha
hng sai, ngha l dng chun Skolem duy tr
c tnh hng sai.
ntsn
Tnh hng sai
Ghi ch :
Tnh hng sai ch c nh ngha cho khi
nim cng thc.
Dng chun Skolem c gi l hng sai da
vo cng thc cui bc 3 trong qu trnh
bin i v dng chun Skolem.

ntsn
Nguyn tc phn gii
Mt h thng hng sai nu sn sinh c
mnh hng sai.
Qui tc truyn
(P Q), (Q R) (P R),
thay P bng T :
(T v Q), (Q v R) (T v R).
ntsn
Nguyn tc phn gii
(T v Q), (Q v R) (T v R).
C th c hiu l :
* Mnh (T v R) c sinh ra t 2 mnh
(T v Q) v (Q v R).
* Phng thc sinh ra l b i 2 lng nguyn
i du ca mi mnh , hi nhng phn cn
li ca 2 mnh .
* Mnh c sinh ra l h qu lun l ca 2
mnh sinh ra n.
ntsn
Nguyn tc phn gii
Th d :
p(x) v q(y), q(y) v r(x) p(x) v r(x).
Nhng,
p(x) v q(y), q(z) v r(x) ? p(x) v r(x).
p(x) v q(y), q(a) v r(x) ? p(x) v r(x).
p(x) v q(y), q(f(x)) v r(x) ? p(x) v r(x).

ntsn
Thay th
Th d :
S = {p(x), p(y) v q(h(x)), p(t), p(f(x)) v q(z)}
Thay t bng x,
y bng f(x) v
z bng h(x).
S tr thnh : {p(x), p(f(x)) v q(h(x))}
(s mnh ca tp S gim).
ntsn
Thay th
Thay th (substitution) l mt tp hp
u = {s
1
/x
1
, ..., s
n
/x
n
}, vi x
1
, ..., x
n
l cc bin cn
s
1
, ..., s
n
l cc nguyn t tha iu kin :
s
i
= x
i
, i
x
i
= x
j
, i, j
Th d :
u = {x/t, f(x)/y, h(x)/z}.
Su = {p(x), p(y) v q(h(x)), p(t), p(f(x)) v q(z)}u
Su = {p(x), p(f(x)) v q(h(x))}
ntsn
Thay th
Khi tc ng 1 thay th u ln 1 tp S hay 1
nguyn t t th cc bin trong S hay t c thay
bng cc nguyn t tng ng c trong u.
Cc bin ny ch c thay th 1 ln.
Th d :
u = {y/x, f(x)/y, a/z}.
S = {p(x) v q(y), p(z) v q(x)}
Su = {p(y) v q(f(x)), p(a) v q(y)}
ntsn
Thay th
Th d :
S = {p(x), p(y) v q(h(t)), p(f(x)) v q(z)}
u = {a/x, f(x)/y, h(x)/z}
Su = {p(a), p(f(x)) v q(h(t)), p(f(a)) v q(h(x))}
(Su)u = {p(a), p(f(a)) v q(h(t)), p(f(a)) v q(h(a))}

ntsn
Hp ni
Hp ni 2 thay th :
u = {s
1
/x
1
, ..., s
n
/x
n
}
= {t
1
/y
1
, ..., t
m
/y
m
}
l thay th.
u = {s
1
/x
1
, ..., s
n
/x
n
, t
1
/y
1
, ..., t
m
/y
m
}

Th d :
u = {f(y)/x, z/y} v = {a/x, b/y, y/z}.
u = {f(b)/x, y/z}, u = {a/x, b/y}.
Ch ly cc phn s khng c
mu xut hin trong cc bin x
1
, , x
n

ntsn
ng nht th
S = {E
1
, ..., E
k
}.
Nu Su = {E
1
u} (ngha l E
1
u = ... = E
k
u) th u
c gi l ng nht th (unifier) ca S.
Th d :
S = {p(a, y), p(x, f(b))} v u = {a/x, f(b)/y}
Su = {p(a, f(b))} u l ng nht th ca S.
S c gi l kh ng nht th (unifiable).
ntsn
mgu
ng nht th u l mgu (most general unifier)
ca {E
1
, ..., E
k
} nu
( ng nht th o)(- thay th ) (o = u )

{E
1
, ..., E
k
}
u
o

{E
1
, ..., E
k
}u
| |
{E
1
, ..., E
k
}u
{E
1
, ..., E
k
}o
ntsn
Tp bt ng
ng nht cc mnh ca 1 tp hp, so
snh tng k t, nu gp s khc bit th ly 2
thnh phn c ngha hnh thnh nn tp hp
gi l tp bt ng (disagreement).
Th d :
S = {p(x, f(y, z)), p(x, a), p(x, g(h(k(x))))}
{f(y, z), a} l tp bt ng.
T = {p(f(x), h(y), a, t(c)), p(f(x), z, k(x), h(y)),
p(f(x), h(x), b, g(h(x)))}
{h(y), z} l tp bt ng.
ntsn
Thut ton ng nht
Thut ton
1. Tm tp bt ng
2. Chn thay th.
3. Quay li bc 1 nu khng cn tp bt
ng.

Kt qu ca thut ton ng nht l mt ng
nht th v cn l mt mgu.
ntsn
Thut ton ng nht
Th d :
S = {p(a, x, h(g(z))), p(b, h(y), h(y))},
{a, b} thay th u
0
= C
T = {p(a, f(x), h(g(a)), p(a, h(y), h(y)},
{f(x), h(y)} thay th u
0
= C
H = {p(a, x, h(g(a)), p(a, h(x), h(y)},
{x, h(x)} thay th u
0
= {h(x)/x}
Hu
0
= {p(a, h(x), h(g(a)), p(a, h(h(x)), h(y)}
ntsn
Thut ton ng nht
c c mt mgu t tp bt ng th tp bt
ng phi c :
1. Mt bin.
2. Bin e biu thc.
ntsn
mgu
Th d :
S = {p(x, y, z), p(f(y), z, g(w)), p(f(g(a)), z, t)}
{x, f(y)} u
0
= {f(y)/x}
Su
0
= {p(f(y), y, z), p(f(y), z, g(w)), p(f(g(a)), z, t)}
{y, z} u
1
= u
0
.{z/y} = {f(z)/x, z/y}
Su
1
= {p(f(z), z, z), p(f(z), z, g(w)), p(f(g(a)), z, t)}
{z, g(w)} u
2
= u
1
.{g(w)/z}
= {f(g(w))/x, g(w)/y, g(w)/z}
Su
2
= {p(f(g(w)), g(w), g(w)), p(f(g(a)), g(w), t)}
ntsn
mgu
{z, g(w)} u
2
= {f(g(w))/x, g(w)/y, g(w)/z}
Su
2
= {p(f(g(w)), g(w), g(w)), p(f(g(a)), g(w), t)}
{w, a} u
3
= u
2
.{a/w}
= {f(g(a))/x, g(a)/y, g(a)/z, a/w}
Su
3
= {p(f(g(a)), g(a), g(a)), p(f(g(a)), g(a), t)}
{g(a), t} u
4
= u
3
.{g(a)/t}
= {f(g(a))/x, g(a)/y, g(a)/z, a/w, g(a)/t}
Su
4
= {p(f(g(a)), g(a), g(a))}
mgu(S) ={f(g(a))/x, g(a)/y, g(a)/z, a/w, g(a)/t}
ntsn
Tha s
Tha s (factor) ca mt mnh .
D = p(x) v p(f(y)) v q(x) v p(z)
p(x) v p(f(y)) c mgu u = {f(y)/x}.
Du = p(f(y) v q(f(y)) v p(z) l tha s.
p(z) v p(f(y)) c mgu | = {f(y)/z}.
D| = p(x) v p(f(y) v q(x) l mt tha s.
p(x) v p(z) c mgu = {x/z}.
D = p(x) v p(f(y) v q(x) l mt tha s.
ntsn
Phn gii nh phn
Phn gii nh phn ca 2 mnh .
C = p(x) v q(x) D = p(a) v r(x).
L
C
= p(x) v
L
D
= p(a).
L
C
v L
D
c mgu u = {a/x}.
(Cu L
C
u) v (Du L
D
u) = q(a) v r(a).
pg
b
(C, D) = (q(a) v r(a)) l phn gii nh phn
ca C v D.
ntsn
Phn gii nh phn
Th d
C = p(x) v r(a) D = p(b) v p(f(y)) v r(x).
pg
b
(C, D) = r(a) v p(f(y)) v r(b), vi u = {b/x}.
pg
b
(C, D) = r(a) v p(b) v r(f(y)),
vi u = {f(y)/x}.
pg
b
(C, D) = p(a) v p(b) v p(f(y)), vi u ={a/x}.
ntsn
Phn gii
Phn gii ca hai mnh C, D :
1. Phn gii nh phn ca C v D.
2. Phn gii nh phn ca C v 1 tha s ca D.
3. Phn gii nh phn ca 1 tha s ca C v 1
tha s ca D.
K hiu pg(C, D)
ntsn
Phn gii
Th d
C = p(x) v q(a) D = p(z) v p(f(y)) v r(x).
pg(C, D) = q(a) v p(f(y)) v r(x).
pg(C, D) = q(a) v p(z) v r(f(y)),
pg(C, D) = q(a) v r(f(y)).
ntsn
Phn gii
nh l
Phn gii l h qu lun l ca 2 mnh c
phn gii.
C, D pg(C, D)
H qu
Mt h thng hng sai nu phn gii ra c
mnh hng sai ().
Qu trnh phn gii s dng nu khng sinh ra
c mnh mi.
ntsn
Chng minh
Chng minh H l h qa lun l ca F v G :
F = x (p(x) (w(x) . r(x)))
G = -x (p(x) . q(x))
H = -x (q(x) . r(x))
Chuyn F, G v H thnh dng chun.
F = x ((p(x) v w(x)) . (p(x) v r(x)))
G = -x (p(x) . q(x))
H = x (q(x) v r(x))
ntsn
Chng minh
H thng mi l :
(1) (p(x) v w(x))
(2) (p(x) v r(x)))
(3) p(a)
(4) q(a)
(5) q(x) v r(x).
pg(2, 3) = r(a) (6)
pg(4, 5) = r(a) (7)
pg(6, 7) = .
ntsn
Problem-solving
[13]
If one number is less than or equal to a second
number, and the second number is less than or
equal to a third, then the first number is not
greater than the third. A number is less than or
equal to a second number if and only if the
second number is greater than the first or the
first is equal to the second. Given a number,
there is another number that it is less than or
equal to. Therefore, every number is less than
or equal to itself.
[13] The essence of logic John Kelly. Prentice Hall 1997
ntsn
Problem-solving
[13]
Biu din di dng k hiu ton hc.
If (x s y) and (y s z) then not (x > z).
(x s y) iff (y > x)) or (x = y).
For every x, there is a y such that x s y.
Therefore, x s x for every x.
ntsn
Problem-solving
[13]
Biu din di dng logic.
Cc v t le (s), gt (>), eq (=)
x y z ((le(x, y) . le(y, z)) gt(x, z))
x y (le(x, y) (gt(y, x) v eq(x, y)))
x -y le(x, y)
x le(x, x).
ntsn
Problem-solving
[13]
Biu din di dng logic.
Cc v t le (s), gt (>), eq (=)
x y z ((le(x, y) . le(y, z)) gt(x, z))
x y (le(x, y) (gt(y, x) v eq(x, y)))
x -y le(x, y)
x le(x, x).
ntsn
Problem-solving
[13]
Biu din di dng logic.
{
x y z ((le(x, y) . le(y, z)) gt(x, z)),
x y (le(x, y) (gt(y, x) v eq(x, y))),
x y ((gt(y, x) v eq(x, y))) le(x, y),
x -y le(x, y),
(x le(x, x)).
} h thng hng sai.
ntsn
Problem-solving
[13]
Biu din di dng logic.
{
x y z (le(x, y) v le(y, z) v gt(x, z)),
x y (le(x, y) v gt(y, x) v eq(x, y)),
x y ((gt(y, x) . eq(x, y)) v le(x, y)),
x -y le(x, y),
-x le(x, x).
} h thng hng sai.

ntsn
Problem-solving
[13]
Biu din di dng logic.
{
x y z (le(x, y) v le(y, z) v gt(x, z)),
x y (le(x, y) v gt(y, x) v eq(x, y)),
x y ((gt(y,x) v le(x,y)) . (eq(x,y) v le(x,y)),
x -y le(x, y),
-x le(x, x)
} h thng hng sai.

ntsn
Problem-solving
[13]
Bin i v dng chun Skolem.
{
le(x, y) v le(y, z) v gt(x, z),
le(x, y) v gt(y, x) v eq(x, y),
gt(y, x) v le(x, y),
eq(x, y) v le(x, y),
le(x, f(x)),
le(a, a)
}
ntsn
Problem-solving
[13]
Bin i v dng chun Skolem.
le(x, y) v le(y, z) v gt(x, z) (1)
le(x, y) v gt(y, x) v eq(x, y) (2)
gt(y, x) v le(x, y) (3)
eq(x, y) v le(x, y) (4)
le(x, f(x)) (5)
le(a, a) (6)
ntsn
Problem-solving
[13]
Bin i v dng chun Skolem.
/* le(x, y) v le(y, z) v gt(x, z) (1) */
le(x, x) v gt(x, x) (1) tha s (1)
le(x, y) v gt(y, x) v eq(x, y) (2)
gt(y, x) v le(x, y) (3)
eq(x, y) v le(x, y) (4)
le(x, f(x)) (5)
le(a, a) (6)
ntsn
Using Resolution
[13]
Phn gii.
pg(1, 2), pg(1, 3), pg(1, 4), pg(1, 5), pg(1, 6),
pg(2, 3), pg(2, 4), pg(2, 5), pg(2, 6),
pg(3, 4), pg(3, 5), pg(3, 6),
pg(4, 5), pg(4, 6),
pg(5, 6)
ntsn
Using Resolution
[13]
Phn gii pg(1, 2).
M
1
= le(x, x) v gt(x, x) (1)
M
2
= le(x, y) v gt(y, x) v eq(x, y) (2)
u = {x/y}
M
1
u = le(x, x) v gt(x, x)
M
2
u = le(x, x) v gt(x, x) v eq(x, x)
pg(1, 2) = le(x, x) v eq(x, x)

ntsn
Problem-solving
[13]
Some students attend logic lectures diligently.
No student attends boring logic lectures
diligently. Seans lectures on logic are attended
diligently by all students. Therefore none of
Seans logic lectures are boring.
Chn cc v t :
lec(x) : x l bi ging v logic
st(x) : x l student, s : Sean,
at(x, y) : x tham d y chm ch,
bor(x) : x t nht, gv(x, y) : x c cho bi y
ntsn
Problem-solving
[13]
Chuyn v LLVT
Some students attend logic lectures diligently.
There is an x who is a student and, for every y,
if y is a logic lecture, then x attends y diligently.
-x (st(x) . y (lec(y) at(x, y)))

Nu dch :
-x y (st(x) . lec(y) at(x, y))) ???
y -x (st(x) . lec(y) at(x, y))) ???
ntsn
Problem-solving
[13]
Chuyn v LLVT
No student attends boring logic lectures
diligently.
For every x, if x is a student, then, for every y, if
y is a lecture which is boring, then x does not
attend y.
x (st(x) y (lec(y) . bor(y) at(x, y)))
ntsn
Problem-solving
[13]
Chuyn v LLVT
Seans lectures on logic are attended diligently
by all students.
If x is a lecture given by s then every student z
attends it.
x (lec(x) . gv(x, s) z (st(z) at(z, x)))
ntsn
Problem-solving
[13]
Chuyn v LLVT
Therefore none of Seans logic lectures are
boring.
Every lecture given by s is not boring.
x ((lec(x) . gv(x, s)) bor(x))
ntsn
Problem-solving
[13]
Tng kt
-x (st(x) . y (lec(y) at(x, y)))
x (st(x) y (lec(y) . bor(y) at(x, y)))
x (lec(x) . gv(x, s) z (st(z) at(z, x)))
x (lec(x) . gv(x, s) bor(x))
ntsn
Problem-solving
[13]
Bin i
-x (st(x) . y (lec(y) at(x, y)))
x (st(x) y (lec(y) . bor(y) at(x, y)))
x (lec(x) . gv(x, s) z (st(z) at(z, x)))
x (lec(x) . gv(x, s) bor(x))
chng minh h thng hng sai.
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Problem-solving
[13]
Bin i
-x y (st(x) . (lec(y) v at(x, y)))
x y (st(x) v lec(y) v bor(y) v at(x, y))
x z (lec(x) v gv(x, s) v st(z) v at(z, x))
-x (lec(x) . gv(x, s) . bor(x))
ntsn
Problem-solving
[13]
Bin i
st(a) . (lec(y) v at(a, y))
st(x) v lec(y) v bor(y) v at(x, y)
lec(x) v gv(x, s) v st(z) v at(z, x)
lec(b) . gv(x, s) . bor(b)
ntsn
Problem-solving
[13]
Bin i
st(a) (1)
lec(y) v at(a, y) (2)
st(x) v lec(y) v bor(y) v at(x, y) (3)
lec(x) v gv(x, s) v st(z) v at(z, x) (4)
lec(b) (5)
gv(x, s) (6)
bor(b) (7)
ntsn
Problem-solving
[13]
Phn gii
st(a) (1)
lec(y) v at(a, y) (2)
st(x) v lec(y) v bor(y) v at(x, y) (3)
lec(x) v gv(x, s) v st(z) v at(z, x) (4)
lec(b) (5)
gv(x, s) (6)
bor(b) (7)
ntsn
Problem-solving
[13]
Phn gii
st(a) (1)
lec(y) v at(a, y) (2)
st(x) v lec(y) v bor(y) v at(x, y) (3)
lec(x) v gv(x, s) v st(z) v at(z, x) (4)
lec(b) (5)
gv(x, s) (6)
bor(b) (7)
Nhn xt : d (4) v (6) !!!.
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Bi tp
Chng 4 : Phn gii
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Dng chun Skolem
1. Chuyn v dng chun Skolem :
F = xy ((S(x,y) . T(x,y)) -x T(x,y))
H = (x (p(x) -yx q(y,z)))
G = xy (-z K(x,y,z) . -v (H(y,v)-u H(u,v)))
K = x ( e(x,0)
(-y ( e(y, g(x)) . z (e(z, g(x)) e(y, z)) )))
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Thay th
2. Cho 3 thay th o = {f(y)/x, z/y, g(x)/z},
| = {a/x, b/y, x/t},
_ = {y/z, h(x)/y, f(x)/t }.
Tm hp ni o|o v o_o .
3. Dng thut ton ng nht tm mgu ca cng
thc P :
P = {q(f(x),y,u), q(u,v,h(x)), q(t,y,z)}.
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Tha s
4. Cho thay th u ={a/x, b/y, g(x,y)/z} v
E = p(h(x),z), Tnh Eu.
5. Tm cc tha s ca T :
T = p(h(x)) v r(y) v p(f(y)) v q(x) v r(g(a)) v
r(y) v p(a).
6. Dng phn gii kho st tnh hng sai, kh
ng ca cng thc :
(r(x,y,z) v v(f(y),w)) . v(x,y) . t(x,z) . (t(x,y)
v v(x,y))
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Chng minh
7. Bng phn gii chng minh tp S l hng sai
S = {p(x) v q(y), p(a) v r(x), p(a) v r(x), p(x)
v q(b), r(a) v q(y), r(x) v q(b)}.
8. Dng phn gii cho bit cng thc F l hng sai
hay kh ng :
F ={(q(c) v p(b)) . (q(c) v r(c)) . (q(c) v r(c))
. (q(c) v p(b)) . (r(c) v p(b)) . (r(c) v
p(b))}.
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Ht slide