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1

LI NI U

''Nhit ng lc hc '' l mt mn hc thuc khi kin thc k thut c s; mn hc trang b
cho sinh vin ngnh nng lng nhit, ngnh k thut c kh, ngnh ng lc... nhng kin
thc su hn v nhit ng lc hc trn c s nm c kin thc v vt l ph thng, vt
l i cng, k thut nhit...
Nhit ng lc hc l mn hc nghin cu nhng qui lut bin i nng lng c lin quan
n nhit nng trong cc qu trnh nhit ng, nhm tm ra nhng phng php bin i c
li nht gia nhit nng v cc dng nng lng khc. C s nhit ng c xy dng t
th k XIX, khi xut hin cc ng c nhit.
Mn nhit ng c xy dng trn c s hai nh lut c bn: nh lut nhit ng th nht
v nh lut nhit ng th hai.
Nhng kt qu t c trong lnh vc nhit ng k thut cho php ta xy dng c s l
thuyt cho cc ng c nhit v tm ra phng php t c cng c ch ln nht trong cc
thit b nng lng nhit.
Cun bi ging c bin son vi s ng gp kin ca cc thy gio Vin
nhit - lnh Trng i hc Bch khoa H ni v tham kho mt s ti liu nc ngoi
khc. V l bin son ln u lm ti liu ging dy cho sinh vin h i hc Trng i
hc K thut cng nghip Thi Nguyn nn khng trnh khi nhng thiu st, nhm ln ti
rt mong c bn c tham kho v ng gp kin. Mi kin ng gp xin gi v a
ch: Trng i hc KTCN Thi nguyn, ng 3-2, Thnh ph Thi Nguyn.
Cc tc gi







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2
Chng 1
NHNG KHI NIM C BN V TRNG THI VT CHT TH KH
1.1. MT S KHI NIM C BN
1.1.1. Nguyn l lm vic ca thit b nhit
Thit b nhit l nhng thit b dng tin hnh qu trnh truyn ti, trao i v
chuyn ha nhit nng.
Thit b nhit bao gm ch yu: ng c nhit lm vic theo chu trnh thun chiu,
my lnh hoc bm nhit lm vic theo chu trnh ngc chiu, ngoi ra cn c mt s thit b
khc ch lm vic theo mt s qu trnh nh thit b kh nn, thit b sy, iu ha khng kh
.v.v
a. ng c nhit
ng c nhit l thit b nhit c chc nng l bin nhit nng thnh c nng sau
c th chuyn ha n thnh cc dng nng lng khc nh in nng hoc th nng.
Nguyn l ca ng c nhit l: mi cht nhn nhit lng q
1
t ngun nng c nhit
cao T
1
chuyn ha mt phn thnh c nng l
o
hoc in nng, ri nh phn nhit lng cn li
q
2
cho ngun lnh c nhit T
2
thp hn thc hin chu trnh thun.
q
1
= q
2
+ l
o
(1-1)
Ngun nng c th nhn nhit t phn ng chy ca
nhin liu trong cc bung t, t phn ng ht nhn
nguyn t trong l phn ng, t nng lng bc x nhit
ca mt tri hoc ngun a nhit trong lng t. Ngun
lnh thng l mi trng xung quanh: khng kh v
nc trong kh quyn. ng c nhit c rt nhiu loi:
my hi nc, ng c t trong, tuabin hi, tuabin kh,
ng c phn lc, tn la v.v, ngy nay ngi ta
ch to thnh cng mt s ng c nhit c bit c th
chuyn i trc tip nhit nng thnh in nng nh : pin
nhit - in, pin nhit - in t.
Phm vi ng dng: ng c nhit c s dng
rng ri trong cc trung tm nng lng nh nh my
nhit in, nh my in nguyn t, nh my a nhit
in hoc nh my in mt tri; trong cc thit b giao
thng vn ti nh t, tu ho, tu thy, my bay, tn
la, tu du hnh v tr v.v




T
2
< T
1

T
1

q
1

q
2

l
o
Hnh 1.1. S ng c nhit
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b. My lnh v bm nhit
My lnh v bm nhit tuy c chc nng khc nhau nhng nguyn l lm vic hon
ton ging nhau. Nh s h tr ca nng lng bn ngoi (c nng, in nng, nhit nng
v.v) mi cht nhn nhit lng q
2
t ngun c nhit thp T
2
, ri em nhit lng
cng vi phn nng lng do bn ngoi h tr l
o
, tt
c nhit lng c truyn cho ngun c nhit
cao T
1
thc hin mt chu trnh ngc chiu.
q
2
+ l
o
= q
1
(1-2)
v My lnh c chc nng l ly nhit t ngun c
nhit thp T
2
nn nhit lng c ch l q
2
v Bm nhit c chc nng l nh nhit cho ngun
c nhit cao T
1
nn nhit lng c ch l q
1
Phm vi ng dng: my lnh v bm nhit
c s dng rng ri trong vic bo qun cc loi
nng, lm, thy sn; cc thit b ngnh y, vin thng
v.v

1.1.2. Mt s khi nim v nh ngha
1.1.2.1. H thng nhit
a. nh ngha
H thng nhit l tp hp nhng i tng c tch ra nghin cu cc tnh cht
nhit ng ca chng, phn cn li gi l mi trng. Ranh gii gia h thng nhit v mi
trng c th l b mt tht cng c th l b mt tng tng.
b. Phn loi h thng nhit
H thng kn: l h thng m mi cht khng i qua b mt ranh gii, khi lng mi
cht trong h thng kn khng thay i.
H thng h: l h thng m mi cht c th qua b mt ranh gii i vo hoc ra
khi h thng.
H thng c lp: l h thng khng c bt k s trao i nng lng no vi mi trng
xunh quanh.
H thng on nhit: l h thng khng trao i nhit vi mi trng nhng c th c
s trao i cng.
H thng ng nht: l h thng m mi cht ch gm c mt pha ng u v tnh cht
vt l v ha hc.
H thng khng ng nht: l h thng m mi cht tn ti nhiu pha, gia cc pha c
ranh gii r rt, c s thay i t bin tnh cht l ha gia cc pha.


T
2
T
1
>T
2

q
1

q
2

l
o
Hnh 1.2. S my lnh v bm nhit
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1.1.2.2. Ngun nhit
Ngun nhit l cc i tng trao i nhit trc tip vi mi cht; ngun c nhit cao
l ngun nng, ngun c nhit thp hn gi l ngun lnh. Gi thit nhit dung ca ngun
ln n mc gia c nhit khng thay i trong qu trnh truyn nhit.
1.1.2.3. nh ngha v mi cht (cht mi gii)
Mi cht l nhng cht m thit b dng truyn ti v chuyn ha nhit nng vi cc
dng nng lng khc. V nguyn tc, mi cht c th bt c pha no, nhng trong thc t
thng dng th kh hoc hi v chng c kh nng gin n ln, thun tin cho vic trao i
cng.
Yu cu v mi cht:
v C kh nng sinh cng ln: th tch thay i ng k khi nhit thay i.
v C kh nng truyn ti nhit nng ln: c nhit dung ring ln.
v Khng gy n mn thit b, an ton v khng chy n.
v R tin, d kim, khng gy ng hi cho con ngi v thn thin vi mi trng.
1.2. S thay i trng thi v chuyn pha ca n cht
1.2.1. S thay i trng thi v chuyn pha ca n cht
Xt trng hp lm th nghim i vi mi cht l nc: ly 1kg nc vo trong bnh
kn, trn c pittng di chuyn c, p sut trn pittng lun gi 1bar, nhit ban u gi
thit l 20C .
Cp nhit cho mi cht, ta quan st thy nhit tng t 20C n 99,64 C th mt b
phn nc bt u ha hi, nhit 99,64 C gi khng i cho n khi git nc cui cng
ha thnh hi; nu tip tc cp nhit th nhit tng ln mi. Th tch ring ca nc ban
u bng 0,0010018 m
3
/kg 20C, tng khng bao nhiu n 0,0010432 m
3
/kg khi bt u
ha hi 99,64C; tng rt nhanh khi ha hi, bng 1,691 m
3
/kg khi va ha hi xong (tng
khong 600 ln) ; nu tng nhit n 600C th th tch ring bng 4,028 m
3
/kg.
Nu cho nc 600C thi nhit p sut 1bar khng i th nhit gim xung, n
99,64C th mt b phn hi ngng li thnh nc, nhit khng i cho n khi hi va
ngng ht; nu tip tc thi nhit, nhit gim xung
cho n khi bng 0C, mt b phn nc ng c, nhit khng thay i, khi nc ng
ht nhit li gim.
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Lm th nghim trn cc p sut khc nhau v biu th trn th p - t v T - s ta thy:
v Khi p < p
3
: th khi cp nhit, pha rn chuyn trc tip thnh pha hi khng qua pha lng
v ngc li khi thi nhit th pha hi chuyn thnh pha rn.
v Khi p = p
3
: th tn ti ng thi c pha rn, lng, hi bo ha, trng thi gi l trng thi
ba th hoc ba pha. i vi nc im 3 th ( p
3
= 0,00611 bar v t
3
= 0,01C )
v Khi p
3
< p < p
k
: khi p sut tng nhit ng c thng gim xung (ng ON), nhit
ha hi tng ln (on OK), th tch ring ca nc bo ha tng, ca hi bo ha gim.
v Khi p = p
k
: qu trnh cng tn ti gia nc v hi rt ngn li, s khc nhau gia nc
bo ha v hi bo ha cng nh nhit lng ha hi dn n 0, tt c khi cht lng cng
ha hi mt lc, trng thi bt u c hin tng gi l trng thi ti hn. i vi nc
im ti hn K ( p
k
= 221,3 bar ; t
k
= 374,15C )
v Khi p > p
k
: th qu trnh chuyn t pha rn sang pha lng khng khc nhau l my nhng qu
trnh chuyn t pha lng thnh pha hi khng c ranh gii r rng, khng cn giai on pha
lng cng pha hi cng tn ti, khng phn bit c pha lng v pha hi.





r + h
r + l + h
l + h
h
l
r
K
T
K
s
k
l

+

h

l
r

+

l

r h
O
K
N
p T
P
P P
P
P
P
Hnh 1.3. S thay i trng thi v chuyn pha ca n cht
s
t
Hnh 1.4. th v s thay i trng thi v chuyn pha ca n cht
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Lm th nghim trn vi cc mi cht khc nhau, v nh tnh chng u ging nhau, v nh
lng c khc nhau v ta c kt qu sau.
Bng 2-3. Thng s trng thi ti hn v trng thi ba pha (th) ca mt s n cht

im 3 th im ti hn Mi cht
t
3
;
o
C p
3
; kPa t
k
;
o
C p
k
; bar
Thu ngn (Hg) +1490 1510
Nc (H
2
O) +0,01 0, 6113 +374,15 221,29
Cacbonic(CO
2
) -56,5 518 +31 73,8
Sulfuric(SO
2
) -75,4 167 +157,2 78
Amoniac(NH
3
) -77,6 6,06 +132,3 112,8
Nito(N
2
) -209,9 12,5 -117 33,91
Oxy(O
2
) -219 0,15 -118,8 50,8
Hydro(H
2
) -259 7,194 -9,85 13

1.2.2 Mt s khi nim
a. Nng chy v ng c
Nng chy l qu trnh chuyn t pha rn sang pha lng; qu trnh ngc li, tc l
chuyn t pha lng sang pha rn gi l ng c. Khi nng chy mi cht nhn nhit, khi
ng c mi cht nh nhit, hai nhit lng c tr s bng nhau, gi l nhit n nng chy
hoc nhit n ng c; i vi nc p sut kh quyn bng 333,37 kJ/kg.
b. Ha hi v ngng t
Ha hi l qu trnh chuyn t pha lng sang pha hi; qu trnh ngc li, tc l chuyn
t chuyn t pha hi sang pha lng gi l ngng t. Khi ha hi mi cht nhn nhit, khi
ngng t mi cht nh nhit, hai nhit lng c tr s bng nhau gi l nhit n ha hi
hoc nhit n ngng t, n ph thuc vo bn cht v thng s ca mi cht. Nc p sut
kh quyn c nhit n ha hi bng 2258 kJ/kg.
Ty theo iu kin tin hnh khc nhau, qu trnh ha hi c chia thnh qu trnh
bay hi v qu trnh si. Qu trnh bay hi ch tin hnh trn b mt thong, qu trnh si tin
hnh trong c khi mi cht.
Nhit m mi cht tin hnh qu trnh ha hi hoc ngng t gi l nhit bo ha
hoc nhit si, nhit bo ha ph thuc vo p sut; nc kh quyn c nhit bo
ha xp x 100C.
c. Thng hoa v ngng kt
Thng hoa l qu trnh chuyn t pha rn sang pha hi v qu trnh ngc li, tc l
chuyn t pha hi sang pha rn gi l qu trnh ngng kt. Khi thng hoa mi cht nhn nhit,
khi ngng kt mi cht nh nhit, hai nhit lng c tr s bng nhau gi l nhit n thng
hoa hoc nhit n ngng kt. im 3 pha, nhit n thng hoa ca nc bng 2828,18 kJ/kg.


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d. Mt s nh ngha v trng thi ca mi cht
1. Mi cht si (mi cht bo ha): l mi cht trong qu trnh ha hi hoc ngng t, cng l
nc cng tn ti vi hi.
2. Hi bo ha kh: l hi trng thi bt u ngng t hoc khi mi cht lng va ha hi
xong v cng l hi khi hai pha hi v nc (hoc l hi v rn ) cng tn ti.
3. Hi bo ha m: l hn hp gia hi bo ha kh vi mi cht bo ha. T s gia khi
lng hi bo ha kh v hi bo ha m gi l kh, k hiu l x%; t s gia khi lng
mi cht bo ha vi hi bo ha m gi l m ca hi bo ha m, k hiu y = (100 - x)%.
4. Hi qu nhit: l hi c nhit ln hn nhit bo ha cng p sut hoc hi c p
sut nh hn p sut bo ha cng nhit .
5. Hi v kh: Hi thng dng i vi nhng cht c nhit ti hn tng i cao, d dng ha
lng trong iu kin nhit v p sut thng thng; cn kh l dng i vi nhng cht c nhit
ti hn tng i thp, kh ha lng trong iu kin p sut v nhit thng thng.
6. Kh l tng v kh thc:
Trong thc t ch c kh thc, khng c kh l tng.Vi bt k mi cht no, p sut
gim v nhit tng n mt lc m nh hng ca th tch bn thn phn t v lc tng
tc gia cc phn t nh n mc c th cho php b qua, lc mi cht c th coi l kh l
tng; khi khng th b qua th tch bn thn cng nh lc tng tc ca cc phn t, ta gi
l kh thc.
iu kin p sut v nhit thng thng, cc mi cht 2 nguyn t nh: oxy, nit,
khng kh d t n iu kin c th coi l kh l tng; cn i vi nhng cht nh l
hi nc, amniac c th coi l kh thc;nhng hi nc trong khng kh hoc trong sn
phm chy cng c xem l kh l tng v phn p sut ca hi nc rt thp, khi lng
ring ca n trong rt nh.
1.3. Thng s trng thi ca mi cht
mt trng thi xc nh ca mi cht, c nhng i lng c gi tr hon ton xc
nh, cc i lng ny gi c gi l thng s trng thi, chng l hm s n tr ca trng
thi m khng ph thuc vo qu trnh thay i trng thi, nn bin thin ca thng s ch
ph thuc vo trng thi u v trng thi cui ca qu trnh m khng ph thuc vo ng
i; cn trong mt chu trnh bin thin ca chng bng khng.Hay ni cch khc thng s
trng thi c vi phn ton phn.
Khi mi cht trng thi cn bng (v c v nhit), ngha l ng u v p sut v
nhit th thng s trng thi mi c gi tr ng nht v xc nh, trong k thut chng ta
ch nghin cu cc trng thi cn bng.
1.3.1 Nhit v nh lut nhit th khng
Nhit biu th mc nng lnh ca mi cht; nhit biu th gi tr trung bnh
ng nng ca cc phn t chuyn ng. Nhit c th trc tip o c trn c s nh lut
nhit th khng:
Nu hai vt (h) c nhit t
1
v t
2
cng bng nhit t
3
ca vt (h) th ba th nhit
ca hai vt bng nhau, tc l t
1
= t
2
.
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- Thang o nhit bch phn
K hiu nhit bch phn l t, n v o l
0
C (Cellcious - Tn nh bc hc sng lp
thang o).
Chn cht xy dng thang o: Nh bc hc Cellcious chn nc nguyn cht p sut
tiu chun (p = 760 mm Hg).
- trng thi bng tan ca nc nguyn cht, ngi ta n nh l 0
0
C
- trng thi nc si, n nh l 100
0
C.
Trong khong (0100) ta chia lm 100 phn bng nhau mi phn l 1
0
C
Sau khi c thang o ngi ta mi ch to cc loi nhit k o nhit .
Nhn xt:
Tr s t
0
C khng phn nh mc chuyn ng ca cc phn t m n ph thuc vo
cht dng xy dng thang o.
- Thang o nhit tuyt i (thang o nhit Kelvin)
Theo thang o ny ngi ta k hiu nhit l T, n v o
0
K (Kelvin - tn nh bc
hc sng lp thang o).
C s xy dng thang o: da vo mi quan h gia nhit v tc chuyn ng
trung bnh ca nguyn t, phn t vt cht.

3k
2
m
T (1-3)
Trong : - tc chuyn ng ca phn t trong vt cht;
=
N
i
N
i

(1-4)

i
- vn tc trung bnh ca N
i
phn t trong tng N phn t;
m - khi lng ca mt phn t;
k - hng s Boltzman; k = 1,3805.10
-23
(J/).
Nh vy, ta thy tr s T
0
K hon ton phn nh chuyn ng ca nguyn t, phn t nn
trong cc cng thc tnh ton ng hc ca cht kh ngi ta dng tr s T
0
K ch khng dng
tr s t
0
C.
T cng thc trn ta thy T = 0
0
K khi = 0; iu ny khng th xy ra. V vy, 0
0
K
c gi l khng l tng (khng tuyt i).


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- Quan h gia thang o bch phn v Kelvin:
xy dng mi quan h gia hai thang o ngi ta chn mt trng thi lm mc l
trng thi bng tan. trng thi ny t = 0
0
C v T = 273
0
K. V 1
0
C v 1
0
K c ln nh nhau
cho nn ta c th biu din hai trc nhit nh sau:




Nh vy, ta c quan h: T
o
K = t
o
C + 273
- Thang o nhit Rankine (
0
R ) v thang o nhit Faranhiet (
0
F )
Thang o
0
R do nh bc hc Rankine tm ra cn thang o
0
F do nh bc hc
Faranhiet. Tt c cc thang o u ly hai trng thi lm mc; trng thi nc ang tan v
trng thi nc si p sut tiu chun.
ln ca 1
0
C bng ln ca 1
0
K bng
100
1
khong cch gia hai im mc.
ln ca 1
0
R bng ln ca 1
0
F bng
180
1
khong cch gia hai im mc.
ln 1
0
F bng ln 1
0
R bng
9
5
ln ca 1
0
C v bng
9
5
ln 1
0
K
Nh vy, trng thi nc ang tan: t = 0
0
C, T = 273
0
K, T = 32
0
F = 462
0
R
Cng thc quan h gia cc thang o.
tC = TK - 273 =
9
5
(tF - 32) =
9
5
TR - 273 (1-5)
Bng 1-1. Nhng im mc nhit p sut tiu chun
im mc
Nhit
(
o
C)
im mc
Nhit
(
o
C)
im si ca oxy -182,97 im si ca lu hunh 444,6
im ba pha ca nc 0,01 im ng c ca bc 960,8
im si ca nc 100,00 im ng c ca vng 1063


0
o
C t
o
C
T
o
K
-273
o
C
0
o
K 273
o
K
t
o
C
T
o
K
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10
1.3.2 p sut tuyt i
Lc ca mi cht tc dng vung gc ln mt n v din tch b mt tip xc c gi l
p sut tuyt i ca mi cht.
Biu thc xc nh:

S
F
p (1-6)
Trong : F - Lc tc dng ca mi cht, n v o l N ( Newton )
S - Din tch b mt tip xc, n v o l (m
2
).
n v c bn ca p sut l
2
N
m
, cn gi l Pa
- H thng n v o p sut:
v H thng Pascal: k hiu l 1Pa = 1
2
m
N
, bi s ca chng nh Kilpascan
(1KPa = 10
3
Pa), Mgapascal (1MPa = 10
3
KPa = 10
6
Pa);
v H thng Bar : k hiu l bar; 1Bar = 10
5
Pa;
v H thng Atmosphere (at): Theo n v ny ngi ta ly p sut trung bnh ca kh quyn
lm n v o; 1atmosphere k hiu l 1at;
1at = 1kG/cm
2
= 0,981 bar;
v Cc h thng n v khc:
- Minimt ct thu ngn, k hiu l mmHg.
- Minimt ct nc, k hiu l mmH
2
O.
Cng thc lin h gia cc n v o:
1
1
]
1

2
m
N
= 1Pa = 10
-5
Bar =
981 , 0
1
.10
-5
at =
32 , 133
1
mmHg =
81 , 9
1
mm H
2
O (1-7)
- o p sut
o p sut ngi ta dng mt dng c gi l p k, nguyn l v cu to ca p k rt
a dng nhng y ta phn loi theo cng dng. chuyn mn ho dng c o nhm tng
chnh xc ngi ta ch to cc loi p k sau:
Baromet: l loi p k chuyn dng o p sut kh tri, s ch ca Baromet k hiu l p
kt
.
Manomet: l loi p k chuyn dng o phn p sut ca cht kh ln hn p sut kh
tri. S ch ca n ngi ta gi l p sut tha hoc p sut d, k hiu l p
t
(p
d
).
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Chn khng k: l loi p k o phn nh hn p sut kh tri ca p sut cht kh gi l
chn khng, k hiu p
ck
.
Xc nh p sut cht kh (p sut tuyt i)
p = p
kt
- p
ck
(1-9)









- Trng hp p sut cht kh ln hn p sut kh tri ta dng hai loi p k l Baromet v
Manomet, khi p sut cht kh:
p = p
kt
+ p
t
(1-8)
- Trng hp p sut cht kh nh hn p sut kh tri ta dng hai loi p k l Baromet v
Chn khng k, khi p sut cht kh:
p = p
kt
p
ck
(1-9)
Lu : khi o theo chiu cao ct thy ngn, phi qui v chiu cao 0
0
C theo cng thc:
h
0
= h
t
.(1 - 0,000172.t) (1-10)
h
0
- chiu cao ct thu ngn 0
0
C
h
t
- chiu cao ct thu ngn t
0
C.
1.3.3. Th tch ring v khi lng ring
Th tch ring l th tch ca mt n v khi lng v khi lng ring (mt ) l
khi lng ca mt n v th tch, chnh l s nghch o ca th tch ring.
Nu tch mt lng mi cht c khi lng l G (kg) v th tch l V(m
3
) th th tch
ring:

G
V
lim v
,
V V


, m
3
/kg (1-11)
p

p
d

p
k
t

P
c
k

P < P
kt
P > P
kt
P
Hnh 1-5.Quan h cc loi p sut
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12
Khi lng ring:
1
v
, kg/m
3
(1-12)
y: V - th tch nh nht c th coi mi cht l mi trng lin tc.
1.3.4 Ni nng
Ni nng ca mi cht l tng ni ng nng v ni th nng ca cc phn t. Ni th
nng do lc tc dng tng h gia cc phn t to ra nn n ph thuc vo khong cch gia
cc phn t hay th tch ring, ni ng nng do chuyn ng ca cc nguyn t, phn t gy
ra nn n ph thuc vo nhit . Vy ni nng l hm ca nhit v th tch:
u = f (t,v) (1-13)
i vi kh l tng, c th b qua lc tng tc gia cc phn t, nn ni th nng
bng khng, v ni nng ch bao gm ni ng nng v ch ph thuc
vo nhit ; do ni nng l hm n tr ca nhit , u = f (t)
i vi kh l tng trong mi qu trnh bin i, ni nng lun c xc nh bng
biu thc:
du = C
v
dT v u = u
2
- u
1
= C
v
(T
2
- T
1
) (1-14)
Trong :
C
v
- nhit dung ring khi lng ng tch.
i vi 1 kg mi cht, ni nng k hiu l u, vi G kg c U = Gu. n v ca ni nng
cng ging nh cc dng nng lng khc, thng dng l kJ, kW.h hoc cc n v khc:
kcal , Btu v Chu v.v
Quan h gia cc n v l:
1kJ = 0,239 kcal = 277,78.10
-6
kW.h = 0,948 Btu = 0,527 Chu
Trong k thut thng ch cn tnh lng bin thin ni nng u, nn c th chn mt
trng thi thun tin no lm mc; thng chn ni nng ca nc bo ha ti trng thi ba
th bng khng.
1.3.5 Entanpi
Trong khi tnh ton v phn tch v nhit, thng gp biu thc (u + pv), n gin v
thun tin ta thay bng i gi l entanpi; trong u l ni nng, pv l th nng p sut hoc
nng lng y.
- i vi 1 kg mi cht ta c: i = u + pv , J/kg (1-15)
- i vi G kg mi cht ta c: I = G.i = U + pV , J (1-16)
Entanpi l thng s trng thi, khi ta ly vi phn chnh l vi phn ton phn:
di = du + d(pv) (1-17)
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Entanpi ca kh thc cng ging nh ni nng l hm ph thuc vo hai trong ba
thng s trng thi c bn: p, v , T.
Ring i vi kh l tng th nng p sut c th b qua nn entanpi ch ph thuc
vo nhit i = f (T) v bin i entanpi trong mi qu trnh u c xc nh bng biu
thc:
di = C
p
dT ; i = i
2
- i
1
= C
p
(T
2
-T
1
) (1-18)
Trong :
C
p
- nhit dung ring khi lng ng p.
Trong k thut cng ging nh ni nng ta ch cn tnh bin thin ca entanpi i nn
c th chn im gc m ti entanpi c gi tr bng 0. i vi cc mi cht lnh nh: NH
3
,
R
12
chn entanpi ca cht lng bo ha - 40C bng khng.
1.3.6 Entropi
Entropi l mt thng s trng thi, k hiu l s, c vi phn bng:

T
dq
ds , kJ/kgK
hoc dS = G.ds =
T
dQ
(1-19)
dq l nhit lng v cng nh trao i vi mi trng khi nhit tuyt i ca mi cht
bng T(K).
Entropi khng th trc tip o c, c trng cho qu trnh nhn nhit v thii nhit;
khi nhn nhit th s tng, thi nhit th s gim. Trong tnh ton cng ch cn tnh s nn c th
chn trng thi mc bt k thng ly cng mc tnh u v i.
Lu : ds l vi phn ton phn cn dq khng phi l vi phn ton phn, biu th lng nhit v
cng b tham gia vo qu trnh bao gm nhit lng trao i vi mi trng v nhit lng
do cc qu trnh khng thun nghch c ma st sinh ra.
1.3.7. Execgi
Execgi l mt thng s trng thi biu th nng lng c ch ti a c th nhn c
khi cho mi cht tin n trng thi cn bng vi mi trng bn ngoi. Execgi ch phn nng
lng ti a c th s dng c trong iu kin mi trng xung quanh cn phn nng
lng khng th s dng c trong iu kin mi trng xung quanh gi l anecgi.
Execgi khng th o c trc tip m c tnh theo:
e = (i - i
0
) - T
0
(s - s
0
) (1-20)
E = G.e = (I - I
0
) - T
0
(S - S
0
) (1-21)
Trong : i
0
, T
0
, s
0
- entanpi, nhit tuyt i, entrpi ca mi cht trng thi cn bng vi
mi trng; i ,T ,s - entanpi, nhit tuyt i, entrpi ca mi cht trng thi cn xc nh.
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1.3.8. Ni nng t do v entanpi t do
Ni nng t do v entanpi t do l cc thng s trng thi: ni nng t do l tiu chun
cn bng ca qu trnh ng nhit - ng tch; entanpi t do l tiu chun cn bng ca qu
trnh ng nhit - ng p. Khi mi cht (h) tin hnh cc qu trnh trn th cc i lng
tng ng gim dn v t gi tr cc tiu trng thi cn bng.
- Ni nng t do cn gi l nhit th ng nhit ng tch hoc hm Helmholtz
- Entanpi t do cn gi l nhit th ng nhit ng p hoc hm Gibbs.
v i vi 1kg mi cht:
Ni nng t t do: z = u Ts (1-22)
Entanpi t do: = i Ts (1-23)
v i vi G kg mi cht:
Z = G.z = U TS (1-24)
= G. = I TS (1-25)
n v ca chng cng ging nh cc n v nng lng khc.
1.4 Trng thi ca mi cht
Khi mt trng thi cn bng c xc nh th gi tr ca tt c cc thng s trng thi
u xc nh, nhng xc nh mt thng s trng thi ca mi cht th khng cn phi xc
nh tt c cc thng s trng thi m trong tng iu kin c th ch cn mt s thng s do
nh lut pha ca Gibbs xc nh.
1.4.1 nh lut pha ca Gibbs (nm 1875)
Gibbs a ra nh lut pha cho mt h cn bng (h khng c phn ng ha hc):
V = C + 2 - P (1-26)
Trong :
P - s pha cng tn ti trong h ;
C - s thnh phn trong h ;
V - s thng s c lp ti thiu cn thit xc nh mt trng thi.
i vi mi cht n cht (C = 1), mt pha (P = 1) th s thng s ti thiu cn thit l:
V = 1 + 2 -1 = 2 . Nh vy, i vi mi cht n trng thi kh, xc nh mt thng s
trng thi th cn bit hai thng s c lp.
Th d: nh p v v cn thng s th ba, th d l T c xc nh theo phng tnh: T = f (p,v)
hoc F(p,v,T) = 0 .

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1.4.2. Phng trnh trng thi ca kh l tng
Phng trnh trng thi l phng trnh lin h gia cc thng s trng thi vi nhau.
Phng trnh trng thi c th xc nh c bng thc nghim hoc bng l thuyt. i vi
mt n cht pha kh l phng trnh lin h gia ba thng s c lp thng l ba thng s
c bn p, v, T.
T thuyt ng hc phn t hoc bng thc nghim trn c s cc nh lut Boyle - Mariotte
(Bi Marit), Gay - Lussac (Gay - Luyxc) v Avogadro (Avgar).
- i vi 1 kg kh l tng:
pv = RT (1-27)
Trong :
p - p sut ca cht kh, N/m
2
;
v - th tch ring, m
3
/kg ;
T - nhit tuyt i,
0
K ;
R hng s cht kh, J/kg
0
K ;
- i G kg kh l tng:
pGv = GRT hay pV = GRT (1-28)
- i vi 1 kilomol cht kh:
Kilmol k hiu (kg/kmol) l lng vt cht tnh bng kg c tr s bng phn t lng ca
cht .
pv = RT hay p.v = R.T (1-29)
y: v = V

- th tch ca 1kilomol (m
3
/kmol)
R = R

- hng s ph bin ca cht kh (J/kmol


0
K)
Vy phng trnh trng thi ca mt kilomol cht kh l:
p.V

= R

T (1-30)
T quan h (1-27) ta c th tnh c gi tr R

nh sau:
R

=
. pV
T


Theo nh lut Avgadr: iu kin tiu chun vt l (p = 760 mmHg ; t = 0C) th tch ca
kilmol kh l tng V

= 22,4 m
3
. Vy ta c:
R

=
5
760
.10 .22, 4
750
0 273,15 +
= 8314 (J/kmol.K)
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T hng s cht kh c xc nh:
R =
R

=
8314

, J/kg K
- i vi M kilmol cht kh l tng:
p.M.V

= M.R

T hay pV = MR

T (1-31)
1.4.3 Phng trnh trng thi ca hn hp kh l tng
i vi hn hp ng u cc kh l tng khng c phn ng ha hc vi nhau c
th coi tng ng vi mt cht kh l tng ng nht, c th s dng c cc nh lut
Boyle - Mariotte v Gay - lussac cng nh cc phng trnh trng thi. Nhng cn thay vo
cc i lng tng ng ca hn hp trn c s bit c cc s lng v t l hn hp
ca cc kh thnh phn.
a. Thnh phn ca hn hp
v Thnh phn khi lng ca mt cht kh thnh phn:
g
i
=
n
i
G G G
G
+ + + ...
2 1
=
i
i
G
G
=
G
G
i
(1-32)
y : G
i
- khi lng ca thnh phn kh th i ;
G - tng khi lng ca tt c cc kh thnh phn.
v Thnh phn th tch v thnh phn mol:
r
i
=
i
i
V
V
=
V
V
i
(1-33)
y : V
i
- th tch cht kh ca kh thnh phn ;
V - tng th tch ca hn hp kh.
r
i
=
i
i
M
M
=
M
M
i
(1-34)
y : M
i
- s kilomol ca kh thnh phn ;
M - tng s kilomol ca cc kh thnh phn.
Ta c : V
i
= M
i
V
i
v V = MV

; thay vo r
i
= V
i
/V c :
r
i
=
V
V
i
=

MV
V M
i i

Theo nh lut Avogadro cng p sut v nhit th V
i
= V

nn :
P , T, V
1
,G
1
P , T , V , G
P, T, V
2
, G
2
+ 0
0 +

+
0
0
+ +
+
+
Hnh 1-6. Tch hn hp theo phn th tch
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r
i
=
V
V
i
=
M
M
i
(1-35)
Ta cng chng minh c : r
i
=
P
P
i

y : P
i
- phn p sut ca cht kh thnh phn ;
P - p sut ca hn hp kh.
Phng trnh trng thi ca mt cht kh thnh phn di hai dng :
p
i
V = G
i
R
i
T (a)
pV
i
= G
i
R
i
T (b)
Chia (a) cho (b) theo v ta c :
p
P
i
=
V
V
i
= r
i
(1-36)
Theo nh lut Dalton th p =

n
i
i
P
1
, tc l p sut ca hn hp bng tng phn p sut ca
cc cht kh to thnh hn hp.
v Quan h gia hai loi thnh phn:
g
i
=
1
i i
n
i i
i
r
r

hoc g
i
=
/
i i
i
i
r R
r
R

(1-36a, b)
r
i
=
i i
i i
g R
g R

hoc r
i
=
/
i i
i
i
g
g

(1-37a, b)
b. Xc nh cc i lng tng ng ca hn hp
1. Khi lng ca hn hp: theo nh lut bo ton khi lng, khi lng bng tng khi
lng ca cc cht kh thnh phn.
G =
1
n
i
i
G

(1-38)
2. Th tch ca hn hp: trong iu kin khng c phn ng ha hc th theo nh lut
Amagat - Leduc bng tng th tch ca cc thnh phn.
V =
1
n
i
i
V

(1-39)
Nu tch hn hp theo phn p sut th th tch hn hp bng th tch ca bt k cht
kh thnh phn no.
P
1
, T, V, G
1
P , T , V , G
P
2
, T, V, G
2
+ 0
0 +
+
0
0
+ +
+
+
Hnh 1-7. Tch hn hp theo phn p sut
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3. S kilmol ca hn hp: trong iu kin khng c phn ng ha hc bng tng s kilmol
ca cc cht kh thnh phn.
M =
1
n
i
i
M

(1-40)
4. Nhit ca hn hp kh : bng nhit ca cc kh thnh phn.
5. p sut ca hn hp: theo nh lut Dalton bng tng phn p sut ca cc kh thnh phn:
p =
1
n
i
i
p

(1-41)
6. Phn t lng tng ng ca hn hp:
=
1
n
i i
i
r

(1-42)
hoc =
1
1
n
i
i i
g

(1-43)
Ta chng minh nh sau:
T G =
1
n
i
i
G

; G
i
= M
i

i
; G = M. ta c:
M. =
1
n
i i
i
M

=
1
n
i i
i
M
M

=
1
n
i
i
i
M
M

=
1
n
i i
i
r


7. Hng s cht kh tng ng ca hn hp: R

, R
Hng s ph bin ca hn hp R

vn bng 8314 J/kmol K, cn hng s cht kh


tng ng c th tnh theo tng ng ca hn hp.
R =
8314

, J/kg K (1-44)
R =
1
n
i i
i
g R

(1-45)
R =
1
i
i
r
R

(1-46)
Ta chng minh bng cch thay =
1
1
n
i
i i
g

vo R =
8314

, ta c:
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19
R =
8314

= 8314
1
n
i
i
i
g

=
1
8314
n
i
i
i
g

=
1
n
i i
i
g R


8. Th tch ring ca hn hp:
v =
1
n
i i
i
g v

=
1
n
i
i
i
g

(1-47)
T v =
V
G
, thay V =
1
n
i
i
V

, ri thay V
i
= G
i
v
i
v =
i
V
G

=
i i
Gv
G

=
i
i
G
v
G

=
1
n
i i
i
g v


9. Khi lng ring hoc mt ca hn hp c th tnh theo:

1

v
(1-48)

1

n
i i
i
r (1-49)

1

i
i
g

(1-50)
1.4.4. Phng tnh trng thi ca kh thc
th hin s khc nhau gia kh thc v kh l tng ngi ta a ra mt i lng
khng th nguyn gi l nn Z :

RT
pv
z (1-51)
Vi kh l tng Z = 1, vi kh thc Z 1. nn Z ph thuc vo nhit , p sut
v tnh cht vt l ca kh . Khi nghin cu ngi ta cho thy, nu p 0 v nhit ln
(cng c ngha v ) , nn ca cht kh Z 1, lc ny kh thc c coi l kh l tng.
Khi nhng trng thi m Z sai khc 1 qu nhiu, vt qua gii hn cho php, th ta
khng th s dng c cc nh lut Boyle-Mariotte, Gay-lussuc cng nh phng trnh
trng thi Clapeyron m phi xy dng kt qu bng thc nghim, chnh l di dng phng
trnh, bng s v th.
a) Phng trnh Van der Waals
(p +
2
v
a
)(v- b) = RT (1-52)
a, b l cc h s thc nghim v trng thi ti hn
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K
K
2
p
T R
64
27
a ;
K
K
p
RT
8
1
b
Trong :
T
K
, p
K
- nhit v p sut mi cht trng thi ti hn.
b) Phng trnh Beattie-Bridgman
pv
2
= RT[v + B
0
(1 -
v
b
)](1 -
3
vT
c
) A
0
(1 -
v
a
) (1-53)
Trong :
a, b, c, A
0
v B
0
- nhng hng s xc nh bng thc nghim.
c) Phng trnh Viran D.Mayer-N.Bogolioubov
Bng phng php ton hc v vt l l thuyt, nh vt l ngi M D.Mayer v nh
ton hc X Vit N.Bogolioubov a ra phng trnh c coi l chnh xc nht cho n
hin nay.
pv = RT(1 -
k
k
n
1 k
v 1 k
k

) (1-54)
Trong :

k
- h s virian ch ph thuc vo nhit , cha xc nh c bng phng php
thun ty l thuyt m phi xut pht t nhng kt qu thc nghim.

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Chng 2
NHIT V CNG - CC PHNG PHP XC NH
Nhit v cng l hai hnh thi ca nng lng, chng ch xut hin khi c s trao i
nng lng gia cc vt.
- Hnh thi cng c th hin km theo s dch chuyn dng v m (cc i lng
v m l cc i lng c th cn ong o m c, cc i lng vi m l cc i lng
khng cn ong o m c: dx, dy)
- Hnh thi nhit c th hin trong trng hp c s chnh lch nhit gia cc
vt; (nu khng c s chnh lch v nhit th s khng c s trao i nng lng nh vy
khng xut hin nhit nng).
Ch :
Khc vi cc thng s trng thi, nhit v cng l cc i lng c trng cho qu
trnh, n ph thuc vo tnh cht ca qa trnh.
2.1. Nhit dung ring v cch tnh nhit
2.1.1. Khi nim v nhit dung ring
Xt mt n v cht kh vi qu trnh thay i trng thi v cng nh; ta cung cp cho
cht kh mt nhit lng dq (kJ/n v cht kh), nhit thay i mt lng dt; t s
dt
dq

c k hiu l C - gi l nhit dung ring.

dq
C
dt
; [kJ/v cht kh.] (2-1)
nh ngha nhit dung ring:
Nhit dung ring ca cht kh l nhit lng cn thit cung cp cho mt n v cht kh
nhit ca n tng ln mt theo mt qu trnh no .
Ni chung nhit dung ring ph thuc vo bn cht cht kh, nhit v p sut. Thng
thng ta c th b qua s ph thuc ca nhit dung ring vo p sut cc p sut khng
qu ln. Nhit dung ring ph thuc vo nhit nn c khi nim nhit dung ring thc v
nhit dung ring trung bnh.
2.1.2. Phn loi nhit dung ring
Nhit dung ring ph thuc vo nhit , n v o lng vt cht v qu trnh cp
nhit ca khi kh nn c cc loi nhit dung ring sau:
a. Phn loi theo nhit
Nhit dung ring thc l nhit dung ring ti mt nhit no . Ta c biu thc:

dq
C
dt
v
2
1

t
t
q Cdt (2-2)
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Nhit dung ring trung bnh l nhit dung ring trong mt khong nhit t = t
2
- t
1
no . Ta c biu thc:
C
2
1
t
t
=
2 1
q
t t
=
q
t
(2-3)
Kt hp (2-2) v (2-3) ta c:
C
2
1
t
t
=
q
t
=
1
t
2
1
t
t
Cdt

(2-4)
b. Phn loi theo n v o lng vt cht
Nhit dung ring khi lng: khi n v o khi lng l kg, chng ta c nhit dung
ring khi lng, k hiu C (kJ/kg.)
Nhit dung ring th tch: nu n v cht kh l 1 m
3
tiu chun (m
3
tc
) ta c nhit
dung ring th tch, k hiu l C [kJ/m
3
tc
.].
Nhit dung ring kilmol: nu n v o cht kh l 1 kilomol ta c nhit dung ring
kilomol, k hiu l C

[kJ/kmol.].
T nh ngha trn ta c quan h gia cc loi nhit dung ring:
C = C'.v
tc
=
C

(2-5)
Trong :
v
tc
- th tch iu kin tiu chun vt l, m
tc
/kg;
- kilmol ca cht kh (kilmol l lng vt cht tnh bng kg c
tr s bng phn t lng) .
c. Phn loi theo qu trnh trao i nhit
Nhit dung ring ng p: khi qu trnh nhn nhit xy ra p sut khng i ta c
nhit dung ring ng p.
C
p
nhit dung ring khi lng ng p;
C'
p
nhit dung ring th tch ng p;
C
p
nhit dung ring kilmol ng p.
Nhit dung ring ng tch: khi qu tnh nhn nhit xy ra th tch khng i ta c
nhit dung ring ng tch.
C
v
nhit dung ring khi lng ng tch;
C'
v
nhit dung ring th tch ng tch;
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23
C
v
nhit dung ring kilmol ng tch.
i vi kh l tng quan h gia nhit dung ring ng p v nhit dung ring ng
tch biu th bng cng thc Mayer:
C
p
- C
v
= R (2-6)
Trong nhit ng, t s gia nhit dung ring ng p v nhit dung ring ng tch
c biu th:

p
v
C
C
=
'
'
p
v
C
C
=
p
v
C
C

= k (2-7)
y: k - s m on nhit.
i vi kh thc tr s k ph thuc vo bn cht kh v nhit ca cht kh. Vi kh
l tng, tr s k ch ph thuc vo bn cht (cu to phn t) ca cht kh.
C
v
=
1
R
k
(2-8)
C
p
= k.
1
R
k
(2-9)
C
n
= C
v
.
1
n k
n

(2-10)
2.1.3. Nhit dung ring ph thuc vo nhit
a. Nhit dung ring ca kh l tng
i vi kh l tng, nhit dung ring khng ph thuc vo nhit v c nh
ngha theo (2-8), (2-9) v bng 2.1.
Bng 2.1. Nhit dung ring ca kh l tng.
kcal/kmol K kJ/kmol K
Loi kh
Tr s
k C
v
C
p
C
v
C
p

Mt nguyn t
Hai nguyn t
Ba v nhiu nguyn t
1,6
1,4
1,3
3
5
7
5
7
9
12,6
20,9
29,3
20,9
29,3
37,7
b. Nhit dung ring ca kh thc
i vi kh thc, nhit dung ring ph thuc vo nhit nn ta cng c khi nim nhit
dung ring thc v nhit dung ring trung bnh:
Tng qut, nhit dung ring thc ph thuc vo nhit thng c biu din bng hm s
sau:
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24
C = a
0
+ a
1
t + a
2
t
2
+ ...+ a
n
t
n
(2-11)
y:
a
0
, a
1
, a
2
... a
n
l cc hng s thc nghim;
n - s m t chn, ngha l chn n cng cao th chnh xc cng cao.
Nu ly n = 0 ngha l C = a
0
= const , lc ny ta coi kh l kh l tng, nhit dung ring
l hng s v khng ph thuc vo nhit .
Nu ly n = 1 ta c nhit dung ring ph thuc vo nhit c quan h tuyn tnh:
C = a
0
+ a
1
t
v Nhit dung ring trung bnh trong khong 0 C n tC (t = t
2
- t
1
)
0
t
C =
1
t
0
.
t
C dt

(2-12)
0
t
C =
1
t
0
.
t
C dt

=
1
t
0 1
0
( )
t
a a t dt +

= a
0
+
1
2
a
t = a
0
+ a
1
't (2-13)
Thc t cn tnh nhit dung ring trung bnh trong khong nhit bt k t t
1
n t
2
tc l
khong nhit t = t
2
- t
1
2
1
t
t
C =
1
t
2
1
.
t
t
C dt

=
1
t
2 1
0 0
. .
t t
C dt C dt
1

1
1
]


2
1
t
t
C =
1
t
2 1
2 1
0 0
. .
t t
C t C t
1

]
(2-14)
Gi tr nhit dung ring
0
t
C (k hiu C
tb
) trong khong nhit 0C n tC c xc nh t
cc bng s.
2.1.3. Nhit dung ring ca hn hp kh
Mun nng nhit ca hn hp kh ln mt cn phi nng nhit ca tng cht
kh thnh phn trong hn hp ln mt .
Nu gi C l nhit dung ring khi lng ca hn hp kh v C
i
l nhit dung ring
khi lng ca kh thnh phn ta c:
G.C = G
1
.C
1
+ G
2
.C
2
+ ...+ G
n
.C
n
(2-15)
C =
1
G
G
.C
1
+
2
G
G
.C
2
+ ...+
n
G
G
.C
n
C = g
1
.C
1
+ g
2
.C
2
+ ...+ g
n
.C
n
=
1
n
i i
i
g C

(2-16)
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25
Suy lun tng t ta cng c cc biu thc sau:
C' =
'
1
n
i i
i
rC

(2-17)
C

=
1
n
i i
i
rC

(2-18)
Trong :
g
i
- thnh phn khi lng;
r
i
- thnh phn th tch hoc thnh phn kilmol;
C' , C

- nhit dung ring th tch, kilmol ca hn hp;


C
i
' , C
i
- nhit dung ring th tch, kilmol ca ca kh thnh phn.
2.1.5. Cch tnh nhit
a. Tnh theo nhit dung ring
Xut pht t biu thc:
dq = C.dt

2
1
12
dt . C q (2-19)
v Trng hp C = const
q
12
= C.( t
2
- t
1
) = C.t (kJ/kg) (2-20)
Vi G (kg) mi cht: Q = G.q (KJ) (2-21)

Q = V
tc
.C'.t , (KJ) (2-22)
Q = M.C

.t , (KJ) (2-23)
v Trng hp C const hay C = a
0
+ a
1
t ; (NDR ca kh thc)
( ) ( ) ( )
2
2
1
1
1 2
12 0 1 0 1 2 1 2 1
a a t . .
2
t
t
t
t
t t
q dt a a t t t t
C
+ 1
+ +
1
]

(2-24)
Trong :

2
1
t
t
C - NDR trung bnh trong khong nhit t t
1
n t
2

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26
Nh vy, khi NDR ca mi cht ph thuc nhit ta phi xc nh NDR trung bnh
trong khong nhit t t
1
n t
2
bng cch thay ch s t trong biu thc C = a
0
+ a
1
t bng
trung bnh cng nhit trng thi u v trng thi cui ca qu trnh.
Trong mt s ti liu k thut nhit ngi ta thng cho NDR trung bnh trong
khong nhit t 0 n t. V vy ta phi s dng tnh cht ca tch phn tch biu thc
xc nh nhit lng thnh tng cc tch phn:
q
t1t2
= q
0t2
- q
0t1
=
2 1
t t
2 1
0 0
C .t C .t (2-25)
Bng 2.2. NDR trung bnh ca oxy v khng kh (0
o
C1500
o
C vi c =a
o
+a't; a'=a
1
/2)
Kh NDR khi lng KJ/kg
o
K NDR th tch KJ/m
3
tc
o
K

O
2

t
0
p
C
0, 9203+0,0001065t

t
0
v
C
0, 6603+0,0001065t

t
0
'
p
C
1,3168+0,0001577t

t
0
'
p
C
1,3168+0,0001577t

Khng
kh

t
0
p
C
0,9956+0,00009299t

t
0
v
C
0,7088+0,00009299t

t
0
'
p
C
1,2866+0,0001201t

t
0
'
p
C
0,9757+0,0001201t
b. Tnh theo entropi
Trong qu tnh ng nhit khng tnh theo nhit dung ring v nhit dung ring ca
qu trnh C
T
= (C
T
=
dq
dt
=
0
dq
=)
T biu thc nh ngha entrpi ta d dng suy ra cch tnh nhit theo entropi. Ta c:
ds =
dq
T
(2-26)
dq = T.ds hay q
12
=
2
1
.
s
s
T ds

(2-27)
Xt th T - s:
- Trc tung: T
0
K
- Trc honh: s(kJ/kg.)
Theo tnh cht ton hc:
2
1
s
1 2
s
dt(s 12s ) T.ds


Nh vy, din tch nm di qu trnh 1-2 trn th T - s biu din gi tr nhit
lng ca qu trnh . V vy, th T - s gi l th nhit.
ds
T
2
T

s

s
1
s
2
T
1
Hnh 2-1. th T -s
1

2

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27
Ch :
- Nhn vo th T - s ta thy q
12
khng phi l mt thng s trng thi m l hm s ca qu
trnh. Ngha l cng trng thi 1, 2 nu tin hnh theo cc qu trnh khc nhau th q
12
khc
nhau.
- Ta thy dq lun cng du vi ds v T > 0 nn ta quy c:
+ Nu q > 0 mi cht nhn nhit.
+ Nu q < 0 mi cht nh nhit.
- Trong qu trnh tnh nhit lng p dng cng thc:

2
1
.
12
s
s
ds T q ta cn bit hm nhit
ph thuc entropi. Nu l qu trnh ng nhit ta c q = T(s
2
- s
1
)
2.2. Nng lng ton phn ca h thng nhit ng
2.2.1. Cc dng nng lng trong h thng nhit ng
a. Ngoi ng nng: l nng lng ca chuyn ng v m (chuyn ng vt th) c xc
nh bng biu thc:
W
d
= G.
2
2

, J (2-28)
Trong :
G - khi lng ca vt, kg ;
- tc ca vt, m/s .
Bin i ngoi ng nng ca vt s l:
W
d
= W
d2
- W
d1
= G.
2 2
2 1
2

= G.
2
2

(2-29)
b. Ngoi th nng: l nng lng ca lc trng trng, n ph thuc vo chiu cao so vi mt
t ca vt, c xc nh bng biu thc:
W
t
= G.g.h , J (2-30)

Trong :
h - cao ca vt so vi mt t, m ;
g - gia tc trng trng, m
2
/s .
Bin i ngoi th nng ca ca vt l:
W
t
= W
t2
- W
t1
= G.g.(h
2
- h
1
) = G.g.h (2-31)
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28
c. Ni nng (ni nhit nng): l ton b nng lng bn trong ca vt, ni nng bao gm ni
ng nng v ni th nng. Ni ng nng do chuyn ng ca cc phn t, nguyn t gy ra
nn n ph thuc vo nhit . Ni th nng do lc tc dng tng h gia cc phn t gy ra
nn n ph thuc vo khong cch cc phn t hay th tch ring.
Ni nng k hiu l u (J/kg) hay U (J). Ni nng l hm ca nhit v th tch u = f(T,v).
Ring i vi kh l tng, ni nng ch ph thuc vo nhit u = f(T).
Bin i ni nng ca vt l:
U = U
2
- U
1
(2-32)
d. Nng lng y (hay l th nng p sut)
Nng lng y c k hiu l D (J) hoc d (J/kg) v c xc nh theo biu thc:
D = pV = G.pv ;(J) (2-33)
D = p
2
V
2
- p
1
V
1
= G(p
2
v
2
- p
1
v
1
) (2-34)
Nng lng y ch c trong h h, khi dng kh chuyn ng nng lng y thay
i v to cng lu ng y dng kh chuyn ng.
l bn dng nng lng c trong h nhit ng, c bn dng nng lng trn u
l cc hm trng thi. Khi h nhit ng thay i, chng ch ph thuc vo trng thi u v
cui m khng ph thuc vo qu trnh bin i.
2.2.2. Nng lng ton phn ca h nhit ng
Kh hiu nng lng ton phn ca h nhit ng l W (J) hoc w (J/kg) , ta c biu
thc sau:
W = U + D + W
d
+ W
t
(2-35)
w = u + d +
2
2

+ gh 2-36)
i vi h kn khng c nng lng y (D = 0), khng c ngoi ng nng (W
d
= 0).
Do biu thc nng lng ton phn ca h kn l:
W = U + W
t
(2-37)
w = u + gh u (2-38)
Trong h kn, ngoi th nng thng c gi tr rt nh so vi ni nng nn thng
c b qua. Mt khc v vt th trong h kn khng chuyn ng nn trng tm ca h khng
i v chiu cao ca h so vi mt t cng khng i, do bin i th nng ca h kn s
bng khng (W
t
= 0). Vy bin i nng lng ton phn ca h kn s l:
W
k
= U = U
2
- U
1
(2-39)
w
k
= u = u
2
- u
1
(2-40)
i vi h h, v U + D = I do nng lng ton phn ca h h l:
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29
W
h
= I + W
d
+ W
t
(2-41)
w
h
= i +
2
2

+ gh

(2-42)
Bin i nng lng ton phn ca h h:
W
h
= I + W
d
+ W
t
(2-43)
w
h
= i +
2
2

+ g.h (2-44)
Thng thng trong h h, ngoi th nng v bin i ngoi th nng c gi tr rt nh
so vi cc thnh phn khc nn thng b qua (W
t
= 0 ; W
t
= 0)
v khi ta c biu thc:
w
h
= i +
2
2

(2-45)
w
h
= i +
2
2

(2-46)
Trong mt s trng hp ca h h nh qu trnh trong my nn, qu tnh hn hp
gia cc dng cht kh..., ngay c gi tr ng nng ca h cng nh so vi entanpi. Do ta
c th b qua ngoi ng nng (
2
/2 0)
w = i (2-47)
w
h
= i (2-48)
2.3. Cc loi cng
2.3.1. Cng thay i th tch
Cng thay i th tch l cng do mi cht trong h sinh ra (khi gin n) hoc nhn
c (khi b nn) khi th tch ca mi cht c thay i. Cng thay i th tch k hiu l L
(J) hoc l(J/kg) .
Gi s c 1kg cht kh p sut p , th tch v (hnh 2.1); khi cht kh gin n mt
lng dv, cht kh thc hin cng dl . V dv c gi tr v cng b nn s tng th tch ny xem
nh l cc im trn b mt S ca cht kh dch chuyn c mt qung ng dx (vung gc
vi b mt hay cng chiu vi lc p sut p). Vy cng m cht kh thc hin c l: dl =
p.S.dx , v S.dx = dv nn cng thay i th tch c dng:
dl = pdv (2-49)
2
1
12

v
v
l pdv , (kJ/kg) (2-50)
Vi G (kg) mi cht L = G.l
12
(kJ)
p
dv
v
p
v
2
v
1
Hnh 2-3. th trng thi p-v
1
2
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30






Nhn xt:
Cng thay i th tch c tr s dng (l
12
> 0) khi cht kh gin n; ngc li cng
thay i th tch c tr s m (l
12
< 0) khi b nn.
Trn th p-v ( th cng) cng thay i ca 1kg cht kh trong qa trnh bin i 1-2 c
biu din bng din tch hnh 12v
2
v
1
. T th ta thy cng thay i th tch l mt hm ca
qu trnh. Cng thay i th tch c trong c h kn v h h.
2.3.2. Cng k thut
Cng k thut k hiu l L
kt
(J) hoc l
kt
(J/kg). Cng k thut l cng ca dng cht
khi chuyn ng (h h) thc hin c khi p sut
ca cht kh thay i. Cng k thut c nh ngha
bng biu thc:
dl
kt
= -vdp (2-51)
l
kt12
=

2
1
p
p
vdp (2-52)
Cng k thut c tr s dng (l
kt
> 0) khi
p sut gim trong qu trnh bin i, ngc li c
tr s m nu p sut tng trong qu trnh bin i.
Trn th p-v cng k thut ca 1kg dng kh trong qu trnh bin i 1-2 c c
biu th bng din tch 12p
2
p
1
. T y ta thy cng k thut l hm ca qu trnh.
2.3.4. Cng ngoi
Cng ngoi c k hiu l L
kt
(J) hoc l(J/kg). Cng ngoi l cng m h trao i vi
mi trng. y chnh l cng hu ch m ta nhn c t h hoc cng tiu hao t mi
trng tc dng ti h.
tm biu thc tng qut ca cng ngoi, chng ta nhn thy mi cht trong h nhit
ng c kh nng sinh cng tc dng ti mi trng khi th tch n tng, ngoi ng nng
gim, ngoi th nng gim, nng lng y gim. Biu thc cng ngoi c dng:
l
n12
= l
12
+ (d
1
d
2
) +
2
2
2
2
1

+ g(h
1
h
2
) (2-53)
dx
1kg
p, v
dv
S
Hnh 2-2. Xc nh cng thay i th tch
v

p
p
1
p
2
dp
1
2
Hnh 2-4. th xc nh cng k thut
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l
n12
= l
12
- (d
2
d
1
) -
2
2
1
2
2

- g(h
2
h
1
) (2-54)
dl
n
= dl d(d) - d

,
_

2
2

- gd(h) (2-55)
V trong h kn, khng c nng lng y, khng c ngoi ng nng v bin i ngoi
th nng bng khng. T (2-55) c dng:
dl
n
= dl = pdv v l
n12
= l
12
(2-56)
i vi h h, ta bin i nh sau:
dl d(d) = pdv d(pv) = pdv pdv vdp = -vdp = dl
kt
Vy t (2-55) ta c:
dl
n
= dl
kt
- d

,
_

2
2

- gd(h) (2-55)
l
n12
= l
kt12
-
2
2
1
2
2

- g(h
2
h
1
) (2-56)
l
kt12
= l
n12
+
2
2
2
2
1

+ g(h
1
h
2
) (2-57)
i vi dng kh hoc hi chuyn ng trong ng (V d: ng tng p, ng tng tc)
khng sinh cng ngoi (l
n12
= 0). Cng k thut m dng kh thc hin (do gim p sut) s
gy nn s thay i ng nng v th nng ca dng kh.
Ngoi ra thy c s lin quan gia cng k thut, cng thay i th tch v bin
i nng lng y trong h h ta c:
d(pv) = pdv + vdp
(d) = l
12
l
kt12
l
kt12
= l
12
- (d) (2-58)
Biu thc (2-58) cho thy cng k thut trong qu trnh nhit ng no ca h h l
tng i s gia cng thay i th tch v s bin i nng lng y. Nu trong qu trnh
khng c s bin i nng lng y p
1
v
1
= p
2
v
2
(qu trnh ng nhit) th cng k thut c
gi tr bng cng thay i th tch.
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32
Chng 3
NH LUT NHIT NG I V CC QU TRNH C BN CA CHT KH
3.1. nh lut nhit ng I
3.1.1. Ni dung v ngha
nh lut nhit ng mt l nh lut bo ton v chuyn ho nng lng ng dng
trong phm vi nhit.
Nhit nng c th c chuyn ho thnh cc dng nng lng khc. Mt lng nhit nng b
tiu hao th s c mt lng xc nh nng lng khc c hnh thnh v tng nng lng
ca h thng khng thay i.
nh lut nhit ng th nht cp ti vic bin ha gia nhit v cng v c
c pht biu: Nhit c th c th bin thnh cng v ngc li cng cng c th bin thnh
nhit.
3.1.2. Phng trnh nh lut nhit ng I

a. Dng tng qut ca phng trnh nh lut nhit ng I
Gi s mi cht trong h nhn nhit lng Q t mi trng, lc ny nng lng ton
phn ca h s bin i mt lng W = W
2
- W
1
v h c th sinh cng ngoi L
n12
tc dng
ti mi trng. T nhn xt ny v theo nh lut bo ton v bin ha nng lng ta c
phng trnh cn bng nng lng nh sau:
Q = W + L
n12
(3-1)
q = w + l
n12
(3-2)
b. Phng tnh nh lut nhit ng I i vi h kn v h
v i vi h kn:
Theo cc biu thc (2-38) v (2-56) ta c:
w
k
= u v l
n12
= l
12

Thay vo (3-2) ta c:
q = u + l
12
dq = du + vdp (3-3)
Ta bit h kn: i = u + pv nn u = i - pv v du = di - pdv - vdp
Thay vo (3-3) ta c: dq = di vdp = di + dl
kt
(3-4)
v i vi h h:
Theo (2-40) ta c:
w
h
= i +
2
2

+ g.h (3-5)
Thay vo (3-2) ta c:
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33
q = i +
2
2

+ g.h + l
n12

Mt khc kt hp (2-57): l
kt12
= l
n12
+
2
2

+ g.h
Do : q = i + l
kt12
(3-6)
dq = di + dl
kt
(3-7)
Nu by gi ta thay i = u + pv hay di = du + pdv + vdp vo (3-7) ta li c biu thc:
dq = du + pdv + vdp - vdp = du + pdv
dq = du + dl
kt
(3-8)
Khi thay cc quan h du = C
v
dT; di = C
p
dT vo (3-3) v (3-4) ta c dng phng trnh
nh lut nhit ng I dng cho c h kn v h h ca kh l tng.
dq = C
v
dT + pdv (3-9)
dq = C
p
dT - vdp (3-10)
c. Phng trnh nh lut nhit ng I cho dng kh hoc hi chuyn ng
Dng kh chuyn ng trong cc ng dn l mt h h khi khng thc hin cng ngoi
vi mi trng (l
n12
= 0). T phng trnh nh lut nhit ng I theo (3-2) ta c:
q = w = i +
2
2

+ g.h
y: h = h
2
- h
1
l hiu s gia chiu cao so vi mt t ca on ng khi ra v khi
vo ca dng kh. V h thng l nh cho nn bin i th nng gh cng c gi tr rt nh
so vi bin i ng nng v entanpi v thng c b qua gh 0. Vy phng trnh nh
lut nhit ng I cho dng kh s l:
q = w = i +
2
2

(3-11)
dq = di +
2
2
d
_

,
(3-12)
d. Phng trnh nh lut nhit ng I i vi cc qu trnh hn hp
Khi hn hp cc cht kh khng thc hin cng i vi mi trng (l
n
= 0) v gi thit
rng khng trao i nhit vi mi trng (dq = 0). Vy t dng tng qut ca phng trnh
nh lut nhit ng I ta c:
W = 0 ; W
h1
= W
h2
= const (3-13)
y:
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34
W
h1
- nng lng ton phn ca h trc khi xy ra qu trnh hn hp;
W
h2
- nng lng ton phn ca h sau khi xy ra qu trnh hn hp.
3.2. Qu trnh hn hp ca kh
3.2.1. Hn hp trong th tch cho
Gi s cho mt bnh kn vi th tch V bn trong c mt vch ngn N (hnh 3.1). Pha
tri vch ngn c cha cht kh 1 c (p
1
, V
1
, T
1
); bn phi vch ngn cha kh 2 c ( p
2
, V
2
,
T
2
). Khi b vch ngn, hai cht kh s hn hp vo nhau. y cn xc nh nhit T, p
sut p ca hn hp khi bit th tch V ca hn hp.
Theo tnh cht ca hn hp kh ta c:
V = V
1
+ V
2

G = G
1
+ G
2


y:
G - khi lng ca hn hp kh;
G
1
, G
2
- khi lng ca kh thnh phn.
H nhit ng trc khi xy ra qu trnh hn hp gm cht kh 1 v cht kh 2 trong bnh l
h kn, nng lng ton phn ca h c biu th bng ni nng: W
h1
= U
1
+ U
2

H nhit ng sau khi xy ra qu trnh hn hp l hn hp kh cng trong bnh, nng
lng ton phn ca h l ni nng ca n: W
2
= U
Theo nh lut nhit ng I cho cc qu trnh hn hp ta c:
W
h1
= W
h2
U = U
1
+ U
2
(3-14)
i vi kh l tng, nu quy c ni nng ca kh 0C bng khng th ni nng
nhit T
i
no s l u
i
= C
vi
T
i
. Vy t (3-14) ta c:
GC
v
T = G
1
C
v1
T
1
+ G
2
C
v2
T
2


1 1 1 2 2 2
+

v v
v
GC T G C T
T
GC
=
1 1 1 2 2 2 v v
v
g C T g C T
C
+

Theo cng thc (2-14) C
v
= g
i
C
vi
, vy ta c:
T =
1 1 1 2 2 2 v v
v
g C T g C T
C
+
=
1 1 1 2 2 2
1 1 2 2
+
+
v v
v v
g C T g C T
g C g C

Tng qut i vi hn hp ca n cht kh l tng, ta c:
Hnh 3-1. Hn hp trong th tch cho
N
p
1
V
1

T
1
p
2
V
2

T
2
p
V
T
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35

1
1

n
i vi i
i
n
i vi
i
g C T
T
g C
(3-15)
Khi bit th tch hn hp V v nhit T tnh theo (3-15) ta c th xc nh c
p sut p ca hn hp kh l tng t phng trnh trng thi:

GRT
p
V
;
i i
R g R =
i
G
G

R
i
, vy GR =
i i
G R


Ta c:
p =
T
V
(G
1
R
1
+ G
2
R
2
) v p =
T
V
(
1 1
1
pV
T
+
2 2
2
p V
T
)
Tng qut i vi hn hp n kh l tng ta c:
p =
T
V
1
n
i i
i
i
pV
T

(3-16)
3.2.2. Hn hp theo dng
Hn hp theo dng c to thnh khi ta ni ng dn cc dng kh thnh phn vo
mt ng chung.
H nhit ng trc khi xy ra qu trnh hn hp gm cc dng kh 1 v dng kh 2 l h h,
nng lng ton phn ca h c biu th bng entanpi (b qua ng nng v th nng ca
dng kh). Lc ny ta c: W
h1
= I
1
+ I
2
H nhit ng sau khi xy ra qu trnh hn hp l dng kh hn hp (h h), nng
lng ton phn cng c biu th bng entanpi
W
h2
= I
T phng trnh nh lut nhit ng I cho qu trnh hn
hp ta c:
W
h1
= W
h2
v I = I
1
+ I
2

G.i = G
1
.i
1
+ G
2
.i
2
v i = g
1
.i
1
+ g
2
i
2

Tng qut, khi c n dng kh hn hp ta c:

n
1 i
i i
i g i (3-17)
i vi kh l tng, khi quy c entanpi 0K bng khng (3-17) ta c:
C
p
T =

n
i
i pi i
T C g
1
(3-18)
Hnh 3-2. Hn hp theo dng

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36

pi i
n
1 i
i pi i
C g
T C g
T (3-19)
Khi bit p sut v nhit tnh theo (3-19) ta c th tnh c th tch khi s dng
phng trnh trng thi ca kh l tng i vi hn hp:
pV = GRT
V =
p
T
GR =
i i
R G
p
T
=

i
i i
T
V p
p
T
(3-20)
v Vi kh thc (v d hi nc) ta c th gii bi ton bng th i-s:
Thc t l qu trnh hn hp l qu trnh khng thun nghch, nhng khi gi thit qu
trnh hn hp on nhit l thun nghch th biu thc bin i entropi s bng khng: S = 0
hay S
h1
= S
h2

S = S
1
+ S
2
G.s = G
1
.s
1
+ G
2
.s
2
v s = g
1
.s
1
+ g
2
.s
2

Tng qut ta c:

n
1 i
i i
s g s (3-21)
Vy l nu gi thit qu trnh hn hp on nhit l thun nghch th trng thi hn
hp trn th i-s (hnh 3-3) tha mn cc ng thc (3-19) v (3-21) . Ta thy trng thi hn
hp 3 phi nm trn ng hn hp 1-2 v c chia theo t l nghch vi g
1
v g
2
. Ngha l
on 1-3 v 3-2 phi tha mn:

2 3
3 1

=
1
2
g
g

Khi bit im 3 l trng thi ca hn hp, t
th i-s ta d dng xc nh c nhit , th tch
ring v p sut ca hn hp.
Chng minh im hn hp 3 tha mn (3-17) v (3-
21):
Tht vy, hai tam gic vung 1b3 v 3a2 ng dng
vi nhau nn ta c:

3
2
b
a
=
1 3
3 2

hay
1 3
3 2
s s
s s

=
2
1
g
g

T : g
1
(s
3
s
1
) = g
2
(s
2
s
3
)
(g
1
+ g
2
)s
3
= g
1
s
1
+ g
2
s
2
3
g
2
b
a
g
1
2
1
i
2
i
3
i
1
i
s
s
2
s
3 s
1
Hnh 3-3. th i-s qu trnh hn hp
theo dng
theo dng
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37

s
3
= g
1
s
1
+ g
2
s
2
; tha mn (3-21)
Cng t hai tam gic ng dng trn ta c:

1 3
3 2

=
1
3
b
a
hay
2
1
g
g
=
1 3
3 2
i i
i i


T ta cng tm c:
i
3
= g
1
i
1
+ g
2
i
2
; tha mn (3-17)
3.2.3. Hn hp khi np vo th tch c nh

Gi s ta c mt bnh th tch V trong c cha sn mt cht kh c khi lng G
1

p sut p
1
v nhit T
1
(hnh 3-4). By gi qua ng ng dn ta np thm vo bnh dng
kh c khi lng G
i
, p sut p
i
(p
i
> p
1
) v nhit T
i
. Lc ny trong bnh xy ra qu trnh
hn hp, ta cn xc nh nhit T v p sut p ca hn hp.
H nhit ng trc khi xy ra qu trnh hn hp gm khi kh c trong bnh (h kn)
v dng kh np thm vo (h h). Vy nng lng ton phn ca h trc khi xy ra qu qu
trnh hn hp l:
W
h1
= U
1
+ I
i

Sau khi hn hp, hn hp kh trong bnh l h kn vi
nng lng ton phn l ni nng U. Vy ta c:
W
h2
= U
T phng trnh nh lut nhit ng I cho
qu trnh hn hp ta c:
W
h1
= W
h2
v U = U
1
+ I
i
Gu = G
1
u
1
+ G
i
i
i
v u = g
1
u
1
+ g
i
i
i

Tng qut, khi np vo bnh t 2 n n+1 dng kh ta c:
u = g
1
u
1
+

1
2
n
i
i pi i
T C g (3-22)
Mt khc C
v
=
vi i
C g
Vy ta c:

Vi i
1 n
2 i
i pi i 1 1 v 1
C g
T C g T C g
T (3-23)
Khi bit nhit T v th tch V, ta c th tm c p sut p ca hn hp kh l
tng t phng trnh trng thi:
pV = GRT
P
1
G
1

T
1
p
i
G
i
T
i
p
T
V
Hnh 3-4. Hn hp khi np vo th tch
c nh
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38
p =
V
T
GR =
i i
R G
V
T
=

i
i i
T
V p
V
T
(3-24)
3.3. Cc qu trnh nhit ng c bn ca kh l tng
3.3.1. Khi nim qu trnh nhit ng
Qu trnh nhit ng l qu trnh bin i lin tc ca cc thng s trng thi t trng
thi cn bng ny sang mt trng thi cn bng khc theo mt qu trnh no .
3.3.2. Cc gi thit khi nghin cu qu trnh nhit ng
- Mi cht l 1 kg kh l tng
- Qu trnh l qu trnh thun nghch: l nhng qu trnh ch gm nhng trng thi
cn bng, khi tin hnh theo chiu thun v tin hnh ngc tr li th h v mi
trng l khng i.
+ Qu trnh thun nghch l qu trnh trong mi cht bin i qua cc trng thi u
l cc trng thi cn bng.
+ Trng thi cn bng l trng thi trong cc thng s trng thi ca h thng phn
b ng u trong ton b h thng v cn bng vi mi trng.
3.3.3. Xt qu trnh tng qut a bin
Qu trnh a bin l mt qu trnh tng qut ca kh l tng, trng thi thay i theo
mt quy lut bt k.
Phng trnh biu din qu trnh a bin:
Da vo biu thc ca nh lut nhit ng I
q = C
v
.dT + p.dv
q = C
p
.dT - v.dp
Gi s nhit dung ring ca qu trnh a bin l C
n
ta c: q = C
n
dT (3-25)
Ta c:
C
n
dT = C
v
.dT + p.dv
C
n
dT. = C
p
.dT - v.dp
(C
n
- C
p
).dT = - v.dp
(C
n
- C
v
).dT = p.dv
Chia phng trnh trn cho phng trnh di ta c:

pdv
vdp
C C
C C
v n
p n

(3-26)
t:
v n
p n
C C
C C
n

(3-27)
Ta c: npdv+vdp=0; y l phng trnh vi phn biu din mi quan h gia cc thng s
trong qu trnh a bin. Gii phng trnh vi phn ny ta c phng trnh biu din qu trnh
a bin.
gii phng trnh trn ta tin hnh phn ly bin s ta c: 0
p
dp
v
dv
n +
Tch phn hai v, rt gn:
pv
n
= const ; n c gi l s m a bin (3-28)
T biu thc s m a bin n ta c th xc nh c nhit dung ring ca qu trnh a bin:
1 n
k n
C C
v n


ng vi mi gi tr ca n ta c mt qu trnh nhit ng c th v tm c biu thc
nhit dung ring ca qu trnh .
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39
Quan h gia cc thng s ca qu trnh suy ra t phng trnh ca qu trnh nh sau:

1
2
p
p
=
n
2
1
v
v

,
_

;
1
2
v
v
=
n
1
2
1
p
p

,
_

(3-29)
tm quan h gia nhit v p sut hoc th tch, ta s dng phng trnh trng
thi: p
1
v
1
= RT
1
v p
2
v
2
= RT
2
, suy ra

1
2
T
T
=
1
2
p
p
.
1
2
v
v
=
1
2
p
p
.
n
1
2
1
p
p

,
_


Vy

1
2
T
T
=
n
1 n
1
2
p
p

,
_

=
1 n
2
1
v
v

,
_

(3-30)
Cng thay i th tch ca qu trnh a bin c th tm t quan h dl = pdv khi rt pv
n

= p
1
v
1
th vo ly tch phn t v
1
n v
2
, qua bin i cui cng ta c:
l
12
=

2
1
v
v
n
n
1 1
dv
v
v p
= p
1
v
1
n dv v
2
1
v
v
n



=
1 n
v p
n
1 1

(v
1
1-n
v
2
1-n
) =
1 n
v p
1 1

( 1-
n 1
1
2
v
v

,
_

)
l
12
=
1 n
pv
1

(1
1 n
2
1
v
v

,
_

) =
1 n
pv
1

(1
n
1 n
1
2
p
p

,
_

)
Cng k thut ca qu trnh a bin:
dl
kt
= ndl
l
kt12
=
1 n
v p
n
1 1

(1
n
1 n
1
2
p
p

,
_

)
Nhit dung ring ca qu trnh a bin C
n
c th tm c:
C
n
= C
v
.
1 n
k n

(3-31)
Lng nhit trao i vi mi trng trong qu trnh a bin:
dq = C
n
dT hay q = C
n
(T
2
T
1
) (3-32)
hoc
q = u + l
12
v q = i + l
kt12

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40
bin thin entrpi ca qu trnh a bin s l:
ds =
T
dq
=
T
dT C
n
, suy ra s = s
2
s
1
= C
n
ln
1
2
T
T
(3-33)
3.3.4. Mt s qu trnh nhit ng c bn
a. Qu trnh ng p
Khi nim :
Qu trnh ng p l qu trnh nhit ng c tin hnh trong iu kin p sut
khng i.
p = const
T phng trnh p.v
n
= const, vi n = 0 ta c p = const. Vy vi n = 0 ta c qu trnh ng p.
Quan h gia cc thng s :
p dng phng trnh trng thi: pv = RT
Trng thi 1: p
1
.v
1
= R.T
1
Trng thi 2: p
2
.v
2
= R.T
2

Vi p
1
= p
2
= const chia hai phng trnh cho nhau ta c:
1
2
1
2
v
v
T
T
(3-34)
(Trong qu trnh ng p th tch t l thun vi nhit T)

Biu din qu trnh trn th p-v v T-s:















c ng ng p trn th T-s ta cng phi v tng im mt theo cc hm
T =f(s)
p=const
. ng ng p l tp hp nhng ng cong lgarit c b li quay v pha trc
honh, ng biu din cng xa trc tung c tr s cng nh: p
a
> p
b
> p
c
.
Xc nh bin thin ni nng, cng, nhit lng ca qu trnh:
+ bin thin ni nng:
Vi mi qu trnh ta c: du = C
v
dT
Vi qu trnh 1-2: u = C
v
T = C
v
(T
2
- T
1
) = C
v
(t
2
- t
1
); [kJ/kg] (3-35)
+ Cng ca qu trnh:
- Cng thay i th tch ca qu trnh:
2
1
p

p
1
= p
2

v
1
v
2
v
T




T
2

T
1
s
1
s
2
s
l
gn
1
2
Hnh 3-5
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41

2
1
gn
dv . p l ; [J/kg] = 10
-3
.p(v
2
- v
1
); [kJ/kg] (3-36)
- Cng k thut ca qu trnh:
0 dp . v l
2
1
kt

(3-37)
+ Nhit lng ca qu trnh; qu trnh ng p c nhit dung ring l C
p
cho nn ta c:
q = C
p
dT v q = C
p
t = C
p
T = C
p
(T
2
- T
1
) = C
p
(t
2
- t
1
); [kJ/kg].
p dng nh lut nhit ng 1:
q = u + l
gn
= C
v
T + p(v
2
- v
1
) suy ra C
p
T = C
v
T + R.T (3-38)
Ta suy ra: C
p
= C
v
+ R ; C
p
- C
v
= R ; y chnh l cng thc Mayer .
Nh vy, p dng nh lut nhit ng 1 vo qu trnh ng p ta chng minh c cng
thc Mayer.
b. Qu trnh ng tch
Khi nim :
Qu trnh ng tch l qu trnh nhit ng c tin hnh trong iu kin th tch
khng i : v = const.
Vi n = ta c qu trnh ng tch.
p dng phng trnh trng thi: pv = RT
Vi trng thi 1: p
1
.v
1
= R.T
1
Vi trng thi 2: p
2
.v
2
= R.T
2

Vi v
1
= v
2
= const chia hai phng trnh cho nhau ta c:
1
2
1
2
p
p
T
T
(3-39)
(Trong qu trnh ng tch p sut t l thun vi nhit T)
Biu din qu trnh trn th p-v v T-s :
Ta xt qu trnh 1-2













Trn th p-v ng v = const l tp hp cc ng thng song song vi trc tung.
T th ta thy ngay cng thay i th tch l
gn
= 0. biu din ng v = const trn th
T-s ngi ta phi v tng im theo cc hm T = f(s)
v=const
. c im v = const trn th T-s l
ng cong logarit c dc cao, quay b li v pha trc honh, ng biu din cng xa trc
tung c gi tr cng ln; v
a
< v
b
< v
c
.
Xc nh bin thin ni nng, cng, nhit lng ca qu trnh :
+ bin thin ni nng; vi mi qu trnh ta c: du = C
v
dT
Hnh 3-6
v
1
= v
2
v
2
1
s
2
s
1
s
1
2
l
kt
q
p
p
1
p
2
T

T
1
T
2
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42
Vi qu trnh 1-2: u = C
v
T = C
v
(T
2
- T
1
) = C
v
(t
2
- t
1
); [kJ/kg] (3-40)
+ Cng ca qu trnh:
- Cng thay i th tch ca qu trnh:


2
1
gn
0 dv . p l (v qu trnh v = const c dv = 0) (3-41)
- Cng k thut ca qu trnh:
) p p ( v dp . v l
1 2
2
1
kt

; [J/kg] (3-42)
+ Nhit lng ca qu trnh; qu trnh ng tch c nhit dung ring l C
v
cho nn ta c:
q = C
v
dT v q = C
v
(T
2
- T
1
) = C
v
(t
2
- t
1
); [kJ/kg] (3-43)
Mt khc theo nh lut nhit ng 1: q = u + l
gn
= u = C
v
(T
2
- T
1
) (3-44)
+ Nhn xt: Trong qu trnh ng tch nhit lng ca qu trnh hon ton dng thay i
ni nng.
c. Qu trnh ng nhit
Khi nim:
Qu trnh ng nhit l qu trnh nhit ng c tin hnh trong iu kin nhit
khng i: T=const.
p dng phng trnh trng thi: pv = RT
Trng thi 1: p
1
.v
1
= R.T
1
Trng thi 2: p
2
.v
2
= R.T
2
Trng thi n: p
n
.v
n
= R.T
n

V T
1
= T
2
= ... =T
n
cho nn p
1
.v
1
= p
2
.v
2
= = p
n
.v
n
= const. Vy phng trnh biu
din qu trnh ng nhit l: pv = const.
(T phng trnh pv
n
= const vi n = 1 ta c qu trnh ng nhit)
Quan h gia cc thng s :
T phng trnh pv = const ta c: p
1
.v
1
= p
2
.v
2
suy ra
2
1
p
2
v
v
p
p
; (3-45)
(Vy trong qu trnh ng nhit p sut v th tch t l nghch vi nhau).
Biu din qu trnh trn th p -v v T s :












Trn th p-v ng T=const c biu din bng ng cong hypecbol i xng. Trn
th T-s ng T=const l ng thng song song vi trc honh.
Xc nh bin thin ni nng, cng, nhit lng ca qu trnh :
+ bin thin ni nng; vi mi qu trnh ta c: du = C
v
dT

p

p
1





p
2
T
1
= T
2

T

s
1
s
2
s
v
1
v
2
v
2 1
1
2
Hnh 3-7
l
gn
q

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43
Vi qu trnh ng nhit 1-2 ca kh l tng: u = 0
+ Cng ca qu trnh:
- Cng thay i th tch ca qu trnh:

2
1
gn
dv . p l ; [J/kg].
Trong qu trnh ng nhit p lun thay i.
T cng thc pv = const ta c pv = p
1
v
1
suy ra
v
v p
p
1 1
.
Thay tr s p vo biu thc xc nh cng ta c:
2
1
1
2
2
1
2
1
1 1 gn
p
p
ln RT
v
v
ln RT
v
dv
. v p dv . p l

; [J/kg] (3-46)
(Trong qu trnh ng nhit ta c th thay
2
1
p
2
v
v
p
p
)
- Cng k thut ca qu trnh: Trong qu trnh ng nhit p
1
v
1
= p
2
v
2
ngha l cng lu ng
bng khng cho nn cng k thut bng cng thay i th tch.
+ Nhit lng ca qu trnh:
Theo nh lut nhit ng 1 ta c: q = u + l
gn

Vi kh l tng khi T = const th u = 0.
V vy:
2
1
1
2
2
1
2
1
1 1 gn kt 12
p
p
ln RT
v
v
ln RT
v
dv
. v p dv . p l l q

;[J/kg]. (3-47)
Mt khc ta c
T
q
ds cho nn q = Tds.
Vy: q = T.s = T.(s
2
- s
1
); [kJ/kg] (3-48)
d. Qu trnh on nhit
Khi nim:
Qu trnh on nhit l qu trnh thay i trng thi mt cch lin tc trong iu kin
khng trao i nhit vi mi trng.
q = 0 th q = 0; q=C
n
dT = 0 dn n C
n
=0.
Ta cng c: q=Tds =0 nn ds =0 v s = const.
Qu trnh on nhit c entropi khng i.
xy dng phng trnh biu din qu trnh on nhit ta da vo nh lut nhit
ng 1:
q = C
v
.dT + p.dv
q = C
p
.dT - v.dp
V qu trnh on nhit c q = 0 cho nn ta c:
C
v
.dT + p.dv = 0
C
p
.dT - v.dp = 0
C
v
.dT = - p.dv (a)
C
p
.dT = v.dp (b)
Chia (b) cho (a) ta c
dv
dp
.
p
v
C
C
v
p
cho nn ta c: 0
dv
dp
.
p
v
k +
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44
Gii phng trnh vi phn trn ta c: lnv
k
+ lnp = const
lnpv
k
= const; pv
k
= const; k - s m ca v trong qu trnh on nhit cho nn
n c gi l s m on nhit.
Vy ta c phng trnh biu din qu trnh on nhit: pv
k
= const
Quan h gia cc thng s:
+ p = f(v); T pv
k
= const ta suy ra
k
2 2
k
1 1
v p v p ;
k
2
1
1
2
v
v
p
p

,
_

; (3-49)
+ T = f(v);
p dng phng trnh trng thi ta c:
Vi trng thi 1: p
1
.v
1
= R.T
1
Vi trng thi 2: p
2
.v
2
= R.T
2

Chia phng trnh di cho phng trnh trn ta c:

1
2
1
2
1
2
v
v
.
p
p
T
T
(*)
Thay tr s ca
1
2
p
p
t (2-39) vo (*) ta c:
1 k
2
1
1
2
k
2
1
1
2
v
v
v
v
.
v
v
T
T

,
_

,
_

; (3-50)
+ T = f(p);
Thay tr s ca
1
2
v
v
t (3-49) vo (*) ta c:
k
1 k
1
2
k
1
2
1
1
2
1
2
p
p
p
p
.
p
p
T
T

,
_

,
_

; (3-51)
Biu din qu trnh trn th p-v v T-s:
Nhn xt
V k > 1 cho nn ng on nhit trn th p - v l ng hybecbol dc hn ng ng
nhit.
T cng thc
T
q
ds , vi qu trnh on nhit q = 0 suy ra ds = 0 v s = const nn ng
on nhit trn th T - s l ng thng song song vi trc tung.















Xc nh bin thin ni nng, cng, nhit lng ca qu trnh:
+ bin thin ni nng; vi mi qu trnh ta c: du = C
v
dT
s
1
=

s
2
s
1
2

T
1




T
2

T

2
s
2
T
1

v
1
v
2
v
p


p
1




p
2
T=const
T=const
Hnh 3-8
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45
Vi qu trnh 1-2: u = C
v
T = C
v
(T
2
- T
1
) = C
v
(t
2
- t
1
) ; [kJ/kg] (3-52)
+ Cng ca qu trnh:
V qu trnh on nhit c q = 0, theo nh lut nhit ng 1 ta c:
u + l
gn
= 0 ; l
gn
= - u = C
v
(T
1
- T
2
); [kJ/kg]. (3-53)
Mt khc ta c th xc nh cng ca qu trnh theo cng thc:



2
1
2
1
k
k
1 1 gn
v
dv
. v . p dv . p l ; [J/kg] (V pv
k
= const ; p
1
v
1
k
= pv
k
) (3-54)
Tch phn v rt gn ta c:
) T T (
1 k
R
) v p v p (
1 k
1
l
2 1 2 2 1 1 gn

; [J/kg] (3-55)
+ Nhit lng tham gia vo qu trnh:
q = u + l
gn
= 0
l
gn
= - u= - C
v
(T
2
- T
1
)
Xc nh bin thin entrpi ca cc qu trnh nhit ng c bn :
Cng thc chung:
T
q
ds (3-56)
Theo phng php tng qut
Ta da vo nh lut nhit ng 1 cho kh l tng:
q = C
v
dT + pdv
q = C
p
dT - vdp
Ta c:
T
pdv
T
dT
C ds
v
+
Theo phng trnh trng thi pv = RT cho nn:
v
R
T
p

Vy:
v
Rdv
T
dT
C ds
v
+ (3-57)
1
2
1
2
v
v
v
ln R
T
T
ln C s + (3-58)
Hoc:
T
vdp
T
dT
C ds
p
(3-59)

Theo phng trnh trng thi pv = RT cho nn:
p
R
T
v

Vy:
p
Rdp
T
dT
C ds
p
(3-60)

1
2
1
2
p
p
p
ln R
T
T
ln C s (3-61)


Theo tng qu trnh c th
- Vi qu trnh v = const: q = C
v
dT ;
T
dT
C ds
v
;
1
2
v
T
T
ln C s (3-62)
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46
- Vi qu trnh p = const: q = C
p
dT ;
T
dT
C ds
p
;
1
2
p
T
T
ln C s (3-63)
- Vi qu trnh T = const:
T
dq
ds ;
T
q
s (3-64)
- Vi qu trnh on nhit: q = 0 ; ds = 0 ; s = const. (3-65)
Nhn xt chung cho cc qu trnh:
T phng trnh tng qut ca qu trnh a bin v biu thc NDR (nhit dung ring)
1 n
k n
C C
v n

ta thy rng nhng qu trnh ng tch, ng p, ng nhit, on nhit l


nhng trng hp ring ca qu trnh a bin.
+ Nu n =0, phng trnh pv
n
= const c dng p = const, NDR C
n
= kC
v
= C
p
; y l qu trnh
ng p.
+ Nu n = t ta c th bin i nh sau: ly cn bc n hai v phng trnh pv
n
= const ta c
p
1/n
v=const nn khi n = t th v = const, biu thc NDR khi c C
n
= C
v
; qu trnh a bin
s l qu trnh ng tch.
+ Nu n = 1 th phng trnh pv
n
= const thnh pv = const NDR C
n
= =C
T
; l qu trnh
ng nhit.
+ Nu n = k th pv
k
= const, NDR s l C
n
= C
k
= 0; l qu trnh on nhit.
Ta biu din mt qu trnh a bin bt k trn th p-v v T-s ; c biu din bng cc
ng i t im A ra mi pha (Hnh 3-9). y, ta biu din cc trng hp ring ca qu
trnh a bin l cc qu trnh ng p, ng tch, ng nhit, on nhit.
Chng ta xem du ca cng thay i th tch, nhit lng v bin i ni nng ca qu trnh
a bin bt k nh sau:
- Ly ng ng tch n = t; l
gn
= 0 lm ranh gii, mi qu trnh a bin i t im A
hng v pha phi ng ng tch c cng thay i th tch l
gn
> 0 v v > 0. Ngc li mi
qu trnh a bin xut pht t im A hng v pha tri ng ng tch c l
gn
< 0 v v < 0.













- Ly ng on nhit n =k, q=0 lm ranh gii, mi qu trnh a bin t im A i v bn phi
ng on nhit c q > 0 (mi cht nhn nhit) do s >0. Ngc li mi qu trnh xut pht t
im A i v pha tri ng on nhit c q < 0 (mi cht thi nhit) do s <0.
- Ly ng ng nhit n =1, u=0 lm ranh gii, mi qu trnh a bin t im A i v pha
phi ng ng nhit trn th p-v v i ln pha trn ng ng nhit trn th T-s s
c u > 0 v T> 0; vi qu trnh a bin c chiu ngc li s c u< 0 v T< 0.

n=1
p
v
n=0
A
n=+ n=-
n=k
n=k
n=0
n=- n=+
n=1 A
n=0
n=k
n=1
n=1
n=k

n=+
T
s
Hnh 3-9
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3.4. Cc qu trnh nhit ng ca kh thc
Cc qu trnh nhit ng c bn (gi thit l thun nghch) xy ra i vi kh thc bao
gm cc qu trnh: ng tch, ng nhit, ng p v on nhit.
Tnh ton cc qu trnh nhit ng c ngha l phi xc nh cc thng s trng thi
u v cui ca qu trnh, xc nh cng, lng nhit, s thay i ni nng, s thay i
entanpi v entrpi. Vic tnh ton ch yu l s dng bng, hoc th ca tng mi cht (
th i-s, lgp-i...) v phng trnh nh lut nhit ng I cho kh thc. Trng thi u ca qu
trnh c xc nh bng hai thng s cho, trng thi cui ca qu trnh c xc nh
bng mt thng s cho ca trng thi cui v tnh cht ca qu trnh: nh qu trnh ng
tch, ng p...
3.4.1. Xc nh bin i entanpi, entrpi v ni nng
Trong cc qu trnh nhit ng c bn k trn, bin i entanpi, ni nng v entrpi
c xc nh nh sau:
i = i
2
i
1
(3-66)
u = u
2
u
1
= (i
2
p
2
v
2
) (i
1
p
1
v
1
) (3-67)
s = s
2
s
1
(3-68)
Cn lu rng i vi qu trnh ng nhit ca kh thc u 0, i 0 ch khng
phi bng khng nh i vi kh l tng. i vi kh thc cc qu trnh xy ra bao gi cng
l cc qu trnh khng thun nghch. Nhng vy, y ta gi thit cc qu trnh ny l thun
nghch nn qu trnh on nhit l thun nghch ca kh thc s c
T
dq
ds = 0 hay s = 0;
s = const. y qu trnh on nhit thun nghch cn gi l qu trnh ng entrpi.
Di y chng ta s nghin cu cc qu trnh xy ra i vi hi nc, vi hi ca
cc cht lng khc s hon ton tng t
3.4.2. Qu trnh ng tch
Hnh 3.10 biu din qu trnh ng tch ca hi nc trn th i-s . y trng thi
u c xc nh (im 1) khi bit p
1
v nhit t
1
. Trng thi cui c xc nh (im 2)
khi bit p sut p
2
v ng c tnh ca qu trnh ng tch v
2
= v
1
. T im 1 v im 2 ta
c th xc nh c cc thng s cn li.
Cng thay i th tch ca qu trnh ng tch
l
12
=

2
1
v
v
pdv = 0 (3-69)
Cng k thut ca qu trnh ng tch:
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48
l
kt12
=

2
1
p
p
vdp = v(p
1
p
2
) (3-70)
Nhit ca qu trnh ng tch:
q = u + l
12
= u = u
2
u
1
(3-71)
xc nh cc thng s trng thi u v cui ca qu trnh bng cch dng bng s
ta lm nh sau:
Khi bit trng thi u l hi qu nhit (t
1
> t(p
s
)) t bng nc v hi qu nhit theo
p
1
, t
1
tra c v
1
, i
1
v s
1
. Nu trng thi cui l hi bo ha m th trc tin ta phi xc nh
kh x
2
t phng trnh:
v
1
= v
2
= v
2
+ x
2
(v
2
v
2
)
x
2
=
'
2
"
2
'
2 1
v v
v v

(3-72)
Khi bit x
2
ta c th xc nh c cc thng s cn li ca trng thi cui.
i
2x
= i
2
+ x
2
(i
2
i
2
) (3-73)
s
2x
= s
2
+ x
2
(s
2
s
2
) (3-74)
y v
2
, v
2
, i
2
, i
2
tra bng nc v hi nc bo ha theo p sut p
2










3.4.3. Qu trnh ng p
Hnh 3.11 biu din qu trnh ng p ca hi nc trn th i-s trng thi u c
xc nh khi bit p sut p
1
v nhit t
1
. Trng thi cui c xc nh khi bit v
2
v ng
c tnh ca qu trnh p
2
= p
1
. T cc im 1 v 2 xc nh, ta c th tm c tt c cc
thng s tng ng cn li.
Cng thay i th tch ca qu trnh:
l
12
=

2
1
v
v
pdv = p(v
2
v
1
) (3-75)
Cng k thut ca qu trnh ng p:
P
1
t
1
x = 1
P
2
i
s
x
2
1
2
v = const
i
s
x = 1
P
1
t
1
1
2
x
2
P = const

v
2
Hnh 3-10. th i-s qu trnh ng tch Hnh 3-11. th i-s qu trnh ng p
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49
l
kt12
=

2
1
p
p
vdp = 0 (3-76)
Nhit ca qu trnh ng p:
q = i + l
kt12
= i = i
2
i
1
(3-77)
xc nh cc thng s trng thi u v cui ca qu trnh bng cch dng bng s
ta lm nh sau:
Khi bit trng thi u l hi qu nhit (t
1
> t(p
s
)) t bng nc v hi qu nhit theo
p
1
, t
1
tra c v
1
, i
1
v s
1
. Nu trng thi cui l hi bo ha m th trc tin ta phi xc nh
kh x
2
t phng trnh:
v
2
= v
2x
= v
2
+ x
2
(v
2
v
2
)
x
2
=
'
2
"
2
'
2 2
v v
v v

(3-78)
Khi bit x
2
ta c th xc nh c cc thng s cn li ca trng thi cui.
i
2x
= i
2
+ x
2
(i
2
i
2
) (3-79)
s
2x
= s
2
+ x
2
(s
2
s
2
) (3-80)
y v
2
, v
2
, i
2
, i
2
tra bng nc v hi nc bo ha theo p sut p
2
= p
1

3.4.3. Qu trnh ng nhit
Hnh 3.13 biu din qu trnh ng nhit ca hi nc trn thi i-s. y trng thi
u c xc nh khi bit kh x
1
v nhit t
1
. Trng thi cui c xc nh khi bit p
2

v c im ca qu trnh t
2
= t
1
. T cc im 1 v 2 ta xc nh c cc thng s cn li.
Nhit ca qu trnh:
q =

2
1
s
s
Tds = T(s
2
s
1
) (3-81)
Cng ca qu trnh suy ra t phng trnh nh lut nhit ng I
l
12
= q u
l
kt12
= q i (3-82)
xc nh cc thng s trng thi u v cui ca qu trnh bng cch dng bng s
ta da vo kh x
1

v
1
= v
1x
= v
1
+ x
1
(v
1
v
1
)
i
1
= i
1x
= i
1
+ x
1
(i
1
i
1
) (3-83)
s
1
= s
1x
= s
1
+ x
1
(s
1
s
1
)
y cc thng s v
1
, v
1
, i
1
, i
1
...c xc nh t bng nc v hi nc bo
ha theo nhit t
1
, khi bit trng thi 2 l hi qu nhit (t
2
> t
s
(p
s
)) t bng nc v hi qu
nhit theo t
2
v p
2
ta tra c v
2
, i
2
v s
2

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50















3.4.5. Qu trnh on nhit
Hnh 3.13 biu din qu trnh on nhit thun nghch (ng entropi) ca hi nc.
Trng thi u c xc khi bit p
1
v t
1
. Trng thi cui c xc nh khi bit p
2
v tnh
cht ca qu trnh s
1
= s
2
. T cc im 1 v 2 xc nh ta c th d dng tm c cc
thng s cn li.
Nhit ca qu trnh:
q = T.s = 0 (3-84)
Cng ca qu trnh suy ra t phng trnh nh lut nhit ng I
q = u + l
12
= 0
l
12
= - u = u
1
u
2
(3-85)
q = i + l
kt12
= 0
l
kt12
= i = i
2
i
2
(3-86)
Ta c th xc nh cc thng s ca trng thi u v cui bng cch dng bng s.
Khi bit trng thi u l hi qu nhit, t p
1
v t
1
tra bng nc cha si v hi qu nhit ta
c v
1
, i
1
v s
1
. Khi bit trng thi cui l hi bo ha m, ta xc nh kh x
2
t phng
trnh:
s
1
= s
2
= s
2
+ x
2
(s
2
s
1
)
x
2
=
'
2
"
2
"
2 1
s s
s s

(3-87)
y s
2
, s
2
tra bng nc v hi nc bo ha theo p sut p
2
, cc thng s cn
li v
2
, i
2
v s
2
tnh tng t.
x = 1
i
s
t
2
1
x
1
t
1
P
2
2
P
1
t
1
1
2
P
2
x
2
s s
1
= s
2
i
x = 1
Hnh 3-12. th i-s qu trnh ng nhit Hnh 3-13. th i-s qu trnh on nhit
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Chng 4
QU TRNH LU NG V TIT LU
Trong cc chng trc, ta nghin cu cc qu trnh c bn ca kh v hi ch hn
ch trong cc qu trnh thun nghch m khng xt n vn tc ca dng mi cht. Trong
chng ny ta s nghin cu hai qu trnh khc trong h thng h, c ch n s chuyn
ng v m ca dng mi cht; l qu trnh lu ng v tit lu, trong qu trnh tit lu
cn c xem l qu trnh khng thun nghch.
A. QU TRNH LU NG
4.1. Nhng khi nim c bn
Trong k thut, qu trnh lu ng c ng dng rt rng ri, nh khi nghin cu
dng mi cht trong qut, my nn, tuabin kh, tuabin hi, ng c phn lc, tn la, v.v
Trong qu trnh lu ng, vn tc v p sut mi cht thay i; qua ng tng tc, vn tc ca
dng mi cht tng, p sut gim; qua ng tng p, p sut ca mi cht tng, vn tc ca
dng mi cht gim.
4.1.1. Nhng gi thit khi nghin cu qu trnh lu ng
1. Gi thit u tin l lu lng khi lng ca dng mi cht qua mi tit din ca
ng dn u bng nhau v khng thay i theo thi gian; gi thit c biu th bng phng
lu ng v n nh:
G =
1
1 1
v
f
=
2
2 2
v
f
= =
v
f
= const (4-1)
hoc G =
1 1 1
f =
2 2 2
f = = f = const (4-1)
Trong :
G lu lng khi lng ca dng mi cht kg/s hoc kg/h;
1
f ;
2
f ; , f - din tch tit din ca dng ca
vo, ca ra hoc mt tit din bt k (m
2
);
1
,
2
, , - vn tc trung bnh ca dng mi
cht cc tit din tng ng (m/s);
1
v ,
2
v ,, v v
1
,
2
,, - th tch ring v khi
lng ring ca mi cht cc tit din tng ng;
m
3
/kg v kg/m
3
.




I
I
II
II


+d

Hnh 4-1. Lu ng lin tc v n nh

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52
Phng trnh trn c xy dng nh sau: lu lng mi cht vo tit din I l f , ra khi
tit din II l ) f (
x
f

+ dx.
Trong mt n v thi gian, khi lng mi cht gia hai tit din tng ln.
) f (
t

= f - [ f +
x

( f ) dx]
hoc:
x

( f ) + ) f (
t

= 0 (a)
Phng trnh (a) l phng trnh lin tc ca dng lu ng mt chiu.
Trong iu kin lu ng n nh th
t

= 0, nn ta c:
dx
d
( f ) = 0 (b)
V f = const (c)
Nn (c) hoc 4.1 (a); 4.1 (b) l phng trnh lu ng lin tc v n nh.
2. Gi thit th hai l vn tc trn mi im ca cng mt tit din u bng nhau v
bng vn tc trung bnh trong tit din . Thc ra, trn cng mt tit din, vn tc rt khc
nhau, st vch bng khng, tm ng vn tc thng l ln nht.
3. Gi thit th ba l mi cht lu ng trong iu kin on nhit thun nghch, ngha
l trong qu trnh lu ng khng c hin tng ma st, hin tng xoy, v.v v khng trao
i nhit vi mi trng xung quanh; nh vy trong qu trnh lu ng ds = 0; s = const v
trn cc th T s; i s c biu th bng mt on thng song song vi trc tung.
4.1.2 Tc truyn m v tr s Mach
Khi kho st qu trnh lu ng, ngi ta thng dng n tc truyn m a, cng
tc l tc lan truyn cc chn ng nh trong mi trng. Trng hp chung, theo kh
ng hc ta c:

p
a (4-2)
Vi qu trnh lu ng on nhit thun nghch ta c:

kp
a (4-2a)
hoc: kpv a (4-2b)
Vi kh l tng cn c th vit: kRT a (4-2c)
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53
y:
p p sut tuyt i
v v - khi lng ring v th tch ring
R - hng s cht kh
T - nhit tuyt i
k - s m on nhit
Nu ngun to cht ng nm trong dng mi cht chuyn ng vi vn tc , th tc
truyn m thanh theo dng mi cht l v ngc chiu dng mi cht l (a - ).
Hnh 4.2 biu th cc trng hp truynd m trong mi trng tnh v mi trng chuyn
ng ngc chiu truyn m sau khi m thanh pht ra 2 giy.
Hnh 4.2a biu th truyn chn ng trong mi trng tnh; 4.2b - truyn chn ng trong mi
trng chuyn ng vi vn tc di m;4.2c - truyn chn ng trong mi trng chuyn
ng vi vn tc truyn m; 4.2d - truyn chn ng trong mi trng chuyn ng vi vn
tc siu m.





T 4.2c v d ta thy: trong dng truyn tn ti vng yn lng xc nh bi hnh cn
Mach, ngha l khi dng chuyn ng vi vn tc ln hn hoc bng tc truyn m th
trong dng mi cht tn ti mt vng m s chn ng nh hoc m thanh khng th truyn
ti c.
T cc cng thc (4-2a, b v c) ta thy tc truyn m a ph thuc vo bn cht (k v R) v
thng s (p, V hoc T ) ca mi cht; i vi kh l tng ta thy khi nhit ca mi cht
gim th tc truyn m trong mi cht cng gim.
Khi kho st s chuyn ng ca dng mi cht, ngi ta cn dng mt i lng khc do
nh vt l Mach ngi o xut, l tr s Mach:
M =
a

(4-3)
Tr s Mach M l t s gia vn tc ca dng vi tc truyn m a trong mi trng .
Vi dng di m M < 1; vi dng siu m M > 1 v khi M = 1 th vn tc ca dng bng tc
truyn m thanh trong mi trng .

2 1
1.2
2 1
2.1
2
1
2
2
1
Vng ng
V

n
g

t

n
h

2
1
V

n
g

t

n
h

Vng ng
a
b c
d
Hnh 4-2. Truyn chn ng trong mi trng tnh v ng
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54
4.2. MT S CNG THC C BN
Di y gii thiu mt s cng thc c bn dng cho kh l tng cng nh kh thc khi lu
ng qua ng tng tc cng nh ng tng p.
4.2.1. Quan h gia s thay i vn tc vi s thay i p sut
So snh hai dng ca phng trnh nh lut nhit ng I:
dq = di vdp = di +
2
d
2


Ta c:
2
d
2

= - vdp hoc d = - vdp (4-4)


T cc cng thc (4-4) ta thy d v dp lun ngc du nhau, v v v lun lun dng c
ngha l trong dng mi cht lu ng, khi vn tc tng (trong ng tng tc) th p sut gim
v khi p sut tng (trong ng tng p) th vn tc ca dng gim. Cng lu l, khi qua ng
tng tc, khng nhng p sut m nhit ca mi cht cng gim, v lu ng c coi l
on nhit thun nghch, nn:
T
2
/T
1
= (p
2
/p
1
)
(k - 1)/k
; m khi nhit gim th theo 4.2c, tc truyn m trong cng
gim.
4.2.2. Quan h gia s thay i vn tc vi s thay i mt
T cng thc (4-4), nu thay v=

1
ta c:
d = -

dp

v c th vit: d =
d
dp
.

d
(a)
Thay a t cng thc (4-2) vo ta c:
d = -a
2

d
(b)
Thay tr s M vo th c;

d
= - M
2

d
(4-5)
T cng thc (4-5) c th rt ra kt lun:
1. d v dlun ngc du nhau; v M
2
, v lun lun dng, nh vy khi vn tc ca
dng tng (trong ng tng tc) th mt gim v ngc li.
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2. Trng hp tr s M rt nh, ngha l khi vn tc ca dng nh hn rt nhiu so vi tc
truyn m, th c th coi

d
= 0, ngha l coi mi cht l khng nn c.
4.2.3. Quan h gia s thay i vn tc vi s thay i tit din
Ta ly lgarit phng trnh lu ng lin tc v n nh ri vi phn, ta c:

d
+
f
df
+

d
= 0 (4-6a)
T ta c cc nhn xt:
1. Vi cht lng khng nn c, tc

d
= 0, ta c:
f
df
= -

d
(4-6b)
Nh vy l i vi cht lng khng nn c khi qua ng tit din gim dn th vn tc
ca dng tng ln v ngc li.
2. i vi cht lng nn c ta thay cng thc (4-5) vo (4-6a) c:
- M
2

d
+
f
df
+

d
= 0
hoc
f
df
= (M
2
- 1)

d
(4-6c)











2
< a
1
< a
ng tng tc

2
< a
1
< a
ng tng p

2
> a

1
> a
ng tng tc

2
> a
1
> a
ng tng p
Hnh 4-3. Hnh dng ng c dng di m
Hnh 4-4. Hnh dng ng c dng trn m
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56
Ta thy du ca df v d tu thuc vo du ca (M
2
- 1) v f v lun dng, do c th
rt ra mt s kt lun:
a. Trong phm vi M
2
1 < 0 tc M < 1 th df v d lun ngc du nhau, ging nh i
vi cht lng khng nn c. nh vy, i vi dng di m cng nh dng cht
lng khng nn c, ng tng tc c tit din nh dn v ng tng p c tit din ln
dn (Hnh 4.3a, b).
b. i vi dng siu m, M > 1 th c kt lun ngc li: df v d lun lun cng du,
ngha l ng tng tc c tit din ln dn v ng tng p c tit din nh dn (Hnh
4.3a, b).
c. Khi M = 1 th

d
l hu hn ch vi iu kin
f
df
= 0, cho nn vi ng tng tc a
t vn tc di m thanh thnh siu m th phi c c ng m mt bn c tit din
nh dn v bn kia c tit din ln dn. Khi ng tng tc lm vic bnh thng th vn
tc ca dng c ng bng tc d truyn m trong mi trng .
d. Ch nhn hnh dng ca ng khng kt lun l tng tc hay tng p m phi kt hp
xem vn tc ca dng khi vo ng l di m hay siu m.
4.2.4. Vn tc v lu lng ca dng
Vn tc v lu lng ca dng l hai i lng rt cn xc nh khi nghin cu qu trnh lu
ng trong ng tng tc hay tng p.
a. Vn tc ca dng
T cng thc (4-4) ta c: d
2
/2 = - vdp;
Ta cng c: l
kt
= - vdp
Do vy:
2
d
2

= l
kt
(4-7a)
Ly tch phn (4-7a) c:
2
2
-
2
1
= 2l
kt12
(4-7b)
T c :
2
=
2
1 12 kt
l 2 + (4-7c)
y:

1

- vn tc ca dng ca vo ca ng; m/s;

2
- vn tc ca dng ca ra m cng c th mt v tr bt k no ca ng; m/s;
l
kt12
- cng k thut ca mi cht trong qu trnh lu ng on nhit; J/kg.
Cc cng thc trn ng cho c ng tng tc v ng tng p.

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b. Lu lng ca dng
Theo iu kin lu ng lin tc v n nh th lu lng qua mi tit din u bng nhau
v bng mt s khng i, nn ch cn tnh lu lng qua mt tit din no m thy thun
li nht. Cng thc chung tnh lu lng khi lng l cc cng thc (4-1a, b), ch cn lu
l khi chn mt tit din f
i
no , th phi ly cc thng s v
i
,
i
cng nh vn tc
i

ti tit din .
4.3. NG TNG TC
ng tng tc l ng m khi mi cht lu ng qua n th vn tc tng. xc nh ng
khng phi nhn hnh dng ng m phi bit chc chn rng dng mi cht c vn tc
lun lun tng ln.
Theo hnh dng c th chia lm ba loi ng tng tc (Hnh 4.5)
1. ng tng tc nh dn: loi ny c tit din gim dn, tc l df < 0. T cng thc (4-
6c) ta thy, ng tng tc nh dn ch c th lm vic vi M < 1, ngha l ch c th
dng cho dng di m. Nu dng siu m vo ng c tit din nh dn th vn tc s
gim, p sut tng, nh vy ng tr thnh ng tng p.






2. ng tng tc ln dn: loi ny c tit din tng dn, tc l df > 0, n ch lm vic vi
dng c M > 1, nu dng vo c M < 1, s bin thnh ng tng p. ng tng tc ln
dn t gp trong thc t.
3. ng tng tc hn hp: cn gi l ng tng tc Laval, do mt on ng tng tc nh
dn ghp vi mt on ng tng tc ln dn. Ch ghp c tit din nh nht gi l c
ng. ng tng tc hn hp c dng kh rng ri v c th dng cho vn tc dng t
di m, thm ch mi trng tnh n vn tc siu m.
Ba loi ng tng tc trn tuy c hnh dng khc nhau, lm vic trong phm vi vn tc
khc nhau, nhng c c im ging nhau: qua ng, vn tc dng lun lun tng ln, mi
cht thay i theo quy lut qu trnh on nhit thun nghch, c th dng cc cng thc
cng nh th khi tnh qu trnh gin n on nhit thun nghch ca kh l tng hoc
kh thc.
Hnh 4.6 biu th qu trnh lu ng trn th i s, giao im ca cc ng p
1
v t
1
xc
nh trng thi mi cht vo ng, cn p
2
l p sut ca mi cht ca ra ca ng. Ta thy
qua ng tng tc, ntopi khng i, vn tc tng, p sut, nhit , entanpi v vn tc
truyn m trong u gim.

i
s
i
1
i
2
x=1

2

1

p
1
t
1
p
2
s
1
=s
2
a

b

c

Hnh 4-5. Cc dng ng tng tc

Hnh 4-6. Qu trnh lu ng ca ng
tng tc trn th i-s

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58
4.3.1. ng tng tc nh dn
L ng tng tc c tit din gim dn, df < 0, n ch lm vic vi mi cht khng nn
c hoc mi cht nn c trong phm vi M < 1.
a. Vn tc ca dng
i vi ng tng tc, vn tc ca vo nh hn nhiu so vi vn tc ca ra, nhiu khi
bng khng, nn cng thc (4-7c) c th vit thnh:
2
=
kt
l 2 ; m/s (4-9a)
l
kt
cng k thut trong qu trnh lu ng, tc qu trnh gin nh on nhit.
Thay gi tr ca l
kt
= i
1
i
2
vo (4-9a) c:
2
= ) i i ( 2
2 1
; m/s (4-9b)
Cng thc (4-9b) dng c cho c kh thc v kh l tng nhng hay dng cho kh thc vi
vic s dng th i s hoc bng s. Ch l trong cng thc ly i theo n v J/kg, nu
dng n v kJ/kg nh trong cc bng th:
2
= 44,8
2 1
i i ; m/s (4-9c)
Nu thay l
kt
ca kh tng vo ta c:
2
=
( )
1
1
]
1

,
_

k / 1 k
1
2
1 1
p
p
1 v p
1 k
k
2 ; (m/s) (4-9d)
C th thay: p
1
v
1
= RT
1
v c
2
=
( )
1
1
]
1

,
_

k / 1 k
1
2
1
p
p
1 RT
1 k
k
2 ; (m/s) (4-9)
Cc cng thc (4-9a, b, c v d) dng tnh vn tc ca dng ca ra ca ng tng tc, trong
p
2
, i
2
l thng s ca mi cht ca ra ca ng, khng phi l ca mi trng sau ng.
Nu thay thng s mt tit din bt k, s tnh c vn tc ca dng tit din .
Quan h gia
2
vi p
2
/p
1
theo (4-9d) c th biu din trn hnh 4-7. Ta thy vn tc ca
dng ph thuc vo bn cht (k, R), vo thng s ban u (p
1
, v
1
, T
1
) c bit ph thuc rt
nhiu vo mc gin n = p
2
/p
1
.
Khi = 1 th
2
= 0, gim n gi tr ti hn
1
c
c
p
p
th
2
bng vn tc truyn m,
thng gi l vn tc ti hn, k hiu bng
c
v
c
gi l t s p sut ti hn.
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59

max

c
1


=p
2
/p
1
Hnh 4-7. Quan h gia
2
v
p /p
Nu c th tip tc gim th
2
tip tc tng, nu
0 th:
2

1 1 max
v p
1 k
k
2

; m/s (4-10)
Trong thc t, i vi ng tng tc nh dn, khng
th gim n 0, m ch gim n
c
, nn vn tc dng cng ch c th tng t 0 n vn tc
ti hn
c
m khng th t c
max
.
T s p sut ti hn:
c
=
1 k
k
1 k
2

,
_

+
(4-11)
c chng minh nh sau:
Ta c:
c
=

,
_

k
1 k
c 1 1
1 v p
1 k
k
2 (a)
hay
1 1
c c
k
1 k
c
v p
v p
1
1 k
2

,
_

(b)
Theo qu trnh on nhit: p
1
v
1
k
= p
c
v
c
k
ta c:
k
1 k
c
k
1 k
1
c
1 k
c
1
1 1
c c
p
p
v
v
v p
v p

,
_

,
_

(c)
Thay (c) vo (b) c:
( )
( )
1
]
1

k
1 k
c
k / 1 k
c
1
1 k
2
(d)
V cui cng c t s ti hn:
( ) 1 k / k
c
1 k
2

,
_

+

T cng thc (4-11) ta thy: t s p sut ti hn
c
ch ph thuc vo bn cht ca
mi cht (ph thuc k).
i vi kh l tng: 1 nguyn t vi k = 1,67, ta c
c
= 0,484
2 nguyn t: k = 1,4 v
c
= 0,528
3 nguyn t tr ln: k = 1,3 v
c
= 0,546
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60
Vi hi nc bo ha kh, c th ly gn ng k = 1,135 v
c
= 0,577.
Vi hi nc bo ha m c k = 1,035 + 0,1.x khi x 0,7; nu x = 0,7 th k = 1,105 v
c
=
0,583. Vi hi nc qu nhit k = 1,3;
c
= 0,55.
Khi khng cn tnh chnh xc, c th ly
c
xp x 0,5 ngha l qua ng tng tc nh dn, p
sut khng th gim xung qu 1/2.
Khi t n
c
, ta tnh c vn tc ti hn:
( )
c 1 c
2 i i ; m/s (4-12a)
Hoc thay tr s
c
vo (4-9d) c:
c 1 1
k
2 p v
k 1

+
; m/s (4-12b)
hoc:
c 1
k
2 RT
k 1

+
; m/s (4-12c)
Trong :
i
c
entanpi ca mi cht trng thi ti hn, xc nh theo
1

c c
p p v s
c
= s
1
.
b. Lu lng dng
T phng trnh lu ng lin tc v n nh:
1 1 2 2
1 2
f f f
G ... const
v v v

; kg/s
Thay gi tr ca vn tc v thng s trng thi vo tit din tng ng bt k, s tnh c
lu lng qua tit din , m cng l lu lng ca dng, thng tnh theo ca ra ca ng.
Thay (4-9b) vo (4-1a) c:
( )
2 1 2
2
f 2 i i
G
v

; kg/s (4-13a)
y: i
1
, i
2
v v
2
l thng s mi cht ca vo v ra ca ng tng tc, xc nh theo
qu trnh gin n on nhit trn c s bit thng s ca trng thi u (vd p
1
v t
1
) v mt
thng s trng thi cui th d p
2
v s
2
= s
1
.
Nu thay (4-9d) vo (4-1a) ta c:
( ) k 1/ k 1/ k
2 1 1
1
1 k
G f 2 p v 1
v k 1

1

]


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61
Sau khi bin i ta c:
( ) k 1 / k 2/ k 1
2
1
p k
G f 2
k 1 v
+
1

]

; kg/s (4-13b)

y:
f
1
,
1
, p
1
, v
1
- cc i lng ca vo ca ng tng tc;
f
2
,
2
, p
2
, v
2
- cc i lng tng ng ca ra ca ng tng tc; c th thay bng cc i
lng mt tit din tng ng bt k.
T cc cng thc (4-13a, b) ta thy: lu lng khi
lng G ph thuc vo din tch tit din ng, bn
cht mi cht, thng s ban u v mc gin n
ca mi cht. Qua mt ng tng tc xc nh v
mi cht c thng s ban u xc nh, th G ch
ph thuc vo v quan h c th biu din
trn hnh 4.8.
Ta thy khi = 1 th G = 0, gim th G tng t 0
n mt gi tr G
max
ri li gim n 0 khi = 0.
Ta c th xc nh c G
max
nu ly o hm bc 1 ca G theo cho bng 0 v o hm bc
hai m; gii ra ta c G
max
tng ng vi:
k
k 1
c
2
k 1

_


+
,

Nh vy lu lng t n gi tr cc i vi t s p sut ti hn. Thay gi tr ca
c

vo (4-13a v b) c:
( )
2 1 c
max
c
f 2 i i
G
v

; kg/s (4-14a)
v
( ) 2/ k 1
1
max 2
1
p k 2
G f 2
k 1 v k 1


+ +
,
; kg/s (4-14b)
c. Kho st ng tng tc nh dn theo p sut ca mi trng sau ng p
2
Trong khi tnh ton cn bit thng s mi cht ca ra ca ng, nhng thng li d
bit p sut ca mi trng sau ng p
2
, do vy phi bit xc nh p
2
theo p
2
. Cho mi cht c
thng s ban u p
1
, v
1,
qua ng tng tc nh dn phun vo mi trng c p sut p
2
iu
chnh c bng bm chn khng (hnh 4-9). Ta thy khi
'
gim t 1 n
c
th tng t 0
G

c
G
max
1

0

Hnh 4-8. Quan h G theo
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62
n
c
v G tng t 0 n G
max
ging nh cc cng thc trn, nhng khi
'
gim t
c
n 0
th vn tc v lu lng gia gi tr
c
v G
max
khng i, khc vi cc quan h trong cc cng
thc. iu ny thc ra khng phi l mu thun gia l thuyt v thc t, v trong cc cng thc
trn p
2
l p sut ca mi cht ca ra ca ng tng tc, cn p
2
l p sut ca mi trng sau
ng. Ta bit rng s gim p sut mi trng pha sau lan truyn vo ng tng tc vi vn tc
tuyt i bng ( )
2
a , khi p
2
/p
1
t n tr s ti hn,
2
= a th a -
2
= 0, ngha l s gim
p sut trong mi trng sau ng khng th lan truyn vo trong ng c, nn mc cho p
2

gim xung, thm ch cho n 0 th p
2
vn gi bng p
c
, v vn tc vn gi gi tr
c
, lu
lng vn gi gi tr G
max
khng i.









Nh vy khi bit p sut p
2
ca mi trng sau ng, th phi xc nh p
2
tit din
cui ca ng tng tc nh sau:
Khi: p
2
/p
1
>
c
ly p
2
= p
2
(4-15a)
p
2
/p
1
=
c
ly p
2
= p
2
= p
c
(4-15b)
p
2
/p
1
<
c
ly p
2
=
c 1
p < p
2
(4-15c)
4.3.2. ng tng tc hn hp
ng tng tc hn hp l ng tng tc c mt on ng nh dn ghp vi mt on ng
ln dn do k s Laval ngi Thy in a ra s dng t nm 1880, nn cn gi l ng tng
tc Laval. Dng ng tng tc Laval c th to thnh dng siu m t mt mi trng tnh
hoc t vn tc ban u rt thp, do c s dng rt rng ri trong k thut.
m bo vn tc ca dng hai on ng lun tng ln th c ng vn tc phi bng
vn tc ti hn, tc bng vn tc truyn m trong mi trng . V vy, trong ng tng tc
hn hp ch c mt ch lm vic, l iu khc bit ln so vi ng tng tc nh dn.


Hnh 4-9. Kho st ng tng tc nh dn theo p sut mi trng sau ng p
2
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63
a. Quan h gia cc i lng c ng vi cc tit din bt k
i vi ng tng tc hn
hp, cc i lng c ng c th
xc nh c v theo c th xc
nh cc i lng cc tit din
khc theo quy lut ca qu trnh
gin n on nhit thun nghch
(hnh 4-10) ta c:
( )
2
c
T k 1
T k 1 M 2
+

+
(4-16a)



( )
( )
( ) k / k 1 k / k 1
2
c c
p T k 1
p T k 1 M 2

1 _ +

1
+
, ]
(4-16b)
( )
( ) 1/ k 1 1/ k
2
c c
p k 1
p k 1 M 2

1 _ +

1
+
, ]
(4-16c)
( )
1/ 2
2
c
k 1
M
k 1 M 2
1
+

1
+
]
(4-16d)
( )
( ) ( ) k 1 / 2 k 1
2
c c
min
k 1 M 2
f 1
f M k 1
+
1 +

1
+
]
(4-16)
Cng thc (4-16a) c th chng minh nh sau:
T phng trnh nh lut nhit ng I cho dng:
2
i const
2

+ (a)
Thay i = C
p
T i vi kh l tng vo (a), ly vi phn c;
p
C dT d 0 + (b)
hoc:
k
RdT d 0
k 1
+

(c)

Hnh 4-10. Quan h gia cc i lng c ng
vi tit din bt k
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64
Thay M
a kRT

vo, ta c:
( )
2
d 1 dT
k 1 M T


(d)
Mt khc, ly vi phn ca lgarit tr s Mach: M
kRT

c:
d dM 1 dT
M 2 T

()
So snh (d) v () ri bin i c:
( )
( ) ( )
2 2
2 k 1 MdM dT 2M.dM
T k 1 M 2 M 2/ k 1


+ + 1
]
(e)
Ly tch phn (e) t trng thi ti hn tc M = 1, T = T
c
n trng thi bt k c M v T:
( )
c
T M
2
T 1
dT MdM
2
T M 2/ k 1

+ 1
]


( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
2 M 2
2
1 c
k 1 M 2 / k 1
k 1 M 2 T 2
ln ln M ln ln
T k 1 k 1 k 1 2 k 1
1 +
+
_
]
+
' ;

+ + 1
,
]


Do :
( )
2
c
T k 1
T k 1 M 2
+

+
v nh vy (4-16) c chng minh.
b. Vn tc ca dng
Ta c th tnh vn tc ca dng cc tit din bt k theo cc cng thc chung (4-9a, b, c
v d), ring c ng cn tnh theo vn tc ti hn (4-12a, b, v c), cn ca ra ca ng, nu
c th gim p
2
0 th
2
c th tng n
max
v tnh theo cng thc (4-10).
c. Lu lng
i vi mt ng tng tc c, mt trng thi ban u ca mi cht xc nh, th ch
c mt ch lu ng m bo cho vn tc ca dng c ng bng vn tc ti hn. Nn
tng ng cng ch c mt lu lng.
Lu lng ca dng mi tit din u bng nhau, nn c th tnh vi mt tit din bt
k, k c ming ra ca ng theo cc cng thc (4-13a v b), cng c th tnh theo cng
thc(4-14) nhng thay bng f
min
. Ta c:
( ) 2/ k 1
1
min
1
p 2k 2
G f
k 1 v k 1


+ +
,
; kg/s (4-14a)
hoc:
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65
( )
min
1 2
c
f
G . 2 i i
v
; kg/s (4-14b)
d. Chn kch thc ng tng tc hn hp
Thng cn xc nh din tch tit din c ng, ca ra v chiu di (hnh 4.11a). Ta c th
tnh din tch tit din c ng tng tc hn hp theo:
( )
min
2/ k 1
1
1
G
f
p k 2
2 .
k 1 v k 1

_

+ +
,
; m
2
(4-17a)
hoc:
( )
c
min
1 c
G.v
f
2 i i

; m
2
(4-17b)
Din tch tit din ca ra c tnh theo:
( )
2
k 1 / k 2/ k
G
f
k
2
k 1

1

]

; m
2
(4-18a)
hoc:
( )
2
2
1
G.v
f
2 i i

; m
2
(4-18b)
hoc:
c 2
2 min
2 c
v
f f . .
v

; m
2
(4-18c)
C f
min
v f
2
d dng tm c d
min
v d
2
nu chn tit din trn hoc cc cnh tng
ng nu dng tit din vung hoc ch nht. xc nh chiu di ca ng thng yu cu
tn tht ma st t nht m cu to li n gin, nh gn nht. trnh tn tht do ma st, quan
h gia tit din ca ng v tit din bt k phi tha mn cng thc (4-16d) v biu th trn
hnh 4-11a.
Nhng ch to c d dng phn nh dn ch cn ln trn ming vo, chiu di khng
nh hng my, cn chiu di phn ln nh hng nhiu n tn tht nng lng ca dng
nn phi chn gc loe hp l. Gc loe ln, xoy v ma st nhiu, tn tht nhiu, nhng ng li
ngn; gc loe nh, tn tht t hn nhng ng li di; theo kinh nghim thng chn gc
0
6 12 . Sau khi chn gc loe, chiu di phn ln c tnh theo:
2 min
d d
l
2tg
2

; m (4-19)

Hnh 4-11a. Kch thc ng
tng tc hn hp
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66
e. ng tng tc xin (ct vt)
Tc l ng tng tc c tit din ca ra khng thng gc vi trc, dng phun mi cht vo
cnh khng cng phng vi ng tng tc ( hnh 4-11b).
Trong iu kin
'
2
1
p
p
< , n l mt ng tng tc hn hp c bit, tit din thng gc
b nht CD, dng mi cht t vn tc ti hn
c
, sau t vn tc siu m nhng dng
mi cht i lch vi hng tr ng m gc .
Nu gi gc gia trc ng vi tit din ra l , v gc gia tit din ng vi dng ra l ' , ta
c:
' (4-19b)
co th o c v ' c th tnh theo nh cac cng thc:
c c 2
min 2 2
v f
sin ' sin sin
f v

(4-19c)
Thc vy, t tam gic vung CDE c:
min
CE CD/ sin f / sin (a)
t tam gic vung CEK ta c:
2
CE EK/ sin ' f / sin ' (b)
So snh (a) v (b) c:
min 2
f / sin f / sin ' (c)
Mt khc t phng trnh lin tc v n nh, ta c:
min c 2 2
c 2
f . f
G const
v v

v rt ra:
c 2 2
min 2 c
f v
.
f v


Thay vo (c) ta c cng thc (4-19c).
Vn tc dng ra khi ng:
2 min
2 c'
c 2
v f
. .
v f

f. Tn tht khng thun nghch trong ng tng tc
trn ta gi thit lu ng l qu trnh gin n on nhit thun nghch; nhng thc t th
vn khng l thun nghch v kh trnh khi hin tng xoy, ma st v.v trong dng, nht
l khi lm vi khng theo ng iu kin thit k.
Vi ng tng tc nh dn, tn tht nhiu nht l khi p sut mi trng sau ng p
2

nh hn nhiu so vi p sut ti hn, lc phn trong ng lm vic bnh thng, nhng ra
khi ng p sut gim t ngt m khng bin thnh ng nng ca dng.
Hnh 4-11b. ng tng tc xin
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Vi ng tng tc hn hp phm vi lm vic c th chia thnh ba vng m ng (1) v (3) l
ranh gii (hnh 4-12).
ng (1) biu th qu trnh lm vic ca ng tng
tc ng vi iu kin thit k, tin hnh theo qu
trnh gin n on nhit thun nghch.
ng (3) cng l qu trnh gin n on nhit
thun nghch, nhng phn nh dn lm ng tng tc,
mi cht gin n; cn phn ln dn lm ng ng p,
mi cht tin hnh theo qu trnh nn on nhit, p
sut tng v vn tc gim, c ng vn t vn tc
ti hn.
Vng gia hai ng (1) v (3) l vng lm vic
khng thun nghch. Khi vo ng, mi cht gim p
sut n p sut ti hn p
c
c ng v tip tc gim,
n mt tit din no xut hin hin tng tng
nhy vt, p sut tng t ngt v sau lm vic
nh ng tng p. Vn tc ca dng cng tng n
c
c ng, tip tc tng n tit din c hin tng
tng nhy vt, th gim t ngt t vn tc siu m n di m.
vng p sut pha trn ng (3) th on nh dn l ng tng tc, mi cht gin n on
nhit thun nghch, on ln nht l ng tng p, mi cht b nn on nhit thun nghch,
c ng cha t n trng thi ti hn.
vng p sut pha di ng (1) th trong ng
vn lm vic theo ng tng tc bnh thng,
nhng khi ra khi ng, p sut gim xung t
ngt, khng bin thnh ng nng m gy nn tn
tht khng thun nghch.
Nh vy, qu trnh lu ng thc t qua cc on
ng tng tc u l nhng qu trnh on nhit
khng thun nghch, biu din bng qu trnh
1 2t trn th i- s (hnh 4.13).
Vn tc thc t ca dng l:
( )
2t 1 2
2 i i ; m/s (4-20)
Hnh 4.13 biu din qu trnh lu ng thc t. Ta thy i
2t
> i
2
nn
2t 2
< v t s:
2y
2

(4-21)
- h s vn tc, c th xc nh qua thc nghim, h s 1 .
Do vn tc ca dng gim nn ng nng ca dng cng gim. Ta c hiu sut ca ng tng
tc bng t s gia ng nng thc t vi ng nng l thuyt:

Hnh 4-12. Cc trng hp lm vic
ca ng tng tc hn hp

Hnh 4-13. Qu trnh lu ng dng
thc t
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68
2
2
2 2t 2t
tt 2
2 2
/ 2
/ 2
_



,
(4-22)
B. QU TRNH TIT LU
4.4. C IM CA QU TRNH TIT LU
Tit lu l hin tng ca dng mi cht lu ng qua mt tit din thay i t ngt
(hnh 4-14a), th d nh khi qua cc van ng m trn ng ng, cc xupap trong my nn
hoc ng c, cc ca nghn trong lu lng k, van tit lu trong my lnh hoc bm nhit
v.v
Qua qu trnh tit lu p sut ca mi cht gim, nhng khng sinh ngoi cng m gy nn
tn tht nng lng.
S d p sut gim xung v khi tit lu
to thnh xoy ma st rt mnh; v vy
tit lu l mt qu trnh khng thun
nghch in hnh. gim p sut ph
thuc vo vn tc v mc co gim
din tch tit din ca dng mi cht.
Qu trnh tit lu tin hnh rt nhanh,
nhit lng trao i gia mi cht v
mi trng nh khng ng k so vi
nng lng ca dng, nn qu trnh tit
lu c th xem l qu trnh on nhit, nhng dng khng thun nghch nn khng phi l qu
trnh ng entropi.
xt thm c im ca qu trnh tit lu, ta dng phng trnh nh lut nhit ng I:
kt
q i l + ;
V khng sinh cng nn l
kt
= 0 v v qu trnh coi l on nhit nn q = 0, v do qu trnh
tit lu:
i 0 (4-23a)
hoc: i
2
= i
1
(4-23b)
Nh vy, c im ca qu trnh tit lu on nhit l entanpi ca mi cht trc v sau tit
lu bng nhau (hnh 4-14b).
Cn lu : v qu trnh tit lu l khng thun nghch nn ch biu din bng nhng ng
chm gi thit ni lin trng thi trc v sau tit lu v cng khng th xem tit lu l qu
trnh ng entanpi c.
Trng thi trc khi tit lu c th c xc nh bng phng trnh, bng bng hoc
th theo iu kin cho, i vi n cht mt pha cn bit hai thng s trng thi u,
cn trng thi sau tit lu xc nh theo c im i
2
=i
1
v mt thng s cn phi cho, th d
nh p
2
hoc t
2
.
Kho st qu trnh tit lu ca hi nc ta thy:

Hnh 4-10. Hin tng tit lu
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69
1. Qua tit lu, p sut gim xung, nng lng b tn tht khng sinh cng.
2. Nhit thng thng gim xung, cng c lc khng i, thm ch tng ln, nhng
entanpi trc v sau lun lun bng nhau.
3. kh ca hi bo ha m thng tng, nhng cng c lc khng i, thm ch gim
xung.
4. Thng c th a hi bo ha kh thnh hi qu nhit v qu nhit thng tng
mc d nhit ca hi thng gim.
Vi nhng c im trn nn tit lu thng l hin tng c hi (tn tht nng lng) nhng
kh trnh khi nh khi cn c van ng m v.v nhng cng nhiu khi c li, c ch
ng p dng nh van tit lu gim nhit trong my lnh, trong thit b o m ca
hi bo ha hoc o lu lng ca dng v.v
HIU NG JOULE THOMSON
Nm 1852 Joule Thomson nu ln quan h gia s thay i p sut vi nhit ca mi
cht qua qu trnh tit lu nh sau:
dT dp (4-24a)
y l h s ca hiu ng Joule Thomson, c th xc nh theo phng trnh vi phn
ca entanpi:
p
p
v
di C dT v T dp
T
1
_
+
1

, 1
]

Qua qu trnh tit lu di = 0 nn ta c:
p
p
v
v T .dp
T
dT dp
C
1
_

,
]
(4-24b)
So snh (4-24a) v (4-24b) c:
p
p
v
T v
T
C
_

,
(4-25)
Ta thy, qua tit lu p sut lun lun gim, dp < 0, nn theo (4-24a) du ca dT ngc vi
du ca ; m cng du vi:
p
v
T v
T
_

,

V C
p
lun dng, do vy, qua tit lu nhit s gim, tc dT < 0, khi > 0, tc l:
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70
p
v
T v 0
T
_
>

,
hoc
( )
p
v
T
v
T
>

(4-26a)
Nhit s tng khi:
p
v
T v 0
T
_
<

,
hoc
( )
p
v
T
v
T
<

(4-26b)
V nhit khng i khi:
p
v
T v 0
T
_

,
hoc
( )
p
v
T
v
T

(4-26c)
Nh vy ty theo nhit ban u khc nhau m qua tit lu nhit ca mi cht c
th tng ln, gim xung hoc khng i.
Khi qua tit lu m nhit mi cht khng i ( = 0) th nhit ban u gi l nhit
chuyn bin T
cb
.
T (4-26c), nu bit c phng trnh trng thi ca mi cht, th c th ly o hm ring
v xc nh c nhit chuyn bin.
i vi kh l tng, c
RT
v
p
nn
p
v R
T p
_

,

v:
p p p
1 v 1 RT
T v v 0
C T C p
1
1 _

1
1

, 1 ]
]
(4-26d)
Nh vy, qua qu trnh tit lu nhit ca kh l tng khng thay i.
i vi kh tun theo phng trnh Van de Waals (1-28) ta c:
p
2 3
v R
a 2ab
T
p
v v
_

,
+
(a)
Thay (a) vo (4-25) c:
p
2 2
1 RT
v
a 2ab
C
p
v v
1
1

1
1 +
]
(b)
Sau khi chnh l v rut gn c h s vi gi thit p 0 hoc v
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71
p
1 2a
b
C RT
_


,

nhit chuyn bin, = 0, nn
cb
2a
b 0
RT

cb
2a
T
R.b
(4-27a)
Ta bit rng kh Van de Waals c nhit ti hn:
k
8 a
T
27 Rb
thay vo (4-27a) c:
cb1 k
T 6, 75T (4-27b)
Vi gi thit trn, ta cn c nhit th hai
cb2 K
T 0, 75T .
Nhit chuyn bin cng c th xc nh bng th,
thng dng th T v. T nh ngha nhit chuyn
bin v cng thc (4-26c) ta c:
cb
p
T T
v v
_

,
(a)
T im A bt k trn th T v (hnh 4-15) ta v tip
tuyn vi ng ng p qua n, ct trc honh to im
M v to thnh mt gc .
Gi N l im chiu ca A trn trc honh, ta thy:
AN AN
tg
MN MO ON

+
(b)
T c:
AN
MO ON
tg

(c)

Thay AN = T
A
, ON = v
A
,
p
T
tg
v
_

,
vo (c), ta c:
( )
p
T
MO v
T
v

(d)
hoc:
( ) A A
p
v
MO T v
T

()

Hnh 4-15. Xc nh T
cb
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72
Ta thy MO cng du vi nn c th rt ra :
1. Khi MO = 0, tc l tip tuyn i qua gc ta , th = 0, dT = 0, do qua tit lu
nhit mi cht khng thay i v T
c
chnh l nhit chuyn bin
( )
cb
p
v
T
v
T

.
2. Khi MO > 0 tc l M nm bn tri gc ta , th > 0, dt < 0, lc qua tit lu,
nhit mi cht gim xung. Qua th lc ta thy T < T
cb
, nhng theo cng
thc (4-26a) ta li thy
( )
p
v
T
v
T
>

, do vy khng nn nhm
( )
p
v
v
T

l
nhit chuyn bin. Khi MO > 0 tc l M nm bn tri gc ta
3. Khi MO < 0 tc l M nm bn phi gc ta hoc MN < ON; T > T
cb
th qua tit
lu nhit mi cht tng ln, nhng lc
( )
p
v
T
v
T
<

.
4. Lm th nghim cng nh tnh ton vi nhiu
mi cht cc p sut khc nhau, ta c th ly
gi tr ca cc nhit chuyn bin T
cb
biu th
trn th p T, hoc th gia p sut quy
dn
i
k
p
p
vi nhit quy dn
k
T
T
(hnh 4-16). Trn hnh v l ng
cong chuyn bin ca nit, cc cht khc cng
c cc ng cong rt ging nhau v nh tnh,
cn v nh lng c nhng ch khc nhau. Ta
c th rt ra mt s nhn xt:
- Mi cht tn ti mt trng thi chuyn bin ti
hn, ch c mt nhit chuyn bin. i vi cht
kh tun theo phng trnh Van de Waals nhit
chuyn bin ti hn l
cb k
T 3T

v p sut ti hn l
cb k
P 9p

.
- Di p sut chuyn bin ti hn c hai nhit chuyn bin T
cb1
v T
cb2
, vng gia hai
nhit
i
0 > , ngha l qua tit lu nhit mi cht gim,ngoi vng hai nhit ,
i
0 < , ngha l qua tit lu, nhit tng. p sut cng thp, khong cch gia T
cb1
v T
cb2

cng ln, khi p 0, vi cht kh tun theo phng trnh Van der Waals, ngi ta tm c
T
cb1
= 6,75 T
k
v T
cb2
= 0,75 T
k
.
- Trn p sut chuyn bin ti hn,
i
lun lun m, ngha l qua tit lu, nhit mi
cht lun lun tng.
Cn ch l nhng kt qu tnh ton trn c s Van der Waals kh ng v nh tnh,
nhng cha tht khp v nh lng. Cng cn lu thm l hiu qu gim nhit ca hiu
ng nhit ca qu trnh tit lu on nhit khng thun nghch km hn hiu ng nhit ca
qu trnh gin n on nhit thun nghch. T cc phng trnh vi phn ta chng minh c:

Hnh 4-16. Phn vng nhit
chuyn bin
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73
( )
p
i
p
v
T v
T
C

v
( )
p
s
p
v
T
T
C


nn:
s i
p
v
0
C
> (v V v C
p
lun dng);
Ngha l bng gin n on nhit thun nghch lm lnh c hiu qu hn, nhng thit b cng
knh nn trong thc t t c dng.
4.6. QU TRNH NN KH
4.6.1. Cc loi my nn
My nn kh l my nn kh hoc hi n p sut cao theo yu cu. My nn tiu
tn cng nng p sut ca mi cht ln. Theo nguyn l lm vic, c th chia my nn
thnh hai nhm: Nhm th nht gm my nn piston, my nn bnh rng, my nn cnh gt.
my nn piston, kh c ht vo xylanh v c nn n p sut cn thit ri c y vo
bnh cha (my nn roto thuc loi ny), qu trnh nn xy ra theo tng chu k. My nn loi
ny cn c gi l my nn tnh v tc ca dng kh khng ln. My nn piston t c
p sut ln nhng nng sut nh.
Nhm th hai gm my nn ly tm, my nn hng trc v my nn eject. i vi
cc my nn nhm ny, tng p sut ca mi cht, u tin phi tng tc ca dng kh
nh lc ly tm, sau thc hin qu trnh hm dng bin ng nng ca dng thnh th
nng. Loi ny c th t c nng sut ln nhng p sut thp.
Tuy khc nhau v cu to v c tnh k thut, nhng v quan im nhit ng th cc
qu trnh tin hnh trong my nn hon ton nh nhau. Sau y ta nghin cu my nn piston.
4.6.2. My nn piston mt cp
4.6.2.1. Nhng qu trnh trong my nn piston mt cp l tng
n gin, khi phn tch qu trnh nhit ng trong my nn, ta gi thit:
- Ton b th tch xylanh l th tch c ch, ngha l nh piston c th p st np xilanh.
- Dng kh chuyn ng khng c ma st, ngha l p sut ht kh vo xylanh lun bng p
sut mi trng p
1
v p sut y kh vo bnh cha lun bng p sut kh trong bnh cha p
2
.
Nguyn l cu to ca my nn piston mt cp c biu din trn hnh 4-17, gm cc b
phn chnh: Xylanh 1, piston 2, van ht 3, van x 4, bnh cha 5.




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Qu trnh lm ca mt my nn mt cp nh sau: Khi piston chuyn ng t tri sang
phi, van 3 m ra ht kh vo bnh p sut p
1
, nhit t
1
, th tch ring v
1
. Cc thng s ny
khng thay i trong qu trnh ht, do y khng phi l qu trnh nhit ng v c biu
din bng on a-1 trn th p-v hnh 4-17. Khi piston im cn phi, piston bt u
chuyn ng t phi sang tri, van ht 3 ng li, kh trong xi lanh b nn li v p sut bt
u tng t p
1
n p
2
. Qu trnh nn l qu trnh nhit ng, c th thc hin ng nhit, on
nhit hoc a bin c biu din trn th bng cc qu trnh tng ng l 1-2
T
,1-2
s
,1-2
n
.
Khi kh trong xilanh t c p sut p
2
th van x 4 s m ra, khi c y ra khi xylanh
vo bnh cha 5. Tng t nh qu trnh ht, qu trnh y cng khng phi l qu trnh nhit
ng, trng thi ca kh khng thay i v c p sut p
2
nhit t
2
, th tch ring v
2
. Qu trnh
y c biu din trn th bng qu trnh 2-b.
4.6.2.2. Cng tiu th ca my nn mt cp l tng
Nh phn tch trn qu trnh ht a -1 v qu trnh np 2-b khng phi
l qu trnh nhit ng, cc thng s khng thay i, do khng sinh cng. Nh
vy cng ca my nn chnh l cng tiu th cho qu trnh nn kh 1-2. Nu ta
coi l qu trnh nn l l tng, thun nghch th cng ca qu trnh nn c tnh
theo cng thc:


2
1
p
p
kt
dp . v l (4-28)
+ Nu qu trnh nn l ng nhit 1-2
T
, ngha l n = 1 v
RT
v
p
cng ca my nn s l:

2
1
1
2
2
1
2
1
1 1 gn kt 12
p
p
ln RT
v
v
ln RT
v
dv
. v p dv . p l l q

(4-29)
Nu qu trnh nn l on nhit 1-2
s
, ngha l n = k v
k
1 1
k
v p pv cng ca my nn s l:

) T T (
1 k
R
) v p v p (
1 k
k
l
2 1 2 2 1 1 kt

(4-30)
C th tnh cch khc, t dq = di + dl
kt
= 0, ta c dl
kt
= -di nn dq = di + dl
kt
= 0 hay:

kt 1 2
l i i (4-31)
+ Nu qu trnh nn l a bin, vi s m a bin n th
n
1 1
n
v p pv , khi cng ca my nn
s l:

Hnh 4-17. My nn pittong
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) T T (
1 n
R
) v p v p (
1 n
n
l
2 1 2 2 1 1 kt

(4-32)
Cng ca my nn c biu din bng din tch a12b trn th p-v, ph thuc vo
qu trnh nn. T th ta thy: nu qu trnh nn l ng nhit th cng my nn tiu tn l
nh nht. Trong thc t, my nn tiu tn cng t nht th ngi ta lm mt cho my nn
cho qu trnh nn gn vi qu trnh ng nhit.
4.6.2.3. Nhc im ca my nn mt cp
Trong thc t trnh va p gia nh piston v np xylanh, gia nh piston v np
xylanh phi c mt khe h nht nh. Khng gian khong h nay c gi l th tch tha V
t

(Hnh 4.14). Do c th tch tha nn sau khi y kh vo bnh cha, vn cn li mt lng kh
c p sut l p
2
cha trong th tch tha. Khi piston chuyn ng t tri sang phi, trc ht
lng kh ny dn n n p sut p
1
theo qu trnh 3-4, khi van ht bt u m ra ht
kh vo, do lng kh thc t ht vo xylanh l V = V
1
V
4
. Nh vy, nng sut ca my
nn thc t nh hn nng sut ca my nn l tng do c th tch tha. Ni cch khc, th
tch tha lm gim nng sut ca my nn. nh gi nh hng ca th tch tha n
lng kh ht vo my nn ngi ta dng i lng hiu sut th tch my nn, k hiu l :
1 4
1 3
v v
1
v v

(4-33)
C th vit li (4-33):

4 3 1 4
1 3 1 3
v v v v
1
v v v v



(4-34)
T (4-34) ta thy: khi th tch tha V
3
cng tng th hiu sut th tch cng gim.
- Khi p sut nn p
2
cng cao th lng kh ht vo v = (v
1
- v
4
) cng gim, tc l cng gim
v khi p
2
= p
gh
th (v
1
v
4
) = 0, p sut p
gh
gi l p sut ti hn. i vi my nn mt cp t
s nn = p
2
/p
1
khng vt qu 12.
- Khi nn n p sut cao th nhit kh cao s lm gim nht ca du bi trn. Cc my
nn thc t c : = 0,7 0,9.
























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4.6.3. My nn nhiu cp
Do nhng hn ch ca my nn mt cp nh nu trn, trong thc t ch ch to my
nn mt cp nn kh vi t s nn = p
2
/p
1
= 68. Mun nn kh n p sut cao hn ta dng
my nn nhiu cp, gia cc cp c lm mt trung gian kh trc khi vo cp nn tip theo.
4.6.3.1. Qu trnh nn trong my nn nhiu cp
My nn nhiu cp thc cht l gm nhiu my nn mt cp ni vi nhau qua bnh
lm mt kh. S cu to v th p-v ca my nn hai cp c biu din trn hnh 4-18; I,
II l xylanh cp 1 v cp 2, B l bnh lm mt trung gian.
Khi c ht vo cp I p sut p
1
, c nn trong xylanh I n p sut p
2
, nhit
ca kh tng t T
1
n T
2
. Khi ra khi cp I c lm mt trong bnh lm mt trung gian B,
nhit kh gim t T
2
xung n T
1
(bng nhit khi vo xylanh cp I). sau khi c lm
mt bnh lm mt B, kh c ht vo xylanh II v c nn t p sut p
3
= p
2
n p sut
p
4
. Cc qu trnh ca my nn hai cp c th hin trn hnh 4-18, bao gm:
a-1 l qu trnh ht kh vo xylanh I (cp 1) p sut p
1
, 1-2- qu trnh nn kh trong xilanh I
t p sut p
1
n p
2
, 2-3 qu trnh y kh vo bnh lm mt trung gian B, nhit kh gim
t T
2
xung n T
1
, 3-3- qu trnh ht kh t bnh lm mt vo xilanh II (cp 2), 3-4 l qu
trnh nn kh trong xi lanh II t p sut p
2
n p
1
, 4-b l qu trnh y kh vo bnh cha. V
c lm mt trung gian nn th tch kh vo cp 2 gim i mt lng v = v
2
v
3
, do
cng tiu hao gim i mt lng bng din tch 2344 so vi khi nn trong my nn mt cp
c cng p sut u p
1
v p sut cui p
4
. Nu my nn rt nhiu cp v c lm mt trung gian
sau mi cp th qu trnh nn s tin dn ti qu trnh nn ng nhit.
4.6.3.2. Chn p sut trung gian
T s nn trong mi cp c chn sao cho cng tiu hao ca my nn l nh nht,
ngha l qu trnh nn tin ti qu trnh ng nhit. Nhit kh vo cc cp u bng nhau v
bng T
1
, nhit kh ra khi cc cp u bng nhau v bng T
2
, ngha l: T
1
= T
2
v T
2
= T
4

p sut kh ra khi cp nn trc bng p sut kh vo cp nn sau, ngha l: p
2
= p
3
v p
4
= p
5.
Trong trng hp tng qut, ta coi qu trnh nn l a bin v s m a bin cc cp u
nh nhau, ta c:
Cp nn I:
1 n
n
1
2
1
2
T
T
p
p

,
_

(4-35)

Hnh 4-18. S my nn pittong hai cp
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Cp nn II:
1 n
n
3
4
3
4
T
T
p
p

,
_

(4-36)

m ta c T
1
= T
2
v T
2
= T
4
, do ta suy ra t s nn ca mi cp l:
3
4
1
2
p
p
p
p
(4-37)
hay:
1
4
3
4
1
2 2
p
p
p
p
.
p
p
(4-38)

Tng qut vi my nn m cp th:

c
m
d
p
p
(4-39)
4.6.3.3. Cng tiu hao ca my nn
Cng ca my nn nhiu cp bng tng cng ca cc cp. Vi hai cp ta c:
l
mn
= l
1
+ l
2

trong :

1
1
1
]
1

,
_

1
p
p
RT
1 n
n
l
n
1 n
1
2
1 1
(4-40)

1
1
1
]
1

,
_

1
p
p
RT
1 n
n
l
n
1 n
3
4
3 2
(4-41)
m T
1
=T
3
v
3
4
1
2
p
p
p
p
, nn l
1
=l
2
v l
mn
=2l
1
=2l
2
.
Tng t, nu my nn c m cp th cng tiu tn ca n s l:
( )
1
]
1



1 RT
1 n
n . m
ml l n
1 n
1 1 mn
(4-42)
















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78
Chng 5
NH LUT NHIT NG TH HAI

5.1. Chu trnh nhit ng
Ta bit rng mun bin nhit thnh cng trong cc my nhit phi dng mi cht v cho
mi cht gin n. Mun nhn c cng lin tc, mi cht phi gin n lin tc, nhng mi
cht khng th gin n mi v tnh cht ca mi cht v kch thc ca my c hn. V vy
mun nhn c cng lin tc, sau khi gin n ngi ta nn mi cht n tr v trng thi
ban u v tip tc cho gin n, nn ln th hai...Mi cht thay i trng thi mt cch lin
tc ri li tr v trng thi ban u nh vy, ta ni rng mi cht thc hin mt chu trnh
hay mt qu trnh khp kn.
Trong k thut ch yu nghin cu nhng chu trnh thun nghch, n ch tin hnh qua
cc trng thi cn bng v c c im "thun nghch" ngha l c th tin hnh ngc tr li
qua tt c cc trng thi i qua m mi cht v mi trng khng c g thay i. Ta thng
nghin cu hai loi chu trnh : chu trnh thun chiu v chu trnh ngc chiu.

5.1.1. Chu trnh thun chiu
Chu trnh thun chiu: l chu trnh tin hnh theo chiu thun kim ng h, chu trnh
ny bin nhit thnh cng.
- c im: ng cong gin n nm trn ng cong nn; Cng sinh ra (mang du dng)
ln hn cng nhn vo (mang du m). V vy, tng cng ca chu trnh mang du dng;
ngha l chu trnh sinh cng.
Xt chu trnh thun chiu trn th p - v (Hnh 5-1).
- Qu trnh 1a2: mi cht gin n sinh cng (mang du dng), c biu din bng din tch
v
1
1a2v
2
, nhn nhit lng q
1
ca ngun nng.
- Qu trnh 2b1: qu trnh nn mi cht v trng thi ban u, mi cht nhn cng (mang du
m), c biu th bng din tch v
2
2b1v
1
, nh nhit lng q
2
cho ngun c nhit thp.
Sau khi cht mi gii hon thnh chu trnh ta nhn thy: N
nhn ca ngun nng nhit lng q
1
, sinh ra cng l
o
bng din
tch chu trnh v thi cho ngun lnh nhit lng q
2
. Cn bng
nng lng trong h thng ta c:
q
1
= l
0
+
2
q (5-1)
Hiu qu ca chu trnh l bin mt phn nhit lng
q
1
thnh cng l
o
. V vy, chu trnh thun chiu c p dng
cho ng c nhit.
nh gi hiu qu bin nhit thnh cng trong chu
trnh thun chiu ngi ta dng mt i lng gi l hiu sut
nhit. K hiu
t

t
=
0
1
l
q
=
1 2
1
q q
q

= 1 -
2
1
q
q
(5-2)
Trong :
q
1
- tng lng nhit mi cht nhn vo t ngun c nhit cao;
q
2
- tng lng nhit thi ra ngun c nhit thp.
2
b
a
p
v v
1

v
2
l
o
>0
Hnh 5-1. Chu trnh thun chiu
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5.1.2. Chu trnh ngc chiu
Chu trnh ngc chiu: l chu trnh c tin hnh theo chiu ngc vi chiu kim
ng h. Chu trnh tiu hao cng hoc tiu hao nng lng.
- c im: ng cong gin n nm di ng cong nn (cng sinh ra mang du dng)
nh hn cng nhn vo (mang du m); cng ca chu trnh mang du m, tr s ca n c
biu din bng din tch chu trnh. Ngha l chu trnh ngc l chu trnh tiu hao cng (nhn
cng).
Xt chu trnh ngc chiu trn th p-v (Hnh 5-2).
- Qu trnh 1a2: l qu trnh gin n sinh cng, cng mang du dng, c biu din bng
din tch v
1
1a2v
2
. V cht mi gii gin n v n tip xc vi ngun lnh cho nn n phi
nhn nhit lng q
2
ca ngun lnh.
- Qu trnh 2b1: l qu trnh nn cht mi gii v trng thi ban u; cht mi gii nhn cng,
cng mang du m, tr s c biu din bng din tch v
2
2b1v
1.
Trong qu trnh b nn v
trng thi ban u cht mi gii tip xc ngun nng v thi cho ngun nng nhit lng q
1
.
-. Trong qu trnh b nn v trng thi ban
u cht mi gii tip xc ngun nng v thi cho
ngun nng nhit lng q
1
. Sau khi cht mi gii
hon thnh chu trnh ta thy: N nhn ca ngun
lnh nhit lng q
2
, nhn cng l
o
bng din tch chu
trnh v thi cho ngun nng nhit lng
1 o 2
q l q + v kt qu l: Cht mi gii a
c nhit lng q
2
t ngun lnh thi vo ngun
nng. Vi hiu qu nh trn ngi ta p dng chu
trnh ngc chiu cho thit b lm lnh hoc bm
nhit.
nh gi hiu qu ca chu trnh ngc chiu ngi ta dng mt i lng gi l h
s lm lnh. K hiu


2 2
o 1 2
q q
l q q

(5-3)
Vi bm nhit ta dng i lng gi l s lm nng :
Trong :
1 1
o 1 2
q q
l q q

(5-4)
q
2
tng lng nhit mi cht nhn vo trong chu trnh t ngun c nhit thp;
(q
2
= q
mang du dng
).
q
1
tng lng nhit mi cht thi ra ngun c nhit cao;
(q
1
= q
mang du m
)

5.2. nh lut nhit ng hai
5.2.1. ngha ca nh lut nhit ng hai
nh lut nhit ng I chnh l nh lut bo ton v bin ho nng lng vit cho cc
qu trnh nhit ng, n cho php tnh ton cn bng nng lng trong cc qu trnh nhit
ng, xc nh lng nhit c th chuyn ho thnh cng hoc cng chuyn ho thnh nhit.
Tuy nhin n khng cho ta bit trong iu kin no th nhit c th bin i thnh cng v
liu ton b nhit c th bin i hon ton thnh cng khng. nh lut nhit ng II cho
php ta xc nh trong iu kin no th qu trnh s xy ra, chiu hng xy ra v mc
chuyn ho nng lng ca qu trnh. nh lut nhit ng II l tin xy dng l thuyt
ng c nhit v thit b nhit.
Hnh 5-2. Chu trnh ngc chiu
v
2
p
v
a
b
1
2
v
1

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Theo nh lut nhit ng II th mi qu trnh t pht trong t nhin u xy ra theo mt
hng nht nh. V d nhit nng ch c th truyn t vt c nhit cao n vt c nhit
thp hn, nu mun qu trnh xy ra ngc li th phi tiu tn nng lng. V d mun tng
p sut th phi tiu tn cng nn hoc phi cp nhit vo; mun ly nhit t vt c nhit
thp hn thi ra mi trng xung quanh c nhit cao hn (nh my lnh) th phi tiu
tn mt lng nng lng nht nh (tiu tn mt in nng chy ng c ko my nn).
5.2.2. Ni dung nh lut nhit ng hai
a. Cch pht biu ca Carnot Clausius (1850): Nhit t n ch c th truyn t ni c nhit
cao n ni c nhit thp. Mun tin truyn ngc li phi tiu tn nng lng t bn
ngoi.
b. Cch pht biu ca Thomson-Plank (1851): Khng th c my nhit chy tun hon c kh
nng bin i ton b nhit cp cho my thnh cng m khng mt mt phn nhit truyn cho
vt khc.
c. Mi qa trnh thc xy ra u l qa trnh khng thun nghch.
5.2.3. Entropi
Chiu hng ca qa trnh l qa trnh bin i t trng thi khng cn bng n trng
thi cn bng. Nu qa trnh l thun nghch, cng thu c l ln nht v cng tiu hao l
nh nht. Ngc li l qa trnh khng thun nghch.
i lng biu th khng thun nghch l entropi.
Xt vi chu trnh Carnot ta c biu thc:

(5-5 )hoc (5-6)

Do ta c:

(5-7)


V y Q
2
thi cho ngun lnh nn Q
2
mang du m v ta c th vit: -
2
Q =Q
2
nn:

(5-8)

Trong cng thc trn nh ta bit Q
1
, Q
2
l lng nhit m vt ( mi cht) nhn v nh cho
ngun nng v ngun lnh, nhit T
1
, T
2
l nhit ca ngun nhit v cc qu trnh truyn
nhit l thun nghchneen cng l nhit ca vt.
T (5-8) ta suy ra rng, khi mt chu trnh thun nghch bt k c coi nh l tng ca nhiu
cc chu trnh Carnot thun nghch ta c th vit:



dQ
0
T

(5-9)
Tch phn trn gi l tch phn Clausius. iu ny chng t
dQ
T
phi l vi phn ton phn ca
mt hm trng thi no ca p v v. Hm ny c Clausius (1854) gi l entropi( t ngun
gc ting Hy Lp c ngha l ni dung ca s bin i). Ta c:

dQ
dS 0
T



(5-10)
hay dQ=TdS (5-11)
Biu thc (5-11) gi l phng trnh ca nh lut nhit ng th hai. T ta thy vt nhn
nhit th entropi ca n s tng, nh nhit entropi ca n gim.
1 2
1 2
t
1 1
Q Q
T T
Q T



2
2
t
1 1
Q
T
1 1
Q T

2
2
1 1
Q
T
Q T

2
1
1 2
Q
Q
0
T T

1 2
1 2
Q Q
0
T T
+
01 02 11 n2
01 02 11 n2
dQ dQ dQ dQ
.... 0
T T T T
+ + + +
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81
Entropi l hm trng thi c th thy c t v d sau:
q = C
v
.dT + p.dv
Vy :

T
pdv
T
dT
C ds
v
+
Theo phng trnh trng thi pv = RT cho nn:
v
R
T
p

Vy:
v
Rdv
T
dT
C ds
v
+
ds = XdT + Ydv
y
v
C
X
T
;
R
Y
v
v
X Y
v T


vy ds l vi phn v S l hm trng thi.
nh lut nhit ng II ni mi qu trnh trong t nhin u l qu trnh khng thun
nghch. Cc qu trnh khng thun nghch in hnh l qu trnh ma st, qu trnh truyn
nhit, qu trnh hn hp, qu trnh tit lu.
Trong cc qu trnh khng thun nghch, entropi ca h s tng. Ni cch khc, tnh
khng thun nghch ca qu trnh lun lm tng entropi ca h (hoc vt). iu ny chng t
entropi l hm c trng cho tnh khng thun nghch ca qu trnh. Mt khc ta nhn thy
trong qu trnh t pht (khng thun nghch) vt bin i t trng thi cn bng tng i ny
n mt trng thi cn bng tng i khc n nh hn m do tnh khng thun nghch ca
qu trnh, vt (hoc h) s c gi tr entropi ln hn. iu ny c ngha l entropi cn l hm
c trng cho xc sut tn ti trng thi ca vt. Trng thi ca vt s tn ti bn vng hn(c
xc sut ln hn) khi vt c gi tr entropi ln hn v ngc li.
5.2.4. Chu trnh thun nghch bt k
Phn trc chng ta kho st chu trnh Carnot thun nghch c nhit hai ngun
khng i. Di y ta kho st chu trnh thun nghch bt k c nhit hai ngun khng
i hoc thay i.
a. Hiu sut ca chu trnh thun nghch thun chiu bt k
Xt h on nhit gm mi cht thc hin mt chu trnh thun nghch v hai ngun
nhit : ngun nng c nhit T
I
= T
n
ngun lnh c nhit T
II
=T
l
. V mi cht bin i thun
nghch v tr v trng thi ban u nn bin thin ca cc thng s trng thi bng 0
(
mg mg
dS 0; dU 0;...


). V tt c cc qu
trnh trong h l thun nghch nn bin i
entropi ca h S
h
=0 :
S
h
=S
I
+
mg
dS

+S
II
=0 (a)
y : S
I
v S
II
l bin i entropi ca ngun
nng v ngun lnh.
V
mg
dS 0

nn t (a) ta suy ra: S


I
=-S
II
v
dS
I
=-dS
II
. (*)
Hnh 5-3 biu din chu trnh thun nghch abcd
(trong ad, bc) ta c hiu sut ca chu trnh
ny l :
1 2
t
1
Q Q
Q

(b)
Q
1
nhit mi cht nhn ca ngun nng (ngun nng bin i 1-2, mi cht bin i
a-b)
Hnh 5-3. Chu trnh thun
nghch thun chiu bt k
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82
Q
2
- nhit mi cht nh ra cho ngun lnh (mi cht bin i c-d, ngun nng bin
i 3-4).
V cc qu trnh truyn nhit gia mi cht v ngun nhit l thun nghch nn trong
cc qu trnh truyn nhit ny nhit ca mi cht s bng nhit d ca ngun nhit
(T
ab
=T
12
=T
I
, T
cd
=T
34
=T
II
)v bin i entropi ca mi cht: dS
ab
=-dS
12
=-dS
I
v dS
cd
=-dS
34
=-
dS
II
.
T ng thc dQ=TdS ta c :
dQ
1
=T
ab
.dS
ab
=-T
I
dS
I

2 2
1 I I I I I I
1 1
Q TdS T dS T . S

(5-12)
Trong :
I
T - l nhit trung bnh ca ngun nng trong qu trnh truyn nhit cho mi
cht :

2
1
I n I I
I I 1
Q 1
T T . T dS
S S

(5-13)
dQ
2
=T
cd
.dS
cd
=-T
II
dS
II
(c)

4
2 II II II II
3
Q T dS T . S

(5-14)
Nhng v y l chu trnh thun nghch nn t (*) v (c) ta c :
dQ
2
=dQ
2TN
=T
II
dS
I
=dQ
2min

2
2min 2TN II I II I
1
Q Q T dS T S

(5-15)
Trong :
II
T - l nhit trung bnh ca ngun lnh trong qu trnh nhn nhit ca mi
cht :

2
2
II l II I
I I 1
Q 1
T T . T dS
S S

(5-16)
Khi th (5-25) v (5-15) vo (b) th ta c hiu sut nhit ca chu trnh thun nghch bt k :

2
II I
1
t 2
I I
1
T dS
1
T dS

(5-17)
hoc :
II
t
I
T
1
T
(5-18)

2min
t
1
Q
1
Q
(5-18)
V khi nhit ca cc ngun nhit khng i:

II
t
I
T
1
T
(5-19)
Khi so snh biu thc hiu sut nhit ca chu trnh thun nghch bt k nhit cc
ngun khng i (5-19) vi biu thc ca chu trnh Carnot thun nghch th ta thy chng
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83
bng nhau. Ngha l hiu sut nhit ca chu trnh thun nghch s bng nhau khi chng c
cng nhit hai ngun nhit.
i vi chu trnh khng thun nghch th ng thc (*) s khng ng v
2
Q ch c xc
nh bng biu thc (5-14) ; hiu sut nhit ca chu trnh khng thun nghch gi l hiu sut
trong, k hiu
i
s l :

2
II II
i
1 I I
Q
T S
1 1
Q T S

(5-20)
V trong chu trnh khng thun nghch thun chiu ta c :
S
II
>
I
S (5-21)
Nn hiu sut
t
(chu trnh thun nghch) lun lun ln hn hiu sut trong
i
(chu trnh
khng thun nghch) khi chng c cng nhit ngun nng v ngun lnh.
V d :Xt chu trnh Carnot khng thun nghch thun chiu (Hnh 5-4) trong abcd l s
bin i ca mi cht, 1234 l s bin i ca ngun nhit. S khng thun nghch ch xt ti
cc qu trnh truyn nhit gia mi cht v
ngun nhit. Cn bn thn mi cht v d xem l
kh l tng nn cc qu trnh on nhit bc, da l
cc qu trnh ng entropi. y, v qu trnh
truyn nhit gia ngun nng v mi cht l
khng thun nghch (T
n
>T
ab
) nn S
ab
>
n
S .
Trong qu trnh truyn nhit khng thun nghch
gia mi cht v ngun lnh (T
cd
>T
l
) ta c
cd
S <S
l
. Vy bin i entropi ca h on
nhit (gm cc ngun nhit v mi cht):
S
h
=S
12
+ S
ab
+ S
cd
+ S
34

S
h
=S
12
+ S
34
( v S
ab
=-S
cd
)
S
h
=S
n
+ S
l
= S
l
-
n
S >0
V trong h on nhit khi c qu trnh khng thun nghch, bin i entropi ca h s ln
hn khng. Vy ta c S
l
>
n
S v theo (5-19) ; (5-20) ta c :

II
t
I
T
1
T
>
2
II II
i
1 I I
Q
T S
1 1
Q T S


b. H s lm lnh v h s lm nng ca chu trnh thun nghch ngc chiu bt k
Hnh 5-5 biu din chu trnh thun nghch ngc chiu bt k, hnh 5-6 biu din chu
trnh Carnot ngc chiu khng thun nghch.















Hnh 5-4. Chu trnh Carnot thun
nghch thun chiu bt k

Hnh 5-5. Chu trnh thun
nghch ngc chiu bt k
Hnh 5-6. Chu trnh Carnot khng
thun nghch ngc chiu
s
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84
Nh bit h s lm lnh:

2
1 2
Q
Q Q

(a)
y:
Q
2
nhit mi cht nhn ca ngun lnh
Q
1
nhit mi cht nh cho ngun nng;
Ta c:

b 2
2 ab ab l 12 l 2 1 l l
a 1
Q T dS TdS T (S S ) T S


(b)
d 4
1 cd cd n 34 n 4 3 n n
c 3
Q T dS T dS T (S S ) T S


1 n n
Q T S (c)
Vi chu trnh khng thun nghch, t (a), (b) v (c) ta c h s lm lnh ca chu trnh khng
thun nghch
i
:

l l
i
n n l l
T S
T S T S



(5-22)
y v d vi gi thit mi cht l kh l tng (S
ab
=-S
cd
), bin i entropi ca h on
nhit (gm mi cht v ngun nhit) khi c qu trnh khng thun nghch:
S
h
=S
n
+ S
l
>0
S
n
>- S
l
hay S
n
>
l
S (5-23)
Vi chu trnh thun nghch theo (*) S
l
=S
n
hay
l
S =S
n
nn t (5-22) v (b) ta c h s
lm lnh v nhit Q
2
ca chu trnh thun nghch s l :

l
n l
T
T T

(5-24)
hoc:


2max
1 2max
Q
Q Q

(5-24)
Q
2
=Q
2TN
=Q
2max
=
l
T .S
n
(5-25)
T (5-22), (5-23), v (5-24) ta thy ngay >
i
, ngha l cng nhit hai ngun nhit, h s
lm lnh ca chu trnh thun nghch s ln hn h s lm lnh ca chu trnh khng thun
nghch. Khi nhit hai ngun nhit khng i, h s lm lnh ca chu trnh thun nghch bt
k s bng h s lm lnh ca chu trnh Carnot. T (5-24) ta c:

l 2
n l 1 2
T T
T T T T


(5-26)
Cc kt qu hon ton tng t i vi h s lm nng ca bm nhit. Vi chu trnh thun
nghch ta c h s lm nng:

1
n
1 2max n l
Q T
Q Q T T


(5-27)
Trong Q
2max
c xc nh t (5-25).
Khi nhit hai ngun khng i v T
n
=T
1
; T
l
=T
2
ta c:
n 1
n l 1 2
T T
T T T T


(5-28)
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85
Vi chu trnh khng thun nghch h s lm nng
i
s l:
1
i
1 2
Q
Q Q

(5-29)
y Q
2
c xc nh t (b) v v Q
2
< Q
2max
nn ta cng c >
i
.
5.3. Kh nng sinh cng ln nht execgi
Mt vt trng thi ban u (p
1
, T
1
) d c nng lng ln hoc nh ra sao nhng s
khng th sinh cng c ch nu khng c mt vt khc trng thi ban u (p
0
, T
0
) khng cn
bng vi vt . Ngc li, nu h gm c hai vt trng thi khng cn bng vi nhau, khi
vt 1 bin i n trng thi cn bng vi vt 2, h s cho cng hu ch. Cng ny s ln nht
khi vt 1 bin i thun nghch n trng thi cn bng vi vt 2. Nh vy, ta thy kh nng
sinh cng ln nht ca h khi cc vt trng thi ban u khng cn bng vi nhau s l hm
trng thi v n khng ph thuc vo trng thi bin i t trng thi u (khng cn bng)
n trng thi cui (cn bng) m ph thuc vo trng thi u v cui ca qu trnh bin i
ny vi iu kin duy nht l cc qu trnh bin i phi thun nghch.
5.3.1. Kh nng sinh cng ln nht (hay execgi) ca h on nhit
Ta xt h on nhit gm vt 1 l mi cht, vt 2 l kh quyn hoc nc lm mt p
sut v nhit khng i p
0
, T
0
(l mi trng i vi my nhit). Ta nhn thy vt 2 khng
chuyn ng, cn vt 1 c th chuyn ng (dng kh trong tuabin, ) hoc khng chuyn
ng (kh trong bnh kn, ). Gia vt 1 v 2 c th trao i nhit vi nhau.
Gi s trng thi ban u vt 1 (mi cht) trng thi khng cn bng vi vt 2 (kh quyn).
Khi mi cht bin i thun nghch t trng thi ban u n trng thi cui cn bng vi kh
quyn, cng sinh ra s ln nht.
Chng ta k hiu trng thi ban u ca mi cht l: p
1
, T
1
, V
1
, U
1
, S
1
; ca kh quyn l p
k1
=
p
0
, T
k1
= T
0
, V
k1
, U
k1
, S
k1
; trng thi cui ca mi cht: p
0
, T
0
, V
0
, U
0
, S
0
; ca kh quyn
p
0
, T
0
, V
k0
, S
k0
.
T phng trnh nh lut nhit ng I, dng tng qut ta c:
n
Q W+L (a)
y i vi on nhit Q = 0 v khi cc qu trnh trong h bin i thun nghch th
cng ngoi ca h s ln nht L
n
= L
hmax
. Vy t (a) ta c:
hmax1 h1 h0
L W W W (5-30)
y:
W
h1
nng lng ton phn ca h trng thi ban u;
W
h0
nng lng ton phn ca h trng thi cui.
Biu thc (5-30) cho thy kh nng sinh cng ln nht ca h on nhit trng thi ban u
L
hmax1
t c l do nng lng ton phn ca h gim. tm gi tr ca cng ln nht ta
xt hai trng hp: khi mi cht khng chuyn ng v khi mi cht chuyn ng.
a. Mi cht khng chuyn ng
y do mi cht v kh quyn khng chuyn ng nn nng lng ton phn ca chng
c biu th bng ni nng. Vy ta c:
W
h1
= U
1
+ U
k1
v W
h0
= U
0
+ U
k0
(b)
T (b) v (5-30) ta c:
L
hmax1
= U
1
+ U
k1
(U
0
+ U
k0
) = U
1
- U
0
(U
k
U
k1
)
h max1 1 0 k
L U U U (c)
tm gi tr
k
U ta nhn thy khi kh quyn nhn nhit Q ca mi cht, kh quyn sinh cng
(cng thay i th tch) tc dng ln mi cht.
Theo phng trnh nh lut nhit ng I cho h kn:
k k
k k
Q U L
U Q L
+

(d)
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V qu trnh truyn nhit gia mi cht v kh quyn ( nhit T
0
= const) phi thun nghch
nn trong qu trnh truyn nhit ny mi cht phi c nhit bng nhit ca kh quyn.
Vy ta c:
Q = -T
0
(S
0
S
1
) = T
0
(S
1
S
0
) (e)
Mt khc ta thy kh quyn gin n th mi cht b nn v ngc li, nn ta c:
V V
Vy: ( ) ( ) ( )
k 0 k0 k1 0 0 1 0 1 0
L p V V p V V p V V (f)
Khi th (e) v (f) vo (d) ta c:
( ) ( )
k 0 1 0 0 1 0
U T S S p V V (g)
Khi th (g) vo (c), ta c:
( ) ( )
hmax1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0
L U U p V V T S S + (5-32)
Cc thng s trng thi trong cng thc ny l ca mi cht. Ch s 1 k hiu trng
thi ban u, ch s 0 k hiu trng thi cui cn bng vi kh quyn. tng qut ta k hiu
cc thng s ca mi cht trng thi u no (khng cn bng vi kh quyn) khng c
ch s, t biu thc kh nng sinh cng ln nht ca h (mi cht) khi mi cht bin i
thun nghch t trng thi u n trng thi cn bng vi kh quyn s l:
( ) ( )
hmax 0 0 0 0 0
L U U p V V T S S ; J + (5-32)
( ) ( )
hmax 0 0 0 0 0
L u u p v v T s s ; J / kg + (5-33)
Cng ln nht ny chnh l phn nng lng (nhit nng) ca mi cht c th bin i hon
ton thnh cng khi mi cht trng thi khng cn bng vi mi trng (kh quyn). Theo
nh ngha, chnh l execgi ca mi cht, v ta c:
E L
max h
v e l
max h

Vy execgi ca mi cht trng thi khng cn bng vi mi trng (kh quyn) l:
( ) ( ) kg / J ; s s T v v p u u e
0 0 0 0 0
+ (5-33)
y: u, v, s, u
0
v s
0
ca mi cht trng thi cho p, t v trng thi mi trng p
0
, T
0
.
Mi cht trng thi 1 (khng cn bng vi mi trng) c:
( ) ( )
0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1
s s T v v p u u e + , khi bin i n trng thi 2 (cha cn bng
vi mi trng) mi cht c ( ) ( )
0 2 0 0 2 0 0 2 2
s s T v v p u u e + .
Nu qu trnh bin i t trng thi 1 n trng thi 2 l thun nghch, cng ca mi
cht sinh ra s ln nht:
( ) e e e e e l
1 2 2 1 12 max
(5-34)
y: 0 e >
Nu qu trnh bin i 1-2 khng thun nghch, cng sinh ra s nh hn do c tn tht execgi
t
l v khng thun nghch:
t 12
e e l (5-35)
12 12 max t
l l e (5-36)
Kh nng sinh cng ln nht hay execgi ca
1kg mi cht, biu th bng cng thc (5-33)
hay (5-33) c biu din trn th p-v (hnh
5-7) bng din tch hnh 13041, trong 1-3 l
qu trnh gin n on nhit, 3-0 l qu trnh
nn ng nhit ca mi cht. Tht vy:
( ) ( )
13041 Dt ca 30 Dt bc 04 Dt ab 13 Dt
s s T v v p u u L
0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 max h
+
+

Dt: din tch hnh
V y u
1
u
0
= u
1
u
3
(trong qu
trnh ng nhit 3-0 ni nng kh l tng
p
v
p
o
p
1
T
1
T
o
0

4

5

3

a b c
Hnh 5-7. th nghin cu kh nng sinh
cng ln nht (execgi)
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87
khng i) v u
1
u
3
= Dt13ab (trong qu trnh on nhit 1-3 s gim ni nng bng cng);
cn y p
0
(v
1
v
0
) = Dt04bc; cui cng T
0
(s
1
s
0
) = T
0
(s
3
s
0
) = Dt30cc (trong qu trnh
ng nhit 3-0 nhit bng cng).
V kh nng sinh cng ln nht (execgi) l hm trng thi nn da vo y ta c th
tm biu thc ca n bng cch khc nh sau: Thay qu trnh bin i thun nghch ca mi
cht t trng thi u 1 n trng thi cn bng vi kh quyn 0 bng cc qu trnh thun
nghch 1-3 (gin n on nhit n nhit kh quyn T
0
), 3-0 (nn ng nhit T
0
n p
sut kh quyn p
0
). Cn lu l cng ln nht ca h gm mi cht v kh quyn nn lun
bng tng i s cng ca mi cht v kh quyn, hn na khi mi cht gin n th kh quyn
b nn li v ngc li (cng thay i th tch ca mi cht 1 v kh quyn l
k
tri du nhau).
Ta c:
0 3 max h 3 1 max h 0 3 1 max h 0 1 max h
l l l l

(h)
Trong qu trnh 1-3 ta c:
13 k 13 3 1 max h
l l l

(m)
y:
l
13
= u
1
u
3
(cng bng s gim ni nng trong qu trnh on nhit) v:
l
13
= u
1
u
3
= u
1
u
0
(u
3
= u
0
v 3-0 l qu trnh ng nhit);
l
k13
= - p
0
(v
5
v
4
) = -p
0
(v
5
-v
1
)
Vy t (m) ta c:
l
hmax1-3
= u
1
u
0
- p
0
(v
5
v
1
) (m)
Trong qu trnh 3-0 ta c:
l
hmax3-0
= l
30
+ l
k30
(n)
y:
l
30
= q
30
(v 3-0 l ng nhit) v:
l
30
= T
0
(s
0
s
3
) = T
0
(s
3
s
0
) = - T
0
(s
1
s
0
);
l
k30
= p
0
(v
5
v
0
);
Vy t (n) ta c:
l
hmax3-0
= - T
0
(s
1
s
0
) + p
0
(v
5
v
0
) (n)
Khi th (m) v (n) vo (h) ta c:
l
hmax1-0
= u
1
u
0
- p
0
(v
5
v
1
) + p
0
(v
5
v
0
) - T
0
(s
1
s
0
)
l
hmax1-0
= u
1
u
0
+ p
0
(v
1
v
0
) - T
0
(s
1
s
0
) (p)
Ta nhn thy biu thc (p) chnh l biu thc (5-33)
b. Mi cht chuyn ng
y v mi cht chuyn ng nn nng lng ton phn ca n c biu th bng
entanpi (b qua ng nng v th nng), cn nng lng ton phn ca kh quyn (khng
chuyn ng) nn vn nh c v c biu th bng ni nng, ta c:
W
h1 =
I
1
+ U
k1
v W
h0 =
I
0
+ U
k0
(q)
Khi th (q) vo (5-30) ta c:
L
h1max1
= W
h1
- W
h0
= I
1
- I
0
(U
k0
- U
k1
)
L
h1max1
= I
1
- I
0
- U
k
(r)
Hnh 5-8 biu th h on nhit gm hai mi cht chuyn ng, kh quyn bao bc xung
quanh. tm U
k
ta nhn thy khi kh quyn nhn nhit Q v nhn nng lng y (D
1
-D
0
)
(gim nng lng y) cui mi cht, theo nh lut nhit ng I ta c:
Q + (D
1
-D
0
) = U
k
+L
k

U
k
= Q-L
k
+D
1
D
0
(s)
y ta thy Q
0
=T
0
(S
1
-S
0
) (v qu trnh truyn nhit thun nghch nn nhit ca mi cht
bng nhit ca kh quyn, T
0
=const); L
k
=p
0
V
k
=- p
0
V(kh quyn gin n th mi cht b
nn nn V
k
=-V) v L
k
=p
0
(V
0
-V
1
)=p
0
(V
1
-V
0
) cn nng lng y ca mi cht D
0
=p
0
V
0
;
D
1
=p
0
V
1
(ht vo v y ra u p sut khi quyn p
0
=const).
Vy t (s) ta c:
U
k
=T
0
(S
1
-S
0
)-p
0
(V
1
-V
0
)+p
0
V
1
-p
0
V
0
U
k
=T
0
(S
1
-S
0
) (s)
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88
Th (s) vo (r) ta c:
L
hmax1
=I
1
-I
0
-T
0
(S
1
-S
0
); (J) (5-37)
Tng t nh trc, kh nng sinh cng ln
nht chnh l execgi v khi cc thng s ca
mi cht trng thi u no khng cn
bng vi mi trng(kh quyn) c k
hiu khng c ch s km theo, execgi ca
dng mi cht l:
e=i-i
0
-T
0
(s- s
0
) (J/kg)
Tong :
i, s - c xc nh khi ch bit p
sut p v nhit t no ;
i
0
, s
0
ca mi cht c xc nh p sut p
0
v nhit T
0
ca mi trng ( kh
quyn )
Khi dng mi cht bin i thun nghch t trng thi 1 n trng thi 2( cha cn bng vi
mi trng) cng sinh ra l ln nht:
l
max12
=e
1
-e
2
=i
1
-i
2
-T
0
(s
1
-s
2
)=-e (5-38)
Ngc li nu qu trnh bin i 1-2 l khng thun nghch, cng thu c s nh hn v c
tn tht execgi e
t
:
l
12
=-e-e
t
(5-39)
e
t
= l
max12
l
12
(5-40)
Execgi ca dng mi cht c th biu th trn th i-s. Trn hnh 5-9, im 1 biu din trng
thi ban u ca dng mi cht ( v d p
1
, t
1
), im 0 biu din trng thi ca mi trng (kh
quyn) c p
0
v t
0
. Ti im 0 ta k tip tuyn MN ca ng cong p
0
. T im 1 k ng
thng song song vi trc i ct MN ti im 3. Execgi ti trng thi 1 s l e
1
= i
1
i
3
. Ta s
chng minh iu ny.
Phng trnh ng tip tuyn MN i qua im 0 (i
0
, s
0
) v c tg s l :
i - i
0
= tg (s - s
0
)
y:
0
p
0
p
0
p
p
T
T / q
q
T / q
T C
s
i
tg
0 0
o

,
_

,
_

,
_

. Vy, ta c:
i - i
0
= T
0
(s - s
0
) hay i = i
0
+ T
0
(s
1
- s
0
)
V ta c entanpi ti im 3 nm trn MN (s
3
= s
1
):
i
3
= i
0
+ T
0
(s
3
- s
0
) = i
0
+ T
0
(s
1
- s
0
)
i
1
- i
3
= i
1
i
0
- T
0
(s
1
- s
0
) = e
1


















Mi cht
Kh quyn
Q
D
0
D
1
Q
Hnh 5-8. H on nhit c mi cht
chuyn ng, kh quyn bao quanh

p
1
1
t
1
i

s

p
0
0
t
0
M

N


3
e
1
i
1
i
0
-(s
1
-s
0
)
Hnh 5-9 . th biu din execgi kho mi cht chuyn ng
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89
5.3.2. Kh nng sinh cng ln nht ca mi cht khi nhn nhit t ngun nhit
Phn trc ta tm cng c ch do bn thn mi cht gim nng lng ca mnh trong
qu trnh bin i. y ta tm cng c ch do mi cht nhn nhit q t ngun nhit.
C hai trng hp: trng hp khi mi cht thc hin mt qu trnh v trng hp khi mi
cht thc hin mt chu trnh.
a. Mi cht thc hin mt qu trnh
Ta xt h on nhit gm ngun nng, mi cht v kh quyn. Trong mi cht nhn
nhit q ca ngun nng thay i trng thi, sinh cng tc dng ti kh quyn.
Nu cc qu trnh xy ra trong h l thun nghch, bin i entanpi ca h on nhit ds
h
= 0,
ta c:
ds
h
= ds
n
+ ds +ds
k
= 0
Bin i entropi ca kh quyn ds
k
= 0 v khng trao i nhit vi mi cht v ngun
nng. T nu qu trnh bin i l thun nghch th bin i entropi ca mi cht ds s l:
ds = -ds
n
= | ds
n
| (5-41)
y mi cht c th khng chuyn ng hoc chuyn ng.
1. Mi cht khng chuyn ng
Khi nhn nhit q t ngun nng, mi cht bin i thun nghch t trng thi 1 n
trng thi 2 (execgi s tng t e
1
n e
2
), kh nng sinh cng ln nht theo (5-33) tng ln
mt lng:
( )
max 2 1 2 1 0 2 1 0 2 1
l e e u u p (v v ) T s s + (a)
Mt khc khi nhn nhit q, v mi cht khng chuyn ng ( h kn) nn t nh lut nhit
ng I cho h kn ta c:

12
q u l + (b)
y nh trnh by trn gia mi cht v kh quyn khng chuyn ng ch tc ng
cng thay i th tch vi nhau nn chng c cng nh nhau: l
12
= -l
k12
= -p
0
v
k
=p
0
v v
y mi cht gin n th kh quyn b nn (-v
k
=v). Vy t (b) ta c:
q = u + p
0
v = u
2
-u
1
+ p
0
(v
2
-v
1
) (c)
Khi so snh (c) v (a) ta c th vit:

max 0 2 1 0
l q T (s s ) q T s (d)
Ta li c
n
s s vy t (d) ta c:

max 0 n
l q T s (5-42)
T (5-42) ta nhn thy cng ln nht ca mi cht c c khi nhn t ngun nhit lun lun
nh hn lng nhit :
l
max
< q
2. Mi cht chuyn ng
Tng t y nhn nhit q t ngun nng, dng mi cht bin i thun nghch t
trng thi 1 n trng thi 2 (execgi s tng t e
1
n e
2
), kh nng sinh cng ln nht theo
tng ln mt lng:
( )
max 2 1 2 1 0 2 1
l e e i i T s s (e)
Mt khc khi dng mi cht nhn nhit q, theo dng tng qut ca phng trnh nh lut
nhit ng I ta c:
n12
q w+l (f)
Khi b qua ng nng v th nng, bin i nng lng ton phn ca dng mi cht (h h)
ta c:
w= i
Cng ngoi ca dng mi cht khi b qua ng nng v th nng bng tng cng gin n v
s gim nng lng y:
( )
n12 12 2 1
l l d d
Vy t (f) ta c:
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90
( )
12 2 1
q i l d d + (i)
V dng mi cht y ra v ht vo u p sut kh quyn p
0
nn ta c:
( )
2 1 0 2 0 1 0 2 1
d d p v p v p v v v dng mi cht gin n cng p sut kh quyn nn
l
12
= p
0
(v
2
v
1
). Vy ta thy s gin n ca mi cht bng s gim nng lng y ca n,
nn tng ca chng bng khng: l
12
= (d
2
d
1
) = 0. Vy t (i) ta c:
2 1
q i i i (k)
Khi th (k) vo (e) ta c:
( )
max 0 2 1 0
l q T s s q T s (m)
Theo (5-41), ta c:
n
s s . Vy t (m) ta c:
max 0 n
l q T s (5-43)
Chng ta nhn thy (5-43) ging (5-42), iu ny c ngha l cng ln nht c c ca mi
cht chuyn ng hoc khng chuyn ng khi nhn nhit q u ging nhau v u nh hn
nhit .
Ta bit rng khi nhn nhit q, nu mi cht bin i thun nghch ta c:
max 0 n
l q T s .
Nu mi cht bin i khng thun nghch, lng cng c c l s nh hn l
max
v c xc
nh bng biu thc (d) hoc (m) (ch rng y
n
s s > ):
max 0 n
l q T s . Vy tn
tht cng do khng thun nghch s l:
( ) ( )
max 0 n 0 0 n
0 h
l l l q T s q T s T s s
l T s


(5-44)
y:
h
s - bin thin entropi ca h thc l tng i s bin i entropi ca cc vt trong h on
nhit (hoc c lp).
b. Mi cht thc hin chu trnh
Trong chu trnh, mi cht thc hin cng nh nhn nhit q
1
t ngun nng (khng k
cc phn ng ha hc ca mi cht nu c th xy ra). y ta xt h on nhit gm ngun
nng, mi cht v ngun lnh (kh quyn). i vi chu trnh thun chiu ta c biu thc
tnh cng:
0 1 2
l q q
Nu chu trnh l khng thun nghch theo ta c:
2 l l 0 l
0 1 0 l
q T s T s
l q T s



Nu chu trnh l thun nghch ta c: l
2 2min n 0 n
q q T s T s

0max 1 0 n
l q T s (5-45)
Chng ta nhn thy khi k hiu nhit q
1
bng biu thc (5-45) hon ton ging (5-42) v (5-
43). Tm li cng ln nht c c ca mi cht do nhn nhit q kh thc hin mt qu trnh
thun nghch hay chu trnh thun nghch u c gi tr nh nhau v nh hn nhit .
Ngoi ra, i vi chu trnh ta thy tn tht cng do s khng thun nghch s l:
( ) ( )
0max 0 1 0 n 1 0 l 0 l n
0 h
l l l q T s q T s T s s
l T s


(5-46)
h
s -tng bin thin entropi ca cc vt trong h on nhit (ch rng y bin i entropi
ca mi cht s=0).
Chng ta nhn thy (5-46) ging (5-44) ngha l trong h on nhit hay h c lp tn tht
cng ( hay execgi) lun bng tch s gia nhit mi trng( kh quyn) v bin i
entropi ca h s
h
.
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91
c. Execgi ca nhit lng
T phn trn ta thy kh nng sinh cng ln nht do nhit lng q theo mt qu trnh
hoc chu trnh thun nghch l:

0max 1 0 n
l q T s
Nh ni kh nng sinh cng ln nht chnh l execgi. Vy ta c th ni execgi ca
nhit lng q( nhit T
n
) l:

q 0 n
e q T s (5-47)
Trong T
0
l nhit ca mi trng (kh quyn)
T (5-47) c th vit:

q 0 n q
q e T s e a + + (5-48)
Trong :
0 n
a=T s gi l anecgi ( phn nhit khng th bin i thnh cng ngay c trong
qu trnh thun nghch).
Ta c th vit biu thc (5-47) di dng nh sau:

0
q 0 n 0
n n
T q
e q T s q T q(1 )
T T
(5-49)
Trong (5-49) i lng
0
tC
n
T
(1 )
T
l hiu sut ca chu trnh Carnot thun nghch. iu ny
cng c ngha l e
q
=l
0max
( cng ca chu trnh Carnot khi nhn nhit q t ngun nng). Ta
dng th T-s (hnh 5-10) biu th execgi ca nhit lng tnh theo (5-47). y ab l
qu trnh nh nhit q ca ngun nhit nhit T
n
cho mi cht. Qu trnh truyn nhit l
thun nghch nn qu trnh nhn nhit (khng c tn tht nhit), qu trnh cd ca mi cht
trng vi qu trnh ab nhng ngc chiu. Din tch hnh abba l execgi e
q
; cn din tch
hnh gch cho l anecgi
0 n
a=T s .
T (5-49) ta nhn thy T
n
>T
0
gi tr execgi c du dng, e
q
>0( i vi chu trnh ng c
nhit). Ngc li, i vi chu trnh my lnh v bm nhit T
n
<T
0
(T
n
nhit ca ngun
nhit, l nhit ca vt cn lm lnh trong bung lnh, T
0
- nhit ca mi trng-kh
quyn hoc nc lm mt) nn e
q
<0. y
q
e cng ln cng tt.
Tn tht execgi ca qu trnh truyn nhit khng thun nghch c th c biu din trn
th T-s. ab l qu trnh nh nhit q
1
ca vt nng nhit T
1
, cd l qu trnh nhn nhit q
2
(
khi b qua tn tht nhit q
l
=q
2
) ca vt lnh nhit T
2
(T
2
<T
l
). Theo cng thc (5-47) ta
c:

q1 1 0 ab
e q T s v
q2 2 0 cd
e q T . s

t q1 q2 1 0 ab 2 0 cd
e e e q T s (q T s )
Khi b qua tn tht nhit (q
1
=q
2
) ta c tn tht execgi do khng thun nghch:

t 0 cd cd 0 h
e T ( s s ) T s
Trn hnh 5-10 tn tht e
t
bng din tch hnh gch cho. Ta c th tnh e
t
t cng thc (5-
49) nh sau:

0
q1 1
1
T
e q (1 )
T
v
0
q2 2
2
T
e q (1 )
T

Khi q
1
=q
2
=q ta c:

0 0
t q1 q2
1 2
T T
e e e q(1 1 )
T T
+
0 0 1 2
t 0
2 1 1 2
T T (T T )
e q( ) qT
T T T.T

+ (5-50)


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92



















y ta thy: T=T
1
-T
2
cng ln, tn tht execgi cng cng ln v ngc li. Khi
T=0 tc T
1
=T
2
, e
t
=0. Ngha l trong qu trnh truyn nhit thun nghch khng c tn tht
execgi do khng thun nghch.
Tm li khi nim execgi nh ni l phn nng lng c th bin i hon ton thnh
cng, cho nn execgi ca dng nng lng chuyn ng c hng ( in nng, c nng, ha
nng) l ton b nng lng . Ring vi nhit nng ( dng nng lng ca chuyn ng
v hng) biu thc (5-48) cho ta thy execgi ch l mt phn ca nhit nng ( cng ln nht)
c th bin i thnh cng. Ngoi nhng th ni, execgi cn c xc nh t th e-i,

tC
-i
5.4. Phng php phn tch chu trnh
5.4.1. Phng php cn bng nhit
y l phng php phn tch chu trnh da trn c s phng trnh cn bng nng lng
(nh lut nhit ng 1). nh gi hiu qu lm vic ca my nhit ( ng c nhit v my
lnh) ta tin hnh theo hai bc sau:
- Trn c s nghin cu chu trnh thun nghch xem xt cc nh hng v tm cch tng
hiu sut nhit ca chu trnh.
- Trn c s nghin cu chu trnh thc (chu trnh khng thun nghch) xem xt cc yu
t gy nn tn tht khng thun nghch v tm cch gim khng thun nghch ca
chu trnh.
Vi chu trnh thun chiu ta a ra cc khi nim sau:
Hiu sut nhit:

2min o
t
1 1
q l
1
q q
(5-51)
Trong :
l
o
cng ca chu trnh thun nghch
q
1
- nhit lng cp cho chu trnh thun nghch
q
2min
nhit lng nh ra trong chu trnh thun nghch
Trong mt chu trnh gm mt nhm cc cng gin n (l
g
) v cng nn (l
n
) nn cng ca chu
trnh c vit: l
o
=l
g
l
n

Hiu sut trong
i
:

2 ot
i
1t 1t
q l
1
q q
(5-52)

e
q
b a
b
s
n
T
n
T
0
a
s
T



c d
ab
s
T
2
T
0
s
T
T
1
b
a
T
0
s
h
s
cd
s
h
Hnh 5-10. thi T-s biu th execgi ca nhit lng v tn tht execgi trong qu trnh
truyn nhit khng thun nghch
a
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93
Trong :
l
ot
cng ca chu trnh thc(khng thun nghch)
q
1t
- nhit lng cp cho chu trnh thc
q
2
nhit lng nh ra trong chu trnh thc.
Cng nh vy ta cng c cng nn v cng gin n trong chu trnh thc th cng ca chu trnh
thc l:
l
ot
=l
gt
l
nt
(a)
Ta nh ngha:

gt
oig
g
l
l
- hiu sut trong tng i ca qu trnh gin n.
n
oin
nt
l
l
- hiu sut trong tng i ca qu trnh nn.
T (a) ta c: l
ot
=l
g

oig
-
n
oin
l

(b)
Khi k hiu: q
1t
=.q
1

Th (b) v (c) vo (5-52) ta c:
n
g oig
oig
oin n
i g
1 oin oig 1
l
l .
l
(l ).
.q .q





oig
n
g n n
oin oig 1
l
(l l l ).
.q

+



oig
o n
1 1 oin oig
l l 1
1
q q
1 _
1


1
, ]


oig
i t n
oin oig
1
1
1 _
1


1
, ]
(5-53)
y:

n
1
l
q
- gi l cng nn tng i.
V nh vy c:
i
<
t

T cng thc (5-53) ta nhn thy mun hiu sut trong tng
i
ca chu trnh tng th
t
tng
v
n
gim, ngoi ra
oin
,
oig
tng v gim.
Sau khi phn tch nh hng ca mt yu t no ti chu trnh thc( hiu sut trong
i
) ta
lun phi ch ti c gi tr ca
t
v
n
. V d nu tng gi tr yu t x( p sut, nhit ...)
no m dn n
t
tng (
i
tng),
n
gim(
i
tng) th khng tn ti gi tr ti u ca yu t
m gi tr yu t x cng tng cng tt. Ngc li khi tng gi tr x dn n v d
t
tng (
i

tng) nhng
n
tng (
i
gim) th y tn ti gi tr ti u ca x hiu ut trong l ln
nht.
Ta c th vit (5-53) di dng:

i
=
oiCT.

t
(5-54)
Trong :

oiCT
=
i
/
t
gi l hiu sut trong tng i ca chu trnh.
Ta nhn thy ch c gi tr
n
nh ( v d khi cng nn l
n
0) th
n
0 v khi coi =1, ta c:

i

oig

t
(5-55)
C ngha l:
oiCT

oig

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94
Khi k n cc tn tht khc ( nh tn tht c kh, tn tht do mt mt nhit...) ta a
ra khi nim hiu sut hu dng
e
...Tuy nhin i vi cc vn nhit ng thng thng
ch cn dng vic phn tch hiu sut trong
i
.
Tng t c th dng phng php cn bng nhit ny nh gi v phn tch chu trnh
ngc chiu.
Phng php ny khi phn tch chu trnh thc(khng thun nghch) ch c th nh gi s
khng thun nghch bn trong mi cht (qu trnh gin n v nn) cn khng xt n s
khng thun nghch bn ngoi nh trong qu trnh truyn nhit gia mi cht v ngun nhit.
5.4.2. Phng php execgi
phn tch chu trnh thc (khng thun nghch) hoc qu trnh thc phng php
execgi l phng php hon ho nht. Bi v n cho ta bit s lng v ni gy nn s mt
mt execgi(kh nng sinh cng ln).
Ty theo chiu tin hnh cn bng m ta chia ra lm hai hai loi: cn bng thun (thng gi
l phng php execgi), v cn bng ngc (gi l phng php entropi). Trong c hai loi
cn bng execgi ny, nh gi s hon thin v mt nhit ng ca mt qu trnh hoc chu
trnh thc ta a ra i lng gi l hiu sut execgi
ex
.
a. Phng php cn bng thun
Vi mi qu trnh thc v chu trnh thc( thun chiu v ngc chiu)hiu sut execgi
c xc nh bng biu thc:
r
ex
v
e
e
(5-56)
Trong :
e
r
tng execgi ly ra trong qu trnh hoc chu trnh (ch k n execgi hu ch c th
dng trong k thut). V d cng ca chu trnh ng c nhit, l execgi ca vt cn lm lnh
trong my lnh, l execgi ca vt cn t nng trong bm nhit, l execgi ca cht lng c
t nng trong thit b trao i nhit (calorife).
e
v
- tng execgi em vo trong qu trnh hoc chu trnh. V d execgi ca sn phm
chy ca ng c nhit, l cng trong my lnh v bm nhit, l execgi ca cht lng nng
trong thit b trao i nhit (calorife).
Bng phng php cn bng thun ta c th d dng v nhanh chng xc nh c hiu sut
execgi. Tuy nhin phng php cn bng thun khng cho php chng ta bit ni xut hin v
ln ca tng tn tht execgi nhng ni .
b. Phng php cn bng ngc(cn gi l phng php entropi)
T (5-56) ta bit rng:
e
v
=e
r
+e
t

e
r
=e
v
-e
t
(*)
Trong e
t
l tng tn tht execgi trong qu trnh hoc chu trnh (nu execgi ly ra m
khng s dng cng coi l tn tht).
Kt hp (*) v (5-56) ta c th vit:

ti r v t t
ex
v v v v
e e e e e
1 1
e e e e


y e
ti
l tn tht execgi ca qu trnh th i trong chu trnh.
Nu k hiu: e
ti
=
I
v
i
i
v
e

- tn tht tng i ca qu trnh th i.


Vy ta c:
ex i
1

(5-57)
Nh vy xc nh hiu sut execgi bng phng php cn bng ngc ta phi tm tt c
cc tn tht ca cc qu trnh trong chu trnh. Phng php cn bng ngc cho ta thy r ni
mt mt v ln ca s mt mt execgi ny t a ra cc bin php khc phc.

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95
5.4.3. V d v phn tch chu trnh
a. V d 1
Xt chu trnh Rankine thc i vi hi nc 12
t
2451 (hnh 5-11) khi b qua cng nn
ca bm.
Cch 1: Dng phng php cn bng nhit
Hiu sut nhit ca chu trnh Rankine thun nghch
122451:

o T
t
1 1
l l
q q
(5-58)
Trong :
l
o
- Cng ca chu trnh;
l
T
Cng ca tuabin.
Hiu sut trong
i
ca chu trnh Rankine thc
12
t
2451(khi ch xt ti qu trnh gin n on nhit
thc 1-2
t,
cn cc qu trnh khc vn l qu trnh thun
nghch). Khi b qua cng nn ca bm coi =1, ta c:



i

oig

t
=
oiT

t
(5-59)
Trong
oiT
l hiu sut trong tng i ca tuabin:

'
1 2t T
oiT
T 1 2
i i l
l i i

(5-60)
y:
'
T
l - cng thc ca tuabin.
T biu thc (5-59) ta thy
i
tng khi
t
tng v
oiT
tng.
Cch 2: Dng phng php execgi (cn bng theo chiu thun)
Theo (5-56) ta c hiu sut execgi
ex
:


r
ex
v
e
e
(5-61)
a. Hiu sut k c tn tht ca qu trnh chy( tn tht ha nng)
Ta c e
r
=l
t
(cng thc ca chu trnh)v ngi ta coi execgi em vo nhin liu e
v
=q
1

(nhit cp cho chu trnh). Vy:

t
ex
1
l
q

b. Nu b qua tn tht ha nng ca qu trnh chy
Trng hp ny ta khng k n tn tht ha nng ca qu trnh chy, ngha l bin
ha nng ca nhin liu (execgi ca nhin liu) thnh nhit nng ca sn phm chy (execgi
ca sn phm chy). Ta xem execgi em vo l execgi ca sn phm chy c nhit lng q
sp

(khi b qua tn tht nhit trong qu trnh chy q
sp
=q
1
). nhit sn phm chy T
ch
khng
i (nhit chy ca qu trnh chy). Execgi ly ra l cng thc ca tuabin
'
T
l (khi b qua
cng bm).
'
r T
ex
v qsp
e
l
e e
(5-62)
Theo (5-60):
'
T
l =l
T
.
oiT
; cn execgi ca sn phm chy e
qsp
ta c:

o o
qsp sp 1
ch ch
T T
e q (1 ) q (1 )
T T
(5-63)
Trong T
o
- nhit mi trng.
s
5
4
2t
2
1
T
Hnh 5-11. th T-s ca chu
trnh Rankine thc i vi hi
nc
p
1

p
2

2
T
1

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96
Th (5-63) vo (5-62) ta c:

T oiT t oiT
ex
o o
1
ch ch
l
T T
q (1 ) (1 )
T T



(5-64)
Ta thy
ex
tng th
t
tng,
oiT
tng.
c. Nu b qua tn tht execgi ca qu trnh chy v qu trnh truyn nhit
T sn phm chy ti nc trong qu trnh cp nhit 2451 ( nhit trung bnh T
1
).
Nh vy execgi em vo e
v
y l execgi ca q
1
ca nc nhit trung bnh ca qu
trnh cp nhit T
1
khng i ta c:
o
q1 1
1
T
e q (1 )
T
(5-65)
Khi th (5-65) vo (5-62) ta c:

1
'
T oiT t oiT T
ex
o o
q
1
1 1
l l
T T
e
q (1 ) (1 )
T T



(5-66)
Ta thy
ex
tng th
t
tng,
oiT
tng.
Khi so snh (5-64) v (5-66) vi (5-59) ta thy r rng phng php execgi dng phn tch
chu trnh thc (khng thun nghch) hon ho hn phng php cn bng nhit v y c
th xt ti s khng thun nghch ca cc qu trnh truyn nhit. Tuy nhin gim tn tht
execgi trong qu trnh chy nhit chy T
ch
cng cao cng tt. Tip theo gim tn tht
execgi ca qu trnh truyn nhit trong l nhit ca nc cng cao, cng tin gn n nhit
ca khi cng tt.
b. V d 2
Cho chu trnh my lnh hi mt cp c my nn (v d NH
3
) biu din trn hnh 5-12.
y:
1-2: Qu trnh nn ng entropi (nn l thuyt);
1-2: Qu trnh nn on nhit thc;
2-3: Qu trnh ngng t.
3-4: Qu trnh tit lu mi cht lng, qu trnh c entanpi khng i i
3
= i
4
;
4-1: Qu trnh nhn nhit ho hi trong bung lnh.
Cho nhit bc hi t
1
; nhit ngng t t
3
.
Hiu sut trong ca my nn
oin
. Hy xc nh
hiu sut execgi ca chu trnh lnh trn khi bit
nhit mi trng t
o
, nhit vt cn lm
lnh t
v
bng hai phng php cn bng thun
v cn bng ngc.
1. Phng php cn bng thun
Ta c hiu sut
ex
:


qv
r
ex
v t
e
e
e l
(5-67)
y e
qv
l execgi ca vt cn lm lnh, chnh
l execgi nhit lng ca vt cn lm lnh q
v

nhit t
v
. Khi b qua tn tht nhit trong
bung lnh, nhit q
v
bng nhit q
2
m mi cht lnh nhn c:
q
v
= q
2
= i
1
i
4

Ta li c:
Hnh 5-12. thi lgp-i ca my
lnh nn hi mt cp
lgp
i
p
2

p
1

1
2 3
4
2
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97
o o
qv v 2
v v
T T
e q (1 ) q ( 1)
T T
(a)
Trong T
o
l nhit mi trng (ngun nhit lm mt bnh ngng). Nh ni y gi
tr e
qv
<0 (v T
o
>T
v
).
l
t
cng ca my nn thc.
2 1
t
oin oin
l
(i i )
l



(b)
Th (a) v (b) vo (5-67) ta c:

o
2
v o
ex oin
oin v
T
q ( 1)
T T
( 1)
l / T

(5-68)
T y ta thy
ex
ln khi h s lm lnh ln,
oin
ln (ma st ca hi trong my nn nh),
nhit ca vt cn lm lnh T
v
thp.
T (5-68) ta thy r rng phng php phn tch execgi l rt hon ho khi phn tch chu trnh
my lnh thc, v gi tr
ex
ngoi vic ph thuc vo h s lm lnh cn ph thuc vo
nhit T
o
; T
v
v hiu sut trong ca my nn
oin.

2. Phng php cn bng ngc
Ta c:
ex
=1-
i
= 1-
i
i
t t
1
l l


Tng gi tr tuyt i tn tht execgi trong qu trnh:

i 12' 2'3 34 41
+ + +


Trong :

12'
- tn tht trong qu trnh nn thc (do khng thun nghch)

2'3
- tn tht trong qu trnh ngng t (khng thun nghch, thi vo mi trng)

34
- tn tht trong qu trnh tit lu(do khng thun nghch)

41
- tn tht trong qu trnh bc hi(do khng thun nghch)
tnh
12'
ta dng cng thc sau:
V y l qu trnh nn on nhit nn:

12' o 2' 2 o h
T (s s ) T s
tnh
2'3
ta c th vit:

2'3 q1 qn
e e (c)
Trong :
e
q1
execgi ca nhit q
1
do hi mi cht ngng t ta ra cho nc(hoc khng kh )lm mt;
e
qn
execgi ca nhit q
n
do nc lm mt nhn c (b qua tn tht nhit q
1
=q
n
). Thc t
nc lm mt c t nng ln nhng khng s dng ngun nhit q
n
ca n (thi b i) th
e
qn
=0 (khng coi l execgi ly ra m coi l tn tht). Vy ta c:
0
2'3 q1 1
2'3
T
e q (1 )
T

y T
23
l nhit trung bnh ca qu trnh ngng 23. Tn tht ny c th tnh cch khc:
ta thy i vi dng mi cht lnh trong bnh ngng khi nh nhit q
1
trng thi thay i t
im 2(c execgi e
2
) n im 3 (c execgi e
3
), vy ta c:
2'3 2'3 2' 3 2' 3 0 2' 3
e e e i i T (s s )
iu ny c ngha l khi khng dng lng tng execgi ca nc lm mt th ton b
s gim execgi ca mi cht lnh khi ngng t l tn tht.
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98
tnh
34
ta nhn thy trong qu trnh tit lu ton b s gim execgi ca dng mi
cht (do p sut gim) l tn tht v y khng to ra cng hu ch. V tit lu on nhit
nn s tng entropi ny l do tnh khng thun nghch nn ta c th tnh
34
theo cng thc
sau:
34 0 4 3
T (s s )
nh
41
ta thy y l tn tht execgi ca qu trnh truyn nhit q
2
t vt cn lm
lnh ti mi cht lnh trong qu trnh bc hi 41(khi b qua tn tht nhit q
v
=q
2
). Ta c:

0 v 1
41 2
v 1
T (T T )
q
T .T


Trong :
T
v
nhit ca vt cn lm lnh;
T
1
nhit bc hi ca mi cht trong bung lnh; q
2
=i
1
-i
4

T ta tnh c tng ca tt c s mt mt execgi
i

v khi bit cng thc ca my nn


t 2 1 oin
l (i i ) / ta c th xc nh c tn tht tng i
i

v hiu sut execgi


ex
.
Ta nhn thy xc nh
ex
dng phng php cn bng ngc s di v phc tp hn so
vi phng php cn bng thun, nhng ngc li phng php cn bng ngc cho ta r gi
tr ca tng tn tht t tm cch khc phc.
By gi cng vn chu trnh trn nhng i vi bm nhit. Bng phng php cn bng thun
ta cng d dng tm c hiu sut execgi ca bm nhit
eB
:
qv
r
eB
v 1
e
e
e l
(5-69)
y e
qv
l execgi ca nhit q
v
ca vt cn t nng c c nhit yu cu T
v

(T
v
> T
0
) khi b qua tn tht nhit ca qu trnh truyn nhit t mi cht trong bnh ngng ti
vt cn t nng: q
v
= q
1
, lc ny ta c:
0 0
qv v 1
v V
T T
e q 1 q 1
T T
_ _


, ,
(c)
Cng thc ca my nn l
t
tng t (b) ta c:
t
0in
l
l

d)
Sau khi th (d) v (c) vo (5-69) ta c:
0
1
v 0
eB 0in
0in v
T
q 1
T T
1
l T
_


_
,

,
(7-70)
Chng ta nhn thy hiu sut execgi ca bm nhit
eB
tng ln khi h s bm nhit tng,

oin
tng( gim ma st) v nhit ca vt T
v
ln.












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99
Chng 6

CHU TRNH NHIT NG CA KH L TNG
6.1. Chu trnh ng c t trong
6.1.1. Khi nim
ng c t trong l ng c nhit m qu trnh chy c tin hnh bn trong xy
lanh v sn phm chy c thi ra mi trng. y l chu trnh bin i nhit thnh cng.
Hin nay ng c t trong c s dng nhiu trong sn xut v sinh hot nh dng lfm
ng c cho t, my ko, xe la, my pht in . . . Mi cht lm vic trong ng c t
trong lc u l khng kh v nhin liu, sau l sn phm chy ca hn hp khng kh v
nhin liu.
6.1.2. Phn loi
+ Theo loi nhin liu gm c: ng c xng, ng c Diezel
+ Theo cch t nhin liu:
- ng c chy cng bc: Nhin liu c t chy nh ngun la ph t bn ngoi;
cc thit b nh la nh buzi.
- ng c t chy: Hn hp nhin liu t bc chy khi n c nn n nhit bng
nhit bt chy ca nhin liu.
+ Theo hnh trnh ca piston thc hin mt chu trnh: Ta phn ra ng c 2 k v
ng c 4 k. ng c 2 k l ng c trong chu trnh c hon thnh sau 2 hnh trnh
ca piston ng vi 1 vng quay ca ng c. ng c 4 k l ng c trong chu trnh
c hon thnh sau 4 hnh trnh ca piston ng vi 2 vng quay ca ng c.
+ Theo tnh cht qu trnh chy nhin liu (cp nhit):
- ng c t trong c qu cp nhit ng tch: Qu trnh chy xy ra rt nhanh
thng p dng cho loi nhin liu nh nh xng hoc kh.
- ng c c qu trnh cp nhit ng p: Qu trnh chy xy ra t t v khi th
tch tng dn v p sut hu nh khng thay i. Vi chu trnh ny nhin liu c dng l
nhin liu nng nh cc loi du.
- ng c t trong c qu trnh cp nhit hn hp:
Qu trnh chy ca nhin liu trong ng c ny gm 2 giai on: ng tch v ng p.
Cc gi thit khi nghin cu chu trnh
+ Ta gi thit c 1 kg cht mi gii l kh l tng thc hin chu trnh
+ Chu trnh l chu trnh kn v l chu trnh thun nghch
- Ta l tng ho qu trnh chy ca nhin liu thnh qu trnh cp nhit
- L tng ho qu trnh thi sn phm chy ca nhin liu thnh qu trnh thi nhit
ng tch
- Qu trnh nn v gin n l on nhit thun nghch.
Cc i lng c trng ca chu trnh ng c t trong
+ T s nn: l t s gia th tch u v th tch cui ca qu trnh nn on nhit.
K hiu l - vi qu trnh 1-2 l nn on nhit th ta c:

2
1
v
v
(6-1)
+ T s tng p: l t s gia p sut cui v p sut u ca qu trnh cp nhit ng
tch. Ta k hiu l :

2
3
p
p
(6-2)
+ H s gin n sm: l t s gia th tch cui v th tch u ca qu trnh cp nhit
ng p. Ta k hiu l :
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100

2
3
v
v
(6-3)
6.1.3. Chu trnh ng c t trong c qu trnh cp nhit ng tch
+ Gii thiu chu trnh: Chu trnh gm 4 qu trnh, ta t tn cho cc qu trnh nh sau:
1-2: Nn on nhit
2-3: Cp nhit ng tch
3-4: Gin n on nhit
4-1: Thi nhit ng tch
+ Biu din chu trnh trn th p-v v T-s (Hnh 6-1)










+ Xc nh hiu sut nhit ca chu trnh:
Cng thc chung:
1
2
1
2 1
1
o
t
q
q
1
q
q q
q
l


Trong :
q
1
- tng lng nhit cht mi gii nhn t ngun c nhit cao
q
1
= q
23
; 2-3 l qu trnh ng tch cho nn; q
1
= q
23
= C
v
(T
3
T
2
). (6-4)
q
2
- tng lng nhit cht mi gii thi ra ngun c nhit thp ; qu trnh 4-1 l qu
trnh thi nhit ng tch q
2
= q
41
= C
v
(T
1
T
4
). (6-5)
Vy:
) T T (
) T T (
1
) T T ( C
) T T ( C
1
2 3
1 4
2 3 v
1 4 v
t

(6-6)
Xc nh hiu sut nhit ca ng c t trong cp nhit ng tch theo T
1
v cc thng s c
trng (, ).
- Qu trnh 1-2 l qu trnh on nhit, quan h gia T v v l:
1 k
2
1
1
2
v
v
T
T

,
_

ta suy ra
1 k
1 2
. T T

(6-7)
- Qu trnh 2-3 l qu trnh cp nhit ng tch, quan h T v p nh sau:

2
3
2
3
p
p
T
T
ta c
k 1
3 1
T T. .

(6-8)
- Qu trnh 3-4 l qu trnh on nhit, quan h gia T v v nh sau:

1 k
4
3
3
4
v
v
T
T

,
_

(6-9)
Qu trnh 4 -1: thi nhit ng tch nn v
4
= v
1
Qu trnh 2-3: cp nhit ng tch nn v
2
=v
3
v
1
s
p
T
1
Hnh 6-1
2
3
4
3
4
2
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101
Thay vo biu thc
1 k
4
3
3
4
v
v
T
T

,
_

ta c
1 k
1 k
1
2
1 k
4
3
3
4
1
v
v
v
v
T
T

,
_

,
_

,
_

nn ta c
4 1
T T. (6-10)
Thay tr s T
2
, T
3
v T
4
vo biu thc hiu sut nhit ca chu trnh ng c t trong cp
nhit ng tch, rt gn ta c:

1 k
t
1
1

(6-11)
6.1.4. Chu trnh ng c t trong c qu trnh cp nhit ng p
+ Gii thiu chu trnh:
Chu trnh gm 4 qu trnh, ta t tn cho cc qu trnh nh sau:
1-2: Nn on nhit
2-3: Cp nhit ng p
3-4: Gin n on nhit
4-1: Thi nhit ng tch
+ Biu din chu trnh trn th p -v v T -s (Hnh 6-2)











+ Xc nh hiu sut nhit ca chu trnh:
T cng thc chung:
1
2
1
2 1
1
o
t
q
q
1
q
q q
q
l


Trong :
q
1
- tng lng nhit cht mi gii nhn t ngun c nhit cao
q
1
= q
23
; 2-3 l qu trnh ng p cho nn; q
1
= q
23
= C
p
(T
3
T
2
); (6-12)
q
2
- tng lng nhit cht mi gii thi ra ngun c nhit thp; qu trnh 4-1 l qu
trnh thi nhit ng tch q
2
= q
41
= C
v
(T
1
T
4
). (6-13)
Vy:
) T T .( k
) T T (
1
) T T ( C
) T T ( C
1
2 3
1 4
2 3 p
1 4 v
t

; (k = C
p
/C
v
) (6-14)
Xc nh hiu sut nhit ca ng c t trong cp nhit ng tch theo T
1
v cc thng s
c trng (, ).
- Qu trnh 1-2 l qu trnh on nhit, quan h gia T v v l:
1 k
2
1
1
2
v
v
T
T

,
_

ta suy ra
1 k
1 2
. T T

(6-15)
- Qu trnh 2-3 l qu trnh cp nhit ng p, quan h gia T v v nh sau:
s
3
2
Hnh 6-2
1
v
p
T
1
4
3
4
2
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102

2
3
2
3
v
v
T
T
nn ta cng c

. . T T
1 k
1 3
(6-16)
- Qu trnh 3-4 l qu trnh on nhit, quan h gia T v v nh sau:

1 k
4
3
3
4
v
v
T
T

,
_

(6-17)
Qu trnh 4 -1: thi nhit ng tch nn v
4
= v
1
Ta li c
2
3
v
v
nn
2 3
v . v . Thay vo biu thc
1 k
4
3
3
4
v
v
T
T

,
_

ta c
1 k
1 k
1
2
1 k
4
3
3
4
v
v
v
v
T
T

,
_

,
_

,
_

nn ta c T
4
= T
1
.
k
; (6-18)
Thay tr s T
2
, T
3
v T
4
vo biu thc hiu sut nhit ca chu trnh ng c t trong cp
nhit ng p, rt gn ta c:

( ) 1 k
1
1
1 k
k
t



6.1.5. Chu trnh ng c t trong c qu trnh cp nhit hn hp
+ Gii thiu chu trnh: chu trnh gm 5 qu trnh; c im ca chu trnh l qu trnh
cp nhit 2-3 c chia lm hai giai on.
Ta t tn cho cc qu trnh nh sau:
1-2: Nn on nhit
2-2: Cp nhit ng tch v
2
=v
2

2-3: Cp nhit ng p p
2
=p
3

3-4: Gin n on nhit
4-1: Thi nhit ng tch
+ Biu din chu trnh trn th p -v v T -s (Hnh 6-3)










+ Xc nh hiu sut nhit ca chu trnh:
Cng thc chung:
1
2
1
2 1
1
o
t
q
q
1
q
q q
q
l


Trong :
q
1
- tng lng nhit cht mi gii nhn t ngun c nhit cao
q
1
= q
22
+ q
23

q
1
= C
v
(T
2
T
2
) + C
p
(T
3
T
2
) (6-19)
q
2
- tng lng nhit cht mi gii thi ra ngun c nhit thp ; qu trnh 4-1 l qu
trnh thi nhit ng tch q
2
= q
41
= C
v
(T
1
T
4
). (6-20)
2
s
3
2
Hnh 6-3
1
v
p
T
1
4
3
4
2
2
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103
Vy:
) T T .( k ) T T (
) T T (
1
) T T ( C ) T T ( C
) T T ( C
1
' 2 3 2 ' 2
1 4
' 2 3 p 2 ' 2 v
1 4 v
t
+

(6-21)
Thay T
2
, T
2
, T
3
, T
4
theo T
1
v cc thng s c trng (, , ).
- Qu trnh 1-2 l qu trnh on nhit, quan h gia T v v l:
1 k
2
1
1
2
v
v
T
T

,
_

ta suy ra
1 k
1 2
. T T

(6-22)
- Qu trnh 2-2 l qu trnh cp nhit ng tch, quan h T v p nh sau:

2
' 2
2
' 2
p
p
T
T
ta c

. . T T
1 k
1 ' 2
(6-23)
- Qu trnh 2-3 l qu trnh cp nhit ng p, quan h gia T v v nh sau:

' 2
3
' 2
3
v
v
T
T
ta cng c

. . . T T
1 k
1 3
(6-24)
- Qu trnh 3-4 l qu trnh on nhit, quan h gia T v v nh sau:

1 k
4
3
3
4
v
v
T
T

,
_

(6-25)
Qu trnh 4 -1: thi nhit ng tch nn v
4
= v
1
Qu trnh 2-2: cp nhit ng tch nn v
2
=v
2
Ta li c
' 2
3
v
v
nn
2 ' 2 3
v v v
. Thay vo biu thc
1 k
4
3
3
4
v
v
T
T

,
_

ta c
1 k
1 k
1
2
1 k
4
3
3
4
v
v
v
v
T
T

,
_

,
_

,
_

nn ta c
k
1 4
. . T T (6-26)
Thay tr s T
2
, T
2
, T
3
v T
4
vo biu thc hiu sut nhit ca chu trnh ng c t trong cp
nhit hn hp, rt gn ta c:
( ) ( ) [ ] 1 k 1
1
1
1 k
k
t
+

(6-27)


Nhn xt
+ Hiu sut nhit ca chu trnh ng c t trong c qu trnh cp nhit hn hp ph
thuc vo s m on nhit k, t s nn , t s tng p , h s gin n sm ; c th
t
tng
khi k, , tng v gim.
+ Khi trng thi 3 tin dn v trng vi 2 th ta c = 1, khi chu trnh tr thnh
chu trnh c qu trnh cp nhit ng tch.
+ Khi trng thi 2 tin dn v trng vi 2 th ta c = 1, khi chu trnh tr thnh
chu trnh c qu trnh cp nhit ng p.
6.1.6. So snh hiu sut nhit ca chu trnh ng c t trong (ctp, ct, ctv)
nh gi hiu sut nhit ca ng c t trong lm vic theo cc chu trnh khc
nhau, ta so snh cc chu trnh vi cc iu kin sau:
a. Khi c cng t s nn v nhit lng q
1
cp vo cho chu trnh:
Trn th T-s hnh 6-4 biu din 3 chu trnh: 123
v
4
v
1 l chu trnh cp nhit ng tch,
122341 l chu trnh cp nhit hn hp v 123
p
4
p
1 chu trnh cp nhit ng p. Ba chu trnh
ny c cng t s nn v nhit lng q
1
, ngha l cng v
1
, v
2
v cc din tch a23
v
d, a223c
v a23
p
b bng nhau. T (6-4) ta thy: cc chu trnh c cng q
1
, chu trnh no c q
2
nh hn s
c hiu sut nhit cao hn, q
2
ca chu trnh cp nhit ng tch bng din tch a14
v
b l nh
nht, q
2
ca chu trnh cp nhit ng p bng din tch a14
p
d l ln nht, q
2
ca chu trnh cp
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nhit hn hp bng din tch a14c c gi tr trung gian so vi hai chu trnh kia. Vy hiu sut
ca chu trnh cp nhit ng tch l ln nht v hiu sut ca
chu trnh cp nhit ng p l nh nht:

ctv
>
ct
>
ctp


















b. Kh c cng p sut v nhit ln nht, nh nht:
y ta so snh hiu sut nhit ca chu trnh cng nh mt nhit lng q
2
ging nhau,
cng lm vic vi ng sut nhit nh nhau (cng T
max
v p
max
).
Vi cng iu kin , cc chu trnh c biu din trn th T-s hnh 6-5 ta c 12
p
34 l chu
trnh cp nhit ng p, 122341 l chu trnh cp nhit hn hp v 12
v
34 chu trnh cp nhit
ng tch. Trn th, 3 chu trnh ny c cng p
1
, T
1
v cng p
3
, T
3
ngha l cng nh ra mt
lng nhit q
2
(din tch 14ab) trong : nhit lng q
1
cp vo cho chu trnh cp nhit ng
p bng din tch a2
p
3b l ln nht, nhit lng q
1
cp vo cho chu trnh cp nhit ng tch
bng din tch a2
v
3b l nh nht. Ta thy hiu sut ca chu trnh cp nhit ng p l ln nht
v hiu sut ca chu trnh cp nhit ng tch l nh nht:

ctp
>
ct
>
ctv
(6-28)
Gii hn trn ca p
3
, T
3
ph thuc vo sc bn cc chi tit ca ng c.
6.2 Chu trnh tuabin kh
ng c t trong c hiu sut nhit ln do lm vic nhit cao, nhng c khuyt
im ln l sinh cng khng lin tc, pittng chuyn ng qua li phi qua h thng bin,
maniven v bnh chuyn thnh chuyn ng quay, nn cng sut b hn ch.
Cc nhc im ny c khc phc trong loi ng c t trong kiu quay c tn gi
l tuabin kh.
Tuabin kh c nhiu u im:
- Thit b gn nh, cng sut ln.
- Khng c c cu bin chuyn ng thng thnh chuyn ng quay.
- S vng quay t c ln, momen quay u v lin tc.
- iu khin n gin.
Hnh 6-4. So snh cc chu trnh

Hnh 6-5. So snh cc chu trnh
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Nhng vic s dng b hn ch l do cha c c nhng vt liu lm vic lin tc
nhit cao. Kh khn trong vic ch to c my nn c cng sut ln, ch lm vic c
vi nhin liu lng hoc kh.
S nguyn l hot ng:
S tuabin kh cp nhit ng p c th hin trn hnh 6-6:








Nhin liu v khng kh c my nn I v bm II a vo bung t III, khi chy to
thnh sn phm chy qua cnh tnh c dng ng tng tc IV, tc tng ln, qua cnh ng V
ca tuabin, ng nng gim sinh cng quay my pht in VI ri thi ra ngoi tri.
Qu trnh cp nhit c th l:
- Chy ng p p = const: y mi cht ra vo bung t mt cch lin tc, cu to
bung t n gin, t tn tht do cc van.
- Chy ng tch v = const: bung t phi c cc van ng m, khi chy cc van phi
ng li. Hn na sn phm chy ra khi bung t mt cch khng lin tc, mun sn phm
chy i vo tuabin mt cch lin tc, phi c nhiu bung t.
nghin cu nhit ng hc ca chu trnh ta cn gi thit:
- Thay qu trnh chy khng thun nghch bng qu trnh cp nhit thun nghch.
- Qu trnh nn v gin n l on nhit thun nghch.
- Thay qu trnh thi sn phm chy v qu trnh np bng qu trnh thi nhit ng p
thun nghch.
Vi cc gi thit trn ta c chu trnh kn.





3
1
V
IV
II
I
III
VI
2
4
Hnh 6-6. Tuabin kh cp nhit ng p
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6.2.1. Chu trnh tuabin kh cp nhit ng p
Gii thiu chu trnh
Chu trnh tuabin kh cp nhit ng p trn th p - v v T - s :















1-2 : qu trnh nn on nhit mi cht trong my nn; q
12
= 0;
2-3 : qu trnh cp nhit ng p trong bung t.
q
1
= q
23
= C
p
.(T
3
- T
2
) (6-28)
3-4: qu trnh gin n on nhit trong ng tng tc v trong tuabin; q
43
= 0
4-1: qu trnh thi nhit ng p.
q
2
= q
41
= C
p
.(T
1
T
4
) (6-29)
Cc i lng c trng ca chu trnh:
- T s tng p ca qu trnh nn: =
1
2
p
p

- T s gin n sm (trong qu trnh cp nhit): =
2
3
V
V

Hiu sut ca chu trnh:
t
= 1 -
1
2
q
q
(6-30)

t
= 1 -
1
2
q
q
= 1 -
2 3
1 4
T T
T T

(6-31)
Vy ta s tm T
2
, T
3
, T
4
theo v :
Trong qu trnh on nhit 1-2:

1
2
T
T
=
k
k
P
P
1
1
2

,
_

=
k
k 1
T
2
= T
1
.
k
k 1
(6-32)
Trong qu trnh cp nhit ng p 2-3:
P
1
P
1
p
1
= const
p
2
= const
v
1
2
3
4
2
4
3
s
1
=s
2
s
3
=s
4 s
1
p
T
Hnh 6-7. Chu trnh tuabin kh cp nhit ng p

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107

2
3
T
T
=
2
3
V
V
= T
3
= T
2
. = T
1
. .
k
k 1
(6-33)
Trong qu trnh gin n on nhit 3-4:

3
4
T
T
=
k
k
P
P
1
2
1

,
_

=
k
k 1
1

T
4
=
k
k
T
1
3

= T
1
. (6-34)
Thay tt c cc gi tr T
2
, T
3
, T
4
vo (6-31) ta c:

t
= 1 -
1
2
q
q
= 1 -
2 3
1 4
T T
T T

=
k
k 1
1

(6-35)
Ta thy hiu sut ca chu trnh tuabin kh cp nhit ng p ch ph thuc vo v k.
Khi tng v k hiu sut chu trnh s tng v ngc li, nu trong chu trnh kn dng kh mt
nguyn t vi k = 1,67 c th nng cao c hiu sut.
6.2.2. Chu trnh tuabin kh cp nhit ng tch
S tuabin kh cp nhit ng p trn th p-v v T-s:











Cc qu trnh ca chu trnh tuabin kh cp nhit ng tch:
1-2: qu trnh nn on nhit trong my nn kh; q
12
= 0.
2-3: qu trnh cp nhit ng tch trong bung t.
q
1
= q
23
= C
v
.(T
3
T
2
) (6-36)
3-4: qu trnh gin n on nhit trong ng tng tc v trong tuabin;q
34
= 0
4-1: qu trnh thi nhit ng p.
q
2
= q
41
= C
p
.(T
1
T
4
) (6-37)
Cc i lng c trng ca chu trnh:
- T s tng p ca qu trnh nn: =
1
2
p
p

p = const
v = const
v
1
2
3
4
2
4
3
s
1
=s
2
s
3
=s
4 s
1
p
T
Hnh 6-8. Chu trnh tuabin kh cp nhit ng tch
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108
- T s tng p ca qu trnh cp nhit: =
2
3
P
P

Hiu sut ca chu trnh:
t
= 1 -
1
2
q
q
(6-38)

t
= 1 -
1
2
q
q
= 1 - k.
2 3
1 4
T T
T T

(6-39)
Vy ta s tm T
2
, T
3
, T
4
theo v :
Trong qu trnh nn on nhit 1-2:

1
2
T
T
=
k
k
P
P
1
1
2

,
_

=
k
k 1
T
2
= T
1
.
k
k 1
(6-40)
Trong qu trnh cp nhit ng tch 2-3:

2
3
T
T
=
2
3
P
P
= T
3
= T
2
. = T
1
. .
k
k 1
(6-41)
Trong qu trnh gin n on nhit 3-4:

3
4
T
T
=
k
k
P
P
1
3
1

,
_

=
k
k
P
P
1
2
1

,
_

.
k
k
P
P
1
3
2

,
_

=
k
k 1
1

.
k
k 1
1


T
4
=
k
k
k
k
T
1 1
3
.


=
k
k
T
1
1
.

= T
1.
1
k

(6-42)
Thay tt c cc gi tr T
2
, T
3
, T
4
vo (6-39) ta c:

t
= 1 -
1
2
q
q
= 1 - k.
1
1 1
1
.
k
k k
k k

= 1 -
1 k
k
k

.
1
1
1
k

(6-43)
Nhn xt:
Hiu sut nhit ca chu trnh tuabin kh cp nhit ng tch tng ln khi tng cc i
lng k, , . Ngoi ra nng cao hiu sut ca chu trnh ngi ta cn b tr thm b hi
nhit v lm mt ng p gia qu trnh nn on nhit.
6.3. Chu trnh ng c phn lc v tn la
Khi tng cng sut ca ng c t trong pittng s ko theo tng khi lng ca thit
b, iu ny s gy kh khn cho vic tng tc ca my bay (tn la). Nhng ng c phn
lc li c cng sut ln, thit b gn nh nn t gy nh hng n vic tng tc . Do
c s dng rng ri trong hng khng v v tr.
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Nguyn l lm vic ca ng c phn lc v tn la: l bin ha nng ca nhin liu
thnh nhit nng ca qu trnh chy, ri bin thnh ng nng ca dng mi cht, to nn lc
y ng c v pha trc.
Nu trong qung thi gian , khi lng sn phm chy to ra l G , vn tc tng ln
t
o
n . Theo nh lut Newton xung ca phn lc ng c:
F. = G. (6-44)
F =
G

.( -
o
) g.
Phn loi:
v ng c my bay: kh oxy dng cho qu trnh chy c ly ngay t mi trng. ng c
my bay c hai loi:
- ng c my bay khng c my nn: vic tng p sut nh ng tng p. Qu trnh
chy c th l chy ng p hoc chy ng tch.
- ng c my bay c my nn: vic tng p sut y mt phn vn nh ng tng p
nhng phn ch yu nh my nn. Qu trnh chy y l ng p.
v ng c tn la: nhin liu (acid nitric, hydrgen perxide), kh oxy dng cho qu trnh
chy c mang theo di dng lng v np trong ng c. V vy tn la c th bay ra ngoi
khng gian v tr.
6.3.1. ng c phn lc (my bay)
a. Chu trnh ng c phn lc cp nhit ng p (c my nn)
S chu trnh ng c phn lc cp nhit ng p trn th p-v v T-s:












Cc qu trnh trong chu trnh:
1-1' : qu trnh nn on nhit khng kh trong ng tng p.
1'-2: qu trnh nn on nhit khng kh trong my nn.
2-3: qu trnh cp nhit ng p trong bung t, nhn nhit lng q
1
.
3'
1'
3'
1'
v
1
2
3
4
2
4
3
s
1
=s
2
s
3
=s
4 s
1
p
T
Hnh 6-9. ng c phn lc cp nhit ng p
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3-3': qu trnh gin n on nhit sn phm chy trong tuabin kh, sinh
cng chy my nn .
3'-4: qu trnh gin n on nhit sn phm chy trong ng tng tc.
4-1: qu trnh thi nhit q
2
ng p cho mi trng.
Ta thy v mt chu trnh, n hon ton ging vi chu trnh ca tuabin kh cp nhit
ng p, nu vn dng t s tng p khi nn = p
2
/p
1
th ta c hiu sut ca chu trnh:

t
= 1 -
1
2
q
q
= 1 -
2 3
1 4
T T
T T

=
k
1 k
1

(6-45)
tng hiu sut ca chu trnh phi tng t s nn .
b. Chu trnh ng c phn lc cp nhit ng tch
S chu trnh ng c phn lc cp nhit ng tch trn th p-v v T-s:












Cc qu trnh trong chu trnh:
1-2 : qu trnh nn on nhit khng kh trong ng tng p.
2-3: qu trnh cp nhit ng tch trong bung t, nhn nhit lng q
1
.
3-4: qu trnh gin n on nhit sn phm chy trong ng tng tc.
4-1: qu trnh thi nhit q
2
ng p cho mi trng.
Ta thy v mt chu trnh, n hon ton ging vi chu trnh ca tuabin kh cp nhit
ng tch, nu vn dng t s tng p khi nn = p
2
/p
1
v t s tng p = p
3
/p
2
khi cp nhit
th ta c hiu sut ca chu trnh:

t
= 1 -
1
2
q
q
= 1 -
1 k
k
k

.
1
1
1
k

(6-46)



v
1
2
3
4
2
4
3
s
1
=s
2
s
3
=s
4 s
1
p
T
Hnh 6-10. ng c phn lc cp nhit ng tch
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6.4.2. Chu trnh tn la
Ngy nay, tn la c s dng vi nhiu mc ch khc nhau. Trong khoa hc v dn
s tn la c dng phng cc loi v tinh v tu thm do v tr, cn trong quc phng
tn la c s dng mang cc u n ht nhn.
Phn loi tn la theo ngun cp nng lng:
- Tn la s dng nhin liu ha hc: loi nhin liu lng v rn.
- Tn la s dng nhin liu ht nhn.
S nguyn l ng c phn lc tn la:






ng c tn la bao gm cc b phn chnh: Bnh cha nhin liu lng A, bnh cha
oxy lng B, bm nhin liu lng C, bm oxy lng D, bung t E, ng tng tc F.
S chu trnh ng c tn la trn th p-v v T-s:













Cc qu trnh trong chu trnh:
1-2: qu trnh nn on nhit nhin liu v oxy trong bm (v l cht lng
nn c th coi l qu trnh nn ng tch)
2-3: qu trnh cp nhit ng p trong bung t, nhn nhit lng q
1
.
3-4: qu trnh gin n on nhit sn phm chy trong ng tng tc.
4-1: qu trnh thi nhit ng p q
2
vo mi trng (thi sn phm chy).
Hiu sut nhit ca chu trnh c xc nh nh sau:
v
1
2
3
4
2
4
3
s
1
=s
2
s
3
=s
4 s
1
p T
Hnh 6-12. Chu trnh ng c phn lc tn la cp nhit ng p
C
D
F
1
2
2
2
3
4
A
B
E
Hnh 6-11. S ng c phn lc tn la nguyn l
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112

t
=
0
1
l
q
(6-47)
Cng chu trnh l
0
tnh theo cng k thut (b qua cng ca bm)
l
0
= l
kt12
+ l
kt34
= l
kt34
- l
kt21
l
kt34
(6-48)
Mt khc cng k thut trong mt qu trnh:
l
kt
= l
n
+
2
2

(6-49)
Qu trnh 3-4 khng thc hin cng ngoi (l
n
= 0) nn:
l
kt34
=
2 2
4 3
2

=
2
4
2

(b qua
3
v rt nh so vi
4
)
Nhit cp cho chu trnh: q
1
= q
23
= C
p
.(T
3
- T
2
) (6-50)

t
=
0
1
l
q
=
2
4
3 2
2 ( )
p
C T T

(6-51)
Hiu sut ca ng c tng khi tc
4
tng, tc ca dng sn phm chy ra khi
tn la
4
c th tnh theo cng thc ng tng tc hn hp.

4
=
1
1
3
2
2 1
1
k
k
P k
RT
k P

1
_
1

,
1
]
(6-52)
Trong :
T
3
- nhit ra khi bung t vo ng tng tc;
p
1
- p sut ti tit din ra ca ng tng tc (p
1
= p
4
);
p
2
- p sut ti tit din vo ca ng tng tc (p
2
= p
3
).
6.5. Chu trnh my lnh dng my nn khng kh
S nguyn l my lnh dng my nn khng kh hnh 6-13:
Trong bung lnh I khng kh nhn nhit q
2
p
1
= const lm nhit ca vt gim
xung n yu cu. Sau c my nn II ht vo my nn c p sut p
1
v c nn on
nhit ln p sut p
2
, nhit khng kh tng t T
1
n T
2
, ri i vo bnh lm mt III nh
nhit q
1
p sut p
2
= const. Ra khi bnh lm mt khng kh i vo my gin n IV sinh
cng lm p sut gim p sut v nhit .
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113









S chu trnh my lnh dng my nn khng kh trn th p-v v T-s:










Cc qu trnh trong chu trnh:
1-2: qu trnh nn on nhit khng kh trong my nn, q
12
= 0;
2-3: qu trnh lm mt ng p trong bnh lm mt;
q
1
= q
23
= C
p
.(T
3
T
2
) (6-53)
3-4: qu trnh gin n on nhit trong my gin n; q
34
= 0;
4-1: qu trnh nhn nhit q
2
ng p trong bung lnh;
q
2
= q
41
= C
p
.(T
1
T
4
) (6-54)
H s lm lnh ca chu trnh:

t
=
0
2
l
q
=
2 1
2
q q
q

=
) T T ( ) T T (
T T
4 1 3 2
4 1

=
1
T T
T T
1
4 1
3 2

(6-55)
Qu trnh 1-2 v 3-4 l cc qu trnh on nhit nn:

1
2
T
T
=
k
k
P
P
1
1
2

,
_

=
4
3
T
T
(6-56)
s
1
=s
2
s
3
=s
4
Hnh 6-14. Chu trnh my lnh dng my nn khng kh
v
1
2
3
4
2
4
3
s
1
p
T
q
2
q
1
IV
III
4
3
1
2
I
II
Hnh 6-13. S nguyn l my lnh dng my nn khng kh
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114
hay
4 1
3 2
T T
T T

=
1
2
T
T
=
4
3
T
T
(6-57)
Thay (6-33) vo (6-31) ta c:

t
=
1
1
4 1
3 2

T T
T T
=
1
1
1
2

T
T
=
1
1
4
3

T
T
(6-58)
H s bm nhit ca chu trnh:
= + 1 (6-59)
u im c bn ca chu trnh my lnh hoc bm nhit khng kh l dng khng kh c
sn v khng c hi.
Nhc im h s lm lnh hoc h s bm nhit nh hn chu trnh Carnot v c hai
qu trnh nhn nhit v thi nhit ng p.
Chu trnh phi trang b my gin n nn kch thc thit b ln, v vy hin nay ch cn
dng nhiu trong ngnh hng khng.
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115
Chng 7
CHU TRNH CA KH THC
7.1. Chu trnh Carnot hi nc

chng 5 ta bit chu trnh Carnot thun chiu l chu trnh c hiu sut nhit cao
nht. V mt k thut, dng kh thc trong
phm vi bo ha c th thc hin c chu
trnh Carnot v vn t c hiu sut nhit
ln nht khi cng phm vi nhit . Chu
trnh Carnot p dng cho kh thc trong vng
hi bo ha c biu din trn hnh 7-1. Tuy
nhin, i vi kh thc v hi nc th vic
thc hin chu trnh Carnot rt kh khn, v
nhng l do sau y:
- Qu trnh hi nh nhit ng p, ngng t
thnh nc (qu trnh 2-3) s thc hin khng
hon ton. Mun nn on nhit hi m theo
qa trnh 3-4, cn phi c my nn kch thc
rt ln v tiu hao cng rt ln.
- Nhit ti hn ca nc thp (374,15
o
C ) nn chnh nhit gia ngun nng v
ngun lnh ca chu trnh khng ln lm, do cng ca chu trnh nh.
- Cc git m ca hi s va p vo cnh tuabin gy tn tht nng lng v n mn v mi
mn nhanh cnh Tuabin.
7.2. Chu trnh Rankine (chu trnh nh my nhit in)
Nh phn tch trn, tuy c hiu sut nhit cao nhng chu trnh Carnot c mt s
nhc im khi p dng cho kh thc, nn trong thc t ngi ta khng p dng chu trnh ny
m p dng mt chu trnh ci tin gn vi chu trnh ny gi l chu trnh Rankine. Chu trnh
Rankine l chu trnh thun chiu, bin nhit thnh cng.













Chu trnh Rankine l chu trnh nhit c p dng trong tt c cc lai nh my nhit in,
mi cht l nc. Tt c cc thit b ca cc nh my nhit in u ging nhau tr thit b
sinh hi I. Trong thit b sinh hi, nc nhn nhit bin thnh hi. i vi nh my nhit
in thit b sinh hi l l hi, trong nc nhn
nhit t qu trnh t chy nhin liu. i vi nh my in mt tri hoc a nhit, nc
nhn nhit t nng lng mt tri hoc t nhit nng trong lng t. i vi nh my in
nguyn t, thit b sinh hi l thit b trao i nhit, trong nc nhn nhit t cht ti nhit
trong l phn ng ht nhn ra.
S thit b ca chu trnh Rankine c trnh by trn hnh 7-2. th T-s ca chu trnh
c biu din trn hnh 7-2.

Hnh 7-1. Chu trnh Carnot ca hi nc

Hnh 7-2. S chu trnh nh my nhit in
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116
Nc ngng trong bnh ngng IV ( trng thi 2 trn th) c thng s p
2
, t
2
, i
2
c bm
V bm vo thit b sinh hi I vi p sut p
1
(qu trnh 2-3).

Trong thit b sinh hi, nc trong cc ng sinh hi nhn nhit ng p n si (qu trnh 3-
4), ho hi (qu trnh 4-5) v thnh hi qu nhit trong b qu nhit II (qu trnh 5-1). Qu
trnh 3-4-5-1 l qu trnh ha hi ng p p sut p
1
= const. Hi ra khi b qu nhit II (
trng thi 1) c thng s p
1
, t1 i vo tuabin III, y hi dn n on nhit n trng thi 2
(qu trnh 1-2) v sinh cng trong tuabin. Hi ra khi tuabin c thng s p2, t2, i vo bnh
ngng IV, ngng t thnh nc (qu trnh 2-2), ri li c bm V bm tr v l. Qu trnh
nn on nhit trong bm c th xem l qu trnh nn ng tch v nc khng chu nn (th
tch t thay i).
7.2.1. Xc nh hiu sut nhit
Cng thc chung:
1
2
1
2 1
1
o
t
q
q
1
q
q q
q
l


Trong :
q
1
- lng nhit nhn vo ca chu trnh. Qu trnh 3-4-5-1 l qu trnh un nc n
nhit si, ho hi v qu nhit cho hi trong iu kin p sut khng thay i cho nn q
1
=
q
3451
= i = i
1
i
3
= i
1
i
3
(7-1)
q
2
- lng nhit thi ra mi trng c nhit thp. Qu trnh 2-2 l qu trnh ngng
hi ng nhit, ng p cho nn: q
22
= i
2
i
2
. (7-2)
Cng ca chu trnh l:
o 1 2 1 2
l q q i i (7-3)
Hiu sut nhit ca chu trnh s l:
o 1 2
t
1 1 3
l i i
q i i

(7-4)
7.2.2. Cc bin php nng cao hiu sut ca chu trnh
Hiu sut nhit ca chu trnh Rankine cng c th biu th bng hiu sut
chu trnh Carnot tng ng:

1
2
c
max
t
T
T
1 (7-5)
T (7-5) ta thy: hiu sut nhit ca chu trnh khi gim nhit trung bnh T
2tb
ca qu trnh
nh nhit trong bnh ngng hoc tng nhit trung bnh T
1tb
ca qu trnh cp nhit trong l
hi.
* Gim nhit trung bnh ca qu trnh nh nhit T
2tb

Hnh 7-3 biu din chu trnh Rankine
c p sut cui gim t p
2
xung p
2o
,
khi nhit u t
1
v p sut u p
1

khng thay i. Khi gim p sut
ngng t p
2
ca hi trong bnh ngng,
th nhit bo ha t
s
cng gim theo,
do nhit trung bnh T
2tb
ca qu
trnh nh nhit gim xung. Theo (7-5)
th hiu sut nhit
t
ca chu trnh tng
ln. Tuy nhin, nhit t
s
b gii hn
bi nhit ngun lnh (nhit nc
lm mt trong bnh ngng), do p
sut cui ca chu trnh cng khng th
xung qu thp, thng t 2 kPa n
5kPa ty theo iu kin kh hu tng
vng. Mt khc, khi gim p sut p
2

xung th m ca hi cc tng cui tuabin cng gim xung, s lm gim hiu sut v
tui th tuabin, do cng lm gim hiu sut chung ca ton nh my.

Hnh 7-3. nh hng ca p sut cui
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* Nng cao nhit trung bnh ca qu trnh cp nhit T
1tb

nng nhit trung bnh ca qu trnh cp nhit T
1tb
, c th tng p sut u p
1
hoc nhit
u t
1
.
















- Hnh 7- 4 biu din chu trnh Rankine c nhit hi qu nhit tng t t
1
ln t
10
khi p sut
hi qu nhit p
1
v p sut cui p
2
khng i. Khi nhit trung bnh T
1tb
ca qu trnh
cp nhit 3451 tng ln, do theo (7-4) th hiu sut nhit
t
ca chu trnh tng ln.
- Hnh 7-4 biu din chu trnh Rankine c p sut u tng t p
1
n p
10
, khi nhit
hi qu nhit t
1
v p sut cui p
2
khng thay i. Nu gi nguyn nhit hi qu nhit t
1
v
p sut cui p
2
, tng p sut p
1
th nhit si ca qu trnh 4-5 tng, do nhit trung
bnh T
1tb
ca qu trnh cp nhit 3451 cng tng ln trong khi T
2tb
gi nguyn, dn n hiu
sut nhit
t
ca chu trnh tng ln. Tuy nhin, khi tng p sut p
1
th kh ca hi cc tng
cui tuabin s gim, lm gim hiu sut v tui th tuabin. Khi tng nhit u th m
gim, nhng tng p sut u th m tng. Do trn thc t ngi ta thng tng ng
thi c p sut v nhit u tng hiu sut chu trnh m m khng tng, nn hiu sut
ca chu trnh Rankine thc t s tng ln. Chnh v vy, ng vi mt gi tr p sut u ngi
ta s chn nhit u tng ng, hai thng s ny gi l thng s kt i.
7.3. Chu trnh Rankine c qu nhit trung gian
Mun nng cao hiu sut nhit cng tng p sut p
1
v gim p sut cui p
2
, nhng khi
m ca hi nc cc tng cnh cui ca tuabin s tng, nh hng khng tt n hiu
sut, nng sut v bn ca tuabin. m cho php hin nay khng qu 14%. Nu tng t
1

th tng c hiu sut nhit, va gim m cc tng cnh cui ca tuabin, nhng nhit
t
1
b hn ch bi bn vt liu v ch vn hnh nn hin nay nhit khng vt qu
650
o
C. gim bt m ta c th s dng chu trnh c qu nhit trung gian, hn na nu
chn nhit qu nhit trung gian thch hp c th nng cao hiu sut ca chu trnh.
7.3.1. H thng thit b v chu trnh
H thng thit b khng khc my so vi chu trnh Rankine c bn, ch khc thit b
sinh hi, ngoi b qu nhit cn c b qu nhit trung gian 1b cp nhit cho hi nc sau
khi gin n trong phn tuabin cao p 2a trc khi i vo phn tuabin h p 2b( hnh 7-5).
Tng ng, chu trnh khc qu trnh cp nhit ng p gm giai on 3111 ging nh
trc, thm giai on ab. Qu trnh gin n cng chia thnh hai giai on 1a trong phn
tuabin cao p v b2 trong phn tuabin h p. C th gin n v gia nhit trung gian nhiu ln,
nhng xt v kinh t k thut thng dng khng qu hai ln.
7.3.2. Cng, nhit lng, hiu sut v sut tiu hao hi
Cng ca chu trnh c th tnh theo tng i s cng gin n ca cc qu trnh 31; ab;
b2 v 22; hoc tng cng k thut ca cc qu trnh 23; 1a; b2 hoc tng i s nhit lng
ca cc qu trnh 31; ab v 22 kt qu c:

s s
Hnh 7-4. nh hng ca nhit u v p sut u
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Cng ca chu trnh:
l
o
=( i
1
-i
a
) + (i
b
-i
2
) (i
3
-i
2
) ( i
1
-i
a
) + (i
b
-i
2
) v coi i
3
=i
2
(7-6)
Nhit lng cp vo:
q
1
=(i
1
-i
3
)+(i
b
-i
a
) (7-7)
Nhit lng thi ra:
q
2
=i
2
-i
2
Hiu sut ca chu trnh:

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
1 a b 2
T
1 3 b a
i i i i
i i i i
+

+
(7-8)
Sut tiu hao hi:
( ) ( )
1 a b 2
1
d
i i i i

+
; (kg/kJ) (7-9a)
hoc:
( ) ( )
1 a b 2
3600
d
i i i i

+
; (kg/kW.h) (7-9b)













7.4. Chu trnh hi nhit v chu trnh trch hi gia nhit nc cp
Chu trnh hi nhit l tng cng c hiu sut bng hiu sut ca chu trnh Carnot.
Chu trnh kh thc trong phm vi bo ha, v mt k thut c th thc hin chu trnh hi nhit
l tng v hiu sut nhit vn bng hiu sut nhit ca chu trnh Carnot, nhng trong thc t
vn rt kh thc hin chu trnh hi nhit hon ton, va gin n sinh cng, va nh nhit cho
mi cht; cho nn trong thc t thng thay th bng chu trnh trch hi gia nhit nc cp.
7.4.1. H thng thit b v chu trnh:
Thit b sinh hi 1, bnh ngng 3, tuabin 2, chia thnh ba giai on: 2a-cao p. 2b-
trung p v 2c-h p; ngoi bm 4 cn thm hai bm 4a v 4b; hai bnh gia nhit 5a v 5b
dng hi trch t tuabin gia nhit nc cp.













Hnh 7-5. S thit b v chu trnh Rankine c qu nhit trung gian

Hnh 7-6. Chu trnh trch hi gia nhit nc cp
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Nguyn l lm vic ca chu trnh nh sau:
1 kg nc cp t trng thi 3a qua thit b sinh hi 1 c cp nhit ng p theo qu trnh
3111, tip vo tuabin 2, sau phn cao p 2a th trch ra g
1
kg hi a vo bnh gia nhit
5a tin hnh qu trnh thi nhit ng p 2a2a cp nhit cho (1-g
1
) kg nc cp t trng
thi 3
b
n 2
a
.
(1-g
1
) kg hi nc i tip qua tuabin trung p 2b tip tc gin n on nhit 2
a
2
b
sinh cng,
li trch tip g
2
kg hi p sut p
2b
a vo bnh gia nhit 5b, thi nhit cho nc cp v
ngng t thnh nc 2
b
v cp nhit cho (1-g
1
-g
2
) kg nc cp t trng thi 3 n 2
b.
(1-g
1
-g
2
) kg hi nc i tip qua tuabin h p 2c tip tc gin n on nhit n p sut p
2
,
i vo bnh ngng 3, thi nhit ra mi trng bn ngoi theo qu trnh 22 v c bm 4
bm on nhit theo qu trnh 23; a vo bnh gia nhit 5b c cp nhit ng p n 32
b

ri hn hp vi g
2
kg nc ngng trong bnh gia nhit 5b to thnh nc trng thi 3
b
cng
i vo 5a cp nhit theo qu trnh 3
b
2
a,
tt c qua bm n trng thi 3
a
vo thit b sinh
hi kt thc mt chu trnh.
y, cn da vo s cn bng nhit trong cc b gia nhit 5a v 5b tnh lng hi trch
g
1
v g
2
.
Trong bnh gia nhit 5b, lng nhit do g
2
kg hi trch thi ra trong qu trnh ngng t phi
va gia nhit (1-g
1
-g
2
) kg nc ngng t trng thi 3 thnh nc bo ha 2
b
, ngha l:
g
2
(i
2b
-i
2b
) = (1-g
1
-g
2
)(i
2b
-i
3
)
Trong bnh gia nhit 5a, lng nhit do g
1
kg hi trch thi ra trong qu trnh ngng t phi
va gia nhit (1-g
1
) kg nc t trng thi 3b thnh nc bo ha trng thi 2
a
.
Ta c:
g
1
(i
2a
-i
2a
) = (1-g
1
)(i
2a
-i
3b
)
T rt ra:
'
2a 3b
1
2a 3b
i i
g
i i

(7-10a)
v:
'
2b 3
2
2b 3
i i
g
i i

(7-10b)

7.4.2. Cng, nhit lng, hiu sut v sut tiu hao hi
Cng sinh ra trong cc qu trnh gin n on nhit trong cc cp tuabin:
l
o
=1( i
1
-i
2a
) + (1-g
1
)(i
2a
-i
2b
) +(1-g
1
-g
2
)(i
2b
-i
2
)
Nu t g=1-g
1
-g
2
ta c:
l
o
= i
1
i
2a
g
1
i
2b
g
2
i
2
g (7-11a)
Cng dng bm thng rt nh nhng c th tnh:
l
b
= (1-g
1
-g
2
)(i
3b
-i
2
)+(1-g
1
)(i
3a
-i
2b
) + 1.(i
3
i
2a
)
Nhit lng cp vo:
q
1
=(i
1
-i
3
)i
1
-i
2a
(7-11b)
Nhit lng thi ra:
q
2
= (1-g
1
-g
2
)(i
2
-i
2
) (7-11c)
Hiu sut ca chu trnh:

( )
o 1 2a 1 2b 2 2
T
1 1 3
l i i g i g i g
q i i

(7-12a)

Sut tiu hao hi:
o 1 2a 1 2b 2 2
1 1
d
l i i g i g i g


; (kg/kJ) (7-12b)
Chu trnh gia nhit nc cp c dng kh rng ri v:
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120
1. C th nng cao hiu sut nhit ca chu trnh, p sut u cng cao, s ln gia nhit
cng nhiu th hiu qu cng cao, nhng thit b phc tp hn nn thng chn 3 n
5 ln, hin i c th n 10 ln.
2. Gim c kch thc ca tuabin cc tng cnh cui v lng hi nc i qua gim.
3. C th gim hoc b hn b hm nc.
7.5. Nh my in dng chu trnh kt hp Tuabin kh - hi
7.5.1. S thit b v nguyn l hot ng
Chu trnh hn hp l mt chu trnh ghp, gm chu trnh Rankine hi nc v chu trnh
Tuabin kh. S thit b v th T-s ca chu trnh c th hin trn hnh 7-7. H thng
thit b bao gm: thit b sinh hi 1 (bung t); tuabin hi nc 2; bnh ngng hi 3; bm
nc cp 4; b hm nc 5; tuc bin kh 6; my nn khng kh 7.
















Nguyn l lm vic ca chu trnh thit b nh sau: Khng kh c nn on nhit
trong my nn 7 n p sut v nhit cao, c a vo bung t 1 cng vi nhin liu v
chy trong bung t di p sut cao, khng i. Sau khi nh mt phn nhit cho nc trong
dn ng ca bung t 1, sn phm chy i vo tuabin kh 6, gin n sinh cng. Ra khi tua
bin kh, sn phm chy c nhit cn cao, tip tc i qua b hm nc 5, gia nhit cho nc
ri thi ra ngoi.
Nc c bm 4 bm qua b hm nc 5, vo dn ng ca bung t 1. y nc
nhn nhit v bin thnh hi qu nhit. Hi qu nhit i vo tuabin hi 2, gin n on nhit
v sinh cng. Ra khi tuabin, hi i vo bnh ngng 3 nh nhit ng p, ngng t thnh nc
ri c bm 4 bm tr v l, lp li chu trnh c.
th T-s ca chu trnh nhit c biu din trn hnh 7-7. Nhit lng do nhin liu
chy ta ra trong qu trnh b-e chia thnh hai phn: mt phn dng sn xut hi nc trong
thit b sinh hi 1, mt phn cp cho tuc bin kh 6; a-b: qu trnh nn on nhit khng kh
trong my nn kh 7; b-c: qu trnh cp nhit (chy) ng p trong bung t 1; c-d: qu trnh
gin n on nhit sinh cng trong tuc bin kh 6; d-a: qu trnh nh nhit ng p trong b
hm nc 5; 3-1-1-1: qu trnh nc nhn nhit ng p trong b hm 5 v bung t 1;
1-2; 2-2; 2-3 l cc qu trnh gin n on nhit trong tuc bin, ngng ng p trong bnh
ngng, nn on nhit trong bm nh chu trnh Rankine.
7.5.2. Tnh nhit, cng v hiu sut ca chu trnh
Ta tnh ng vi 1 kg hi nc. lng nhit thi ra ca tuabin kh gia nhit nc
cp n trng thi 4, khi dng 1 kg hi nc cn dng m kg sn phm chy tnh theo phng
trnh cn bng nhit:
m(i
d
i
a
) = i
4
i
3


4 3
d a
i i
m
i i

(7-13)

Hnh 7-7. Chu trnh kt hp tuabin kh - hi
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Nhit lng cp vo l nhit lng cp cho tuabin kh theo qu trn b-c v gia nhit
ng p cho hi nc theo qu trnh 4111:
q
1
= (i
1
i
4
) + m(i
c
i
b
) (7-14a)
Nhit lng thi ra l ca qu trnh 22:
q
2
= i
2
i
2
(7-14b)
Nhit lng do qu trnh d-a thi ra cung cp hm nc theo qu trnh 34 nn
khng tnh vo nhit lng trao i vi ngun.
Cng ca chu trnh c th vn tnh theo:
o 1 2
l q q , nhng r thm ngha vt l, ta tnh
theo cng thc ca tng chu trnh ng vi 1 kg hi nc:
l
o
= [(i
1
i
2
) +m(i
c
i
d
)]-[( i
4
i
3
)+m(i
b
i
a
)] (7-14c)
Hiu sut nhit ca chu trnh kt hp l:

o 1 2 c d 4 3 b a
t
1 1 4 c b
l (i i ) m(i i ) (i i ) m(i i )
q (i i ) m(i i )
+

+
(7-15)
7.6. Chu trnh lm lnh dng my nn hi
* Nh trn gii thiu: nhn c lnh theo phng php nhn to t xa ti
nay c rt nhiu cch. Ring thit b lm lnh c rt nhiu loi:
Thit b lnh dng my nn (hi v kh ), thit b lnh kiu hp th, my lnh kiu
phun (ejecto), thit b lnh kiu nhit in ...
* Nhng ni n thit b lnh ta phi quan tm trc tin n loi thit b lnh dng
my nn, nht l thit b lnh dng my nn hi. Thit b lnh nn hi chim 90% n 95%
tng s thit b lnh.
S d thit b lnh nn hi chim v tr quan trng nh vy v chng c nhng u im
c bn sau:
- ng dng thun li vo mi trng hp c nhu cu v lnh
- T hp my nn ng c gn nh n gin
- Khong nhit v cng sut lnh gn nh khng gii hn, p ng mi nhu cu
khc nhau.
- Thit b lm vic vi an ton, tin cy cao, c kh nng t ng ho cao v.v...
* nh gi hiu qu ca mt chu trnh ngc chiu ngi ta dng h s lm lnh .
Chu trnh ngc chiu Carnot l chu trnh c h s lm lnh cao nht so vi cc chu trnh
khc c cng nhit ngun nng v ngun lnh
- Vi chu trnh Carnot ta c h s lm lnh:

2 1
2
C
T T
T


Trong :
- T
1
l nhit ngun nng (nhit qu trnh ngng hi - nh nhit cho nn
y ta k hiu l T
k
).
- T
2
l nhit ngun lnh (trong bnh bc hi cht mi gii nhn nhit ca
ngun lnh bay hi ta k hiu l T
0
).
Do :
0 k
0
C
T T
T


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H s lm lnh ca chu trnh Carnot l ln nht nn c coi l h s lm lnh l
tng v c dng so snh hiu qu ca cc chu trnh ngc chiu khc nhau. lm
iu ngi ta a ra khi nim hiu sut execgi (hiu sut hu ch c th t c) ta k
hiu l :

0
0 k
C
T
T T
.


Trong : - - h s lm lnh ca chu trnh thc t.
-
C
- h s lm lnh ca chu trnh Carnot (chu trnh l tng).
7.6.1. Chu trnh Carnot
Chu trnh ngc chiu Carnot l chu trnh c h s lm lnh
C
l ln nht nhng
trong thc t ngi ta khng s dng n vo thit b lm lnh v n c nhng nhc im sau:
- thc hin hai qu trnh ho hi ng nhit v nh nhit ng nhit phi thc hin
chu trnh hon ton trong vng hi bo ho (nh hnh v).
- Trng thi 1 ca mi cht (trc khi c nn
on nhit) l hi bo ho m. m ca n phi
iu chnh sao cho cui qu trnh nn c trng
thi 2 l hi bo ho kh. Mt khc vic nn hn hp
va hi v nc l iu rt kh khn, c hai u rt
kh thc hin.
- Qu trnh 3-4: gin n on nhit i hi phi
c xy lanh gin n, tuy c sinh ngoi cng nhng
thit b cng knh phc tp, chi ph u t ln.
Chu trnh ngc chiu dng cho my nn
hi l mt chu trnh c ci tin:
+ My nn: nn hi bo ho kh
+ Xy lanh gin n c thay bng thit b tit lu
i vi thit b lm lnh mi cht l kh thc trong khong nhit thng gp qu trnh tit
lu lm p sut v nhit mi cht gim.
Nh vy, thit b ny rt n gin vn hnh thun li, gi thnh h. N c gi l chu
trnh thit b lm lnh kh dng ch yu cho mi cht l Amoniac.
Trng thi 1 ca mi cht lun l hi bo ho kh, vic tch m nh thit b tch m b tr
gia my nn v bnh bc hi (bung lnh).
2 3
q
k
s
1 4 q
o

T
T
k
T
o
K
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123
MN
NT
BH
TL
7.6.2. Chu trnh lm lnh kh:
a. S thit b:
TL: Thit b tit lu.
MN: My nn.
NT: Bnh ngng t.
BH: Bnh bc hi.

b. th (T - s) v (lgp - i)











Chu trnh kh gm cc qu trnh sau:
1-2: Nn on nhit (s
1
= s
2
) xy ra trong vng hi qu nhit.
2-2': Nh nhit ng p nhit gim t t
2
xung t
k
(nhit ngng t p sut p
k
).
2'-3: Qu trnh ngng hi ng p, ng nhit trong bnh ngng hi nh nhit cho mi
trng khng kh hoc nc lm mt.
3-4: Qu trnh tit lu mi cht lng i
3
= i
4
, p sut gim t p
k
xung p
o
. Qu trnh tit
lu l on nhit khng thun nghch nn entropi tng s
4
> s
3

4-1: Qu trnh ho hi ng p, ng nhit nhn nhit ca vt cn lm lnh.
* Nng sut lnh ring:
Nhit lng 1(kg) mi cht nhn c trong bung lnh (ng vi qu trnh ho hi ) c gi l nng
sut lnh ring ca chu trnh k hiu l q
o
:
q
o
= i
1
- i
4
; (kJ/kg) (7-16)
* Nng sut lnh ca thit b :
Q
o
= m.q
o
(Kw)
m: khi lng mi cht lnh c nn trong mt n v thi gian 1(giy)
*Cng nn on nhit:
Cng ca chu trnh:
l
o
= q
k
- q
o
(7-17)
Trong :
q
k
: nhit lng ca 1(kg) mi cht nh cho ngun nng trong bnh ngng.
q
k
= i
2
- i
3
T

S
1
=const T
0
p
0
i= const

4

1

K

3

i

lgp

q
0
5 6

7

s

2'

2

2''

1

3

4'

4

K

Hnh 7-8. Chu trnh lm lnh kh
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124
l
o
= q
k
- q
o
= i
2
- i
3
- (i
1
- i
4
) = i
2
- i
1

do i
3
= i
4
(3-4: l qu trnh tit lu)
Cng nn on nhit:
N
s
= m.l = m(i
2
i
1
)
* H s lm lnh ca chu trnh kh:

l
q
o
=
1 2
3 1
1 2
4 1
i i
i i
i i
i i

(7-18)
V q
o
< q
oC

l
o
> l
oC

Trn th T-s :
q
oC
- Biu din bng dt(4'571) < q
o
- Biu din bng dt(4671)
Do :
<
C

* Hiu sut execgi ca chu trnh :
1
C
<

(7-19)
Trong :

C
- h s lm lnh ca chu trnh Carnot
V d 1
Mt my lnh nn hi c hiu sut execgi = 0,8 nng sut lnh Q
o
= 10(Kw), t
o
= -10
o
C,
t
k
= 30
o
C. Xc nh h s lm lnh v cng nn on nhit N
s
.
Gii:
T biu thc:
26 , 5
263 303
263
. 8 , 0
T T
T
o k
o
c
c


) Kw ( 9 , 1
26 , 5
10 Q
N
N
Q
l
q
o
s
s
o
o
o


V d 2:
Mt chu trnh my lnh nn hi
lm vic nhit ngng t t
k
= 30
o
C v
nhit bay hi t
o
= - 10
o
C mi cht l
amoniac. Hy xc nh cc thng s p
sut, nhit , entanpi, entropi ca cc
im nt ca chu trnh . H s lnh v hiu
sut execgi cho hai trng hp:
a. Chu trnh Carnot ngc chiu
b. Chu trnh kh
Gii
+Vi chu trnh Carnot:
S dng th lgp-i:
lgp
i
D 4 A 1
B 2
K
C
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125
Chu trnh Carnot : abcd
Chu trnh kh :1234
* im B v C ln lt l giao im ca ng t
k
= 30
o
C vi ng gii hn x = 1 v x = 0
* im A v im D l giao im ca ng t
o
= -10
o
C vi ng on nhit qua B
v ng on nhit qua C.
+ Tng t ta xc nh cc im 1, 2, 3, 4 ca chu trnh kh. Sau khi xc nh c
cc im ABCD&1, 2, 3, 4 trn th lgp - i ta c tr s ti cc im trn:
Chu trnh Carnot Chu trnh kh
Trng
thi
P
(MPa)
t
o
C i
(kj/kg)
s
(kj/kg
o
K)
Trng
thi
P
(MPa)
t
o
C i
(kj/kg)
s
(kj/kg
o
K)
A
B
C
D
0,29
1,17
1,17
0,29
-10
30
30
-10
1620
1780
635
625
5,3
5,3
1,48
1,48
1
2
3
4
0,29
1,17
1,17
0,29
-10
87
30
-10
1748
1940
635
635
5,77
5,77
1,48
1,55

H s lm lnh ca chu trnh Carnot:
6 , 6
263 303
263
T T
T
o k
o
C


Hoc :

( ) ( )
6 , 6
i i i i
i i
D A C B
D A
C



H s lm lnh ca chu trnh kh:
8 , 5
i i
i i
1 2
4 1


Hiu sut execgi:
88 , 0
6 , 6
8 , 5
C


7.6.3. Chu trnh qu lnh - qu nhit
a/ Khi nim
Chu trnh c gi l qu lnh khi nhit ca mi cht lng trc khi i
vo van tit lu nh hn nhit ngng t (t
k
) v gi l chu trnh qu nhit khi nhit
hi ht v my nn ln hn nhit bay hi( t
o
). Trng thi ca hi ht nm trong vng
hi qu nhit.
khc phc cc mt hn ch ca chu trnh kh (mt i phn cng gin n do vic
thay xylanh gin n bng van tit lu) v tng nhit ca mi cht cui qu trnh nn t s
nn cho, ngi ta tin hnh lm lnh mi cht trc khi vo van tit lu(qu lnh) v qu
nhit cho mi cht trc khi c ht vo my nn.
* Qu trnh qu lnh mi cht
Nguyn nhn qu lnh c th do:
- C b tr thit b qu lnh lng sau thit b ngng t.
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126
- Thit b ngng t l thit b trao i nhit ngc dng nn mi cht lnh c qu
lnh ngay thit b ngng t.
- Do mi cht to nhit ra mi trng trn on ng ng t thit b ngng t n
van tit lu.
Trn th qu trnh qu lnh ng p (p
k
= const) c biu din bng on 3-3 (do
qu trnh ng p trn th T-s vng cha si trng vi ng gii hn di x = 0). R rng
thy rng vic qu lnh cho mi cht trc van tit lu tng nng sut lnh ca chu trnh ln
mt lng biu din bng din tch(5446) cn cng tiu tn khng thay i.
*Qu trnh qu nhit mi cht:
Vic qu nhit cho mi cht trc khi c ht vo my nn c tin hnh do:
- S dng van tit lu nhit, hi ra khi thit b bay hi bao gi cng c mt qu
nhit nht nh.
- Do ti nhit qu ln v thiu lng cp cho thit b bay hi.
- Do tn tht lnh trn ng ng t thit b bay hi n my nn.

























TL: van tit lu; QL: thit b qu lnh mi cht; BH: bnh bc hi;
Q
k
Q
o
BH
TL
QL
NT
MN
4 1'

1
2'
3'
3
lgp

i

2

1

2'
3'

3

4 4'

t
ql
1'
t
qn
t
qn
t
ql
s

1

2
2'
1'

4 4'
q
o
T
3
3
5 6

Hnh 7-9. Chu trnh lm lnh qu lnh qu nhit
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127
MN: my nn
Qu trnh 1 - 1' qu nhit hi ht
3 - 3' qu lnh lng trc khi vo van tit lu
qu nhit hi ht :
t
qn
= t
1
- t
1'
= t
1
- t
o
(7-20a)
qu lnh lng:
t
ql
= t
3'
- t
3
= t
k
- t
3
(7-20b)
So snh vi chu trnh kh ta thy:
- Do c qu nhit hi ht nn cng nn ring ln hn cht
t ,nng sut ht cng gim cht t do c th tch ring v tng. Cng nn ring l = i
2
- i
1

- Do c qu lnh lng nn nng sut lnh ring tng mt khong q
o
.
Nng sut lnh ring:
q
o
= i
1'
- i
4

Nu nhit bung lnh cao hn t
1
hoc thit b bay hi l ngc dng c th tnh:
q
o
= i
1
- i
4

b/ Tnh ton
th: T-s v lgp-i














- th: T -s
+ Qu trnh 1-2: nn on nhit mi cht lnh (mi cht trng thi hi qu nhit ).
+ Qu trnh 2-3: nh nhit ng p cho mi trng trong bnh ngng (2-2: lm lnh
hi qu nhit, 2-3: ngng hi, 3-3: qu trnh qu lnh mi cht lng)
+ Qu trnh 3-4: tit lu mi cht lng (entanpi khng i)
+ Qu trnh 4-1: nhn nhit ca mi cht v ho hi(4-1) sau qu nhit mi cht
(1-1).
Trn th T-s ta thy: nng sut lnh q
0
c biu din bng din tch (c41a), nhit mi cht
nh trong bnh ngng q
k
biu din bng din tch (a23b), cng tiu tn thc hin chu trnh
l
o
c biu din bng din tch (c4123b).
Bng cc din tch trn th T-s ta thit lp c cc cn bng sau:
q
o
+ l
o
= q
k

- th lgp-i:
Nhit mi cht nh ra (ngng hi ng p), nhn vo (ho hi), cng c xc
nh theo cc hiu s ca entanpi ti cc im c trng cho tng chu trnh:
q
o
= i
1
- i
4
; q
k
= i
2
- i
3
; l
o
= i
2
- i
1

lgp

i

2

1

2'

3'

3

4 4'

t
ql
1'
t
qn
t
qn
t
ql
s

1

2
2'
1'

4 4'
q
o
T
3
3
b c c

a

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128
Trn th lgp - i : q
o
, q
k
, l
o
c biu din bng cc on thng trn trc honh
Thc t, qu trnh qu nhit ho hi (1-1) thng c thc hin trong bnh bc
hi, trn on ng dn t bnh bc hi ti my nn. Nh vy, hiu qu lm lnh c
thc hin ch bi qu trnh ho hi 4-1. Do , nng sut lnh thc t q
o
= i
1
- i
4
. Hn
na vi mi cht amoniac hiu qu qu nhit l khng ng k cho nn c th b qua. Tc
l, ta tha nhn hi i ra khi bnh bc hi l hi bo ho kh. Vi cc my dng mi cht
l Freon nht thit phi tnh n qu nhit hi v vi cc my loi ny ngi ta a
vo mt thit b trao i nhit gia hi ra khi bnh bc hi v mi cht lng i vo van
tit lu. V vy, qu nhit c th t ti 30
0
C. Nh vy, mt cch gn ng nng sut
lnh trong trng hp ny q
o
= i
1
- i
4
v lng nhit mi cht nh ra trong bnh ngng ch
l: q
k
= i
2
- i
3
, cn cng nn vn l l
o
= i
2
- i
1

Thng thng chu trnh my lnh nn hi c xc nh bi 4 nhit :
- Nhit si t
o
ca ,mi cht trong bnh bc hi
- Nhit ngng t t
k
ca mi cht trong bnh ngng
- qu lnh ca mi cht lng trc van tit lu t
ql

- qu nhit ca hi c ht vo my nn t
qn

V d 3:
Cho chu trnh lm lnh nn hi mt cp mi cht l freon R12 nhit t
0
= -20
0
C,
t
k
= 35
0
C, t
ql
= 30
0
C, t
qn
= -5
0
C. Biu din chu trnh trn th T-s v lgp-i. Xc
nh cc thng s ca mi cht lnh ti cc im nt ca chu trnh.
Bi gii
* th:












thun li ta bt u t vic k ng t
0
= -20
0
C. ng ny trong vng bo ho
trng vi ng p
0
= 0,151MPa ( tra bng hi freon bo ho). Trong vng hi bo ho ng
t
0
= -20
o
C ct ng gii hn trn x = 1 ti im 1(hi bo ho kh ). Hi bo ho kh c
qu nhit theo ng p
o
=const ( ng thng song song vi trc i trn th lgp-i). Trng
thi hi qu nhit i vo my nn c biu din bng im 1 (l giao im ca ng p =
0,155MPa v ng t
qn
= -5
o
C). Trng thi hi cui qu trnh nn c biu din bng im 2
(l giao im ca ng s = 4,6 (Kj/kg.) qua im 1 vi ng ng p p
k
= 0,846 MPa
(tra bng hi freon bo ho tng ng vi t
k
= 35
o
C) trng vi ng ng nhit trong vng
hi bo ho. im 2 l giao im ca ng x = 1 v ng p
k
= const ( biu din trng thi
hi bo ho kh ). im 3 nm trn ng x = 0( biu din trng thi mi cht lng si).
im 3 ( trng thi mi cht lng qu lnh ) l giao im ca ng ng nhit t
ql
= 30
0
C v
lgp

i

2

1

2'
3'

3

4 4'

t
ql
1'
t
qn
t
qn
t
ql
s

1

2
2'
1'

4 4'
q
o
T
3
3
b c c

a

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129
ng p
k
= const. im 4 ( trng thi mi cht sau tit lu) l giao im ca ng i = 429
(kJ/kg) qua im 3 v ng p
o
= 0,151MPa.
Sau khi xc nh c cc im 122334 trn th lgp-i v T-s ta c th xc
nh 5 thng s tr th tch ring ca mi cht lng cc im 3 v 3( ta c th tm
chng bng cch tra bng hi freon bo ho).
Tuy vy, n gin v chnh xc hn ta nn dng bng hi qu nhit v hi bo ho
xc nh cc thng s. Theo bng hi bo ho ta xc nh c p
0
, p
k
v cc thng s khc ti
cc im 1 2 3 da vo t
o
= -20
o
C, t
k
= 35
o
C. Cng theo bng ny ta xc nh c cc
thng s ca mi cht lng trng thi 3 theo t = 30
o
C nhng lu l p sut im 3:
p
k
= p
3
ch khng phi l tr s tra theo t = 30
o
C. Theo bng hi qu nhit ta tra ra cc thng
s ti im 1 v 2.
im 1 c xc nh bi 2 thng s: p
o
= 0,151MPa v t
qn
= -5
o
C. im 2 c xc nh bi 2
thng s p
k
= 0,846MPa v s = 4,6 (kj/kg.).
Tr s cc thng s ti cc im nt ca chu trnh c biu din trong bng di y
Cc thng s Cc im
p( MPa) t(
o
C) v(m
3
/kg) i(kj/kg) s(kj/kg.)
1
1
2
2
3
3
4
0,151
0,151
0,846
0,846
0,846
0,846
0,151
-20
-5
60
35
35
30
20
0,109
0,117
0,024
0,021
0,00079
0,00077
0,03
542,96
551,96
584,81
556,64
434,09
429,08
429,08
4,57
4,60
4,60
4,55
4,12
4,09
4,10

T cc thng s trong bng trn ta c th tnh c cc i lng sau:
- Nng sut lnh: q
o
= i
1
- i
4
= 551,96 - 429,08 = 122,88(kj/kg)


- Lng nhit mi cht nh ra trong bnh ngng:
q
k
= i
2
- i
3
= 584,81 - 429,08 = 155,73(kj/kg)
- Cng nn 1(kg) mi cht ca chu trnh:
l
o
= i
2
- i
1
= 584,81 - 551,96 = 32,85 (kj/kg)


















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130
Chng 8
NHIT NG HA HC
8.1. ng dng nh lut nhit ng mt cho cc phn ng ha hc
8.1.1. Khi nim
Trc y ta nghin cu cc qu trnh nhit ng ca mi cht, khi m cc thnh phn
ha hc ca chng khng thay i (khng xy ra phn ng ha hc). Thc t trong cc thit b
nng lng c nhng qu trnh trong c xy ra phn ng ha hc. V d: qu trnh chy
nhin liu trong bung t (l hi, tuabin kh) hay trong xylanh (ng c t trong). Trong
qu trnh chy, khi nhit cao cn xy ra qu trnh phn ly (phn ng ngc chiu) cc
phn t phc tp thnh cc phn t n gin hn. Trong cc thit b bc hi, thit b lm lnh
ca my lnh cng c cc phn ng ha hc xy ra.
Trong phn trc, trng thi ca mi cht c xc nh khi bit hai thng s trng
thi c lp, y phi bit ba thng s. Ngoi cc thng s trng thi bit trc y, cn
thm mt thng s na l nng , thng c k hiu l C. Nng l lng vt cht
(mol, ) cha trong mt n v th tch (m
3
). Thc t, vi cc phn ng ha hc ng ch
l cc qu trnh ng tch-ng nhit (phn ng xy ra trong h kn), qu trnh ng p-ng
nhit (phn ng xy ra trong h h). y cn ch rng, s khng i ca cc thng s ch
tnh trng thi u v cui, cn cc gi tr trung gian c th khc nhau.
Trong chng ny, ni nng ca cc cht bao gm ni nhit nng v ni ha nng (khng k
n cc dng ni nng khc). Tuy nhin, nh ni, khi ch nghin cu ti cc qu trnh ng
nhit th bin i ni nng xem nh bng khng. Vy, khi nim ni nng y m ch ni
ha nng. Trong cc phn ng ha hc ngoi cng thay i th tch, cng k thut, h cn c
th thc hin cng khc nh c nng, in nng, Tuy nhin, y ta khng xt ti cc dng
cng khc .
Trong phn ny ta s quy c du ca nhit lng Q trong cc phn ng ha hc
ging nh trong cc sch ha hc thng dng (ngc vi quy c du trong cc phn trc
hc). l: phn ng ta nhit Q > 0 (trc y l nhit ly ra nn c gi tr m); phn
ng thu nhit Q < 0 (trc y l nhit em vo c gi tr dng).
8.1.2. Hiu ng nhit ca phn ng
Hiu ng nhit ca phn ng l lng nhit ln nht m h (cc cht tham gia phn
ng) trao i vi mi trng, y chnh l lng nhit trong phn ng ha hc sinh ra (hoc
hp th) mt cch thun nghch v khng thc hin cng ngoi vi mi trng.
Theo phng trnh nh lut nhit ng I dng tng qut, khi k hiu nhit vi cc quy c
du ca n l Q, ta c:
n12
Q' W l + (a)
y theo nh ngha nhit phn ng, ta c l
n12
= 0 v vi cch quy c du mi
ngc vi c, ta c Q = -Q. Vy t (a) ta c biu thc xc nh nhit phn ng:
Q W hay
1 2
Q W W W (b)
y:
W
1
nng lng ton phn ca cht tham gia phn ng
W
2
nng lng ton phn ca sn phm phn ng.
T (b) ta thy nhit sinh ra do s gim nng lng ton phn ca h.
Vi qu trnh ng tch - ng nhit (h kn), ta c W U , vy t (b) ta c:
V 1 2
Q U U (8-1)
Vi qu trnh ng p - ng nhit (h h), ta c W I (khi b qua ng nng v th
nng), vy t (b) ta c:
p 1 2
Q I I (8-2)

Ta bit rng I = U pV, khi p = const th I U p V + .
Vy t (8-2) ta c:
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131
( )
( )
( )
P 2 1
P 1 2 2 1
P V 2 1
Q I I I U p V
Q U U p V V
Q Q p V V



(8-3)
Biu thc trn nu ln mi quan h gia nhit phn Q
p
v Q
v
.
Ta c th bin i (8-3) nh sau: gi s mol ca cc cht tham gia phn ng l n
1
, s mol ca
cc cht to thnh sau phn ng l n
2
(ch tnh cho cc cht kh khng k n cht lng v
cht rn). Bin i s mol
2 1
n n n . Khi coi cc kh trong phn ng l kh l tng, ta c
phng trnh trng thi ca kh trong phn ng p = const, T = const nh sau:
1 1
2 2
pV n R T
pV n R T


T y ta c:
( ) ( )
2 1 2 1
p V V n n R T nR T

(c)
Khi th (c) vo (12-3) ta c:
p v
Q Q nR T

(8-4)
T (8-4) ta nhn thy nhit cng ln th s khc nhau gia gi tr Q
p
v Q
v
cng nhiu.
Khi n 0 ta c
p v
Q Q ; khi n 0 > th
p v
Q Q < v khi n 0 < th
p v
Q Q > .
Ta ly vi v d:
V d 1: C + O
2
= CO
2

Trong phn ng ny s mol cc cht tham gia phn ng n
1
= 1 (khng k cht cacbon v l th
rn), v s mol cc cht to thnh n
2
= 1. Vy,
2 1
n n n 0 v ta c:
p v
Q Q
V d 2: 2C + O
2
= 2CO
2

Trong phn ng ny n
1
= 1; n
2
= 2. Vy n 1 v ta c:
p v
Q Q R T


Ngha l
p v
Q Q <
V d 3: 2H
2
+ O
2
= 2H
2
O
y: n
1
= 2 + 1 = 3; n
2
= 2. Vy n 2 3 1 v ta c:
p v
Q Q R T

+
Ngha l
p v
Q Q >
8.1.3. nh lut Ghex
Nm 1840 nh bc hc Ghex ngi Nga tm ra quy lut v s c lp ca hiu ng
nhit ca qu trnh phn ng ha hc. nh lut Ghex pht biu nh sau:
Hiu ng nhit ca qu trnh phn ng ha hc c xc nh bi trng thi u, trng thi
cui m khng ph thuc vo nhng trng thi trung gian ca h.
T nh lut ny ta suy ra:
a. Hiu ng nhit phn hy mt hp cht no ng bng hiu ng nhit khi to thnh
n nhng c du ngc li. (Ngha l hiu ng nhit ca phn ng theo chiu thun v
chiu ngc bng nhau nhng ngc du). Ta c:
1
2
aA+bB cC dD Q
cC dD aA bB Q
+ +
+ + +

y:
1 2
Q Q
b. Nhit cn to nn mt cht no khng ph thuc vo qu trnh to nn cht .
V d:
2 2
C O CO Q + +
2 2 1
2C O 2CO Q + +
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132
2 2 2
2CO O 2CO Q + +
y ta c: Q = Q
1
+ Q
2
c. H ha hc t trng thi ban u A c th chuyn n trng thi B bng nhng cch
khc nhau, v d ACDB hay AEB (hnh 12.1), th tng hiu ng nhit theo cc cch s
bng nhau. Ta c:
1 2 3 4 5
Q Q Q Q Q + + +
d. Khi hai phn ng xy ra t nhng trng thi ban u khc nhau A v B (hnh 12.2)
nhng cng n trng thi cui C, hiu s hiu ng nhit ca chng bng hiu ng
nhit khi chuyn t trng thi u A n trng thi u B. Tht vy, heo quy lut (c)
va nu trn, ta c:
Q + Q
2
= Q
1

nn: Q
1
- Q
2
= Q
Kt lun ny gip ta xc nh hiu ng nhit ca phn ng kh lm th nghim (v d Q) nh
hiu ng nhit ca cc phn ng khc bit (Q
1
, Q
2
).
V d: Cn xc nh hiu ng nhit Q ca phn ng:
C + 1/2O
2
= CO + Q
Ta bit rng:
2 2 1
C O CO Q + +
C + 1/2O
2
= CO + Q
2

y Q
1
, Q
2
bit, vy ta c:
Q = Q
1
- Q
2
e. Hiu ng nhit ca phn ng bng tng s nhit to thnh cc sn phm cui tr i
tng s nhit to thnh cc cht ban u. V d:
CH
4
+ 3O
2
= 2CO
2
+ 2H
2
O + Q
2
2 2 2 4
CO H O C H
Q 2Q 2Q Q +
12.1.4. nh lut Kic xp
Hiu ng nhit ca phn ng ph thuc vo cc thng s biu th trng thi ca h. Thc
nghim cho thy hiu ng nhit thay i khi cc thng s (trc ht l nhit ) ca h thay
i.
Nm 1858 Kic xp thit lp s ph thuc ca hiu ng nhit vo nhit ca phn ng.
T (12-1) v (12-2) ta thy hiu ng nhit ph thuc vo hiu ni nng v entanpi ca cc
cht kh tham gia phn ng v sn phm phn ng. Khi gi thit ni nng v entanpi ca cc
cht kh ch ph thuc vo nhit , t v d theo (12-2) khi p = const, ta c:
p 1 2
p
1 2
p p
p
p
p1 p2
Q I I
dQ
dI dI
dT dT dT
dQ
C C
dT

_
_ _


, ,
,

(12-5)
Xt phn ng dng tng qut:
a b c d
n A n B n C n D + +
y n
a
, n
b
, n
c
, v n
d
l s mol ca cc cht kh tham gia phn ng v sn phm phn ng.
Vy ta c:
p1 a pA b pB
C n C n C +
p2 c pC d pD
C n C n C + (a)
Th (a) vo (12-5) ta c:
( )
p
a pA pB c pC d pD
dQ
n C n n C n C
dT
+ + (b)
Nhit dung ring ca cc cht kh ph thuc vo nhit theo quan h:
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133
2
pi i i i
2
pA A A A
2
pB B B B
2
pC C C C
2
pD D D D
C a b d T ...
C a b d T ...
C a b d T ...
C a b d T ...
C a b d T ...
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
(c)
Khi th (c) vo (b) ta c:
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
p
a A A A b B B B c C C C
d D D D
p
A A b B c C d D a A b B c C d D
2 2 2 2 ' ' '
a A b B c C d D 0 1 2
dQ
n a b T d T ... n a b T d T ... n a b T d T ...
dT
n a b T d T ...
dQ
n a n a n a n a n b T n b T n b T n b T
dT
n d T n d T n d T n d T ... T T ...
+ + + + + + + + + +
+ + +
+ + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + +
(d)
y:
'
0 a A b B c C d D
'
1 a A b B c C d D
'
2 a A b B c C d D
n a n a n a n a
n b n b n b n d
n d n d n d n d
+
+
+

Khi phn tch chng trnh (d) t nhit
0
T n
'
T ta c:
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
0 0
0
T T
' ' 2
p o 1 2
T T
T
' ' 2
p p 0 0 1 2
T
dQ T T ... dT
Q T Q T T T ... dT
+ + +
+ + + +

(12-6)
Tng t t (12-1) i vi phn ng v = const, T = const, ta c kt qu:
( ) ( ) ( )
0
0
T
' ' ' 2
v v 0 1 2
T T
T
Q Q T T ... dT + + + +

(12-7)
y chnh l phng trnh ca nh lut Kic- xp.
Trong cc biu thc (12-6) v (12-7) khi chn t
0
= 25
0
C (p = 760,mmHg) ngi ta xc nh
nhit phn ng
( ) ( )
0
0
p v
T
T
Q , Q gi l hiu ng nhit tiu chun. T ta c th tnh c hiu
ng nhit phn ng nhit bt k T no ca phn ng.
12.2. NG DNG NH LUT NHIT NG TH HAI VO CC QU TRNH HA
HC
12.2.1. Khi nim
Phn ng ha hc
Phn ng ha hc c hiu l qu trnh m trong cc phn t ca nhng cht ban u
(cht tham gia phn ng) nhng iu kin nht nh khi va chm s tc ng ln nhau, b
ph hy v to nn nhng phn t ca cht mi (sn phm phn ng). Tuy nhin nhng cht
mi c to thnh (sn phm) cng c th tc dng ln nhau to thnh cht ban u tham
gia phn ng. Tm li, phn ng c th tin hnh theo hai chiu: chiu thun to ra sn phm
(cht C, D), chiu ngc to nn cht tham gia phn ng (cht A, B). Ta c th vit:
A B C D + +
Thng thng, nhng iu kin nht nh, lng cht sn phm thu c ca phn ng
thun ln hn lng cht sn phm b phn hy theo phn ng ngc. iu ny cho php ta
to ra sn phm mi. Ni cch khc, t trng thi ban u n lc cn bng, tc ca phn
ng thun ln hn tc ca phn ng ngc.
Tc phn ng ha hc
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134
Tc phn ng ha hc l lng vt cht tnh bng mol trong mt n v th tch (tc nng
C) tham gia phn ng trong mt n v thi gian:
3
dC
; mol / m .s
d


Cn bng ha hc
giai on u, trong mt n v thi gian, lng cc cht c to nn (sn phm) trong
phn ng thun ln hn nhiu lng sn phm b phn hy tr li theo phn ng ngc (tc
tc
1
ca phn ng theo chiu thun ln hn nhiu tc
2
ca phn ng xy ra theo
chiu ngc). Tip theo , tc
1
gim dn (lng sn phm b phn hy trong mt n
v thi gian tng). n khi
1 2
, ta ni h trng thi cn bng ha hc, ngha l lc ny
lng sn phm to ra bng lng sn phm b phn hy i (khng to ra sn phm c
na) v phn ng ha hc ngng li.
12.2.2. nh lut tc dng khi lng v hng s cn bng
nh lut tc dng khi lng ni rng: tc phn ng ha hc t l vi nng cc cht
ban u. (Bi v theo quan im nhit ng hc phn t, tc ha hc t l vi s va chm
ca cc phn t m s va chm li t l vi nng .) Vy trong phn ng ta c:
aA+bB cC+dD
v tc ca phn ng thun
1
(khi cc cht u dng kh) bng
a b
1 1 A B
K C C (12-8)
Tng t i vi phn ng ngc:
cC dD aA+bB +
Tc ca phn ng ngc
2
bng:
c d
2 2 C D
K C C (12-9)
Trong (12-8) v (12-9) K
1
, K
2
gi l hng s tc phn ng, n ph thuc vo tnh cht
ha hc ca cc cht, nhit ,
Khi h trng thi cn bng ha hc tc
1 2
, phn bit ta dng k hiu vi nt gch
ngang pha trn ch lc trng thi cn bng, ta c:
a b c d
A B 2 C D
KC C K C C
T ta c;
a b
2 A B
c
c d
1
C D
K C C
K
K
C C
(12-10)
K
c
gi l hng s cn bng. i vi phn ng kh l tng, hng s ny ph thuc vo nhit
.
Hng s cn bng c xc nh bng thc nghim hoc bng tnh ton v n c ngha ln
i vi cc nh ha hc. T (12-10) ta thy trong mt phn ng ha hc (vi mong mun xy
ra theo chiu thun) khi kt thc phn ng ( trng thi cn bng) i hi cc cht tham gia
phn ng cn li t nht (nng
A B
C , C nh), cn cc cht to thnh sau phn ng sn
phm ca phn ng cng nhiu cng tt (nng
C D
C , C ln), ngha l hng s cn bng K
c

c gi tr cng nh cng tt.
V d hng s cn bng K
c
ca phn ng:
2 2
2
co o2
c
2
co2
2CO O 2CO
C C
K
C
+


Khi coi cc cht kh A, B, C, D l kh l tng, ta c th tm hng s cn bng K
c
theo phn
p sut. T phng trnh trng thi kh l tng vi s mol l n ta c:
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135
pV nR T

v
n p
C
V R T


T ta c:
A
A
P
C ;
R T


C
C
P
C ;
R T

(a)
B
B
P
C ;
R T


D
D
P
C ;
R T


Khi th (a) vo (12-10) ta c:
( )
( )
a b
c d a b
A B
c
c d
C D
n
c p
P P
K . R T
P P
K K R T
+

(12-11)
y:
K
p
hng s cn bng biu din theo phn p sut ca cc cht kh trong phn ng;
n c d a b + : bin thin s mol ca cc cht.
Khi n 0 th:
A B
p
c d
C D
P P
K
P P
(12-12)
T (12-11) ta nhn thy khi n 0 (s mol ca cc cht kh tham gia phn ng bng s mol
ca cc cht kh to thnh sau phn ng) th K
c
= K
p
. nhit d cng cao K
c
v K
p
khc nhau
cng ln.
Cc cng thc trn ng cho cc phn ng dng cc cht kh (mt pha), tuy nhin c th p
dng cho h nhiu pha (kh, rn, lng) nhng khi khng k n pha rn v lng. V d:
2
C O CO +
V n 1 1 0 (khng k n ccbon l th rn) nn ta c:
o2
c p
co2
P
K K
P

V d khc:
C O 2CO +
y n 2 1 1 nn ta c:
c p
K K R T


12.2.3. Cng c ch ln nht v i lc ha hc
a. Cng c ch ln nht
Vi phn ng ha hc v = const, T = const (h kn), ta bit rng biu thc cng ln nht (7-
48) khi mi cht khng chuyn ng (h kn) bin i t trng thi ban u 1 n trng thi
cn bng cui, vi mi trng 0 mt cch thun nghch l ng cho mi trng hp trong
c h ha hc:
( ) ( )
max10 1 2 o 1 2 o 1 2
L U U p V V T S S + (a)
y v = const nn p
o
(V
1
V
2
) v v T = const nn T
o
= T (v nh ni c qu trnh
truyn nhit thun nghch gia mi cht v mi trng, truyn nhit ch c th xy ra nhit
mi trng.) Vy t (a) ta c biu thc cng ln nht ca phn ng ha hc ng tch-ng
nhit nh sau:
( ) ( ) ( )
v
max10 1 o 1 o 1 1 1 o o o 1 o
L U U T S S U TS U T S Z Z (12-13)
y:
Z = U TS gi l ni nng t do.
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Khi phn ng ha hc v = const; T = const bin i t trng thi ban u 1 n trng thi
cui 2 (cha cn bng vi mi trng), cng c ch ln nht ca phn ng s l:
( )
v
max12 1 2 1 2 1 2
L Z Z U U T S S (12-14)
Biu thc (12-14) cho thy phn ng ha hc v = const; T = const xy ra vi du hiu ni
nng t do gim (Z
1
> Z
2
) v h sinh cng c ch ln nht. Khi h trng thi cn bng vi
mi trng (Z
1
= Z
o
) phn ng ha hc s ngng li v h khng c th sinh cng c ch na.
Vy gi tr tuyt i ca h l du hiu ni ln kh nng xy ra qu trnh (phn ng) ca h.
Tng t nh vy, i vi phn ng p = const v T = const (h h). T biu thc cng c ch
ln nht ca dng mi cht (7-53), khi bin i thun nghch t trng thi ban u 1 n
trng thi cn bng mi trng 0:
( )
p
max10 1 o o 1 o
L I I T S S (b)
y tng t nh trn v T = const nn T = T
o
v khi k hiu = I - TS gi l entropi t
do, ta c biu thc cng ln nht ca biu thc ng p, ng nhit:
p
max12 1 o
L (12-15)
Khi phn ng bin i t trng thi 1 n trng thi 2 (cha cn bng vi mi trng) h
sinh cng c ch ln nht:
p
max12 1 2
L (12-16)
Biu thc (12-16) cho thy, phn ng ha hc p = const v T = const xy ra khi entanpi t do
gim
1 2
( ) > , h sinh cng c ch ln nht, phn ng s ngng li khi h trng thi cn
bng vi mi trng
1 2
( ) . y, tng t nh trn, gi tr tuyt i ca cng c ch
ln nht cng l du hiu xy ra phn ng.
b. i lc ha hc
Mt vn cn gii quyt khi tin hnh kho st cc qu trnh ha hc l xc nh kh nng
xy ra phn ng.
i lc ha hc l tp hp cc iu kin ni ln kh nng xy ra mt phn ng ha hc.
Nh ni, du hiu ni ln kh nng xy ra phn ng ha hc loi v = const; T = const v p
= const; T = const l ni nng t do Z gim , entanpi t do gimhay gi tr tuyt i cng
c ch ln nht khc 0. Khi Z = Z
min
,
min
( ) hay
v
max
L 0 v
p
max
L 0 phn ng ha hc
k trn s ngng li (h trng thi cn bng vi mi trng).
Vy i lc ha hc ca nhng cht tham gia phn ng ha hc chnh l gi tr cng c ch ln
nht ca phn ng .
Phn ng v = const; T = const xy ra theo chiu thun nu nng lng t do ca h gim (Z
1

> Z
2
) hay cng ln nht c gi tr dng (
v
max12
L 0 > ). Ngc li, phn ng ny xy ra theo
chiu ngc li khi ni nng t do ca h tng (Z
1
< Z
2
), hay cng ln nht c gi tr m
(
v
max12
L 0 < ). Tng t nh vy, vi phn ng p = const; T = const, khi entanpi t do gim
1 2
( ) > hay cng ln nht c gi tr dng (
p
max12
L 0 > ) phn ng xy ra theo chiu thun.
Ngc li, khi
1 2
( ) < hay
p
max12
(L 0) < , phn ng xy ra theo chiu ngc. Vi c hai
laoij phn ng trn gi tr cng ln nht cng ln phn ng cng d xy ra.
By gi ta tm mi quan h gia i lc ha hc v hng s can bng. thun tin ta k hiu
cng ln nht ca phn ng ng tch-ng nhit l L
v,T
v cng ln nht ca phn ng ng
p-ng nhit l L
p,T
.
Xt phn ng ha hc ca cc cht kh dng:
aA+bB cC+dD (a)
Cng ln nht ca h on nhit trnh by trong mc 7.3. y, h on nhit gm cc
cht kh trong phn ng ha hc v mi trng (kh quyn, ). Cng ln nht L
v,T
l cng
ln nht ca h on nhit . Nh ni trong phn 7.3, cng ca h bng tng i s cng
ca mi cht (cc cht kh trong phn ng) v cng ca mi trng. Vi phn ng v = const
(tng th tch ca cc cht kh trong phn ng khng i), th tch ca mi trng cng khng
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137
i v cng thay i th tch ca mi trng s bng khng. Vy, cng ln nht L
v,T
l tng
s cng thay i th tch ca cc cht kh trong phn ng ha hc:
L
v,T
= L
A
+ L
B
L
C
L
D
(b)
y, tng th tch ca cc cht kh A, B, C, D khng i th khi A, B gin n C, D phi
b nn.
Khi T = const, cng thay i th tch ca qu trnh ng nhit ca kh l tng s l:
1
2
p
L pVln
p
(c)
T phng trnh trng thi ca kh l tng vi s mol l n:
pV nR T

v t
n
p R T CR T
v


y
3
n
C ; mol / m
v

Vy t (c) ta c:
1
2
C
L nR Tln
C

(d)
Khi k hiu C
1
= C (nng trng thi ban u); C C (nng trng thi cui ca phn
ng trng thi cn bng ha hc). T (d) v (a) ta c:
A
A
A
C
L aR Tln
C


C
C
C
C
L cR Tln
C

(e)

B
B
B
C
L bR Tln
C


D
D
D
C
L dR Tln
C


Trong a, b, c v d l s mol ca cc cht tham gia phn ng v sn phm ca pahnr ng (a)
ni trn.
Khi thay (e) v (b) ta c:
( )
c a b d
C A B D
V.T
a b c d
A B C D
a b a b c d c d
A B A B C D C D
a b a b
A B A B
c d
c d
C D
C D
C C C C
L R T ln ln ln ln
C C C C
R T ln C ln C ln C ln C ln C ln C ln C ln C
C C C C
R T ln ln
C C
C C

_
+

,
+ + +
_


,

a b
A B
v' T c c d
C D
C C
L R T ln ln K
C C

_


,
(12-17)
Khi thay
( )
n
c p
K K R T

vo (12-17) ta c:
( )
a b
A B
v' T p c d
C D
C C
L R T ln ln K n ln R T
C C

_


,
(f)
Nh va ni, ta c p CR T

, t
p
C
R T

. Vy ta c th vit:
a
a A
A
P
C
R T



,

c
c C
C
P
C
R T



,

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138
b
b B
B
P
C
R T



,

d
d D
D
P
C
R T



,
(i)
Khi th (i) vo (f) v vi n c d a b + ta c:
Vy ta c biu thc cng ln nht ph thuc vo K
p
theo quan h sau:
a b
A B
v' T p c d
C D
P P
L R T ln ln K
P P

_


,
(12-18)
Trong h on nhit gm mi cht chuyn ng v mi trng (kh quyn, ) hnh 7-14, kh
quyn c th trao i cng ngoi vi mi cht. Cng ngoi ca kh quyn bao gm cng thay
i th tch
K o
L p VK v s gim nng lng y
K o
D p VK (vi mi trng khng
c bin i ng nng v th nng.) Vy y, cng ngoi kh quyn s bng
0
nK K K
L L D 0 .
Vi phn ng p = const v T = const, khi coi cc cht trong phn ng v mi trng l h
on nhit, cng ln nht ca h bng tng cng ngoi ca cc cht trong phn ng v cng
ngoi ca mi trng. V nh ni, cng ngoi ca mi trng bng khng nn cng ln
nht ca h
p' T
L bng cng ngoi ca cc cht trong phn ng
kt
L ( y l cng k thut v
khi p = const cc cht trong phn ng l h h):
p' T
L =
kt
L . Tuy nhin, khi T = const, i vi
kh l tng, cng k thut bng cng thay i th tch v khi cng xt phn ng dng (a) ta
c:
p' T A B C D
L L L L L +
Cng vic tip theo hon ton nh trn, kt qu ta cng c biu thc cng ln nht
p' T
L ph
thuc vo K
c
hoc K
p
theo (12-17) hoc (12-18):
a b
A B
p' T c c d
C D
C C
L R T ln ln K
C C

_


,
(12-19)

a b
A B
p' T p c d
C D
P P
L R T ln ln K
P P

_


,
(12-20)
Mc d v tri ca cc biu thc (12-17), (12-18), (12-19), (12-20) l ging nhau nhng gi
tr
v' T
L v
p' T
L thng khc nhau v chng thuc cc qu trnh khc nhau. Cc phng trnh
trn gi l phng trnh ng nhit ca phn ng dng cho kh l tng, cng c th tnh gn
ng cho kh thc. Khi dng cc phng trnh trn cho h nhiu pha, ta khng tnh n pha
lonhr hoc rn.
T cc biu thc trn ta thy, i lc ha hc (cng ln nht) ca phn ng thun chiu cng
ln (phn ng cng d xy ra) khi gi tr cc hng s cn bng K
c
, K
p
nh. i lc ha hc c
gi tr dng
v' T
L > 0 v
p' T
L > 0, phn ng xy ra theo chiu thun; ngc li khi
v' T
L < 0 v
p' T
L < 0 phn ng s xy ra theo chiu ngc.









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