You are on page 1of 168

HC VIN CNG NGH BU CHNH VIN THNG

=====

=====

SCH BI GING

VT L I CNG A2
(Dng cho sinh vin h o to i hc t xa) Lu hnh ni b

H NI - 2005

HC VIN CNG NGH BU CHNH VIN THNG

BI GING

VT L I CNG A2

Bin son :

TS. V TH THANH H ThS. HONG TH LAN HNG TS. L TH MINH THANH

Hiu nh:

Li ni u

LI NI U
Tp VT L I CNG (A2) ny l tp hai ca b sch hng dn hc tp mn Vt l i cng cho sinh vin h o to i hc t xa ca Hc vin Cng ngh Bu chnh Vin thng, c bin son theo chng trnh ci cch gio dc do B Gio dc v o to thng qua (1990). B sch gm hai tp: Tp I: VT L I CNG (A1) bao gm cc phn C, NHIT, IN, T do Ts. V Vn Nhn, Ts. V inh Chu v Ks. Bi Xun Hi bin son. Tp II: VT L I CNG (A2) bao gm cc phn QUANG HC, THUYT TNG I HP, C HC LNG T V VT L NGUYN T do Ts. V Th Thanh H v ThS. Hong Th Lan Hng bin son. Tp sch Vt l i cng A2 gm 8 chng: - Chng I: Dao ng in t - Chng II: Giao thoa nh sng - Chng III: Nhiu x nh sng - Chng IV: Phn cc nh sng - Chng V: Thuyt tng i hp - Chng VI: Quang hc lng t - Chng VII: C hc lng t - Chng VIII: Vt l nguyn t. Trong mi chng u c: 1. Mc ch, yu cu gip sinh vin nm c trng tm ca chng. 2. Tm tt ni dung gip sinh vin nm bt c vn t ra, hng gii quyt v nhng kt qu chnh cn nm vng. 3. Cu hi l thuyt gip sinh vin t kim tra phn c v hiu ca mnh. 4. Bi tp gip sinh vin t kim tra kh nng vn dng kin thc l thuyt gii quyt nhng bi ton c th. Phn cng bin son tp VT L I CNG (A2) nh sau: V Th Thanh H bin son l thuyt cc chng II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII. Hong Th Lan Hng bin son l thuyt chng I v bi tp ca tt c cc chng. 1

Li ni u Tp VT L I CNG (A2) ny mi in ln u, nn khng trnh khi nhng thiu st. Chng ti xin chn thnh cm n s ng gp qu bu ca bn c cho quyn sch ny. H Ni, ngy 1 thng 11 nm 2005 NHM TC GI

Chng 1: Dao ng in t

CHNG I: DAO NG IN T
Dao ng in t l s bin thin tun hon theo thi gian ca cc i lng in v t, c th nh in tch q trn cc bn t in, cng dng in i trong mt mch in xoay chiu, hiu in th gia hai u mt cun dy hay s bin thin tun hon ca in trng, t trng trong khng gian v.v... Tu theo cu to ca mch in, dao ng in t trong mch chia ra: dao ng in t iu ho, dao ng in t tt dn v dao ng in t cng bc. I. MC CH - YU CU 1. Nm c dao ng in t iu ho, dao dng in t tt dn, dao ng in t cng bc, hin tng cng hng. 2. Nm c phng php tng hp hai dao ng iu ho cng phng v cng tn s, hai dao ng iu ho cng tn s v c phng vung gc. II. NI DUNG:
1. DAO NG IN T IU HO 1. Mch dao ng in t LC

Xt mt mch in gm mt t in c in dung C, mt cun dy c h s t cm L. B qua in tr trong mch. Trc ht, t in C c b ngun tch in n in tch Q0, hiu in th U0. Sau , ta b b ngun i v ng kho ca mch dao ng. Trong mch c bin thin tun hon theo thi gian ca cng dng in i, in tch q trn bn t in, hiu in th gia hai bn t, nng lng in trng ca t in, nng lng t trng ca ng dy ... Cc dao ng in t ny c dng hnh sin vi tn s 0 v bin dao ng khng i. Do , cc dao ng ny c gi l cc dao ng in t iu ho. Mt khc trong mch ch c mt cc yu t ring ca mch nh t in C v cun cm L, nn cc dao ng in t ny c gi l cc dao ng in t ring.

Hnh 1-1. Mch dao ng in t ring

Chng 1: Dao ng in t

Ta xt chi tit hn qu trnh dao ng ca mch trong mt chu k T. Ti thi im t = 0, in tch ca t l Q 0 , hiu in th gia hai bn l U 0 = Q 0 / C , nng lng in trng ca t in c gi tr cc i bng: E e(max ) =
2 Q0 2C

(1-1)

Cho t phng in qua cun cm L. Dng in do t phng ra tng t ngt t khng, dng in bin i ny lm cho t thng gi qua cun cm L tng dn. Trong cun cm L c mt dng in t cm ngc chiu vi dng in do t C phng ra, nn dng in tng hp trong mch tng dn, in tch trn hai bn t gim dn. Lc ny nng lng in trng ca t in Ee= q 2 / 2C gim dn, cn nng lng t trng trong lng ng dy Em = Li 2 / 2 tng dn. Nh vy, c s chuyn ho dn t nng lng in trng sang nng lng t trng.

Hnh 1-2. Qu trnh to thnh dao ng in t ring Khi t C phng ht in tch, nng lng in trng Ee = 0, dng in trong mch t gi tr cc i I0, nng lng t trng trong ng dy t gi tr cc i
2 E m(max ) = LI 0 / 2 , l thi im t = T/4. Sau dng in do t phng ra bt u

gim v trong cun dy li xut hin mt dng in t cm cng chiu vi dng in do t phng ra . V vy dng in trong mch gim dn t gi tr I0 v khng, qu trnh ny xy ra trong khong t t = T/4 n t = T/2. Trong qu trnh bin i ny cun L ng vai tr ca ngun np in cho t C nhng theo chiu ngc li, in tch ca t li tng dn t gi tr khng n gi tr cc i Q0. V mt nng lng th nng lng in trng tng dn, cn nng lng t trng gim dn. Nh vy c s chuyn ho t nng lng t trng thnh nng lng in trng, giai on ny kt thc ti thi im t = T/2, lc ny cun cm gii phng ht nng lng v in tch trn hai bn t li t gi tr cc i Q0 nhng i du hai bn, nng lng in trng li t gi tr cc
2 i E e(max ) = Q 0 / 2C . Ti y, kt thc qu trnh dao ng trong mt na chu k u.

T C phng in vo cun cm theo chiu ngc vi na chu k u, cun cm li


6

Chng 1: Dao ng in t

c tch nng lng ri li gii phng nng lng, t C li c tch in v n cui chu k (t = T) t C c tch in vi du in tch trn cc bn nh ti thi im ban u, mch dao ng in t tr li trng thi dao ng ban u. Mt dao ng in t ton phn c hon thnh. Di y ta thit lp phng trnh m t dao ng in t trn.
2. Phng trnh dao ng in t iu ho

V khng c s mt mt nng lng trong mch, nn nng lng in t ca mch khng i: E e + E m = E = const Thay E e =
q2 Li 2 v E m = vo (1-2), ta c: 2C 2 q 2 Li 2 + = const 2C 2

(1-2)

(1-3)

Ly o hm c hai v ca (1-3) theo thi gian ri thay dq / dt = i , ta thu c:


q Ldi + =0 C dt

(1-4)

Ly o hm c hai v ca (1-4) theo thi gian ri thay dq/dt =i, ta c:


d 2i dt 2 + 1 i=0 LC

(1-5)

1 2 = 0 , ta c: LC
d 2i dt
2 2 + 0 i = 0

(1-6)

l phng trnh vi phn cp hai thun nht c h s khng i. Nghim tng qut ca (1-6) c dng: i = I 0 cos(0 t + ) (1-7) trong I0 l bin ca cng dng in, l pha ban u ca dao ng, 0 l tn s gc ring ca dao ng:
0 = 1 LC

(1-8)

Chng 1: Dao ng in t

T tm c chu k dao ng ring T0 ca dao ng in t iu ho:


T0 = 2 = 2 LC 0 (1-9)

Cui cng ta nhn xt rng in tch ca t in, hiu in th gia hai bn t. cng bin thin vi thi gian theo nhng phng trnh c dng tng t nh (1-7).

Hnh 1-3. ng biu din dao ng iu ho

2. DAO NG IN T TT DN 1. Mch dao ng in t RLC

Trong mch dao ng by gi c thm mt in tr R tng trng cho in tr ca ton mch (hnh 1-4). Ta cng tin hnh np in cho t C, sau cho t in phng in qua in tr R v ng dy L. Tng t nh trnh by bi dao ng in t iu ho, y cng xut hin cc qu trnh chuyn ho gia nng lng in trng ca t in v nng lng t trng ca ng dy. Nhng do c s to nhit trn in tr R, nn cc dao ng ca cc i lng nh i, q, u,... khng Hnh 1-4. Mch dao ng in t tt dn cn dng hnh sin na, cc bin ca chng khng cn l cc i lng khng i nh trong trng hp dao ng in t iu ho, m gim dn theo thi gian. Do , loi dao ng ny c gi l dao ng in t tt dn. Mch dao ng RLC trn c gi l mch dao ng in t tt dn.
2. Phng trnh dao ng in t tt dn

Do trong mch c in tr R, nn trong thi gian dt phn nng lng to nhit trn in tr Ri2dt bng gim nng lng in t -dE ca mch. Theo nh lut bo ton v chuyn ho nng lng, ta c:

dE = Ri 2 dt
q 2 Li 2 + vo (1-10), ta c: Thay E = 2C 2

(1-10)

Chng 1: Dao ng in t

q 2 Li 2 = Ri 2 dt d + 2C 2

(1-11)

Chia c hai v ca phng trnh (1-11) cho dt, sau ly o hm theo thi gian v thay dq/dt = i, ta thu c:
q di + L = Ri C dt

(1-12)

Ly o hm c hai v ca (1-12) theo thi gian v thay dq/dt = i, ta thu c:


d 2i dt 2 + R di 1 + i=0 L dt LC

(1-13)

R 1 2 = 2 , = 0 , ta thu c phng trnh: L LC


d 2i
2

(1-14) dt l phng trnh vi phn cp hai thun nht c h s khng i. Vi iu kin h s tt nh sao cho 0 > hay (1-14) c dng:
1 R > LC 2L
2

+ 2

di 2 + 0 i = 0 dt

th nghim tng qut ca phng trnh

i = I 0 e t cos(t + )

(1-15)

trong I0, l hng s tch phn ph thuc vo iu kin ban u, cn l tn s gc ca dao ng in t tt dn v c gi tr: = 1 R LC 2L 2 =
2

< 0

(1-16)

Chu k ca dao ng in t tt dn: T= 2 1 R LC 2L


2

2
2 0

(1-17)

Nh vy, chu k dao ng tt dn ln hn chu k dao ng ring trong mch. i lng I 0 e t l bin ca dao ng tt dn. N gim dn vi thi gian theo qui lut hm m. Tnh cht tt dn ca dao ng in t c c trng bng mt i lng gi l lng gim lga, k hiu bng ch : lng gim lga c gi tr bng lga t nhin ca t s gia hai tr s lin tip ca bin dao ng cch nhau mt khong thi gian bng mt chu k dao ng T. Theo nh ngha ta c:

Chng 1: Dao ng in t

= ln

I 0 e (t +T )

I 0 e t

= T

(1-18)

trong = R / 2L , r rng l nu R cng

ln th cng ln v dao ng tt cng nhanh. iu ph hp vi thc t. Ch : trong mch dao ng RLC ghp ni tip, ta ch c hin tng dao ng in t khi:
1 L R > hay R < 2 LC 2L C
2

Tr s R 0 = 2

L c gi l in tr ti C

Hnh 1-5. ng biu din dao ng in t tt dn

hn ca mch. Nu R R0 trong mch khng c dao ng.

3. DAO NG IN T CNG BC 1.Hin tng:

duy tr dao ng in t trong mch dao ng RLC, ngi ta phi cung cp nng lng cho mch in b li phn nng lng b tn hao trn in tr R. Mun vy, cn mc thm vo mch mt ngun in xoay chiu c sut in ng bin thin tun hon theo thi gian vi tn s gc v bin E0: E= E0sint

Lc u dao ng trong mch l chng cht ca hai dao ng: dao ng tt dn vi tn s gc v dao ng cng bc vi tn s gc . Giai on qu ny xy ra rt ngn, sau dao ng tt dn khng cn na v trong mch ch cn dao ng in t khng tt c tn s gc bng tn s gc ca ngun in. l dao ng in t cng bc.
2. Phng trnh dao ng in t cng bc

Hnh 1-6. Mch dao ng in t cng bc

Trong thi gian dt, ngun in cung cp cho mch mt nng lng bng Eidt. Phn nng lng ny dng b p vo phn nng lng to nhit Joule - Lenx v

10

Chng 1: Dao ng in t

tng nng lng in t trong mch. Theo nh lut bo ton v chuyn ho nng lng, ta c :
dE + Ri 2dt = Eidt

(1-19) (1-20)

q 2 Li2 + Ri 2dt = Eidt d + 2C 2

Thc hin php ly vi phn v thay E= E0sint ta c: q di + Ri + = E0 sin t dt C Ly o hm hai v theo thi gian ca (1-21), thay dq/dt = i, ta c: L
L d 2i dt 2 +R di i + = E0 cos t dt C

(1-21)

(1-22)

1 R 2 = 2 , = 0 , ta thu c phng trnh: L LC


d 2i dt 2
+ 2

E di 2 + 0 i = 0 cos t dt L

(1-23)

Phng trnh vi phn (1-23) c nghim l tng ca hai nghim: - Nghim tng qut ca phng trnh thun nht. chnh l nghim ca phng trnh dao ng in t tt dn. - Nghim ring ca phng trnh khng thun nht. Nghim ny biu din mt dao ng in t khng tt do tc dng ca ngun in. Nghim ny c dng: i = I 0 cos(t + ) (1-24) trong l tn s gc ca ngun in kch thch, I0 l bin , l pha ban u ca dao ng, c xc nh bng:

I0 =

E0
1 R 2 + L C
2

, cot g =

L
R

1 C

1 t Z = R 2 + L v gi l tng tr C ca mch dao ng, Z L = L v Z C = 1 ln C lt l cm khng v dung khng ca mch dao ng. Hnh 1-7. ng biu din dao ng in t cng bc

11

Chng 1: Dao ng in t 3. Hin tng cng hng

Cng thc trn chng t bin I0 ca dng in cng bc ph thuc vo gi tr tn s gc ca ngun xoay chiu kch thch. c bit vi mt in tr R nht nh, bin I0 t gi tr cc i khi tn s gc c gi tr sao cho tng tr Z ca mch dao ng cc tiu, gi tr ca phi tho mn iu kin:

1 = 0 hay = C

1 LC

(1-25)

ta thy gi tr ny ca ng bng tn s gc ca mch dao ng ring:

ch = 0
Hin tng bin dng in ca mch dao ng in t cng bc t gi tr cc i c gi l hin tng cng hng in. Vy hin tng cng hng in xy ra khi tn s gc ca ngun xoay chiu kch thch c gi tr bng tn s gc ring ca mch dao ng. Gi tr ch ca ngun xoay chiu kch thch c gi l tn s cng hng. ng biu din (1-8) cho ta thy r s bin thin ca bin dng in I0 ca mch dao ng cng

(1-26)

Hnh1-8. ng biu din cng hng in

bc theo tn s gc ca ngun xoay chiu kch thch. Trong thc t, mun xy ra cng hng in, ta dng hai phng php sau: - Hoc thay i tn s gc ca ngun kch thch sao cho n bng tn s gc ring 0 ca mch dao ng. - Hoc thay i h s t cm L v in dung C ca mch dao ng sao cho tn s gc ring 0 ng bng tn s gc ca ngun kch thch. Hin tng cng hng in c ng dng rt rng ri trong k thut v tuyn in, th d trong vic thu sng in t ( mch chn sng).
4. S TNG HP DAO NG 1.Tng hp hai dao ng iu ho cng phng v cng tn s

Gi s c mt cht im tham gia ng thi hai dao ng iu ho cng phng v cng tn s: x1 = A1 cos(0 t + 1 ) x 2 = A 2 cos(0 t + 2 )
12

(1-27) (1-28)

Chng 1: Dao ng in t

Hai dao ng ny cng phng Ox v cng tn s gc 0, nhng khc bin v pha ban u. Dao ng tng hp ca cht im bng tng ca hai dao ng thnh phn
x = x1 + x2 = A cos(0t + )

(1-29)

C th tm dng ca x bng phng php cng lng gic. Nhng thun tin, ta dng phng php gin Fresnel. r r V hai vc t OM1, OM 2 cng t ti im O, c ln bng bin A1, A2 ca hai dao ng . thi im t = 0, chng hp vi trc Ox cc gc 1 v 2 l pha ban u. r r Khi tng hp ca OM1, OM 2 l mt vc t r r r OM = OM1 + OM 2 (1-30) r vc t OM trng vi ng cho ca hnh bnh hnh OM1MM2, c ln bng A v hp vi trc Ox mt gc v c xc nh bi h thc:
2 A = A1 + A 2 + 2A1A 2 cos(2 1 ) , tg = 2

A1 sin 1 + A 2 sin 2 A1 cos 1 + A 2 cos 2

(1.31)

Hnh 1-9. Tng hp hai dao ng iu ho cng phng, cng tn s. r r Hai vc t OM1 v OM 2 quay xung quanh im O theo chiu dng vi cng vn tc gc khng i bng tn s gc 0 . thi im t, hai vc t ny s hp vi trc Ox cc gc (0t + 1) v (0t + 2) ng bng pha dao ng x1 v x2. Hnh chiu trn r r phng Ox ca hai vc t OM1 v OM 2 c gi tr bng: r hc ox OM1 = A1 cos(0 t + 1 ) = x1 (1-32) r hc ox OM 2 = A 2 cos(0 t + 2 ) = x 2 (1-33)

13

Chng 1: Dao ng in t

r r V hai vc t OM1 v OM 2 quay theo chiu dng vi cng vn tc gc 0 , nn hnh

bnh hnh OM1MM2 gi nguyn dng khi n quay quanh im O. Do , thi im t, r vc t tng hp OM vn c ln bng A v hp vi trc Ox mt gc (0t + ). Hnh r chiu trn phng Ox ca vc t tng hp OM c tr s bng: r hc ox OM = A cos(0 t + ) = x (1-34) Mt khc theo nh l v hnh chiu, ta c: r r r hc ox OM = hc ox OM1 + hc ox OM 2 (1-35)

Nh vy, tng hp hai dao ng iu ho x1 v x2 cng phng, cng tn s gc cng l mt dao ng iu ho x c cng phng v cng tn s gc 0 vi cc dao ng thnh phn, cn bin A v pha ban u ca n c xc nh bi (1-31) . H thc (1-31) cho thy bin A ca dao ng tng hp x ph thuc vo hiu pha (1 2 ) ca hai dao ng thnh phn x1 v x2:

- Nu (2 1) = 2k , vi k = 0, 1, 2, 3,... , th cos(2 1 ) = 1 v bin A t cc i: A = A1 + A 2 = A max (1-36) Trong trng hp ny, hai dao ng x1 v x2 cng phng, cng chiu v c gi l hai dao ng cng pha. - Nu (2 1) = (2k + 1) , vi k = 0, 1, 2, 3,... , th cos(2 1 ) = 1 v bin A t cc tiu:
A = A1 A 2 = A min

(1-37)

Trong trng hp ny, hai dao ng x1v x2 cng phng ngc chiu v gi l hai dao ng ngc pha.
2. Tng hp hai dao ng iu ho c phng vung gc v cng tn s gc

Gi s mt cht im tham gia ng thi hai dao ng iu ho x v y c phng vung gc v cng tn s gc 0 : x = A1 cos(0 t + 1 ) x = cos 0 t cos 1 sin 0 t sin 1 A1 y = cos 0 t cos 2 sin 0 t sin 2 A2 (1.38) (1-39)

y = A 2 cos(0 t + 2 )

14

Chng 1: Dao ng in t Ln lt nhn (1-38) v (1-39) vi cos 2 v cos 1 , ri cng v vi v:

y x cos 2 cos 1 = sin 0 t sin ( 2 1 ) A1 A2

(1-40)

Tng t, ln lt nhn (1-38) v (1-39) vi sin 2 v sin 1 , ri cng v vi v: y x sin 2 sin 1 = cos 0 t sin ( 2 1 ) A1 A2 (1-41) Hnh 1-10. Hai dao ng iu ho vung gc

Bnh phng hai v (1-40) , (1-41) ri cng v vi v:

x2
2 A1

y2 A2 2

2 xy cos( 2 1 ) = sin 2 ( 2 1 ) A1A 2

(1-42)

Phng trnh (1-42) chng t qu o chuyn ng tng hp ca hai dao ng iu ho c phng vung gc v c cng tn s gc l mt ng elip. Dng ca elip ny ph thuc vo gi tr ca hiu pha ( 2 1 ) ca hai dao ng thnh phn x v y. - Nu ( 2 1 ) = 2k , vi k = 0, 1, 2, 3,... , th (1-42) tr thnh: x2
2 A1

y2 A2 2

y 2xy x = 0 hay =0 A1 A 2 A1 A 2

(1-43)

Phng trnh (1-43) chng t cht im dao ng theo ng thng nm trong cung phn t I v III, i qua v tr cn bng bn ca cht im ti gc O v trng vi ng cho ca hnh ch nht c hai cnh bng 2A1 v Hnh 1-11. Qu o ca cht im khi 2 1 =2k
2A 2 .

- Nu ( 2 1 ) = (2k + 1) , vi k = 0, 1, 2, 3,... , th (1-42) tr thnh: x2


2 A1

y2 A2 2

2xy y x = 0 hay + =0 A1 A 2 A1 A 2

(1-44)

15

Chng 1: Dao ng in t

Phng trnh (1-44) chng t cht im dao ng theo ng thng nm trong cung phn t II v IV, i qua v tr cn bng bn ca cht im ti gc O v trng vi ng cho ca hnh ch nht c hai cnh bng 2A1 v Hnh 1-12. Qu o ca cht im khi 2 1 =(2k+1) - Nu ( 2 1 ) = (2k + 1) x2
2 A1

2A 2 .

, vi k = 0, 1, 2, 3,... , th (1-42) tr thnh: 2 =1 (1-45)

y2 A2 2

Hnh 1-13: Qu o ca cht im khi 2-1=(2k+1)/2

Qu o ca cht im khi 2-1=(2k+1)/2 v A1=A2

Phng trnh (1-45) chng t cht im dao ng trn mt qu o lip dng chnh tc c hai bn trc l A1 v A 2 . c bit nu A1 = A 2 = A th (1-45) tr thnh: x 2 + y2 = A2 (1-46)

Trong trng hp ny, qu o ca cht im l ng trn c tm ti gc to O v bn knh bng A. Nu ( 2 1 ) c cc gi tr khc vi cc gi tr nu trn th cht im s chuyn ng trn nhng qu o lip xin.

16

Chng 1: Dao ng in t

2 1 = 0

0 < 2 - 1 < /2

2 1=/2

/2 < 2 1 <

2 1 =

< 2 - 1 <3/2

2 1 = 3/2

3/2 < 2 1 <2

2 1 =2

Hnh 1.14. Cc dng qu o ca cht im khi 2 1= 0 2 v A1 = A2 Nh vy: Tng hp hai dao ng iu ho c phng vung gc vi nhau v cng tn s gc l mt dao ng c dng elip (trong nhng trng hp ring l mt dao ng iu ho).
III. TM TT NI DUNG 1. Dao ng in t iu ho: Mch dao ng ch c L v C ( R = 0), cc i lng in v t tham gia dao ng theo qui lut iu ho hnh sin ( hoc cosin) ca thi gian vi tn s ring 0, bin dao ng khng i.

17

Chng 1: Dao ng in t

2. Dao ng in t tt dn: Trong mch dao ng LC c thm in tr R, do c s hao tn nng lng do to nhit Joule Lenx, bin dao ng trong trng hp ny gim theo qui lut hm m, chu k dao ng T ln hn chu k dao ng ring T0. 3. Dao ng in t cng bc: Trong mch dao ng RLC mc thm mt ngun in kch thch c tn s cung cp tun hon phn nng lng b mt do to nhit. Dao ng in t s c duy tr vi tn s gc ca ngun kch thch. Mt hin tng quan trng trong trng hp ny l khi tn s gc ca ngun kch thch bng tn s gc ring 0 ca mch dao ng th c hin tng cng hng xy ra. Khi , bin ca dng in s cc i. Tn s c gi l tn s cng hng ch = 0. Hin tng cng hng c rt nhiu ng dng trong khoa hc k thut, nht l trong ngnh v tuyn in. 4. Tng hp hai dao ng iu ho cng phng, cng tn s

Gi s c mt cht im tham gia ng thi hai dao ng iu ho cng phng v cng tn s: x1 = A1 cos(0 t + 1 ) x 2 = A 2 cos(0 t + 2 ) Dao ng tng hp c dng: x = x1 + x 2 = A cos(0 t + )
2 Trong : A = A1 + A 2 + 2A1A 2 cos( 2 1 ) , tg = 2

A1 sin 1 + A 2 sin 2 A1 cos 1 + A 2 cos 2

- Nu ( 2 1 ) = 2k , vi k = 0, 1, 2, 3,... , th A = A1 + A 2 = A max - Nu ( 2 1 ) = (2k + 1) , vi k = 0, 1, 2, 3,... , th A = A1 A 2 = A min


5. Tng hp hai dao ng iu ho cng tn s c phng vung gc:

Gi s mt cht im tham gia ng thi hai dao ng iu ho x v y c phng vung gc v cng tn s gc 0 : x = A1 cos(0 t + 1 ) y = A 2 cos(0 t + 2 ) Phng trnh qu o chuyn ng tng hp ca cht im:
x2
2 A1

y2 A2 2

2 xy cos( 2 1 ) = sin 2 ( 2 1 ) A1A 2

- Nu ( 2 1 ) = 2k , vi k = 0, 1, 2, 3,... , th phng trnh qu o chuyn ng tng hp ca cht im:

18

Chng 1: Dao ng in t

x2
2 A1

y2 A2 2

y 2 xy x = 0 hay =0 A1 A 2 A1 A 2

- Nu ( 2 1 ) = (2k + 1) , vi k = 0, 1, 2, 3,... , th phng trnh qu o chuyn ng tng hp ca cht im: x2


2 A1

y2 A2 2

2 xy y x = 0 hay + =0 A1 A 2 A1 A 2

, vi k = 0, 1, 2, 3,... , th phng trnh qu 2 o chuyn ng tng hp ca cht im: - Nu ( 2 1 ) = (2k + 1) x2


2 A1

y2 A2 2

=1

IV. CU HI L THUYT 1.Thit lp phng trnh dao ng in t iu ho ring khng tt cho dng in: i = I 0 cos(0 t + ) . 2. Vit biu thc tn s v chu k ca dao ng ring khng tt. 3. M t mch dao ng in t tt dn. Thit lp biu thc ca dng in trong mch dao ng in t tt dn. 4. Vit biu thc tn s v chu k ca mch dao ng in t tt dn. So snh chu k dao ng tt dn vi chu k dao ng ring. 5. M t mch dao ng in t cng bc. Thit lp biu thc ca dng in trong mch dao ng in t cng bc. Nu ngha ca cc i lng c trong biu thc. 6. Hin tng cng hng l g? Khi no xy ra hin tng cng hng? 7. Vit phng trnh dao ng tng hp ca hai dao ng iu ho cng phng, cng tn s. Khi no th bin dao ng tng hp t gi tr cc i v cc tiu? 8. Vit phng trnh dao ng tng hp ca hai dao ng iu ho cng tn s c phng vung gc vi nhau. Vi iu kin no th dao ng tng hp c dng ng thng, elip vung, ng trn? V. BI TP Th d 1: Mt mch dao ng in t iu ho gm mt cun dy thun cm c h s t cm L = 5.10-2H v mt t in c in dung C = 2.10-6F, t c tch in ti hiu in th cc i U0= 120V. Tnh:
19

Chng 1: Dao ng in t

1. Tn s dao ng ca mch. 2. Nng lng in t ca mch. 3. Dng in cc i trong mch.


Bi gii

1. Tn s dao ng ca mch:
f = 1 1 1 = 500 Hz = = T 2 LC 2.3,14. 5.10 2.2.10 6

2. Nng lng dao ng ca mch: E = 3. Dng in cc i trong mch:

1 1 2 CU 0 = 2.10 6.(120) 2 = 0,014J 2 2

2 CU 0 2.10 6.(120) 2 1 2 1 2 = = 0,76A E = CU 0 = LI0 I 0 = 2 2 L 5.10 2

Th d 2: Mt mch dao ng in t gm mt t in c in dung C = 7F, cun dy c h s t cm L = 0,23H v in tr R = 40. Ban u in tch trn hai bn t Q0 = 5,6.10-4C. Tm:

1. Chu k dao ng in t trong mch. 2. Lng gim lga ca mch dao ng in t tng ng. 3. Phng trnh bin thin theo thi gian ca cng dng in trong mch v hiu in th gia hai bn t in.
Bi gii

1.V in tr R = 40 0 nn dao ng in t trong mch l dao ng in t tt dn. Phng trnh dao ng ca in tch trn hai bn t: q = Q 0 e t cos(t + )

Khi t = 0 th q = Q 0 cos , nhng theo gi thit q = Q 0 nn = 0 phng trnh dao ng ca in tch trn hai bn t: q = Q 0 e t cos t Chu k dao ng ca mch: T= 2 1 R LC 2L
2

=
1

2.3,14

40 6 2.0,23 0,23.7.10

= 8.10 3 s

2. Lng gim lga ca dao ng in t trong mch:

= T =

RT 40.8.10 3 = = 0,7 2L 2.0,23

20

Chng 1: Dao ng in t

3.Phng trnh bin thin theo thi gian ca cng dng in v hiu in th gia 2 dq hai bn t in: = = 250 (rad / s ) , i = = 0,44e 87 t sin 250t (A ) T dt u=
Bi tp t gii 1. Mt mch dao ng in t iu ho gm mt t in c in dung C = 2F v mt cun dy thun cm c t cm L = 0,5H. T c tch n hiu in th cc i U0= 100V.Tm:

q = 80e 87 t cos 250t C

(V )

1. Nng lng in t ca mch. 2. Dng in cc i trong mch.


p s

1. E = 2. E =

1 1 2 CU 0 = .2.10 6.(100) 2 = 10 2 J 2 2
1 1 2 2 CU 0 = LI 0 I 0 = 2 2
2 CU 0 = L

2.10 6.(100) 2 = 0,2A 0,5

2. Mt mch dao ng in t iu ho gm mt t in c in dung C = 0,25F v mt cun dy thun cm c t cm L = 1,015H. in tch cc i trn hai bn t

Q0= 2,5C. Tm: 1. Chu k, tn s dao ng ca mch. 2. Nng lng in t ca mch. 3. Dng in cc i trong mch.
p s: 1. T = 2 LC = 3,16.10 3 s , f =
2 1 Q0 2. E = = 12,5.10 6 J , 2 C

1 = 316 Hz T 3. I 0 =
2 Q0

LC

= 5.103 A

3. Mt mch dao ng in t iu ho gm mt cun dy thun cm c h s t cm

L = 1H v mt t in c in tch trn hai bn t bin thin iu ho theo phng trnh


q= 5.10 5 cos 400t (C) .

1. Tm in dung ca t. 2. Tm nng lng in t ca mch.

21

Chng 1: Dao ng in t

3. Vit phng trnh bin thin theo thi gian ca cng dng in trong mch.
p s: 1. 0 =
1 LC C= 1
2 0 L

10 6 F, 1,6

2. E =

2 1 Q0 = 2.10 4 J 2 C

3. i =

dq = 2.10 2 sin 400t (A) dt

4. Mt mch dao ng in t iu ho gm t in c in dung C = 6,3.10-7F v mt dy thun cm c h s t cm L. Phng trnh biu din s bin thin theo thi gian ca cng dng in trong mch i = 0,02 sin 400t (A ) . Tm:

1.Chu k, tn s dao ng. 2. H s t cm L. 3. Nng lng in trng cc i v nng lng t trng cc i. 4. Hiu in th cc i trn hai bn t.
p s

1. T =

2 1 1 = 5.10 3 s , f = = 200Hz ; 2. L = = 1H 2 T 0 C 0

2 2 CU 0 LI 0 4 3. E e(max) = = 1,97.10 J , E m (max) = = 1,97.10 4 J 2 2

4. U 0 = 25,2 (V )
5. Mt mch dao ng in t iu ho gm t in c in dung C = 9.10-7F v cun dy thun cm c h s t cm L. Hiu in th gia hai bn t in bin thin iu ho

theo phng trnh u = 50 cos 10 4 t (V ) . 1.Tm chu k v tn s dao ng. 2. Tm h s t cm L. 3. Vit phng trnh bin thin ca cng dng in trong mch theo thi gian. 4. Tm nng lng in t ca mch.
p s

1. T =

2 1 1 = 2.10 4 s , f = = 5.10 3 Hz ; 2. L = = 10 3 H 2 T 0 C 0
2 CU 0 du = 0,11.10 2 J = 1,4 sin 10 4 t (A ) ; 4. E = 2 dt

3. i = C

22

Chng 1: Dao ng in t

6. Mt mch dao ng gm t in c in dung C = 0,4.10-6F, mt cun dy c h s t cm L = 10-2H v in tr R = 2.

1. Tm chu k v tn s dao ng ca mch. 2. Sau thi gian mt chu k hiu in th gia hai ct ca t in gim i bao nhiu ln.
p s:

1.T = 4.10-4s, f =

Ut 1 = 1,04 = 2500Hz ; 2. T U t +T

7. Mt mch dao ng gm t in c in dung C = 1,1.10-9F, cun dy c t cm L = 5.10-5H v lng gim lga = 0,005. Tm thi gian nng lng in t trong

mch gim i 99% .Coi gn ng chu k dao ng ca mch T = 2 LC .


p s: Nng lng dao ng ti thi im t l Et, nng lng dao ng ti thi im

t + t l Et + t. Sau thi gian t nng lng gim 99%, ngha l cn li 1%


Et (Q 0 e t ) 2 ( Q 0 e ( t + t ) ) 2 = 100 , t = 6,8.10 3 s Et = , E t + t = , E t + t 2C 2C

8. Mt mch dao ng in t gm t in c in dung C = 0,2.10-6F, mt cun dy c t cm L = 5,07.10-3H v in tr R.Tm:

1. Lng gim lga, bit hiu in th trn hai bn t gim i 3 ln sau 10-3s. Coi gn ng chu k dao ng ca mch theo cng thc T = 2 LC . 2. in tr R ca mch.
U T ln 0 U 2.10 4 ln 3 1= p s: 1. T = 2 LC = 2.10 4 (s) , = = 0,22 t 10 3 2. R= 2L = 11,1 T

9. Mt mch dao ng in t iu ho gm mt cun dy thun cm c t cm

L = 3.10-5H v mt t in. Mch dao ng cng hng vi bc sng = 750m. Tm in dung ca t in. Cho c= 3.108m/s.
p s: T =
2 = 2 LC C = = 0,52.10 8 F 2c 2L c 4

23

Chng 2: Giao thoa nh sng

CHNG II: GIAO THOA NH SNG


I. MC CH - YU CU
1. Nm c mt s khi nim nh quang l, cng sng, hm sng nh sng, nh l Malus v nguyn l Huygens l nhng c s ca quang hc sng. 2. Nm c nh ngha v iu kin c giao thoa nh sng. 3. Kho st hin tng giao thoa nh sng (iu kin cc i, cc tiu giao thoa, v tr vn sng, vn ti) trong th nghim Young, giao thoa gy bi bn mng (nm khng kh, h vn trn Newton). 4. ng dng hin tng giao thoa trong o lng, kim tra phng, cong ca cc vt, kh phn x...

II. NI DUNG
1. C S CA QUANG HC SNG Quang hc sng nghin cu cc hin tng giao thoa, nhiu x, phn cc... da trn bn cht sng in t ca nh sng. Ngi u tin ra thuyt sng nh sng l nh vt l ngi H Lan Christian Huygens nm 1687. Theo Huygens, nh sng l sng n hi truyn trong mt mi trng c bit gi l te v tr lp y khng gian. Thuyt sng nh sng gii thch c cc hin tng ca quang hnh hc nh phn x, khc x nh sng. Vo u th k th 19, da vo thuyt sng nh sng Fresnel gii thch cc hin tng giao thoa, nhiu x nh sng. Nhng khi hin tng phn cc nh sng c pht hin th quan nim v sng n hi trong te v tr bc l r nhng thiu st. Hin tng phn cc nh sng chng t sng nh sng l sng ngang v nh chng ta bit, sng n hi ngang ch c th truyn trong mi trng cht rn. n nm 1865, da vo nhng nghin cu l thuyt ca mnh v trng in t v sng in t, Maxwell nu ln thuyt in t v sng nh sng. Trong tit ny chng ta s nghin cu v mt s nhng khi nim c bn ca sng nh sng v cc nguyn l nh nguyn l chng cht cc sng, nguyn l Huygens l c s ca quang hc sng. 1. Mt s khi nim c bn v sng Sng l qu trnh truyn pha ca dao ng. Da vo cch truyn sng, ngi ta chia sng thnh hai loi: sng ngang v sng dc. Sng ngang l sng m phng dao ng ca cc phn t vung gc vi phng truyn sng. 24

Chng 2: Giao thoa nh sng Sng dc l sng m phng dao ng ca cc phn t trng vi phng truyn sng. Khng gian c sng truyn qua c gi l trng sng. Mt sng l qi tch nhng im dao ng cng pha trong trng sng. Gii hn gia phn mi trng m sng truyn qua v cha truyn ti gi l mt u sng. Nu sng c mt u sng l mt cu th c gi l sng cu v nu mt u sng l mt phng th c gi l sng phng. i vi mi trng ng cht v ng hng, ngun sng nm tm ca mt sng cu, tia sng (phng truyn sng) vung gc vi mt u sng (hnh 2-1). Nu ngun sng rt xa phn mi trng m ta kho st th mt sng l nhng mt phng song song, cc tia sng l nhng ng thng song song vi nhau v vung gc vi cc mt sng (hnh 2-2).

Hnh 2-1. Sng cu 2. Thuyt in t v nh sng ca Maxwell

Hnh 2-2. Sng phng

nh sng l sng in t, ngha l trng in t bin thin theo thi gian truyn i trong khng gian. Sng nh sng l sng ngang, bi v trong sng in t vect cng in trng E v vect cm ng t B lun dao ng vung gc vi phng truyn sng. Khi nh sng truyn n mt, vect cng in trng tc dng ln vng mc gy nn cm gic sng. Do vect cng in trng trong sng nh sng gi l vect sng. Ngi ta biu din sng nh sng bng dao ng ca vect sng E vung gc vi phng truyn sng. Mi sng nh sng c bc sng 0 xc nh gy nn cm gic sng v mt mu sc xc nh v gi l nh sng n sc. Tp hp cc nh sng n sc c bc sng 0 nm trong khong t 0,4 m n 0,76 m to thnh nh sng trng. 3. Quang l Xt hai im A, B trong mt mi trng ng tnh chit sut n, cch nhau mt on d bng d. Thi gian nh sng i t A n B l t = , trong v l vn tc nh sng trong v mi trng. nh ngha: Quang l gia hai im A, B l on ng nh sng truyn c trong chn khng vi cng khong thi gian t cn thit sng nh sng i c on ng d trong mi trng chit sut n.

25

Chng 2: Giao thoa nh sng

L = ct =

c d = nd v

(2-1)

Chit sut n = c/ v vi c l vn tc nh sng trong chn khng. Nh vy khi nh sng truyn trong mi trng cht, vi vic s dng khi nim quang l chng ta chuyn qung ng nh sng i c trong mi trng chit sut n sang qung ng tng ng trong chn khng v do ta c th s dng vn tc truyn ca nh sng trong chn khng l c thay cho vn tc v truyn trong mi trng. Nu nh sng truyn qua nhiu mi trng chit sut n1, n2, n3 ... vi cc qung ng tng ng d1, d2, d3 ... th quang l s l

L = n idi
i

(2-2a)

Nu nh sng truyn trong mi trng m chit sut thay i lin tc th ta chia on ng AB thnh cc on nh ds coi chit sut khng thay i trn mi on nh v quang l s l

L = nds
A

(2-2b)

4. nh l Malus v quang l a. Mt trc giao l mt vung gc vi cc tia ca mt chm sng.

Hnh 2-3. Mt trc giao Theo nh ngha nu chm sng l ng qui th mt trc giao l cc mt cu ng tm, cn nu l chm sng song song th mt trc giao l cc mt phng song song. b. nh l Malus: Quang l ca cc tia sng gia hai mt trc giao ca mt chm sng th bng nhau. 5. Hm sng nh sng Xt sng nh sng phng n sc truyn theo phng y vi vn tc v trong mi trng chit sut n. Gi s ti O phng trnh ca dao ng sng l:

x (O) = A cos t
th ti im M cch O mt on d, phng trnh dao ng sng l:

(2-3)

26

Chng 2: Giao thoa nh sng

L x ( M ) = A cos ( t ) = A cos ( t ) c 2 L 2L = A cos( t ) = A cos( t ) T c

(2-4)

trong l thi gian nh sng truyn t O n M, L l quang l trn on ng OM, l bc sng nh sng 2L trong chn khng, A l bin dao ng v = l pha ban u. Phng trnh (2-4) c gi l hm sng nh sng. 6. Cng sng

Hnh 2-4

Cng sng c trng cho sng ti mi im trong khng gian c sng nh sng truyn qua. nh ngha: Cng sng ti mt im l i lng c tr s bng nng lng trung bnh ca sng nh sng truyn qua mt n v din tch t vung gc vi phng truyn sng trong mt n v thi gian. V mt nng lng ca sng in t t l thun vi bnh phng bin ca vct cng in trng nn cng sng ti mt im t l vi bnh phng bin dao ng sng ti im : I = kA2 k: H s t l. Khi nghin cu cc hin tng giao thoa, nhiu x c trng cho tnh cht sng ca nh sng, ngi ta ch cn so snh cng sng ti cc im khc nhau m khng cn tnh c th gi tr ca cng sng, do qui c ly k = 1: I = A2 7. Nguyn l chng cht cc sng Khi c hai hay nhiu sng nh sng truyn ti giao nhau ti mt im no trong khng gian th s tng hp ca cc sng tun theo nguyn l chng cht cc sng. Nguyn l ny c pht biu nh sau: Khi hai hay nhiu sng nh sng gp nhau th tng sng ring bit khng b cc sng khc lm cho nhiu lon. Sau khi gp nhau, cc sng nh sng vn truyn i nh c, cn ti nhng im gp nhau dao ng sng bng tng cc dao ng sng thnh phn. 8. Nguyn l Huygens Nguyn l Huygens c pht biu nh sau: " Mi im trong khng gian nhn c sng sng t ngun sng thc S truyn n u tr thnh ngun sng th cp pht sng sng v pha trc n". Nguyn l Huygens c m t n gin trn hnh 2-5 nh sau: Sng phng c pht ra t ngun sng v cng ti mt AB, tt c cc im trn mt sng AB u tr thnh 27 (2-5)

Chng 2: Giao thoa nh sng ngun th cp v li pht sng cu v pha trc, bao hnh CD ca tt c cc sng cu ny li tr thnh mt sng.

Hnh 2-5 2. GIAO THOA NH SNG 1. nh ngha: Hin tng giao thoa nh sng l hin tng gp nhau ca hai hay nhiu sng nh sng kt hp, kt qu l trong trng giao thoa s xut hin nhng vn sng v nhng vn ti xen k nhau.

Hnh 2-6. Th nghim giao thoa khe Young (Yng) iu kin giao thoa: hin tng giao thoa ch xy ra i vi sng nh sng kt hp. Sng nh sng kt hp l nhng sng c hiu pha khng thay i theo thi gian. Nguyn tc to ra hai sng nh sng kt hp l t mt sng duy nht tch ra thnh hai sng ring bit. Dng c to ra cc sng nh sng kt hp: v d khe Young (hnh 2-6), gng Fresnel. 2. Kho st hin tng giao thoa a. iu kin cc i, cc tiu giao thoa Xt hai ngun sng nh sng n sc kt hp S1 v S2. Phng trnh dao ng sng ca chng ti v tr ca S1 v S2 l:

28

Chng 2: Giao thoa nh sng

x (S1 ) = A1 cos t x (S2 ) = A 2 cos t


Ti M ta nhn c hai dao ng sng:

x1 = A1 cos( t

2L1 ) 2L 2 )

x 2 = A 2 cos( t

L1 v L2 l quang l trn on ng r1 v r2. V khong cch S1S2 nh hn rt nhiu so vi khong cch t mt phng ca hai khe n mn quan st nn ta coi y l trng hp tng hp ca hai dao ng cng phng, cng tn s. Ta bit rng bin dao ng sng tng hp ti M ph thuc vo hiu pha ca hai dao ng

2 (L1 L 2 )

Nu hai dao ng cng pha, hiu pha = 2k , th bin dao ng sng tng hp ti M s c gi tr cc i v cng sng ti im M l cc i. Nh vy iu kin cc i giao thoa l:

2 (L1 L 2 ) = 2k
vi

(2-6)

L1 L 2 = k

k = 0,1,2...

(2-7)

Nu hai dao ng ngc pha, hiu pha = (2k + 1) , th bin dao ng sng tng hp ti M s c gi tr cc tiu v do cng sng cc tiu. Nh vy iu kin cc tiu giao thoa l:

2 (L1 L 2 ) = (2k + 1) L1 L 2 = (2k + 1) vi k = 0,1,2... 2 =


b. V tr ca vn giao thoa H thng khe Young nh hnh v, c t trong khng kh. Xt im M trn mn E, im M cch im O mt khong l y. T S2 k S2H S1M. V S1S2 = l rt nh v khong cch D t khe n mn E ln nn S1H r1-r2 = l sin l tg v

(2-8) (2-9)

r1 r2 =

ly D

(2-10)

Hnh 2-7. V tr ca vn giao thoa

29

Chng 2: Giao thoa nh sng Trong khng kh nn L1-L2 = r1-r2. T iu kin cc i, cc tiu giao thoa ta d dng tnh c v tr cc vn sng v vn ti. V tr cc vn sng (cc i giao thoa):

r1 r2 = ys = k

l.y s = k D
vi

D l

k = 0, 1, 2...

(2-11)

V tr cc vn ti (cc tiu giao thoa):

r1 r2 =

ly t = (2k + 1) D 2

y t = (2k + 1)

D 2l

vi

k = 0, 1, 2...

(2-12)

T cc cng thc (2-11) v (2-12) ta thy nh giao thoa trn mn E c cc c im: - Vi k = 0 th ys = 0, tc l gc O trng vi vn cc i giao thoa. Vn ny c gi l vn cc i gia. - Cc vn cc i giao thoa ng vi k = 1, 2... v cc vn cc tiu giao thoa nm xen k cch u nhau c hai pha i vi vn cc i gia. i vi vn sng, bc giao thoa trng vi k . i vi vn ti, khi k > 0 bc giao thoa trng vi k + 1 , khi k < 0 bc giao thoa trng vi k . - Khong cch gia hai vn sng k tip:

i = y k +1 y k = ( k + 1)

D D D k = l l l

(2-13)

Tng t, khong cch gia hai vn ti k tip cng l i v i c gi l khong vn. Cc vn giao thoa l cc on thng nm trn mt phng vung gc vi mt phng hnh v, do nu dch chuyn ng thi S1 v S2 theo phng vung gc vi mt phng hnh v th h thng vn ch trt trn mnh n v khng thay i g. Do ta c th thay hai ngun sng im S1 v S2 bng hai ngun sng khe t vung gc vi mt phng hnh v cho hnh nh giao thoa r nt hn. c. H vn giao thoa khi dng nh sng trng Nu ngun sng S1 v S2 pht nh sng trng gm mi nh sng n sc c bc sng = 0,4 0,76m , th mi nh sng n sc s cho mt h vn giao thoa c mu sc ring v rng i khc nhau. Ti gc ta O, mi nh sng n sc u cho cc i, nn vn cc i gia l mt vn sng trng, hai mp vin mu (trong tm, ngoi ). Nhng vn cc i khc ng vi cng mt gi tr ca k l nhng vn c mu sc khc nhau nm chng ln nhau to thnh nhng vn sng nhiu mu sc. Cc vn ny cng b nhe dn khi xa vn sng trng trung tm.

30

Chng 2: Giao thoa nh sng 3. GIAO THOA GY BI BN MNG Khi nhn vo mng x phng, vng du trn mt nc, ta thy mu sc rt p, mu sc c to nn bi s giao thoa ca cc tia phn x trn hai mt ca bn mng. Trc khi i vo nghin cu v giao thoa gy bi bn mng chng ta xem xt hin tng giao thoa do phn x. 1. Giao thoa do phn x nghin cu hin tng giao thoa do phn x Lloyd lm th nghim sau: Gng G c bi en ng sau, chit sut ca thy tinh ln hn chit sut ca khng kh ntt > nkk. Ngun sng S rng v cch xa. Mn E c t vung gc vi gng. Mt im M trn mn E s nhn c hai tia sng t S gi n. Tia truyn trc tip SM v tia SIM phn x trn gng, sau n M. Hai tia ny giao thoa vi nhau.

Hnh 2-8. Th nghim ca Lloyd Theo l thuyt: nu

r1 r2 = L1 L 2 = k

th

im

sng,

nu

th im M s ti. Tuy nhin thc nghim li thy rng: 2 nhng im l thuyt d on l sng th kt qu li l ti v ngc li, nhng im l thuyt d on l ti th li l sng. Vy hiu pha dao ng ca hai tia sng trong trng hp ny 2 2 (L1 L 2 ) m phi l = (L1 L 2 ) + . thm mt khng phi l = lng th pha dao ng ca mt trong hai tia phi thay i mt lng . V tia SM truyn trc tip t ngun n im M, nn ch c tia phn x trn gng mi thay i, c th l pha dao ng ca n sau khi phn x s thay i mt lng . Tng ng vi vic pha thay i mt lng l th quang l ca n s thay i mt lng l: r1 r2 = L1 L 2 = (2k + 1) 1 = 2 L1 2 '1 = 2 2 L1 + = L1
(2-14)

L1 = L1 +

' Trong 1 v L1 l pha v quang l khi cha tnh n s thay i pha do phn x, cn 1

v L'1 l pha v quang l ca tia sng khi c tnh n s phn x trn thy tinh l mi 31

Chng 2: Giao thoa nh sng trng chit quang hn mi trng nh sng ti. Trong trng hp phn x trn mi trng c chit sut nh hn chit sut mi trng nh sng ti, v d ta cho nh sng truyn trong mi trng thy tinh n mt phn cch gia thy tinh v khng kh ri phn x li, khi pha dao ng v quang l ca tia phn x khng c g thay i. Kt lun: Khi phn x trn mi trng chit quang hn mi trng nh sng ti, pha dao ng ca nh sng thay i mt lng , iu cng tng ng vi vic coi tia phn x di thm mt on . 2 2. Giao thoa gy bi nm khng kh Nm khng kh l mt lp khng kh hnh nm gii hn bi hai bn thu tinh phng G1, G2 c dy khng ng k, t nghing vi nhau mt gc nh . Chiu chm tia sng n sc song song, vung gc vi mt G2 . Tia sng t ngun S i vo bn thu tinh G1 ti M chia lm hai: Mt tia phn x i ra ngoi (tia R1), mt tia i tip vo nm khng kh, n K trn G2 v phn x ti ri i ra ngoi Hnh 2-9. Nm khng kh (tia R2). Ti M c s gp nhau ca hai tia phn x ni trn v chng giao thoa vi nhau. Trn mt G1 ta nhn c vn giao thoa. Tia R2 (l tia phn x trn mt G2) phi i thm mt on 2d so vi tia R1 (l tia phn x trn mt G1) v v tia R2 phn x trn mt trn ca G2 (thy tinh) chit quang hn mi trng nh sng n (khng kh) nn quang l ca tia ny di thm mt on l / 2 . Cn tia R1 phn x trn mt di ca G1 th khng thay i pha v y l phn x trn mi trng khng kh, km chit quang hn mi trng nh sng ti (mi trng thy tinh). Hiu quang l ca hai tia l:

L 2 L1 = 2d +

2 = (2k + 1) 2 2

(2-15)

d l b dy ca lp khng kh ti M. Cc im ti tho mn iu kin:

L 2 L1 = 2d +
Do :

dt = k

vi

k = 0,1,2...

(2-16)

Tp hp cc im c cng b dy d ca lp khng kh l mt on thng song song vi cnh nm. Ti cnh nm d = 0, ta c mt vn ti. Cc im sng tho mn iu kin:

32

Chng 2: Giao thoa nh sng

L 2 L1 = 2d +
Do :

= k 2

d s = ( 2 k 1)

vi

k =1,2,3...

(2-17)

Vn sng cng l nhng on thng song song vi cnh nm v nm xen k vi vn ti. 3. Vn trn Newton H cho vn trn Newton gm mt thu knh phng - li t tip xc vi mt bn thy tinh phng (hnh 2-10). Lp khng kh gia thu knh v bn thy tinh l bn mng c b dy thay i. Chiu mt chm tia sng n sc song song vung gc vi bn thy tinh. Cc tia sng phn x mt trn v mt di ca bn mng ny s giao thoa vi nhau, to thnh cc vn giao thoa c cng dy, nh x mt cong ca thu knh phng- li. Ging nh nm khng kh, cc tiu vn giao thoa (vn ti) nm ti v tr ng vi b dy ca lp khng kh:

dt = k

2 4

vi k = 0,1,2...

(2-18)

v cc i vn giao thoa (vn sng) nm ti v tr ng vi b dy lp khng kh:

d s = ( 2 k 1)

vi k = 1,2,3...

(2-19)

Hnh 2-10. Vn trn Newton Do tnh cht i xng ca bn mng nn cc vn giao thoa l nhng vng trn ng tm gi l vn trn Newton. Ta tnh bn knh ca vn th k:

33

Chng 2: Giao thoa nh sng


2 rk = R 2 (R d k ) 2

trong R l bn knh cong ca thu knh, dk l b dy ca lp khng kh ti vn th k. V d k << R do :


2 rk 2Rd k

Nu vn th k l vn ti, ta c d t = k

, do : 2
(2-20)

rk = R . k
Nh vy bn knh ca cc vn ti t l vi cn bc hai ca cc s nguyn lin tip. 4. NG DNG HIN TNG GIAO THOA 1. Kim tra cc mt knh phng v li

kim tra phng ca mt tm knh hoc cong ca mt mt cu li ngi ta t chng trn mt tm thy tinh c phng chun to ra mt bn mng hnh nm hoc mt h cho vn trn Newton. Nu tm knh khng tht phng hoc mt cu khng cong u th cc vn giao thoa s khng thnh nhng ng song song cch u hoc khng phi l nhng vn trn ng tm m b mo m ti nhng ch b li. 2. Kh phn x cc mt knh Khi mt chm sng ri vo mt thu knh hay lng knh th mt phn nh sng s b phn x tr li. nh sng phn x ny s lm nh b m. kh phn x, ngi ta ph ln thy tinh mt mng mng trong sut, c chiu dy d v chit sut n. Khi chiu chm tia sng song song theo phng vung gc vi mng mng th c s giao thoa ca hai tia phn x, tia th nht phn x trn Hnh 2-11. Kh nh sng phn x mt gii hn gia mng mng-thy tinh v tia th hai phn x trn mt phn cch gia khng kh-mng mng. Chit sut n v b dy d ca mng c chn sao cho hai tia phn x ngc pha nhau. Gi nkk v ntt l chit sut ca khng kh v chit sut ca thy tinh th n kk < n < n tt . Hiu quang l ca hai tia phn x tha mn iu kin cc tiu giao thoa:

L = 2nd +
suy ra:

= 2nd = (2k + 1) 2 2 2 4n
(2-21)

d = (2k + 1)

l bc sng nh sng trong chn khng. dy nh nht ca mng mng l:


34

Chng 2: Giao thoa nh sng

d min =

4n

(2-22)

Ta thy khng th kh ng thi mi nh sng phn x c bc sng khc nhau. Trong thc t thng chn b dy d tha mn iu kin (2-22) ng vi nh sng mu xanh lc = 0,55m l nh sng nhy nht vi mt ngi. 3. Giao thoa k Rayleigh (Rly) Giao thoa k Rayleigh l dng c dng o chit sut (hay nng ) ca cht lng v cht kh vi chnh xc cao. M hnh ca giao thoa k Rayleigh c trnh by trn hnh 2-12. nh sng n sc t ngun S sau khi qua thu knh hi t L1 v hai khe S1, S2 b tch thnh hai chm tia song song. Hai chm s giao thoa vi nhau trn mt phng tiu ca thu knh hi t L2. Nh th knh L ta c th quan st c h thng vn giao thoa .

Hnh 2-12. Giao thoa k Rayleigh Trn ng i ca hai chm tia ban u ta t hai ng chiu di d ng cng mt cht lng chit sut no bit. Ghi h thng vn giao thoa trn mn quan st. Sau thay cht lng trong mt ng bng cht lng cn nghin cu. V chit sut ca cht lng ng trong hai ng by gi khc nhau nn hiu quang l ca hai chm tia b thay i mt lng

L = L1 L 2 = (n n o )d

(2-23)

n l chit sut ca cht lng cn o. Kt qu l h thng vn giao thoa b dch chuyn. m s vn giao thoa b dch chuyn ta c th tnh c chit sut ca cht lng. Ta bit rng khi hiu quang l thay i mt bc sng th h thng vn dch chuyn mt khong vn. Do nu h thng vn giao thoa dch chuyn m khong vn th hiu quang l s thay i mt khong bng:

L = (n n o )d = m
T suy ra chit sut ca cht lng cn o l:

(2-24)

n=

m + no d

(2-25)

Ta cng c th o chit sut mt cht kh bng cch s dng giao thoa k Rayleigh, so snh cht kh vi mt cht kh c chit sut bit trc.

35

Chng 2: Giao thoa nh sng 4. Giao thoa k Michelson (Maikenxn) Giao thoa k Michelson dng o di cc vt vi chnh xc cao. Hnh 2-13 trnh by m hnh ca giao thoa k Michelson .nh sng t ngun S chiu ti bn bn m P (c trng mt lp bc rt mng) di gc 45o. Ti y nh sng b tch thnh hai tia: tia phn x truyn n gng G1 v tia khc x truyn n gng G2. Sau khi phn x trn hai gng G1 v G2 cc tia sng truyn ngc tr li, i qua bn P v ti giao thoa vi nhau knh quan st. V tia th nht ch i qua bn P mt ln cn tia th hai i qua P ba ln nn hiu quang l ca hai tia Hnh 2-13. Giao thoa k Michelson ln, vn giao thoa quan st c l nhng vn bc cao, nn nhn khng r nt. khc phc iu ny ngi ta t bn P ging ht P nhng khng trng bc trn ng i ca tia th nht. Nu ta dch chuyn gng G2 song song vi chnh n dc theo tia sng mt on bng na bc sng th hiu quang l ca hai tia s thay i mt bc sng, kt qu h vn giao thoa s thay i mt khong vn. Vy mun o chiu di ca mt vt ta dch chuyn gng G2 t u ny n u kia ca vt v m s vn dch chuyn. Nu h thng vn dch chuyn m khong vn th chiu di ca vt cn o l:

l=m

(2-26)

Giao thoa k Michelson dng o chiu di vi chnh xc rt cao, ti phn trm micrmet (10-8m).

III. TM TT NI DUNG
1. Giao thoa nh sng ca khe Young * Giao thoa nh sng l hin tng gp nhau ca hai hay nhiu sng nh sng kt hp. Kt qu l trong trng giao thoa s xut hin nhng vn sng v nhng vn ti xen k nhau. * Sng nh sng kt hp l nhng sng c cng phng dao ng v hiu pha khng thay i theo thi gian. * iu kin cc i giao thoa l:

L1 L 2 = k,
iu kin cc tiu giao thoa l:

k = 0,1,2....

L1 L 2 = (2k + 1) , 2
* V tr cc vn sng (cc i giao thoa):

k = 0,1,2....

36

Chng 2: Giao thoa nh sng

ys = k

D , l

k = 0, 1, 2....

V tr cc vn ti (cc tiu giao thoa):

y t = (2k + 1)
D l

D , 2l

k = 0, 1, 2....

Khong cch gia hai vn sng (hoc vn ti) k tip:

i=

2. Giao thoa gy bi bn mng * Giao thoa do phn x: Khi phn x trn mi trng chit quang hn mi trng nh sng ti, quang l ca tia phn x di thm mt on /2. * Giao thoa ca nm khng kh: Nm khng kh l mt lp khng kh hnh nm gii hn bi hai bn thu tinh phng G1, G2 c dy khng ng k, t nghing vi nhau mt gc nh . Do s giao thoa ca cc tia phn x mt trn v mt di ca nm, ta thu c cc vn thoa ngay mt trn ca nm. Cc tiu vn giao thoa (vn ti) nm ti v tr ng vi b dy ca lp khng kh:

dt = k

, 2

k =0,1,2...

Tp hp cc im c cng b dy d ca lp khng kh l mt on thng song song vi cnh nm. Ti cnh nm d = 0 ta c mt vn ti. Cc i vn giao thoa (vn sng) nm ti v tr ng vi b dy lp khng kh:

d s = ( 2 k 1)

k =1,2,3...

Vn sng cng l nhng on thng song song vi cnh nm v nm xen k vi vn ti. * Vn trn Newton: H cho vn trn Newton gm mt thu knh phng - li t tip xc vi mt bn thy tinh phng. Lp khng kh gia thu knh v bn thy tinh l bn mng c b dy thay i. Ging nh nm khng kh, cc tiu vn giao thoa (vn ti) nm ti v tr ng vi b dy ca lp khng kh:

dt = k

, 2 , 4

k = 0,1,2...

v cc i vn giao thoa (vn sng) nm ti v tr ng vi b dy lp khng kh

d s = ( 2 k 1)

k = 1,2,3...

Do tnh cht i xng ca bn mng nn cc vn giao thoa l nhng vng trn ng tm gi l vn trn Newton. Bn knh ca vn ti th k: 37

Chng 2: Giao thoa nh sng

rk = R . k
S giao thoa cho bi cc bn mng c rt nhiu ng dng trong vic kim tra phng v cong ca cc thu knh. Ngi ta dng giao thoa k Milchelson o di ca mt vt, php o t chnh xc ti 10-8m.

IV. CU HI L THUYT
1. Nu nh ngha hin tng giao thoa nh sng, iu kin giao thoa nh sng. Th no l sng nh sng kt hp ? 2. Tm iu kin cc i, cc tiu giao thoa. Xc nh v tr cc vn giao thoa cc i v cc tiu, b rng ca cc vn giao thoa. 3. M t hin tng giao thoa khi dng nh sng trng. 4. Trnh by hin tng giao thoa gy bi nm khng kh v ng dng. 5. Trnh by hin tng giao thoa cho bi h vn trn Newton v ng dng. 6. M t v nu ng dng ca giao thoa k Rayleigh. 7. M t v nu ng dng ca giao thoa k Milchelson.

V. BI TP Th d 1: Hai khe Young cch nhau mt khong l = 1mm, c chiu bng nh sng n sc c bc sng = 0,6m. Mn quan st c t cch mt phng cha hai khe mt on D=2m. 1.Tm khong vn giao thoa. 2. Xc nh v tr ca ba vn sng u tin ( coi vn sng trung tm l vn sng bc khng).
3. Xc nh dch ca h vn giao thoa trn mn quan st nu trc mt trong hai khe t mt bn mng song song, trong sut c b dy e =2m, chit sut n = 1,5. Bi gii 1. Khong vn giao thoa: i =

D 0,6.10 6.2 = = 1,2.10 3 m 3 l 10

2. V tr ca vn sng c xc nh bi cng thc:

ys =
y s1 =

kD , k = 0, 1, 2 , 3... l
D 0,6.10 6.2 2D = = 1,2.10 3 m , y s 2 = = 2,4.10 3 m 3 l l 10

ys 3 =

3D = 3,6.10 3 m l
38

Chng 2: Giao thoa nh sng 3. dch chuyn ca h vn: Khi t bn mng trong sut trc mt trong hai khe, hiu quang l gia cc tia sng t hai khe n mt im trn mn thay i. Mun bit h vn dch chuyn nh th no, ta phi tnh hiu quang l ca hai tia sng ti mt im trn mn. T hnh v ta c hiu quang l

L1 L 2 = [(r1 e ) + ne] r2 = (r1 r2 ) + (n 1)e yl y l M r1 r2 = , do L1 L 2 = + (n 1)e D D


V tr vn sng c xc nh bi iu kin:

y l kD (n 1)eD L1 L 2 = s + (n 1)e = k y = s l l D
V tr vn ti c xc nh bi iu kin:

Mt khc: y s =

(2k + 1)D kD , yt = l l

y l D D (n 1)eD y t = (2k + 1) L1 L 2 = t + (n 1)e = (2k + 1) l D 2l 2l

H vn dch chuyn mt khong: y =

e(n 1).D 2.10 6.0,5.2 = = 2.10 3 m 3 l 10

Th d 2: Mt chm sng song song c bc sng = 0,6m chiu vung gc vi mt nm khng kh. Tm gc nghing ca nm. Cho bit rng ca 10 khong vn k tip mt trn ca nm bng b = 10mm. Bi gii: Hiu quang l hai tia:

L = 2d +

= (2k + 1) 2 2

dy ca nm khng kh ti v tr vn ti th k:

dk =

k , k = 0,1, 2, 3... 2

dy ca nm khng kh ti v tr vn ti th k+10:

39

Chng 2: Giao thoa nh sng

d k +10 =

(k + 10)
2

d dk sin = k +10 = I1I 2

(k + 10) k
2 b

2 = 5 = 3.10 4 rad b

Th d 3: Mt chm sng n sc song song chiu vung gc vi mt phng ca bn mng khng kh nm gia bn thu tinh phng t tip xc vi mt cong ca thu knh phng li. Bn knh ca mt li thu knh l R = 6,4m. Quan st h vn trn Newton trong chm sng phn x, ngi ta o c bn knh ca hai vn ti k tip ln lt l 4,0mm v 4,38mm. Xc nh bc sng ca chm sng chiu ti v s th t ca cc vn ni trn. Bi gii: Bn knh ca hai vn ti k tip th k v k + 1 trong h vn trn Newton c xc nh bi cng thc:

rk = kR ,
Bc sng chm nh sng chiu ti:
2 2 rk +1 rk

rk +1 =

(k + 1)R

(4,38.10 3 )2 (4.10 3 )2 = 0,497.10 6 m =


6,4

S th t ca vn ti th k:

k=

2 rk

6,4.0,497.10 6

(4.10 3 )2

=5

S th t ca vn ti k tip l 6. Bi tp t gii 1. Hai khe Young cch nhau mt khong l = 1mm, c chiu bng nh sng n sc, h vn giao thoa quan st c trn mn c khong vn i = 1,5mm. Khong cch t mn quan st n mt phng cha hai khe D = 3m. Tm: 1. Bc sng ca nh sng chiu ti. 2. V tr ca vn sng th ba v vn ti th t. p s 1. i =

D il = = 0,5.10 6 m l D 3D = 4,5.10 3 m , l yt4 = (2k + 1)D = 5,25.10 3 m 2l

2. y s 3 =

2. Hai khe Young cch nhau mt khong l = 1mm, c chiu bng nh sng n sc c bc sng cha bit. Mn quan st c t cch mt phng cha hai khe mt on D = 2m. Khong cch t vn sng th nht n vn sng th by l 7,2mm. Tm:
1. Bc sng ca nh sng chiu ti. 40

Chng 2: Giao thoa nh sng 2. V tr ca vn ti th ba v vn sng th t. 3. dch chuyn ca h vn giao thoa trn mn quan st, nu t trc mt trong hai khe mt bn mng song song, trong sut, chit sut n =1,5, b dy e = 0,02mm. p s: Khong cch t vn sng th nht n vn sng th by l 6i i = 1,2.10 3 m 1. i =

D il = = 0,6.10 6 m , l D (2k + 1)D = 3mm, y s 4 = 4i = 4,8mm 2. y t 3 = 2l


e(n 1).D 0,02.10 3.0,5.2 = = 0,02m l 10 3

3. y =

3. Hai khe Young cch nhau mt khong l = 2mm, c chiu bng nh sng n sc c bc sng = 0,6m. Mn quan st c t cch mt phng cha hai khe mt on D = 1m. 1. Tm v tr vn sng th t v vn ti th nm.
2. t trc mt trong hai khe mt bn mng song song, trong sut, chit sut n = 1,5, h vn giao thoa trn mn quan st dch mt khong 2mm. Tm b dy ca bn mng. p s 1. y s 4 = 2. y =

4 D (2k + 1)D = 1,2.10 3 m , y t 5 = = 1,35.10 3 m l 2l y.l e(n 1).D e= = 8.10 6 m l (n 1).D

4. Hai khe Young cch nhau mt khong l = 1mm, c chiu bng nh sng n sc bc sng = 0,5m. Mn quan st c t cch mt phng cha hai khe mt on D = 2m. 1. Tm khong vn giao thoa.
2. t trc mt trong hai khe mt bn mng song song, trong sut, b dy e = 12m, h vn giao thoa trn mn quan st dch mt khong 6mm. Tm chit sut ca bn mng. p s

D 0,5.10 6.2 1. i = = = 10 3 m , 3 l 10
2. y =

y.l + eD e(n 1).D n= = 1,25 l eD

5. Hai khe Young cch nhau mt khong l = 1mm, c chiu bng nh sng n sc c bc sng cha bit. Khi h thng t trong khng kh cho khong cch gia hai vn sng lin tip i = 0,6mm. Mn quan st c t cch mt phng cha hai khe D = 1m.
41

Chng 2: Giao thoa nh sng

1. Tm bc sng ca nh sng chiu ti.


2. Nu vo khong gia mn quan st v mt phng cha hai khe mt cht lng th khong cch gia hai vn sng lin tip i/ = 0,45mm. Tm chit sut ca cht lng. p s 1. i =

D il = = 0,6.10 6 m , l D

2. i =

i 4 i n= = i 3 n

6. Mt chm nh sng n sc song song c bc sng = 0,5m chiu vung gc vi mt mt ca nm khng kh. Quan st trong nh sng phn x, ngi ta o c rng ca mi vn giao thoa bng i = 0,5mm. 1. Xc nh gc nghing ca nm. 2. Chiu ng thi vo mt nm khng kh hai chm tia sng n sc c bc sng ln lt l 1 = 0,5m , 2 = 0,6m . Tm v tr ti cc vn ti cho bi hai chm sng ni trn trng nhau. Coi cnh ca bn mng nm khng kh l vn ti bc khng. p s 1. dy ca nm khng kh ti v tr vn ti bc k l: d k =

k 2

d dk rng ca mt vn giao thoa: i = k +1 = = 0,5.10 3 rad = 2 2i


2. Gi x l khong cch t cnh nm n vn ti th k trn mt nm. V bn nm c gc d nghing rt nh nn: sin = k x V tr ca vn ti th k: x =

k = ki 2

V tr ti cc vn ti ca hai chm sng n sc 1 v 2 trng nhau:

k 11 k 2 2 5 k 2 = k1 = 6 2 2
k1 k2 x1=x2 (mm) 0 0 0 6 5 3,0 12 10 6,0 18 15 9,0

7. Mt bn mng nm thu tinh c gc nghing = 2 v chit sut n = 1,52. Chiu mt chm sng n sc song song vung gc vi mt mt ca bn. Xc nh bc sng ca chm sng n sc nu khong cch gia hai vn ti k tip bng i = 0,3mm. p s: Cc vn ti tho mn iu kin cc tiu giao thoa:

42

Chng 2: Giao thoa nh sng

L = 2nd

= (2k + 1) 2 2

. Gi x l khong cch t cnh 2n nm n v tr vn ti th k trn mt nm. V gc nghing ca nm rt nh nn coi gn d ng: sin = x


dy ca bn nm ti v tr vn ti th k: d k = (k + 1) rng ca mi vn giao thoa:

dk d = 2ni = 0,529m = i = x k +1 x k = k +1 2n
8. Xt mt h thng cho vn trn Newton. Xc nh b dy ca lp khng kh ta quan st thy vn sng u tin, bit rng nh sng ti c bc sng = 0,6m.

p s: d s = (2k 1) , k = 1, 2, 3.. d s1 = = 0,15m 4 4


9. Cho mt chm sng n sc song song bc sng = 0,6m, chiu vung gc vi mt phng ca bn mng khng kh nm gia bn thu tinh phng t tip xc vi mt cong ca mt thu knh phng - li. Tm b dy ca lp khng kh ti v tr vn ti th t ca chm tia phn x. Coi tm ca h vn trn Newton l vn s 0. p s: d t =

4 k = 1,2m , k = 0,1, 2, ... d t 4 = 2 2

10. Cho mt chm sng n sc song song chiu vung gc vi mt phng ca bn mng khng kh nm gia bn thu tinh phng t tip xc vi mt cong ca mt thu knh phng - li. Bn knh mt li thu knh l R = 8,6m. Quan st h vn trn Newton qua chm sng phn x v o c bn knh vn ti th t l r4 = 4,5mm. Xc nh bc sng ca chm sng n sc. Coi tm ca h vn trn Newton l vn s 0. p s:

r2 rk = kR , k = 0,1, 2, 3... r4 = 4R = 4 = 0,589m 4R

11. Cho mt chm sng n sc song song chiu vung gc vi mt phng ca bn mng khng kh nm gia bn thu tinh phng t tip xc vi mt cong ca mt thu knh phng - li. Bn knh mt li thu knh l R = 15m. Quan st h vn trn Newton qua chm sng phn x v o c khong cch gia vn ti th t v vn ti th hai mi lm bng 9mm. Xc nh bc sng ca chm sng n sc. Coi tm ca h vn trn Newton l vn s 0. p s

rk = kR r25 r4 = ( 25 4 ) R =

(r25 r4 )2
R

25 4

= 0,6.10 6 m

12. Ngi ta dng giao thoa k Michelson o dn n di ca mt vt. nh sng n sc dng trong th nghim c bc sng = 0,6.10-6m. Khi dch chuyn gng di ng t v 43

Chng 2: Giao thoa nh sng tr ban u (ng vi lc vt cha b nung nng) n v tr cui (ng vi lc sau khi vt b nung nng), ngi ta quan st thy c 5 vch dch chuyn trong knh quan st. Hi sau khi dn n vt di thm bao nhiu? p s: Khi dch chuyn gng mt khong /2 th hiu quang l thay i v c mt vn dch chuyn. Vy sau khi nung nng vt dn n thm l , s vn dch chuyn l m, nn: m. l = = 1,5.10 5 cm 2 13.Trong th nghim dng giao thoa k Michelson, khi dch chuyn gng di ng mt khong 0,161mm, ngi ta quan st thy hnh giao thoa dch i 500 vn. Tm bc sng ca nh sng dng trong th nghim. p s: =

2.l = 0,644m m

44

Chng 3: Nhiu x nh sng

CHNG III: NHIU X NH SNG


I. MC CH - YU CU
1. Nm c nguyn l Huygens Fresnel v phng php i cu Fresnel tnh bin dao ng sng tng hp ti mt im no . 2. Vn dng phng php i cu Fresnel xt nhiu x qua mt l trn nh, mt a trn nh v mt khe hp. 3. Nm c nhiu x qua cch t, nhiu x trn tinh th.

II. NI DUNG
1. NHIU X NH SNG CA SNG CU 1. Hin tng nhiu x nh sng nh sng t ngun S truyn qua mt l trn nh trn mn P. Sau P t mn quan st E, trn mn E ta nhn c hnh trn sng ng knh BD ng dng vi l trn BD. Theo nh lut truyn thng ca nh sng, nu thu nh l trn P th hnh trn sng trn mn E nh li. Thc nghim chng t rng khi thu nh l trn n mt mc no th trn mn E xut hin nhng vn trn sng ti xen k nhau. Trong vng Hnh 3-1: Hin tng nhiu x nh sng ti hnh hc (ngoi BD) ta cng nhn c vn sng v trong vng sng hnh hc (vng BD) cng c vn ti. Ti C c th nhn c im ti hay sng ph thuc vo kch thc ca l trn v khong cch t mn E n mn P. Nh vy nh sng khi i qua l trn b lch khi phng truyn thng. nh ngha: Hin tng tia sng b lch khi phng truyn thng khi i gn cc chng ngi vt c kch thc nh c gi l hin tng nhiu x nh sng. Chng ngi vt c th l mp bin hay vt cn hoc mt l trn c kch thc cng c bc sng ca nh sng chiu ti. Hin tng nhiu x nh sng c th gii thch da vo nguyn l Huygens-Fresnel. Nguyn l c pht biu nh sau. Nguyn l Huygens - Fresnel

45

Chng 3: Nhiu x nh sng - Mi im trong khng gian c sng nh sng t ngun thc gi n u tr thnh ngun sng th cp pht sng nh sng v pha trc. - Bin v pha ca ngun th cp l bin v pha do ngun thc gy ra ti v tr ca ngun th cp. Theo nguyn l HuygensFresnel, khi nh sng chiu n l trn, cc im trn l trn u tr thnh ngun th cp pht sng cu th cp. Bao hnh ca cc mt sng cu th cp l mt sng. mp ca l trn mt sng b un cong v tia sng lun vung gc vi mt sng, do mp bin cc tia sng b i phng so vi phng ca sng ti (hnh 3-2)

Hnh 3-2. Gii thch nh tnh hin tng nhiu x Mi ngun sng th cp trn mt l trn BD c bin v pha dao ng ng bng bin v pha dao ng do ngun sng S gy ra ti im . Dao ng sng ti mi im trn mn nh E s bng tng cc dao ng sng do nhng ngun sng th cp trn l trn BD gy ra ti im . T biu thc ca hm sng, da vo nguyn l Huygens-Fresnel ngi ta c th tm c biu thc nh lng ca dao ng sng ti mt im M trn mn hnh E, nhng vic tnh ton kh phc tp v phi tnh tch phn. Fresnel a ra mt phng php tnh n gin gi l phng php i cu Fresnel. 2. Phng php i cu Fresnel

Hnh 3-3

46

Chng 3: Nhiu x nh sng Xt ngun sng im S pht nh sng n sc v im c chiu sng M. Ly S lm tm dng mt cu bao quanh S, bn knh R < SM. t MB = b. Ly M lm tm v cc mt cu 0 , 1 , 2 ... c bn knh ln lt l b, b + , b + 2 ... , trong l bc sng 2 2 do ngun S pht ra. Cc mt cu 0 , 1 , 2 ... chia mt cu thnh cc i gi l i cu Fresnel. Vi cch dng nh vy, ngi ta chng minh c rng din tch cc i cu bng nhau v bng:

S =

Rb R+b

( 3-1)

Bn knh rk ca i cu th k bng:

rk =

Rb k R+b

vi

k = 1, 2, 3...

(3-2)

Theo nguyn l Huygens, mi i cu tr thnh ngun sng th cp pht nh sng ti im M. Gi ak l bin dao ng sng do i cu th k gy ra ti M. Khi k tng, cc i cu cng xa im M v gc nghing tng (hnh 3-3), do ak gim: a1 > a2 > a3 ... Khi k kh ln th a k 0 . V khong cch t i cu n im M v gc nghing tng rt chm nn ak gim chm, ta c th coi ak do i cu th k gy ra l trung bnh cng ca ak-1 v ak+1:

1 a k = (a k 1 + a k +1 ) 2

(3-3)

Khong cch ca hai i cu k tip ti im M khc nhau / 2 . Cc i cu u nm trn mt sng , ngha l pha dao ng ca tt c cc im trn mi i cu u nh nhau. Kt qu, hiu pha ca hai dao ng sng do hai i cu k tip gy ra ti M l:

2 2 (L1 L 2 ) = . = 2

(3-4)

Nh vy hai dao ng sng ngc pha nhau nn chng s kh ln nhau. V M kh xa mt , ta coi cc dao ng sng do cc i cu gy ra ti M cng phng, do dao ng sng tng hp do cc i gy ra ti M s l: a = a1 - a2 + a3 - a4+... (3-5) Sau y chng ta s s dng phng php i cu Fresnel kho st hin tng nhiu x ca nh sng qua l trn, a trn v qua khe hp. 3. Nhiu x qua l trn Xt ngun sng im S, pht nh sng n sc qua l trn AB trn mn chn P n im M, S v M nm trn trc ca l trn. Ly S lm tm dng mt cu ta vo l trn AB. Ly M lm tm v cc i cu Fresnel trn mt . Gi s l cha n i cu. Bin dao ng sng tng hp ti M l:

47

Chng 3: Nhiu x nh sng

a = a1 a 2 + a 3 a 4 + ... a n

Hnh 3-4. Nhiu x qua l trn Ta c th vit:

an a3 a3 a5 a1 a1 2 + a2 + a4 + a= + + ... + a n 1 a 2 2 2 2 2 an n 2 2
V cc biu thc trong du ngoc bng khng, nn:

a a a= 1 n 2 2 Ly du + nu i n l l v du - nu i n l chn. Ta xt cc trng hp sau:

(3-6)

* Khi khng c mn chn P hoc kch thc l trn rt ln: n , a n 0 nn cng sng ti M:

a2 I0 = a 2 = 1 4
* Nu l cha s l i cu

(3-7)

a a a= 1+ n 2 2
a a I= 1 + n 2 2
2

(3-8)

I > I0, im M sng hn khi khng c mn P. c bit nu l cha mt i cu

a a a = 1 + 1 = a1 2 2
* Nu l cha s chn i cu

2 I = a1 = 4 I 0

(3-9)

Cng sng gp 4 ln so vi khi khng c l trn, nh vy im M rt sng.

a a a= 1 n 2 2

(3-10)

48

Chng 3: Nhiu x nh sng

a a I= 1 n 2 2

(3-11)

I < I0, im M ti hn khi khng c l trn. Nu l trn cha hai i cu th

a a a = 1 2 0 , do I = 0, im M ti nht. 2 2
Tm li im M c th sng hn hoc ti hn so vi khi khng c l trn ty theo kch thc ca l v v tr ca mn quan st. 4. Nhiu x qua mt a trn Gia ngun sng S v im M c mt a trn chn sng bn knh ro. Gi s a che khut m i cu Fresnel u tin. Bin dao ng ti M l:

a = a m +1 a m + 2 + a m + 3 .... a a a a = m +1 + m +1 a m + 2 + m + 3 + ... 2 2 2
Hnh 3-5. Nhiu x qua mt a trn

V cc biu thc trong ngoc c th coi bng khng, do :

a a = m+1 2

(3-12)

Nu a ch che t i cu th am+1 khng khc a1 l my, do cng sng ti M cng ging nh trng hp khng c chng ngi vt gia S v M. Trong trng hp a che nhiu i cu th am+1 0 do cng sng ti M bng khng. 2. NHIU X NH SNG CA SNG PHNG 1. Nhiu x ca sng phng qua mt khe hp to ra chm sng song song, ngi ta t ngun sng S ti tiu im ca thu knh hi t Lo. Chiu chm sng n sc song song bc sng vo khe hp c b rng b (hnh 3-6). Sau khi i qua khe hp, tia sng s b nhiu x theo nhiu phng. Tch cc tia nhiu x theo mt phng no chng s gp nhau v cng. Mun quan st nh nhiu x chng ta s dng thu knh hi t L, chm tia nhiu x s hi t ti im M trn mt phng tiu ca thu knh hi t L. Vi cc gi tr khc nhau chm nhiu x s hi t ti cc im khc nhau. Ty theo gi tr ca im M c th sng hoc ti. Nhng im sng ti ny nm dc trn ng thng vung gc vi chiu di khe hp v c gi l cc cc i v cc tiu nhiu x.

49

Chng 3: Nhiu x nh sng

Hnh 3-6. Nhiu x qua mt khe hp V nh sng gi n khe l sng phng nn mt phng khe l mt sng, cc sng th cp trn mt phng khe dao ng cng pha. Xt cc tia nhiu x theo phng =0, chng hi t ti im F. Mt phng khe v mt quan st l hai mt trc giao do theo nh l Malus, cc tia sng gi t mt phng khe ti im F c quang l bng nhau v dao ng cng pha nn chng tng cng nhau. im F rt sng v c gi l cc i gia. Xt trng hp 0 . p dng tng ca phng php i cu Fresnel ta v cc mt phng 0 , 1 , 2 ,... vung gc vi chm tia nhiu x v cch u nhau mt khong

/2, chng s chia mt khe thnh cc di sng nm song song vi b rng ca khe hp. B rng ca mi di l l = v s di trn khe s l: 2 sin

N=

b 2b sin = l

(3-13)

Theo nguyn l Huygens, nhng di ny l ngun sng th cp dao ng cng pha (v nm trn cng mt mt sng) v pht nh sng n im M. V quang l ca hai tia sng t hai di k tip n im M khc nhau /2 nn dao ng sng do hai di k tip gi ti M ngc pha nhau v chng s kh nhau. Kt qu l nu khe cha s chn di (N = 2k) th dao ng sng do tng cp di k tip gy ra ti M s kh ln nhau v im M s ti v l cc tiu nhiu x. iu kin im M ti l:

N=
hay

2b sin = 2k b
vi k = 1, 2, 3...

sin = k

(3-14)

Nu khe cha mt s l di (N = 2k+1) th dao ng sng do tng cp di k tip gi ti im M s kh ln nhau, cn dao ng sng do di cui cng gi ti th khng b kh. Kt qu im M s sng v c gi l cc i nhiu x bc k. Cng sng ca cc cc i ny nh hn rt nhiu so vi cc i gia. iu kin im M sng l:

50

Chng 3: Nhiu x nh sng

N=
hay

2b sin = 2k + 1 2b sin = 0 sin = , 2 , 3 ,... b b b sin = 3 , 5 , ... 2b 2b

sin = (2k + 1)

vi

k = 1, 2, 3...

(3-15)

Tm li ta c cc iu kin cc i, cc tiu nhiu x qua mt khe hp nh sau: - Cc i gia (k=0) : - Cc tiu nhiu x : - Cc i nhiu x :

th phn b cng sng trn mn quan st cho bi hnh 3-7.

Hnh 3-7. Hnh nhiu x ca sng phng qua mt khe hp Nhn xt thy cc cc i nhiu x bc k = 1,2,3...nm xen gia cc cc tiu nhiu x v phn b i xng hai bn cc i gia. Cc i gia c b rng gp i cc cc i khc. Theo tnh ton l thuyt, cng sng ca cc cc i nhiu x tun theo h thc sau I0 : I1 : I2 : I3 : ....= 1 : 0,045 : 0,016 : 0,008 : ... 2. Nhiu x ca sng phng truyn qua cch t phng Cch t phng l mt h nhiu khe hp ging nhau c rng b, nm song song cch u trn cng mt mt phng. Khong cch d gia hai khe k tip c gi l chu k ca cch t. S khe hp trn mt n v chiu di: n =

1 d
51

Chng 3: Nhiu x nh sng Xt mt cch t phng c N khe hp. B rng ca mt khe l b, chu k ca cch t l d. Chiu chm sng n sc song song bc sng vung gc vi mt cch t. V cc khe c th coi l ngun kt hp, do ngoi hin tng nhiu x gy bi mt khe cn c hin tng giao thoa gy bi cc khe. Do nh nhiu x qua cch t s phc tp hn nhiu so vi nh nhiu x qua mt khe hp. Ta s kho st nh nhiu x qua cch t:

Hnh 3-8. Nhiu x qua cch t

- Tt c N khe hp u cho cc tiu nhiu x ti nhng im trn mn nh tha mn iu kin:

sin = k

vi k = 1,2,3...

(3-16)

Nhng cc tiu ny c gi l cc tiu chnh. - Xt phn b cng sng gia hai cc tiu chnh: Hiu quang l ca hai tia sng xut pht t hai khe k tip n im M l L1 L 2 = d sin . Nu hiu quang l bng s nguyn ln bc sng

L1 L 2 = d sin = m th dao ng sng do hai tia gy ra ti M cng pha v tng cng ln nhau. Kt qu im M sng. Cc im c gi l cc i chnh. V tr cc cc i chnh l:

sin = m

vi m = 0, 1, 2, 3....

(3-17)

S nguyn m l bc ca cc i chnh. Cc i chnh gia (m = 0) nm ti tiu im F ca thu knh. V d > b nn gia hai cc tiu chnh c th c nhiu cc i chnh. V d: k = 1 d nn m < k = 3 , ngha l m = 0, 1, 2. Nh vy gia hai v d/b = 3 . Do m < k b b d cc tiu chnh c 5 cc i chnh.

Hnh 3-9 nh nhiu x qua ba khe hp

52

Chng 3: Nhiu x nh sng

- Xt phn b cng sng gia hai cc i chnh: Ti im chnh gia hai cc i chnh k tip, gc nhiu x tha mn iu kin:

sin = (2m + 1)

2d

vi m = 0,1,2...

Ti cc im ny, hiu quang l ca hai tia gi t hai khe k tip c gi tr l:

. y l iu kin cc tiu giao thoa, hai tia s kh ln nhau. Tuy 2 nhin im chnh gia cha chc ti. minh ha c th ta xt hai trng hp n gin sau: d sin = (2m + 1)
+ Nu s khe hp N = 2 (s chn) th cc dao ng sng do hai khe hp gi ti s kh nhau hon ton v im chnh gia s ti. im ti c gi l cc tiu ph. + Nu s khe hp N = 3 (s l) th cc dao ng sng do hai khe hp gi ti s kh nhau, cn dao ng sng do khe th ba gy ra khng b kh. Kt qu l gia hai cc i chnh l mt cc i. Cc i ny c cng kh nh, nn c gi l cc i ph. R rng gia cc i ph ny v hai cc i chnh hai bn phi c hai cc tiu ph. Ngi ta chng minh c rng, nu cch t c N khe hp th gia hai cc i chnh s c N-1 cc tiu ph v N-2 cc i ph. Hnh 3-9 biu din nh nhiu x qua ba khe hp. Cch t phng c th dng o bc sng nh sng, ng dng trong my n sc... T cng thc (3-17) nu ta bit c chu k ca cch t, bng cch o gc ng vi cc i chnh bc m ta c th xc nh c bc sng nh sng. 3. Nhiu x trn tinh th Cc nguyn t (phn t hay ion) cu to nn vt rn tinh th c sp xp theo mt cu trc tun hon gi l mng tinh th, trong v tr ca cc nguyn t (phn t hay ion) gi l nt mng. Khong cch gia cc nt mng, c trng cho tnh tun hon, c gi l chu k ca mng tinh th. Chiu ln tinh th mt chm tia Rnghen, mi nt mng tr thnh tm nhiu x v mng tinh th ng vai tr nh mt cch t vi chu k l chu k ca mng tinh th. Chm tia

Hnh 3-10. Nhiu x trn tinh th

Rnghen s nhiu x theo nhiu phng, tuy nhin ch theo phng phn x gng (phng m gc phn x bng gc ti), cng ca tia nhiu x ln ta c th quan st c nh nhiu x. Nhng tia nhiu x ny s giao thoa vi nhau v cho cc i nhiu x nu hai tia nhiu x k tip c hiu quang l bng s nguyn ln bc sng L = 2d sin = k hay

53

Chng 3: Nhiu x nh sng

sin = k

2d

(3-18)

d l khong cch gia hai mt phng nguyn t ca vt rn tinh th (chu k mng tinh th). Cng thc (3-18) gi l cng thc Vulf-Bragg. y l cng thc c bn phn tch cu trc ca vt rn tinh th bng tia Rnghen. Nu bit bc sng ca tia Rnghen v o gc ta c th xc nh c chu k d ca mng tinh th.

III. TM TT NI DUNG
1. Hin tng nhiu x nh sng * nh ngha: Hin tng nhiu x nh sng l hin tng tia sng b lch khi phng truyn thng khi i qua cc chng ngi vt c kch thc nh nh l trn, khe hp, a trn... * Nguyn l Huygens - Fresnel: - Mi im trong khng gian c sng nh sng t ngun thc gi n u tr thnh ngun sng th cp pht sng nh sng v pha trc. - Bin v pha ca ngun th cp l bin v pha do ngun thc gy ra ti v tr ca ngun th cp. 2. Phng php i cu Fresnel Din tch cc i cu bng nhau v bng:

S =

Rb R+b

Bn knh rk ca i cu th k bng:

rk =

Rb k R+b

k=1,2,3...

trong R l bn knh ca mt sng bao quanh ngun sng im S b l khong cch t im c chiu sng M ti i cu th nht. l bc sng do ngun S pht ra. 3. Nhiu x sng cu qua l trn p dng phng php i cu Fresnel, ta tnh c bin ca nh sng tng hp ti M, cch ngun S mt khong R+b:

a a a= 1 n 2 2
Ly du + nu n l l v du - nu n l chn. Ta xt cc trng hp sau: * Khi khng c mn chn P hoc l trn rt ln: n , a n 0 sng ti M: nn cng

54

Chng 3: Nhiu x nh sng

a2 I0 = a 2 = 1 4
* Nu l cha s l i cu:

a a a= 1+ n 2 2
a a I= 1 + n 2 2
2

I > I0, im M sng hn khi khng c mn P. c bit nu l cha mt i cu

a a a = 1 + 1 = a1 2 2
* Nu l cha s chn i cu

2 I = a1 = 4 I 0

Cng sng gp 4 ln so vi khi khng c l trn, nh vy im M rt sng.

a a a= 1 n 2 2
a a I= 1 n 2 2
2

I < I0, im M ti hn khi khng c l trn. Nu l trn cha hai i cu th

a a a = 1 2 0 , do I = 0, im M ti nht. 2 2
Tm li im M c th sng hn hoc ti hn so vi khi khng c l trn tu theo kch thc ca l v v tr ca mn quan st. 4. Nhiu x ca sng phng qua mt khe hp p dng phng php i cu Fresnel ta tnh ton c bin dao ng sng tng hp ti mt im M trn mn quan st. Kt qu ta c cc iu kin cc i, cc tiu nhiu x qua mt khe hp nh sau: - Cc i gia (k=0) : - Cc tiu nhiu x : - Cc i nhiu x :

sin = 0 sin = , 2 , 3 ,... b b b sin = 3 , 5 , ... 2b 2b

Trn th phn b cng sng ta thy cc i gia rt sng, cc cc i nhiu x bc k=1,2,3...nm xen gia cc cc tiu nhiu x v phn b i xng hai bn cc i gia. Cc i gia c b rng gp i cc cc i khc. Theo tnh ton l thuyt, cng sng ca cc cc i nhiu x tun theo h thc sau: I0 : I1 : I2 : I3 : ....= 1 : 0,045 : 0,016 : 0,008 : ... 5. Nhiu x qua nhiu khe Cch t 55

Chng 3: Nhiu x nh sng Cch t phng l mt h nhiu khe hp ging nhau c rng b, nm song song cch u trn cng mt mt phng. Khong cch d gia hai khe k tip c gi l chu k ca cch t. Ngi ta c th ch to c cc cch t di 10cm, trn mi mm c t 500 1200 vch. Cc cch t ny c th s dng xc nh bc sng nh sng n sc, xc nh thnh phn cu to ca cc cht v dng trong my quang ph... i vi vt rn tinh th, mng tinh th ng vai tr mt cch t khng gian ba chiu. S nhiu x ca cc tia X trn cc nt mng cho ta kt qu:

2d sin = k
d l khong cch gia hai nt mng, gi l hng s mng. y l cng thc Vulf-Bragg, c dng xc nh cu trc ca vt rn tinh th.

IV. CU HI L THUYT
1. Nu nh ngha hin tng nhiu x nh sng. Dng nguyn l Huygens gii thch nh tnh hin tng nhiu x. 2. Pht biu nguyn l Huygens-Fresnel. 3. Trnh by phng php i cu Fresnel. 4. Gii thch hin tng nhiu x nh sng qua l trn nh. Xt cc trng hp l trn cha mt s l i cu, mt s chn i cu, c bit cha mt i cu v hai i cu. 5. M t hin tng nhiu x nh sng qua mt khe hp. Tm iu kin cc i, cc tiu nhiu x. V nh nhiu x ca sng phng qua mt khe hp. 6. nh ngha cch t phng v nu ng dng ca cch t. 7. Trnh by nhiu x ca tia X trn tinh th. Cng thc Vulf- Bragg. Nu ng dng ca hin tng nhiu x tia X.

V. BI TP
Th d 1: Mt ngun sng im chiu nh sng n sc bc sng = 0,5m vo mt l trn c bn knh r = 0,5mm. Khong cch t ngun sng n l trn R = 1m.Tm khong cch t l trn n mn quan st tm nhiu x l ti nht. p s: tm ca hnh nhiu x l ti nht th l trn ch cha 2 i cu Fresnel, bn knh ca l trn bng bn knh ca i cu th 2
2 Rr2 2Rb 0,25.106 1 r2 = =rb= = = m 2 6 6 3 R+b 2R r2 2.0,5.10 0,25.10

Th d 2: Mt chm tia sng n sc c bc sng = 0,5m c chiu vung gc vi mt khe hp ch nht c b rng b = 0,1mm, ngay sau khe hp t mt thu knh hi t. Tm b rng ca vn cc i gia trn mn quan st t ti mt phng tiu ca thu knh v cch thu knh D = 1m.

56

Chng 3: Nhiu x nh sng Bi gii: B rng ca vn cc i gia l khong cch gia hai cc tiu nhiu x u tin hai bn cc i gia. ln ca gc nhiu x ng vi cc cc tiu nhiu x l: sin = . b T hnh v ta thy
l = 2Dtg 2D sin
l= 2D 2.1.0,5.10 6 = = 1cm b 0,1.10 3

Th d 3: Cho mt chm tia sng n sc song song c bc sng = 0,5m, chiu vng gc vi mt ca mt cch t phng truyn qua. st pha sau ca cch t ngi ta t mt thu knh hi t c tiu c f = 50cm. Khi trn mn quan st t ti mt phng tiu ca thu knh, hai vch quang ph bc nht cch nhau mt khong a = 10,1cm. Xc nh: 1. Chu k cch t v s khe trn 1cm chiu di ca cch t. 2. S vch cc i chnh trong quang ph nhiu x. Bi gii 1.V tr cc cc i chnh trong quang ph nhiu x xc nh bi cng thc:

sin =

m , m = 0, 1, 2, 3... d

Do vy v tr hai vch cc i chnh ca quang ph bc nht ng vi gc lch 1 bng: sin 1 = , v 1 rt nh nn d tg1 sin 1 . T hnh v, ta c tg1 =

M1F L = OF 2f

So snh tg 1 vi sin 1 ta c chu k cch t:

d=

2f 2.50.10 2.0,5.10 6 = = 4,95m L 10,1.10 2


1 = 2020 khe / cm d

S khe trn 1cm chiu di ca cch t: n = 2. T cng thc: sin =

m d 4,95.10 6 , m sin 1 m = = 9,9 0,5.10 6 d

57

Chng 3: Nhiu x nh sng V m nguyn nn c th ly cc gi tr: 0, 1,2 ,3 ,4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. Do cc vch cc i chnh ti a trong quang ph nhiu x ca cch t bng: Nmax = 2.9 + 1 = 19 vch. Bi tp t gii 1. Chiu nh sng n sc bc sng = 0,5m vo mt l trn bn knh cha bit. Ngun sng im t cch l trn 2m, sau l trn 2m t mn quan st. Hi bn knh ca l trn bng bao nhiu tm ca hnh nhiu x l ti nht.

p s: tm ca hnh nhiu x l ti nht th l trn ch cha 2 i cu Fresnel:

r=

kRb = R+b

2.2.2.0,5.10 6 = 10 3 m 4

2. Mt mn nh c t cch ngun sng im n sc bc sng = 0,5m mt khong 2m. Chnh gia mn nh v ngun sng t mt l trn ng knh 0,2cm. Tm s i cu Fresnel m l trn cha c. p s: Bn knh ca l trn bng bn knh ca i cu th k

r=

r 2 ( R + b) kRb =4 k= Rb R+b

3. Mt ngun sng im chiu nh sng n sc bc sng = 0,5m vo mt l trn c bn knh r = 1mm. Khong cch t ngun sng n l trn R= 1m. Tm khong cch t l trn n mn quan st l trn cha ba i Fresnel. p s: l trn ch cha ba i cu Fresnel c ngha l bn knh ca l trn bng bn
2 Rr3 10 6 3Rb knh ca i cu th ba: r3 = b= = = 2m 2 R+b 3R r3 3.0,5.10 6 10 6

4. t mt mn quan st cch mt ngun sng im pht ra nh sng n sc bc sng = 0,6m mt khong x. Chnh gia khong x t mt a trn nh chn sng ng knh 1mm. Hi x bng bao nhiu im M0 trn mn quan st c sng gn ging nh cha t a trn, bit im M0 v ngun sng u nm trn trc ca a trn. p s: Mun cng sng ti M0 gn ging nh khi cha c a trn th a trn ch chn mt i cu Fresnel:

4.(0,5.103 ) 2 2r 2 Rb = 1,67m ; R = b R = ; x = 2R = r1 = R+b 0,6.106


5. Mt chm tia sng n sc song song bc sng = 0,589m chiu thng gc vi mt khe hp c b rng b = 2m. Hi nhng cc tiu nhiu x c quan st di nhng gc nhiu x bng bao nhiu? (so vi phng ban u) p s: p dng cng thc: 58

Chng 3: Nhiu x nh sng


sin = k , sin 1 1 = 17 08, 2 = 36 0 5, 3 = 62 0 b

6. Chiu mt chm tia sng n sc song song vung gc vi mt khe hp. Bc sng nh 1 b rng ca khe hp. Hi cc tiu nhiu x th ba c quan st di gc sng bng 6 lch bng bao nhiu? p s: = 300 7. Mt chm tia sng c ri vung gc vi mt cch t. Bit rng gc nhiu x i vi vch quang ph 1 = 0,65m trong quang ph bc hai bng 1 = 450. Xc nh gc nhiu x ng vi vch quang ph 2 = 0,5m trong quang ph bc ba. p s:

3 2 sin 1 2 = 54 0 40 2 1 8. Cho mt chm tia sng n sc song song c bc sng = 0,7m chiu vung gc vi mt ca mt cch t truyn qua. Trn mt phng tiu ca thu knh hi t t st pha sau sin 1 = m1n1 = 2n1 , sin 2 = m 2 n 2 = 3n 2 sin 2 =
cch t, ngi ta quan st thy vch quang ph bc ba lch = 48 0 36 . Xc nh: 1. Chu k cch t v s khe trn 1cm chiu di ca cch t. 2. S cc i chnh nm trong khong gia hai cc tiu chnh bc nht trong nh nhiu x. Cho bit mi khe ca cch t c rng b = 0,7m, sin 48 0 36 = 0,75 p s: 1.Gc nhiu x ng vi cc cc i chnh c xc nh bi cng thc:

sin =

m m d= = 2,8.10 4 cm sin d 1 3571 khe / cm d

S khe trn 1cm chiu di ca cch t: n =

2. Gc nhiu x ng vi cc tiu chnh trong nh nhiu x c xc nh bi cng thc: k , s cc i chnh nm gia hai cc tiu chnh bc nht phi tho mn iu kin: sin = b m k kd m = 4 . Vy gia hai cc tiu chnh bc nht c 7 cc i chnh. d b b 9. Cho mt cch t phng c chu k cch t d = 2m. Sau cch t t mt thu knh hi t, trn mn quan st t ti mt phng tiu ca thu knh ngi ta quan st thy khong cch gia hai quang ph bc nht ng vi bc sng 1 = 0,4044m v 2 = 0,4047m bng 0,1mm. Xc nh tiu c ca thu knh. p s:

59

Chng 3: Nhiu x nh sng Gc nhiu x ng vi cc i:

sin =

m d

V tr cc i ng vi gc nhiu x:

y = MF = f .tg y 2 y1 , y 2 y1 = 0,1mm, tg 2 tg1 sin 2 = 2 , sin 1 = 1 d d f =

f = 0,65m
10. Mt chm nh sng trng song song chiu vung gc vo mt mt cch t phng. Cho bit trn mi milimet chiu di ca cch t c n = 50 khe. Pha sau cch t t mt thu knh hi t. Xc nh hiu s cc gc nhiu x ng vi vch c bc sng 1 = 0,76m nm cui quang ph bc nht v vch tm c bc sng 2 = 0,4m nm u quang ph bc hai. p s: d =

1 = 0,02mm n

Gc nhiu x cui quang ph bc nht ng vi nh sng :

0,76.10 6 sin 1 = 1 = = 0,038 1 = 2 011 3 d 0,02.10


Gc nhiu x u quang ph bc hai ng vi nh sng tm:

sin 2 =

2 2 2.0,4.10 6 = = 0,04 2 = 2 018 3 d 0,02.10

Hiu s ca cc gc nhiu x: = 2 1 = 7 11. Cho mt chm tia sng n sc song song chiu vung gc vo mt ca mt cch t phng c chu k d = 2m. Xc nh bc ln nht ca cc vch cc i trong quang ph nhiu x cho bi cch t i vi nh sng c bc sng 1 = 0,7m v i vi nh sng tm c bc sng 2 = 0,42m. p s: sin = m

d. sin d , m sin 1 , nn m m= d
d = 2,86 m1(max ) = 2 1 d = 4,76 m 2(max ) = 4 2

i vi nh sng : m1 i vi nh sng tm: m 2

60

Chng 4: Phn cc nh sng

CHNG IV: PHN CC NH SNG


Trong hai chng trc chng ta nghin cu hin tng giao thoa v hin tng nhiu x nh sng ch da vo bn cht sng ca nh sng m khng cn phn bit sng nh sng l sng ngang hay sng dc. Trong chng ny chng ta s chng minh nh sng l sng ngang qua hin tng phn cc nh sng. Ta bit sng in t l sng ngang, l sng c cc vect cng in trng v vect cng t trng dao ng vung gc vi phng truyn sng. Ch c sng ngang mi c th th hin tnh phn cc cho nn nghin cu s phn cc ca nh sng chng ta mt ln na khng nh bn cht sng in t ca nh sng.

I. MC CH - YU CU
1. Nm c s phn cc nh sng th hin nh sng l sng ngang. Phn bit nh sng t nhin v nh sng phn cc (mt phn, ton phn). Thit lp nh lut Malus. 2. Nm c s phn cc nh sng do phn x, khc x, phn cc do lng chit t nhin. 3. Nm c ng dng ca hin tng quay mt phng phn cc xc nh nng ca cc cht hot quang trong phn cc k (ng k).

II. NI DUNG
1. NH SNG PHN CC 1. nh sng t nhin v nh sng phn cc

1
(a) E Tia sng Tia sng (b) E E1

Hnh 4-1. nh sng t nhin (a) v nh sng phn cc thng (b) 61

Chng 4: Phn cc nh sng nh sng do mt ngun sng pht ra l tp hp ca v s cc on sng ni tip nhau. Trong mi on sng, vect cng in trng E lun dao ng theo mt phng xc nh vung gc vi tia sng. Nhng do tnh hn lon ca chuyn ng bn trong mi nguyn t nn vect E trong cc on sng do mt nguyn t pht ra c th dao ng theo cc phng khc nhau vung gc vi tia sng. Mt khc ngun sng bao gm nhiu nguyn t, do phng dao ng ca vect E trong cc on sng do cc nguyn t pht ra cng thay i hn lon v phn b u xung quanh tia sng. nh sng c vect cng in trng dao ng u n theo mi phng vung gc tia sng c gi l nh sng t nhin. Hnh 4-1a biu din nh sng t nhin, trong mt phng vung gc vi tia sng cc vect E c tr s bng nhau v phn b u n xung quanh tia sng. nh sng t nhin khi i qua mi trng bt ng hng v mt quang hc (v d bn tinh th Tuamalin), trong nhng iu kin nht nh no do tc dng ca mi trng nn vect E ch dao ng theo mt phng xc nh. nh sng c vect E ch dao ng theo mt phng xc nh c gi l nh sng phn cc thng hay nh sng phn cc ton phn. Hnh 4-1b biu din nh sng phn cc ton phn E1 . Hin tng nh sng t nhin bin thnh nh sng phn cc gi l hin tng phn cc nh sng. Mt phng cha tia sng v phng dao ng ca E c gi l mt phng dao ng, cn mt phng cha tia sng v vung gc vi mt phng dao ng gi l mt phng phn cc. Vi nh ngha nh sng phn cc ton phn th mi on sng do nguyn t pht ra l mt nh sng phn cc ton phn. Nh vy nh sng t nhin do cc nguyn t ca mt ngun sng pht ra l tp hp ca v s nh sng phn cc ton phn, dao ng u n theo tt c mi phng vung gc vi tia sng. Trong mt s trng hp do tc dng ca mi trng ln nh sng truyn qua n, vect cng in trng vn dao ng theo tt c cc phng vung gc vi tia sng nhng c phng dao ng yu, c phng dao ng mnh. nh sng ny c gi l nh sng phn cc mt phn. 2. nh lut Malus v phn cc nh sng Thc nghim chng t rng, bn tinh th Tuamalin (hp cht silicbrat aluminium) vi chiu dy 1mm c th bin nh sng t nhin thnh nh sng phn cc thng. Nguyn nhn ca hin tng ny l do tnh hp th nh sng khng u theo cc phng khc nhau trong tinh th (gi l tnh hp th d hng). Trong bn Tuamalin c mt phng c bit gi l quang trc ca tinh th (k hiu l ) . Theo phng quang trc, nh sng khng b hp th v truyn t do qua bn tinh th, cn theo phng vung gc vi quang trc, nh sng b hp th hon ton. Khi ta chiu mt chm tia sng t nhin vung gc vi mt ABCD ca bn tinh th tuamalin c quang trc song song cnh AB, v nh sng l sng ngang nn tia sng sau bn tuamalin c vect sng E song song vi quang trc ca bn (hnh 4-1b). Di y ta s xt k hn v s truyn nh sng qua bn tuamalin.

62

Chng 4: Phn cc nh sng Xt nh sng t nhin truyn ti bn tuamalin T1, bt k vect sng E no ca nh sng t nhin cng u c th phn tch thnh hai thnh phn: E1x vung gc vi quang trc 1 v E1y song song vi quang trc
2 2 E 2 = E1x + E1y

1 . Khi
(4-1)

Do nh sng t nhin c E phn b u n xung quanh tia sng nn ta c th ly trung bnh:


2 2 E1x = E1y =

1 2 E 2

(4-2)

Do tnh hp th d hng ca bn tinh th tuamalin, thnh phn E1x vung gc vi quang trc b hp th hon ton, cn thnh phn E1y song song vi quang trc c truyn hon ton qua bn tuamalin T1, nh sng t nhin bin thnh nh sng phn cc ton phn c vect sng E1 = E1y song song vi quang trc 1 (hnh 4-2) v cng sng I1 sau bn T1 bng:
2 2 I1 = E1 = E1y =

1 2 1 E = I0 2 2

(4-3)

trong I 0 = E 2 l cng ca nh sng t nhin truyn ti bn T1. Ly mt bn tuamalin T2 c quang trc 2 t sau T1. Gi l gc gia quang trc

1 v 2 . Vect sng E1 sau bn tuamalin T1 s c phn tch thnh hai thnh phn:
E 2 = E1 cos
,, ,

song

song

vi

quang

trc
,

2 v

E 2 = E1 sin vung gc vi 2 . Thnh phn E 2 s truyn


qua bn T2, cn thnh phn E 2 s b hp th hon ton. Nh vy sau bn T2 ta cng nhn c nh sng phn cc ton phn c vect sng E 2 = E 2 v cng sng I2 bng
2 I 2 = E 2 = E1 cos 2 = I1 cos 2 (4-4) 2 I1 l cng sng sau bn tuamalin T1. Nh vy nu gi c nh bn T1 v quay bn T2 xung quanh tia sng th I2 s thay i. Khi hai quang trc song song vi nhau, = 0 th I2 s , ,,

Hnh 4-2

t gi tr cc i v bng I1. Cn lc hai quang trc vung gc vi nhau, = bng 0. T1 c gi l knh phn cc, T2 c gi l knh phn tch (hnh 4-3) Cng thc (4-4) biu din mt nh lut gi l nh lut Malus.

th I2 s 2

63

Chng 4: Phn cc nh sng nh lut Malus: Khi cho mt chm tia sng t nhin truyn qua hai bn tuamalin c quang trc hp vi nhau mt gc th cng sng nhn c t l vi cos2. Do tnh i xng ca nh sng t nhin xung quanh phng truyn nn nu ta quay bn tuamalin xung quanh tia sng th v tr no cng c nh sng truyn qua. Cn khi tia sng chiu n bn tuamalin l nh sng phn cc th khi quay bn tuamalin cng sng sau bn s thay i. Nh vy bn tuamalin c th gip ta phn bit c chm sng t nhin v chm sng phn cc.

Hnh 4-3 3. S phn cc nh sng do phn x v khc x Thc nghim chng t rng khi cho mt tia sng t nhin chiu ti mt phn cch gia hai mi trng di gc ti i 0 th tia phn x v tia khc x u l nh sng phn cc mt phn. Vect cng in trng ca tia phn x c bin dao ng ln nht theo phng vung gc vi mt phng ti, cn vect cng in trng ca tia khc x c bin dao ng ln nht theo phng nm trong mt phng ti (hnh 4-4) . Khi thay i gc ti i th mc phn cc ca tia phn x v tia khc x cng thay i. Khi gc ti i tha mn iu kin: tg iB = n21 (4-5) th tia phn x s phn cc ton phn,

n n 21 = 2 l chit sut t i ca mi n1 trng hai i vi mi trng mt, iB c gi l gc ti Brewster hay gc phn cc ton phn. V d khi phn x t khng kh trn thy tinh th iB = 57o. Tia khc x khng bao gi l nh sng phn cc ton phn, nhng khi i = iB th tia khc x cng b phn cc mnh nht.
B B

Hnh 4-4: Phn cc do phn x v khc x

64

Chng 4: Phn cc nh sng 2. PHN CC DO LNG CHIT

Thc nghim chng t rng mt s tinh th nh bng lan, thch anh... c tnh cht c bit l nu chiu mt tia sng n tinh th th ni chung ta s c hai tia. Hin tng ny gi l hin tng lng chit. Nguyn nhn l do tnh bt ng hng ca tinh th v mt quang hc (tc l tnh cht quang ca tinh th cc hng khc nhau th s khc nhau). nghin cu hin tng lng chit chng ta xt tinh th bng lan.
Tinh th bng lan l dng kt tinh ca canxi cacbnat (CaCO3). Mi ht tinh th bng lan c dng mt khi su mt hnh thoi (hnh 4-5), trong ng thng ni hai nh A v A1 gi l quang trc ca tinh th. Mt tia sng truyn vo tinh th bng lan theo phng song song vi quang trc s khng b tch thnh hai tia khc x. Chiu mt tia sng t nhin vung gc vi mt

Hnh 4-5 Tinh th bng lan

ABCD ca tinh th. Thc nghim chng t rng tia ny s b tch thnh hai tia khc x (hnh 4-6): - Tia truyn thng khng b lch khi phng truyn gi l tia thng (k hiu l tia o). Tia ny tun theo nh lut khc x nh sng. Tia thng phn cc ton phn, c vect sng E vung gc vi mt mt phng c bit gi l mt phng chnh ca tia (mt phng cha tia thng v quang trc). - Tia lch khi phng truyn gi l tia bt thng (k hiu l tia e). Tia ny khng tun theo nh lut khc x nh sng. Tia bt thng phn cc ton phn, c vect sng E nm trong mt phng chnh ca n (mt phng cha quang trc v tia bt thng). Khi l ra khi tinh th, hai tia thng v tia bt thng ch khc nhau v phng phn cc. Chit sut ca tinh th bng lan i vi tia thng lun khng i v bng no=1,659. Chit sut ne ca tinh th bng lan i vi tia bt thng ph thuc vo phng truyn ca n trong tinh th v thay i t 1,659 (theo phng quang trc) n 1,486 (theo phng vung gc vi quang trc). Nh vy i vi tinh th bng lan ta c: ne no (4-6) V chit sut n = c/v, vi c l vn tc nh sng trong chn khng v v l vn tc nh sng trong mi trng, do : ve vo (4-7) ngha l trong tinh th bng lan, vn tc ca tia bt thng ni chung ln hn vn tc ca tia thng. Tinh th bng lan, thch anh, tuamalin... l nhng tinh th n trc. Trong t nhin cn c tinh th lng trc, l nhng tinh th c hai quang trc theo hai hng khc nhau. Mt tia sng t nhin truyn qua tinh th lng trc cng b tch thnh hai tia khc x nhng c hai tia ny u l nhng tia bt thng.

65

Chng 4: Phn cc nh sng

Hnh 4-6. Tnh lng chit ca tinh th 3. KNH PHN CC Ngi ta s dng cc tinh th lng chit ch to knh phn cc. Knh phn cc l nhng dng c c th bin nh sng t nhin thnh nh sng phn cc, v d nh bn tuamalin, bn plarit, lng knh nicn... 1. Bn plarit Mt s tinh th lng chit c tnh hp th d hng mnh i vi mt trong hai tia thng v bt thng. V d bn tinh th tuamalin dy hn 1mm hu nh hp th hon ton tia thng v ch cho tia bt thng truyn qua n. V vy bn tuamalin c th dng lm knh phn cc. Trong nhng nm gn y ngi ta ch to nhng knh phn cc lm bng xenluylit, trn c ph mt lp tinh th nh hng sunfat-it-kinin c tnh hp th d hng mnh. Nhng bn ny gi l bn plarit. Bn plarit dy khong 0,1 mm c th hp th hon ton tia thng v to ra nh sng phn cc ton phn sau khi i ra khi bn. Bn plarit tng i r nn c s dng nhiu trong ngnh vn ti. khc phc hin tng ngi li xe t b lo mt do nh sng t cc n pha ca cc t khc chy ngc chiu gy ra, ngi ta dn cc bn plarit ln mt knh n pha t v knh chn gi pha trc ngi li t sao cho quang trc ca cc bn song song v cng nghing 45o so vi phng ngang. Khi hai t chy ngc chiu ti gp nhau th cc bn plarit trn hai t ny c quang trc bt cho nhau. Nh vy nh sng phn cc pht ra t n pha ca t th nht chy ti khng th truyn qua knh chn gi ca t th hai chy ngc chiu chiu vo mt ngi li xe. Trong khi ngi li xe th hai vn c th nhn thy nh sng phn cc pht ra t n pha ca xe mnh chiu sang cc vt pha trc, v nh sng phn cc ny sau khi phn x trn cc vt vn gi nguyn phng dao ng song song vi quang trc ca knh chn gi trc mt ngi li xe. 2. Lng knh Nicol (Nicn) Lng knh Nicol (gi tt l nicn) l mt khi tinh th bng lan c ct theo mt cho thnh hai na v dn li vi nhau bng mt lp nha canaa trong sut c chit sut n= 1,550.

66

Chng 4: Phn cc nh sng Tia sng t nhin SI chiu vo mt AC ca nicn theo phng song song vi mt y CA' b tch thnh hai: tia thng v tia bt thng. Chit sut ca tinh th i vi tia thng no=1,659, cn chit sut ca tinh th i vi tia bt thng ne ph thuc vo hng, n thay i t 1,486 n 1,659. V no > ne nn tia thng b khc x mnh hn tia bt thng. Chit sut ca tinh th i vi tia thng ln hn chit sut ca lp nha v hnh dng, kch thc ca nicn c chn sao cho tia thng khi n lp nha canaa b phn x ton phn v sau b hp th trn lp sn en ca mt y CA'. Cn tia bt thng (ne < n) truyn qua lp nha canaa v l ra khi nicn theo phng song song vi tia ti SI.

Hnh 4-7. Lng knh Nicol Nh vy, nicn bin nh sng t nhin (hoc phn cc mt phn) truyn qua n thnh nh sng phn cc ton phn c mt phng dao ng trng vi mt phng chnh ca nicn. Nu cho mt chm sng t nhin qua h hai nicn N1 v N2 th cng sng I2 pha sau bn nicn N2 cng c xc nh theo nh lut Malus (cng thc 4-4), vi l gc gia hai mt phng chnh ca nicn N1 v N2. Khi hai nicn N1 v N2 t v tr song song, ng vi = 0, cng sng sau nicn N2 t cc i I2 = Imax (sng nht). Khi hai nicn t v tr bt cho, ng vi =/2, cng sng sau nicn N2 t cc tiu I2 = Imin (ti nht).

Hnh 4-8. a) Hai nicn song song

b) Hai nicn bt cho

67

Chng 4: Phn cc nh sng 4. NH SNG PHN CC ELIP Trong cc tit trc chng ta nghin cu nh sng phn cc thng, l nh sng c vect sng E dao ng theo mt phng xc nh, tc l E dao ng trn ng thng. Thc nghim ch ra rng ta c th to ra nh sng phn cc trong u mt vect sng E chuyn ng trn mt ng elip (hay ng trn), nh sng phn cc ny c gi l nh sng phn cc elip hay phn cc trn. Xt bn tinh th T c quang trc v dy d. Chiu vung gc vi mt trc ca bn tinh th mt tia sng phn cc ton phn c vect sng E hp vi quang trc mt gc . Khi vo bn tinh th, tia sng ny b tch thnh hai: tia thng v tia bt thng. Tia thng c vect sng E o vung gc vi quang trc, cn tia bt thng c vect sng E e song song vi quang trc v c hai vect sng u nm trong mt phng vung gc vi tia sng (hnh 4-9).

Hnh 4-9. nh sng phn cc elip Vect sng tng hp ca tia thng v tia bt thng ti im M sau bn tinh th bng:
E = Eo + Ee

(4-8)

trong bn tinh th, hai tia ny truyn i vi vn tc khc nhau (do chit sut ca tinh th i vi hai tia khc nhau, ne no ) v khi l ra khi bn chng li truyn i vi cng vn tc. Do , hiu quang l ca tia thng v tia bt thng ti mt im M sau bn bng:

L = L o - L e = (n o - n e )d
tng ng vi hiu pha l

(4-9)

2 2 (L o - L e ) = ( n o - n e )d

(4-10)

trong l bc sng nh sng trong chn khng.

68

Chng 4: Phn cc nh sng Cc vect sng E o v E e dao ng theo hai phng vung gc vi nhau, do u mt vect sng tng hp s chuyn ng trn mt ng elip xc nh bi phng trnh:

x2
2 A1

y2 A2 2

2 xy cos = sin 2 A 1A 2

(4-11)

vi A1 v A2 ln lt l bin v = o - e l hiu pha dao ng ca hai vect sng

E o v E e . Nu trc khi vo bn tinh th, nh sng phn cc ton phn c bin l A th A1=A.sin v A2=A.cos .
Nh vy, nh sng phn cc thng sau khi truyn qua bn tinh th s bin thnh nh sng phn cc elip. Chng ta s xt mt vi trng hp ring ph thuc vo dy d ca bn tinh th. 1. Bn phn t bc sng Bn phn t bc sng l bn tinh th c dy d sao cho hiu quang l ca tia thng v tia bt thng truyn qua bn bng mt s l ln ca phn t bc sng:

L = (n o - n e )d = (2k + 1)
Khi hiu pha ca hai tia bng:

(4-12)

= (2k + 1)
v phng trnh (4-11) s thnh:

(4-13)

x2
2 A1

y2 A2 2

=1

(4-14)

Hnh 4-10a: Phn cc elip dng chnh tc

Hnh 4-10b: Phn cc trn

Trong trng hp ny, u mt ca vect sng tng hp E pha sau bn tinh th chuyn ng trn mt elip dng chnh tc c hai bn trc l A1 v A2 c xc nh bi phng trnh (4-14) (hnh 4-10a). c bit, nu = 45o th A1 = A2 = A0 v phng trnh (4-14) s thnh:
2 x 2 + y2 = A0

(4-15) 69

Chng 4: Phn cc nh sng Khi u mt ca vect sng tng hp E pha sau bn tinh th chuyn ng trn ng trn tm O, bn knh A0 c xc nh bi phng trnh (4-15) (hnh 4-10b). Nh vy, sau khi truyn qua bn phn t bc sng, nh sng phn cc thng b bin i thnh nh sng phn cc elip dng chnh tc hoc phn cc trn. 2. Bn na bc sng Bn na bc sng l bn tinh th c dy d sao cho hiu quang l ca tia thng v tia bt thng truyn qua bn bng mt s l ln na bc sng:

L = (n o - n e )d = (2k + 1)
Khi hiu pha ca hai tia bng:

2
(4-17)

(4-16)

= (2k + 1)
v phng trnh (4-11) s thnh:

x y + =0 A1 A 2

(4-18) Hnh 4-11

y l phng trnh ca ng thng, mt vect sng tng hp E pha sau bn s chuyn ng trn ng thng nm

trong gc phn t th hai v th t ca h ta Oxy (hnh 4-11), ng thng hp vi quang trc mt gc . Trc khi vo bn tinh th, mt vect sng ca nh sng phn cc thng dao ng trn ng thng. Nh vy sau khi truyn qua bn na bc sng nh sng phn cc thng vn l nh sng phn cc thng, nhng phng dao ng quay i mt gc 2 so vi trc khi i vo bn. 3. Bn mt bc sng Bn mt bc sng l bn tinh th c dy d sao cho hiu quang l ca tia thng v tia bt thng truyn qua bn bng mt s nguyn ln bc sng:

L = (n o - n e )d = k
khi hiu pha ca hai tia bng:

(4-19) (4-20)

= 2k
v phng trnh (4-11) s thnh:

Hnh 4-12

x y =0 A1 A 2

(4-21)

y l phng trnh ca ng thng, nm trong gc phn t th nht v th ba ca h ta Oxy (hnh 4-12), ng thng hp vi quang trc mt gc . Nh vy sau khi truyn qua bn mt bc sng nh sng phn cc thng gi nguyn khng i.

70

Chng 4: Phn cc nh sng 5. LNG CHIT DO IN TRNG Mt s cht lng nh sulfua ccbon, benzn... khi chu tc dng ca in trng th tr nn bt ng hng v mt quang hc. Hin tng ny c Kerr tm ra nm 1875 v gi l hiu ng Kerr. S th nghim v hiu ng Kerr c trnh by trn hnh 4-13.

Hnh 4-13. Th nghim v hiu ng Kerr Khi cha c in trng, cc phn t cht lng chuyn ng nhit hn lon nn cht lng l ng hng v khng lm thay i phng ca nh sng phn cc ton phn sau nicn N1 truyn ti n. Do nh sng phn cc ton phn ny khng th truyn tip qua nicn N2 (bt cho vi N1) v sau nicn N2 s hon ton ti. Khi cht lng chu tc dng ca in trng gia hai bn cc ca t in, cc phn t ca n tr thnh cc lng cc in nm dc theo phng ca in trng. Cht lng tr thnh mi trng bt ng hng vi quang trc l phng ca in trng. Trong trng hp ny, chm nh sng phn cc ton phn sau nicn N1 truyn ti cht lng b tch thnh tia thng v tia bt thng. Tng hp ca hai tia ny s l nh sng phn cc elip, c th truyn tip qua nicn N2 (bt cho vi N1), nn sau nicn N2 s sng. Thc nghim chng t vi mi nh sng n sc, hiu s chit sut no - ne ca cht lng (chu tc dng ca in trng) i vi tia thng v tia bt thng truyn trong n c ln t l vi bnh phng cng in trng E tc dng ln cht lng:
n o n e = kE 2

(4-22)

vi k l h s t l ph thuc vo bn cht ca cht lng. Hiu pha gia hai dao ng ca tia thng v tia bt thng sau khi i qua lp cht lng c b dy d s l:
= 2 2 2 ( n o n e )d = kE d = 2BE 2 d

(4-23)

trong B = k/ gi l hng s Kerr. Gi tr ca B ph thuc nhit ca cht lng v bc sng nh sng. Thi gian cc phn t nh hng theo phng ca in trng v thi gian cc phn t tr v trng thi chuyn ng hn lon ch vo c 10-10s. Tnh cht ny ca hiu ng Kerr c ng dng ch to van quang hc dng ng ngt nh sng rt nhanh khng c qun tnh.

71

Chng 4: Phn cc nh sng 6. S QUAY MT PHNG PHN CC Mt s tinh th hoc dung dch c tc dng lm quay mt phng phn cc ca chm nh sng phn cc ton phn truyn qua chng. Hin tng ny gi l hin tng quay mt phng phn cc. Cc cht lm quay mt phng phn cc ca nh sng phn cc gi l cht hot quang, th d nh thch anh, dung dch ng... Hin tng quay mt phng phn cc c th hin nh sau: Cho nh sng t nhin i qua knh phn cc T1 v knh phn tch T2 t vung gc vi nhau. Kt qu l nh sng khng i qua c knh phn tch T2, sau bn T2 s ti. By gi nu t gia knh phn cc T1 v knh phn tch T2 mt bn tinh th thch anh c quang trc nm dc theo phng truyn ca tia sng th thy nh sng i qua c knh phn tch T2, sau bn T2 s sng. Mun cho nh sng khng i qua c ta phi quay knh phn tch mt gc . iu chng t di tc dng ca bn tinh th nh sng phn cc thng sau bn T1 b quay i mt gc (hnh 4-14), hay ta ni bn tinh th lm quay mt phng phn cc mt gc . l hin Hnh 4-14. Hin tng quay mt phng phn cc tng quay mt phng phn cc. Thc nghim cho thy gc quay ca mt phng phn cc t l thun vi dy d ca bn tinh th:

= d

(4-24)

l h s quay, n c gi tr ph thuc bn cht, nhit ca cht rn quang hot v bc sng ca nh sng. V d i vi bn thch anh 200C: = 21,7 /mm ng vi = 0,589 m; = 48,9 /mm ng vi = 0,4047 m. i vi cc dung dch, gc quay ca mt phng phn cc t l vi dy d ca lp dung dch c nh sng phn cc truyn qua v t l vi nng c ca dung dch:

= [ ] cd

(4-25)

trong [] c gi l h s quay ring, n c gi tr ph thuc bn cht v nhit ca dung dch hot quang, ng thi ph thuc bc sng ca nh sng. V d i vi nh sng vng Na ( = 0,589m) 200C, [] ca dung dch ng l 66,50cm2/g. Hin tng quay mt phng phn cc c ng dng trong mt dng c gi l ng k xc nh nng ng trong dung dch. nh sng t bng n S truyn qua knh lc sc F v knh phn cc P bin i thnh nh sng n sc phn cc ton phn. Quan st trong ng ngm O, ng thi quay knh phn tch A cho ti khi th trng trong ng ngm tr nn ti hon ton. Khi knh phn tch A nm v tr bt cho vi knh phn cc P v mt phng chnh ca chng vung gc vi nhau. Gc 1 xc nh v tr ca knh phn tch A c c trn thc o gc K. t 72

Chng 4: Phn cc nh sng ng thu tinh H cha y dung dch hot quang cn nghin cu vo khong gia hai knh A v P, th trng trong ng ngm O li sng. Nguyn nhn l do dung dch hot quang lm mt phng dao ng ca nh sng phn cc ton phn truyn qua n quay i mt gc ti v tr khng vung gc vi mt phng chnh ca knh phn tch A na. By gi ta quay knh phn tch A cho n khi th trng trong ng ngm O ti hon ton. c gc 2, xc nh v tr ny ca knh phn tch A. T tm ra c gc quay ca mt phng phn cc = 2 - 1.

Hnh 4-15. M hnh ca ng k Theo cng thc (4-25), nu bit dy d v hng s quay ring [ ] ca dung dch hot quang, ta d dng xc nh c nng c ca dung dch :

c=

1 = 2 [].d [].d

(4-26)

III. TM TT NI DUNG
1. S phn cc nh sng * nh sng c vect cng in trng dao ng u n theo mi phng vung gc tia sng c gi l nh sng t nhin. * nh sng c vect cng in trng ch dao ng theo mt phng xc nh c gi l nh sng phn cc thng hay nh sng phn cc ton phn. * nh sng c vect cng in trng dao ng theo tt c cc phng vung gc vi tia sng nhng c phng dao ng yu, c phng dao ng mnh c gi l nh sng phn cc mt phn. * Mt phng cha tia sng v phng dao ng ca E c gi l mt phng dao ng, cn mt phng cha tia sng v vung gc vi mt phng dao ng gi l mt phng phn cc. * Trong bn Tuamalin c mt phng c bit gi l quang trc ca tinh th (k hiu l ) . Theo phng quang trc, nh sng khng b hp th, m truyn qua hon ton cn theo phng vung gc vi quang trc, nh sng b hp th hon ton. * nh lut Malus: Khi cho mt chm tia sng t nhin truyn qua hai bn tuamalin c quang trc hp vi nhau mt gc th cng sng nhn c t l vi cos2. 73

Chng 4: Phn cc nh sng

I 2 = I1 cos 2 2. S phn cc do phn x, khc x:


Thc nghim chng t rng khi cho mt tia sng t nhin chiu ti mt phn cch gia hai mi trng di gc ti i 0 th tia phn x v tia khc x u l nh sng phn cc mt phn. Vect cng in trng ca tia phn x c bin dao ng ln nht theo phng vung gc vi mt phng ti, cn vect cng in trng ca tia khc x c bin dao ng ln nht theo phng nm trong mt phng ti. Khi thay i gc ti i th mc phn cc ca tia phn x v tia khc x cng thay i. Khi gc ti i tha mn iu kin: tg iB = n21 th tia phn x s phn cc ton phn, n21 l chit sut t i ca mi trng hai i vi mi trng mt, iB c gi l gc ti Brewster. Tia khc x khng bao gi l nh sng phn cc ton phn, nhng khi i = iB th tia khc x cng b phn cc mnh nht.
B B

3. S phn cc do lng chit Thc nghim chng t rng mt s tinh th nh bng lan, thch anh... c tnh cht c bit l nu chiu mt tia sng n tinh th th ni chung ta s thu c hai tia. Hin tng ny gi l hin tng lng chit. Nguyn nhn l do tnh bt ng hng ca tinh th v mt quang hc (tc l tnh cht quang ca tinh th cc hng khc nhau th s khc nhau). Tia sng khi chiu vo tinh th lng chit s b tch thnh hai tia khc x: - Tia tun theo nh lut khc x gi l tia thng. Tia thng phn cc ton phn, c vect sng E vung gc vi mt phng chnh ca tia thng. - Tia khng theo nh lut khc x gi l tia bt thng. Tia bt thng phn cc ton phn, c vect sng E nm trong mt phng chnh ca n. Khi l ra khi tinh th, hai tia thng v tia bt thng ch khc nhau v phng phn cc. Chit sut ca tinh th bng lan i vi tia thng lun khng i v bng no=1,659. Chit sut ne ca tinh th bng lan i vi tia bt thng ph thuc vo phng truyn ca n trong tinh th v thay i t 1,659 (theo phng quang trc) n 1,486 (theo phng vung gc vi quang trc). Nh vy i vi tinh th bng lan ta c: ne no V chit sut n = c/v, vi c l vn tc nh sng trong chn khng v v l vn tc nh sng trong mi trng, do : ve vo ngha l trong tinh th bng lan, vn tc ca tia bt thng ni chung ln hn vn tc ca tia thng. Tinh th bng lan, thch anh, tuamalin... l nhng tinh th n trc. Trong t nhin cn c tinh th lng trc, l nhng tinh th c hai quang trc theo hai hng khc nhau. Mt tia sng t nhin truyn qua tinh th lng trc cng b tch thnh hai tia khc x nhng c hai tia ny u l nhng tia bt thng.

74

Chng 4: Phn cc nh sng Ngi ta s dng cc tinh th lng chit ch to knh phn cc. Knh phn cc l nhng dng c c th bin nh sng t nhin thnh nh sng phn cc, v d nh bn tuamalin, bn plarit, lng knh nicol... Mt s cht lng nh sulfua ccbon, benzn... khi chu tc dng ca in trng th tr nn bt ng hng v mt quang hc (c tnh lng chit). Hiu ng ny gi l hiu ng Kerr v c ng dng ch to van quang hc 4. nh sng phn cc elip nh sng phn cc trong u mt vect sng E chuyn ng trn mt ng elip (hay ng trn) c gi l nh sng phn cc elip (hay phn cc trn) . Chiu vung gc vi mt trc ca bn tinh th mt tia sng phn cc ton phn c vect sng E hp vi quang trc mt gc . Khi vo bn tinh th, tia sng ny b tch thnh hai: tia thng v tia bt thng. Tia thng v tia bt thng l hai tia sng kt hp, chng giao thoa vi nhau. Cc vect sng E o ca tia thng v E e dao ng theo hai phng vung gc vi nhau, do u mt vect sng tng hp s chuyn ng trn mt ng elip xc nh bi phng trnh:

x2
2 A1

2 xy cos = sin 2 2 A A A2 1 2 -

y2

(1)

x, y l di dao ng, A1, A2 l bin dao ng ca E o v E e . Hiu pha ca cc tia thng v tia bt thng l

=
* Bn phn t bc sng

2 2 (L o - L e ) = ( n o - n e )d

(2)

Bn phn t bc sng l bn tinh th c dy d sao cho hiu quang l ca tia thng v tia bt thng truyn qua bn bng mt s l ln ca phn t bc sng:

L = (n o - n e )d = (2k + 1)

(3a)

Thay (3a) vo (2), sau vo (1) ta thu c phng trnh ca ng elip dng chnh tc. Do sau khi truyn qua bn phn t bc sng, nh sng phn cc thng b bin i thnh nh sng phn cc elip dng chnh tc hoc phn cc trn. * Bn na bc sng Bn na bc sng l bn tinh th c dy d sao cho hiu quang l ca tia thng v tia bt thng truyn qua bn bng mt s l ln na bc sng:

L = (n o - n e )d = (2k + 1)

(3b)

Thay (3b) vo (2), sau vo (1) ta thu c phng trnh ca ng thng, quay mt gc 2. Do khi truyn qua bn na bc sng nh sng phn cc thng vn l nh sng phn cc thng, nhng phng dao ng quay i mt gc 2 so vi trc khi i vo bn. 75

Chng 4: Phn cc nh sng * Bn mt bc sng Bn mt bc sng l bn tinh th c dy d sao cho hiu quang l ca tia thng v tia bt thng truyn qua bn bng mt s nguyn ln bc sng:

L = (n o - n e )d = k

(3c)

Thay (3c) vo (2), sau vo (1) ta thu c phng trnh ca ng thng. Vy sau khi truyn qua bn mt bc sng nh sng phn cc thng gi nguyn khng i. 5. S quay mt phng phn cc Mt s tinh th hoc dung dch c tc dng lm quay mt phng phn cc ca chm nh sng phn cc ton phn truyn qua chng. Hin tng ny gi l s quay mt phng phn cc. Cc cht lm quay mt phng phn cc ca nh sng phn cc gi l cht hot quang, th d nh thch anh, dung dch ng... Thc nghim cho thy gc quay ca mt phng phn cc t l thun vi dy d ca bn tinh th:

= d

l h s quay, n c gi tr ph thuc bn cht v nhit ca cht rn quang hot v bc sng ca nh sng. i vi cc dung dch, gc quay ca mt phng phn cc t l vi dy d ca lp dung dch c nh sng phn cc truyn qua v t l vi nng c ca dung dch:

= [ ] cd
trong [] c gi l h s quay ring, n c gi tr ph thuc bn cht v nhit ca dung dch hot quang, ng thi ph thuc bc sng ca nh sng. Hin tng quay mt phng phn cc c ng dng trong mt dng c gi l ng k xc nh nng ng trong dung dch.

IV. CU HI L THUYT
1. Hin tng phn cc chng t bn cht g ca nh sng ? nh sng l sng ngang hay sng dc ? Gii thch ti sao ? 2. Phn bit nh sng t nhin v nh sng phn cc ton phn, nh sng phn cc mt phn. 3. Pht biu v vit biu thc ca nh lut Malus. 4. Trnh by s phn cc do phn x, khc x. 5. Trnh by tnh lng chit ca tinh th. 6. Nu s ging nhau v khc nhau ca hai tia thng v bt thng khi i qua tinh th bng lan. 7. Trnh by hiu ng Kerr. 8. nh ngha nh sng phn cc elip, phn cc trn. Trnh by cch to ra nh sng phn cc elip. Xt cc trng hp b dy bn mt phn t bc sng, bn na bc sng v bn mt bc sng. 76

Chng 4: Phn cc nh sng 8. Nu ng dng ca hin tng quay mt phng phn cc.

V. BI TP
Th d 1: Hi gc nghing ca mt tri so vi chn tri phi bng bao nhiu nhng tia sng mt tri phn chiu trn mt h b phn cc ton phn. Bit rng chit sut ca nc h n = 1,33. Bi gii: Theo nh lut Brewster, mun tia sng phn chiu b phn cc ton phn th gc ti ca n phi bng gc ti Brewster, xc nh bi cng thc:

tgi B = n = 1,33 i B = 530 5


Do gc nghing ca mt tri so vi ng chn tri: = 900 i B = 36055 Th d 2: Cho mt chm tia sng phn cc thng c bc sng trong chn khng l 0 = 0,589m chiu vung gc vi quang trc ca mt bn tinh th bng lan. Chit sut ca tinh th bng lan i vi tia thng v tia bt thng ln lt bng n0 = 1,658 v ne = 1,488. Xc nh bc sng ca tia thng v tia bt thng. Bi gii: Bc sng ca nh sng truyn trong mi trng c chit sut n lin h vi bc sng 0 ca nh sng trong chn khng: = 0 n Bc sng ca tia thng trong tinh th bng lan: t =

0 0,589 = = 0,355m n 0 1,658 0 = 0,396m ne

Bc sng ca tia bt thng trong tinh th bng lan: bt = Bi tp t gii

1. Cho bit khi nh sng truyn t mt cht c chit sut n ra ngoi khng kh th xy ra hin tng phn x ton phn ca nh sng ng vi gc gii hn igh = 450. Xc nh gc ti Brewster ca cht ny, mi trng cha tia ti l khng kh. p s: Gc gii hn:

n 1 n = 2 = 1,414 sin i gh = kk = n 2 tgi B = n n kk = 1,414 i B = 54 0 43

77

Chng 4: Phn cc nh sng 2. nh sng t nhin truyn t khng kh ti chiu vo mt bn thu tinh. Cho bit nh sng phn x b phn cc ton phn khi gc khc x r = 330. Xc nh chit sut ca bn thu tinh. p s: Khi chm phn x b phn cc ton phn th gc ti i tho mn:

tgi = tgi B = n n =
Theo nh lut khc x nh sng:

sin i B sin i B = cos i B 1 sin 2 i B

sin i = n , m sin i B = sin i = n. sin 330 sin r


0 2

n=

n. sin 330 1 n. sin 33

n 1,56

3. Xc nh gc ti Brewster ca mt mt thu tinh c chit sut n1 = 1,57 khi mi trng nh sng ti l: 1. Khng kh. 2. Nc c chit sut n2 = 4/3. p s: i B = 57 0 30, i B = 49 0 43 4. Mt chm tia sng sau khi truyn qua mt cht lng ng trong mt bnh thu tinh, phn x trn y bnh. Tia phn x b phn cc ton phn khi gc ti trn y bnh bng 42 0 37 , chit sut ca bnh thu tinh n = 1,5. Tnh: 1. Chit sut ca cht lng. 2. Gc ti trn y bnh chm tia phn x trn phn x ton phn. p s: n/ = 1,63, i = 66056/ 5. Cho mt chm tia sng t nhin chiu vo mt ca mt bn thu tinh nhng trong cht lng. Chit sut ca thu tinh l n1 = 1,5. Cho bit chm tia phn x trn mt thu tinh b phn cc ton phn khi cc tia phn x hp vi cc tia ti mt gc = 97 0 . Xc nh chit sut n2 ca cht lng. p s: tgi = tgi B =

n1 n2

Theo iu kin u bi: i = i B =

n tg = 1 n 2 = 2 2 n2

n1 97 0 tg 2

= 1,33 .

6. Mt bn thch anh c ct song song vi quang trc v c dy d = 1mm. Chiu nh sng n sc c bc sng = 0,6m vung gc vi mt bn. Tnh hiu quang l v hiu

78

Chng 4: Phn cc nh sng pha ca tia thng v tia bt thng truyn qua bn thch anh, bit rng chit sut ca bn i vi tia thng v tia bt thng ln lt bng n0 = 1,544, ne = 1,535. p s: Hiu quang l ca tia thng v tia bt thng truyn qua bn thch anh c gi tr bng: L = (n 0 n e ).d = 0,009mm Hiu pha ca tia thng v tia bt thng truyn qua bn thch anh c gi tr bng: 2 = .L = 30 (rad) 7. Cho bit i vi nh sng n sc c bc sng = 0,545m th chit sut ca bn phn t bc sng i vi tia thng v tia bt thng truyn trong bn c gi tr ln lt bng n0 = 1,658 v ne = 1,488. Hi bn phn t bc sng c dy nh nht bng bao nhiu?

p s: L = (n 0 n e )d = (2k + 1) , k = 0,1, 2, 3,... 4


Bn phn t bc sng c dy nh nht khi k = 0. Vy dmin = 800nm. 8. Mt bn na bc sng c dy nh nht bng dmin = 1,732m. Cho bit chit sut ca bn i vi tia thng v tia bt thng ln lt bng n0 = 1,658 v ne = 1,488. Xc nh bc sng ca nh sng truyn ti bn ny.

p s: L = (n 0 n e ).d = (2k + 1) , k = 0,1, 2, 3,... 2


Bn na bc sng c dy nh nht khi k = 0. Vy d min =

= 2.d min (n 0 n e ) = 0,589m 2(n 0 n e )

9. Mt bn tinh th c ct song song vi quang trc v c dy d = 0,25mm. Ngi ta dng bn tinh th ny lm bn phn t bc sng i vi nh sng c bc sng = 0,53m. Xc nh i vi nhng bc sng no trong vng quang ph thy c, bn tinh th ny cng l bn phn t bc sng. Coi rng hiu s chit sut ca bn i vi tia bt thng v tia thng khng i v bng ne n0 = 0,009 ng vi mi bc sng trong vng quang ph thy c c gi tr t 0,4m n 0,76m. p s: L = (n e n 0 )d = (2k + 1)

Bc sng ca nh sng truyn ti bn: =

4d(n e n o ) 9 , m 0,4 0,76, suy = 2k + 1 2k + 1 ra 5,42 k 10,75, m k nguyn nn k = 6, 7, 8,9, 10.

79

Chng 4: Phn cc nh sng


9 9 = 0,69m, k = 7 = = 0,6m 2.6 + 1 2.7 + 1 9 9 k =8 = = 0,53m, k = 9 = = 0,47m 2 .8 + 1 2.9 + 1 9 k = 10 = = 0,43m 2.10 + 1 k =6=

Vy bn tinh th cn l bn phn t bc sng i vi cc nh sng c bc sng trn. 10. Mt bn thch anh c ct song song vi quang trc ca n vi dy khng vt qu 0,5mm. Xc nh dy ln nht ca bn thch anh ny chm nh sng phn cc phn cc thng c bc sng = 0,589m sau khi truyn qua bn tho mn iu kin sau: 1. Mt phng phn cc b quay i mt gc no . 2. Tr thnh nh sng phn cc trn. Cho bit hiu s chit sut ca tia thng v tia bt thng i vi bn thch anh ne n0 = 0,009. p s: 1. dmax = 0,49mm. 2.dmax = 0,47mm 11. Gia hai knh nicn song song ngi ta t mt bn thch anh c cc mt vung gc vi quang trc. Khi bn thch anh c dy d1 = 2mm th mt phng phn cc ca nh sng n sc truyn qua n b quay i mt gc 1 = 530. Xc nh dy d2 ca bn thch anh ny nh sng n sc khng truyn qua c knh nicn phn tch. p s: Khi truyn theo quang trc ca thch anh mt phng phn cc ca nh sng b quay mt gc 1: 1 = .d1 nh sng n sc khng truyn qua c knh phn tch th bn thch anh phi c dy d2 sao cho mt phng phn cc quay i mt gc 2 = 900, m 2 =.d2
d 2 = 2 d 2 = 3,4mm d1 1

80

Chng 5: Thuyt tng i hp Einstein

CHNG V: THUYT TNG I HP EINSTEIN


Theo c hc c in (c hc Newton) th khng gian, thi gian v vt cht khng ph thuc vo chuyn ng; khng gian v thi gian l tuyt i, kch thc v khi lng ca vt l bt bin. Nhng n cui th k 19 v u th k 20, khoa hc k thut pht trin mnh, ngi ta gp nhng vt chuyn ng nhanh vi vn tc c vn tc nh sng trong chn khng (3.108 m/s), khi xut hin s mu thun vi cc quan im ca c hc Newton: Khng gian, thi gian v khi lng ca vt khi chuyn ng vi vn tc gn bng vn tc nh sng th ph thuc vo chuyn ng. Nm 1905, Einstein mi 25 tui xut l thuyt tng i ca mnh. L thuyt tng i c xem l mt l thuyt tuyt p v khng gian v thi gian. L thuyt ng vng qua nhiu th thch thc nghim trong sut 100 nm qua. L thuyt tng i da trn hai nguyn l: nguyn l tng i v nguyn l v s bt bin ca vn tc nh sng.

I. MC CH - YU CU
1. Hiu c ngha ca nguyn l tng i Einstein, nguyn l v tnh bt bin ca vn tc nh sng. 2. Hiu v vn dng c php bin i Lorentz. Tnh tng i ca khng gian, thi gian. 3. Nm c khi lng, ng lng tng i tnh, h thc Einstein v ng dng.

II. NI DUNG
1. CC TIN EINSTEIN 1. Nguyn l tng i: Mi nh lut vt l u nh nhau trong cc h qui chiu qun tnh. Galileo tha nhn rng nhng nh lut ca c hc hon ton ging nhau trong mi h qui chiu qun tnh. Einstein m rng tng ny cho ton b cc nh lut vt l trong cc lnh vc in t, quang hc... 2. Nguyn l v s bt bin ca vn tc nh sng: Vn tc nh sng trong chn khng u bng nhau i vi mi h qun tnh. N c gi tr bng c = 3.108 m/s v l gi tr vn tc cc i trong t nhin.

81

Chng 5: Thuyt tng i hp Einstein 2. NG HC TNG I TNH PHP BIN I LORENTZ 1. S mu thun ca php bin i Galileo vi thuyt tng i Einstein Xt hai h qui chiu qun tnh K v K'. H K' chuyn ng thng u vi vn tc V so vi h K, dc theo phng x. Theo php bin i Galileo, thi gian din bin mt qu trnh vt l trong cc h qui chiu qun tnh K v K u nh nhau: t = t. Khong cch gia hai im 1 v 2 no o c trong hai h K v K u bng nhau:

l = x 2 x1 = l = x 2 x1
trong h K trong h K/ Vn tc v ca cht im chuyn ng trong h K bng tng cc vn tc v' ca cht im trong h K v vn tc V ca h K' i vi h K:

v = v'+ V
Tt c cc kt qu trn y u ng i vi v << c. Nhng chng mu thun vi l thuyt tng i ca Einstein. Theo thuyt tng i: thi gian khng c tnh tuyt i, khong thi gian din bin ca mt qu trnh vt l ph thuc vo cc h qui chiu. c bit khi nim ng thi ph thuc vo h qui chiu, tc l cc hin tng xy ra ng thi trong h qui chiu qun tnh ny s khng xy ra ng thi trong h qui chiu qun tnh khc. minh ha chng ta xt v d sau: Hai h qui chiu qun tnh K v K vi cc trc ta x, y, z v x, y, z. H K chuyn ng thng u vi vn tc V so vi h K theo phng x. T mt im A bt k, trn trc x c t mt bng n pht tn hiu sng theo hai pha ngc nhau ca trc x. i vi h K bng n l ng yn v n cng chuyn ng vi h K. Trong h K cc tn hiu sng s ti cc im B v C cch u A cng mt lc. Nhng trong h K, im B chuyn ng n gp tn hiu sng, cn im C chuyn ng ra xa khi tn hiu sng, do trong h K tn hiu sng s n im B sm hn n im C. Nh vy trong h K, cc tn hiu sng ti im B v im C khng ng thi.

Hnh 5-1. Th d minh ha khi nim

ng thi c tnh tng i

nh lut cng vn tc, h qu ca nguyn l tng i Galileo cng khng p dng c. Theo nh lut ny th nh sng truyn n B vi vn tc c +V > c, cn nh sng truyn n C vi vn tc c -V< c. iu ny mu thun vi nguyn l th 2 trong thuyt tng i Einstein.

82

Chng 5: Thuyt tng i hp Einstein 2. Php bin i Lorentz Lorentz tm ra php bin i cc ta khng gian v thi gian khi chuyn t h qun tnh ny sang h qun tnh khc, tha mn cc yu cu ca thuyt tng i Einstein. Php bin i ny c gi l php bin i Lorentz. Php bin i Lorentz da trn hai tin ca Einstein.
Xt hai h qui chiu qun tnh K v K. Ti t = 0, hai gc O, O trng nhau, K chuyn ng thng u so vi K vi vn tc V theo phng x. Theo thuyt tng i thi gian khng c tnh cht tuyt i m ph thuc vo h qui chiu, ngha l t t. Gi s ta x l hm ca x v t theo phng trnh: x = f(x,t) (5-1) tm dng ca phng trnh trn ta hy vit phng trnh chuyn ng ca hai gc ta O v O. i vi h K, gc O chuyn ng vi vn tc V. Ta c: x = Vt hay x Vt = 0 (5-2) x l ta ca gc O trong h K. i vi h K, gc O ng yn, do ta x ca n s l: x = 0 (5-3)

Phng trnh (5-1) cng phi ng i vi im O, iu c ngha l khi ta thay x = 0 vo phng trnh (5-1) th phi thu c phng trnh (5-2), mun vy th:
x ' = ( x Vt )

(5-4)

trong l hng s. i vi h K, gc O chuyn ng vi vn tc V. Nhng i vi h K, gc O l ng yn. Lp lun tng t nh trn ta c


x = ( x '+ Vt ' )

(5-5)

trong l hng s. Theo tin th nht ca Einstein th mi h qui chiu qun tnh u tng ng nhau, ngha l t (5-4) c th suy ra (5-5) v ngc li bng cch thay V-V, x x, t t. Suy ra: = . Theo tin hai: x = ct t = x/c x = ct t = x/c Thay t v t vo (5-4) v (5-5) ta c:
xV x' = x , c x' V x = x '+ c

Nhn v vi v ca hai h thc trn, sau rt gn ta nhn c:


= 1 1 V2 c2

Thay vo cc cng thc trn ta nhn c cc cng thc ca php bin i Lorentz.

Php bin i Lorentz:

x' =

x Vt 1 V c
2 2

x=

x '+ Vt ' 1 V
2

(5-6)

c2

83

Chng 5: Thuyt tng i hp Einstein

t
v

V c2 V c

x
2

t '+
,

V c2

x'
2

t' =

t=

(5-7)

c2

V h K chuyn ng dc theo trc x nn y = y v z = z. T kt qu trn ta nhn thy nu c (tng tc tc thi) hay khi V c 0 (s gn ng c in khi V << c) th: x = x Vt, y = y, z = z, t = t x = x +Vt, y = y, z = z, t = t ngha l chuyn v php bin i Galileo. Khi V > c, ta x, t tr nn o, do khng th c cc chuyn ng vi vn tc ln hn vn tc nh sng. 3. CC H QU CA PHP BIN I LORENTZ 1. Khi nim v tnh ng thi v quan h nhn qu Gi s trong h qun tnh K c hai bin c A1(x1, y1, z1, t1) v bin c A2(x2, y2, z2, t2) vi x1 x 2 . Chng ta hy tm khong thi gian t t1 gia hai bin c trong h K' 2 chuyn ng u i vi h K vi vn tc V dc theo trc x. T cc cng thc bin i Lorentz ta c

t '2 t '1 =

t 2 t1

V c2

( x 2 x1 ) V
2

(5-8)

c2

T (5-8) ta suy ra rng nhng bin c xy ra ng thi trong h K (t1 = t2) s khng ng thi trong h K v t '2 t '1 0 , ch c mt trng hp ngoi l l khi hai bin c xy ra ng thi ti nhng im c cng gi tr ca x (y c th khc nhau). Nh vy khi nim ng thi l mt khi nim tng i, hai bin c xy ra ng thi trong mt h qui chiu qun tnh ny ni chung c th khng ng thi trong mt h qui chiu qun tnh khc. Nhn vo cng thc (5-8) ta thy gi s trong h K: t2 - t1>0 (tc l bin c A1 xy ra trc bin c A2), nhng trong h K: t2 - t1 cha chc ln hn 0, n ph thuc vo du V v ln ca ( x 2 x1 ) . Nh vy trong h K th t ca cc bin c c th bt k. c2 Tuy nhin iu ny khng c xt cho cc bin c c quan h nhn qu vi nhau. Mi quan h nhn qu l mi quan h c nguyn nhn v kt qu. Nguyn nhn bao gi cng xy ra trc, kt qu xy ra sau. Nh vy: Th t ca cc bin c c quan h nhn qu bao gi cng c m bo trong mi h qui chiu qun tnh. Th d: vin n c 84

Chng 5: Thuyt tng i hp Einstein bn ra (nguyn nhn), vin n trng ch (kt qu). Gi A1(x1, t1) l bin c vin n bn ra v A2(x2, t2) l bin c vin n trng ch. Trong h K: t2 > t1. Gi u l vn tc vin n v gi s x2 > x1, ta c x2 - x1 = u(t2-t1). Thay vo (5-8) ta c:

t '2 t '1 =

t 2 t1

V c
2

.u ( t 2 t1 ) V c
2

V.u ( t 2 t1 ) 1 c2 = 1 V
2

(5-9)

c2

' Ta lun c u << c, do nu t2 > t1 th ta cng c t '2 > t1 . Trong c hai h K v K bao gi bin c vin n trng ch cng xy ra sau bin c vin n c bn ra.

2. S co ca di (s co ngn Lorentz) Xt hai h qui chiu qun tnh K v K'. H K' chuyn ng thng u vi vn tc V so vi h K dc theo trc x. Gi s c mt thanh ng yn trong h K t dc theo trc x, di ca n trong h K bng: l o = x ' 2 x '1 . Gi l l di ca thanh trong h K. T php bin i Lorentz ta c:

x Vt 2 , x '2 = 2 2 V 1 c2

x Vt1 x '1 = 1 V2 1 c2

Ta phi xc nh v tr cc u ca thanh trong h K ti cng mt thi im: t2 = t1, do :

x '2 x '1 =

x 2 x1 1 V2 c2

l = lo 1

V2 c2

< lo

(5-10)

H K' chuyn ng so vi h K, nu ta ng h K quan st th thy thanh chuyn ng cng h K'. Chiu di ca thanh h K nh hn chiu di ca n trong h K'. Vy: di (dc theo phng chuyn ng) ca thanh trong h qui chiu m thanh chuyn ng ngn hn di ca thanh trong h m thanh ng yn. Ni mt cch khc khi vt chuyn ng, kch thc ca n b co ngn theo phng chuyn ng. V d: mt vt c vn tc gn bng vn tc nh sng V=260000 km/s th

0,5 khi l = 0,5 l o , kch thc ca vt s b co ngn i mt na. Nu quan c2 st mt vt hnh hp vung chuyn ng vi vn tc ln nh vy ta s thy n c dng mt hnh hp ch nht, cn mt khi cu s c dng hnh elipxoit trn xoay.
Nh vy kch thc ca mt vt s khc nhau tu thuc vo ch ta quan st n trong h ng yn hay chuyn ng. iu ni ln rng khng gian c tnh tng i, n

V2

85

Chng 5: Thuyt tng i hp Einstein ph thuc vo chuyn ng. Khi vt chuyn ng vi vn tc nh (V << c), t (5-10) ta c l = l o , ta tr li kt qu ca c hc c in, khng gian c coi l tuyt i, khng ph thuc vo chuyn ng. 3. S gin ca thi gian Xt hai h qui chiu qun tnh K, K. H K chuyn ng u vi vn tc V so vi h K dc theo trc x. Ta t mt ng h ng yn trong h K. Xt hai bin c xy ra ti cng mt im A trong h K. Khong thi gian gia hai bin c trong h K l t ' = t '2 t '1 . Khong thi gian gia hai bin c trong h K l t = t 2 t1 . T php bin i Lorentz ta c:

t1 =

t '1 +

V c
2

x '1
,

1
x '1 = x ' 2

V2 c2

t2 =

t '2 +

V c2

x '2

V2 c2

t = t 2 t1 =

t '2 t '1 1 V2 c2
(5-11)

hay

t ' = t 1

V2 c2

< t

Nh vy: Khong thi gian t ca mt qu trnh trong h K chuyn ng bao gi cng nh hn khong thi gian t ca qu trnh xy ra trong h K ng yn. V d: nu con tu v tr chuyn ng vi vn tc V=260000 km/s th t=0,5.t, tc l nu khong thi gian din ra mt qu trnh trn con tu v tr l 5 nm th mt t lc thi gian tri qua l 10 nm. c bit nu nh du hnh v tr ngi trn con tu chuyn ng vi vn tc rt gn vi vn tc nh sng V=299960 km/s trong 10 nm n mt hnh tinh rt xa th trn tri t 1000 nm tri qua v khi nh du hnh quay tr v tri t, ngi mi gi thm 20 tui, nhng trn tri t 2000 nm tri qua. C mt iu cn ch l t c vn tc ln nh vy th cn tn rt nhiu nng lng, m hin nay con ngi cha th t c. Nhng s tri chm ca thi gian do hiu ng ca thuyt tng i th c thc nghim xc nhn. Nh vy khong thi gian c tnh tng i, n ph thuc vo chuyn ng. Trng hp vn tc chuyn ng rt nh V << c, t cng thc (5-11) ta c t ' t , ta tr li kt qu ca c hc c in, y khong thi gian c coi l tuyt i, khng ph thuc vo chuyn ng. 4. Php bin i vn tc Gi s v l vn tc ca cht im i vi h qun tnh K, v' l vn tc ca cng cht im i vi h qun tnh K'. H K' chuyn ng thng u vi vn tc V i vi h K 86

Chng 5: Thuyt tng i hp Einstein dc theo phng x. Ta hy tm nh lut tng hp vn tc lin h gia v v v'. Theo php bin i Lorentz:

dx ' =

dx Vdt 1 V
2

dt
,

V c2

dx

dt ' =

c2

V2 c2
(5-12)

v' x

v V dx ' dx Vdt = = x V Vv x dt ' dt dx 1 c2 c2

dy 1
dy = dy

V2

v' y =

c2 = c2 V Vv x dt dx 1 c2 c2 V2 V2

vy 1

V2
(5-13)

vz 1 c2 = c2 v' z = (5-14) dz = dz V Vv x dt dx 1 c2 c2 Cc cng thc trn biu din nh l tng hp vn tc trong thuyt tng i. Nu V/c << 1 th v' x = v x V , v' y = v y , v' z = v z nh c hc c in. dz 1
Nu v x = c v' x =

cV =c Vc 1 c2

iu chng minh tnh bt bin ca vn tc nh sng trong chn khng i vi cc h qui chiu qun tnh. 4. NG LC HC TNG I 1. Phng trnh c bn ca chuyn ng cht im Theo thuyt tng i, khi mt vt chuyn ng vi vn tc gn bng vn tc nh sng th khi lng ca vt khng phi l mt hng s, m ph thuc vo vn tc theo biu thc:

m=

mo 1 v
2

(5-15)

c2

87

Chng 5: Thuyt tng i hp Einstein trong mo l khi lng ca cht im trong h m n ng yn, c gi l khi lng ngh. Khi lng c tnh tng i, n ph thuc h qui chiu.

dv khng th m t dt chuyn ng ca cht im vi vn tc ln c. m t chuyn ng cn c phng trnh khc tng qut hn. Theo thuyt tng i phng trnh c dng:
Nh vy, phng trnh biu din nh lut II Newton F = m

F=

d ( m v) dt

(5-16)

Khi v << c , m = mo= const, phng trnh (5-16) s tr thnh phng trnh ca nh lut II Newton. 2. ng lng v nng lng ng lng ca mt vt bng:

p = mv =

mo 1 v
2

(5-17)

c2

Khi v << c ta thu c biu thc c in: p = m o v . Ta hy tnh nng lng ca vt. Theo nh lut bo ton nng lng, tng nng lng ca vt bng cng ca ngoi lc tc dng ln vt:

dE = dA = Fds
n gin ta gi s ngoi lc F cng phng vi chuyn di ds , khi :

m v d o ds dE = Fds = 2 dt v 1 c2
Sau khi bin i ta c:

dE =

m o v dv v 1 c2
2 3 / 2

(5-18)

Mt khc t (5-15) ta c:

88

Chng 5: Thuyt tng i hp Einstein

dm =

m o v dv v c 2 1 c2
2 3 / 2

(5-19)

So snh (5-18) v (5-19) ta rt ra:

dE = c 2 dm
hay

E = mc 2 + C E = mc 2
(5-20)

trong C l mt hng s tch phn. Do m = 0 th E = 0, ta rt ra C = 0. Vy:

H thc (5-20) c gi l h thc Einstein. ngha ca h thc Einstein: Khi lng l i lng c trng cho mc qun tnh ca vt, nng lng c trng cho mc vn ng ca vt. Nh vy, h thc Einstein ni lin hai tnh cht ca vt cht: qun tnh v mc vn ng. H thc cho ta thy r, trong iu kin nht nh, mt vt c khi lng nht nh th cng c nng lng nht nh tng ng vi khi lng . 3. Cc h qu a. Nng lng ngh ca vt: l nng lng lc vt ng yn.

E = moc2
Lc chuyn ng vt c thm ng nng E:

mc 2 = m o c 2 + E 1 E = mc 2 m o c 2 = m o c 2 1 v2 1 c2
Khi v << c th:
1 / 2

(5-21)

1 1

v2 = 1 c2 2 v c2
2

1+

1 v2 + .... 2 c2

1 E m o c 1 + 2
b. Nng lng v ng lng ca vt

v2

mo v2 1 = 2 2 c

y l biu thc ng nng trong c hc c in.

89

Chng 5: Thuyt tng i hp Einstein

E = mc 2 =

mo 1 v
2

c2

c2 v2 2 c

2 Bnh phng hai v ta c: m o c 4 = E 2 1


Thay E = mc 2 v p = mv , ta c:
2 E 2 = moc4 + p 2c2

(5-22)

y l biu thc lin h gia nng lng v ng lng.

III. TM TT NI DUNG
C hc Newton ch ng dng cho cc vt th v m chuyn ng vi vn tc rt nh so vi vn tc nh sng trong chn khng. Cc vt th chuyn ng vi vn tc ln vo c vn tc nh sng th phi tun theo thuyt tng i hp Einstein. 1. Cc tin ca Einstein * Nguyn l tng i: Mi nh lut vt l u nh nhau trong cc h qui chiu qun tnh. * Nguyn l v s bt bin ca vn tc nh sng: Vn tc nh sng trong chn khng u bng nhau i vi mi h qun tnh. N c gi tr bng c = 3.108 m/s v l gi tr vn tc cc i trong t nhin. 2. Php bin i Lorentz l php bin i gia cc ta khng gian v thi gian trong hai h qui chiu qun tnh K v K chuyn ng thng u vi nhau vi vn tc V (dc theo trc x):

V x ' = ( x Vt ); y' = y; z' = z; t ' = t c2

V x = ( x '+ Vt ); y = y' ; z = z' ; t = t '+ x 2 c


trong : =

1 1 V2 c2

T php bin i Lorentz ta rt ra cc h qu: * Khi vt chuyn ng, kch thc ca n co ngn theo phng chuyn ng:

l = lo 1

V2 c2

< lo
90

Chng 5: Thuyt tng i hp Einstein * ng h chuyn ng chy chm hn ng h ng yn:

t ' = t 1

V2 c2

< t

* i vi cc bin c khng c quan h nhn qu vi nhau, khi nim ng thi ch c tnh tng i. Cn i vi cc bin c c quan h nhn qu, th t xy cc bin c c m bo: nguyn nhn bao gi cng xy ra trc kt qu xy ra sau, iu ny khng ph thuc h qui chiu. 3. ng lc hc tng i tnh H thc Einstein: trong : E = mc2

m=

mo 1 v2 c2

mo l khi lng ngh ca vt (khi vt ng yn) Nng lng ngh ca vt: ng nng ca vt: Eo = moc2

1 E = E E o = m o c 2 1 2 2 1 v / c

Nu v<<c, c th tnh gn ng:

1 v2 E m o c 2 1 + 1 = m o v 2 2c 2 2

Ta tm li c biu thc ng nng trong c hc c in.


2 Biu thc lin h gia nng lng v ng lng: E 2 = m o c 4 + p 2 c 2

IV. CU HI L THUYT
1. Nu gii hn ng dng ca c hc Newton. 2. Pht biu hai tin Einstein. 3. Vit cng thc ca php bin i Lorentz. 4. Gii thch s co ngn ca di v s gin ca thi gian. 5. Phn tch tnh tng i ca s ng thi gia cc bin c khng c quan h nhn qu vi nhau. 6. Da vo php bin i Lorentz, chng t trt t k tip v thi gian gia cc bin c c quan h nhn qu vi nhau vn c tn trng. 7. Chng t c hc Newton l trng hp gii hn ca thuyt tng i Einstein khi v << c hay coi c ln v cng.

91

Chng 5: Thuyt tng i hp Einstein 8. Vit biu thc chng t trong thuyt tng i Einstein, khi lng m ca mt vt tng ln khi chuyn ng. 9. T cng thc cng vn tc trong thuyt tng i, tm li nh lut cng vn tc trong c hc Newton. 10. Vit v nu ngha ca h thc Einstein v nng lng. 11. T h thc E = mc2, tm li biu thc ng nng ca mt vt chuyn ng vi vn tc v<<c trong c hc c in.

V. BI TP
Th d 1: Vt chuyn ng phi c vn tc bao nhiu ngi quan st ng h qui chiu gn vi tri t thy chiu di ca n gim i 25%. Bi gii: Chiu di ca vt chuyn ng xc nh theo cng thc: l = l 0 1 u bi:
l0 l l = 0,25 = 0,75 1 l0 l0 v2 c2 = 0,75 v = 1 0,75 2 = 0,6615 v = 198600 (km / s) c

v2 c2

, theo

Th d 2: Tm vn tc ca ht mzn nng lng ton phn ca n ln gp 10 ln nng lng ngh ca n. Bi gii: Theo thuyt tng i:

E=

m0c2 1 v2 c2

E0 1 v2 c2

E = E0

1 1 v2 c2

= 10

v = 0,995 c

Suy ra vn tc ca ht mzn l: v = 2,985.108 m / s Bi tp t gii 1. Vt chuyn ng phi c vn tc bao nhiu kch thc ca n theo phng chuyn ng trong h qui chiu gn vi tri t gim i 2 ln. p s: l = l 0 1

v2

l = 0 v = 2,59.10 8 m / s 2 c2

2. Khi lng ca electrn chuyn ng bng hai ln khi lng ngh ca n. Tm vn tc chuyn ng ca electrn.

92

Chng 5: Thuyt tng i hp Einstein p s:

m=

m0 1 v
2

= 2m 0 v = 2,59.10 8 m / s

c2

3. Khi lng ca vt tng thm bao nhiu ln nu vn tc ca n tng t 0 n 0,9 ln vn tc ca nh sng.


p s: m =

m0 1 v2 c2

m = m0

1 1 v2 c2

= 1

1 (0,9c) 2 c2

= 2,3 ln

4. Ht mzn trong cc tia v tr chuyn ng vi vn tc bng 0,95 ln vn tc nh sng. Hi khong thi gian theo ng h ngi quan st ng trn tri t ng vi khong thi gian sng mt giy ca ht mzn. p s: t/ = 3,2s. 5. Ht electrn phi chu mt hiu in th tng tc U bng bao nhiu vn tc ca n bng 95% vn tc nh sng. p s: Sau khi tng tc nng lng ca electrn: mc 2 = m 0 c 2 + eU =

m 0c 2 1 v
2

, m

c2

theo u bi

v = 95% U = 1,1.10 6 V c

6. Tm hiu in th tng tc U m prtn vt qua cho kch thc ca n trong h qui chiu gn vi tri t gim i hai ln. Cho mp = 1,67.10-27kg. p s: m 0 c + eU =
2

m 0c 2 1 v2 c2

, l = l0 1

v2 c2

, theo iu kin u bi

l v2 1 = 1 = U = 9.10 8 V 2 l0 2 c
7. Hi vn tc ca ht phi bng bao nhiu ng nng ca ht bng nng lng ngh. p s: E + m 0 c 2 =

m 0c 2 1 v
2

, theo iu kin u bi:

c2

93

Chng 5: Thuyt tng i hp Einstein E = m 0 c 2

m 0c 2 1 v2 c2

= 2m 0 c 2

v 86,6 = v = 2,6.108 m / s c 100

8. Khi lng ca ht electrn chuyn ng ln gp hai ln khi lng ca n khi ng yn. Tm ng nng ca ht. p s: E + m 0 c 2 = mc 2 , theo iu kin u bi

m = 2 E = 8,2.10-14J m0

9. ng nng ca ht bng mt na nng lng ngh ca n th vn tc ca ht phi bng bao nhiu?

1 v2 2 1 1 = m 0 c 2 1 p s: E = m 0 c 2 = v = 2,22.108 m / s 2 2 3 2 c v 1 2 c
10. Khi nng lng ca vt bin thin 4,19J th khi lng ca vt bin thin bao nhiu? p s: m =

E c
2

4,65.10 17 kg

94

Chng 6: Quang hc lng t

CHNG VI: QUANG HC LNG T


Hin tng giao thoa, nhiu x nh sng l nhng hin tng chng t bn cht sng ca nh sng. Nhng vo cui th k 19, u th k 20 ngi ta pht hin nhng hin tng quang hc mi nh hin tng bc x nhit, hiu ng quang in, hiu ng Compton. Nhng hin tng ny khng th gii thch c bng thuyt sng nh sng. gii quyt nhng b tc trn, ngi ta phi da vo thuyt lng t ca Planck v thuyt phtn ca Einstein, tc l phi da vo bn cht ht ca nh sng. Phn quang hc nghin cu nh sng da vo hai thuyt trn gi l quang hc lng t. Trong chng ny chng ta s nghin cu cc hin tng bc x nhit, hiu ng quang in, hiu ng Compton cng vi thuyt lng t ca Planck v thuyt phtn ca Einstein.

I. MC CH - YU CU
1. Nm c hin tng bc x nhit. Cc nh lut pht x ca vt en tuyt i. S b tc ca quang hc sng c in trong vic gii thch s bc x ca vt en tuyt i. 2. Nm c thuyt lng t ca Planck v thnh cng ca n trong vic gii thch cc nh lut pht x ca vt en tuyt i. 3. Nm c thuyt phtn ca Einstein v gii thch cc nh lut quang in. 4. Gii thch hiu ng Compton.

II. NI DUNG
1. BC X NHIT 1. Bc x nhit cn bng Bc x l hin tng cc vt b kch thch pht ra sng in t. C nhiu dng bc x khc nhau do nhng nguyn nhn khc nhau gy ra: v d do tc dng nhit (ming st nung , dy tc bng n chy sng), do tc dng ha hc (pht pho chy sng trong khng kh), do bin i nng lng trong mch dao ng in t... Tuy nhin pht bc x do tc dng nhit l ph bin nht v c gi l bc x nhit. nh ngha: Bc x nhit l hin tng sng in t pht ra t nhng vt b kch thch bi tc dng nhit. Khi vt pht ra bc x, nng lng ca n gim v nhit ca n cng gim theo. Ngc li nu vt hp th bc x, nng lng ca n tng v nhit ca n tng. Trong trng hp nu phn nng lng ca vt b mt i do pht x bng phn nng lng vt thu

95

Chng 6: Quang hc lng t c do hp th, th nhit ca vt s khng i theo thi gian v bc x nhit ca vt cng khng i. Bc x nhit trong trng hp ny c gi l bc x nhit cn bng v trng thi ny c gi l trng thi cn bng nhit ng. 2. Cc i lng c trng ca bc x nhit cn bng a. Nng sut pht x ton phn Xt mt vt t nng c gi nhit T khng i (hnh 6-1). Din tch dS ca vt pht x trong mt n v thi gian mt nng lng ton phn dT . i lng

RT =

d T dS

(6-1)

Hnh 6-1

c gi l nng sut pht x ton phn ca vt nhit T. nh ngha: Nng sut pht x ton phn ca vt nhit T l mt i lng c gi tr bng nng lng bc x ton phn do mt n v din tch ca vt pht ra trong mt n v thi gian nhit T. n v ca nng sut pht x ton phn RT trong h n v SI l ot trn mt vung (W/m2). b. H s pht x n sc Bc x ton phn do vt pht ra nhit T ni chung bao gm nhiu bc x n sc. Nng lng bc x phn b khng ng u cho tt c mi bc x c bc sng khc nhau. V th nng lng pht x ng vi bc sng thay i trong khong n +d ch l mt vi phn ca nng sut pht x ton phn . i lng

r, T =

dR T d

(6-2)

c gi l h s pht x n sc ca vt nhit T ng vi bc sng . N ph thuc vo bn cht v nhit ca vt v ph thuc bc sng ca bc x n sc do vt pht ra. n v ca h s pht x n sc: W/m3. Bng thc nghim ta c th xc nh c r, T ng vi bc x n sc bc sng ca vt pht ra nhit T, t ta s xc nh c nng sut pht x ton phn

R T = dR T = r, T d
0

(6-3)

c. H s hp th n sc

96

Chng 6: Quang hc lng t Gi s trong mt n v thi gian, chm bc x n sc c bc sng nm trong khong t n +d gi ti mt n v din tch ca vt mt nng lng d , T nhng vt ch hp th mt phn nng lng d ', T . Theo nh ngha, t s

a , T =

d ', T d , T

(6-4)

c gi l h s hp th n sc ca vt nhit T ng vi bc sng . N ph thuc vo bn cht v nhit ca vt, ph thuc vo bc sng ca chm bc x n sc gi ti. Thng thng vt khng hp th hon ton nng lng ca chm bc x gi ti, do a , T < 1 . Nhng vt m a , T = 1 vi mi nhit T v mi bc sng c gi l vt en tuyt i. Trong thc t khng c vt en tuyt i m ch c nhng vt c tnh cht gn vi tnh cht ca vt en tuyt i, v d b hng, than bch kim... to ra vt en tuyt i ngi ta dng mt ci bnh rng cch nhit, c khot mt l nh, mt trong ph mt lp b hng. Khi tia bc x lt qua l vo bnh, n s b phn x nhiu ln trn thnh bnh, mi ln phn x nng lng ca n li b bnh hp th mt phn. Kt qu c th coi l tia bc x b hp th hon ton. 3. nh lut Kirchhoff Gi s t hai vt c bn cht khc nhau trong mt bnh cch nhit. Cc vt ny s pht x v hp th nhit. Sau mt thi gian trng thi cn bng nhit ng s c thit lp, hai vt s cng mt nhit T nh trong bnh. trng thi cn bng th hin nhin vt no pht x mnh th cng phi hp th bc x mnh. T nhn xt Kirchhoff a ra nh lut mang tn ng nh sau: T s gia h s pht x n sc r, T v h s hp th n sc a , T ca mt vt bt k trng thi bc x nhit cn bng khng ph thuc vo bn cht ca vt , m ch ph thuc vo nhit T ca n v bc sng ca chm bc x n sc. Ngha l

r, T a , T

= f , T

(6-5)

Hnh 6-2. ng c trng ph pht x ca vt en tuyt i

trong f , T l hm s chung cho mi vt nn c gi l hm ph bin. V vt en tuyt i c h s hp th n sc bng 1 nn hm ph bin chnh l h s pht x n sc ca vt en tuyt i. Lm th nghim vi m hnh ca vt en tuyt i ngi ta xc nh c f , T bng thc nghim. Hnh 6-2 l th ca hm ph bin f , T theo bc sng nhit

97

Chng 6: Quang hc lng t T. ng cong ny c gi l ng c trng ph pht x ca vt en tuyt i. Nng sut pht x ton phn ca vt en tuyt i c xc nh theo cng thc (6-3) s c tr s bng ton b din tch gii hn bi ng c trng ph pht x v trc honh trn hnh 6-2. 2. CC NH LUT PHT X CA VT EN TUYT I 1. nh lut Stephan-Boltzmann Hnh 6-3 biu din ng c trng ph pht x ca vt en tuyt i cc nhit khc nhau. Ta nhn thy khi nhit tng, din tch gia ng c trng ph pht x v trc honh cng tng theo. Nh vy nng sut pht x ton phn ca vt en tuyt i ph thuc vo nhit ca vt. Stephan (bng thc nghim) v Boltzmann (bng l thuyt) tm ra s ph thuc ny v thit lp c nh lut Stephan-Boltzmann.

Hnh 6-3

nh lut Stephan-Boltzmann: Nng sut pht x ton phn ca vt en tuyt i t l thun vi ly tha bc bn ca nhit tuyt i ca vt :

R T = T 4
trong c gi l hng s Stephan-Boltzmann, =5,6703.10-8 W/m2K4. 2. nh lut Wien

(6-6)

Nhn trn hnh 6-3 ta thy rng mi ng c trng ph pht x ca vt en tuyt i mt nhit T nht nh u c mt cc i ng vi mt gi tr xc nh ca bc sng c k hiu l max v khi nhit tng th bc sng max gim. i vi vt en tuyt i th nhng bc x c bc sng ln cn gi tr ca max l bc x mang nhiu nng lng nht. Nghin cu mi quan h nh lng gia bc sng max v nhit T ca vt en tuyt i, nm 1817 Wien tm ra nh lut mang tn ng. nh lut Wien: i vi vt en tuyt i, bc sng max ca chm bc x n sc mang nhiu nng lng nht t l nghch vi nhit tuyt i ca vt .

max =

b T

(6-7)

b = 2,898.10-3 m.K v c gi l hng s Wien.

98

Chng 6: Quang hc lng t 3. S khng hong vng t ngoi Xut pht t quan nim ca vt l c in coi cc nguyn t v phn t pht x hoc hp th nng lng mt cch lin tc, Rayleigh-Jeans tm c mt cng thc xc nh h s pht x n sc ca vt en tuyt i nh sau:

f , T =

2 2 c2

kT

(6-8)

trong k l hng s Boltzmann, T l nhit tuyt i, l tn s ca bc x n sc (tn s v bc sng lin h vi nhau qua cng thc = c/). Theo cng thc (6-8), f , T t l vi ly tha bc 2 ca , nn f , T s tng rt nhanh khi tng (tc gim). Cng thc ny ch ph hp vi thc nghim vng tn s nh (bc sng ln), cn vng tn s ln (bc sng nh), tc l vng sng t ngoi, n sai lch rt nhiu. B tc ny tn ti sut trong khong thi gian di cui th k 19 v c gi l s khng hong vng t ngoi. Mt khc, t cng thc (6-8) ta c th tnh c nng sut pht x ton phn ca mt vt en tuyt i nhit T:

R T = f , T d =
0

2kT 2 d = c2 0

(6-9)

Nng lng pht x ton phn ca vt mt nhit T nht nh li bng v cng. iu ny l sai. S d c kt qu v l l do quan nim vt l c in v s pht x v hp th nng lng bc x mt cch lin tc. gii quyt nhng b tc trn, Planck ph nh l thuyt c in v bc x v ra mt l thuyt mi gi l thuyt lng t nng lng. 3. THUYT LNG T PLANCK V THUYT PHTN EINSTEIN 1. Thuyt lng t nng lng ca Planck Pht biu: Cc nguyn t v phn t pht x hay hp th nng lng ca bc x in t mt cch gin on, ngha l phn nng lng pht x hay hp th lun l bi s nguyn ca mt lng nng lng nh xc nh gi l lng t nng lng hay quantum nng lng. Mt lng t nng lng ca bc x in t n sc tn s , bc sng l:

= h =

hc

(6-10)

trong h l hng s Planck, h = 6,625.10-34Js, c l vn tc nh sng trong chn khng. Xut pht t thuyt lng t, Planck tm ra cng thc ca hm ph bin, tc l h s pht x n sc ca vt en tuyt i nh sau:

f , T =

2 2 c
2

h e
h / kT

(6-11)

99

Chng 6: Quang hc lng t trong k l hng s Boltzmann, T l nhit tuyt i. Cng thc ny c gi l cng thc Planck. 2. Thnh cng ca thuyt lng t nng lng * Cng thc Planck cho php ta v c ng c trng ph pht x ca vt en tuyt i ph hp vi kt qu thc nghim mi vng nhit v mi vng tn s khc nhau. * T cng thc Planck ta c th suy c cng thc ca Rayleigh v Jeans v cc cng thc th hin cc nh lut ca vt en tuyt i. Trong min tn s nh sao cho h << kT th

2 2 h . Do cng thc Planck s thnh: f , T = kT , ta li thu c 1 e kT c2 cng thc ca Rayleigh v Jeans.


h / kT

* T cng thc Planck ta tm c nh lut Stephan-Boltzmann: Nng sut pht x ton phn ca vt en tuyt i ti mt nhit T no bng:

R T = f , T d =
t x = h/kT ta c

2 2

2 e h / kT 1 0 c

(6-12)

RT =

2k 4 T 4 x 3dx c2h3
0e

2k 4 T 4 4 c 2 h 3 15

Cui cng ta c R T = T 4 trong =5,6703.10-8 W/m2.K4. y chnh l nh lut Stephan-Boltzmann. * T cng thc Planck ta tm c nh lut Wien Nu ta ly o hm ca f,T theo v cho n trit tiu ri tm max (hay max) ti cc nhit khc nhau, kt qu thu c l max T = 2,8978.10 -3 mK. y chnh l nh lut Wien. 3. Thuyt phtn ca Einstein Thuyt lng t ca Planck nu ln quan im hin i v nng lng: nng lng in t pht x hay hp th c nhng gi tr gin on, chng lun l bi nguyn ca lng t nng lng . Ta ni rng nng lng in t pht x hay hp th b lng t ho. Nhng thuyt lng t ca Planck cha nu c bn cht gin on ca bc x in t. Nm 1905, Einstein da trn thuyt lng t v nng lng ca Planck a ra thuyt lng t nh sng (hay thuyt phtn). Ni dung thuyt phtn ca Einstein: a. Bc x in t gm v s nhng ht rt nh gi l lng t nh sng hay phtn. b. Vi mi bc x in t n sc nht nh, cc phtn u ging nhau v mang mt nng lng xc nh bng

100

Chng 6: Quang hc lng t

= h =

hc

(6-13)

c. Trong mi mi trng (v c trong chn khng) cc phtn c truyn i vi cng vn tc c = 3.108 m/s. d. Khi mt vt pht x hay hp th bc x in t c ngha l vt pht x hay hp th cc phtn. e. Cng ca chm bc x t l vi s phtn pht ra t ngun trong mt n v thi gian. Thuyt phtn ca Einstein gii thch c cc hin tng th hin bn cht ht ca nh sng nh hin tng quang in, hiu ng Compton. 4. ng lc hc phtn Nng lng ca phtn ng vi mt bc x in t n sc tn s l

= h
Khi lng ca phtn

(6-14)

m=
Theo thuyt tng i m =

c2

h c2

h c

(6-15)

mo 1v2 c2

v2 , do m o = m 1 c2

Vn tc ca phtn bng c, do phtn c khi lng ngh bng 0 ng lng ca phtn

p = mc =

h h = c

(6-16)

Nh vy ng lng ca phtn t l thun vi tn s v t l nghch vi bc sng ca bc x in t.

4. HIN TNG QUANG IN 1. nh ngha: Hiu ng bn ra cc electrn t mt tm kim loi khi ri vo tm kim loi mt bc x in t thch hp c gi l hin tng quang in. Cc electrn bn ra c gi l cc quang electrn. nghin cu hin tng quang in ngi ta lm th nghim vi t bo quang in nh sau:

101

Chng 6: Quang hc lng t T bo quang in gm mt bnh chn khng c hai bn cc lm bng kim loi: bn cc dng ant A v bn cc m catt K. Catt lm bng kim loi ta cn nghin cu. T bo quang in c mc nh hnh v. Nh bin tr ta c th thay i hiu in th U gia A v K v ln v chiu. Khi D n v tr C: UAK = 0 Khi D bn phi C: A+ , K-, UAK > 0 Khi D bn tri C: A- , K+, UAK < 0 Khi ri chm bc x in t n sc bc sng thch hp vo catt K, chm nh sng ny Hnh 6-4. Th nghim quang in

s gii phng cc electrn khi mt bn cc m K. Di tc dng ca in trng gia A v K, cc quang electrn s chuyn ng v cc dng ant, to ra trong mch dng quang in. in th G o cng dng quang in cn vn k V s o hiu in th UAK gia A v K. Thay i UAK ta c th dng quang in nh hnh 6-5. * UAK > 0: Khi UAK tng th I tng theo, khi UAK t n mt gi tr no cng dng quang in s khng tng na v t gi tr Ibh, c gi l cng dng quang in bo ha. * Khi UAK= 0 cng dng quang in vn c gi tr I 0 . iu chng t quang electrn bn ra c sn mt ng nng ban u. * trit tiu dng quang in ta phi t ln A-K mt hiu in th ngc Uc sao cho cng cn ca in trng t nht phi bng ng nng ban u cc i ca cc electrn b bt khi bn K, ngha l:

Hnh 6-5. th I-V (6-17)

eU c =

1 2 mv o max 2

Uc c gi l hiu in th cn. 2. Cc nh lut quang in v gii thch T cc kt qu th nghim ngi ta tm ra ba nh lut sau y gi l ba nh lut quang in. Cc nh lut ny ch c th gii thch c da vo thuyt phtn ca Einstein. a. Phng trnh Einstein Khi c mt chm nh sng thch hp ri n catt, cc electrn t do trong kim loi hp th phtn. Mi electrn hp th mt phtn v s nhn c mt nng lng bng h . Nng lng ny mt phn chuyn thnh cng thot Ath electrn ra khi kim loi, phn 102

Chng 6: Quang hc lng t cn li chuyn thnh ng nng ban u ca quang electrn. ng nng ban u cng ln khi electrn cng gn mt ngoi kim loi, v i vi cc electrn su trong kim loi, mt phn nng lng m n hp th c ca phtn s b tiu hao trong qu trnh chuyn ng t trong ra mt ngoi kim loi. Nh vy ng nng ban u s cc i i vi cc electrn st mt ngoi kim loi. Theo nh lut bo ton nng lng, Einstein a ra phng trnh cho hiu ng quang in

h = A th +

2 mv o max 2

(6-18)

Phng trnh ny c gi l phng trnh Einstein. b. nh lut v gii hn quang in Pht biu: i vi mi kim loi xc nh, hin tng quang in ch xy ra khi bc sng (hay tn s ) ca chm bc x in t ri ti nh hn (ln hn) mt gi tr xc nh o ( o ), o gi l gii hn quang in ca kim loi . Gii hn quang in o ph thuc vo bn cht ca kim loi lm catt. nh lut ny ni ln iu kin cn c th xy ra hin tng quang in. y cn nhn mnh rng, nu chm sng ti c bc sng > o th d cng sng rt mnh, n cng khng th gy ra hin tng quang in. Gii thch: Trong phng trnh Einstein (6-15), v
2 mv o max > 0 v t A th = h o nn 2

h > h o
hc hc > o

> o < o

Ngha l chm nh sng gy ra hiu ng quang in phi c bc sng nh hn mt gi tr xc nh o = hc/Ath ( < o ). o chnh l gii hn quang in v r rng n ch ph thuc vo cng thot Ath, tc l ph thuc vo bn cht kim loi lm catt. c. nh lut v dng quang in bo ho Pht biu: Cng dng quang in bo ho t l vi cng ca chm bc x ri ti. Gii thch: Cng dng quang in t l vi s quang electrn thot ra khi catt n ant trong mt n v thi gian. Dng quang in tr nn bo ho khi s quang electrn thot khi catt n ant trong n v thi gian l khng i. S quang electrn thot ra khi catt t l vi s phtn b hp th. S phtn b hp th li t l vi cng ca chm bc x. Do cng dng quang in bo ho t l thun vi cng chm bc x ri ti. Ne ~ Nph , Nph ~ Iph Ibh ~ Ne

Ne ~ Iph Ibh ~ Iph

103

Chng 6: Quang hc lng t d. nh lut v ng nng ban u cc i ca quang electrn Pht biu: ng nng ban u cc i ca quang electrn khng ph thuc vo cng chm bc x ri ti m ch ph thuc vo tn s ca chm bc x . Gii thch:

1 1 2 2 h = A th + mv o max = h o + mv o max 2 2 1 2 mv o max = h ( - o ) 2 eU c = h ( - o )

Ta thy r ng nng ban u cc i ca quang electrn ch ph thuc vo tn s ca chm bc x in t, m khng ph thuc vo cng ca bc x . Thuyt phtn gii thch c tt c cc nh lut quang in, n a ra mt quan nim mi v bn cht nh sng. Theo Einstein, mi phtn c mt nng lng = h. Tnh cht ht th hin nng lng gin on. Tnh cht sng th hin tn s (v bc sng ) ca nh sng. Nh vy nh sng va c tnh sng, va c tnh ht. Ta ni rng nh sng c lng tnh sng-ht. 5. HIU NG COMPTON Hiu ng Compton l mt trong nhng hiu ng th hin bn cht ht ca cc bc x in t, ng thi n chng minh s tn ti ng lng ca cc ht phtn. 1. Hiu ng Compton Th nghim Compton: Cho mt chm tia X bc sng chiu vo graphit hay paraphin...Khi i qua cc cht ny tia X b tn x theo nhiu phng. Trong ph tn x, ngoi vch c bc sng bng bc sng ca chm tia X chiu ti cn c nhng vch

ng vi bc sng > (Hnh 6-6). Thc nghim chng t rng bc sng khng ph thuc cu to ca cc cht c tia X ri n m ch ph thuc vo gc tn x . tng ca bc sng = '- c xc nh bi biu thc:

= 2 c sin 2

(6-19)

trong c =2,426.10-12 m l mt hng s chung cho mi cht, c gi l bc sng Compton. Theo l thuyt sng th khi tia X truyn n thanh grapht n lm cho cc ht mang in trong thanh ( y l electrn) dao ng cng bc vi cng tn s ca tia X, do cc bc x tn x v mi phng phi c cng tn s vi bc x ti. Nh vy l thuyt sng in t c in khng gii thch c hin tng Compton.

104

Chng 6: Quang hc lng t

Hnh 6-6. Th nghim Compton

Hnh 6-7. Va chm n hi gia phtn v electrn

2. Gii thch bng thuyt lng t nh sng Chng ta c th coi hin tng tn x tia X nh mt va chm hon ton n hi gia mt phtn v mt electrn trong cht m tia X chiu ti (Hnh 6-7). Trong ph tn x, nhng vch c bc sng bng bc sng ca tia X chiu ti tng ng vi s tn x ca tia X ln cc electrn su trong nguyn t, cc electrn ny lin kt mnh vi ht nhn, cn vch c bc sng

> tng ng vi s tn x tia X ln

Hnh 6-8

cc electrn lin kt yu vi ht nhn. Nng lng lin kt ca cc electrn ny rt nh so vi nng lng ca chm tia X chiu ti, do cc electrn c th coi nh t do. V y l va chm n hi gia phtn v electrn t do nn ta s p dng hai nh lut bo ton nng lng v bo ton ng lng cho h kn tia X - e-". Gi thit trc va chm electrn (e-) ng yn. Tia X c nng lng ln, khi tn x trn electrn t do tia X s truyn nng lng cho electrn nn sau va chm vn tc ca electrn rt ln, do ta phi p dng hiu ng tng i tnh trong trng hp ny. Chng ta xt ng lng, nng lng ca ht phtn v electrn trc v sau va chm: Trc va chm: e- ng yn : Phtn : Nng lng : m o c 2 ng lng : 0 Nng lng : E = h ng lng : p = mc = Sau va chm: Phtn tn x: Nng lng : E ' = h ng lng : p =
h h = c

h h = c

105

Chng 6: Quang hc lng t e- : Nng lng :

mo 1v2 c2

c 2 = mc 2

ng lng : p e =

mo 1v2 c2

v = mv

(mo l khi lng ngh ca e- ) Theo nh lut bo ton nng lng v ng lng:

h + m o c 2 = h + mc 2 p = p + p e

(6-20) (6-21)

Gi l gc gia p v p' (hnh 6-8). Sau khi bin i cc biu thc (6-20) v (6-21) v s dng cng thc lin h gia nng lng v ng lng trong c hc tng i tnh (5-22), cui cng ta c:

m o c 2 ( - ' ) = h ' (1 - cos ) = 2h ' sin 2


Thay =

(6-22)

c vo biu thc trn ta c: '- = 2 h sin 2 = 2 c sin 2 moc 2 2


(6-23)

trong c =

h = 2,426.10 12 m l hng s chung cho mi cht, gi l bc sng moc

Compton. i lng = '- l bin thin ca bc sng trong tn x, n ch ph thuc vo gc tn x m khng ph thuc vo vt liu lm bia. Khi phtn vo su trong nguyn t v va chm vi cc electrn lin kt mnh vi ht nhn, ta phi coi va chm ny l va chm ca phtn vi nguyn t (ch khng phi vi electrn), cng thc (6-23) vn ng nhng phi thay khi lng ca electrn bng khi lng ca nguyn t, n ln hn nhiu ln so vi khi lng ca electrn. Do hu nh khng c s thay i bc sng. Nh vy trong bc x tn x c mt nhng phtn vi bc sng khng i. Qua hiu ng Compton ngi ta chng minh c ht phtn c ng lng p= h / . ng lng l mt c trng ca ht. Nh vy tnh cht ht ca nh sng c xc nhn trn vn khi da vo thuyt phtn gii thch thnh cng hiu ng Compton.

III. TM TT NI DUNG
1. Hin tng bc x nhit 106

Chng 6: Quang hc lng t * Sng in t do cc vt pht ra gi chung l bc x. Dng bc x do cc nguyn t v phn t b kch thch bi tc dng nhit c gi l bc x nhit. Nu phn nng lng ca vt b mt i do pht x bng phn nng lng vt thu c do hp th th bc x nhit khng i v c gi l bc x nhit cn bng. * Cc i lng c trng cho bc x nhit : - Nng sut pht x ton phn ca vt nhit T:

RT =

dT dS dR T d d ', T d , T

dT l nng lng do din tch dS ca vt pht x trong mt n v thi gian.


- H s pht x n sc nhit T, ng vi bc sng : r, T = - H s hp th n sc nhit T, ng vi bc sng : a , T =

d , T l nng lng ca bc x ti, d', T l nng lng vt hp th.


Thc t vt khng hp th hon ton bc x ti nn a,T < 1. Vt c a,T =1 vi mi nhit T v mi bc sng gi l vt en tuyt i. * nh lut Kirchhoff: T s ca h s pht x n sc v h s hp th n sc ca mt vt trng thi cn bng nhit khng ph thuc vo bn cht ca vt m ch ph thuc vo r, T = f , T , trong f,T l hm s nhit v bc sng ca chm bc x, ngha l a , T chung cho mi vt, nn c gi l hm ph bin. i vi vt en tuyt i: r,T = f,T Nng sut pht x ton phn ca vt en tuyt i bng R T = dR T = f , T d
0

* Cc nh lut pht x ca vt en tuyt i Stephan-Boltzmann thit lp c nh lut lin h gia RT v nhit T ca vt:

R T = T 4 . Hng s c gi l hng s Stephan-Boltzmann.


Wien tm c nh lut lin h gia bc sng m ca chm bc x mang nhiu b nng lng nht (f,T ln nht) vi nhit tuyt i T ca vt : m = , trong T b c gi l hng s Wien.

* Da vo quan nim c in coi cc nguyn t v phn t pht x v hp th nng lng mt cch lin tc, Rayleigh-Jeans tm c mt cng thc xc nh h s pht x n sc ca vt en tuyt i: f , T =

2 2 c2

kT

Nhng cng thc ny gp hai kh khn ch yu:

107

Chng 6: Quang hc lng t - Cng thc ny ch ph hp vi thc nghim vng tn s nh (bc sng di), cn vng tn s ln (bc sng ngn), tc l vng sng t ngoi, n sai lch rt nhiu. B tc ny c gi l s khng hong vng t ngoi. - T cng thc ny ta c th tnh c nng sut pht x ton phn ca mt vt en tuyt i nhit T:

R T = f , T d =

2kT 2 d = c2 0

Nng lng pht x ton phn ca vt mt nhit T nht nh li bng v cng. S d c kt qu v l l do quan nim vt l c in v s pht x v hp th nng lng bc x mt cch lin tc. gii quyt nhng b tc trn Planck ph nh l thuyt c in v bc x v ra mt l thuyt mi gi l thuyt lng t nng lng. * Thuyt lng t ca Planck: cc nguyn t v phn t pht x hay hp th nng = h = hc / lng mt cch gin on . Xut pht t thuyt lng t, Planck tm ra cng thc ca hm ph bin, tc l h s pht x n sc ca vt en tuyt i:

c e 1 Cng thc ca Planck khc phc c kh khn vng t ngoi, ng c trng ph pht x ca vt en tuyt i tnh t cng thc ny ph hp vi kt qu thc nghim mi vng nhit , mi vng tn s khc nhau. T cng thc Planck ta c th tm li c cc cng thc Stephan-Boltzmann v cng thc Wien.
2. Hiu ng quang in l hiu ng bn ra cc electrn t mt tm kim loi khi ri vo tm kim loi mt bc x in t thch hp. Ngi ta tm c ba nh lut quang in: * nh lut v gii hn quang in: Hin tng quang in ch xy ra khi bc sng ca nh sng ti phi tha mn: < o hoc > o o, o ty thuc vo tng kim loi v c gi l gii hn quang in ca kim loi . * nh lut v dng quang in bo ha: Cng dng quang in bo ha t l vi cng nh sng chiu ti kim loi. * nh lut v ng nng ban u cc i: ng nng ban u cc i ca cc quang electron khng ph thuc vo cng nh sng chiu ti m ch ph thuc bc sng ca nh sng chiu ti v bn cht kim loi. gii thch ba nh lut trn, Einstein a ra thuyt phtn. Thuyt ny cho rng nh sng bao gm nhng ht phtn. Mi phtn mang nng lng = h = hc / , chuyn ng vi vn tc c=3.108 m/s. Cng ca chm sng t l vi s phtn do ngun sng pht ra trong mt n v thi gian. 108

f , T =

2 2
2

h
h / kT

Chng 6: Quang hc lng t Nh vy nh sng va c tnh cht sng va c tnh cht ht. 3. Hiu ng Compton Chm nh sng (chm ht phtn) sau khi tn x ln cc ht electrn t do th bc sng ca n tng ln

= 2 c sin 2

Thc nghim xc nh c tng bc sng ny. tng bc sng khng ph thuc vt liu lm bia m ch ph thuc vo gc tn x. gii thch hiu ng Compton, ngi ta da trn hai nh lut bo ton: bo ton nng lng (v va chm n hi) v bo ton ng lng (v l h kn gm ht phtn v ht electrn). Qua hiu ng ny ngi ta chng minh c ht phtn c ng lng p = mc = h / c = h / . ng lng l mt c trng ca ht. Nh vy tnh cht ht ca nh sng c xc nhn trn vn khi da vo thuyt phtn gii thch thnh cng hiu ng Compton.

IV. CU HI L THUYT
1. nh ngha bc x nhit cn bng. 2. Vit biu thc v nu ngha ca cc i lng: nng sut pht x ton phn, h s pht x n sc, h s hp th n sc ca bc x nhit cn bng nhit T. 3. nh ngha vt en tuyt i. 4. Pht biu nh lut Kirchhoff. Nu ngha ca hm ph bin. V th ng c trng ph pht x ca vt en tuyt i. 5. Pht biu cc nh lut pht x ca vt en tuyt i . 6. Nu quan nim c in v bn cht ca bc x. Vit cng thc ca Rayleigh-Jeans. Nu nhng kh khn m cng thc gp phi i vi hin tng bc x nhit. 7. Pht biu thuyt lng t ca Planck. Vit cng thc Planck. Nu nhng thnh cng ca thuyt lng t. 8. nh ngha hin tng quang in. Pht biu ba nh lut quang in. 9. Pht biu thuyt phtn ca Einstein. Vn dng thuyt phtn gii thch ba nh lut quang in. 10. Trnh by ni dung hiu ng Compton. Trong hiu ng ny, chm tia X tn x ln electrn t do hay lin kt ? 11. Gii thch hiu ng Compton. 12. Ti sao coi hiu ng Compton l mt bng chng thc nghim xc nhn trn vn tnh ht ca nh sng.

109

Chng 6: Quang hc lng t

IV. BI TP
Th d 1: Hi nhit ca l nung bng bao nhiu cho bit mi giy l pht ra mt nng lng bng 8,28 calo qua mt l nh c kch thc bng 6,1cm2. Coi bc x c pht ra t mt vt en tuyt i. Bi gii: Nng sut pht x ton phn ca vt en tuyt i: R = T 4 , R l nng sut do mt n v din tch pht ra trong mt n v thi gian, nn R lin h vi cng sut pht x l: P = R.S

T=4

P 8,28.4,18 =4 = 1004 (K ) .S 5,67.10 8.6,1.10 4

Th d 2: Cng thot ca kim loi dng lm catt ca t bo quang in A = 5eV. Tm: 1. Gii hn quang in ca tm kim loi . 2. Vn tc ban u cc i ca cc quang electrn khi catt c chiu bng nh sng n sc bc sng = 0,2m. 3. Hiu in th hm khng c mt electrn no n c ant. Bi gii 1. Gii hn quang in ca catt: 0 =

hc 6,625.10 34.3.108 = = 2,48.10 7 m 19 A 5.1,6.10

2. Vn tc ban u cc i ca cc electrn:

hc 1 2 hc 2 = A + m e v 0 max v 0 max = A 2 me v 0 max = 6,625.1034.3.108 5.1,6.1019 = 0,65.106 m / s 9,1.1031 0,2.106 2

3. Hiu in th hm:

1 hc hc 1 6,625.1034.3.108 = A + eUh U h = ( A) = 5.1,6.1019 = 1,2 V 1,6.1019 e 0,2.106


Th d 3: Phtn mang nng lng 0,15MeV n tn x trn electrn t do. Sau khi tn x bc sng ca chm phtn tn x tng thm = 0,015A0. Xc nh bc sng ca phtn v gc tn x ca phtn. Bi gii: =

hc hc 6,625.10 34.3.108 = = = 8,28.10 12 m 13 0,15.1,6.10 sin 2 = = 0,31 sin = 0,556 = 67 0 33 2 2 2 c 2


110

= 2 c sin 2

Chng 6: Quang hc lng t Bi tp t gii 1. Tm cng sut bc x ca mt l nung, cho bit nhit ca l bng t = 7270C, din tch ca ca l bng 250cm2. Coi l l vt en tuyt i. p s: P = T 4S = 1417,5 ( W ) 2.Vt en tuyt i c dng mt qu cu ng knh d = 10cm nhit T khng i. Tm nhit T, cho bit cng sut bc x nhit cho bng 12kcalo/pht. p s: P =

12.10 3.4,18 = 836 ( W ) , T = 60 4

P d .4 2
2

= 828 (K )

3. Nhit ca si dy tc vonfram ca bng n in lun bin i v c t nng bng dng in xoay chiu. Hiu s gia nhit cao nht v thp nht bng 800, nhit trung bnh bng 2300K. Hi cng sut bc x bin i bao nhiu ln, coi dy tc bng n l vt en tuyt i. p s: Tmax Tmin = 80 K,

Tmax + Tmin = 2300 K Tmax = 2340 K, Tmin = 2260 K 2 = 1,15


4

Pmax Tmax = Pmin Tmin

4. Nhit ca vt en tuyt i tng t 1000 K n 3000 K. Hi: 1. Nng sut pht x ton phn ca n tng bao nhiu ln? 2. Bc sng ng vi nng sut pht x cc i thay i bao nhiu ln?
4

T R p s: 1. 2 = 2 = 81 ln , R 1 T1
T 2. m1 = 2 = 3 ln m 2 T1

5. Mt vt en tuyt i nhit T1 = 2900 K. Do vt b ngui i nn bc sng ng vi nng sut pht x cc i thay i = 9m. Hi vt lnh n nhit bng bao nhiu? p s: m1 =

1 bT1 1 b b , m2 = = b T T T2 = T + b = 290 (K ) T1 T2 1 1 2

6. Tm gii hn quang in i vi cc kim loi c cng thot 2,4eV, 2,3eV, 2eV. p s: 01 =

hc hc = 5,18.10 7 m , 02 = = 5,4.10 7 m , A1 A2 hc = 6,21.10 7 m A3


111

03 =

Chng 6: Quang hc lng t 7. Gii hn quang in ca kim loi dng lm catt ca t bo quang in 0 = 0,5m. Tm: 1. Cng thot ca electrn khi tm kim loi . 2. Vn tc ban u cc i ca cc quang electrn khi catt c chiu bng nh sng n sc bc sng = 0,25m. p s: 1. 0 = 2.

hc hc 6,625.10 34.3.108 A= = = 39,75.10 20 J 6 A 0 0,5.10

hc 1 2 hc 2 6 = A + me v0 max v0 max = A = 0,93.10 m / s 2 me

8. Chiu mt bc x in t n sc bc sng = 0,41m ln mt kim loi dng lm catt ca t bo quang in th c hin tng quang in xy ra. Nu dng mt hiu in th hm 0,76V th cc quang electrn bn ra u b gi li.Tm: 1. Cng thot ca electrn i vi kim loi . 2. Vn tc ban u cc i ca cc quang electrn khi bn ra khi catt. p s: 1. 2.
2 m e v 0 max = eU h v 0 max = 2

hc hc = A + eU h A = eU h = 36,32.10 20 J 2eU h = me 2.1,6.10 19.0,76 9,1.10


31

= 0,52.10 6 m / s

9. Cng thot ca kim loi dng lm catt ca t bo quang in A= 2,48eV. Tm: 1. Gii hn quan in ca tm kim loi . 2.Vn tc ban u cc i ca cc quang electrn khi catt c chiu bng nh sng n sc bc sng = 0,36m. 3. Hiu in th hm khng c mt electrn no n c ant. p s: 1. 0 =

hc 6,625.10 34.3.108 = = 0,5.10 6 m 19 A 2,48.1,6.10 2 me hc 6 A = 0,584.10 m / s

2. 3.

hc 1 2 = A + m e v 0 max v 0 max = 2 hc = A + eU h U h == 0,97 V

10. Khi chiu mt chm nh sng c bc sng = 0,234m vo mt kim loi dng lm catt ca t bo quang in th c hin tng quang in xy ra. Bit tn s gii hn ca catt 0= 6.1014Hz. Tm: 1. Cng thot ca electrn i vi kim loi . 2. Hiu in th hm khng c mt electrn no n c ant. 112

Chng 6: Quang hc lng t 3. Vn tc ban u cc i ca cc quang electrn. p s: 1. A = h 0 = 39,75.10 20 J , 2. 3.

hc hc 1 = A + eU h U h = ( A) = 2,83V e
1 2 m e v 0 max = eU h v 0 max = 2 2eU h = 10 6 m / s me

11. Khi chiu mt chm nh sng vo mt kim loi dng lm catt ca t bo quang in th c hin tng quang in xy ra. Nu dng mt hiu in th hm 3V th cc quang electrn bn ra u b gi li. Bit tn s gii hn ca catt 0= 6.1014Hz. Tm: 1. Cng thot ca electrn i vi tm kim loi . 2. Tn s ca nh sng chiu ti. 3. Vn tc ban u cc i ca cc quang electrn khi bn ra t catt. p s: 1. A = h0 = 39,75.10-20J, 2. h = A + eU h = 3.

A + eU h = 13,25.1014 z , h

v0max =

2 (h - A) =106 m / s me

12. Cng thot ca kim loi dng lm catt ca t bo quang in A = 2,15eV. Tm: 1. Gii hn quang in ca tm kim loi . 2. Vn tc ban u cc i ca cc quang electrn khi catt c chiu bng nh sng n sc bc sng = 0,489m. 3. Hiu in th hm khng c mt electrn no n c ant. p s: 1. 0 =

hc 6,625.10 34.3.108 = = 0,578.10 6 m 19 A 2,15.1,6.10 2 hc 6 A = 0,37.10 m / s me

2. 3.

hc 1 2 = A + m e v 0 max v 0 max = 2

hc hc 1 = A + eU h U h = ( A) = 0,39 V e
h h 6,625.10 34.5.1014 = = = 1,1.10 27 kg.m/s 8 c 3.10 h c
2

13. Tm ng lng, khi lng ca phtn c tn s = 5.1014Hz. p s: p =

m=

6,625.10 34.5.1014 9.10


16

= 3,7.10 36 kg

113

Chng 6: Quang hc lng t 14. Tm nng lng v ng lng ca phtn ng vi bc sng = 0,6m. p s:

hc 6,625.10 34.3.108 = = = 3,3.10 19 J 6 0,6.10 p= h 6,625.10 34 = = 1,1.10 27 kg.m/s 6 0,6.10

15. Tm nng lng v ng lng ca phtn ng vi bc sng = 10-12m.

hc 6,625.10 34.3.10 8 = = 19,88.10 14 J p s: = 12 10 p= h 6,625.10 34 = = 6,62.10 22 kg.m/s 12 10

16. Phtn c nng lng 250keV bay n va chm vi mt electrn ng yn v tn x Compton theo gc 1200. Xc nh nng lng ca phtn tn x. p s: =

hc = 5.10 12 m , = 2c sin2 = 8,64.1012 m 2 hc 6,625.10 34.3.108 = = 2,3.10 14 J 12 8,64.10

Nng lng ca phtn tn x: =

17. Phtn ban u c nng lng 0,8MeV tn x trn mt electrn t do v thnh phtn ng vi bc x c bc sng bng bc sng Compton. Tnh: 1. Gc tn x. 2. Nng lng ca phtn tn x. p s: 1.

hc = 0,8.1,6.10 13 = 1,553.10 12 m , = 2 c sin 2 = 50 011 2


2. =

hc = 8,19.10 14 J = 0,2MeV

18. Tnh nng lng v ng lng ca phtn tn x khi phtn c bc sng ban u = 0,05.10-10m n va chm vo electrn t do v tn x theo gc 600, 900. p s: 1.Bc sng ca phtn tn x:

= 2c sin2 = 5.1012 + 2.2,4261012.0,25 = 6,2131012 m . . 2


Nng lng ca phtn tn x: =

hc 6,625.10 34.3.108 = = 3,2.10 14 J 12 6,213.10


114

Chng 6: Quang hc lng t ng lng ca phtn tn x: p = 2. Bc sng ca phtn tn x:

h 6,625.10 34 = = 10 22 kgm / s 12 6,213.10


2

= 2c sin

= 5.10

12

2 + 2.2,42610 . = 7,4261012m . . 2

12

Nng lng ca phtn tn x: =

hc 6,625.10 34.3.108 = = 2,68.10 14 J 12 7,426.10 h 6,625.10 34 = = 0,89.10 22 kgm / s 7,426.10 12

ng lng ca phtn tn x: p =

19. Trong hin tng tn x Compton, bc x Rngen c bc sng n tn x trn electrn t do. Tm bc sng , cho bit ng nng cc i ca electron bn ra bng 0,19MeV.

1 1 p s: ng nng ca electrn: E = m e c 2 m 0e c 2 = m 0e c 2 v2 1 2 c
Theo nh lut bo ton nng nng cc lng: i

= 2 c sin 2 h

, 2

ng

hc hc 1 1 = hc , + khi sin 2 = 1 . Do 2
E =

2 1 + 2m 0 c 1 = 0,037 A 0 = m 0e c E
20. Tm ng lng ca electrn khi c phtn bc sng = 0,05A0 n va chm v tn x theo gc = 900. Lc u electrn ng yn. r r r r r r p s: Theo nh lut bo ton ng lng: p = p + p p = p p e e

p 2 = p 2 + p 2 p e = e

h2
2

h2 2

1,6.10 22 kg.m / s

115

Chng 7: C hc lng t

CHNG VII: C HC LNG T


C hc lng t l mn c hc nghin cu s vn ng ca vt cht trong th gii ca cc phn t, nguyn t (kch thc 10-9 - 10-10 m, gi l th gii vi m, cc ht trong gi l vi ht). C hc lng t cung cp cho ta kin thc hiu cc hin tng xy ra trong nguyn t, ht nhn, vt rn...

I. MC CH - YU CU
1. Nm c gi thuyt de Broglie v lng tnh sng - ht ca vi ht. T i n biu thc ca hm sng v phng trnh Schrodinger. 2. Hiu v vn dng c h thc bt nh Heisenberg. 3. Hiu v vn dng phng trnh Schrodinger gii mt s bi ton c hc lng t n gin nh ht trong ging th, hiu ng ng ngm, dao ng t iu ha lng t.

II. NI DUNG
1. LNG TNH SNG HT CA VI HT 1. Lng tnh sng ht ca nh sng Nh chng trc chng ta thy nh sng va c tnh sng va c tnh ht: hin tng giao thoa, nhiu x th hin tnh cht sng, cn hiu ng quang in, hiu ng Compton th hin tnh cht ht ca nh sng. Lng tnh sng ht ca nh sng c Einstein nu trong thuyt phtn: nh sng c cu to bi cc ht phtn, mi ht mang nng lng h E = h v ng lng p = . Ta thy cc i lng c trng cho tnh cht ht (E,p) v cc i lng c trng cho tnh cht sng ( , ) lin h trc tip vi nhau. Chng ta s thit lp hm sng cho ht phtn. Xt chm nh sng n sc, song song. Mt sng l cc mt phng vung gc vi phng truyn sng. Nu dao ng sng ti O l 116 Hnh 7-1. S truyn sng phng nh sng

Chng 7: C hc lng t

x ( t ) = A cos 2 t

(7-1)

th biu thc dao ng sng ti mi im trn mt sng i qua im M cch mt sng i qua O mt on d l:

d d d x ( t - ) = A cos 2 ( t - ) = A cos 2( t - ) c c 2 d = A cos( t )

(7-2)

trong c l vn tc nh sng trong chn khng, l bc sng nh sng trong chn c khng: = cT = , vi T l chu k , l tn s ca sng nh sng. T hnh 7-1 ta c:

d = r cos = r.n
n : vect php tuyn n v. Thay (7-3) vo (7-2) ta nhn c:

(7-3)

d r.n x ( t ) = A cos 2 ( t ) c

(7-4)

l hm sng phng n sc. S dng k hiu cho hm sng v biu din n di dng hm phc ta c
r.n = o exp 2 i t

(7-5)

Nu thay =

E h h , p = v h = vo (7-5) ta c: h 2
i = o exp Et p r h

(7-6)

2. Gi thuyt de Broglie (bri) Trn c s lng tnh sng ht ca nh sng, de Broglie suy ra lng tnh sng ht cho electrn v cc vi ht khc. Gi thuyt de Broglie: Mt vi ht t do c nng lng, ng lng xc nh tng ng vi mt sng phng n sc. Nng lng ca vi ht lin h vi tn s dao ng ca sng tng ng thng qua h thc: E = h hay E = h . ng lng ca vi ht lin h vi bc sng ca sng tng h ng theo h thc: p = hay p = h k .

k l vect sng, c phng, chiu l phng, chiu truyn sng, c ln k =


de Broglie l sng vt cht, sng ca cc vi ht.

2 . Sng

117

Chng 7: C hc lng t 3. Thc nghim xc nhn tnh cht sng ca cc ht vi m a. Nhiu x ca electrn qua khe hp: Cho chm electrn i qua mt khe hp. Trn mn hunh quang ta thu c hnh nh nhiu x ging nh hin tng nhiu x ca nh sng qua mt khe hp. Nu ta cho tng electrn ring bit i qua khe trong mt thi gian di s electrn i qua khe ln, ta vn thu c hnh nh nhiu x trn mn hunh quang. iu ny chng t mi ht electrn ring l u c tnh cht sng.

Hnh 7-2. Nhiu x ca electrn qua mt khe hp b. Nhiu x ca electrn trn tinh th Th nghim ca Davisson v Germer quan st c hin tng nhiu x ca electrn trn mt tinh th Ni (hnh 7-3). Khi cho mt chm electrn bn vo mt tinh th Ni, chm es tn x trn mt tinh th Ni di cc gc khc nhau. Trn mn hnh ta thu c cc vn nhiu x. Hin tng xy ra ging ht hin tng nhiu x ca tia X trn mt tinh th Ni. Tinh th Ni nh mt cch t nhiu x. Hin tng electrn nhiu x trn cch t chng t bn cht sng ca chng. Thay Ni bng cc tinh th khc, tt c cc th nghim u xc nhn chm electrn gy hin tng nhiu x trn tinh th. Cc vi ht khc nh ntrn, prtn cng gy hin tng nhiu x trn tinh th. Cc kt qu th nghim trn u xc nhn tnh cht sng ca vi ht v do chng minh s ng n ca gi thuyt de Broglie. Cui cng, ta phi nhn mnh v ni dung gii hn ca gi thit de Broglie. Bc sng de Broglie t l nghch vi khi lng ca ht: Hinh 7-3. Nhiu x ca electrn trn tinh th

h h = p mv
118

Chng 7: C hc lng t do i vi nhng ht thng thng m khi lng rt ln, thm ch l v cng ln so vi khi lng ca electrn chng hn th bc sng de Broglie tng ng c gi tr v cng b v khng cn ngha m t tnh cht sng na. Nh vy, khi nim lng tnh sng ht thc s ch th hin cc ht vi m m thi v sng de Broglie c bn cht c th lng t, n khng tng t vi sng thc trong vt l c in nh sng nc hay sng in t... 2. H THC BT NH HEISENBERG Do c lng tnh sng ht nn qui lut vn ng ca vi ht trong th gii vi m khc vi qui lut vn ng ca ht trong th gii v m. Mt trong nhng im khc bit l h thc bt nh Heisenberg. tm h thc chng ta xt hin tng nhiu x ca chm vi ht qua mt khe hp c b rng b. Sau khi qua khe ht s b nhiu x theo nhiu phng khc nhau, tu theo gc nhiu x , mt ht nhiu x trn mn s cc i hoc cc tiu. Xt ta ca ht theo phng x, nm trong mt phng khe v song song vi b rng khe. Ta x ca ht trong khe s c gi tr trong khong t 0 n b ( 0 x b ). Ni cch khc, v tr ca ht trong khe c xc nh vi bt nh x b .

Hnh 7-4

Sau khi ht qua khe, ht b nhiu x, phng ng lng p thay i. Hnh chiu ca

p theo phng x s c gi tr thay i trong khong 0 p x p sin , ngha l sau khi i


qua khe, ht c th ri vo cc i gia hoc cc i ph v p x c xc nh vi mt bt nh no . Xt trng hp ht ri vo cc i gia p x p sin 1 , 1 l gc ng vi cc tiu th nht: sin 1 =

. Do ta c: b
x.p x b.p sin 1 = p.

Theo gi thuyt de Broglie p = nh Heisenberg:

h . Thay vo biu thc trn ta nhn c h thc bt

x.p x h
L lun tng t:

y.p y h z.p z h
119

(7-7)

Chng 7: C hc lng t H thc bt nh Heisenberg l mt trong nhng nh lut c bn ca c hc lng t. H thc ny chng t v tr v ng lng ca ht khng c xc nh chnh xc mt cch ng thi. V tr ca ht cng xc nh th ng lng ca ht cng bt nh v ngc li. V d: Trong nguyn t e- chuyn ng trong phm vi 10-10 m. Do bt nh v vn tc l:
v x = p x h 6,625.10 34 = = 7.10 6 m / s me m e x 9.10 31.10 10

Ta thy

v x kh ln cho nn e- khng c vn tc xc nh, ngha l e- khng chuyn

ng theo mt qu o xc nh trong nguyn t. iu ny chng t rng trong th gii vi m khi nim qu o khng c ngha. Ta xt ht trong th gii v m khi lng ca ht m = 10-15 kg, bt nh v v tr

x = 10 8 m . Do bt nh v vn tc l
v x h 6,625.10 34 = = 6,6.10 11 m / s 15.10 8 m.x 10

Nh vy i vi ht v m x v v x u nh, ngha l v tr v vn tc c th c xc nh chnh xc ng thi. Theo c hc c in, nu bit c to v ng lng ca ht thi im ban u th ta c th xc nh c trng thi ca ht cc thi im sau. Nhng theo c hc lng t th to v ng lng ca vi ht khng th xc nh c ng thi, do ta ch c th on nhn kh nng vi ht mt trng thi nht nh. Ni cch khc vi ht ch c th mt trng thi vi mt xc sut no . Do qui lut vn ng ca vi ht tun theo qui lut thng k. Ngoi h thc bt nh v v tr v ng lng, trong c hc lng t ngi ta cn tm c h thc bt nh gia nng lng v thi gian:

E.t h

(7-8)

ngha ca h thc bt nh gia nng lng v thi gian: nu nng lng ca h mt trng thi no cng bt nh th thi gian h tn ti trng thi cng ngn v ngc li, nu nng lng ca h mt trng thi no cng xc nh th thi gian tn ti ca h trng thi cng di. Nh vy trng thi c nng lng bt nh l trng thi khng bn, cn trng thi c nng lng xc nh l trng thi bn. 3. HM SNG 1. Hm sng: Do lng tnh sng ht ca vi ht ta khng th xc nh ng thi c ta v ng lng ca vi ht. xc nh trng thi ca vi ht, ta phi dng mt khi nim mi l hm sng. 120

Chng 7: C hc lng t Theo gi thuyt de Broglie chuyn ng ca ht t do (tc l ht khng chu mt tc dng no ca ngoi lc) c m t bi hm sng tng t nh sng nh sng phng n sc

i = o exp Et pr = o exp i t k r h
Trong E = h; p = h k v

[ (

)]

(7-9)

o l bin c xc nh bi:
2

2 o = = *

(7-10)

* l lin hp phc ca .
Nu ht vi m chuyn ng trong trng th, th hm sng ca n l mt hm phc tp ca to r v thi gian t

(r, t ) = (x, y, z, t )
2. ngha thng k ca hm sng Xt chm ht phtn truyn trong khng gian. Xung quanh im M ly th tch V bt k (hnh 7-5) *Theo quan im sng: Cng sng ti M t l vi bnh phng bin
2 dao ng sng ti M: I ~ o

Hnh 7-5. Chm ht phtn truyn qua th tch V

*Theo quan im ht: Cng sng ti M t l vi nng lng cc ht trong n v th tch bao quanh M, ngha l t l vi s ht trong n v th tch .T y ta thy rng
2 s ht trong n v th tch t l vi o . S ht trong n v th tch cng nhiu th kh

nng tm thy ht trong cng ln. V vy c th ni bnh phng bin sng M c trng cho kh nng tm thy ht trong n v th tch bao quanh M . Do
2 V

ti l
2

mt xc sut tm ht v xc sut tm thy ht trong ton khng gian l dV . Khi tm ht trong ton khng gian, chng ta chc chn tm thy ht. Do xc sut tm ht trong ton khng gian l 1:
V

dV = 1

(7-11)

y chnh l iu kin chun ho ca hm sng. Tm li:

121

Chng 7: C hc lng t m t trng thi ca vi ht ngi ta dng hm sng .

biu din mt xc sut tm thy ht trng thi .

khng m t mt sng thc trong khng gian. Hm sng mang tnh cht thng
k, n lin quan n xc sut tm ht.

3. iu kin ca hm sng Hm sng phi hu hn. iu ny c suy ra t iu kin chun ho, hm sng phi hu hn th tch phn mi hu hn. Hm sng phi n tr, v theo l thuyt xc sut: mi trng thi ch c mt gi tr xc sut tm ht. Hm sng phi lin tc, v xc sut
2

khng th thay i nhy vt.

o hm bc nht ca hm sng phi lin tc. 4. PHNG TRNH SCHRODINGER

Hm sng de Broglie m t chuyn ng ca vi ht t do c nng lng v ng lng xc nh:

i i (r, t ) = o exp Et pr = (r ) exp Et h h


trong

(7-12) (7-13)

i (r ) = o exp p r h

l phn ph thuc vo ta ca hm sng. Ta c th biu din ( r ) trong h ta cc nh sau:

i (r ) = o exp (p x x + p y y + p z z) h
Ly o hm / x , ta c:

(7-14)

i = p x ( r ) x h
Ly o hm bc hai ca theo x:

2 x 2

p2 p 2 (r ) = x (r ) x h2 h2 i2

(7-15)

Ta cng thu c kt qu tng t cho cc bin y v z. Theo nh ngha ca ton t Laplace trong h to cc :

122

Chng 7: C hc lng t

2 2 2 ( r ) (r ) = + + x 2 y 2 z 2
ta c:

(7-16)

h2 Gi E l ng nng ca ht, ta vit c:


mv 2 p 2 E = = 2 2m

(r ) =

p2 + p2 + p2 x y z

(r ) =

p2
h2

(r )

(7-17)

hay

p2 =2mE

Thay p2 vo (7-17) v chuyn sang v tri ta thu c:

E d (r ) = 0 (7-18) h2 Phng trnh (7-18) c gi l phng trnh Schrodinger cho vi ht chuyn ng t do. M rng phng trnh cho vi ht khng t do, ngha l vi ht chuyn ng trong mt trng lc c th nng U khng ph thuc thi gian. Nng lng ca vi ht E = E + U. Thay
E = E - U vo (7-18) ta c:

(r ) +

2m

(r ) +

2m
h2

[E U(r)] (r) = 0

(7-19)

Bit dng c th ca U( r ), gii phng trnh Schrodinger ta tm c (r ) v E, ngha l xc nh c trng thi v nng lng ca vi ht. Ta gii hn ch xt h l kn hay t trong trng ngoi khng bin thin theo thi gian. Nng lng ca h khi khng i v trng thi ca h c gi l trng thi dng. Phng trnh (7-19) c gi l phng trnh Schrodinger cho trng thi dng. Cho n nay ta vn xt ht chuyn ng vi vn tc v << c, do phng trnh (7-9) m t chuyn ng ca vi ht phi tng i tnh, c khi lng ngh khc khng. Phng trnh Schrodinger m t s vn ng ca vi ht, n c vai tr tng t nh phng trnh ca cc nh lut Newton trong c hc c in. Mt im cn ch l, phng trnh Schrodinger khng c chng minh hay rt ra t u. N c xy dng trn c s hm sng phng n sc ca nh sng v gi thuyt sng-ht de Broglie, do c coi nh mt tin . Vic m rng phng trnh Schrodiger cho ht t do sang trng hp ht chuyn ng trong trng th cng c coi l mt s tin ha. Di y l nhng ng dng phng trnh Schrodinger trong nhng bi ton c th nh ht trong ging th, hiu ng ng ngm...

123

Chng 7: C hc lng t 5. NG DNG CA PHNG TRNH SCHRODINGER 1. Ht trong ging th nng Trong nhng bi ton thc t, ta thng gp nhng trng hp ht ch chuyn ng trong mt phm vi gii hn bi mt hng ro th nng c chiu cao kh ln, v d nh electrn trong mng tinh th hay nucln trong ht nhn bn, khi ta ni rng ht trong ging th nng. Ta hy xt trng hp ht nm trong Hnh 7-6. Ging th nng ging th nng c thnh cao v hn v chuyn ng theo mt phng x bn trong ging th (hnh 7-6). Th nng U c xc nh theo iu kin:

0 khi 0 < x < a U= khi x 0 , x a


Nh vy bn trong ging th ht chuyn ng t do v khng th vt ra ngoi ging. Phng trnh Schrodinger ca ht trong ging th (U = 0) mt chiu (chiu x) c dng:

d 2 dx
t k 2 =
2

2mE
h2

=0

(7-20)

2mE
h2

, ta c:

d 2
2

dx Nghim ca phng trnh (7-21) c dng

+ k 2 = 0

(7-21)

( x ) = A sin kx + B cos kx

(7-22)

A, B l nhng hng s c xc nh t iu kin ca hm sng. Theo u bi th ht ch trong ging th, do xc sut tm ht ti vng ngoi ging th bng khng v hm sng trong cc vng cng bng 0. T iu kin lin tc ca hm sng ta suy ra: (0) = 0, (a ) = 0 Thay iu kin ny vo (7-22) ta c

(0) = A sin(0) + B = 0 B = 0
v ta c:

(a ) = A sin(ka ) = 0

B = 0 nn A phi khc 0 (v nu A = 0 th lun bng 0 l mt nghim tm thng). Do

sin ka = 0 = sin n
T rt ra:

vi n = 1,2,...

124

Chng 7: C hc lng t

k=

n a n x a

(7-23)

Nh vy ta c mt dy nghim hm sng c dng:

n ( x ) = A sin

(7-24)

tha mn iu kin bin ca min. Hng s A c xc nh t iu kin chun ha (7-11) ca hm sng. V ht khng th ra khi ging nn xc sut tm thy ht trong ging l chc chn:
a 2 ( x ) dx = 1

Tnh gi tr tch phn:


a 2 2 A sin

n A2 a 2n A 2a xdx = (1 cos x )dx = =1 a 2 0 a 2

Ta tm c:

A=

2 a 2 n sin x a a

Nh vy hm sng c xc nh hon ton:

n (x) =

(7-25)

Nng lng ca ht trong ging th cng c tm thy khi ta thay biu thc (7-23) vo 2mE k2 = : h2

En =

2h 2 2ma

n2

(7-26)

T cc kt qu trn ta rt ra mt s kt lun sau: a. Mi trng thi ca ht ng vi mt hm sng n ( x ) b. Nng lng ca ht trong ging ph thuc vo s nguyn n, ngha l bin thin gin on. Ta ni rng nng lng b lng t ha. Vi n = 1 ta c mc nng lng cc tiu E1 =

2ma 2

2h 2

0 ng vi hm sng

2 sin x , m t trng thi chuyn ng c bn ca ht. Hm sng 1 ( x ) khc a a khng ti mi im trong ging, ch c th bng 0 ti cc v tr bin (Hnh 7-7). 1 =

125

Chng 7: C hc lng t Khong cch gia hai mc nng lng k tip nhau ng vi cc s nguyn n v n+1 bng:

E n = E n +1 E n =

2ma 2

2h 2

(2n + 1)

(7-27)

E n cng ln khi a v m cng nh. iu c ngha l trong phm vi th gii vi m, s lng t ha cng th hin r rt. C th, nu xt ht electrn m = 9,1.10-31kg, a ~ 5.10-10m th E ~ 1eV, khong cch gia En+1 v En tng i ln, nng lng b lng t ha. Nhng nu xt mt phn t c m ~10-26kg chuyn ng trong min a ~ 10cm th khong cch gia cc mc nng lng E~ 10-20eV kh nh. Trong trng hp ny c th coi nng lng ca phn t bin thin lin tc.
c. Mt xc sut tm ht trong ging:

n 2 2 n ( x ) = sin 2 x a a

(7-28)

ti:

n Mt xc sut cc i khi: sin x = 1 . Do xc sut tm thy ht ln nht a a x = (2m + 1) <a m = 0,1.... 2n

Hnh 7-7. Ht trong ging th nng mt chiu, cao v hn V d: Khi n = 1, xc sut tm thy ht im x = tm thy ht im x =

a l ln nht. Khi n = 2 xc sut 2

a 3a v x = l ln nht... 4 4

n Mt xc sut cc tiu khi: sin x = 0 . Do xc sut tm thy ht nh nht ti a x= ma <a n

126

Chng 7: C hc lng t Kt qu c biu din trn hnh 7-7. 2. Hiu ng ng ngm Ta xt ht mang nng lng E, chuyn ng theo phng x t tri sang phi p vo hng ro th nng nh hnh 7-8. Theo quan im ca c hc c in, nu E < Uo ht khng th vt qua hng ro. Theo quan im ca c hc lng t ta s thy ht vn c kh nng xuyn qua hng ro th nng. Hin tng xuyn qua hng ro th nng nh vy c gi l hiu ng ng ngm. Chng ta s nghin cu trng hp hng ro th nng dng n gin nh hnh 7-8:
0 U = U o 0

x0 0<x<a xa

(7-29)

Phng trnh Schrodiger i vi cc min nh sau: Min I:

d 2 1

2mE 2 2 + k1 1= 0 vi k1 = dx 2 h2

Hnh 7-8. Hng ro th hnh ch nht

Min II:

d 2 2 dx
2

k 2 2 = 0 2
2 + k1 3 = 0

vi k 2 = 2

2m
h2

( U 0 E)

(7-30)

dx Trong min I c c sng ti v sng phn x. Nghim 1 trong min ny c dng: 1 ( x ) = A1e ik1x + B1e ik1x
(7-31)

Min III:

d 2 3
2

S hng th nht ca v phi biu din sng ti truyn t tri sang phi. S hng th hai ca v phi biu din sng phn x trn mt hng ro th nng, truyn ngc tr li t phi sang tri. Nghim tng qut trong min II l:

2 (x) = A 2e k 2 x + B2e k 2 x Nghim tng qut trong min III c dng: 3 ( x ) = A 3eik1 ( x a ) + B3e ik1 ( x a )

(7-32)

(7-33)

S hng th nht ca phng trnh (7-33) biu din sng xuyn qua hng ro v truyn t tri sang phi. S hng th hai biu din sng phn x t v cc v, nhng sng ny khng c, nn ta c th cho B3 = 0.

127

Chng 7: C hc lng t H s truyn qua hng ro D c nh ngha l t s gia s ht xuyn qua c hng ro v s ht i ti hng ro. V s ht li t l vi bnh phng ca bin sng. Bin sng ti hng ro l A1 v bin sng xuyn qua hng ro l A3, do ta c

D=

A3 A1

2 2

(7-34)

H s phn x R c nh ngha l t s gia s ht phn x v s ht i ti hng ro, do ta c:

R=

B1 A1

2 2

(7-35)

trong B1 l bin sng phn x trn mt hng ro. Do iu kin bo ton s ht, ta phi c A 3
2

+ B1 = A1 , do :
D+R=1 (7-36)

tnh c h s D v R ta phi tnh c cc bin sng. Mun vy ta da vo iu kin lin tc ca hm sng v o hm ca n ti cc v tr bin (x = 0 v x = a). T cc iu kin bin:

1 (0) = 2 (0) 1 (0) = 2 (0) 2 ( a ) = 3 (a ) 2 (a ) = (a ) 3


ta rt ra cc h thc sau

(7-37)

A1 + B1 = A 2 + B 2 ik1 (A1 B1 ) = k 2 (A 2 B 2 )

(7-38) (7-39) (7-40) (7-41)

A 2e k 2 a + B 2 e k 2 a = A 3 k 2 (A 2 e k 2 a B 2 e k 2 a ) = ik1A 3
T (7-40) v (7-41) ta c th biu th A2, B2 qua A3:

A2 = B2 =
Trong :

1 in A 3e k 2 a 2 1 + in A 3e k 2 a 2
E U0 E

(7-42) (7-43)

k n= 1 = k2

128

Chng 7: C hc lng t V 1 in = 1 + in , nn ta suy ra A 2 >> B 2 . Do , c th t B2=0. T (7-38) v (7-39) ta rt ra c A1 theo A2, sau s dng (7-42) ta tnh c:

1 in i + n k a A1 = A 3 e 2 2 2n
T y ta thu c h s truyn qua:

(7-44)

D=
16n 2

A3 A1

2 2

16n 2 (1 + n )
2 2

e 2k 2 a

(7-45)

Nu

(1 + n )

2 2

vo c 1 (U0 vo c 10E) th c th vit:

D e 2k 2 a
hay

2a D exp 2m(U 0 E ) h

(7-46)

T (7-46) ta nhn thy rng, ngay khi nng lng E ca ht nh hn th nng ca ro (E<U0) th D vn lun lun khc khng, ngha l vn c ht xuyn qua ro. Nu D ln, ht xuyn qua ro nhiu v ngc li, nhng lun khc 0. V d ht electrn m = 9,1.10-31kg. Nu U0-E ~ 1,3.10-31J, ta c c s ph thuc ca D vo b rng ca hng ro th nng theo bng sau: a[m] D 10-10 0,1 1,5.10-10 0,03 2.10-10 0,008 5.10-10 5.10-7

H s D c gi tr ng k khi a nh, ngha l hiu ng ng ngm ch xy ra r rt trong kch thc vi m. Hiu ng ng ngm l mt hin tng th hin r tnh cht sng ca vi ht, iu ny khng th c i vi ht v m. Hiu ng ng ngm cho php ta gii thch nhiu hin tng gp trong t nhin. V d hin tng pht electrn lnh, hiu ng phn r ht ... Hin tng pht electrn lnh: electrn mun thot ra khi kim loi cn c nng lng thng cng cn, vt qua hng ro th nng Uo, nh vy ta cn phi nung nng kim loi. Tuy nhin, v c hiu ng ng ngm, nn ngay nhit thng, d E < Uo, vn c kh nng electrn thot ra ngoi kim loi. Hin tng ny c gi l hin tng pht electrn lnh. Hin tng phn r cng c 129

Hnh 7-9. Hin tng phn r

Chng 7: C hc lng t gii thch tng t. Ht nhn nguyn t gm c cc ht prtn (p) v ntrn (n). Trong ht nhn cc ht p v n tng tc vi nhau bng lc ht nhn, cho nn c th xem nh chng nm trong ging th nng. Ht gm hai ht p v hai ht n, mc d nng lng ca ht nh hn cao ro th nhng do hiu ng ng ngm, ht p v n ca ht vn c th bay ra khi ht nhn, hin tng ny gi l hin tng phn r (hnh 7-9). 3. Dao ng t iu ha lng t Mt vi ht thc hin dao ng nh iu ha xung quanh v tr cn bng l mt v d v dao ng t iu ha lng t. Dao ng ca nguyn t trong phn t, dao ng ca cc in xung quanh nt mng tinh th... u l nhng v d v dao ng t iu ha. Dao ng t iu ha l mt hin tng rt quan trng ca vt l ni chung v c hc lng t ni ring. Ta xt vi ht dao ng (mt chiu) trong trng th nng. Trong phn dao ng ta bit th nng ca dao ng iu ha mt chiu bng:

1 m2 x 2 U = kx 2 = 2 2

(7-47)

trong m l khi lng ca vi ht, l tn s gc ca dao ng. Phng trnh Schrodinger cho dao ng t iu ha c dng:

d 2 dx 2

2 2 2m E m x = 0 2 h2

(7-48)

C hc lng t gii phng trnh (7-48) v tm c biu thc nng lng ca dao ng t iu ha

1 E n = h n + 2

vi n = 0,1,2...

(7-49)

Ta thy nng lng ca dao ng t ch ly nhng gi tr gin on, c ngha rng nng lng ca dao ng t b lng t ha. Nng lng thp nht ca dao ng t iu ha ng vi n = 0.

Eo =

h 2

Nng lng ny c gi l nng lng khng. Nng lng khng lin quan n dao ng khng ca dao ng t, ngha l khi T = 0K, dao ng t vn dao ng. iu ny c thc nghim xc nhn trong th nghim tn x tia X. Tia X b tn x l do cc dao ng nguyn t trong mng tinh th gy ra. Theo c hc c in, khi nhit cng gim, bin dao ng ca cc nguyn t gim n khng, do s tn x ca nh sng phi bin mt. Nhng thc nghim chng t, khi nhit gim, cng tn x tin ti mt gi tr gii hn no . iu c ngha rng, ngay c khi T 0, s tn x nh sng vn xy ra v cc nguyn t trong mng tinh th vn dao ng, tng ng vi mt nng lng Eo no . Nh vy thc nghim xc nhn s ng n ca c hc lng t.

130

Chng 7: C hc lng t S tn ti ca nng lng khng cng ph hp vi h thc bt nh Heisenberg. Thc vy, nu mc nng lng thp nht ca dao ng t bng 0, nh th c ngha l ht ng yn v vn tc v ta ca vi ht c xc nh ng thi (u bng 0), iu ny mu thun vi h thc bt nh. S tn ti ca mc nng lng khng ca dao ng t iu ha l mt trong nhng biu hin c trng nht ca lng tnh sng-ht ca vi ht.

III. TM TT NI DUNG
1. Lng tnh sng ht ca vi ht Trn c s lng tnh sng ht ca nh sng, de Broglie m rng ra cho cc vi ht. Theo gi thuyt ny, mi vi ht t do c nng lng xc nh, ng lng xc nh tng ng vi sng phng n sc. Lng tnh sng ht ca cc vi ht c biu din bng cc h thc: E = h v p = mv = h /. Ngoi ra, theo thuyt tng i Einstein, mi ht vt cht c khi lng m u mang nng lng bng E = mc2 trong

m=

mo 1 v2 / c2

mo l khi lng ngh ca ht (khi v = 0). 2. Hm sng Hm sng ca vi ht t do c dng ca hm sng phng:

i = o exp Et pr = o exp i t k r h

[ (

)]

trong = h/2 gi l hng s Planck rt gn v k = 2 / c gi l s sng. Hm sng khng nhng m t nhng tnh cht ca h ti mt thi im no , m n cn xc nh c ng thi ca h nhng thi im tip theo. Hm sng c ngha thng k. l mt xc sut tm thy ht ti mt im no i vi mt trng thi lng t ang xt. Nh vy, hm sng khng m t mt sng thc, m m t sng xc sut. Do hm sng phi tha mn ba iu kin: hm sng phi lin tc, hu hn v n tr. iu kin chun ha ca hm sng l 3. Nguyn l bt nh Heisenberg Nguyn l ny thu c t lng tnh sng ht ca vi ht, c biu din qua h thc di y khi xt v tr x v ng lng p ca vi ht
V

dV = 1

x.p x h
Nu x cng nh (v tr cng xc nh) th px cng ln (ng lng cng bt nh) v ngc li. Nh vy i vi vi ht, v tr v ng lng khng c xc nh chnh xc 131

Chng 7: C hc lng t ng thi. Do , trong th gii vi m khi nim qu o khng c ngha. Nu ta bit c v tr x thi im t, th n thi im t + dt ta ch c th xc nh v tr ht vi mt xc sut no thi. i vi cc vi ht khi nim qu o c thay th bng khi nim xc sut tm thy ht ti mt v tr no trng thi lng t ang xt. Ngoi h thc gia v tr v ng lng, vi ht cn tun theo h thc bt nh cho nng lng

E.t h
ngha ca h thc bt nh gia nng lng v thi gian: nu nng lng ca h mt trng thi no cng bt nh th thi gian h tn ti trng thi cng ngn v ngc li, nu nng lng ca h mt trng thi no cng xc nh th thi gian tn ti ca h trng thi cng di. 4. Phng trnh Schrodinger v ng dng T biu thc ca hm sng, Schrodiger a ra phng trnh c bn ca c hc lng t mang tn ng cho vi ht. i vi vi ht t do: i vi vi ht trong trng th

(r ) + (r ) +

2m

h2
2m

E d (r ) = 0

E U(r ) (r ) = 0 h2 Cn ch rng cc phng trnh Schrodinger thu c trn c s ca gi thuyt de Broglie, thuyt lng t ca Planck v thuyt phtn ca Einstein, do cng c coi l cc tin .
H thc bt nh Heisenberg v phng trnh Schrodinger l nhng nguyn l c bn ca c hc lng t. ng dng ca phng trnh Schrodinger: - Phng trnh Schrodinger c p dng gii mt s bi ton n gin ca c hc lng t nh tm nng lng v hm sng ca vi ht khi lng m trong ging th nng, c b rng a v thnh cao v hn. Kt qu ta c nng lng ca vi ht trong ging th b lng t ha:

En =

2h 2 2ma

n2

Mi gi tr ca nng lng En tng ng vi mt trng thi lng t

n (x) =

2 n sin x a a

T y ta tm c xc sut tm thy ht ti cc im khc nhau trong ging ng vi mi trng thi lng t. - Vn dng phng trnh Schrodinger, ta xt chuyn ng ca vi ht qua hng ro th Uo. T pht hin hiu ng ng ngm. l hiu ng mt vi ht c nng lng E < Uo

132

Chng 7: C hc lng t vn c xc sut vt qua c ro th Uo. y l hiu ng thun ty lng t, v trong c hc c in mt ht c nng lng E < Uo th khng th vt qua c hng ro th nng. - Mt ng dng na hay gp ca c hc lng t l dao ng t iu ha. l mt vi ht thc hin cc dao ng nh bc nht quanh v tr cn bng. Chuyn ng nhit ca mng tinh th cng c biu din di dng tp hp ca cc dao ng t iu ha tuyn tnh. Thay biu thc th nng U ca dao ng t iu ha vo phng trnh Schrodinger, ta tm c cc mc nng lng ca dao ng t:

1 E n = h n + 2

h . Eo 2 c gi l nng lng khng. Kt qu ny c thc nghim xc nhn. N ni ln rng cc nguyn t ca mng tinh th khng bao gi ng yn. Suy rng ra, s vn ng ca vt cht khng bao gi b tiu dit. l c s khoa hc ca trit hc duy vt bin chng.
Nu n = 0, ta tm c mc nng lng thp nht ca dao ng t

Eo =

IV. CU HI L THUYT
1. Pht biu gi thuyt de Broglie v lng tnh sng ht ca vi ht. 2. Vit biu thc hm sng cho vi ht v nu ngha ca cc i lng c trong biu thc . 3. Vit phng trnh Schrodinger cho vi ht t do v vi ht chuyn ng trong trng lc th. Nu ngha cc i lng c trong phng trnh. 4. Hy nu bn cht v ngha thng k ca hm sng. Cc iu kin ca hm sng. 5. Pht biu v nu ngha ca h thc bt nh Heisenberg cho v tr v ng lng. 6. Pht biu v nu ngha ca h thc bt nh cho nng lng. 7. Phn tch ti sao trong c hc lng t khi nim qu o ca vi ht khng cn c ngha. Khi nim qu o ca vi ht c thay th bng khi nim g ? 8. Hy tm biu thc ca hm sng v nng lng ca vi ht trong ging th nng mt chiu, c chiu cao v cng. 9. nh ngha dao ng t iu ha lng t. Vit phng trnh Schrodinger v biu thc nng lng ca dao ng t iu ha. T rt ra biu thc ca nng lng khng, nu ngha ca biu thc ny.

V. BI TP
Th d 1: Electrn chuyn ng tng i tnh vi vn tc 2.108m/s. Tm: 1. Bc sng de Broglie ca electrn. 2. ng lng ca electrn.

133

Chng 7: C hc lng t Bi gii 1. p dng c hc tng i tnh:

h ;m = mv

m 0e 1v2 c2

h 1=

v2

c2 = 2,72.10 12 m m 0e v h = 2,44.10 22 kg.m / s

2. ng lng ca electrn: p =

Th d 2: ng nng ca electrn trong nguyn t hir c gi tr vo c 10eV. Dng h thc bt nh hy nh gi kch thc nh nht ca nguyn t. Bi gii: Theo h thc bt nh Heisenberg: x.p x h Gi s kch thc ca nguyn t bng l , vy v tr ca electrn theo phng x xc l l nh bi: 0 x , ngha l x 2 2 T h thc bt nh:

2h l p x h l 2 p x

Mt khc p x p m p = 2m e E , trong E l ng nng. Vy gi tr nh nht ca kch thc nguyn t: l min = Bi tp t gii 1. Electrn phi c vn tc bng bao nhiu ng nng ca n bng nng lng ca phtn c bc sng = 5200A0.

2h 2m e E

= 1,24.10 10 m

m e v 2 hc = v= p s: 2

2hc = 9,2.10 5 m / s me

2. Tm vn tc ca electrn ng lng ca n bng ng lng ca phtn c bc sng = 5200A0. p s: p = m e v =

h h v= = 1400m / s .m e

3. Tm ng lng ca electrn chuyn ng vi vn tc v = 0,8c p s: p dng c hc tng i tnh:

134

Chng 7: C hc lng t

p = mv =

m0v 1 v
2

= 3,64.10 22 kg.m / s

c2

4. Tm bc sng de Broglie ca: 1. Electrn c tng tc bi hiu in th 1V, 100V, 1000V. 2. Electrn ang chuyn ng tng i tnh vi vn tc 108m/s. p s: 1. =

m v2 h 6,625.1034 h 1 = = = 12,25.1010 m ; eU = e 31 19 2 me v 2me eU1 2.9,1.10 .1,6.10

2 =

h 2m e eU 2

= 1,225.10 10 m , 3 =

h 2m e eU 3

= 0,338.10 10 m

2. =

m 0e h ;m = = mv v2 1c2

h 1-

v2

c2 = 0,69.10 11 m m 0e v

5. Xc nh bc sng de Broglie ca electrn c ng nng

1. E = 100eV. 2. E= 3MeV
p s: 1. Nng lng ngh ca electrn E0 = 0,51MeV Khi E = 100eV nh hn rt nhiu so vi nng lng ngh ca electrn, do p dng c hc phi tng i tnh:

me v2 = E = 2

6,625.10 34 2.1,6.10 17.9,1.10 31

= 1,23.10 10 m

2. Khi E = 3MeV ln hn nng lng ngh ca electrn, do p dng c hc tng i tnh:

p=

m0v 1 v2 c2

1 , E = m 0 c 2 1 1 2 1 2

m0v

E = h = 0,62.10 10 m p = 2 m 0 E 1 + 2 2m c p 0
135

Chng 7: C hc lng t 6. Electrn c bc sng de Broglie = 6.10-10m. Tm vn tc chuyn ng ca electrn. p s: =

h h v= = 0,12.10 7 m / s mev me

7. Electrn khng vn tc ban u c gia tc bi mt hiu in th U. Tnh U bit rng sau khi gia tc ht chuyn ng ng vi bc sng de Broglie 10-10m.

me v2 h h2 ; eU = U= = 150V p s: = mev 2 2m e e2
8. Mt ht mang in c gia tc bi hiu in th U = 200V, c bc sng de Broglie = 0,0202.10-8m v in tch v tr s bng in tch ca electrn. Tm khi lng ca ht . p s: =

mv 2 h2 h , E = = eU m = = 1,67.10 27 kg 2 2 2mE 2eU

9. Electrn c ng nng E = 15eV, chuyn ng trong mt git kim loi kch thc d = 10-6m. Xc nh bt nh v vn tc ca ht . p s: v =

h 2h 2h v = = = m.x m.d v m.v.d

2h 2m.d.E

= 0,06%

10. Ht vi m c bt nh v ng lng bng 1% ng lng ca n. Xc nh t s gia bc sng de Broglie v bt nh v to ca ht. p s:

h 100h x p h = 100 = 1%, x = = , = p p p p


kx 2 1. Chuyn ng mt chiu trong trng th U = 2 Ze 2 2. Chuyn ng trong trng tnh in Coulomb U = 4 0 r

11. Vit phng trnh Schrodinger i vi ht vi m:

2 2 2m E kx = 0 , 2. + 2m E + Ze = 0 p s: 1. + 2 4 0 r dx 2 h 2 h2

d 2

12. Dng ht c nng lng E xc nh chuyn ng theo phng x t tri sang phi n gp mt hng ro th nng xc nh bi:

0 khi x 0 U= U 0 khi x 0, U 0 E
Xc nh h s phn x v h s truyn qua hng ro th i vi electrn .

136

Chng 7: C hc lng t p s: Gii phng trnh Schrodinger hai min I v II. Trong min I hm sng 1 (x ) tho mn: t

d 2 1 dx
2

2m e
h2

E1 = 0

2m e

E = k 2 , nghim ca phng

trnh: 1 (x ) = Aeikx + Be ikx S hng Aeikx m t sng truyn t tri sang phi (sng ti), s hng Be-ikx m t sng truyn t phi sang tri (sng phn x trong min I). Trong min II, hm sng 2 (x ) tho mn: t

d 2 2 dx
2

2m e
h2

(E U 0 ) 2

=0

2m e

Trong min II ch c sng truyn t tri sang phi nn D = 0. Vy 2 = Ce ik1x . tm A, B, C ta vit iu kin lin tc ca hm sng v ca o hm cp 1 ca hm sng: d1 (0 ) d 2 (0 ) 1 (0) = 2 (0), = dx dx Ta c: A + B = C, k (A B) = k1C

2 (E U 0 ) = k1 ,

phng trnh c nghim tng qut: 2 = Ce ik1x + De ik1x .

A+B k B k k1 = = , A B k1 A k + k1
2 U 1 1 0 E = U 1+ 1 0 E 2

k k1 = H s phn x: R = k+k 2 1 A B

k 1 1 k = k1 1+ k
2

k k1 4kk1 H s truyn qua: D = 1 R = 1 k+k = (k + k1 )2 1

137

Chng 8: Vt l nguyn t

CHNG VIII: VT L NGUYN T


Nm 1911 da trn kt qu th nghim v s tn x ca cc ht qua l kim loi mng, Rutherford a ra mu hnh tinh nguyn t. Theo mu ny, nguyn t gm mt ht nhn mang gn nh ton b khi lng nguyn t nm tm, xoay quanh c cc electrn chuyn ng. Ht nhn tch in dng, in tch m ca cc electrn c gi tr bng gi tr in tch dng ca ht nhn. Nhng theo thuyt in t c in, khi electrn chuyn ng c gia tc xung quanh ht nhn tt yu s phi bc x nng lng v cui cng s ri vo ht nhn. Nh vy nguyn t s khng tn ti. l mt kh khn m mu nguyn t ca Rutherford gp phi. Thm vo , khi nghin cu quang ph pht sng ca nguyn t Hir, ngi ta thu c quang ph vch. Cc s kin vt l c in khng th gii thch c. Da trn nhng thnh cng ca l thuyt lng t ca Planck v Einstein, nm 1913 Bohr ra mt l thuyt mi v cu trc nguyn t, khc phc nhng mu thun ca mu hnh tinh nguyn t ca Rutherford. Tuy nhin, bn cnh nhng thnh cng r rt, thuyt Bohr cng bc l nhng thiu st v hn ch khng sao khc phc ni. Thuyt Bohr c vn dng thnh cng gii thch qui lut ca quang ph nguyn t Hir, nhng nhiu c trng quan trng khc ca ph v i vi nhng nguyn t c nhiu electrn th l thuyt ca Bohr khng th gii quyt c. chnh l tin cho s ra i ca c hc lng t, nn tng ca mt l thuyt hon ton mi c kh nng gii quyt ng n v chnh xc mi hin tng v quy lut ca th gii vi m v Bohr tr thnh mt trong nhng ngi t nn mng cho mn c hc mi khi ng bc nhp cu gia hai th gii vt l: th gii v m v th gii vi m. Trong chng ny chng ta s vn dng nhng kt qu ca c hc lng t nghin cu ph v c tnh ca cc nguyn t.

I. MC CH - YU CU
1. Vn dng c hc lng t nghin cu nhng tnh cht ca nguyn t hir v cc nguyn t kim loi kim. T rt ra nhng kt lun c bn. 2. Gii thch c hiu ng Zeeman. 3. Hiu c khi nim spin ca electrn v vai tr ca n trong vic tch vch quang ph. 4. Gii thch c qui lut phn b cc electrn trong bng tun hon Mendeleev.

138

Chng 8: Vt l nguyn t

II. NI DUNG
1. NGUYN T HIR 1. Chuyn ng ca electrn trong nguyn t hir Nguyn t Hir gm c ht nhn mang in tch +e v mt electrn mang in tch -e. Ht nhn c coi l ng yn, cn electrn quay xung quanh. Ta ly ht nhn lm gc O ca h to v r l khong cch t electrn n ht nhn (hnh 8-1). Tng tc gia ht nhn v electrn l tng tc Coulomb (Culng). Th nng tng tc l:

U=

e2 4 o r
2 2m e E + e = 0 4 o r h2

Hnh 8-1

Do phng trnh Schrodinger c dng:

(8-1)

V bi ton c tnh i xng cu, thun tin ta gii n trong h to cu vi ba bin l r, , . Hm sng trong h ta cu s l = (r, , ) . Bin i t h to cc sang h to cu (hnh 8-1) ta c: x = r sin cos , y = r sin sin , z = r cos . Ton t Laplace trong h to cu:

1 1 1 2 2 r + 2 sin + 2 r sin 2 2 r 2 r r r sin


2 E + e = 0 4 o r

(8-2)

Thay (8-2) vo (8-1) ta c phng trnh Schrodinger trong to cu:


1 2 1 1 2 2m e + r + sin + r r 2 sin r 2 sin 2 2 h2 r 2 r

(8-3)

Phng trnh ny c gii bng phng php phn li bin s. Ta t :

(r, , ) = R (r )Y(, )
trong hm xuyn tm R(r) ch ph thuc ln ca r, cn hm Y(,) ph thuc vo cc gc ,. Gii phng trnh Schrodinger ngi ta nhn c biu thc ca nng lng v hm sng. Biu thc nng lng ca electrn trong nguyn t Hir:

139

Chng 8: Vt l nguyn t

En =

1
2

mee4
2 2

n 2(4 o ) h

Rh n2

(8-4)

R l hng s Rydberg (Rittbe), R = 3,27.1015 s-1, c thc nghim kim chng, n c gi tr nguyn dng, c gi l s lng t chnh. Hm xuyn tm R(r) = Rn l ph thuc hai s lng t n, l . S nguyn l c gi l s lng t qu o. Hm Y(,) ph thuc vo hai s lng t l v m. S nguyn m c gi l s lng t t. Nh vy hm sng ca electrn c dng :

= n , l, m (r,,) = Rn l (r)Y l m(,)


trong s lng t chnh n ly cc gi tr n = 1, 2, 3... s lng t qu o ly cc gi tr l = 0, 1, 2,..., n-1 s lng t t m ly cc gi tr : m = 0, 1, 2,..., l .

(8-5)

Dng ca Rn l v Y l m rt phc tp. Di y, ta nu mt s dng c th ca cc hm

Y0,0 =
Y1,1 =

1 4
3 sin e i 8

Y1,0 =

3 cos 4 3 sin e i 8

Y1,1 =

R1,0 = 2a 3 / 2 e r / a
trong

1 r R 2,0 = a 3 / 2 (2 )e r / 2a .... 8 a

a=

4 o h 2 mee
2

= 0,53.10 10 m , a bng bn knh Bohr.

T cc kt qu trn ta thu c mt s kt lun sau y. 2. Cc kt lun a. Nng lng ca electrn trong nguyn t hir ch ph thuc vo s nguyn n (cng thc 8-4). ng vi mi s nguyn n c mt mc nng lng, nh vy nng lng bin thin gin on, ta ni nng lng b lng t ho. En lun m, khi n E 0 . Nng lng tng theo n. Mc nng lng thp nht E1 ng vi n = 1 c gi l mc nng lng c bn. Cc mc nng lng ln lt tng theo th t E2 < E3 < E4 ... S cc mc nng lng trong nguyn t hir c biu din trong hnh 8-2. Cng ln cao, cc mc nng lng cng xch li v khi n nng lng bin thin lin tc. Trong vt l nguyn t ngi ta k hiu E1: mc K, E2 : mc L, E3 : mc M... b. Nng lng ion ho ca nguyn t Hir l nng lng cn thit electrn bt ra khi nguyn t, c ngha l electrn s chuyn t mc nng lng c bn E1 sang mc nng lng E: 140

Chng 8: Vt l nguyn t

E = E E1 = 0 ( Rh ) = 13,5eV Gi tr ny cng ph hp vi thc nghim.


c. Gii thch cu to vch ca quang ph Hir Khi khng c kch thch bn ngoi electrn bao gi cng trng thi c bn (ng vi mc E1). Di tc dng ca kch thch, electrn nhn nng lng chuyn ln trng thi kch thch ng vi mc nng lng En cao hn. Electrn ch trng thi ny trong thi gian rt ngn (~10-8s), sau tr v mc nng lng En thp hn. Trong qu trnh chuyn mc t En En electrn bc x nng lng di dng sng in t, ngha l pht ra phtn nng lng h . Theo nh lut bo ton nng lng:

Hnh 8-2: S ph hir: a. Dy Lyman, b. Dy Balmer, c. Dy Paschen (8-6) (8-7)

Rh Rh h nn ' = E n E n ' = + n 2 n '2


hay

1 1 nn ' = R 2 2 n n'

y chnh l tn s ca vch quang ph c pht ra. Khi n=1 ta c:

1 1 n1 = R 2 n2 1

n = 2,3,4...

Cc vch quang ph tun theo cng thc ny hp thnh mt dy c bc sng trong vng t ngoi, gi l dy Lyman. Khi n= 2, n = 3,4,5... ta c cc vch nm trong dy Balmer, c bc sng trong vng nhn thy:

1 1 n 2 = R 2 2 n 2
Khi n= 3, n = 4,5,6... ta c cc vch nm trong dy Paschen, c bc sng trong vng hng ngoi:

1 1 n3 = R 2 n2 3
Tip n l dy Bracket, Pfund trong vng hng ngoi. S cc dy c cho trn hnh 8-2.

141

Chng 8: Vt l nguyn t d. Trng thi lng t ca electrn Trng thi ca electrn c m t bi hm sng:

nlm (r, , ) = R nl (r )Ylm (, )


trong n: s lng t chnh, n = 1, 2...

(8-8)

l : s lng t qu o, l = 0, 1, 2...(n-1).
m: s lng t t, m = 0, 1,2,...,l . Hm sng ph thuc vo cc s lng t n, l , m. Do , nu t nht mt trong ba ch s n, l , m khc nhau ta c mt trng thi lng t khc. Ta thy ng vi mi gi tr ca n, l c n gi tr khc nhau v ng vi mi gi tr ca l ta c 2 l +1 gi tr khc nhau ca m, do vi mi gi tr ca n ta c s trng thi lng t bng:
n 1

l=0

(2l + 1) =

[1 + (2n 1)] n = n 2
2

(8-9)

Nh vy ng vi mt s lng t n, tc l vi mi mc nng lng En,, ta c n2 trng thi lng t nlm khc nhau. V d: n 1 2

l
0 0 1

m 0 0 -1 0 1

S trng thi 1 4

100 200
211

210
211

Nng lng E1 (mc nng lng thp nht) c mt trng thi lng t. Trng thi lng t mc E1 c gi l trng thi c bn. En c n2 trng thi lng t, ta ni En suy bin bc n2. Cc trng thi lng t cc mc nng lng ln hn E1 c gi l trng thi kch thch. Trng thi lng t c k hiu theo cc s lng t, c th bng nx, n l s lng t chnh, cn x ty thuc vo s lng t qu o l nh sau:

l
x

0 s

1 p

2 d

3 f

V d: trng thi 2s l trng thi c n = 2 v l = 0. e. Xc sut tm electrn trong th tch dV mt trng thi no V nlm ta cu l:
2

l mt xc sut, nn xc sut tn ti ca electrn trong th tch dV

142

Chng 8: Vt l nguyn t

nlm dV = R nl Ylm r 2 dr sin d d


2

(8-10)

2 trong phn R nl r 2 dr ch ph thuc khong cch r, biu din xc sut tm electrn ti

mt im cch ht nhn mt khong r, cn Ylm electrn theo cc gc (,).

sin dd biu din xc sut tm

Ta xt trng thi c bn (n = 1). Khi n = 1, l = 0, hm xuyn tm trng thi c bn l R1,0. Xc sut cn tm w1,0 bng
2 w1,0 = R1,0 r 2 = 4a 3e 2r / a r 2

Hnh 8-3 biu din s ph thuc ca w1,0 theo r. tm bn knh r ng vi xc sut cc i ta ly o hm ca w1,0 theo r, ri cho o hm bng 0. Kt qu ta tm c w1,0 c cc tr ti r=0 v r = a. Gi tr r = 0 b loi, v ht electrn khng th ri vo ht nhn. Vy xc sut cc i ng vi bn knh r = a = 0,53.10-10 m. Khong cch ny ng bng bn knh ca nguyn t hir theo quan nim c in. T kt qu trn ta i n kt lun: electrn trong nguyn t khng chuyn ng theo mt qu o nht nh m bao quanh ht nhn nh m my, m my ny dy c nht khong cch ng vi xc sut cc i. Kt qu ny ph hp vi lng tnh sng ht ca vi ht. Electrn cng phn b theo gc. trng thi s ( l =0, m = 0) xc sut tm thy electrn:

w lm = w 00 = Y0,0

1 4

khng ph thuc gc, nh vy phn b c tnh i xng cu. Hnh 8-4 biu din phn b xc sut ph thuc gc ng vi cc trng thi s, p.

Hnh 8-3: S ph thuc r ca xc sut tm ht trng thi c bn

Hnh 8-4: Phn b electrn theo gc i vi trng thi s ( l =0) v p ( l =1)

143

Chng 8: Vt l nguyn t 2. NGUYN T KIM LOI KIM 1. Nng lng ca electrn ha tr trong nguyn t kim loi kim Cc nguyn t kim loi kim (Li, Na, K,...) ha tr mt. Trong mu v nguyn t, lp ngoi cng ca cc nguyn t ny ch c mt electrn ha tr, lin kt yu vi ht nhn. Nu kim loi kim c Z electrn th (Z-1) electrn cc lp trong v ht nhn to thnh li nguyn t c in tch +e, cn electrn ha tr in tch -e chuyn ng trong trng Coulomb gy bi li nguyn t, ging nh chuyn ng ca electrn trong nguyn t hir. Do cc tnh cht ha hc ca kim loi kim v c bn ging tnh cht ca nguyn t hir. Cc nguyn t kim loi kim l nhng nguyn t ng dng hir, tuy nhin khng ging hon ton. Trong nguyn t kim loi kim, ngoi nng lng tng tc gia ht nhn v electrn ha tr, cn c nng lng ph gy ra bi tng tc gia electrn ha tr vi cc electrn khc. Do nng lng ca electrn ha tr trong nguyn t kim loi kim c khc cht t so vi nng lng ca electrn trong nguyn t hir.

Hnh 8-5. Mu v nguyn t ca cc kim loi kim Khi tnh thm tng tc ny, c hc lng t a ra biu thc nng lng ca electrn ha tr i vi kim loi kim:

E nl =

mee4

(n + l ) 2 2(4 o ) 2 h 2

(8-11)

trong l l s hiu chnh ph thuc vo s lng t qu o l . S hiu chnh ny c gi tr khc nhau ng vi cc trng thi khc nhau. Bng 1 s cho cc gi tr ca s hiu chnh cho mt s nguyn t kim loi kim cc trng thi khc nhau. Bng 1 Z 3 11 19 37 55 Nguyn t kim loi kim Li Na K Rb Cs
s

p -0,041 -0,883 -1,776 -2,711 -3,649 144

d -0,002 -0.010 -0,146 -1,233 -2,448

f -0,000 -0,001 -0,007 -0,012 -0,022

-0,412 -1,373 -2,230 -3,195 -4,131

Chng 8: Vt l nguyn t Nh vy, nng lng ca electrn ha tr ca kim loi kim ph thuc vo s lng t chnh n v s lng t qu o l . S ph thuc ca mc nng lng vo l l s khc bit gia nguyn t kim loi kim v nguyn t hir. Trong Vt l nguyn t mc nng lng c k hiu bng nX, n l s lng t chnh, cn X ty thuc vo s lng t l nh l = 0 sau: 1 2 3 X= S P D F V d: mc 2D l mc nng lng ng vi n = 2, l = 2. Bng 2 a ra cc mc nng lng cho cc lp K, L, M. Bng 2 n 1 2

l
0 0 1 0

Trng thi 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d

Mc nng lng 1S 2S 2P 3S 3P 3D

Lp K L

1 2

2. Quang ph ca nguyn t kim loi kim Tng t nh nguyn t hir, khi c kch thch bn ngoi, electrn ha tr chuyn t trng thi ng vi mc nng lng thp ln trng thi ng vi mc nng lng cao hn. Nhng electrn trng thi kch thch ny khng lu (10-8s), n li chuyn v trng thi ng vi mc nng lng thp hn v pht ra phtn c nng lng h. Vic chuyn mc nng lng phi tun theo qui tc la chn:

l = 1

(8-12)

V d, nguyn t Li gm 3 electrn: 2 electrn gn ht nhn chim mc nng lng 1S, cn electrn ha tr khi cha b kch thch chim mc nng lng 2S (n = 2, l = 0). l mc thp nht ca n.

Hnh 8-6. S quang ph ca Li a. Dy chnh c. Dy ph I 145 b. Dy ph II d. Dy c bn

Chng 8: Vt l nguyn t Theo qui tc la chn, electrn ho tr mc cao chuyn v mc: 2S ( l = 0), th mc cao hn ch c th l mc nP ( l = 1, n = 2,3,4...) 2P ( l = 1), th mc cao hn ch c th l mc nS ( l = 0, n = 3,4...) hay mc nD ( l =2, n = 3,4...) h = 2S nP h = 2P nS h = 2P nD h = 3D nF cc vch ny to thnh dy chnh cc vch ny to thnh dy ph II cc vch ny to thnh dy ph I cc vch ny to thnh dy c bn

Tn s ca bc x in t pht ra tun theo cng thc:

Cc kt qu ny c tm thy t trc bng thc nghim. T l thuyt ngi ta cn tm thy dy h = 3D nP v sau c thc nghim xc nhn. S cc vch quang ph ca Li c biu din trn hnh 8-6. 3. MMEN NG LNG V MMEN T CA ELECTRN 1. Mmen ng lng qu o Tng t nh trong c hc c in, electrn chuyn ng quanh ht nhn nn c mmen ng lng L . Nhng v electrn quay quanh ht nhn khng theo qu o xc nh, do mi trng thi vect L khng c hng xc nh. Tuy nhin, vect mmen ng lng li c gi tr xc nh. C hc lng t chng minh rng gi tr ca n bng

L = l(l + 1) h

(8-13)

trong l c gi l s lng t qu o ( l = 0,1,2,...,n-1). Nh vy s lng t qu o lin quan n mmen ng lng qu o.

r 3 kh nng nh hng ca L

r 5 kh nng nh hng ca L

Hnh 8-7. S lng t ho khng gian ca L .

146

Chng 8: Vt l nguyn t C hc lng t cn chng minh rng hnh chiu ca mmen ng lng qu o L ln mt phng z bt k lun c xc nh theo h thc:

L z = mh
vi mi tr s cho trc ca l c 2 l + 1 tr s ca m.

(8-14)

trong m l s nguyn gi l s lng t t, c cc tr s m = 0,1,2,3,...,l , ngha l V d: Khi l = 1, m = 0, 1 th L = 2h v L c 3 s nh hng sao cho hnh chiu ca n trn z (k hiu Lm ) c cc gi tr: L0 = 0 , L1 = h , L1 = h (hnh 8-7). z z z z Khi l = 2, m = 0, 1, 2 th L =

6 h v L c 5 s nh hng sao cho hnh chiu

ca n trn z c cc gi tr: L0 = 0 , L1 = h , L1 = h , L2 = 2h , L2 = 2h (hnh 8-7). z z z z z 2. Mmen t Electrn quay quanh ht nhn to thnh mt dng in i, c chiu ngc vi chiu chuyn ng ca electrn. Dng in ny c mmen t = iS , trong S l vect din tch. Theo c hc c in, electrn chuyn ng trn ng trn bn knh r vi tn s f, ta c cng dng in i = ef v ln ca mmen t s bng

= iS = efr 2
Mmen ng lng qu o: L = mevr = mer2 = me2fr2. Do ta thy mmen t t l vi mmen ng lng qu o. Electrn mang in tch m, s dng qui tc bn tay phi ta thy vect mmen ng lng qu o v vect mmen t cng phng vung gc vi mt phng qu o nhng ngc chiu nhau, do : Hnh 8-8.

e L 2m e

(8-15)

Tnh ton theo c hc lng t ta cng nhn c biu thc (8-15). V L khng c hng xc nh, do cng khng c hng xc nh. Hnh chiu ca mmen t ln phng z bt k bng:

z =

e Lz 2m e

(8-16)

Thay (8-14) vo (8-16) ta c:

z = m

eh = m B 2m e
147

(8-17)

Chng 8: Vt l nguyn t vi B =
eh = 10 23 Am 2 gi l manhtn Bohr. 2m e

Nh vy: Hnh chiu mmen t ca electrn quay quanh ht nhn ln mt phng z bt k bao gi cng bng s nguyn ln manhtn Bohr, ngha l b lng t ha. Thng ngi ta chn phng z bt k l phng ca t trng ngoi B , do s nguyn m c gi l s lng t t. C hc lng t cng chng minh c rng khi electrn chuyn trng thi th s bin i ca m phi tun theo qui tc la chn:

m = 0, 1

(8-18)

Hin tng lng t ha mmen t c xc nhn trong th nghim v hin tng Zeeman m chng ta s xt di y. 3. Hin tng Zeeman Th nghim: t ngun kh hir pht sng vo gia hai cc ca nam chm in (hnh 8-9). Nu quan st cc bc x pht ra theo phng vung gc vi vect t trng B th thy mi vch quang ph ca nguyn t hir b tch thnh ba vch st nhau. Hin tng tch vch quang ph khi nguyn t pht sng t trong t trng c gi l hin tng Zeeman. Hin tng Zeeman c gii thch nh sau: V electrn c mmen t nn khi nguyn t hir c t trong t trng B , mmen t c khuynh hng sp xp theo phng song song vi B do electrn c thm nng lng ph:

E = B E = z B = m B B

(8-19)

Chn phng z l phng ca t trng B , ta c Nh vy khi nguyn t hir t trong t trng, nng lng E ca electrn cn ph thuc vo s lng t t m:

Hnh 8-9. Hiu ng Zeeman (8-20)

E ' = E + m B B

trong E l nng lng ca electrn khi nguyn t hir khng t trong t trng. Nu electrn dch chuyn t trng thi ng vi nng lng E '2 sang trng thi ng vi nng
' lng E1 thp hn th n s pht ra bc x in t. Tn s vch quang ph bng: ' E '2 E1 E 2 E1 (m 2 m1 ) B B = + h h h

' =

(8-21)

148

Chng 8: Vt l nguyn t

E 2 E1 = l tn s ca vch quang ph hir khi nguyn t hir h khng t trong t trng, do :


S hng th nht

' = +

(m 2 m1 ) B B h

(8-22)

Theo qui tc la chn i vi s lng t m: m = 0, 1 , ta thy tn s ' c th c ba gi tr:


BB h ' = BB + h

(8-23)

Ngha l mt vch quang ph (khi khng c t trng) c tch thnh ba vch quang ph (khi c t trng), trong vch gia trng vi vch c. 4. SPIN CA ELECTRN 1. S tn ti spin ca electrn L thuyt c hc lng t gii quyt kh trn vn bi ton cu trc nguyn t hir nh trnh by trn. Trng thi lng t ca electrn c m t bi ba s lng t n, l , m. Tuy nhin c nhiu s kin thc nghim khc chng t vic m t trng thi lng t nh trn l cha . y chng ta xt hai hin tng: s tch vch quang ph ca kim loi kim v th nghim Einstein de Haas. a. S tch vch quang ph kim loi kim: Nh c nhng my quang ph c nng sut phn gii cao, ngi ta pht hin thy cc vch quang ph khng phi l vch n m l vch gm rt nhiu vch nh nt hp thnh. V d vch vng ca nguyn t Na c cu to bi hai vch st nhau c bc sng 5890 v 5896 . Vch nh vy c gi l vch kp i. Theo hiu ng Zeeman, s tch mt vch thnh ba vch ch xy ra khi c t trng ngoi, cn vch kp i trong quang ph kim loi kim quan st thy ngay c khi khng c t trng ngoi. S tch vch nh vy chng t rng mc nng lng ca nguyn t kim loi kim khng ch ph thuc vo hai s lng t n v l , m cn ph thuc vo mt i lng no na lm thay i cht t nng lng ca mc. i lng ny c ln rt nh. C th on nhn rng electrn phi c thm mt bc t do na nh hng n qu trnh bc x. Nu k hiu s lng t tng ng vi bc t do ny l s, gi l spin, th mc nng lng s phi ph thuc vo ba s lng t n, l , s. b. Th nghim Einstein v de Haas Einstein v de Haas lm th nghim sau. Treo mt thanh st t vo mt si dy thch anh. Thanh st s c t ha nh dng in chy qua cun dy bao quanh thanh 149

Chng 8: Vt l nguyn t (hnh 8-10). Khi cha c dng in chy trong cun dy, cc vect mmen t ca cc nguyn t st t c nh hng mt cch ngu nhin, do tc dng t ca chng b trit tiu tt c mi im bn ngoi thanh st. Khi c dng in chy qua cun dy, cc vect mmen t nguyn t s sp xp thng hng theo hng ca t trng ngoi lm cho cc mmen ng lng nguyn t cng xp thng hng nhng theo hng ngc li. V thanh st c c lp vi bn ngoi (h kn) nn mmen ng lng c bo ton v c thanh st phi quay i. Nu dng in thay i, mmen t cng thay i, do mmen ng lng L cng thay i. Dy treo s b xon li. o gc xon ny ta c th xc nh c L v kim nghim t s / L. i vi electrn t s ny phi m v in tch ca electrn l e. iu c thc nghim xc nhn, s t ha ca st t gy bi chuyn ng ca electrn. Nhng th nghim li cho kt qu ca t s / L khng bng e/2me nh cng thc (8-15) m bng e/ me. Nu tha nhn s t ha cht st t khng phi do chuyn ng qu o ca electrn m do spin electrn th ngi ta nhn c t s / L phi bng e/me, ph hp Hnh 8-10 vi kt qu thc nghim. T cc kt qu thc nghim trn, ngi ta i n kt lun l ngoi chuyn ng quanh ht nhn, electrn cn tham gia chuyn ng ring lin quan ti s vn ng ni ti ca electrn, chuyn ng ny c c trng bi mmen c ring, gi l spin, k hiu S . C hc lng t chng minh rng, tng t nh mmen ng lng qu o L , mmen c ring S cng ly nhng gi tr gin on:

S = s(s + 1) h
trong s =

(8-24)

1 3 , gi l s lng t spin, do S = h. 2 2

Ta thy cng thc (8-24) c dng ging cng thc (8-13). Ch khc l spin c mt gi tr duy nht, trong khi mmen ng lng qu o c th nhn nhiu gi tr khc nhau. V s lng t spin bng 1/2 nn thng gi tt spin ca electrn bng 1/2 hoc electrn c spin bn nguyn. Hnh chiu ca mmen spin S theo phng z bt k bng :

Sz = m s h =

h 2

(8-25)

Hnh 8-11. S lng t ha khng gian ca spin

150

Chng 8: Vt l nguyn t trong ms gi l s lng t t ring (hay s lng t hnh chiu spin), n ch c hai gi tr 1/2. Hnh 8-11 trnh by hai s nh hng ca mmen spin. Ch rng spin l mt khi nim thun ty lng t, trong trng hp c in n hon ton khng c. ng vi mmen ng lng qu o L , electrn c mmen t qu o . Tng t, ng vi mmen c ring spin S , electrn c mmen t ring s . Theo th nghim Einsteinde Haas:

s =

e S me e eh = m B Sz = m me 2m e

v hnh chiu ca mmen t ring trn trc z :

sz =

(8-26)

2. Trng thi v nng lng ca electrn trong nguyn t Do c mmen spin nn mmen ng lng ton phn J ca electrn bng:

J = L+S
C hc lng t chng minh c gi tr ca J bng:

(8-27)

J=

j( j + 1)h

(8-28)

trong j l s lng t ton phn c xc nh bi:

j= l

1 2

(8-29)

Do c xt n spin nn trng thi lng t ca electrn ph thuc vo bn s lng t: n, l , m, ms hay n, l , m, j. Hai trng thi lng t c coi l khc nhau, nu t nht mt trong bn s lng t n, l , m, ms khc nhau. Trn y ta tnh c: ng vi mi s lng t chnh c n2 trng thi lng t khc nhau. Nu k n spin th do ms c 2 gi tr : 1/2 nn ng vi s lng t chnh n , c 2n2 trng thi lng t khc nhau:

2 (2l + 1) = 2n 2
l=0

n 1

(8-30)

S c mt mmen t spin ca electrn cho php gii thch vch kp i trong quang ph ca kim loi kim. Cc electrn chuyn ng quanh ht nhn to ra mt t trng c trng bi mmen t qu o ca cc electrn. Mmen t spin ca electrn tng tc vi t trng , tng tc ny c gi l tng tc spin-qu o. Do tng tc ny, s c mt nng lng ph b sung vo biu thc nng lng ca electrn. Nng lng ph ny ph thuc vo s nh hng ca mmen spin v nh vy nng lng cn ph thuc vo s lng t ton phn j. Ni cch khc, nng lng ton phn ca electrn ph thuc vo ba s lng t n, l , v j: En l j. T (8-29) ta nhn thy mi mc nng lng xc nh tch thnh hai mc j = l -1/2 v j = l +1/2, tr mc S, ch c mt mc, v khi l bng 0. Khong 151

Chng 8: Vt l nguyn t cch gia hai mc nng lng ny rt nh. Cu trc nh vy gi l cu trc t vi ca cc mc nng lng. Trong vt l nguyn t, trng thi ca electrn c k hiu bng nxj, mc nng lng ca electrn k hiu bng n 2 X j , trong n l s lng t chnh, X = S, P, D, F... ty thuc

l = 0, 1, 2, 3,... Ch s 2 pha trn bn tri ch X ch cu to bi kp ca mc nng lng. Bng 3 nu cc trng thi lng t v mc nng lng kh d ca electrn ha tr trong nguyn t hir v kim loi kim.
Bng 3 n 1 2

l
0 0 1

j 1/2 1/2 1/2 3/2 1/2 1/2 3/2 3/2 5/2

Trng thi ca electrn ha tr 1s1/2 2s1/2 2p1/2 2p3/2 3s1/2 3p1/2 3p3/2 3d3/2 3d5/2

Mc nng lng 1 2S1/2 2 2S1/2 2 2P1/2 2 2P3/2 3 2S1/2 3 2P1/2 3 2P3/2 3 2D3/2 3 2D5/2

0 1 2

3. Cu to bi ca vch quang ph Trn c s cu trc t vi ca mc nng lng ta c th gii thch c cu to bi ca vch quang ph. Do nng lng ca electrn trong nguyn t ph thuc vo ba s lng t n, l , j, nn khi electrn chuyn t mc nng lng cao sang mc nng lng thp hn, ngoi qui tc la chn i vi l , electrn cn phi tun theo qui tc la chn i vi j:

Hnh 8-12. a. Vch quang ph khi cha xt n spin b. Vch kp khi c xt n spin. (8-31)

j = 0, 1

C th, ta xt s tch vch ca quang ph kim loi kim. Khi cha xt n spin, vch n c tn s ng vi chuyn mc: h = 2S 3P Khi xt n spin, ta c vch kp: h1 = 2 2S1/2 3 2P1/2 ( l = 1, j = 0) 152

Chng 8: Vt l nguyn t h2 = 2 2S1/2 3 2P3/2 ( l = 1, j = 1)

5. BNG H THNG TUN HON MENDELEEV Nm 1869, Mendeleev xy dng nn h thng tun hon ca cc nguyn t ha hc v thit lp nn bng tun hon trc khi c hc lng t ra i. H thng tun hon ny cho php rt ra cc tnh cht vt l v ha hc c bn ca cc nguyn t, ng thi cng gip Mendeleev tin on ra nhiu nguyn t m v sau thc nghim mi pht hin c. Da trn c s ca c hc lng t, chng ta c th gii thch qui lut phn b cc electrn trong bng h thng tun hon. S phn b cc electrn trong bng tun hon da trn hai nguyn l: nguyn l cc tiu nng lng v nguyn l loi tr Pauli. Nguyn l cc tiu nng lng: Mi h vt l u c xu hng chim trng thi c nng lng cc tiu. Trng thi l trng thi bn. Nguyn l loi tr Pauli: Mi trng thi lng t xc nh bi 4 s lng t n, l , m, ms ch c ti a mt electrn. Cu hnh electrn l s phn b cc electrn trong nguyn t theo cc trng thi vi cc s lng t n, l khc nhau. Khi cha n spin ca electrn th vi mi tr s ca n c n2 trng thi lng t. Khi n spin th vi mi tr s ca n ta c th c 2n2 trng thi lng t. Theo nguyn l loi tr Pauli th s c ti a 2n2 electrn. Tp hp cc electrn c cng s lng t chnh n to thnh lp ca nguyn t. Cc lp ca nguyn t c k hiu bng nhng ch K, L, M... theo bng sau: S lng t n K hiu lp S e- ti a 1 K 2 2 L 8 3 M 18 4 N 32 5 O 50

Theo nguyn l cc tiu nng lng, cc electrn bao gi cng c khuynh hng chim mc nng lng thp nht (n nh nht). V d: Nguyn t H c 1 electrn lp K Nguyn t He c 2 electrn lp K ( s electrn) Nguyn t Li c 2 electrn lp K v 1 electrn lp L,... Mi lp li chia thnh lp con ng vi cc gi tr khc nhau ca l . Mi lp con c 2(2 l +1) electrn. V d: Lp L (n = 2) c 2 lp con: - Lp con S ( l = 0) c ti a 2 (2 l + 1) = 2 electrn, - Lp con P ( l =1) c ti a 6 electrn. Lp M (n = 3) c 3 lp con: 153

Chng 8: Vt l nguyn t - Lp con S c ti a 2 electrn, - Lp con P c ti a 6 electrn, - Lp con D c ti a 10 electrn. Bng 4 l bng phn b electrn i vi mt vi nguyn t. Bng 4 Nguyn t H He Li Be B C N O F Ne Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar Lp Lp con K 1S 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2S L 2P 3S M 3P 3D

1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

1 2 3 4 5 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6

1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

1 2 3 4 5 6

Da theo bng tun hon Mendeleev, ta vit c cu hnh electrn cho cc nguyn t. V d: C : 1s22s22p2 N : 1s22s22p3 O : 1s22s22p4 F : 1s22s22p5 Ne : 1s22s22p6 Al : 1s22s22p63s23p1

V d i vi Neon (Ne) c 2 electrn trng thi 1s, 2 electrn trng thi 2s, 6 electrn trng thi 2p. Nh vy, cc electrn lp y cc lp con. i vi Cacbon (C) cc electrn cha lp kn ht cc lp con v lp con P c th cha ti a 6 electrn, trong khi lp con P C mi ch c 2 electrn.

154

Chng 8: Vt l nguyn t

III. TM TT NI DUNG
1. Nguyn t hir Chng ta nghin cu chuyn ng ca electrn trong nguyn t hir trn c s phng trnh Schrodinger, phng trnh c bn ca c hc lng t

( E U ) = 0 h2 trong U l th nng tng tc gia ht nhn v electrn. Bi ton t ra l tm nng lng ca electrn v hm sng ca n. Gii phng trnh Schrodinger trong h ta cu, ta thu c mt s kt lun sau:
a. Nng lng ca electrn trong nguyn t hir ph thuc vo s nguyn n, gi l s Rh En = lng t chnh: n2 trong R l hng s Rydberg. Ta ni rng nng lng b lng t ha. b. Nng lng ion ha l nng lng cn thit bt electrn ra khi nguyn t

2m e

E = E E1 = Rh = 13,5eV c. Khi khng c kch thch bn ngoi, electrn trng thi nng lng thp nht, gi l trng thi c bn. l trng thi bn. Khi c kch thch bn ngoi, electrn thu thm nng lng v nhy ln mc nng lng cao hn gi l mc kch thch. Nhng electrn ch trng thi ny trong mt thi gian ngn (10-8s), sau tr v trng thi nng lng En thp hn v pht ra bc x in t mang nng lng h, ngha l pht ra vch quang ph c tn s :

1 1 nn ' = R 2 2 n n'
Vi n =1, n = 2,3,4... ta c dy Lyman nm trong vng t ngoi. Vi n =2, n = 3,4...... ta c dy Balmer trong vng nh sng nhn thy. Vi n = 3, n = 4,5..... ta c dy Paschen nm trong vng hng ngoi.... d. ng vi mt s lng t n, tc l vi mi mc nng lng En, ta c n2 trng thi lng t khc nhau khi cha xt n spin, ta ni En suy bin bc n2. e. Hm sng ca electrn trong nguyn t H n l m(r,,) = Rn l (r)Y l m(,) trong n l s lng t chnh, l l s lng t qu o v m l s lng t t. T biu thc ca hm sng ta tm c xc sut tm thy electrn theo khong cch v theo gc , ng vi cc trng thi lng t khc nhau. Tnh ton cho thy xc sut tm electrn trong nguyn t H ti khong cch tnh t tm r = a = 0,53 c gi tr ln nht. Gi tr ny trng vi bn knh c in ca nguyn t H. T y ngi ta hnh dung electrn chuyn ng quanh ht nhn nguyn t H nh mt m my. m my ny dy c nht khong cch ng vi xc sut tn ti electrn cc 155

Chng 8: Vt l nguyn t i. Khi nim qu o c thay th bng khi nim xc sut tm ht. Nguyn nhn l do lng tnh sng ht ca electrn. 2. Nguyn t kim loi kim Nguyn t kim loi kim ha tr mt v kh d dng b in ha. Chng c mt electrn vng ngoi cng, electrn ny chuyn ng trong trng th hiu dng to bi li nguyn t (gm ht nhn v (Z-1) electrn cc vng trong). Tnh cht ha hc ca kim loi kim v c bn ging ca nguyn t H, nhng nng lng ca electrn ha tr ph thuc thm c vo s lng t l :

E nl =

Rh (n + l ) 2

Trong vt l nguyn t trang thi lng t c k hiu bng nx, cn mc nng lng l nX, n l s lng t chnh, cn x v X ty thuc s lng t qu o:

l=
x= X=

0 s S

1 p P

2 d D

S chuyn mc nng lng tun theo qui tc: l = 1 V d i vi Na, tn s bc x tun theo cc cng thc: h = 3S nP h = 3P nS 3. Mmen ng lng qu o v mmen t Electrn quay quanh ht nhn khng theo qu o xc nh, do mi trng thi vect L khng c hng xc nh, nhng c ln xc nh: L = l(l + 1) h v hnh chiu ca mmen ng lng qu o L ln mt phng z bt k lun c xc nh theo h thc: L z = mh , trong m l s nguyn gi l s lng t t, c cc tr s n = 4,5, 6... v l = 1 n = 4,5, 6... v l = -1

m = 0,1,2,3,...,l , ngha l vi mi tr s cho trc ca l c 2 l + 1 tr s ca m. Electrn quay quanh ht nhn to thnh dng in, gia mmen t v mmen ng lng qu o c mi lin h = e L 2m e e L z = m B 2m e

v hnh chiu ln phng z bt k:

z =

B = eh / 2m e l manhtn Bohr. Khi electrn chuyn trng thi th m phi tun theo qui
tc la chn: m = 0,1.

156

Chng 8: Vt l nguyn t 4. Hiu ng Zeeman: Hin tng tch vch quang ph khi nguyn t pht sng t trong t trng c gi l hin tng Zeeman. Gii thch: Khi nguyn t H t trong t trng ngoi, electrn c thm nng lng ph

E = z B = m B B
Nng lng E ca electrn lc ny cn ph thuc vo s lng t t m:

E ' = E + m B B
Khi electrn chuyn trng thi, tn s vch quang ph pht ra bng:
' E '2 E1 E 2 E1 (m 2 m1 ) B B + = h h h

' =

m2 m1 = m = 0, 1, do s c th c ba gi tr tng ng vi s to thnh ba vch quang ph. 5. Spin: Ngoi chuyn ng quay quanh ht nhn electrn cn tham gia thm chuyn ng do vn ng ni ti, c c trng bi spin, k hiu S . ln ca S v hnh chiu ca n ln phng z c xc nh theo cc h thc:

S = s(s + 1) h

Sz = m s h

trong s l s lng t spin (s=1/2), cn ms l s lng t hnh chiu spin. Khc vi s lng t t ms ch ly hai gi tr 1/2. Spin l i lng thun ty lng t, n khng c s tng ng c in. Da vo khi nim spin, ngi ta gii thch c vch kp i ca quang ph Na v cu to bi ca cc vch quang ph. 6. Trng thi v nng lng ca electrn trong nguyn t Do c spin nn mmen ng lng ton phn J ca electrn bng: J = L + S vi gi tr ca J bng: J =

j( j + 1)h

trong j l s lng t ton phn c xc nh bi: j = l

1 2

Do c xt n spin nn trng thi lng t ca electrn ph thuc vo bn s lng t: n, l , m, ms hay n, l , m, j. Hai trng thi lng t c coi l khc nhau nu t nht mt trong bn s lng t n, l , m, ms khc nhau. Trn y ta tnh c: ng vi mi s lng t chnh c n2 trng thi lng t khc nhau. Nu k n spin th do ms c 2 gi tr : 1/2 nn ng vi s lng t chnh n , c 2n2 trng thi lng t khc nhau:

2 (2l + 1) = 2n 2
l=0

n 1

157

Chng 8: Vt l nguyn t S c mt mmen t spin ca electrn cho php gii thch vch kp i trong quang ph ca kim loi kim. Cc electrn chuyn ng quanh ht nhn to ra mt t trng c trng bi mmen t qu o ca cc electrn. Mmen t spin ca electrn tng tc vi t trng , tng tc ny c gi l tng tc spin-qu o. Do tng tc ny, s c mt nng lng ph b sung vo biu thc nng lng ca electrn. Nng lng ph ny ph thuc vo s nh hng ca mmen spin v nh vy nng lng cn ph thuc vo s lng t ton phn j. Ni cch khc, nng lng ton phn ca electrn ph thuc vo ba s lng t n, l v j: En l j. Mi mc nng lng xc nh tch thnh hai mc j = l -1/2 v j = l +1/2, tr mc S ch c mt mc, v khi l = 0. Khong cch gia hai mc nng lng ny rt nh. Cu trc nh vy gi l cu trc t vi ca cc mc nng lng. Khi chuyn t mc nng lng cao sang mc nng lng thp, cc s lng t l , j phi tun theo qui tc la chn: l = 1 v j = 0, 1 Da vo cc qui tc la chn trn, ta gii thch c cc vch kp i v bi ba khi c xt n spin. 7. Gii thch bng tun hon Mendeleev Da trn c s ca c hc lng t, chng ta c th gii thch qui lut phn b cc electrn trong bng h thng tun hon. S phn b cc electrn trong bng tun hon da trn hai nguyn l: nguyn l cc tiu nng lng v nguyn l loi tr Pauli. Cu hnh electrn l s phn b theo cc trng thi vi cc s lng lng t n, l khc nhau. Tp hp cc electrn c cng s lng t chnh n to thnh lp ca nguyn t. V d : Lp K ng vi n = 1, lp L ng vi n = 2... S electrn ti a c trong mt lp bng 2n2 (theo nguyn l Pauli). Nng lng lp K nh hn lp L. Cc electrn s lp y lp K trc ri mi n lp L. Mi lp li chia nh thnh nhng lp con vi l khc nhau. Tp hp cc electrn c cng gi tr l to thnh mt lp con. Trong mi lp con c ti a 2(2 l +1) electrn. V d: Lp con S ( l = 0) c ti a 2(0 + 1) = 2eLp con P ( l = 1) c ti a 2(2 + 1) = 6e-... Da vo bng Mendeleev, ta vit c cu hnh electrn trong nguyn t. V d cu hnh electrn ca nguyn t C: 1s22s22p2 (c 2e- lp 1S, 2e- lp 2S v 2e- lp 2P, cc e- cha xp kn lp con P, v lp con ny c th cha ti a 6e).

IV. CU HI L THUYT
1. Hy nu cc kt lun ca c hc lng t trong vic nghin cu nguyn t Hir v: a. Nng lng ca electrn trong nguyn t Hir. b. Cu to vch ca quang ph Hir. c. suy bin ca mc En.

158

Chng 8: Vt l nguyn t 2. Nu s khc nhau gia nguyn t Hir v nguyn t kim loi kim v mt cu to. Vit biu thc nng lng ca electrn ha tr trong nguyn t Hir v nguyn t kim loi kim. Nu s khc nhau gia hai cng thc . 3. Vit qui tc la chn i vi s lng t qu o l . Vn dng qui tc ny vit cc dy vch chnh v dy vch ph ca nguyn t Li. 4. Vit biu thc mmen ng lng qu o L ca electrn quanh ht nhn v hnh chiu Lz ca n ln phng z. Nu ngha ca cc i lng trong cc cng thc . Vit qui tc la chn cho m. Biu din bng s cc i lng L v Lz trong cc trng hp l =1 v l =2. 5. Vit biu thc mmen t ca electrn quay quanh ht nhn v hnh chiu ca n theo phng z. 6. Trnh by v gii thch hin tng Zeeman. 7. Trnh by nhng s kin thc nghim ni ln s tn ti ca spin electrn. 8. Vit biu thc xc nh mmen spin electrn v hnh chiu ca n trn phng z. T da vo th nghim Einstein v de Haas, vit biu thc ca mmen t s v biu din hnh chiu ca s qua manhtn Bohr. 9. Hy chng t rng, nu xt n spin th ng vi mc nng lng En ca electrn trong nguyn t H, c th c 2n2 trng thi lng t khc nhau t nht mt trong bn s lng t n, l , m, sz. 10. nh ngha cu hnh electrn. 11. S phn b cc electrn trong bng tun hon Mendeleev tun theo nhng nguyn l no? 12. Vit cu hnh electrn cho cc nguyn t O, Al... Gii thch cch vit v nu ngha.

V. BI TP
Th d 1: Xc nh bc sng ca vch quang ph th hai, th ba trong dy Paschen trong quang ph hir. Bi gii: Bc sng ca vch th hai trong dy Paschen:

c =

c 1 1 R 2 2 5 3 c

= 1,3.10 6 m

Bc sng ca vch th ba trong dy Paschen:

c =

1 1 R 2 62 3

= 1,1.10 6 m

159

Chng 8: Vt l nguyn t Th d 2: Tm s b chnh Rydberg i vi s hng 3P ca nguyn t Na, bit rng th kch thch i vi trng thi th nht bng 2,1V v nng lng lin kt ca electrn ho tr trng thi 3S bng 5,14eV. Bi gii: Theo bi:
Rh Rh Rh Rh

(3 + s )2

= 5,14 eV,

(3 + s )2

(3 + p )

= 2,1 eV

(3 + p )2

= 3,04 eV

Thay R v h ta tm c: p = 0,88 Bi tp t gii 1. Xc nh ng nng, th nng v nng lng ca electrn trong nguyn t hir chuyn ng trn qu o Bohr th nht. Cho bn knh qu o Bohr th nht r1= 0,53.10-10m. p s:

E=

Rh n2

3,27.1015.6,625.10 34 = 21,66.10 19 J 1

ke 2 9.10 9 1,6.10 19 Et = = r1 0,53.10 10


E = E Et = 21,81 J

)2 = 43,47.10 19 J

2. Xc nh bc sng ln nht v nh nht trong dy Paschen trong quang ph hir. p s:

c 1 1 R 2 2 n 3

max =

1 1 R 2 2 4 3 c min = = 0,83.10 6 m 1 1 R 2 2 3

= 1,88.10 6 m

3. Xc nh bc sng ca vch quang ph th hai, th ba trong dy Balmer trong quang ph hir. p s: Bc sng ca vch th hai trong dy Balmer:

42 =

c 1 1 R 2 2 4 2
c

= 0,49.10 6 m

Bc sng ca vch th ba trong dy Balmer:

52 =

1 1 R 2 2 5 2

= 0,437.10 6 m

160

Chng 8: Vt l nguyn t 4. Xc nh bc sng ca vch quang ph th hai v th ba trong dy Lyman trong quang ph hir. p s: Bc sng ca th hai trong dy Lyman:

31 =

c 1 1 R 2 32 1

= 0,103.10 6 m

Bc sng ca vch quang ph th ba trong dy Lyman:

41 =

c 1 1 R 12 4 2

= 0,98.10 7 m

5. Electrn trong nguyn t hir chuyn t mc nng lng th ba v mc nng lng th nht. Xc nh bc sng ca bc x in t do n pht ra. p s: E 3 E1 =

c hc Rh Rh ; E3 = ; E1 = = = 1,03.107 m 2 1 1 3 R1 9

6. Xc nh bc sng ln nht v nh nht trong dy Lyman trong quang ph hir. p s:

c 1 1 R 2 n2 1

max =

1 1 R 2 22 1 c min = = 0,92.10 7 m 1 1 R 2 2 1

= 1,22.10 7 m

7. Xc nh gi tr ln nht v gi tr nh nht ca nng lng phtn pht ra trong quang ph t ngoi ca nguyn t hir (dy Lyman).
1 1 1 = 10,2 (eV), h max = Rh. = 13,5 (eV) p s: h min = Rh 2 22 12 1

8. Xc nh cc gi tr kh d ca mmen ng lng qu o ca electrn trong nguyn t hir b kch thch, cho bit nng lng kch thch bng E = 12eV. p s: Mmen ng lng qu o ca electrn:

L = l(l + 1)h , trong

, nng n2 lng kch thch E = 12eV chnh l nng lng m electrn hp th nhy t trng thi c

l = 0,1, 2,..., n 1 , do cn tm n. Nng lng electrn trng thi n : E n =

Rh

161

Chng 8: Vt l nguyn t bn ln trng thi En En E1 = 12eV : L = 0,

Rh

Rh = 12 n = 3. Vy l = 0,1, 2 , do n2 1

2h ,

6h

9. Phtn c nng lng 16,5eV lm bt electrn ra khi nguyn t ang trng thi c bn. Tnh vn tc ca electrn khi bt ra khi nguyn t. p s: ng nng ca electrn khi bt ra khi nguyn t:

mev2 = h E1 = 16,5 13,5 = 3 (eV) v = 10 6 m / s 2


10. Nng lng lin kt ca electrn ho tr trong nguyn t Liti trng thi 2s bng 5,59eV, trng thi 2p bng 3,54eV. Tnh cc s b chnh Rydberg i vi cc s hng quang ph s v p ca liti. p s:

Rh

(2 + s )

= 5,39 eV,

(2 + p )2

Rh

= 3,54 eV s = 0,41, p = 0,04

11. Tm bc sng ca cc bc x pht ra khi nguyn t Li chuyn trng thi 3S 2S cho bit cc s b chnh Rydberg i vi nguyn t Li: s = 0,41, p = 0,04 p s: Khng c s chuyn mc trc tip t 3S n 2S v vi phm qui tc la chn. S chuyn trng thi c thc hin nh sau: 1.3S 2P, pht ra ra bc x 0,82m. 2.2P 2S, pht ra bc x 0,68m 12. Nguyn t Na chuyn t trng thi nng lng 4S 3S. Tm bc sng ca cc bc x pht ra. Cho s b chnh Rydberg i vi Na bng s = 1,37, p = 0,9 p s: 1. 4S 3P, = 5890A0, 2. 3P 3S, = 11400A0 13. Bc sng ca vch cng hng ca nguyn t kali ng vi s chuyn di 4P 4S bng 7665A0. Bc sng gii hn ca dy chnh bng 2858A0. Tm s b chnh Rydberg s v p i vi kali. p s:

(4 + s )
R

(4 + p )
=

c 7665.10 10 s = 2,23, p = 1,915

c 2858.10 10

(4 + s )

14. Tnh ln ca m men ng lng qu o v gi tr hnh chiu ca mmen ng lng qu o ca electrn trong nguyn t trng thi f.

162

Chng 8: Vt l nguyn t p s: Trng thi f ng vi l = 3 . Cc gi tr ca m = 0, 1, 2, 3. Ga tr hnh chiu mmen ng lng qu o LZ = 0, h, 2h, 3h . ln mmen ng lng qu o:

L = l(l + 1)h = 2 3h

15. Nguyn t hir trng thi c bn hp th phtn mang nng lng 10,2eV v nhy ln trng thi kch thch n. Tm bin thin mmen ng lng qu o ca electrn, bit trng thi kch thch ca electrn trng thi p. p s: Trng thi c bn s c l = 0 , trng thi kch thch p c l = 1 . T cng thc

L = l(l + 1)h L = 2h

163

Ph lc

PH LC
MT S HNG S VT L C BN
Hng s Vn tc nh sng trong chn khng in tch nguyn t Khi lng electrn Khi lng prtn Khi lng ntrn Hng s Placnk Bc sng Compton ca electrn Hng s Avogadro Hng s Boltzman Hng s Stephan Boltzman Hng s Wien Hng s Rydberg Bn knh Bohr Manhtn Bohr K hiu c e me mp mn h c NA k b R rB
B

Ga tr 3.108m/s 1,6.10-19C 9,11.10-31kg = 5,49.10-4u 1,67.10-27kg = 1,0073u 1,68.10-27kg = 1,0087u 6,625.10-34J.s 2,426.10-12m 6,023.1023mol-1 1,38.10-23J/K 5,67.10-8 W/m2K4 2,868.10-3 m.K 3,29.1015s-1 0,529.10-10m

B
B

9,27.10-24J/T

164

Ti liu tham kho

TI LIU THAM KHO


1.Vt l i cng, tp I, II, III - Lng Duyn Bnh, Ng Ph An, L Bng Sng v Nguyn Hu Tng. Nh xut bn Gio dc - 2003. 2. C s Vt l, Tp VI - Halliday, Resnick, Walker. Nh xut bn Gio dc 1998. 3. Vt l i cng, tp I, II, III - ng Quang Khang v Nguyn Xun Chi. Nh xut bn i hc Bch khoa H Ni - 2001. 4. Bi tp Vt l i cng tp I, II, III - Lng Duyn Bnh. Nh xut bn Gio dc 1999.

165

Mc lc

MC LC
LI NI U .......................................................................................................................3
U

Chng I: DAO NG IN T ......................................................................................5 I. MC CH - YU CU................................................................................................5


U

II. NI DUNG:...................................................................................................................5 1. DAO NG IN T IU HO.......................................................................5 2. DAO NG IN T TT DN .......................................................................8 3. DAO NG IN T CNG BC ................................................................10 4. S TNG HP DAO NG...............................................................................12 III. TM TT NI DUNG..............................................................................................17 IV. CU HI L THUYT..............................................................................................19 V. BI TP......................................................................................................................19 Chng II: GIAO THOA NH SNG .............................................................................24 I. MC CH - YU CU..............................................................................................24
U

II. NI DUNG..................................................................................................................24 1. C S CA QUANG HC SNG .....................................................................24 2. GIAO THOA NH SNG ...................................................................................28 3. GIAO THOA GY BI BN MNG.................................................................31 4. NG DNG HIN TNG GIAO THOA.........................................................34 III. TM TT NI DUNG..............................................................................................36 IV. CU HI L THUYT..............................................................................................38 V. BI TP......................................................................................................................38 Chng III: NHIU X NH SNG ...............................................................................45 I. MC CH - YU CU..............................................................................................45
U

II. NI DUNG..................................................................................................................45 1. NHIU X NH SNG CA SNG CU........................................................45


U

2. NHIU X NH SNG CA SNG PHNG ..................................................49 III. TM TT NI DUNG..............................................................................................54 IV. CU HI L THUYT..............................................................................................56 V. BI TP......................................................................................................................56 Chng IV: PHN CC NH SNG ..............................................................................61 I. MC CH - YU CU..............................................................................................61
U

166

Mc lc II. NI DUNG................................................................................................................. 61 1. NH SNG PHN CC .................................................................................... 61 2. PHN CC DO LNG CHIT ....................................................................... 65 3. KNH PHN CC............................................................................................... 66 4. NH SNG PHN CC ELIP ........................................................................... 68 5. S QUAY MT PHNG PHN CC .............................................................. 71 III. TM TT NI DUNG............................................................................................. 73 IV. CU HI L THUYT............................................................................................. 76 V. BI TP..................................................................................................................... 77 Chng V: THUYT TNG I HP EINSTEIN ................................................... 81 I. MC CH - YU CU ............................................................................................. 81
U

II. NI DUNG................................................................................................................. 81 1. CC TIN EINSTEIN .................................................................................. 81 2. NG HC TNG I TNH PHP BIN I LORENTZ .................... 82 3. CC H QU CA PHP BIN I LORENTZ ............................................ 84 4. NG LC HC TNG I........................................................................ 87 III. TM TT NI DUNG............................................................................................. 90 IV. CU HI L THUYT............................................................................................. 91 V. BI TP..................................................................................................................... 92 Chng VI: QUANG HC LNG T......................................................................... 95 I. MC CH - YU CU ............................................................................................. 95
U

II. NI DUNG................................................................................................................. 95 1. BC X NHIT .................................................................................................. 95 2. CC NH LUT PHT X CA VT EN TUYT I ........................... 98 3. THUYT LNG T PLANCK V THUYT PHTN EINSTEIN............ 99 4. HIN TNG QUANG IN.......................................................................... 101 5. HIU NG COMPTON .................................................................................... 104 III. TM TT NI DUNG........................................................................................... 106 IV. CU HI L THUYT........................................................................................... 109 IV. BI TP ................................................................................................................. 110 Chng VII: C HC LNG T .............................................................................. 116 I. MC CH - YU CU ........................................................................................... 116
U

II. NI DUNG............................................................................................................... 116 1. LNG TNH SNG HT CA VI HT....................................................... 116 2. H THC BT NH HEISENBERG ............................................................. 119 3. HM SNG ....................................................................................................... 120 167

Mc lc 4. PHNG TRNH SCHRODINGER..................................................................122 5. NG DNG CA PHNG TRNH SCHRODINGER..................................124 III. TM TT NI DUNG............................................................................................131 IV. CU HI L THUYT............................................................................................133 V. BI TP....................................................................................................................133 Chng VIII: VT L NGUYN T .............................................................................138 I. MC CH - YU CU............................................................................................138
U

II. NI DUNG................................................................................................................139 1. NGUYN T HIR ........................................................................................139 2. NGUYN T KIM LOI KIM .......................................................................144 3. MMEN NG LNG V MMEN T CA ELECTRN .....................146 4. SPIN CA ELECTRN .....................................................................................149 5. BNG H THNG TUN HON MENLEEV ..........................................153 III. TM TT NI DUNG............................................................................................155 IV. CU HI L THUYT............................................................................................158 V. BI TP....................................................................................................................159 PH LC ...........................................................................................................................164 TI LIU THAM KHO ................................................................................................165 MC LC ..........................................................................................................................166

168

You might also like