Chapter 5

Chapter 5 Mass, Bernoullil, and Energy Equations
5-1 Introduction 5-2 Conservation of Mass 5-3 Mechanical Energy and Efficiency 5-4 Bernoulli Equation 5-5 General Energy Equation 5-6 Energy Analysis of Steady Flows
Fluid Mechanics-- Chapter 5
5-1 Introduction
Conservation laws for: mass, momentum, energy, etc. Conservation laws were originally applied to a closed system or just a system. y j y In fluid mechanics, the conservation laws were extended to regions in space call control volume. Conservation of mass:
d msys dt =0= d mcv & & + mout min dt
Conservation of momentum: (in Chapter 6) Conservation of energy:

d Esys dt =0= d Ecv & & + Eout Ein dt
Fluid Mechanics-- Chapter 5 2
5-2 Conservation of Mass

Conservation of mass principle is one of the most fundamental principles in nature. Mass, like energy, is a conserved property, and it cannot be created or destroyed d i a process. tb t d d t d during For closed systems mass conservation is implicit since the mass of the system remains constant during a process. For control volumes, mass can cross the boundaries which means that we must keep track of the amount of mass entering and leaving the control volume.
r r & m = V d A = Vn d A
Ac Ac
Averaged Velocity & Volume Flow Rate

Integral in m can be replaced with & average values of and Vn
Vavg = 1 Ac
Ac
Vn d A
For many flows variation of is & very small: m = V avg Ac Volume flow rate is given by:
& V = Q = Vn d A = Vavg Ac
Ac
Note: many textbooks use Q & instead of V for volume flow rate Mass and volume flow rates are & & related by m = V
& & V V = Vavg Ac
Conservation of Mass Principle

mcv d mcv & & & & =0= + mout min ; or + mout min = 0 t t dt Net change in mass Total mass entering Total mass leaving = within the cv during t the cv during t the cv during t msys
d sys dt |
r r d cv d V + cs V d A dt | |
=m dmsys
=1
=1
r r d = dV + V d A cs dt d t cv
For a control volume of arbitrary shape:

d mcv d = dV ; dt d t cv
& m
out
r r & m in = V d A
cs
Continuity Equation
General (integral) form of the continuity equation:
d msys dt = r r d cv d V + cs V d A dt
If the mass of a system is constant:
cs
V d A =
d dV d t cv
For uniform flow (i.e. constant velocity):
V A = dt
cs
r r
cv
dV
Steady, 1-D flow in a conduit:
V A = 0 = 2V2 A2 1V1 A1
cs
r r
Continuity Equation (Cont.)

Ex. 5-1:
A garden hose attached with a nozzle is used to fill a 10-gal bucket. The inner diameter of the hose is 2 cm, and it reduces to 0.8 cm at the nozzle exit. If it takes 50 s to fill the bucket with water, determine a) the volume and mass flow rates of water through the hose, and b) the average velocity of water at the nozzle exit.

Ex. 1:
A jet of water discharges into an open tank, and water leaves the tank through an orifice in the bottom at a rate of 0.003 m3/s. If the cross-sectional area of the jet is 0.0025 m2 where the velocity of water is 7 m/s, at what rate is water accumulating in (or evacuating from) the tank?

Ex. 2:
Water flows steadily into a tank through pipes 1 and 2 and discharges at a steady rate out of the tank through pipes 3 and 4. The mean velocity of inflow and outflow in pipes 1, 2, and 3 is 50 ft/s, ft/s and the hypothetical outflow velocity in pipe 4 varies linearly from zero at wall to a maximum at the center of the pipe. What are the mass rate of flow discharge from pipe 4, and what is the maximum velocity in pipe 4?

Ex. 3:
A 10-cm jet of water issues from a 1-m diameter tank. Assume that the velocity in the jet is 2 g h m/s. How long will it take for the water surface into the tank to drop from h0 = 2 m to hf =0.5 m?
Ex. 4:
Methane escape through a small (10-7 m2) hole in a 10-m3 tank. The methane escapes so slowly that the temperature in the tank remains constant at 23oC. The mass flow rate of methane through & the hole is given by m = 0.66 p A R T , where p is the pressure in the tank. Calculate the time required for the absolute pressure in the tank to decrease from 500 to 400 kPa.
5-3 Mechanical Energy and Efficiency

Mechanical energy can be defined as the form of energy that can be converted to mechanical work completely and directly by an ideal mechanical device such as an ideal turbine Flow P/, kinetic V 2/ 2, and potential gz energy are the forms of mechanical energy emech= P/ + V 2/ 2 + gz Mechanical energy change of a fluid during incompressible flow becomes
emech = P2 P 1
V22 V12 + g ( z 2 z1 ) 2
In the absence of loses, emech represents the work supplied to the fluid (emech > 0) or extracted from the fluid (emech < 0).
5-3 Mechanical Energy & Efficiency (Cont.)

Transfer of emech is usually accomplished by a rotating shaft: shaft work Pump, fan, propulsion: receives shaft work (e.g., from an electric motor) and t l ti t ) d transfers it to the fluid as f t th fl id mechanical energy Turbine: converts emech of a fluid to shaft work In the absence of irreversibilities (e.g., friction), mechanical efficiency of a device or process can be defined as
mech =
Emech,out Emech,in = 1 Emech,loss Emech,in
If mech < 100%, losses have occurred during conversion

5-3 Mechanical Energy & Efficiency
(Cont.)
In fluid systems, we are usually interested in increasing the pressure, velocity, and/or elevation of a fluid
pump = turbine
& & Emech,fluid Wpump,u = & & Wshaft,in Wpump & & Wshaft,out W = = turbine & & Emech,fluid Wturbine,e & W
shaft, motor = & out Welec,in
generator = &elec,out Wshaft,in
& W
Overall efficiency: pumpmotor = pump motor ; turbinegen = turbinegen
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Ex. 5:
(Cont.)
The water in a large lake is to be used to generate electricity by the installation of a hydraulic turbine-generator at a location where the depth of the water is 50 m as shown in the p p picture below. Water is to be supplied at a rate of 5000 kg/s. If the electric power generated is measured to be 1862 kW and the generator efficiency is 95%, determine (a) the overall efficiency of the turbine-generator, (b) the mechanical efficiency of the turbine, and (c) the shaft power supplied by the turbine to the generator.
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Ex. 5-4:
(Cont.)
The motion of a steel ball in a hemispherical bowl of radius h, as shown in the picture below, is to be analyzed. The ball is initially held at the highest location at p g point A, and then it is released. , Obtain relations for the conservation of energy of the ball for the case of frictionless and actual motion.
15

HW. 5-20:
(Cont.)
At a certain location, wind is blowing steadily at 8 m/s. Determine the mechanical energy of air per unit mass and the power g generation p potential of a wind turbine with 50-m-diameter blades at that location. Also, determine the actual electric power generation assuming an overall efficiency of 30 percent. Take the air density to be 1.25 kg/m3.
Wind Wind 8m/s turbine 50m
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5-4 Bernoulli Equation

Acceleration of a fluid element:
F
or
= mas
P A ( P + P ) A W sin = s A as
Q W = g s A P + g sin = as s
Hence,
P z +g = as (Eulers equation) s s
Q V = V ( s, t ) d V = V V ds + dt t s dV V V =V + Thus, as = dt s t
5-4 Bernoulli Equation (Cont.)

Integrating Newtons second law for particle motion along a pathline provides a relationship between the change in kinetic energy and the work done on the particle. I t Integrating E l equation along a pathline i a steady ti Eulers ti l thli in t d flow of an incompressible fluid yields an equivalent relationship called the Bernoulli equation.
Along a pathline: ( P + g z ) = as s For a steady flow: d dV Q =0 ( P + g z ) = V ds ds t d 1 2 (P + g z + 12 V 2 ) = 0 or, { + { + { = constant P/ gz 2V ds Flow potential kinetic
energy energy energy
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5-4 Bernoulli Equation (Cont.)

Along the direction normal to the streamline: V2 ( P + g z ) = an and an = r r For an irrotational flow: dV V d (P + g z + 12 V 2 ) = 0 = dr r dr
Bernoulli equation for the steady, irrotational flow of an incompressible, inviscid fluid:
P + g z + 1 V 2 = constant 2
where V i th speed of th fl id and not a velocity component h is the d f the fluid d t l it t
Limitations on the use of the Bernoullil equation:

Steady, incompressible, frictionless flow along a streamline No shaft work No heat transfer
HGL & EGL

Along a streamline:
P V2 + + { = { = constant z H 2g g total { { elevation head head
velocity head
pressure head
Hydraulic grade line (HGL): P g + z Energy grade line (EGL): P g + V 2 2 g + z
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10
HGL & EGL

For stationary bodies, the EGL and HGL coinside with the free surface of the liquid,, and can be represented by the elevation head of the free surface (z) THE EGL is always a distance V 2/2 above the HGL /2g For an idealized flow, EGL remains constant At the pipe exit, the HGL coinsides with the pipe outlet (Pgage = 0) The mechanical energy loss causes gy the EGL and HGL to slope downward in the direction of flow The gage pressure of a fluid is zero at locations where the HGL intersects the fluid
Application of Bernoulli Equation

Stagnation tube:
p1 + 1 V12 = p2 + 1 V22 2 2
V1 = 2 g l
where z1 = z 2
p2: stagnation pressure
Pitot tube:
p1 + 1 V12 + z1 = p2 + 1 V22 + z2 2 2 V = V2 = 2 g (h1 h2 )
where h = p + z
22
11
Application of Bernoulli Equation (Cont.)

Ex. 6:
A mercury-kerosene manometer is connected to the Pitot tube as shown. If the deflection on the manometer is 7 in., what is the kerosene velocity in the pipe? (The specific gravity of the kerosene and mercury are 0.81 and 13.55)
Ex. 7:
A differential pressure gage is connected across the taps of a Pitot tube. When this Pitot tube is used in a wind tunnel test, the gage indicates a p of 730 Pa. What is the air velocity in the tunnel? The pressure and temperature in the tunnel are 98 kPa absolute and 20oC.

Ex. 8:
A large tank open to the atmosphere is filled with water to a height of 5 m from the outlet tap. A tap near the bottom of the tank is now opened, and water flows out from the smooth and rounded outlet. Determine the water velocity at the outlet.
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12

Ex. 5-7:
During a trip to the beach (Patm = 101.3 kPa), a car runs out of gasoline, and it becomes necessary to siphon gas out of another car as shown in the picture. To start the siphon it is necessary to insert one siphon end in the full gas tank, fill the hose with gasoline via suction, and then place the other end in a gas can below the level of the gas tank. The difference in pressure between point 1 and point 2 causes the liquid to flow from the higher to the lower elevation. Point 2 is located 0.75 m below point 1 in this case, and point 3 is located 2 m above point 1 case 1. The siphon diameter is 4 mm, and frictional losses in the siphon are to be disregarded. Determine (a) the minimum time to withdraw 4 L of gasoline from the tank to the can, and (b) the pressure at point 3. The density of gasoline is 750 kg/m3.

Ex. 5-8:
A piezometer and a Pitot tube are tapped into a horizontal water pipe, as shown in the picture, to measure static and stagnation (static + dynamic) pressures. For the indicated water column heights, determine the velocity at the center of the pipe f
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13

Ex. 5-10:
Derive the Bernoulli equation when the compressibility effects are not negligible for an ideal gas undergoing (a) an isothermal process and (b) an isentropic process
HW. 5-40:
In a hydroelectric power plant, water enters the turbine nozzles at 800 kPa absolute with a low velocity. If the nozzle outlets are exposed to atmospheric pressure of 100 kPa, determine the maximum velocity to which water can be accelerated by the nozzle before striking the turbine blades g
HW. 5-41:
A pitot-static probe is used to measure the speed of an aircraft flying at 3000 m. If the differential pressure reading is 3 kPa, determine the speed of the aircraft

Tornado:
Can be modeled as a forced vortex at the center surrounded by a free vortex At point 3: p V3 0 ; p3 p0 ; z3 = z = C At point 2: V2 = Vmax = r2 ;
z = z2 = C
In region 23: p + 1 V 2 + z = p3 + 1 V32 + z3 2 2
p = p0 1 V 2 2
In region 12:
p + g z 1 r 2 2 = p2 + g z 2 1 r22 2 2 2
2 p = p0 Vmax + 1 V 2 2
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14

Pressure variation for an incompressible, irrotational, lowviscosity flow near curved boundaries:
p + 1 V 2 + z = p0 + 1 V02 + z0 2 2 Cp = Cp = V h h0 A = 1 = 1 0 2 V V0 2 g A 0 V p p0 A = 1 = 1 0 V 1 V 2 A 0 0 2
2 2 2
or
29

Irrotational flow past a circular cylinder
Pressure distribution of an irrotational flow on a cylinder

15
5-5 General Energy Equation

One of the most fundamental laws in nature is the 1st law of thermodynamics, which is also known as the conservation of energy principle It states that energy can be neither created nor destroyed during a process; it can only change forms
Falling rock, picks up speed as PE is converted to KE If air resistance is neglected, PE + KE = constant
31
5-5 General Energy Equation (Cont.)

The energy content of a closed system can be changed by two mechanisms: heat transfer Q and work transfer W. d k f Conservation of energy for a closed system can be expressed in rate form as
d Esys & & Qnet,in + Wnet,in = dt
Net rate of heat transfer to the system:

& & & Qnet,in = Qin Qout
Net power input to the system:

& & & Wnet,in = Win Wout
16
Derivation of the Energy Equation

The 1st law of thermodynamics:
Esys = Qin + Win & & = Qin + Win dt Esys: energy of a system; Qiin: heat transfer to the system; Wout: work done by the system on its surrounding Eu: internal energy; Ek: kinetic energy; Ep: potential energy Esys ; esys = eu + ek + e p esys = m V2 ek = ep = g z eu : specific internal energy 2 & & & & & Wnet,in = Ws,in W f Wviscous + Wother,in & Ws,in : shaft work (turbine, pump, etc.) applied to the flow system; r r r r & W f : flow work done by the pressure = PV d A = PV A; Esys = Eu + Ek + E p
A A
d Esys
& Wviscous : work done by the viscous forces


Control-volume of energy conservation:
d sys r r d cv d V + cs V d A dt dt | | | =E =e =e r r d Esys d = e d V + e V d A cs dt d t cv =
Control-volume approach to the 1st law of y thermodynamics:

d Esys dt = r r d & & cv e d V + cs e V d A = Qin + Wnet,in dt
r r V 2 d V 2 & & Qin + Wnet,in = 2 + g z + eu d V + cs 2 + g z + eu V d A d t cv

17

& Flow Work (W f ):
The work done by pressure forces as the system moves through space r r r r & W f = PV A = PV d A
cs cs
i.e. & W
r r = P2V2 A2 = V2 P2 A2 r r & W f ,1 = P V1 A1 = V1 P A1 1 1
f ,2
Energy Equation:
P V2 r r d V 2 & & Qin + Ws ,in = + g z + eu d V + + 2 + g z + eu V A cv 2 dt cs = P V2 r r d V 2 cv 2 + g z + eu d V + cs + 2 + g z + eu V d A dt
5-6 Energy Analysis of Steady Flows

For steady flow:
P V2 r r V 2 r r & & Qin + Ws,in = + 2 + g z + eu V A = 2 + g z + h V A cs cs P V2 r r V 2 r r = + + g z + eu V d A = + g z + h V d A cs cs 2 2
h: specific enthalpy of the fluid = eu+P/
Steady, incompressible flow through a pipe:

V2 P & & & Qin + Ws,in + 1 1 + g z1 + eu ,1 + 1 m 2 V2 P & = 2 2 + g z 2 + eu , 2 + 2 m 2 r r & where m = V d A = Vavg A = V A
V 2 r
r V2 V2 & V d A = V A = m 2 2 2
18
5-6 Energy Analysis of Steady Flows (Cont.)

Steady, incompressible flow through a pump/turbine system:
& & & Ws,in = W p Wt & Wt : work done on turbine by the fluid & W p : work done on the fluid by pump
1 & & & Q V2 P W 1 V1 2 P Wp + z1 + 1 + = 2 2 + z2 + 2 + t + (eu , 2 eu ,1 ) in g & & & mg 2g 2g mg mg
Mechanical energy can be converted to thermal energy through viscous friction between fluid particles (this process is irreversible) Head loss (hL) is defines as:
1
hL =
& Q 1 (eu , 2 eu ,1 ) in & g mg

h p : pump head
V1 2 P V2 P + z1 + 1 + h p = 2 2 + z 2 + 2 + ht + hL 2g 2g 14 244 4 3 144 44 2 3
total head total head
hL = 0 for inviscid flow ht : turbine head
37

Ex. 5-11:
Show that during steady and incompressible flow of a fluid in an adiabatic flow section (a) the temperature remains constant and there is no head loss when friction is ignored and (b) the temperature increases and some head loss occurs when frictional effects are considered. Discuss if it is possible for the fluid temperature to decrease during such flow.
38
19

Ex. 5-12:
The pump of a water distribution system is powered by a 15-kW electric motor whose efficiency is 90 percent, as shown in the picture. picture The water flow rate through the pump is 50 L/s. The diameters of the inlet and outlet pipes are the same, and the elevation difference across the pump is negligible. If the pressures at the inlet and outlet of the pump are measured to be 100 kPa and 300 kPa (absolute), respectively, determine (a) the mechanical efficiency of ( ) y the pump and (b) the temperature rise of water as it flows through the pump due to the mechanical inefficiency.
39

Ex. 5-13:
In a hydroelectric power plant, 100 m3/s of water flows from an elevation of 120 m to a turbine, where electric power is generated as shown in the picture. The total irreversible head loss in the piping system from point 1 to point 2 (excluding the turbine unit) is determined to be 35 m. If the overall efficiency of the turbine generator is 80 percent, estimate the electric power output.
40
20

Ex. 5-14:
A fan is to be selected to cool a computer case whose dimensions are 12-cm40-cm40-cm, as shown in the picture. Half of the volume in the case is expected to be filled with components and the other half to be air space. A 5 cm diameter hole is available at space 5-cm the back of the case for the installation of the fan that is to replace the air in the void spaces of the case once every second. Small low-power fanmotor combined units are available in the market and their efficiency is estimated to be 30 percent. Determine (a) the wattage of the fanmotor unit to be purchased and (b) the pressure difference across the fan. Take the air density to be 1.20 kg/m3. g
41

Ex. 5-15:
A submersible pump with a shaft power of 5 kW and an efficiency of 72 percent is used to pump water from a lake to a pool through a constant diameter pipe as shown in the picture. The free surface of the pool i 25 m above th f f th l is b the free surface of th l k If the f f the lake. th irreversible head loss in the piping system is 4 m, determine the discharge rate of water and the pressure difference across the pump.
42
21

Example:
A steam turbine receives superheated steam at 1.4 MPa absolute and 400oC (h = 3121 kJ/kg). The steam leaves the turbine at 101 kPa absolute and 100oC (h = 2676 kJ/kg). The steam enters the turbine at 15 m/s and exits at 60 m/s. The elevation difference m/s between and exit ports is negligible. The heat lost through the turbine wall is 7600 kJ/h. Calculate the power output if the mass flow through the turbine is 0.5 kg/s.
43

Example:
The velocity distribution for laminar flow in a pipe is given by the r 2 equation
V = Vmax 1 ro
where ro is the radius of the pipe and r is the radial distance from the center. Determine the average velocity Vave in terms of Vmax and evaluate the kinetic-energy correction factor
44
22

Example:
A horizontal pipe carries cooling water for a thermal power plant from a reservoir as shown. The head loss in the pipe is given as
0.02( L D)V 2 2g
Where L is the length of the pipe from the reservoir to the point in question, V is the mean velocity in the pipe, and D is the diameter of the pipe. If the pipe diameter is 20 cm and the rate of flow is 0.06 m3/s, what is the pressure in the pipe at L = 2000m?
45

Example:
The pipe in the figure is 50 cm in diameter and carries water at a rate of 0.5 m3/s. Also, z2 = 40 m, z1 = 30 m, and p1 = 70 kPa gage. What power in Kilowatts and in horsepower must be supplied to the flow by the pump if the gage pressure at section 2 is to be 350 kPa? (Assume hL = 3m of water and 1 = 2 = 1)
46
23

Example:
At the maximum rate of power generation this hydroelectric power plant takes a discharge of 141 m3/s. If the head loss through the intakes, penstock, and outlet works is 1.52 m, what is the rate of power generation? (A ti ? (Assume 1 = 2 = 1)
47

HW. 5-86:
Water flows at a rate of 20 L/s through a horizontal pipe whose diameter is constant at 3 cm. The pressure drop across a valve in the pipe is measured to be 2 kPa, as shown in the picture below. Determine th i D t i the irreversible h d l ibl head loss of the valve, and th useful f th l d the f l pumping power needed to overcome the resulting pressure drop.
48
24
Homework
5-7, 5-9, 5-14, 5-23, 5-24, 5-41 (292 km/h), 5-44 (1.33 m/s), 5-45, 5-47, 5-48, 5-54 (6.24 cm), 5-55 (4.48 ft /s), 5-57, 5-61 (33.8 m/s), 5-76, 5-85 (47.1%), 5-89 (55 kW), 5-90, 5-91 (6.76 kW, 23 m), 5-95 (0.0133 m /s, 278 kPa), 5-104, 5-107, 5-104 5-107 5-113 (97 4 kPa) 97.4
3 3
5-45: (a) (b) 5-47: (a)
tf =
tf =
D02 2 H H D2 g g
D02 D2 2H g
2
hmax =
& 1 4min 2 g D02
(b) (
1 4
2 2 1 1 & m 1 Do 2 g z 2 DT 4 Do2 2 g z + min l in 4 =t & ln 2 & min Do2 2 g
49
Chapter 6: Momentum Analysis of Flow Systems
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25

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Chapter 5

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Chapter 5 Mass, Bernoullil, and Energy Equations

Fluid Mechanics-- Chapter 5

Conservation of momentum: (in Chapter 6) Conservation of energy:

5-2 Conservation of Mass

Averaged Velocity & Volume Flow Rate

& & V V = Vavg Ac

Conservation of Mass Principle

For a control volume of arbitrary shape:

If the mass of a system is constant:

For uniform flow (i.e. constant velocity):

Steady, 1-D flow in a conduit:

Fluid Mechanics-- Chapter 5

Continuity Equation (Cont.)

Fluid Mechanics-- Chapter 5

Continuity Equation (Cont.)

Fluid Mechanics-- Chapter 5

Continuity Equation (Cont.)

Fluid Mechanics-- Chapter 5

Continuity Equation (Cont.)

5-3 Mechanical Energy and Efficiency

5-3 Mechanical Energy & Efficiency (Cont.)

If mech < 100%, losses have occurred during conversion

5-3 Mechanical Energy & Efficiency

shaft, motor = & out Welec,in

generator = &elec,out Wshaft,in

Overall efficiency: pumpmotor = pump motor ; turbinegen = turbinegen

Fluid Mechanics-- Chapter 5

5-3 Mechanical Energy & Efficiency

Fluid Mechanics-- Chapter 5

5-3 Mechanical Energy & Efficiency

Fluid Mechanics-- Chapter 5

5-3 Mechanical Energy & Efficiency

Fluid Mechanics-- Chapter 5

5-4 Bernoulli Equation

5-4 Bernoulli Equation (Cont.)

Fluid Mechanics-- Chapter 5

5-4 Bernoulli Equation (Cont.)

where V i th speed of th fl id and not a velocity component h is the d f the fluid d t l it t

Limitations on the use of the Bernoullil equation:

HGL & EGL

Hydraulic grade line (HGL): P g + z Energy grade line (EGL): P g + V 2 2 g + z

Fluid Mechanics-- Chapter 5

HGL & EGL

Application of Bernoulli Equation

p2: stagnation pressure

Fluid Mechanics-- Chapter 5

Application of Bernoulli Equation (Cont.)

Application of Bernoulli Equation (Cont.)

Fluid Mechanics-- Chapter 5

Application of Bernoulli Equation (Cont.)

Application of Bernoulli Equation (Cont.)

Fluid Mechanics-- Chapter 5

Application of Bernoulli Equation (Cont.)

Application of Bernoulli Equation (Cont.)

In region 23: p + 1 V 2 + z = p3 + 1 V32 + z3 2 2

Fluid Mechanics-- Chapter 5

Application of Bernoulli Equation (Cont.)

Fluid Mechanics-- Chapter 5

Application of Bernoulli Equation (Cont.)

Pressure distribution of an irrotational flow on a cylinder

5-5 General Energy Equation

Falling rock, picks up speed as PE is converted to KE If air resistance is neglected, PE + KE = constant

Fluid Mechanics-- Chapter 5