PHN 1 : C S VT LIU HC CHNG 1 : CU TRC TINH TH CA VT LIU

1.1.CU TO NGUYN T V CC LOI LIN KT IN HNH TRONG CHT RN : 1.1.1.M hnh cu to nguyn t : Nguyn t l mt h thng bao gm ht nhn mang in dng v cc in t mang in m chuyn ng xung quanh. Ht nhn nguyn t cu to bi cc prton v ntron. Prton mang in dng c in tch bng in tch ca i n t, ntron khng mang in. Trong trng thi bnh thng nguyn t trung ha in v s l ng prton bng s lng in t. S ny c c trng bng s th t (Z) trong bng tun hon Menlp. Khi lng nguyn t bng khi lng ht nhn ca n v khi l ng c a prton v ntron ln hn rt nhiu so vi khi lng in t. Vi cng khi lng in t v prton, ht nhn c th cha s lng ntron khc nhau v to nn cc ng v c a cng mt nguyn t ha hc. Xc sut tm thy in t trn mt qu o no xung quanh ht nhn c xc nh bng bn tham s gi l s lng t. C ngha l trng thi nng lng c a mi in t trong nguyn t c xc nh bi bn s lng t. Cc s lng t gm c : a-S lng t chnh n : c cc gi tr bng 1, 2, 3, 4... xc nh nng lng cho php ca in t. Cc in t c cng s lng t chnh n hp thnh mt lp in t. Cc lp in t ln lt l : K, L, M, N... tng ng vi n = 1, 2, 3, 4 ... b-S lng t phng v l : xc nh cc gi tr cho php ca mmen xung lng qu o, c tr s bng 0, 1, 2, 3... (n - 1). Cc i n t vi l khc nhau c a cng l p t o thnh nhng phn lp tng ng, k hiu ln lt l s, p, d, f...ng vi l = 0, 1, 2, 3... c-S lng t t ml : xc nh kh nng nh hng cho php ca vc t mmen xung lng qu o i vi chiu ca t trng bn ngoi, c tr s bng 0, 1, 2, 3... l . d-S lng t spin ms : xc nh kh nng nh hng ngc chiu nhau ca vc t mmen xung lng spin ca in t, ms = 1/ 2. Ngoi ra s phn b in t theo cc mc khc nhucon phi tun theo nguyn l loi tr Pauly : mi trng thi vi ba s lng t n, l, ml xc nh ch c th cha hai in t vi spin ngc chiu nhau. Da vo nguyn l ny ta c th d on s i n t cho php trn cc bc nng lng. V d : nguyn t ng Cu c s th t Z = 29, phn b in t nh sau : 1s2 2s22p6 3s23p63d10 4s2 (Cn gi l cu hnh in t) K L M N Trong mt s iu kin xc nh, in t c th chuyn t trng thi ny sang trng thi khc, khi s pht ra hay hp th nng lng di dng E di dng cc lng t nh sng c tn s : E = El -El+1 = h vi h = 6,627.10-27ec.s (hng s Planck) 1.1.2.Cc loi lin kt nguyn t thng gp :

Trong cht rn thng gp bn loi lin kt sau y : lin kt ng ha tri, lin kt ion, lin kt kim loi, lin kt hn hp v lin kt Vanderval. 1-Lin kt ng ha tr : Lin kt ny to ra khi hai hoc nhiu nguyn t gp chung nhau mt s in t c tm in t lp ngoi cng (in t ha tr). V d lin kt ng ha tr gi a hai nguyn t clo trong phn t Cl2 (H1.1, L). Hai nguyn t ny c s in t lp ngoi cng l 7. Do vy chng phi gp chung hai in t lp ngoi cng tm in t. c im ca lin kt ng ha tr : 1-Lin kt c tnh nh hng, ngha l xc sut tn ti cc i n t lin k t l n nht theo phng ni tm cc nguyun t. 2-Cng lin kt ph thuc rt mnh vo c tnh lin kt gia cc in t ha tr vi ht nhn. V d cc bon dng a hnh kim cng c lin kt ng ha tr rt mnh v bn in t ha tr (trong s su in t) lin kt hu nh trc tip vi ht nhn. Do vy nhit nng chy ca n cao hn 3550oC. Trong khi thic (Sn) c lin kt ng ha tr rt yu v bn in t ha tr (trong s 50 in t) nm xa ht nhn nn lc lin kt yu i vi ht nhn do nhit nng chy thp 270oC. 3-Lin kt ng ha tr c th xy ra gia cc nguyn t cng loi (ca mt nguyn t ha hc trong cc nhm t IVA n VIIA), gi l lin kt ng ha tr ng cc. V d trong phn t Cl2 hay cc tinh th kim cng, si lc, gcmani ...Lin kt ng ha tr gia cc nguyn t khc loi (cc nguyn t ha hc nhm IIIA vi nhm VIA) gi l lin kt ng ha tr d cc. 2-Lin kt ion : y l loi lin kt mnh, cc nguyn t cho bt in t lp ngoi cng v rtr thn ion dng hay nhn thm in t bo ha lp ngoi cng v tr thnh ion m. V d : trong lin kt LiF, Li cho bt mt in t lp ngoi cng tr thnh Li +, cn F nhn thm mt in t v tr thnh F-.(H1.2, L) Lin kt ion thng to nn gia cc nguyn t c nhiu in t ha tr (nhm VIB, VIIB) vi cc nhm nguyn t c t in t ha tr (nhm IB, IIB). Cc xyt kim loi Al2O3, MgO, CaO, Fe3O4 c lin kt ch yu l lin kt ion. Lin kt ion cng bn vng (cng mnh) khi cc nguyn t cha cng t i n t , ngha l cc in t cho v nhn nm gn ht nhn. Lin kt ion l lo i lin k t khng nh hng. V d : hydr to vi F, Cl, Br, I cc hp cht HF, HCl, HBr, HI c nng lng lin kt ln lt l 5,81; 4,44; 3,75 v 3,06 eV/mol. 3-Lin kt kim loi : Cc ion dng kim loi to thnh mng xc nh, t trong khng gain i n t do chung. Nng lng lin kt l tng hp lc y v ht tnh in gia cc ion d ng v my in t t do (H1.3 L). Lin kt kim loi thng c to nn t nhng nguyn t c t in t ha tr. V d : cc nguyn t nhm IA trong bng tun hon Menlep vi mt in t ha tr c tnh kim loi in hnh. Cng i v bn phi ca bng tu n hon tnh cht ng ha tr trong lin kt cng cao. Cc cht rn c lin kt kim loi trong cu trc tinh th ca n c tnh i xng cao. 4-Lin kt ng hn hp :

Lin kt ng ha tr thun ty ch c c trong trng hp kin kt ng cc (gia cc nguyn t ca cng mt nguyn t ha hc). rong trng hp lin kt d c c (gia cc nguyn t ca cc nguyn t khc nhau) in t ha tr tham gia lin kt chu hai nh hng tri ngc : -B ht bi ht nhn ca n -B ht bi ht nhn ca nguyn t th hai to in t chung. Kh nng ca ht nhn ht in t ha tr c gi l tnh m in ca nguyn t. S khc nhau v tnh m in gia cc nguyn t trong lin kt ng ha tr lm m my in t "chung" b bin dng v to thnh ngu cc in, l tin t ca lin k t ion. Tnh ion ca lin kt s cng ln nu s khc nhau v tnh m i n c a cc nguyn t cng ln. V d : Na c tnh m in bng 0,9 cn Cl c tnh m i n bng 3,0. Do v y trong lin kt NaCl gm khong 58% lin kt ion v 48% lin k t ng ha tr . T t c nhng lin kt d cc u mang tnh cht hn hp gia lin kt ion v ng ha tr 5-Lin kt yu (lin kt Val der Val) : Lin kt ng ha tr cho php gii thch s to thnh cc phn t nh nc (H 2O) hay polyetylen (C2H4)n nhng khng th gii thch s to thnh mt s vt rn t nhng phn t trung ha nh nc , polyme... Trong nhiu phn t c lin kt ng ha tr, do s khc nhau v tnh m in ca cc nguyn t, trng tm in tch dng v in tch m khng trng nhau s to thnh ngu cc in v phn t b phn cc. Lin kt Val der Val l lin kt do hi n tng hut nhau gia cc nguyn t hoc phn t b phn cc trng thi rn (hnh 1.4 L). y l loi lin kt yu, rt d b ph hy do ba ng nhit. Do vy cc cht rn trn c s lin kt Val der Val c nhit nng chy thp. 1.2.CU TO MNG TINH TH L TNG : 1.2.1.Cc khi nim c bn : 1-Mt tinh th : trong kim loi cc nguyn t sp xp c trt t , tc l chng u nm trn nhng mt phng song song v cch u nhau gi l mt tinh th .T p h p v s cc mt nh vy to nn mng tinh th . 2-Khi c s (cn gi l c bn) :l phn nh nht c trng cho mt loi mng tinh th .C th xem nh mng tinh th l do v s cc khi c s xp lin tip nhau to nn. 3-Thng s mng (cn gi l hng s mng) : l khong cch gia hai nguyn t trn mt cnh ca khi c s .Thng s mng l kch thc c bn ca mng tinh th, t c th suy ra cc khong cch bt k trong mng .n v o thng s mng l kx (nano mt) hay ng strng , vi 1kx = 1,00202Ao = 1,00202.10-8 cm. Theo thng s mng ta c th tnh c ng knh nguyn t kim loi . Thng s mng thng k hiu l a . 1.2.2.Cc kiu mng tinh th thng gp : Trong cc kim loi thng dng thng gp ba kiu mng tinh th sau y : 1-Lp phng tm khi A2 (th tm) : Cc nguyn t nm cc nh v trung tm ca khi lp phng . Nu coi cc nguyn t l hnh cu v biu di n gn nh th t th cc nguyn t nm cc nh cho nhau th tip xc vi nhau qua nguyn t trung tm .Cc nguyn t cn li khng tip xc vi nhau . Kiu mng ny c trong cc kim loi

Fe ,Cr,Mo,V. Khong cch gn nht gia hai nguyn t l d =

a 3 2

v r =

a 3 4

. Kiu

mng ny c mt thng s mng l a. Kiu mng ny c h s sp xp l K8, ngha l bt k nguyn t no cng c tm nguyn t cch u n mt khong gn nht. 2- Lp phng tm din A1 (din tm) : Cc nguyn t nm cc nh v tm ca cc mt bn . Nu coi cc nguyn t l hnh cu v biu din gn nh tht th nguyn t nm nh v tm ca cc mt bn th tip xc vi nhau .Cc nguyn t cn li khng tip xc vi nhau . Khong cch gn nht gia hai nguyn t l d =
a 2 2

v r =

a 2 4

. Kiu mng

ny ch c mt thng s mng l a . Thng gp trong cc kim lo i Fe ,Cu,Ni,Al,Pb...S sp xp ca mng A1 l K12. 3-Su phng xp cht A3 (lc gic xp cht) : Cc nguyn t nm cc nh v tm hai mt y ca hnh lng tr lc gic u .Ba nguyn t nm trung tm ba lng tr tam gic cch nhau .Su phng xp cht c hai thng s mng l a v c , t s c/a gi l h s xp cht .Trong trng hp l tng
c 8 = a 3 khong 1,57

1,633 .Trong thc t t s c/a khng

ng l 1,633 m dao ng trong trong 1,64 v cng c coi l xp cht . Cc kim loi c kiu mng ny l : Zn,Cd,Co,Mg,Ti,Ru... 4-Chnh phng tm khi (th tm) : Trong t chc ca thp sau khi ti (mactexit) cn c kiu mng chnh phng tm khi . C th coi kiu mng ny l lp phng tm khi c ko di theo mt chiu . N c hai thng s mng l a v c , t s c/a gi l chnh phng . Trong thc t s sp xp ca cc nguyn t trong kim loi theo xu hng dy c nht . Do khng c kim loi no c kiu mng n gin chnh phng tm khi c . 1.3.CU TO MNG TINH TH THC T : 1.3.1.Phn loi cc sai lch trong mng tinh th : Cc cu trc trnh by trn gi l cu trc ca tinh th l tng v khi xem xt b qua dao ng nhit v cc sai hng trong trt t sp xp ca cc nguyn t (ion, phn t). Cc sai hng gi l sai lch mng tinh th hay khuyt tt mng. Hnh vi c a tinh th di tc dng ca ngoi lc (bin cng, bin dng do), dn in, tnh cch in v tnh bn dn ... s b nh hng rt ln do sai lch mng tinh th. Da vo kch thc theo ba chiu sai lch mng c phn ra lm ba loi : sai lch im, sai lch ng, sai lch mt v khi. 1.Sai lch im : Sai lch im l cc sai lch c kch thc rt nh theo ba chiu o khng gian (c kch thc nguyn t). C cc dng sau : nt trng, nguyn t xen k v nguyn t t p cht. a-Nt trng v nguyn t xen k : Trong tinh th nguyn t lun lun dao ng nhit xung quanh v tr cn bng ca mnh. Ti nhit xc nh, nng lng dao ng ca mi nguyn t tun theo l thuyt thng k Mc xoen - Bol z man nn khng gi ng nhau. Khi mt s nguyn t no c nng lng cao, vi bin dao ng ln, chng c kh nng ri b nt mng v li nt khng c nguyn t, l nt trng.(hnh 1.28ab L) Sau nguyn t c th chuyn sangv tr gia cc nt ( c ch to nt trng Frenken)

to ra sai lch im dng nguyn t xen k (hnh 1.28a). Khi nguyn t ri khi v tr cn bng i ra b mt tinh th gi l c ch nt trng Stky S xut hin nt trng v nguyn t xen k lun lm xut hin trng ng sut hnh cu (ko xung quanh nt trng v nn xung quanh nguyn t xen k ). Nng nt trng thc t ln hn nhiu so vi nguyn t xen k v nng lng to nt trng nh hn nhiu so vi nguyn t xen k. Mt nt trng sbiu din theo cng thc :
n Q = exp( ) N KT

-n,N : s nt trng v s nt mng. -Q : nng lng to nt trng -K : hng s Bonzman -T : nhit tuyt i. Qua cng thc trn ta thy rng nng nt trng tng nhanh theo nhi t v c gi tr ln nht kim loi lng. b-Nguyn t tp cht : Trong thc t khng th c vt liu kim loi nguyn cht tuyt i. Vi cng ngh nu luyn hin i ngy nay c th t sch n 99,99999%. Do vy trong kim loi lun c tp cht. Ty theo kch thc nguyn t m tp cht c th thay th vo v tr nguyn t kim loi trn nt mng hay xen gia cc nt (hnh 1.28cd L ). Xung quanh cc nguyn t tp cht lun c trng ng sut hnh cu. 2-Sai lch ng - Lch Sai lch ng l loi sai lch c kch thc nh (kch c nguyn t) theo hai chiu o v rt ln theo chiu th ba trong tinh th (s gi l lch). L thuyt v lch l c s l thuyt bn trong vt l kim loi. Nh c l thuyt lch ta c th gii thch c nhiu vn v c tinh, l tnh c a kim loi v h p kim. Trn c s ch to cc kim loi v hp kim c bit : siu bn, siu do... a-Lch ng : Gi thm vo pha trn mng tinh th l tng mt na mt phng nguyn t ABCD. Phn na pha trn ca tinh th (trn ng AB) s chu ng sut nn, na di chu ng sut ko (hnh 1.29 L ). ng AB di hng nghn hng vn thng s mng gi l trc lch. AB l bin gii pha trong ca na mt ABCD nn gi l lch bin. Nu na mt nguyn t nm pha trn gi l lch dng, k hiu , nm pha di gi l lch m, k hiu T. b-Lch xon : ta c th hnh dung lch xon nh sau : ct mng tinh th l tng bng na mt phng ABCD (hnh 1.30 L), sau x dch hai mp ngoi ngc chi u nhau sao cho cc nguyn t mt ngoi s x dch mt on bng mt thng s mng theo ng CD. Do cc nguyn t s sp xp li quanh AB theo ng xon c v ta c lch xon. (hnh 1.30b L). AB gi l trc lch xon. Nu ng xon c nguyn t xung quanh trc lch theo chiu kim ng h gila lch xon phi, k hiu ngc l i gi l lch xon tri, k hiu . c-Lch hn hp : Trong nhiu trng hp mt lch c c trng ca c lch bin v lch xon gi l lch hn hp (hnh 1.32 L ) 3-Sai lch mt : Sai lch mt l cc sai lch c kch thc ln theo hai chi u o v nh theo chiu o th ba. Gm c cc loi : bin gii ht, bin gi i siu ht, mt ngoi tinh th ... Trong :

a-Bin gii ht : l vng tip gip gia cc ht trong a tinh th. Cc nguyn t vng bin gii ht khng sp xp theo trt t mng v c th coi nh vng cu trc v nh hnh. (hnh 1.35a L). Chiu dy bin gii ht ph thuc vo sch ca vt liu, c th t hng trm thng s mng. Kim loi cng tinh khit chiu dy bin gi ht cng mng. b-Bin gii siu ht : Siu ht (blc) l nhng vng tinh th nh (kch thc trung bnh c 102 - 104 nm, vi cu trc tinh th kh hon chnh, nh hng lch nhau mt gc nh, ngn cch bng bin gii siu ht. Bin gii siu ht thc cht l nhng tng lch, to nn do nhng lch cng du tng tc ln nhau khi chng trt trn nhng mt trt song song v gi nhau v tr cn bng (hnh 1.36 L). Hai siu ht ln c n nh h ng lch nhau mt gc bng : =
b b = . D D

D - khong cch trung bnh gia cc lch bin cng du trn trng lch. b - vc t trt (Bure). Bin gii cc siu ht thng xut hin trong qa trnh kt tinh li, c tc dng cn tr trt v tng tc vi cc loi sai lch im khc nn cng ng vai tr trong tnh do ca vt liu. c-Sai lch xp : Sai lch xp (cn gi l khuyt tt xp) l s ph v tr t t x p cht ca tinh th. Gi s mng A1 c trt t sp xp l ABCABCABC, v l do no , trt t b ph v, chng hn tha mt lp xp cht c sai l ch xp th a ABACA...Nu trong trt t xp thiu mt lp s to sai lch xp thiu ABCABABC... (hnh 1.37a v 1.37b) Sai lch xp c trng bng nng lng SLX gi l nng lng ca sai lch xp. iu kin cn bng rng carsai lch xp l : r do = Trong :
G (b 2 b3 ) 2 SLX

urur u b2 b3 - vc t trt ca cc lch khng hon chnh gii hn SLX SLX - nng lng ca sai lch xp.

G - m un trt

Sai lch xp c vai tr rt ln trong lnh vc ha bn vt li u, y l mt trong nhng phng hng quan trng nng cao bn l hp kim ha, lm tng r ng d o, lm gim SLX , tc l tng cn tr chuyn ng ca lch bng sai lc xp. d-Cu trc mt ngoi tinh th : Mt ngoi tinh th c hnh thi tn t i khc so v i nhng mt phng tinh th bn trong. C th hng dung d dng rng i vi cc nguyn t mt ngoi (mt gii hn tinh th) khng c s sp xp nh nguyn t bn trong. V vy mt ngoi chng khng sp xp theo trt t quy nh ca tinh th (hnh 1.39 L) v to thnh vng sai lch. Sc cng b mt tinh th (nng lng b mt) c trng phn gia tng nng lng t do gi cc nguyn t b mt trng thi n nh. Do c im cu trc sai lch cho nn lp mt ngoi tinh th cng c nhng tng tc c bi t vi cc sai lch khc. 4-Sai lch khi : Nhng sai lch c kch thc ln theo ba chiu trong mng tinh th gi l sai lch khi. Sai lch khi v m l nhng sai hng sinh ra khi nu, c h p kim nh r co t p

trung x, tp cht trong vt c. Trn kha cnh vi m c th coi sai lch khi nh cc pha th hai tn ti trn nn hp kim. V d nh graphit trong gang, cc pha th hai to thnh khi tit pha t dung dch rn. Cc sai lch ny l c to ra nng cao bn, ci thin tnh cht theo mun. Ty thuc vo cu trc, hnh thi tn ti, kch th c m hi u qu ha bn ca nhng pha th hai ny khc nhau. 1.3.2.Vai tr ca sai lch i vi tnh cht : S c mt ca sai lch trong mng tinh th v tng tc gi a chng nh h ng n tnh cht ca vt liu. gii thch tnh cht c hc ( bn, c ng, tnh d o...) phi da vo l thuyt bn trong cc m hnh cu trc vi m c p d ng gi i thch kt qu thc t. y ta xem xt s tng tc ca lch vi nhau v nh hng ca chng n c tnh ca vt liu. 1-Tng tc gia cc lch v khi nim ha bn : Ta xt qu trnh trt khi bin dng do, tc bin dng do theo cng thc Orowan = .b. . Trong : l mt lch, b l tr s vc t Burgers, l tc chuyn ng ca lch). Trong qu trnh bin dng s c hai hiu ng ngc nhau xy ra -Mt lch tng do cc ngun khc nhau hot ng nh bin gii ht, Frank Rit lm tng tc bin dng. -Nhng khi tng mt lch tng tc gia lch vi nhau v vi cc sai lch khc tng mnh lm gim ng k tc chuyn ng ca lch. V vy mun duy tr t c bin dng l khng i cn phi tng ng sut bn ngoi thm mt lng d . y chnh l hiu ng ha bn bin dng. H s ha bn bin dng
d d

c trng bi gc nghing

ng cong trn biu th ko vt liu. C s ca cc phng php ha bn vt liu tinh th l lm gi m t c chuy n ng ca lch. Tng tc gia cc lch xy ra nh trng ng sut n hi c a chng. Khi mt lch trt gp cc lch trong mt trt giao nhau khc, trn mi lch hnh thnh mt bc lch. Bc cn tr chuyn ng lch hoc khi cng chuyn ng vi lch s sinh ra khuyt tt im hoc cc vng lch pha sau n gy ra ha bn (hnh 1.41 L ) 2-Tng tc gia lch v sai lch im : Kt qu tng tc gia lch v sai lch im lm cho cc nguyn t tp cht (hay nt trng) tch t xung quanh ng lch, to ra nhng m my nguyn t tp cht (kh quyn Ctren, Snuk Suzuki...). chuyn ng lch cn phi b sung thm nng l ng t bn ngoi (d ) nhm gii thot khi nhng m my . Trong cc hp kim tn ti dng dung dch rn (thay th, xen k) cc nguyn t hp kim c th coi nh nhng sai lch im c , hiu qu ha bn s tng ln r t nhiu.Nguyn t h kim lm thay i rng ca sai lch xp, y l mt trong cc chng ngi rt mnh cn tr chuyn ng ca lch. Trong cc kiu mng A1, A3 khi hp kim ha s lm gim nng lng ca sai lch xp, tc l tng rng ca n, do vy lm tng hiu qu ha bn. chnh l ha bn bng dung dch rn. 3-Tng tc lch v bin gii ht : Khi trong ht c mt ngun Frank - Rit hot ng s c v s lch tr t cho n khi dng li cnh bin gii ht, to ra mt tp hp c n lch (hnh 1.35 L). Tp hp ny s to ra trng ng sut n hi va tc dng ngc li, phong ta ngun lch trong

ht, va kch thch ngun cc ht ln cn hot ng trong qu trnh bin dng. Bin gii ht cn tr chuyn ng ca lch l do : -Ti bin gii c cu trc khng trt t -Hai ht a tinh th lin nhau c nh hng khc nhau v vy lch rt kh thay i t bin mt trt khi vt qua bin gii ht. V vy lch ch c th chuyn ng t do trong ht. Kch thc ht cng nh, qung ng chuyn ng t do cng ngn, do hiu qu ha bn cng cao. chnh l s ha bn bng bin gii ht. 4-Tng tc gia lch v pha th hai : Pha th hai to ra trong hp kim do qu trnh chuyn bi n pha cng c th xem l dng sai lch c . Ty theo vo bn cht, nng , kch thc ca pha th hai, hiu qu ha bn ca chng cng khc nhau. a-Pha th hai khng lin mng, cng hn nn : Mun vt qua loi chng ngi ny ng sut tip tc dng ln lch phi t gi tr : =
2GB L

, trong L l khong cch

trung bnh gia cc phn t pha th hai. Sau khi vt qua lch li vng l ch d xung quanh pha th hai. b-Pha th hai lin mng, mm hn nn : Trng hp ny lch s ct pha th hai bng cch i xuyn qua n to ra sai lch xp hai mp (hnh 1.36a L).V v y sau mi ln lch vt qua sc cn ca pha th hai tng thm do cc vng l ch d hoc sai lch xp. l qu trnh ha bn bng pha th hai (cn gi l ha bn cu trc). 5-Tch t lch v ph hy : Khi lch b hm li bn chng ngi, chng s tch t dn, lm tng ng sut cc b cho n khi t gi tr cao hn gii hn bn ca mng, lin kt b ph v, vt nt u tin s xut hin. Cc lch tip theo trt n v gii thot trn b mt vt nt t vi lm n ln dn ln v tr thnh vt nt vi m. Lc ny s xy ra ph hy. 1.3.3.n tinh th v a tinh th : 1-n tinh th : Nu vt tinh th c mng thng nht v phng khng thay i trong ton b th tch gi l n tinh th. (1.46a L). d hnh dung ta ly mt c s (khi c s) tnh tin n theo ba trc ta vi nhng on bng chu k tu n hon m ng s c n tinh th. c c n tinh th kim loi ta phi p dng cng ngh c bi t nui n tinh th. C hai phng php : Zcranxki v phng php flux (thnh phn khc nhau). Tnh cht in hnh ca n tinh th l tnh d hng do theo cc phng khc nhau c mt nguyn t khc nhau. Cng dng ca n tinh th l s dng trong cng nghi p bn dn v k thut in. 2-a tinh th : a tinh th gm rt nhiu tinh th nh gi l ht tinh th. Nhng ht ny c cng cu trc mng nhng nh hng ngu nhin nn khc nhau, lin kt v i nhau bng bin gii ht ((hnh 1.46b L). Vt liu s dng ch yu l a tinh th. a- ht ca a tinh th : T khi nim nu trn ta thy cu trc ca a tinh th gm hai phn sau : -Cc ht c nh hng khc nhau. -Bin gii ht c cu trc khng trt t lin kt cc ht vi nhau

T ta thy rng cc ht tinh th khng bao gi c kch th c gi ng nhau nn phi a ra khi nim ht. C th xc nh ht theo ba cch sau : +Xc nh tit din ngang S ca cc ht (phng php ny kh lm) +o ng knh (chiu ngang) trung bnh ca cc ht (t dng) +So snh s lng ht c trong mt n v din tch vi phng i 100 ln vi bn mu c sn. y l phng php ph bin nht. Sau xp vo bng cp ht. Bng cp ht gm 16 cp t -2 n 14, thng dng nht l t cp 1 n cp 8, s cng ln ht cng nh. b-Tnh ng hng ca a tinh th : Do s phn b ngu nhin c a cc ht trong a tinh th, phng mng ca chng sp xp mt cch bt k nn tnh d hng khng cn th hin na. Do vy a tinh th c tnh ng hng gi. S d gi l ng hng gi v trong tng phn nh ca a tinh th (ht) vn th hin tnh d hng. CHNG 2 : GIN PHA

2.1.CC KHI NIM C BN : 2.1.1.Pha, h, cu t, h cn bng: 1 - Cu t : l cc nguyn t (hay hp cht ha hc bn vng) cu to nn vt liu. Chng l cc thnh phn c lp. 2 - H (i khi cn gi l h thng) l mt tp hp vt th ring bi t c a vt li u trong iu kin xc nh hay l mt lot hp kim khc nhau vi cc cu t ging nhau. 3- Pha : l t phn ng nht ca h (hp kim) c cu trc v cc tnh ch t c , l, ha hc xc nh, gia cc pha c b mt phn cch. V d : - Ta c mt h gm nc v nc. H ny ch c m t c u t l h p ch t H2O nhng c hai pha : rn (nc ), lng (nc) - Mt chi tit bng la tng mt pha : H ny c hai c u t l Cu v Zn nh ng ch c mt pha (dung dch rn ca hai cu t trn). 4 -H cn bng (n nh) : H trng thi cn bng khi cc pha ca n u c nng lng t do nh nht trong cc iu kin v nhit , p sut v thnh ph n xc nh. Tc l cc c tnh ca h khng bin i theo thi gian. Thng thng h vi cc pha trng thi cn bng bao gi cng c bn, cng thp nht, khng c ng sut bn trong, x lch mng tinh th thp nht v c hnh thnh vi tc ngu i chm. H cn bng c tnh cht thun nghch. 5- H khng cn bng (khng n nh) : Khi thay i nhit v p sut lm tng nng lng t do v h tr nn trng thi khg cn bng. Lc ny h c th chuyn bin sang trng thi cn bng mi c nng lng t do nh hn. Ni chung trng thi khng cn bng l khng n nh, lun c xu hng t bin i sang trng thi cn bng, n nh. Trong thc t mt s trng thi khng cn bng vn tn ti lu di, do nhit thng chuyn bin xy ra rt chm hu nh khng nhn thy c. Trng thi khng cn bng thng c bn, cng cao hn nn c s dng kh nhiu trong thc t (t ch c mactenxit sau khi ti). Trng thi khng cn bng c hnh thnh vi tc ngui nhanh.

6-H gi n nh : Trng thi gi n nh tn ti khi trng thi cn bng (n nh) tuyt i ch tn ti trn l thuyt, tc l phi nung nng hay lm ngui v cng chm m trong thc t rt kh xy ra. Vy gi n nh thc cht l khng n nh nhng thc t li tn ti mt cch n nh ngay c khi nung nng hay lm ngui trong mt phm vi no . 2.1.2.Quy tc pha v cng dng : Trng thi cn bng ca h c xc nh bi cc yu t bn trong (thnh ph n ha hc) v cc yu t bn ngoi ( nhit v p su t). Tuy nhin cc y u t ny ph thuc ln nhau. Bc t do l s lng cc yu t c lp c th thay i c trong phm vi nht nh m khng lm thay i s pha ca n (k hiu F -freedom). Quy tc pha xc nh mi quan h gia s pha P (phase), bc t do F v s c u t C (component). Ta c : F = C - P + 2. Nhng do vic nghin cu vt liu tin hnh trong kh quyn, c p su t khng i nn s yu t bn ngoi ch cn mt l nhit . V vy cng thc ca n l : F=C-P+1 Cn lu rng bc t do l nhng s nguyn v khng m, s pha cc i ca mt h ch c th ln hn s cu t ca n mt n v (P MAX = C + 1), n gip cho vic xc nh s pha ca mt h hp kim d dng. V d : - Khi F = 1 tc la ch c mt yu t c th thay i c (nhit hay thnh phn), lc ny s pha bng s cu t. - Khi F = 2 c hai yu t thay i c cng mt lc, s pha bng s cu t tr i 1. 2.2.DUNG DCH RN V CC PHA TRUNG GIAN : 2.2.1.Khi nim v phn loi dung dch rn : 1-Khi nim : Cng ging nh dung dch lng, trong dung dch rn ta khng phn bit c mt cch c hc cc nguyn t ca cc cu t, cc nguyn t ca chng phn b xen vo nhau trong mng tinh th. Cu t no c s lng nhiu hn, vn gi c ki u mng c a mnh gi l dung mi. Cc cu t cn li gi l cht ha tan. Dung d ch r n l pha ng nht c cu trc mng tinh th ca cu t dung mi nhng thnh phn ca n c th thay i trong mt phm vi nht nh m khng lm mt i s ng nht . K hiu ca dung dch rn l A(B). Dung dch rn c chia ra lm hai loi : dung dch rn thay th v dung d ch r n xen k. 2-Dung dch rn thay th : l loi dung dch rn m trong nguyn t ca cu ha tan thay th vo v tr trn nt mng ca cu t dung mi (nguyn t ch). Nh vy kiu mng v s nguyn t trong khi c s ng nh ca cu t dung mi. Tuy nhin s thay th ny t nhiu u gy ra s x lch mng, v khng th c hai lai nguyn t c kch thc hon ton ging nhau. Do vy s thay th ch xy ra vi cc cu t c kch thc nguyn t khc nhau t (vi kim loi s sai khc ny khng qu 15%). Ty thuc vo mc ha tan ngi ta cn chia ra dung dch rn ha tan v hn v c hn. a - Dung dch rn thay th ha tan v hn :

10

L dung dch rn m trong nng ca cht ha tan c th bin i lin tc, tc l vi nng bt k. Trong loi dung dch rn ny khng th phn bit c cu t no l dung mi, cu t no l cht ha tan, cu t no c lng cha nhiu nht l dung mi, cc c u t cn li l cht ha tan. V d ta c dung dch rn ca cu t A v B th nng A bin i t 0100%, nng B bin i t 100% - 0. iu kin hai cu t ha tan v hn vo nhau : * C cng kiu mng tinh th * ng knh nguyn t khc nhau t, nh hn 8%. Nu sai khc nhau nhi u t 815% ch c th ha tan c hn, > 15% khng th ha tan vo nhau * Nng in t khng vt qu mt gi tr xc nh vi mi loi dung dch rn (s lng in t ha tr tnh cho mt nguyn t), tc l cc nguyn t phi c cng ha tr. * Cc tnh cht vt l v ha hc gn ging nhau (cu to lp v in t, tnh m in, nhit chy...) Ni chung cc nguyn t cng trong mt nhm ca bng h thng tun hon th a mn iu kin ny. Cc cp nguyn t hnh thnh dung dch rn v hn ch c th l nguyn t kim loi. Cn ch rng y ch l iu kin cn ca dung dch rn v hn. b - Dung dch rn thay th ha tan c hn : L dung dch rn m trong cc cu t ch ha tan vo nhau vi gi tr nht nh, tc l nng ca chng b gin on. Cc cp cu t khng tha mn bn iu kin trn s to thnh dung dch rn c hn c - Dung dch rn trt t v khng trt t : Nu s phn b nguyn t ca cu t ha tan trong mng dung mi mt cch ngu nhin th c gi l dung dch rn khng trt t. Trong mt s iu ki n no (nhi t , nng ) trong mt s h cc nguyn t thay th c tnh quy lut v gi l dung dch rn trt t. V d trong h Au-Cu khi lm ngui chm nguyn t ng sp xp ti tm cc mt bn, cn nguyn t vng nm cc nh ca khi c s. 3-Dung dch rn xen k : L loi dung dch rn trong nguyn t ha tan nm xen gia cc nguyn t ca kim loi dung mi, chng chui vo l hng trong mng dung mi.Nh vy ta thy rng s nguyn t trong khi c s tng ln. Do kch thc cc l hng trong mng tinh th rt nh nn cc nguyn t ha tan phi c kch thc rt nh. chnh l cc nguyn t C, N, H, B... v i dung mi Fe. ng nhin l dung dch rn xen k ch c loi ha tan c hn. 4-Cc c tnh ca dung dch rn : a - Mng tinh th ca dung dch rn l kiu mng ca kim loi dung mi, thng c cc kiu mng n gin v xt cht. y l yu t c bn quyt nh cc tnh cht c, l ha ... V c bn n vn gi c cc tnh cht ca kim lo i dung mi. Tuy nhin v thng s mng lun khc vi dung mi : - Trong dung dch rn xen k : thng s mng dung dch lun ln hn thng s mng dung mi.

11

- Trong dung dch rn thay th : nu ng knh nguyn t ha tan ln hn ng knh nguyn t dung mi th thng s mng dung dch ln hn dung mi. Nu ng knh nguyn t ha tan nh hn nguyn t dung mi th thng s mng dung dch nh hn dung mi. b - Lin kt vn l lin kt kim loi. Do vy dung dch rn vn gi c tnh do ging nh kim loi nguyn cht, tuy c km hn (tr h hp kim Cu-Zn, vi 30%Zn hp kim ny cn do hn c ng) c - Thnh phn ha hc thay i trong phm vi nht nh m khng lm thay i kiu mng. d - Tnh cht bin i nhiu : do, dai, h s nhit in tr gi m, i n tr, bn, cng tng ln... Do cc c tnh trn nn dung dch rn l c s ca cc hp kim kt cu dng trong c kh. Trong cc hp kim ny pha c bn l dung dch rn, n chim xp x 90%, c trng hp n 100%. 2.2.2.Cc pha trung gian : Trong cc hp kim hu nh khng c loi hp cht ha hc ha tr thng. Cc hp cht ha hc tn ti trong hp kim thng gi l pha trung gian v trn gi n pha n nm v tr gia v trung gian cc dung dch rn. 1-Khi nim v phn loi : Cc hp cht ha hc to thnh theo quy lut ha tr thng c cc c im sau : * C mng tinh th phc tp v khc hn mng nguyn t thnh phn * Lun lun c mt t l chnh xc gia cc nguyn t v biu din bi cng thc ha hc nht nh. *Tnh cht khc hn cc nguyn t thnh phn, cng cao, tnh dn ln. * C nhit nng chy xc nh, khi hnh thnh l phn ng ta nhit. Cc pha trung gian trong hp kim c nhng c im khc vi hp cht ha hc theo ha tr, l : * Khng tun theo quy lut ha tr. * Khng c thnh phn chnh xc. * C lin kt kim loi. Cc pha trung gian trong hp kim thng gp l : pha xen k, pha in t, pha La ves, pha ... 2-Pha xen k : L pha to nn gia cc kim loi chuyn tip (Fe, Cr, Mo, W...) c ng knh nguyn t ln vi cc kim (H, B, N, C...) c ng knh nguyn t b. Kiu mng ca pha xen k c xc nh theo quan h gia ng knh nguyn t kim loi v kim : - Nu dA/dK < 0,59 th pha xen k c cc kiu mng n gin : tm khi, tm mt, su phng xp cht... Cc nguyn t kim xen k vo l hng trong mng. Chng c cng thc n gin nh : K4A (Fe4N), K2A (W2C), KA (NbC, NbH, TiC), KA2 (Ti2H). Vi K l kim loi, A l kim. - Nu dA/dK > 0,59 pha xen k s c kiu mng phc tp v cng thc phc tp hn K3A (Mn3C), K7A3 (Cr7C3), K23A6 (Cr23C6).

12

c im ca pha xen k ni chung l c nhit chy rt cao (thng > 30000C) v c cng ln (2000 5000 HV), c tnh dn ln. Chng c vai tr rt ln trong vic nng cao tnh chng mi mn v chu nhit ca hp kim. 3-Pha in t (Hum-rozri) L pha trung gian c cu to phc tp, to nn bi hai kim loi. Thnh phn ca n nh sau : * Nhm mt : gm cc kim loi ha tr mt Cu, Ag, Au v kim lo i chuy n ti p : Fe, Ni, Co, Pt, Pd. * Nhm hai : cc kim loi ha tr hai, ba, bn :Be, Mg, Zn, Cd, Al, Si, Sn. Nng in t N c gi tr xc nh l 3/2, 21/13 v 7/4 (21/14, 21/13, 21/12). Mi gi tr nng in t ng vi mt kiu mng tinh th. V d : -N = 3/2 l pha vi kiu mng lp phng tm khi, hay lp phng phc tp, hay su phng (Cu5Sn, Cu5Si). - N = 21/13 l pha vi kiu mng lp phng phc tp (Cu31Sn8). - N = 7/4 l pha vi kiu mng su phng xp cht (AgCd3). 4-Pha Laves : La pha to nn bi hai nguyn t (A, B), c t l ng knh nguyn t d A/dB = 1,2 (t l ny c th bin i trong phm vi 1,1 1,6), c cng thc AB2, kiu mng su phng xp cht (MgZn2) hay lp phng tm mt (MgCu2). Trong hp kim c th cn gp cc pha : , , , ... Tuy nhin cc loi pha ny t ph bin. Mt c tnh quan trng ca cc pha trung gian l cng v dn. V v y khng bao gi ngi ta dng hp kim ch c mt pha l pha trung gian. T l ca chng trong cc hp kim thng thng < 10% (c khi n 20 30%), y l cc pha cn trt lm tng bn, cng. 2.2.3.Hn hp c hc : Kh nhiu trng hp, hp kim c t chc hai hay nhiu pha : hai dung d ch r n, dung dch rn v hp cht ha hc... Cu to nh vy gi l hn hp c hc. Trn t chc t vi ta phn bit c rt r cc pha khc nhau trong hn h p c h c. Hai tr ng hp in hnh ca hn hp c hc l cng tinh v cng tch. 2.3.CC DNG GIN PHA HAI CU T KHNG C CHUYN BIN A HNH (TH HNH) 2.3.1.Cc gin pha hai cu t : 1-Gin pha hai cu t khng ha tan vo nhau, khng to thnh pha trung gian (gin loi 1) : S cu t : A v B (C = 2) Cc pha c th to thnh : lng (L) ha tan v hn ca A v B, A v B. S pha ln nht PMAX = 3 AEB l ng lng : ti nhit ng vi ng ny hp kim bt u kt tinh. cao hn ng lng hp kim hon ton trng thi lng. CED l ng c : ti nhit ng vi ng c hp kim lng k t thc k t tinh. Thp hn nhit ny hp kim trng thi rn. Trong khong nhit gia ng lng v ng c l qu trnh nng chy hay kt tinh ca hp kim, tn ti ng thi c pha rn v lng. Vi loi gin ny CED cn gi l ng cng tinh.

13

E gi l im cng tinh (eutectic). Cc hp kim c thnh phn nm bn tri im E gi l hp kim trc cng tinh (hypoeutectic). Cc hp kim c thnh phn nm bn ph i im E gi l hp kim sau cng tinh (hypereutectic). Hp kim c thnh ph n ti E g i l hp kim cng tinh. Trong thc t h Pb - Sb thuc loi gin ny. a - Qu trnh kt tinh ca hp kim trc cng tinh : * cao hn nhit ng vi im 0 : hp kim hon ton trng thi lng (L). * Lm ngui t 0 n 1: y l qu trnh ngui ca hp kim lng (L ). * Ti nhit ng vi im 1: t hp kim lng kt tinh ra tinh th A. * Lm ngui t 1 n 2 : tinh th A sinh ra ngy cng nhi u, h p kim l ng cng ngy cng t i v thnh phn ca n bin i theo ng t 1 E (giu B hn). *Ti nhit ng vi im 2 : phn hp kim lng cui cng c thnh phn ti E s kt tinh ng thi ra A v B cng mt lc, t chc ny gi l t chc cng tinh. Qu trnh ny gi l chuyn bin cng tinh (eutectic), xy ra ti nhit khng thay i. LE (A + B) t0 = const * Lm ngui t 2 n 3 l qu trnh ngui ca hp kim rn, khng xy ra chuy n bin no khc. T chc nhn c nhit thng l A + (A +B). Cc tinh th A k t tinh ra trc c kch thc th to hn cng tinh (A + B). b - Qu trnh kt tinh ca hp kim sau cng tinh : * Qu trnh kt tinh ca hp kim sau cng tinh hon ton ging nh hp kim trc cng tinh, nhng ch khc l t hp kim lng s kt tinh ra tinh th B trc v phn lng cn li s ngho B i khi nhit tip tc gim xung. * T chc nhn c nhit thng l B + (A + B). c - Qu trnh kt tinh ca hp kim cng tinh Hp kim ny c thnh phn ng vi im E. Khi lm ngui n nhi t ng vi im E hp kim lng s kt tinh ng thi ra (A + B) cng mt lc v s n ph m cu i cng l cng tinh (A + B). Nhn xt : Cc hp kim c gin loi 1 kt tinh theo th t sau : tr c tin pha lng kt tinh ra mt trong hai cu t nguyn cht trc, lm cho pha lng ngho c u t ny v bin i thnh phn n im cng tinh E. n y pha lng cn li s kt tinh ra hai cu t cng mt lc. d - Tam gic Tam man : Trong cc h hp kim c gin loi 1 ta v thm mt tam gic ph xc nh t l ca t chc cng tinh cng nh cc cu t nguyn cht mt cch d dng ng vi cc thnh phn khc nhau. Tam gic ny gi l tam gic Tam - man (do Tam - man ng i c a ra). Ti im E t chc cng tinh chim 100%. Ta coi on EF bng 100% (A + B), v vy cc ng song song vi EF s ch ra t l c a t chc cng tinh t ng ng trong cc hp kim. Tng t nh vy ta hon ton c th xc nh t l cc cu t A v B tng ng trong cc hp kim. e - Thin tch vng : Cc hp kim c gin loi 1 thng xy ra thin tch vng khi kt tinh, c bi t l khi lm ngui chm (thin tch vng l s khc nhau v thnh phn ha h c gi a cc vng khc nhau ca vt c)

14

. V d : H hp kim Pb - Sb nu ch kt tinh ra trc n s chm xung y khun c ( = 11,34 g/cm2).Stibi nu kt tinh ra trc th n s ni ln trn( = 6,69g/cm2).Do vy pha trn vt c giu Sb, pha di giu Pb. Tuy nhin hin tng thin tch vng c th khc phc c bng cch lm ngui tht nhanh khng kp xy ra hin tng chm ni ca cc tinh th hay cho vo hp kim lng mt cht c bit n s to ra b khung xng trc (t trng hp kim lng), chng l lng trong hp kim lng ngn cn qu trnh thin tch. 2-Gin pha hai cu t hon ton ha tan vo nhau, khng to thnh pha trung gian (gin lai 2) : S cu t : A v B (C = 2) S pha c th to thnh : hp kim lng ha tan v h n c a A v B, dung d ch r n ha tan v hn ca A v B l (P max = 2). ng AmB gi l ng lng, ng AnB gi l ng c. H Cu - Ni c gin loi ny. a - Xt qu trnh kt tinh ca mt hp kim c th (hp kim 1) * Ti nhit ng vi 0 hp kim tn ti trng thi lng. * Lm ngui t 0 - 1 : qu trnh ngui ca hp kim lng. * Ti nhit n vi im 1 t hp kim lng kt tinh ra dung dch rn ha tan v hn ca A v B l . * Lm ngui trong khong nhit t 1 n im 2 dung dch rn sinh ra ngy cng nhiu, thnh phn ha hc ca n bin i theo ng t 1 - 2', hp kim l ng ngy cng t i v thnh phn ha hc bin i t 1' - 2. * Ti nhit ng vi im 2 hp kim lng ht. * Lm ngui t 2 - 3 l qu trnh ngui ca dung dch rn . Nhn xt : Cc hp kim c gin loi 2 c quy lut kt tinh nh sau : nu ta ly n v l cu t c nhit nng chy cao hn th u tin t hp kim lng kt tinh ra dung dch rn giu cu t ny hn, do vy pha lng cn li s ngho cu t ny i. Nhng nu lm ngui chm th dung dch rn to thnh bin i thnh phn theo hng ngho cu t ny v cui cng t thnh phn hp kim. b - Thin tch nhnh cy (thin tch trong bn thn ht): Hp kim c gin loi 2 khi kt tinh ti mi nhit khc nhau, thnh phn ha hc ca dung dch rn cng khc nhau. Do bng cch lm ngui thng thng (ngui chm) ht kim loi c to thnh s khng ng nht v thnh phn ha hc. Hi n tng ny gi l thin tch nhnh cy (hay thin tch trong bn thn ht). Khc phc bng cch lm ngui chm hay khuch tn sau khi c. 3-Gin pha hai cu t ha tan c hn vo nhau, khng t o thnh pha trung gian (gin loi 3) : S cu t : A v B (C = 2) S pha c th to thnh : PMax = 3 Hp kim lng ha tan v hn ca A v B - dung dch rn ca B ha tan c hn trong cu t A, A(B) - dung dch rn ca A ha tan c hn trong cu t B, B(A)

15

ng AEB l ng lng, ACDB l ng c, CED l ng cng tinh. CF l ng gii hn ha tan ca B trong cu t A trng thi rn, DG l ng gii hn ha tan ca A trong B trng thi rn. im E l im cng tinh. H hp kim Ag - Cu v Pb Sn c gin loi ny. Cng tng t nh gin loi 1, nhit chy ca cu t bt k s gi m i nu c thm cu t th hai vo. Gin lai 3 gm nh tng hp ca hai gi n loi 1 v loi 2. C th chia cc hp kim ca h thnh ba nhm sau : a- Nhm cha rt t cu t th hai (c thnh phn nm bn tri F v bn phi G), qu trnh kt tinh ging gin loi 2, sn phm nhn c l dung dch rn v . b - Nhm cha mt lng hn ch cu t th 2 (thnh phn nm trong khong F-C' v G-D'), ban u kt tinh ra dung dch rn, nhng khi nhit tip tc gim i thp h n ng CF v DG th do lng cu t ha tan l qu bo ha nn tit ra lng cu t tha di dng dung dch rn th cp ( tha B tit ra II, tha A tit ra II). Ta xt qu trnh kt tinh ca hp kim I : * Ti nhit ng vi 0 : hp kim trng thi lng * Lm ngui t nhit ng vi im 0 n 1, qu trnh ngui ca hp kim lng. * Ti nhit ng vi im 1, t hp ki lng kt tinh ra dung dch r n , c thnh phn xc nh ti im 1'. * Lm ngui t nhit ng vi im 1 n im 2, dung dch r n sinh ra ngy cng nhiu, thnh phn ca n bin i theo ng t 1' - 2, hp kim lng ngy cng t i, thnh phm ca n bin i theo ng t 2 - 2'. * Ti nhit ng vi im 2 hp kim lng ht. * Lm ngui t 2 n 3 l qu trnh ngui ca dung dch rn . * Ti nhit ng vi im 3 do lng ha tan ca B vo A l qu bo ha nn B tha c tit ra di dng dung dch rn II ( II) * Ti nhit thng sn phm nhn c l + II c - Nhm cha mt lng ln cu t th hai, c thnh phn nm trong khong C'-D', ban u kt tinh ra dung dch rn ( C hay D), pha lng cn li bin i thnh phn theo ng lng n im E v kt tinh ra t chc cng tinh. Khi nhit h xung thp hn ng CF v DG cng c qu trnh tit ra cu t ha tan tha di dng II v II. Qu trnh kt tinh ca nhm ny ging gin loi 1. Xt qu trnh kt tinh ca hp kim II. * Ti nhit ng vi im 0 hp kim trng thi lng * Lm ngui t nhit ng vi im 0 n dim 1, l qu trnh ngu i c a hp kim lng. * Ti nhit ng vi im 1 t hp kim lng kt tinh ra dug dch rn c thnh phn ti 1'. * Lm ngui t nhit ng vi im 1 n im 2 dung dch rn sinh ra ngy cng nhiu, thnh phn ca n thay i theo ng t 1' - C. Hp kim l ng ngy cng t i, thnh phn ca n thay i t 1 - E. * Ti nhit ng vi im 2, hp kim lng cn li c thnh phn ti E s k t tinh ng thi ra hai dung dch rn C v D cng mt lc. Qu trnh ny din ra ti nhit khng i.

16

LE ( C + D) * Lm ngui t nhit ng vi im 2 n 3 do lng cu t ha tan l qu bo ha nn c qu trnh tit ra II t v II. t . Tuy nhin II. c tit ra t trong cng tinh, nm ln ln vi C nn khng nhn thy c. Do vy t chc nhn c nhit thng l + II + ( + ). 4-Gin pha hai cu t hon ton khng ha tan vo nhau, to thnh hp cht ha hc n nh (gin loi 4) : Cc cu t : A v B (C = 2) Cc pha c th to thnh : hp kim lng, cu t A, B v hp cht ha hc ca chng l AmBn (k hiu l H). Hp cht ha hc H c nhit nng cah ring, thnh phn xc nh v khng th ha tan thm cu t A, B. H hp kim Mg - Si thuc loi ny. Nghin cu qu trnh kt tinh ca hp kim c gin loi ny ta a v nghin cu hai gin pha loi 1 l A-H v H-B (H c xem l mt cu t c lp) 2.3.2.Quan h gia dng gin pha v tnh cht ca hp kim : Cc loi gin pha khc nhau c mi quan h gia dng ca gin v tnh cht ca hp kim hon ton khc nhau. Ta bit rng pha thnh phn l pha to nn t chc ca hp kim. Khi hp kim c t chc mt pha th pha thnh ph n duy nh t ng nh t v i hp kim, tc l tnh cht ca n chnh l tnh cht ca hp kim. Trng hp c t ch c gm nhiu pha th tnh cht ca ca hp kim la s tng hp tnh ch t c a cc pha thnh phn. Ta s xem xt c th mi quan h gia dng ca gin pha v i tnh ch t c a hp kim nh th no. a - Gin loi 1 : - C l tnh : Tnh cht ca hp kim l trung gian gia tnh cht ca tinh th A v tinh th B, tc l tinh th no c t l cng ln th s nh hng cng nhiu n tinh cht tnh cht ca n. C th nh sau : Tnh cht hp kim = %A X t/c A + %B X t/c B Tnh cht ca hp kim ph thuc vo thnh phn theo quy lut bc nht. -Tnh cng ngh : * Tnh c ca hp kim ni chung tt v chy long cao, nhit nng chy th p, kt tinh trong mt khong nhit t gy co ngt. * Tnh cht gia cng p lc khng cao. * Tnh gia cng ct gt tt, phoi d gy. b - Gin loi 2 : - C l tnh : Mi quan h gia tnh cht va thnh phn theo quy lut bc hai. ng cong biu din c cc i ti 50% thnh phn, bn v cng u cao h n c u t thnh phn. in tr tng mnh theo thnh phn cht ha tan. - Tnh cng ngh : * Tnh c xu v kh nng in y khun khng cao, khong ng thng ln * Tnh gia cng p lc tt v kh do dai * Tnh gai cng ct gt xu v bn cng cao, do phoi kh gy ... c - Gin loi 3 : Mi quan h ny l tng hp ca hai loi trn. d - Gin loi 4 :

17

Mi quan h gia tnh cht v thnh phn c dng ng thng v i m c c i ng vi thnh phn ca hp cht ha hc H. 2.4.GIN PHA ST - CC BON (Fe - Fe3C) : 2.4.1.Cu t st v cc bon 1-Cu t st : St l nguyn t c kh nhiu trong t nhin. Hin ti ngi ta luyn c st vi sch 99,99999% Fe. Trong thc t sn xut ngi ta thng nghin cu vi st c lng cha 99,8 - 99,9%. St ny gi l st nguyn cht k thut (st am k) a- C tnh : St l nguyn t c c tnh kh cao, c th nh sau : * Gii hn bn ko : b = 250 MN/m2 (MPa) * Gii hn chy quy c : 0,2 = 120MN/m2 * gin di tng i : % = 50 * tht t i : % = 85 * dai va p : ak = 3000 Kj/m2 * cng HB = 80 b - Tnh a hnh ca st : St l kim loi c tnh a hnh, n c hai kiu mng tinh th cc khong nhit khc nhau : - Mng lp phng tm khi tn ti nhit : + Nh hn 911oC gi l st an pha c a = 2,68 Kx. Di 768oC c t tnh, cao hn nhit ny mt tnh st t. Ti nhit cao hn 768 oC gi l st b ta, c a = 2,90Kx. + T 1392oC n 1539oC gi l st en ta c a = 2,93Kx. -Mng lp phng tm mt tn ti nhit : 9110C < t0 < 13920C, gi l st gamma, c a = 3,56Kx. c-Kh nng ha tan cc bon ca st : Hai loi mng tinh th ca st c kh nng ha tan cc bon di dng xen k khc nhau. ng knh nguyn t cc bon l 1,54Kx. Trong khi l hng ln nht trong mng tm khi c d = 0,64Kx. Mng lp phng tm mt c s l hng t hn nh ng kch thc li ln hn, d = 1,02Kx. V nguyn tc th st khng th ha tan cc bon c. Tuy nhin trong thc t st an pha ha tan c 0,02%C 727 oC, st en ta ha tan 0,1%C 1499oC. St gama ha tan 2,14%C 1147OC. Ngi ta cho rng cc bon chui vo ni c nhiu sai lch mng nht. Vi st gama c th ha tan ti a khong 10% nguyn t st. 2-Cu t cc bon : a- Cc dng tn ti ca cc bon : Trong t nhin cc bon tn ti di ba dng : than (v nh hnh), kim cng v grapht (c cu to mng tinh th). Trong hp kim Fe - C cc bon ch tn ti t do dng grapht (trong cc loi gang c grapht). b - Tng tc ha hc gia st v cc bon : Khi lng ha tan ca cc bon vo st vt qu gii hn ca dung dch r n th s to nn cc hp cht ha hc : Fe3C (6,67%C), Fe2C (9,67%C) v FeC (17,67%C). Tuy nhin trong hp kim st cc bon do ch s dng gii hn khong 5%C nn ch c Fe 3C v hp cht ny c tn l xmentit. Xmentit l pha xen k c ki u m ng ph c tp, nhi t

18

 nng chy khong 1250oC v c cng cao - 800HB. nhit nh hn 217 oC c t tnh. Ln hn nhit ny mt tnh st t. Khi ha tan thm cc nguyn t h p kim (Cr, Mn, W...) di dng thay th ta c xmentit hp kim (nguyn t hp kim thay vo v tr ca st. 2.4.2.Gin pha Fe - C (Fe - Fe3C) : 1- Dng tng qut ca gin pha Fe - C : Chng ta ch nghin cu gin pha cha 6,67%C nn cn gi l gin pha Fe Fe3C. Dng ca gin pha ny thot nhn kh phc tp, tuy nhin nu phn tch ra th n l tng hp ca bn loi gin pha nghin cu trc y. K hiu cc i m v t a ca chng c quc t ha. C th nh sau : im %C Nhit oC A 0 1539 B 0,5 1499 C 4,30 1147 D 6,67 1250 E 2,14 1147 F 6,67 1147 G 0 911 H 0,10 1499 J 0,16 1499 K 6,67 727 L 6,67 0 N 0 1392 P 0,02 727 Q 0,006 0 S 0,80 727 Cc ng trn gin pha : -ABCD l ng lng. -HECF l ng c. - ECF l ng cng tinh, ti nhit ny xy ra phn ng cng tinh (euttic) - PSK l ng cng tch, ti y xy ra phn ng cng tch (eutectoid). - SE l gii hn ha tan ca cc bon trong st gamma. - PQ l gii hn ha tan ca cc bon trong st an pha. 2 - Cc chuyn bin xy ra khi lm ngui chm : Trong gin pha Fe - Fe3C c y cc chuyn bin m ta nghin cu phn trc y. Khi lm ngui chm c cc chuyn bin sau : - Chuyn bin bao tinh : xy ra ti nhit 1499oC trong cc hp kim c 0,10 0,50%C (tng ng ng HJB). H + LB J 0,10 + L0,50 0,16 hay Trong thc t ta khng n chuyn bin ny v n xy ra nhit rt cao v hp kim cn mt phn trng thi lng, n khng nh hng g n t chc thp khi gia cng v s dng.

19

- Chuyn bin cng tinh : xy ra nhit 1147oC trong cc hp kim c lng cc bon > 2,14% (tng ng ng ECF). LC ( E + Fe3CF ) hay L4,3 ( 2,14 + Fe3C6,67 ) -Chuyn bin cng tch : xy ra ti nhit 727 oC, c hu ht trong cc hp kim (ng PSK). ( + Fe C ) hay S P 3 K 0,8 ( 0,02 + Fe3C6,67) - S tit ra pha Fe3C d ra khi dung dch rn : Xy ra trong dung dch rn Fe theo ng ES v trong Fe theo ng PQ. 3 - Cc t chc ca hp kim Fe - Fe3C : a- T chc mt pha : * Ferit (k hiu , F hay Fe ) : l dung dch rn xen k ca cc bon trong Fe , c kiu mng lp phng tm khi. L pha do, dai, mm v km bn, nhi t < 768 oC c t tnh, cao hn nhit ny mt tnh st t. Khi ha tan thm cc nguyn t h p kim Mn, Si, Ni... bn ca n tng ln, do dai gim i. Ferit l pha tn ti nhi t thng, chim t l kh ln (khong 90%) nn nh kh nhiu n c tnh ca hp kim. T chc ca n l cc ht sng, a cnh. Gi l phe rit xu t pht t ti ng Latinh ferum ngha l st. *Austenit [k hiu , As , Fe (C)] : l dung dch rn xen k ca cc bon trong Fe c mng lp phng tm mt. L pha rt do v dai, cng thp. N khng c t tnh v khng tn ti nhit thp hn 727oC trong hp kim st cc bon nguyn cht, ch tn ti nhit thng trong cc hp kim cha mt lng ng k Mn, Ni... Tuy khng tn ti nhit thng nhng c vai tr quyt nh trong bin dng nng v nhit luy n thp. T chc ca n l cc ht sng c song tinh. Tn gi austenit k nim nh v t liu hc ngi Anh : Rbe sten. *Xmentit (k hiu Xe, Fe3C) : l pha xen k vi kiu mng phc tp, cha 6,67%C v c cng thc Fe3C, tng ng vi ng DFKL. Xmentit l pha cng,dn, nhit nh hn 217oC c t tnh, cao hn nhit ny mt tnh st t. Cng v i ferit, n to nn cc t chc khc nhau ca hp kim Fe -C. Xmentt xut pht t tn gi cmen c ngha l cng.Ta phn bit ra bn loi xmentit : + Xmentit th nht : (XI, Fe3CI) : c to thnh t hp kim lng do gim nng cc bon trong hp kim lng theo ng DC khi nhit gim. N ch c trong cc hp kim cha > 4,3%C. Do to thnh t trng thi lng v nhit cao nn c dng thng, th to. + Xmentit th hai : (XII, Fe3CII) : c to thnh do gim nng cc bon trong austenit theo ng ES khi h nhit t 1147oC n 727oC, n sinh ra trong cc hp kim c > 0,80%C v thy r nht trong cc hp kim cha t 0,80 n 2,14%C. Do to thnh nhit khng cao lm v t trng thi rn nn kch thc nh mn, th ng c dng li bao quanh ht peclit (austenit). + Xmen tit th ba : (XIII,, Fe3CIII) : c to thnh khi gim nng cc bon trong ferit theo ng PQ khi h nhit t 727oC, thy r nht trong cc hp kim < 0,02%C. Do to thnh nhit rt thp nn kch thc rt nh mn, s lng khng ng k, trong thc t ta b qua n.

20

+Xmentit cng tch : c to thnh do chuyn bin cng tch austenit thnh pc lit, n c vai tr rt quan trng trong cc hp kim st cc bon. b-Cc t chc hai pha : *Peclt [k hiu P hay (F +X)] : l hn hp c hc cng tch ca phe rt v xmentit c to ra t chuyn bin cng tch ca austenit. Trong pc lt c 88% F v 12% X. Pc lt kh bn v cng nhng cng do dai p ng c cc yu cu ca vt liu kt cu v dng c. Ty thuc hnh dng ca xmentt, pc lt c chia ra lm hai loi l pc lt tm v pc lt ht. Nu xmentit dng tm gi l pc lt tm, c cng cao hn, y l dng thng gp trong thc t. Nu xmentit dng ht gi l pc lit h t, c ng thp hn, d ct gt. Pc lt ht t gp trong thc t, ch nh c khi cu ha. Pc lt ht c tnh n nh cao hn pc lt tm. Tn gi pc lt xut pht t peard c ngha l v n hay mu x c. 0,8 ( 0,02 + Fe3C6,67) *Lburit [L hay ( + X), (P +X)] : l hn hp c hc cng tinh ca austenit v xmentit c to thnh t hp kim lng cha 4,3%C ti 1147 oC. Khi lm ngui di 727oC th do chuyn bin P nn t chc ca lburit gm (P + X). L4,3 ( 2,14 + Fe3C6,67 ) Lburit c dng hnh da bo rt cng v dn nn thng gi l t chc da bo. Tn gi lburit l k nim nh luyn kim ngi c Lbua. 4-Mt s quy c : a-Thp v gang : _*Thp l hp kim ca st v cc bon vi hm lng cc bon nh h n 2,14%. Ngoi ra cn c thm mt s nguyn t khc : Mn, Si, P, S ... *Gang l hp kim ca st v cc bon vi hm lng cc bon ln hn 2,14%. Ngoi ra cn c thm mt s nguyn t khc : Mn, Si, P, S...Gang c t chc tng ng vi gin pha Fe-C gi l gang trng (mt gy ca n c mu sng trng, l mu c a xmentit). Gang trng rt cng v dn, khng th gia cng ct gt c. Ranh gii phn chia thp v gang l im E trn gin pha Fe-C. Cn c vo hm lng cc bon c trong gang v thp ta phn chia chng thnh nhiu loi khc nhau. Thp c chia ra lm ba loi : +Thp trc cng tch : l loi thp c hm lng cc bon nh hn 0,8%C, t chc cn bng gm phe rit v pc lit. +Thp cng tch : l loi thp c hm lng cc bon bng 0,8%C, t chc cn bng l pc lit. +Thp sau cng tch : l loi thp c hm lng cc bon ln h n 0,8%C, t chc cn bng gm pc lit v xmentt th hai. Gang trng c chia ra lm ba loi : +Gang trng trc cng tinh : l loi gang c hm lng cc bon nh hn 4,3%C, t chc cn bng gm c peclit, xmentit th hai v lburit. +Gang trng cng tinh : l loi gang c hm lng cc bon bng 4,3%C, t chc cn bng l lburit.

21

+Gang trng sau cng tinh : l loi gang c hm lng cc bon l n hn 4,3%C, t chc cn bng gm xmentit th nht v lburit. b-Cc im ti hn : Cc nhit ng vi cc chuyn bin pha trng thi rn trong hp kim st cc bon (ch yu dng cho thp) gi l cc im ti hn, chng c k hi u b ng ch A (vit tt t ting Php art c ngha l dng v khi c chuyn bin pha nhi t b d ng li) km theo cc s th t 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 v cm. Gm c cc im ti hn sau y : *A0 - (217oC) l nhit chuyn bin t ca xmentit, thp hn nhit ny xmentit c t tnh, cao hn nhit ny xementit mt tnh st t. *A1 - (727oC) ng vi ng PSK l nhit chuyn bin austenit peclit c trong tt c cc loi thp v gang. *A2 - (768oC) cn gi l im Curi, ng vi ng MO, l im chuyn bin t ca phe rit, thp hn nhit ny phe rit c t tnh, cao hn nhit ny mt tnh st t. *A3 - ng vi ng GS (911 727oC) l ng bt u tit ra phe rit t austenit khi lm ngui v kt thc ha tan phe rit vo austenit khi nung nng, ch c trong thp trc cng tch. *Acm - ng vi ng ES (1147oC 727oC)l ng bt u tit ra xmentt t austenit khi lm ngui v kt thc ha tan xmentit vo austenit khi nung nng. *A4 - ng vi ng NJ (1499 1392oC) ng vi chuyn bin Trong tt c cc im ti hn trn th cc im A1, A3 v Acm c s dng nhiu nht v ch yu khi nhit luyn thp. Tuy nhin cc gi tr v nhi t nu trn ch ng trong trng thi cn bng (nung nng hay lm ngui v cng chm, tc nung 0). Trong thc t tc nung nng hay lm ngui thng c gi tr xc nh nn khng ph hp. Tng t nh hin tng qu ngui (khi kt tinh) hay qu nung (khi nng chy) cc im ti hn ny cng thp hn hay cao hn khi lm ngu i hay nung nng, s khc bi t ny cng ln khi tc cng cao. phn bit cng mt im ti hn cho hai trng hp khi lm ngui v nung nng ta thm vo ch r (refroidissement) khi lm ngui v c (chauffage) khi nung nng. Vi mt loi thp nht nh bao gi ta cng c : Ar1 < A1 <Ac1 v Ar3 < A3 < Ac3 .... cc gi tr A tnh theo gin pha, Ar ph thuc vo tc ngui, Ac ph thuc tc nung. -Tnh gn ng hm lng cc bon ca thp trc cng tch qua t chc cn bng : i vi thp trc cng tch trong mt vi trng hp cn thit ta c th tnh gn ng lng cc bon c trong thep qua t chc cn bng ca n. V d : trong t chc t vi ca mt loi thp ta thy phn ti (pclit) chim 3/4 din tch, cn phn sng (phe rit) chim 1/4 th lng cc bon trong tnh nh sau : *Lng cc bon c trong phe rit : 25% x 0,006% = 0,015 % 0% *Lng cc bon c trong peclit : 75% x 0,80% = 0,60%C Vy lng cc bon c trong thp ny gn dng bng 0,60%C CHNG 3 : KT TINH V KHUCH TN TRONG VT LIU

22

3.1.QU TRNH KT TINH T TRNG THI LNG : Phn ln cc kim loi c luyn bng phng php nu chy lng sau em c thnh hnh sn phm hay bn thnh phm. Cht lng ca vt c ph thuc phn ln vo qu trnh chuyn t trng thi lng sang trng thi rn, l qu trnh kt tinh . nh ngha : kt tinh l qu trnh hnh thnh mng tinh th t trng thi lng v th ng gi l kt tinh ln th nht . 3.1.1.iu kin nng lng ca qu trnh kt tinh : Trong t nhin mi qu trnh t pht u xy ra theo chiu gim nng lng, tc l theo chiu trng thi mi c nng lng d tr nh hn. V d : mt hn bi t t i v tr A lun c xu hng ln xung vi tr B n nh hn . Trong trng hp ny nng lng d tr chnh l th nngca hn bi. Trong h thng vt cht gm chuyn ng ca cc cht im (nguyn t, phn t) th nng lng d tr c c trng bng nng lng t do F. F = U - TS Trong : -U l ni nng ca h thng -S l entrpi -T l nhit tuyt i 0K Nng lng t do thay i theo nhit v cc yu t khc. T biu v mi quan h gia nng lng t do v nhit ta thy : -Vi T > Ts ta c Fr > Fl do kim loi tn ti trng thi lng -Vi T < Ts ta c Fr < Fl , do kim loi tn ti trng thi rn. Nh vy khi lm ngui kim loi lng xung di nhit Ts s c qu trnh k t tinh xy ra . Ti nhit Ts ta c Fr = F l, nng lng t do ca hai trng thi bng nhau, qu trnh kt tinh cha xy ra,ngha l gia kim loi rn v kim loi l ng c cn b ng ng . iu c nghi l : nu c mt lng kim loi lng kt tinh th cng c m t lng nh vy kim loi rn nng chy . Ch nhit T < T s , Fr < Fl r rt s kt tinh mi xy ra . Ts c gi l nhit kt tinh l thuyt. Nh vy nhit kt tinh thc t lun thp hn T s hin tng ny gi l s qu ngui v hiu s gia hai nhit gi l qu ngui, k hiu T. Phn ln cc kim loi kt tinh vi qu ngui Tnh , khong t 2-5 0C . Tuy nhin cng c kim lai kt tinh vi qu ngui ln (Stibi c T = 41oC). Vy iu kin nng lng xy kt tinh l phi lm ngui kim loi lng ti nhit thp hn Ts hay kim loi lng ch kt tinh vi s qu ngui nht nh. Ta cng c th l lun tng t nh vy vi qu trnh nng chy v chuyn bin th hnh . Do qu ngui v qu nung ca phn ln kim loi b nn c th da vo Ts xc nh nhit nng chy hay kt tinh ca kim lai. 3.1.2.Hai qu trnh ca s kt tinh : Khi h nhit kim loi lng xung thp hn nhit kt tinh l thuyt Ts, qu trnh kt tinh s xy ra. S kt tinh thc hin c l nh c hai qu trnh sau : -Trong kim loi lng xut hin nhng trung tm kt tinh c kch thc rt nh, gi l mm kt tinh. Qu trnh ny gi l to mm.

23

-Cc mm ny s pht trin ln v to thnh ht tinh th .Qu trnh ny gi l pht trin mm. 1-Qu tnh to mm (trung tm kt tinh) : To mm l qu trnh to nn cc phn t rn c c u to tinh th , c kch thc rt nh trong lng khi kim loi lng, chung l nhng mm mng u tin pht trin ln thnh ht tinh th. Theo c tnh pht sinh mm c chia lm hai loi : mm t sinh ( ng pha) v mm khng t sinh (k sinh) a-Mm t sinh (mm ng pha) : L mm sinh ra trc tip t kim loi lng khng cn s gip ca b mt cc ht rn c sn trong . Ti nhit thp hn Ts cc nhm nguyn t sp xp c trt t trong kim lo i lng c kch thc ln hn mt gi tr xc nh ng vi mi nhit s c nh li,khng tan i na v c iu kin pht trin ln thnh ht tinh th. Ta xt iu kin nng lng ca s to mm ny.Gi s rng ti nhit no nh hn Ts trong kim loi lng xut hin n nhm nguyn t sp xp trt t c th tch v. Ti nhit ny ta c Fr < Fl .Gi Fv = Fl - Fr,l hiu s nng lng t do gia kim loi lng v kim loi rn tnh cho mt n v th tch kim loi lng th Fv < 0 khi T < Ts. Khi to ra n nhm nguyn t trt t ni trn th nng lng ca h thng gim i mt l ng l nv Fv .Nhng do to nn b mt tip xc gia rn v lng nn nng lng t do s tng thm mt lng l ns. Trong : s l din tch tip xc gia nhm nguyn t vi kim loi lng,cn l sc cng b mt trn mt n v din tch. Khi to ra n nhm nguyn t sp xp c trt t trn th nng lng c h thng bin i mt lng l: F = - nv Fv + ns Coi cc nhm nguyn t trt t c dng hnh cu bn knh r, ta c: F = - 3 r3nFv + 4r2n (1)
4

nhit nht nh nh hn Ts th Fv v l hng s nn F = f(r). Bng thc nghim ngi ta v c th v s ph thuc gia nng lng t do v bn knh r ca nhm nguyn t trt t. T th ta nhn thy : -Nu nhm nguyn t trt t c r1 < rth th khi n pht trin ln lm cho nng lng ca h thng tng ln,khng ph hp vi t nhin nn s tan i. -Nu nhm nguyn t trt t c r2 > rth khi pht trin ln lm gim nng lng ca h thng v n tr thnh mm tht s. Kt lun : ti mt nhit nht nh nho hn Ts trong kim loi l ng c v s nhm nguyn t sp xp trt t c kch thc khc nhau. Ch nhng nhm no c kch thc ln hn mt gi tr ti hn no mi tr thnh mm tht s,cn nhng nhm khc tan i. Ta c th tnh bn knh ti hn nh sau : tm gi tr c c i c a bi u th c (1) v tnh c rth =
2 Fv

(2) , gi tr r = 0 khng c ngha. Khi nhit kt tinh cng thp ( Fv

ln) th rth cng nh v cng c nhiu nhm nguyn t trt t c kch thc ln hn r th tr thnh mm. Do s kt tinh xy ra d dng hn. Ti T = T s ta c rth = ,qu trnh sinh mm khng xy ra .

24

b-Mm khng t sinh (k sinh) : L mm kt tinh c to nn trn b mt ca cc ht rn c sn trong kim loi lng. Trong kim loi lng khng th nguyn cht tuyt i c,nn bao gi cng cn tp cht. l cc cht ln ln khng tan nh : bi than,bi tng l, cc xyt, nitrit... Chng gip cho qu trnh sinh mm trn b mt ca chng xy ra d dng hn. Vai tr ca mm khng t sinh rt quan trng trong thc t v do vy qu trnh kt tinh xy ra rt nhanh chng. Mm t sinh bao gm : -Cc phn t vt ln ln khng tan rt nh nh xyt, bi tng l, nitrit, hydrit...c kiu mng v kch thc khng sai khc nhiu vi kim loi kt tinh. -Cc ht rt nh c kh nng hp th trn b mt ca chng nhng nguyn t kim loi kt tinh. -Thnh khun c, c bit l cc vt nt v ch li lm trn thnh khun. 2-Qu trnh pht trin mm : Sau khi cc mm c to ra chng s tip tc pht tin ln thnh ht tinh th .Qu trnh ny lm cho nng lng t do ca h gim i ph hp vi t nhin (l qu trnh t pht).Ta c th minh ha qa trnh ny bng c cu mm hai chi u (Cosen) v c c u mm kt tinh c lch xon. 3.1.3.Cc yu t nh hng n kch thc ht, cc phng php lm nh ht Sau khi c ht kim loi kh ln, nhiu trng hp c th nhn thy bng mt thng. Trong k thut c lun c xu hng lm nh ht kim loi v ht nh c c tnh tt hn v t dn hn. Trong mt s trng hp do yu cu c a k thu t ta mi lm cho ht ln khi c. a-Cc yu t nh hng n ln ht : Trong thc t c nhiu yu t nh hng n ln ca ht kim loi nhng nh hng mnh nht l qu ngui T. nh gi nh hng ca qu ngui n ln ht ta s dng hai i lng sau : - Tc sinh mm : l s lng tm mm sinh ra trong mt n v th tch v trong mt n v thi gian, k hiu n, n v 1/mm3.s. - Tc phat trin mm : l tc pht trin v kch thc di ca tm mm trong mt n v thi gian, k hiu v, n v mm/s. Tc sinh mm cng ln th kch thc ht cng nh v tc pht trin mm cng tng th kch thc ht cng ln. Bng thc nghim, ngi ta tnh c kch thc ht A theo hai i lng trn nh sau : A=a
v n

vi a l h s thc nghim.

T ta thy rng : nguyn l chung to ht nh l tng tc sinh mm v hn ch tc pht trin mm. b-Cc phng php lm nh ht : Trong thc t ngi ta thng s dng cc phng php lm nh ht sau y : - Tng qu ngui khi kt tinh : qu ngui ph thuc vo tc ngu i, t c ngui cng ln th qu ngui cng tng. tng tc ngui ngi ta dng khun

25

kim loi c tnh dn nhit cao thay cho khun ct. Vi cc v t c l n ta cn dng n c lnh lm ngui ngoi thnh khun kim loi. - Phng php bin tnh : * Tng s lng tm mm khng t sinh : ngi ta c cho vo kim lo i lng cc cht c bit gip cho s to mm khng t sinh. V d trc khi rt thp ngi ta cho mt lng nh nhm vo thng thp lng (20g/tn thp lng). Nhm s kt hp vi xy, ni t ha tan trong thp to ra cc phn t Al 2O3, AlN rt nh mn, l lng phn tn u trong thp lng. y l nhng mm khng t sinh lm cho ht thp nh hn. * Hn ch tc pht trin mm : ngi ta cho vo kim lai lng mt cht c bit, n ha tan v hp ph vo b mt mm hn ch s pht trin di c a mm. V d : khi c hp kim nhm -si lic ngi ta cho vo mt hn hp mu i natri (NaCl, NaF), chng ha tan vo v hn ch s pht trin ca tinh th si lic. Do vy lm cho ht nh. * Ngoi ra cn cht bin tnh c tc dng lm thay i hnh dng h t (t o grapht cu trong gang) ci thin rt mnh c tnh ca vt liu. Cn ch l phi tin hnh bin tnh ng lc, cht bin tnh ch cho vo kim loi lng vi pht trc khi rt khun. Nu qu sm th kim loi cha kp kt tinh s ni ln v i vo x. Nu qu mun th khng kp phn ng. 3.2.KHUCH TN TRONG VT LIU 3.2.1.Cc nh lut khuch tn c bn : Khuch tn l s chuyn ch ngu nhin ca cc nguyn t (ion, phn t) do dao ng nhit. Khuch tn ca nguyn t A trong nn ca chnh loi nguyn t (A) gi l t khuch tn Khuch tn ca nguyn t khc loi B vi nng nh trong nn A gi l khuch tn khc loi. iu kin c khuch tn khc loi l B phi ho tan trong A. Khuch tn ca c A v B trong nn A hoc B gi l khuch tn tng h . Trong khuch tn khc loi v khuch tn tng h lun c dng nguyn t theo chiu gim nng . Khuch tn c vai tr quan trng trong nhiu qu trnh cng ngh ch to vt liu nh kt tinh, thiu kt, to lp bn dn p-n, trong x l nhit, qu trnh xy ho, do... 1-nh lut Fick I v h s khuch tn : nh lut Fick 1 biu din mi quan h gia dng nguyn t khuch tn J qua mt n v b mt vung gc vi phng khuch tn v gradien nng dc/dx : J= -D
dc dx

= - D. grad c

(3.1)

Trong du tr ch dng khuch tn theo chiu gim nng . D - l h s khuch tn, thng o bng cm 2/s. Trong nhiu trng hp D ph thuc nhit theo quy lut : D = Do exp (- Q/RT) (3.2) 2 Vi Do - l hng s, cm /s Q - hot nng khuch tn kcal/mol T - nhit khuch tn, oK R - hng s kh, R = 1,98 cal/mol

26

T nhng tr s Do v Q c th xc nh h s khuch tn D nhit bt k v c im ca qu trnh khuch tn (c ch khuch tn) 2-nh lut Fick 2 : Nu nng C khng nhng l hm ca x m cn ph thuc vo thi gian t th thun tin ngi ta s dng nh lut Fick 2. Trong trng hp h s khuch tn khng ph thuc nng , biu thc ca nh lut Fick 2 nh sau :
C t

=D

Nghim ca phng trnh (3.3) trong trng hp khuch tn mt cht c nng Cs trn b mt vo bn trong mu vi nng ban u Co (Cs > Co) c dng : C(x,t) = Cs - (Cs - Co)erf (x/2 Dt ) (3.4) Trong erf (L) - l hm sai ca i lng L c tnh sn trong cc s tay ton hc. T biu thc (3.4) ta thy rng C(x,t) t l vi (x/2 Dt ) nu Cs v Co l hng s, c ngha l chiu su x ca lp khuch tn vi nng C no t l thun vi Dt . 3.2.2.C ch khuch tn : C ch khuch tn gii thch tr s Do v Q, tm hiu bn cht ca nhng qu trnh dch chuyn nguyn t (ion, phn t) trong nhng vt liu khc nhau. 1-Trong dung dch rn thay th : Trong vt liu ny, cc nguyn t khuch tn theo c ch nt trng, tc l nguyn t dch chuyn n nt trng bn cnh. thc hin c bc dch chuyn nh vy, cn phi c hai iu kin : -Nguyn t c hot nng Gvm ph v lin kt vi nhng nguyn t bn cnh, ni rng khong cch hai nguyn t gia nt trng v nguyn t dch chuyn (nguyn t 1 v 2 hnh 3.2a.). S lng nhng nguyn t c hot nng nh vy t l vi exp(- Gvm /kT). -C nt trng nm cnh nguyn t : nng nt trng t l vi exp(- Gvf /kT), trong Gvf l nng lng to nt trng, c ngha l nng lng cn tch nguyn t khi nt mng trong mng hon chnh, nng lng ny t l vi nhit ho hi. Nh vy kh nng khuch tn ph thuc vo xc sut ca hai qu trnh trn v h s khuch tn c th vit di dng : D = const.exp (- Gvf /kT) . exp (- Gvm /kT) (3.5) Nu k n mi quan h G = H - TS ( vi H l entanpi, S l entropi) v bi u th c (3.2) ca D, ta xc nh c Q v Do nh sau : Q = Hvm + Hvf (3.6) v v Do = const . exp [( S f + S m)/k] (3.7) Bng cch so snh Q v tng Hvm + [( Svf + Svm)/k c th d on s c mt ca c ch nt trng trong vt liu c th. Trong nhiu kim loi Hvm + Hvf = 13eV/nguyn t v ( Svf + Svm)/k = 2, do Do = 0,1-10cm2/s. Hot nng khuch tn Q lin quan n nng lng tch v dch chuy n nguyn t khi nt mng, do ta c : Q Lnc Tnc (3.8) Nh vy ti nhit cho, vt liu c Tnc cng ln th Q cng ln v D cng nh

2C x 2

= D. c

(3.3)

27

2-Trong dung dch rn xen k : Trong dung dch rn xen l, cc nguyn t ho tan thng c ng knh nh (H, ON, C...) c th chuyn t v tr l hng ny (gia cc nt mng) sang cc l h ng khc. y l hin tng khuch tn theo c ch gia cc nt mng. chuy n n l h ng bn cnh, nguyn t xen k phi vt c th nng Gim (hnh 3.2b). Bn cnh cc nguyn t xen k lun lun c l hng v lng cc l hng trong mng l xc nh v nhiu hn nguyn t xen k nn "nng " l hng khng nh hng n h s khuch tn. Trong trng hp ny ta c : D = const.exp( Sim /k) .exp (- Him /kT) (3.9) Do Q = Him (3.10) i Do = const.exp ( S m /k) (3.11) Q v Do ni chung c gi tr nh hn so vi c ch nt trng. Q ph thuc ch yu vo kch thc nguyn t xen k ( nguyn t cng nh th D cng ln) v mt xp cht ca kim loi nn. 3-Trong cc tinh th lin kt ion v lin kt ng ho tr : trong tinh th ca hp cht ion (v d NaCl) nu khuyt tt Schottky (nt tr ng) l ng k th khuch tn theo c ch nt trng. Trong cation Na+ khuch tn nhanh hn anion (Cl-) v cation c kch thc nh hn. Nu nng nt trng ln th cc nt tr ng s to cp (nt trng kp) gim nng lng ca h, khi entanpi dch chuyn c gi tr nh dn n D ln v khng c s khc nhau ng k gia D ca cation v anion. Tng t nh biu thc (3.8) ta c mi quan h hot nng khuch tn trong tinh th ion nh sau : (Qcation + Qanion) Lnc Tnc Trong tinh th ion khi nng khuyt tt Frenkel (nt trng v cation xen k ) l ng k (v d AgBr) cation xen k (Ag+) khuch tn theo c ch gia nt mng khng trc tip (c ch ui) : nguyn t xen k ui nguyn t cnh n t v tr nt trng nt mng n l hng. Entanpi chuyn ch nh vy nh hn entanpi chuyn ch ca nt trng. Trong cc tinh th c lin kt ng ho tr (v d SiO2, Si, Ge) qu trnh khuch tn ca cc nguyn t thnh phn (v d ca Si v O trong SiO2) v nhng nguyn t thay th (Ag trong mng SiO2) l rt chm (khong 10-11 cm2/s gn nhit nng chy) v n phi ph v ph v lin kt rt bn trong mng v khuch tn theo c ch nt trng. 4-Trong vt liu kim loi v nh hnh : Trong vt liu v nh hnh khng c s khc nhau ng k gia nt trng v l hng cng nh khng c tnh chu k ca v tr nguyn t. Nng khuyt tt rt ln v km n nh, do chng d kt hp vi nhau hoc vi nguyn t ho tan. Trong vt liu ny c th tn ti cc c ch khuch tn sau : -Cc loi nguyn t kch thc nh (H,O..) khuch tn theo c ch gia cc nt mng, Q c gi tr nh (0,25 - 0,5eV/nguyn t). Khi ng knh nguyn t v khi lng nguyn cng nh th h s khuch tn D cng ln. -Mt s nguyn t Au, Pt, Pb...v cc hp phc ca chng khuch tn theo c ch gia nt mng trong nhng l hng ln (khong 0,7 ng knh nguyn t), Q ph thuc vo nng lng lin kt ca nhng hp phc v c tr s 1-3 eV/nguyn t. 5-Trong vt liu polyme :

28

Trong polyme trng thi rn hu nh khng c khuch tn v phi gi c nh gc nh v t ra vi hai polyme bn cnh. Tuy nhin mt mch polyme c th chuy n ng cng vi nhng mch cu trc bn cnh. Hin tng ny gi l khuch tn lin kt, ch xy ra gn nhit chy. Nhng phn t nh nh H2, O2, H2O... c th chuyn dch trong polyme trng thi rn. Nhng phn t nh ny chim v tr gia cc phn t. Nu mch phn t c vi chuyn ng ngu nhin (thay i hnh dng phn t) th nhng phn t nh pha ngoi c th i ch vi nhng nhnh polyme . 3.2.3.Cc ng dng ca khuch tn : 1-Trong k thut c : Trong qu trnh c ngi ta thay i tc ngui iu chnh qu trnh kt tinh ca vt liu. Tu tng trng hp c th ta c th gim tc ngui tng qu trnh khuch tn hay tng tc ngui gim qu trnh khuch tn... to ra t chc v tnh cht theo yu cu. V d : -Khi nu chy kim loi : c thnh phn ng u, kh c tp cht c hi nm l lng trong kim loi lng, cn thc y qu trnh khuch tn bng cch khuy trn, tng nhit ... chng bay hi v ho tan kh vo kim loi lng ta dng l p x che ph b mt. -Khi c gang cn lm ngui chm c thi gian cho qu trnh grapht ho x y ra, tranh to thnh xmentt. 2- ng u ho thnh phn : Trong vt c thng gp thin tch nhnh cy nht l trong cc hp kim c khong nhit kt tinh ln nng cc nguyn t hp kim v tp cht phn b khng u. V vy sau khi c xong phi tin hnh ng u thnh phn vt c. Nu ta coi phn b nng c dng hnh sin vi chu k bng khong cch gia cc nhnh cy th t c hiu qu f (c tnh bng gim bin nng ) nh sau : f = [cm(t) - co] / [cm(0) - co] (3.12) Thi gian t c th xc nh theo biu thc nhn c t nghim ca ph ng trnh nh luth Fick 2 : t= Vi l - l khong cch gia hai cc i (hnh 3.3) t c cng mt kiu qu , thi gian cng gim, nu D cng ln (ngha l nhit cng cao) v khong cch gia cc nhnh cy cng nh 3-To lp thm b mt : to lp thm cho b mt chi tit ta tin hnh gi nhit lu trong mi tr ng cha cc nguyn t ca nguyn t cn a vo (C, N, Si, Al, Cr...), do lm thay i thnh phn ho hc ca lp b mt. Trong ba qu trnh ni tip nhau xy ra khi thm (to nguyn t hot, hp ph trn b mt chi tit v khuch tn vo bn trong) th qu trnh khuch tn l chm nht. Do vy khuch tn khng ch ng hc to lp thm b mt. T chc ca lp thm ph thuc vo gin pha ca nguyn t nn (A) v nguyn t cn thm (B). V d khi thm ccc bon vo thp theo gi n pha Fe - C ta
l2 4 2 D

. lnf

(3.13)

29

nhn c t chc austenit vi mc bo ho cc bon khc nhau tu theo nhit thm. Sau khi lm ngui ta nh c cc t chc c lng xmentit khc nhau. 4-Trong qu trnh thiu kt : Trong cng ngh luyn kim bt, sn phm sau khi to hnh xong c nung n nhit cao to lin kt gia cc phn t vt liu. Qu trnh khuch tn x y ra ngay bn trong ht, trn b mt ht hay gia cc ht. Khng ch c l xp (s lng, hnh dng th tch...) ta s nhn c cc tnh cht theo mun. co ngt tng i ca chi tit ( l /lo) l mt trong cc ch tiu quan trng, c th c tnh theo biu thc sau :
l D t = const 3 l0 rT
2 /5

(3.14)

Trong : -r : bn knh ht - : nng lng b mt -T v t : nhit v thi gian thiu kt 5-Pha tp bn dn v thu tinh : Trong bn dn, tt c cc qu trnh ch to v u lin quan n qu trnh khuch tn. V d pha tp P, Sb, B... vo Si v Ge to lp bn dn p-n. tng nh ng ch tiu ca bn dn (ch yu l dn in), ngi ta thm bo th kh vo silic. Pha tp thu tinh bng cch khuch tn nhng ion c kch thoc l n nh K, Rb, Cs...vo b mt ci thin tnh cht ca thu tinh nh : h s gin n nhit, kh nng chu va p nhit... 3.3.CHUYN BIN PHA TRNG THI RN TRONG HP KIM Fe - C Khi tin hnh nhit luyn ta phi nung nng v lm ngui thp c thnh phn ha hc xc nh. Trong phn ny ta s kho st xem sau khi nung nng ln cc nhi t khc nhau s xy ra cc chuyn bin pha no v lm ngui tip theo vi tc khc nhau t chc mi nhn c s bin thnh t chc g t s bit c s thay i c tnh tng ng. Ta s xem xt tng qu trnh mt v kho st cho loi thp n gi n nh t l thp cc bon cng tch, cha 0,80%C. 3.3.1.Cc chuyn bin xy ra khi nung nng thp : 1-C s xc nh chuyn bin khi nung nng : C s xc nh chuyn bin xy ra khi nung nng l gin pha Fe - C. Ty theo thnh phn cc bon v nhit nung nng, trong thp s xy ra cc chuyn bin khc nhau. Trong tt c cc loi thp nhit thng u c t chc pc lt. Thp tr v sau cng tch th ngoi pc lit ra cn c phe rit v xmentit th hai. a-Thp cng tch : -Khi nung nng thp hn Ac1 (< 727oC) trong thp cha c chyn bin g. -Khi nhit nung nng t n Ac1 (> 727oC) s c chuyn bin ca t chc pc lit thnh austenit theo phn ng sau : [Fe + Fe3C]0,80%C Fe (C)0,80%C Khi nung nng cao hn Ac1 mt it ta c t chc austenit ng nht. b-Thp trc cng tch : -Khi nung nng n Ac1 s c chuyn bin pc lit thnh austenit ging nh trn. -Khi nung t nhit Ac1 n Ac3 s c qu trnh ha tan ca phe rt vo austenit.

30

-Khi nung cao hn Ac3 ta c t chc austenit ng nht. c-Thp sau cng tch : -Khi nung nng n Ac 1 c chuyn bin pc lt thnh austenit. -Khi nung t nhit Ac1 n Accm s c qa trnh ha tan ca xmentit hai vo austenit. -Nhit nung cao hn Accm ta c t chc austenit ng nht. T ta thy rng khi nung nng cao hn ng GSE ca gin pha Fe -C trong cc thp u nhn c dung dch rn austenit, tuy nhin thnh phn cc bon c a n ph thuc vo thnh phn cc bon ca thp. 2.c im ca chuyn bin pc lit thnh austenit : a-Nhit chuyn bin : Trn gin pha Fe - C nhit chuyn bin pc lit thnh austenit l 727 oC, iu ny ch ng khi nung nng v cng chm. Trong thc t khi nhit luyn tc nung nng tng i ln, do nhit chuyn bin s lun cao hn 727 oC. Tc nung cng cao th nhit chuyn bin s cng cao. Kho st gin chuyn bin ng nhit pc lit thnh austenit ca thp cng tch ta thy khi nhit nung cng cao thi gian ca chuyn bin cng ngn. Trong thc t nhit luyn thp ta thng dng cch nung nng lin tc, khi nung vi tc V1 nhit bt u chuyn bin l a1 v kt thc chuyn bin l b1. Nu nung nng vi tc V2 > V1 th nhit c bt u v kt thc chun bin s l a 2 v b2, cc nhit ny cao hn a, b1, thi gian chuyn bin cng ngn i. Trong thc t hon thnh chuyn bin khi theo quy nh ta phi nung nng cao hn nhit ti hn tng ng t 20-30oC, c khi hng trm C. Kt lun : Tc nung nng cng cao chuyn bin pc lit thnh austenit xy ra nhit cng cao v trong thi gian cng ngn. b-Kch thc ht austenit : Trong thc t khng s dng thp trng thi t chc austenit, nhng kch thc ca n quyt nh rt ln kch thc ht thp nhit thng. Chuyn bin peclit thnh austenit l mt qu trnh kt tinh v khu ch tn. Mm austenit c to ra gia bin gii ht phe rit v xmentit ca t chc peclit. Bin gii ht ca hai pha ny rt ln nn s mm kt tinh sinh ra rt nhi u. V vy h t austenit m i sinh bao gi cng rt nh mn. Do chuyn bin peclit thnh austenit bao gi cng lm nh ht thp. Ht austenit s cng nh mn nu kch thc ca pha xmentit cng cng nh v tc nung cng ln. Sau khi to thnh xong s c qu trnh khuch tn ca nguyn t cc bon t ni giu (v tr xmentit0 sang ni ngho (v tr phe rit) lm ng u thnh phn austenit. Nh vy ta thy rng ht austenit mi sinh ra rt nh mn nhng nu tip t c nung nng hay gi nhit chng s ln ln ngay. Ty theo c tnh pht trin ca ht austenit khi nung nng, thp c chia ra lm hai loi : thp bn cht (cn gi l di truyn) ht nh v bn cht ht ln. Thp bn cht ht ln l loi thp c ht austenit pht trin nhanh v u n mi nhit , tc l sau khi hnh thnh xong nu tip tc nung nng ht s pht tri n ln ngay. Do vy lm cho khi lm ngui ht thp to v c tnh gin cao.

31

Thp bn cht ht nh c ht austenit lc ban u pht trin chm, ch khi vt qu 930 - 950oC s pht trin nhanh chng v c th ln hn c thp bn cht ht ln. Do vy trong cc dng nhit luyn thng dng ( nhit < 930-950oC) vi thp bn cht ht nh khng s ht ln khi nung nng. Thp bn cht ht nh c kh xy trit bng nhm v hp kim ha bng cc nguyn t to cc bt mnh : Ti, V, Zr, Nb, W ...s t o ra Al2O3, AlN, cc ccbt hp kim kh tan, nh mn, chung s nm bin gii ht cn tr s st nhp ca ht austenit vi nhau thnh ht ln hn. 3.3.2.Chuyn bin xy ra khi gi nhit : Khi gi nhit khng c chuyn bin no khc vi khi nung nng. Tin hnh gi nhit nhm cc mc ch sau : -Lm ng u nhit trn ton tit din, cho li cng c chuyn bin nh b mt. -C thi gian hon thnh cc chuyn bin khi nung nng. -Lm ng u thnh phn ha hc (cc bon v hp kim) ca austenit. Thi gian gi nhit ch nn va khng nn ko di qu mc lm cho ht ln. 3.3.3.Chuyn binca austenit khi lm ngui chm : Sau khi nhn c austenit c ht nh mn theo yu cu, ta s xem xt chuy n bin ca chng khi lm ngui. Qu trnh ny cphn ra hai nhm l n : lm ngu i ng nhit v lm ngui lin tc. n gin ta nghin cu chuyn bin ng nhit trong thp cc bon cng tch sau suy rng ra cho cc thp khc. 1-Gin chuyn bin ng nhit ca austenit qu ngui ca thp cng tch : T gin pha Fe - C ta bit rng khi lm ngui austenit s chuyn bin thnh peclit ti nhit 727oC, vi iu kin lm ngui rt chm khng c trong thc t. Do vy ta dng phng php lm ngui ng nhit nh sau : lm ngu i nhanh austenit xung di nhit Ar1 mt khong nh, sau gi ng nhit ti nhit ny v o thi gian bt u v kt thc chuyn bin ca austenit. a-Gin chuyn bin ng nhit ca thp cng tch : Gin chuyn bin ng nhit ca austenit qu ngui cn gi l gi n T-T-T (transformation - temperature - time). Ta tin hnh o nh trn cho thp cng tch ti cc nhit chuyn bin khc nhau, ghi li thi gian bt u v kt thc chuyn bin tng nhit mt. Cui cng em biu din ln h trc nhit v thi gian ta s c gi n chuyn bin ng nhit austenit qu ngui ca thp cng tch. Gin ny c dng hai ng ch "C", ng th nht biu th s bt u, ng th hai bi u th s k t thc ca chuyn bin austenit thnh peclit (cn gi l gin ch C). Gin ny do hai nh vt liu hc ngi M l E.C.Bain v A.I.Davenpo xy dng nm 1930. b-Cc sn phm ca s phn ha ng nhit ca austenit qa ngui : T gin ch "C" ta thy rng austenit khi b lm ngu i xung di 727 oC n cha chuyn bin ngay m cn tn ti mt thi gian nht nh trc khi chuy n bi n, phn ha v c gi l austenit qu ngui. Austenit qu ngui khng n nh, r d dng b phn ha. Trn gin ch "C" phn chia ra cc khu vc sau : - trn 727oC l khu vc tn ti ca austenit n nh. -Bn tri ng cong ch "C" th nht l austenit qu ngui. -Khong gia hai ng ch "C" l austenit chuyn bin.

32

-Bn phi ng cong ch "C" th hai l cc sn phm phn ha ng nhit ca austenit qu ngui (hn hp phe rit v xmentit vi nh mn khc nhau). -Di ng M l mctenxt v austenit d. Cc sn phm phn ha ng nhit : *Khi cho phn ha st A1 (trn di 700oC), vi qu ngui nh Tkhong 25oC. Hn hp phe rit - xmentit tm to thnh vi kch thc th to, khong cch gia cc tm khong 10-3mm, cng 10-15HRC gi l pc lit tm. *Khi cho austenit phn ha nhit thp hn (khong 650oC, vi qa ngui T xp x 75oC), hn hp phe rit - xmentit tm to thnh nh mn hn, khong cch gia cc tm c 0,25 0.30 m, khng phn bit c chng trn knh hin vi quang hc. T chc ny c cng 25 - 35HRC, gi l xoocbit ti. *Khi cho austenit phn ha nhit thp hn na (khong 500 - 600 oC, ng vi mi ca ng cong ch "C", hn hp phe rit - xmentit tm to thnh s nh mn hn na, khng phn bit c trn knh hin vi quang hc, khong cch gia cc tm khong 0,10 - 0,15 m, c cng cao hn c 40HRC gi l tr xtit ti. *Khi cho austenit phn ha nhit thp hn na, tc l thu c v na di c a ng cong ch "C" (khong 450 - 250oC), hn hp phe rit - xmentit tm nhn c rt nh mn, c cng cao c 50 - 55HRC gi l bainit. Tuy nhin t chc bainit c khc vi ba t chc trn : -Lng cc bon ln hn gii hn bo ha mt t khong 0,10%C. -Cc bit st y khng c cng thc chnh xc l Fe3C m l Fe2,4 - 3C -Ngoi hai pha trn cn mt t austenit d v c ng sut bn trong. Sau khi lm ngui ng nhit t chc nhn c ng nht trn ton b tit di n. Nh vy cc t chc pcec lit tm, xocbit, trxtit (c bai nit na) l h n h p c h c c a phe rit v xmentt tm vi kch thc tm cng ngy cng nh mn h n v c ng cng cao hn. 2-S phn ha ca austenit khi lm ngui lin tc : Trong thc t khi nhit luyn thp thng dng phng php lm ngui lin tc, cc sn phm nhnc cng tng t trng hp ng nhit nhng c nhng c im khc hn. a-Vi cc tc ngui khc nhau, austenit s b qu ngui n cc nhit khc nhau v phn ha thnh cc sn phm tng ng vi cc nhit . -Lm ngui chm cng l (V1), vec t ngui ct ng cong ch "C" st A1 sn phm phn ha l peclit tm vi cng thp nht. -Lm ngui trong khng kh tnh (V2) austenit phn ha thnh xoocbit. -Lm ngui trong khng kh nn (V3), vc t ngui ct ch "C" ti phn li, austenit phn ha thnh trxtit. -Lm ngui trong du (V4) vc t ngui ch ct ng cong ch "C" th nht ti phn li, austenit ch c mt phn chuyn bin thnh trxtit phn cn li thnh mctenxit nn sn phm l trxtit - mctenxit. -Lm ngui nhanh hn na (trong nc lnh, ng vi V 5), vc t ngui khng ct ng cong ch "C" no c, phn ln austenit qu ngui chuyn bin thnh mactenxit. Khng c hcn hp phe rit - xmentit.

33

b-T chc nhn c thng khng ng nht trn ton tit din, nht l trng hp tit din ln v b mt ngui nhanh hn li. c-Khng nhn c hon ton t chc bainit. Trong mt s trng hp thy t chc bainit hnh thnh cng trxtit v mactenxit. 3-Gin ch "C" ca cc thp khc cng tch : Vi cc thp trc cng tch v sau cng tch cng c dng ng cong ch "C" tng t thp cngtch ch khc l c thm cc nhnh ph. a-Thp trc cng tch : C thm nhnh ph tit ra phe rit trc trong khong nhit Ar 3 n Ar1 sau mi phn ha thnh hn hp phe rit - xmentit. b-Thp sau cng tch : C thm nhnh ph tit ra xmentit hai trc trong khong t Ar cm n Ar1, sau mi phn ha thnh hn hp phe rit - xmentit. Tuy nhin vi cc thp ny nu lm ngui ng nhit vi qu ngui ln hay tc ngui nhanh th austenit qu nguica chng s phn ha ngay thnh peclit, xoocbit trxtit v bainit nhng lng cc bon khng ng l 0,80%C. Cc sn phm gi l cng tch gi. 3.3.4.Chuyn bin austenit khi lm ngui nhanh (chuyn bin mactenxit) : Khi lm ngui nhanh austenit sao cho vc t biu di n tc ngu i c a n khng ct ng cong ch "C" ch c chuyn bin a hnh t Fe sang Fe m khng c s khuch tn ca cc bon. l chuyn bin austenit thnh mctenxit. Chuyn bin ny xy ra nhit thp, khong t 250oC tr xung. Tc ngui nh nht chuyn bin ny xy ra l tc ng vi vc t tip xc vi ng cong ch "C" th nht ti mi ca n. Tc ngui ny c gi l tc ti ti hn V th (cn gi l tc ngui ti hn). Nh vy khi lm ngui austenit vi tc ngui ln hn tc ti h n s nhn c mactenxit ch khng phi hn hp phe rit - xmen tit. 1-Bn cht v cu trc ca mactenxit : a-nh ngha : Mctenxit l dung dch rn xen k qu bo ha ca cc bon trong Fe c c nng cc bon bng nng ca austenit ban u. Khi lm ngui rt nhanh cc bon trong austenit khng kp khuch tn to thnh xmentit. Lc t nhit tng i thp ch c s chuyn mng t Fe sang Fe. Lng cc bon trong hai t chc ny bng nhau. Fe (C) Fe(C) b-Cu trc ca mactenxit : -Mctenxit c kiu mng chnh phng tm khi vi hai thng s mng l a v c. T s c/a gi l chnh phng. Thng thng t s c/a = 1,001 - 1,06. -Mctenxit c dng hnh kim, mt u nhn, cc kim ny to vi nhau gc 120 o hay 60o. -Cc nguyn t cc bon chui vo cc l hng trong mng ca Fe c-Tnh cht mctenxit :

34

-Do hm lng cc bon qu bo ha nn gy ra x l ch mng l n, do v y c c ng cao v tnh chng mi mn ln. Hm lng cc bon cng ln cng cng cao. -Mactenxit c tnh gin cao ph thuc vo kch thc ht ca n v ng sut bn trong. Ht cng nh, ng sut cng thp tnh gin cng thp. 2-c im ca chuyn bin mactenxit : a-Ch xy ra khi lm ngui nhanh v lin tc austenit vi tc ln hn hay bng tc ngui ti hn. Chuyn bin mctenxit khng xy ra khi lm ngui ng nhit. b-L chuyn bin khng khuch tn : Nguyn t cc bon vn gi nguyn v tr, ch c nguyn t st chuyn dch to ra kiu mng chnh phng tm khi, khong cch dch chuyn khng qu mt thng s mng. Gia hai kiu mng ca austenit v mctenxit c mi quan h nh hng xc nh sao cho cc mt v phng dy c ca chng song song vi nhau. c-L qu trnh to ra khng ngng cc tinh th mi vi tc rt ln (1000 - 7000m/s). d-Chuyn bin ch xy ra trong mt khong nhit nht nh t nhit bt u chuyn bin (M) n nhit kt thc (Mk). V tr hai nhit ny khng ph thuc vo tc ln ngui, ch ph thuc vo thnh phn cc bon v nguyn t hp kim trong thp. e-Chuyn bin xy ra khng hon ton : Khi lm ngui cng gn n i m M k lng mctenxit sinh ra cng nhiu, nhng khng bao gi t c 100% m vn cn mt lng nht nh austenit cha chuyn bin, gi l austenit d. Nguyn nhn ca hin tng ny l do s khc nhau v th tch ring ca chng. Th tch ring VM > V v vy khi chuyn bin austenit thnh mctenxit th tch tng ln v phn austenit cha chuyn bin b p lc nn ngy cng tng ln n mc khng th chuyn bin c na. Lng austenit d sau khi ti ph thuc vo cc yu t sau : -V tr ca im M v Mk : im Mk cng thp hn 20oC th lng austenit d cng tng. y l yu t quan trng nht. -Lng cc bon trong mctanxit cng nhiu th tch ring ca n cng l n, do v y lng austenit d cng tng. 3.3.5.Chuyn bin khi nung nng thp ti (khi ram) : 1-Tnh khng n nh ca mctenxit v austenit : Sau khi ti ta nhn c mctenxit v mt lng austenit d nht nh, thp c cng cao nhng tnh dn ln v tn ti ng sut d bn trong, nng l ng t do l n. Trng thi ny khng n nh v chi tit khng th lm vic c. Do phi cn mt nguyn cng tip theo iu chnh li cho ph hp l ram. Theo gin pha Fe-C t nhit 727oC n nhit thng t chc n nhca thp l hn hp phe rit v xmentit (peclit). V vy mctanxit v austenit d l cc pha khng n nh, chng lun c xu hng phn ho thnh hn hp trn. Mctenxit khng n nh do qu bo ho cc bon, do vy s ti t bt ra di dng xmentit v phn cn li s mt ht cc bon tr thnh pherit : Fe (C) Fe3C + Fe Austenit khng tn ti c di 727oC nn c khuynh hng phn ho thnh h hp pherit v xmentit : Fe ( C) Fe3C + Fe

35

 nhit thng qu trnh ny din ra rt chm, hu nh khng nhn thy c. V vy ta phi nung nng thc y nhanh qu trnh. Tuy nhin hai pha ny khng chuyn bin trc tip ra phe rit v xmentit m phi qua m sn ph m trung gian l mactenxit ram nh sau :
Mactexit Austenitdu

Mctanxit ram [ferit + xmentit]

2-Cc chuyn binxy ra khi ram : Ta xt qu trnh nung nng thp cng tch (0,80%C) t suy rng cho cc loi thp khc. a-Giai on I (<200oC) : -Khi nung nh hn 80oC cha c g xy ra, t chc vn l mactenxit v austenit d. -T 80-200oC : austenit d cha chuyn bin. Lc ny trong mctenxit c s tp trung cc bon li v tit ra di dng cc bt c cng thc FexC (x t 2,0 2,4) dng tm mng v rt phn tn. Lng cc bon trong mactenxit gi m t 0,80% xu ng cn 0,25% 0,40% v t s c/a gim i. Cc bt cha c kiu mng ring, n phi tn ti trong kiu mng ca mactenxit. Hn hp gm cc bt v mtanxit ngho cc bon gi l mactenxit ram. Fe (C) 0,80 [Fe (C) 0,25-0,40 + Fe2 2,4C] Cui giai on ny t chc ca thp l mctenxit ram v austenit d. b-Giai on II : (200 260oC) Trong giai on ny cc bon vn tip tc tit ra khi mctenxit lm cho dung d ch rn ch cn 0,15 0,20%C. Bn cnh c qu trnh austenit d chuyn bin thnh mctenxit ram Fe (C)0,80 [Fe (C)0,15 0,20 + Fe2 2,4C] Cui giai on ny thp ti c t chc l mtanxit ram c-Giai on III : (260 400oC) Trong giai on ny c hai pha ca mctanxit ram u chuyn bin : -Tt c cc bon qu bo ho c tit ra khi mactenxit chnh phng c/a = 1 v mctanxit ngho cc bon tr thn pherit. -Cc bt dng tm mng bin thnh xmentit dng ht. S ca hai qu trnh ny nh sau : Fe (C)0,15 20 Fe +Fe3C ht Fe3C ht Fe2 2,4C Cui giai on ny t chc ca thp ti l hn hp phe rit v xmentit d ng h t rt nh mn, khng nhn thy c di knh hin vi quang hc gi l trstit ram d-Giai on IV : (>400oC) Tip tc nung ln cao hn 400oC trong thp ti khng c chuyn bin pha g mi m ch c qu trnh ln ln ca cc ht xmentit. nhit 500 600oC t chc l hn hp pherit v xmentiot dng ht kh phn tn, vn cha nhn thy c di kinh hin vi quang hc, gi l xoocbit ram Nu tip tc nung ln gn A1 (727oC), lc ny ht xmentit kh ln c th nhn thy c bng knh hin vi quang hc, hn hp gi l pclit ht.

36

CHNG 4 :

BIN DNG DO V C TNH CA VT LIU

i vi cc vt liu, c bit l vt liu kim loi, cc bn thnh phm c cung cp di dng dy, thanh, tm, l....nh qu trnh bin dng do (cn) rt thun tin cho vic s dng. Trong sn xut c kh thng dng rn to phi cho sn phm trc khi gia cng ct gt. V vy kho st bin dng do gip cho chng ta hiu r bn cht v cc c trng c tnh, cc bin php nng cao c tnh cng nh cch khc phc cc hin tng bt li. 4.1.BIN DNG N HI V BIN DNG DO: 4.1.1.Khi nim v bin dng n hi: Bin dng l s thay i hnh dng, kch thc ca vt liu di tc dng ca ngoi lc, hay cc qu trnh n mn... Bin dng n hi l bin dng b mt i khi b ti trng tc dng, n x y ra khi ti trng tc dng nh hn gii hn n hi. V d : - Khi ko mt l xo vi ng sut < c n s dn di ra mt on l tng ng, b ng sut tc dng n s tr v kch thc ban u. - Cng tng t nh vy khi ko mt dy cao su vi lc nh hn gii hn bn ca n. Bin dng n hi xy ra di tc dng ca c ng sut php v ng su t ti p. Di tc dng ca ng sut php gy ra bin dng , di tc dng ca ng sut tip gy ra x trong mt chu lc. Di tc dng ca ng sut php ba chiu lm bin i th tch V/V (hnh 4.2 L). Bin dng n hi chia ra lm hai loi : bi n d ng n h i tuyn tnh v bin dng n hi phi tuyn. 1.Bin dng n hi tuyn tnh : Vi nhiu loi vt liu (vt liu kim loi) th mi quan h gi a ng su t v bi n dng l tuyn tnh, c m t bi nh lut Huc. Phng trnh c s nh sau : = E. trong qu trnh ko, nn = G. trong qu trnh x dch (4.1) P = -K . V/V trong qu trnh p ba chiu. Trong phng trnh (3.1) cc m un n hi E, m un x dch G, m un p K lin h vi nhau qua hng s Potxng (t l gia co chiu ngang v dn chiu di ) nh sau : / K = E / [ 3 (1 - 2) ] G = E / [ 2 (1 + 2) ] (4.2) Vi a s cc vt liu = 0,30 nn E = 2,6G. Cc phng trnh (4.1) v (4.2) ch dng khi tnh ton cc vt liu ng hng hay gi ng hng c cu trc v nh hn hoc a tinh th. Bin dng n hi tuyn tnh da trn s x dch nguyn t khi v tr cn bng (hnh 4.3 L ) 2.Bin dng n hi phi tuyn :

37

Bin dng n hi phi tuyn l bin dng n hi khng tun theo quy lu t c a nh lut Hc hay cn gi l bin dng n hi kiu cao su (do pht hi n ra u tin trong cao su t nhin). Loi bin dng ny c trong cc vt liu phi kim v nh hnh hay tinh th cc b (elastome), vt liu kim loi (gang xm, hnh 4.4 L). Trong qu trnh ny m un n hi E khng cn l hng s m ph thuc vo ng sut hay bin dng : = E ( ) . (4.3) Bin dng n hi trong cc vt liu ny da vo s thay i hnh dng c a cc mch phn t. trng thi khng ti, vt liu c cu trc v nh hnh bao gm cc mch phn t b un cong do an mc vo nhau, to ra mt bi hoc li phn t (hnh 4.5 L). Khi chu lc ko, cc mch phn t c dui thng v song song vi phng ngoi lc m vn lin kt vi nhau ti cc im nt ca li hc ti. Bin dng n hi chnh l dn di tng cng trong phng ti trng. Khi b ti, nh c chuyn ng Braon a cc mch lin kt phn t tr v trng thi khng ti ban u nn khng c bin dng d. 4.1.2.Khi nim v bin dng do : Bin dng do l bin dng vn tn ti khi b ti trng tc dng, n xy ra khi ti trng tc dng vt qu gii hn n hi (t gi tr c). V d : -B mt que thp vi lc ln n s b cong i m khng tr v v tr ban u. -Ko mt l xo thp vi lc ln n s b dn di ra so v i kch th c ban u. Bin dng d c c l do s dch chuyn ca nguyn t, nh ph v cc lin kt ban u ri tp hp li lin kt vi cc ln cn mi. Do v y khi b t i tr ng nguyn t khng tr v v tr xut pht m cu trc ca vt liu vn c bo ton. (hnh 4.7 L). Bin dng do ch yu xy ra trong vt liu kim loi, trong cc lo i vt li u polyme, composit xy ra vi lng bin dng d nh, cn vi cramc khng xy ra. Bin dng do xy ra trong vt liu kim loi nh hai hnh thc sau :trt v song tinh. 4.2.BIN DNG DO V KT TINH LI : 4.2.1.Cc hnh thc bin dng do : 1.Trt : Trt l s x dch mt phn tinh th song song vi phn cn li trong mt phng x dch (mt trt) v theo phng ca ng sut tip (phng trt). Trong qu trnh bin dng ch c ng sut tip mi gy ra trt. Tp hp mt mt trt v mt phng trt gi l h trt. Mt trt v phng trt l cc mt v phng c mt nguyn t ln nht. S lng h trt ph thuc vo kiu mng tinh th v do tnh i xng quy t nh (bng 4.2 L). Mng lp phng tm mt A1 c bn mt 111 v mi mt c ba phng < 110> nn to ra 12 h trt tng ng. Mng lp phng tm khi A2 c su mt 110 v mi mt c hai phng trt <111> tng ng to ra 12 h trt tng ng. Mng su phng xp cht A3 c mt mt trt c bn l 0001 ti c ba phng trt nn c ba h trt tng ng. S h trt cng ln th tnh do ca vt liu cng cao v ngc li.

38

Qu trnh trt ch xy ra khi ngoi lc to ra trong h trt ho t ng m t ng sut tip cho php t c gi tr ti hn. ln ca ng sut ny ph thuc vo ngoi lc v s nh hng ca h trt vi ngoi lc. Theo nh lut Smit ta c : = coscos (4.4) Trong : - = F/S l ng sut do ngoi lc tc dng trn mt phng S - l gc to bi ngoi lc v php tuyn mt trt n - l gc to bi ngoi lc vi phng trt t - coscos gi l tha s Smit T phng trnh (3.3) ta thy rng nu = 90o hay = 900 th ngoi lc song song vi mt trt hay vung gc vi phng trt th = 0 v tinh th s b ph hy m khng c bin dng do. ng sut tip cho php t cc i max = 0,5 khi = = 45o, v vy ng sut ngoi lc ti thiu cn cho trt l min = 2 max. Theo nh lut Smit th h trt no c cc yu t inh hng thun li nht, ti gi tr ti hn c a ng su t ti p t c sm nht s hot ng trc. Sau khi hng lot cc h trt khc c a vo hot ng th trn mt ngoi theo chiu di tinh th xut hin cc bc nh song song nhau nh cc ng k, l ng trt. Nhiu ng trt gn nhau to thnh mt gii trt. X dch cng ln th chiu cao bc cng tng (hnh 4.8 L). 2.Song tinh : Song tinh l qu trnh dch chuyn cc nguyn t mt phn tinh th vo v tr i xng gng vi cc nguyn t phn kia qua mt phng song tinh do tc ng c a ng sut tip (hnh 4.10 L). Cc c im ca song tinh : -Dch chuyn nguyn t t l vi khong cch ti mt song tinh, cng xa mt song tinh dch chuyn cng ln nhng khng vt qu mt khong cch nguyn t. Do vy mc bin dng do do song tinh to ra nh hn nhiu so v i tr t (kt qu c a qu trnh trt l chuyn dch nguyn t i mt s nguyn ln khong cch ) -Song tinh xy ra vi tc rt ln trong nhng mt v phng xc nh v dc theo mt song tinh s nh hng ca cc nguyn t khc i so vi phn tinh th cn li. 4.2.2.Nhng thay i sau bin dng do : 1.T chc t vi : Trong qu trnh bin dng do, s hot ng ca nhiu h trt cng mt lc lm cho cc mt trt b un v quay. Do vy vi mc bin dng ln s khc nhau v nh hng ca cc ht gim dn v ht b ko di theo phng bi n d ng, cha nhi u khuyt tt v c th to ra t chc si. Khi b nn ht b bp i v v vn ra, kch thc ht cng nh khi lc nn cng ln. (hnh 4.13 L) Nu cc ht c mt nh hng u tin theo cc mt v phng tinh th xc nh s to ra t chc th gi l bin dng chn hng hay textua bin dng. Bin dng chn hng lm cho tinh th s c tnh d hng. Cu trc ny c th xc nh bng phn tch Rnghen. Bin dng chn hng c ng dng trong thp k thut in lm li bin th.

39

 ch to loi thp ny ta tin hnh cn nng hay ngu i sao cho cc h t c s nh hng mt 110 trng vi mt phng tm thp (mt cn) v phng d t ha <100> trng vi phng cn. V vy thp k thut in d t ha, tn hao t tr nh, c ng cong t tr gn nh hnh ch nht v rt gy. 2.Tnh cht : Bin dng do lm thay i mnh tnh cht ca vt liu, tc bin dng cng ln th s thay i tnh cht cng mnh. Bin dng do lm tng bn, gii hn chy v cng, lm gim d o v dai. bn, cng c th tng ln t 1,5 n 3 ln, gii hn chy tng t 3 n 7 ln. Bin dng do gy ra trong vt liu ng sut d, to ra cc y u t tp trung ng sut. Tuy nhin nu to ra ng sut nn d trn b mt s lm tng gii hn mi. Bin dng do lm gim tnh dn in, dn nhit, tng lc kh t v tng tnh n mn in ha. 4.2.3.Kt tinh li : 1.Trng thi kim loi qua bin dng do : Sau khi bin dng do kim loi b bin cng, ho bn chng s trng thi khng cn bng, c nng lng d tr cao lun c xu hng tr v trng thi cn bng trc khi bin dng v mi tnh cht vn c ca chng c khi phc li. Vi a s kim loi qu trnh ny xy ra rt chm nhit thng (hng nm cho n hng chc nm). Nu em nung nng kim loi qua bin dng do th qua strnh trn s din ra nhanh chng. 2.Cc giai on chuyn bin khi nung nng : Khi nhit nung nng tng dn trong kim loi qua bin dng do xy ra hai giai on sau : hi phc v kt tinh li. a- Hi phc : Qu trnh ny xy ra nhit khng cao lm (0,1-0,2)TC. Lc ny trong kim loi qua bin dng do s c cc bin i nh trong mng tinh th b x lch : gim sai lc mng (sai lch im v nt trng), gim mt lch v ng sut bn trong. T chc t vi cha c g thay i. Tnh cht vt l thay i khng nhiu (i n tr gim), c tnh cha c g thay i. b-Kt tinh li (cn gi l kt tinh li ln th nht) Khi nung nng cao hn mt nhit nht nh (gi l nhit kt tinh l i) trong mng tinh th b x lch c qu trnh hnh thnh cc ht mi khng c sai lch mng theo c ch to mm v pht trin mm nh kt tinh v gi l kt tinh li. Mm kt tinh li sinh ra ch yu nhng vng b x lch mnh nht, nng lng d tr cao nht (mt trt, bin gii ht). Nhng vng ny km n nh nht do d tr v trng thi cn bng. V vy kim loi b bin dng do cng mnh th mm kt tinh li s sinh ra cng nhiu v ht nhn c cng nh. Sau khi sinh ra cc mm kt tinh s pht trin ln thnh ht kim lo i, y l qu trnh t nhin. Kt thc qu trnh kt tinh li nhn c cc ht hon ton mi, a cnh vi mng tinh th it b x lch v mi tnh cht vn c ban u c khi phc li y . Nhit nh nht ti xy ra qu trnh kt tinh li vi tc ng k gi l nhit kt tinh li. Nhit ny ph thuc vo nhit chy ca kim loi theo cng

40

thc : TKTL = a.TC (O K). Vi a l h s ph thuc vo sch, mc bin dng ca kim loi v thi gian gi nhit. Vi kim loi nguyn cht k thut a = 0,40. Kim loi tinh khit a = 0,2-0,3 dung dch rn 0,5-0,8. Mc bin dng cng ln, thi gian gi nhit cng di th a cng nh. Sau khi kt tinh li t chc t vi thay i hon ton : cc ht mi ng trc v a cnh. Tuy nhin kch thc ht ph thuc vo cc yu t sau : *Mc bin dng : mc bin dng cng ln th ht nhn c c kch thc cng nh (sinh ra nhiu mm kt tinh). Nu bin dng nm trong khong 2-8% kch thc ht nhn c l ln nht (x lch mng t, s lng mm kt tinh it) v c gi l bin dng ti hn. Trong c kh cn trnh bin dng ny (tr thp k thut in) *Nhit : nhit cng cao do tc to mm v pht trin mm cng ln, do ht nhn c cng ln. *Thi gin gi nhit : thi gian gi nhit ti nhit cng di th ht cng ln, do c iu kin pht trin. c-Kt tinh li ln th hai Sau khi kt tinh li xong, nu tip tc nng cao nhit hay ko di thi gian gi nhit s lm cho cc ht pht trin ln nhanh chng do c qu trnh st nhp cc ht b vo cc ht ln (ht ln nut ht b) lm cho ht ln thm nhanh chng. y l qu trnh t nhin do lm gim tng bin gii ht nn lm gim tng nng lng d tr. Qu trnh ny gi l kt tinh li ln th hai. Hin tng ny l c hi cn phi trnh khi nung nng kim loi qua bin dng do. 4.3.BIN DNG NNG : 4.3.1.Khi nim : Bin dng nng l qu trnh bin dng do kim loi nhit cao h n nhi t kt tinh li. V d : *Bin dng do vonfram 1000OC l bin dng ngui (TKTL= 1200OC) *Bin dng do ch, km, thic nhit thng l bin dng nng (nhit kt tinh li ca chng nh hn 0OC) Bin dng nng thng tin hnh nhit (0,70-0,75)TC 4.3.2.u nhc im ca bin dng nng : Khi bin dng nng c hai qu trnh i lp nhau xy ra ni tip nhau : *Qu trnh bin dng do lm x lch mng, ho bn v gy bin cng. *Qu trnh kt tinh li lm mt x lch mng, gy ra thi bn, gim cng. Do vy sau khi bin dng nng c tnh kim loi s thay i theo chiu hng ca qu trnh mnh hn. Trong trng hp l tng nht l : kt thc bi n d ng cao h n nhit kt tinh li vi thi gian di hon thnh qu trnh kt tinh li v xy ra qu trnh thi bn. Do kim loi sau bin dng nng vn gi c d o, dai cao, bn thp. Tuy nhin trong thc t do qu trnh cng ngh kh xc nh c cc y u t trn nn kim loi thng b bin cng v phi em kt tinh li. 1-u im : So vi bin dng ngui, bin dng nng c cc u im sau : *L hng (bt kh) b bp li khi bin dng, do nhit cao khu ch tn mnh c hn kn li nn ci thin c t chc kim loi.

41

*Do tin hnh nhit cao kim loi c tnh do cao hn nn kh b nt, khng cn lc p ln m vn nhn c lng bin dng ln. Do c nng sut cao, gia cng c phi ln. *Nh c qu trnh kt tinh li nn gim bin cng, sau bin dng nng c th khng cn (tuy nhin phi tun theo quy trnh bin dng mt ch cht ch) *Ci thin c ht cho kim loi do lng p ln, nhit hp l, bo m c tnh tng hp tt. Cn ch l phi bin dng lin tc nhi t cao v khng nn kt thc bin dng nhit cao hn nhiu so vi nhit kt tinh l i (trnh k t tinh li ln th hai) 2-Nhc im : *Kh khng ch nhit ng u trn phi, c bit l cc phi mng v ln do kh t c s ng nht v c tnh. *Kh khng ch chnh xc hnh dng, kch thc ca sn phm vi chnh xc cao do c s co gin khi nung nng v lm ngui. *Cht lng b mt khng cao : bng thp v cc vy xyt, d b xy ho, thot cc bon. *Khi bin dng nng cc tp cht (xyt nitrit, sunphit...) b bp, nh mn v kodi theo phng bin dng to thnh t chc th. Yu cu ca th l phi phn b u theo chu vi chi tit bin dng. CHNG 5 : N MN V BO V VT LIU

5.1.KHI NIM V N MN KIM LOI : Trong qu trnh s dng, cu trc v tnh cht ca vt liu b bin i theo th i gian lm cho vt li b thoi ho i. i vi vt liu kim loi nguyn nhn thoi ho chyu l do hin tng n mn. Do v tr quan trng ca vt liu kim loi trong nn kinh t nn vn bo v kim loi chng s ph hu do n mn lun c quan tm k lng. Ngi ta c tnh tiu hao cho n mn v bo v kim loi cc nc cng nghi p pht trin chim c 4,20% GDP. Tn hao kim loi do n mn rt ln, c c nm nh my luyn kim th c mt nh my sn xut kim loi b cho tn hao . Chi ph cho vn n mn v bo v kim loi Php l 88 t frng (1982), M l 70 t USD (1975). n mn kim loi l s ph hu chng do tc dng in ho hay ho hc c a mi trng xung quanh. Qu trnh n mn kim loi chia ra hai loi : *n mn ho hc (n mn kh) : l qu trnh n mn xy ra khi kim lo i tc d ng vi dung dch khng in ly v kh kh. *n mn in ho : l s n mn kim loi trong moii trng cht in gii, trong s ion ho ca nguyn t kim loi, s kh ca cht xy ho khng ph i x y ra ch trong mt phn ng trc tip. y l dng n mn ph bin nht trong kim loi. 5.1.1.Tc n mn : xc nh tc n mn kim loi ta s dng hai cch sau :

42

a-Tn tht trng lng (PTL) : l trng lng kim loi tn tht trn mt n v b mt, trong mt n v thi gian. PTL =
m1 m2 S .t

mg/dm2.ngy.

(5.1)

Trong : - m1, m2 : l trng lng mu kim loi trc v sau khi b n mn, mg -S : din tch b mt kim loi, dm2 -t : thi gian, ngy. b- thm nhp PTN : tnh theo chiu su kim loi b n mn trong mt nm. PTN =
PTL .0, 0365

mm/nm

(5.2)

Trong : - : l trng lng ring ca kim loi, G/cm3 Ngoi ra tc n mn c th c o bng mt dng in n mn I hoc th tch kh hydr thot ra. 5.1.2.in th in cc : Khi kim loi tip xc vi cht in ly th ti b mt tip xc s xy ra s tc dng gia cht in ly v kim loi. Ti vng phn chia gia hai pha (kim loi - dung dch in ly) xut hin lp in tch kp c in th nht nh gi l in th in cc. V d : nhng Cu vo dung dch sunphat ng, gia ng v dung dch c cn bng sau : xy ho Me ---------------- Men+ + ne kh Khi c qu trnh cn bng gia in cc v dung dch c in th in cc cn bng E tnh theo h thc Nernst : E = EO +
RT nF

ln a

(5.3)

Trong : -R : hng s kh, R = 8.31441J/mol.OK -T : nhit tuyt i,OK -F : hng s Faray, F = 96 500 C/mol -a :hot ca ion Men+ trong cht in gii -EO : in th in cc tiu chun ca kim loi ng vi dung dch c hot a=1 Trong thc t ta khng th o trc tip gi tr tuyt i i n th in c c cn bng (thun nghch) gia kim loi v dung dch cha mui ca chng. Ta thng tin hnh o in th in cc bng pin in ho gm hai na pin : mt n a pin l i n c c kim loi nghin cu, na kia l in cc so snh. 5.2.CC DNG N MN KIMLOI 5.2.1.n mn ho hc : Dng n mn ny xy ra do tc dng ho hc ca kim loi vi mi trng lm vic ca chng v c chia lm hai loi : a-n mn trong dung dch khng in ly : a s cc cht hu c khng l cht in ly, do vy chng khng d n i n nn khng xy ra n mn in ho. V d : thp cc bon lm vi c trong cc dung mi h u c ,

43

cc nhin liu lng hnh thnh t cc lai cc bua hydr khng dn i n. Nu c cha nc s xy ra n mn in ha. b-n mn kh : L qu trnh n mn ho hc xy ra trong kh kh nhit cao. V d : s xy ho cc chi tit trong l nung, ng c t trong, ng c phn lc ... Qu trnh n mn kh xy ra do tc ng ng thi ca nhit cao v cc kh n mn (xm thc) nh : O2, S2, Cl2.. vo kim loi. Tc n mn kh ph thuc vo tnh cht kim loi v hp kim, tnh cht ca mi trng kh nhit cao v tnh cht ca cc sn phm n mn. Qu trnh xy ho l in hnh nht ca n mn kh v c biu din bi phng trnh sau y : mMe (r) +
mn O2 4

(k) = MemOmn/2(r)

(5.4)

nh gi kh nng lm vic ca kim loi nhit cao ta cn c vo hai c trng sau y : *Bn nhit : kh nng kim loi c bn c hc nhit cao. *Chu nhit : kh nng kim loi bn n mn kh nhit cao. 5.2.2.n mn in ha 1-Khi nim : Khi nghin cu qu trnh lm vic ca pin Cu-Zn trong dung d ch i n l ta th y rng Zn b mn dn do hin tng ho tan. Trong pin ny km ng vai tr ant v ph n ng in ho trn ant nh sau : Zn -2e = Zn2+ Trong vt liu kim loi c cu to bi hai hay nhiu pha do vy gia cc pha ny xy cc qu trnh ant v catt lm cho kim loi b ph hu . Trn b m t kim lo i hnh thnh rt nhiu ant v catt, do vy hnh thnh mt h thng rt nhiu cc. Tc n mn in ha l tng tc n mn ca nhiu pin cc b v ph thuc vo in th in cc. n mn in ha ca kim loi gm ba qu trnh c bn : qu trnh ant, qu trnh catt v qu trnh dn in. Qu trnh ant l qu trnh xy ho in ho, trong kim loi chuy n vo dung dch di dng ion v gii phng in t, kim loi b n mn theo phn ng : Me Men+ + ne Qu trnh catt l qu trnh kh in ho, trong cc cht oxy ho (Ox) nh in t do kim loi b n mn gii phng : Ox + ne Red Red l dng cht kh (Ox.ne) Ox l dng cht xy ho, thng l H+ hay O2 th qu trnh catt s l : H+ + e Hhp Hhp + Hhp H2 (Hhp l hydr hp ph), trong trng hp nay gi l s n mn vi cht kh phn c hydr. Nu Ox l O2 th : *Vi mi trng axit qu trnh catt s l : O2 + 4H- +4ne 2H2O

44

*Vi mi trng trung tnh hay baz qu trnh catt s l : O2 + 2H2O +4e 4OH (hnh 6.2, 6.2, 6.3) 2-Cc dng n mn in ho : a-n mn u : Xy ra trong iu kin kim loi ng nht, mi trng, nhit v s phn b ng lc l ng u, tc n mn l nh nhau trn ton b b mt kim loi. n v o n mn thng dng l cm/nm. Ngoi ra cn dng cc n v g/cm 2.ngy, mg/dm2.ngy, mA/cm2. b-n mn tip xc (nmn Galvanic) : Dng n mn ny xy ra khi cc kim loi hay hp kim khc nhau c s d ng trong cng mt c cu v c phn din tch tip xc vi nhau (tip din), trong cng mt mi trng n mn. Do to ra cc pin ngn mch nn gy ra n mn mnh, kim lo i c in th m hn s b n mn. c-n mn do s chnh lch kh (n mn khe) : Dng n mn ny xy ra c th do mi trng khng ng nht, chng hn s khc nhau cc b v thng kh ho tan (xy). Lc ny hnh thnh mt pin chnh lch kh v gy ra n mn. d-n mn l : y l dng xm thc cc b to nn cc l, su cc l c th l n h n ng knh l. Hin tng ny xy ra do c cc l nh trong lp ph bo v chng n mn u (cc lp men, lp ph hu c, mng xyt..). Cc l pht trin t b mt vo bn trong theo hng gn nh thng gc. e-n mn tinh gii : Dng n mn ny lin quan n s c mt ca cc pha d th bin gii ht trong hp kim. Loi n mn ny thng gp nht thp khng r, v d Cr18Ni10. f-n mn nt do ng lc : Cc kt cu kim lai lm vic trong mi trng n mn, di tc dng ca lc ko s gy ra nt, rn v gy. Dng n mn ny gy tn tht kim loi rt nh, nhng kh nhn thy nn rt nguy him. g-n mn mi : L hin tng n mn xy ra trong cc kt cu kim loi l vic di ti trng thay i c chu k. Do tc dng n mn to iu kin cho cc vt nt mi u tin d xu t hin hn. h-n mn la chn (s phn r hp kim) : Dng n mn ny xy ra trong cc iu kin nht nh i vi cc hp kim l dung dch rn, trong kim loi ho tan c in th n mn m hn nhiu so vi kim loi nn. i-n mn mi mn : S mi mn ca kim loi th ng trong mi trng n mn c th lm mt l p bo v v hin tng ny gi l n mn mi mn. 5.3.BO V KIM LOI CHNG N MN 5.3.1.Bo v kim loi chng n mn ha hc : 1-S dng cc hp kim chu nng

45

Dng cc nguyn t hp kim thch hp (thng l cc nguyn t c mng xyt sit cht, nhit nng chy cao...) vi thnh phn xc nh pha thm vo kim loi nn nng cao kh nng chng n mn kh. 2-S dng cc lp ph bo v : S dng cc lp ph bo v bng kim loi (Al, Si, Cr...), cc lp ph phi kim loi (cc lp men chu nhit). 3-X l mi trng : Bng cch to ra xung quanh chi tit mi trng c tnh cht bo v trn nguyn tc : to ra mi trng c kh nng loi tr cc hin tng n mn, c ngha l th ng nhit, ng p ca kim loi trong mi trng ny l dng. 5.3.2.Bo v kim loi chng n mn in ho : 1-X l mi trng : Tm mi bin php lai b cu t n mn ra khi mi trng lm vic ca chi tit. Hu ht cc kim loi u bn trong mi trng trung tnh loi b xy. a-Chng n mn trong nc : xy ho tan trong nc gy n mn ng k cho kim loi. Do vy ph i tm m i cch kh xy trong cc dung dch. ho tan ca xy ph thuc vo nhi t , p su t ring phn ca xy v nng mui ca dung dch. Loi tr xy bng cch : *S dng cc phn ng ho hc : O2 + Na2SO3 2Na2SO4 O2 + N2H4 2H2O + N2 nhit cao dng hyrazin loi tr nguy c to thnh mui trong dung dch, theo phn ng sau : 3N2H4 N2 + 4NH3 *S dng cc phng php vt l : -un nng dung dch hoc nc xy thot ra. -X l chn khng, dung dch hoc nc, c th gim nng xy n rt thp b-Chng n mn trong kh quyn : Trong khng gian kn nu m tng i nh hn 50% s chng c n mn. Ta s dng cc cht ht m (silicagen), dng cht c ch bay hi, to mng trn b mt kim loi s chng c n mn tt. 2-Bo v kim loi bng cc cht lm chm n mn (cht c ch) Cht c ch n mn l cc hp cht khi c pha thm vo mi trng n mn vi lng rt nh nhng tc dng lm chm r rt tc n mn. Tc dng km hm tc n mn ca cht c ch c th l : *To thnh cc hp cht khng tan kt ta trn b mt kim loi : 2CrO42- + 10H+ + 6e Cr2O3 + 5H2O *Do hp ph thnh mt lp n phn t trn b mt kim loi. C hai loi cht c ch n mn : *c ch th ng : lm cho kim loi tr v trng thi th ng ho v khng b n mn. *c ch khng th ng : hp ph ln b mt mt kim loi lm chm tc n mn.

46

 nh gi hiu qu ca cht lm chm n mn ta dng khi nim "h s tc dng bo v Z" : Z=

PO pLC PO

. 100%

(5.5)

PO v PLC l tn tht trng lng kim loi trong dung dch khng c v c chy lm chm n mn. 5.3.3.Bo v in ho bo v in ho ta phi thay i in th in cc ca kim loi n khu vc bn n mn hoc khu vc th ng ca th Pourbaix (h.6.11). Phng php ny thng dng trong mi trng dn in, ion nh : trong t, nc ...Nu lm thay i i n th in c kim loi chuyn v pha dng hn so vi in th n mn cho n khi kim loi ri vo vng th ng gi l bo v catt. Nu in th in cc chuyn v pha m hn so vi in th n mn th phn ng ant ho tan kim loi b chm li hay ngng hn gi l bo v catt. 1-Bo v catt : a-Bo v catt bng protect : (ant hy sinh) Kim loi cn bo v c ni vi mt kim loi khc c in th in cc m hn (h.6.12a). Kim loi ny gi l protect hay ant hy sinh. Phng php ny ch yu dng bo v cc cng trnh bng thp. S lng protect ph thuc vo mt dng bo v cn thit, din tch v thi gian bo v. Vt liu lm protect thng dng l cc kim loi v hp kim Mg, Al, Zn...Cc yu cu ca vtliu lm protect : *C in th in cc m hn so vi kim loi cn bo v. *C dung lng cao v n nh. Dun g lng Q (A.h/kg) l in lng do mt n v khi lng protect sn sinh ra, n c trng cho kh nng lm vic lu di theo th i gian ca protect. *C phn cc ant nh m bo xc sut bo v cao. Nhm, km v hp kim ca chng ch yu dng trong nc bin. Magi v hp kim dng bo v trong t. Trong nc ngt dng Mg, Zn v hp kim ca chng. b-Bo v catt bng dng in ngoi : Xt mch chnh lu v in cc ph bo v ng ng di t. Khi cha c dng in ngoi th in th in cc kin loi b n mn s lE am vi tc n mn tng ng l iam (h.6.12b). Khi c dng in ngoi ta dch chuyn c in th in cc ti gi tr E1 (h.6.13b) th tc n n i/am < iam v kim loi c bo v mt phn. Nu chuyn in th in cc n bng in th cn bng ca qu trnh xy hoa kim loi E //cb th tc n n iam = 0 v kim loi c bo v hon ton. Dng in ngoi l dng mt chiu c chnh lu t in li. in cc ph thng dng l ant khng tan : gang, graphit, hp kim ch c 1%Ag, 6%Sb, cc hp kim Ti-Pb, Ta-Pt, Nb-Pt. Cc yu cu ca in cc ph : *Tc tiu hao khi phn cc nh hay khng ng k. *C kh nng lm vic vi mt dng bo v ln, n hng nghn A/m2. *C dn in cao, bn c hc bo m v d ch to. C-Mt s lu :

47

*Vi cc cng trnh nh nn dng bo v bng protect v gi thnh thp hn. *Bo v bng dng in ngoi thng dng cho cc din tch rt ln. *Thng xuyn kim tra bo dng uung nh k. *Cc phng php bo v catt thng dng kt hp cc lp bo v cch in : sn, bc nha ng, cht do... 2-Bo v ant : Trong bo v ant in th n mn c tng ln sao cho n nm trong khu vc thu ng ca th Pourbaix. Phng php ny ch dng bo v cc kim loi c th b th ng ho. S bo v ca n theo hnh 6.14. Khi bo v ant, ph i nng i n th n mn n in th ln hn in th khi u th ng Et v tc n mn lc ny bng it tc l mt dng n mn th ng. Phng php ny dung bo v cc bn ln cha axit bng thp khng r. Bo v ant it tiu hao nng lng. Tuy nhin cn ch kim tra cc ion trong mi trng, c bit l Cl- ngn nga qu trnh hot ho. 3-Chng n mn bng cc lp sn, ph : a-Ph nhng nng : Nhng kim loi x l b mt vo kim loi bo v ang nong chy. Cc kim loi dng ph nhng nng l : Sn (232OC), Al(657OC), Pb(327oC), Zn(419OC). b-M : Lp ph kim loi c m trong cht in ly nng chy cha cc ion c n thi t hay trong dung dch in ly. Thng dng nht l dng bnh in phn gm chi tit cn m (catt) in cc ph (ant) v dung dch in ly. c-Phun kimloi : Phun kim loi c nung nng chy (bng ngn la, hay plasma) ln b mt chi tit cn ph v to ra lp bo v d-Lp ph khuch tn : (thm kim loi) Thng dng khuch tn km vo b mt thp. Chi tit thp t trong hp cha bt km v xyt km (chng vn cc). Sau nung trong mi trng kh tr 440OC, km s khuch tn ph ln b mt thp. e-Lp ph pht pht (pht pht ho) Nhng chi tit kim loi vo hn hp dung dch H 3PO4, , Mg3(PO4)2, Zn3(PO4)3 nng chy s to ra lp ph pht pht trn b mt. f-Lp ph crmat : Nhng chi tit kim loi x l b mt vo dung dch axit cha natri crmat to ra lp ph c tnh bo v v tng v p b mt (tnh hng ho ) ca km hay l p m k m trn thp. g-Lp ph xyt : Cho kim loi cn bo v phn cc ant trong dung dch axit to ra l p xyt dy khong 10 m. X l cc l xp trong mng xyt bng cch ngm trong thuc nhum. h-Lp ph thu tinh, men : *Lp ph thu tinh : dng thu tinh v xyt kim loi trn di dng va nho, sau trt mt lp mng ln b mt, sy kh v nung chy lng. Chng s to ra l p ph dng mng mng trn b mt.

48

*Lp ph men : dng men thu tinh 60-75% SiO2, 12-20% xyt kim loi kim th, thm vo mt t cc xyt Ti,Zr, B, Al ph ln b mt kim loi d i dng nng ch y. Chiu dy 0,8-2mm. i-Cc lp ph hu c : *Sn : dng cc loi sn c pha thm cht c ch n mn ph ln b m t chi tit bng phng php ln, qut, x hay sn tnh in. *Ph cht do : dn cht cc tm nha bng PVC, polytylen, ln thp bng kh nng. Nhng chi tit vo PVC nng chy, phun bt nha (nylon, PVC, teflon...) ln b mt sau cho nng chy v bm dnh vo b mt kim loi. 5.4.S N MN CC VT LIU GM : Vi vt liu gm s n mn ca chng l do s ph hu ha hc, c ch n mn ca chng khc hn vt liu kim loi. Tu theo tnh cht ca mi trng lm vic s xy ra qu trnh n mn, ph hu cc vt liu gm. Do chng ta khng th kho sat cho tng loi vt liu c th c. Cc vt liu gm c s dng nhiu v chng c bn chng n mn kh cao. Thu tinh dng cha cc cht lng xm thc. Vt liu chu l a c s d ng trong cc lnh vc nhit cao, chu tc dng ca kim loi, cc loi mui, x ... 5.5.S THOI HO CA VT LIU POLYME (LO HO) : Trong qu trnh s dng cc vt liu polyme b thoi ho theo th i gian : tnh nng c, l, ha ca chng b suy gim v cui cng b h hng. S thoi ho c a v t li u polyme l do cc qu trnh lo ho vt l, lo ho v thoi ho ho hc. 5.5.1.S lo ho vt l : S lo ho vt l gy ra do cc yu t sau : a-S di chuyn, s mt mt do bay hi, s tridsh ly bi dung mi ca cht ho do lm bin i tnh cht ca polyme. b-Tc dng ca dung mi : cc phn t dung mi c kch thc nh c th thm nhp vo cc mt xch phn t lm cho cc poly me b trng ln, do vy bn trong chng xut hin ng sut d lm cho chng c th b nt, gy. 5.5.2.S thoi ho v lo ho ho hc : S lo ha v thoi ho ho hc xy ra bi tc ng mnh lm bi n d ng m nh mch cao phn t. V vy c tnh v in tnh ca polyme gim ng k. Cc polyme nh polypropylen, polybutaien, polystyren v polyamit nhy cm vi s xy ho. Ozn xy ho mnh hn xy. Cc polyme clo ho khng nhy cm vi xy ho. Cht chng xy ho thng dng l mui than, cc amin v phnon. 5.5.3.S thoi ho quang hc : Di tc dng ca tia cc tm bn t v mu sc ca polyme cng b gi m. Bc x cc tm c khi cn tng cng tc dng ca xy. Cc trng hp ny gi l s lo ho kh hu. Chng thoi ho quang hc bng cc cht mu to thnh mng chng s thm nhp ca bc x (mui than, xyt titan). 5.5.4.S thoi ho do nhit : Khi nhit tng lm bin dng cu trc mch cao phn t. S thoi ho nhit c th gy t mch (polyetylen) hoc s kh xy ho (metyl polymetacrylat) hay gim phn

49

ng gc ngoi vi (s to thnh axit HCl khi nhit phn polyvinyl clorua). Trng hp gii hn s thoi ho nhit c th gy ra s chy, phn ng to nhit mnh. PHN 2 : CC LOI VT LIU K THUT THNG DNG CHNG 6 : GANG V THP

6.1.KHI NIM CHUNG V GANG V THP 6.1.1.Khi nim chung v gang : 1-Khi nim : Gang l hp kim ca st v cc bon vi hm lng cc bon ln hn 2,14%C. Trong thc t gang lun lun c mt t cc nguyn t MN, Si, P, S. Cc lo i gang thng d ng thng cha : 2,0-4,0%C; 0,4-3,5%Si; 0,20-1,5%Mn; 0,04-0,65%P; 0,02-0,15%S 2-T chc t vi : a-Gang trng : l loai gang c t chc t vi tng ng vi gin pha Fe-C, ton b cc bon ca n nm di dng lin kt vi st trong t chc xmentit. Mt gy c a n c mu sng trng l mu ca xmentit. Gang trng hu nh khng s dng trong sn xut c kh, ch yu dng luyn thp. b-Cc loi gang c graphit : l loi gang m phn ln hay ton b cc bon ca chng nm di dng t do graphit nn mt gy ca n c mu xm. Tu thuc hnh dng ca graphit ngi ta chia ra cc loi gang xm, gang do, gang cu. T chc graphit phn b trn nn kim loi pherit, pherit-pclit, pclit. Cc loi gang c graphit c s dng rt rng ri trong c kh. 6.1.2.Khi nim v thp cc bon : 1-Khi nim : Thp cc bon l hp kim ca st v ccbon vi hm lng cc bon nh hn 2,14%. Ngoi ra trong thp lun cha mt lng nh cc nguyn t Mn, Si, P, S. Vi bt k loi thp cc bon no ngoi st ra cng c cha C 2,14%; Mn 0,80%; Si 0,40%; P v S 0,05%. Thp cc bon c s dng rt rng ri trong c kh v cc ngnh cng nghi p khc. Ngoi cc nguyn t trn trong thp cc bon cn cha mt lng kh rt nh hnh thnh trong qu trnh nu kuyn nh : xy, hydr, nit. Nhng do s lng ca chng qu t, nh hng khng ng k n tnh cht nn ta thng khng quan tm n. 2-Thnh phn ho hc v tc dng ca cc nguyn t n t chc v tnh cht ca thp : a-Cc bon : l nguyn t quan trng nht quyt nh n t chc v tnh cht ca thp. Vi hm lng cc bon khc nhau thp c t chc t vi khc nhau : *Nu hm lng cc bon < 0,80% : t chc l pherit v pclit *Nu hm lng cc bon = 0,80% : t chc l peclit. *Nu hm lng cc bon > 0,80% : t chc peclit v xmentit th hai.

50

Mt khc khi hm lng cc bon tng ln th lng xmentit tng ln, cn tr mnh qu trnh trt ca xmentit lm cho bn, cng ca thp tng ln, do v dai gim i. Tuy nhin bn ln nht t c vi hm lng cc bon t 0,80-1,0%, vt qu gii hn ny do lng xmentit th hai qu nhiu lm cho thp dn, bn gi m i (h.5.1-154) Thp cc bon vi hm lng khc nhau c s dng trong cc lnh vc hon ton khc nhau. b-Mangan : c cho vo thp di dng pher mangan kh xy loi b tc hi ca FeO trong thp lng : Mn + FeO Fe + MnO xyt mangan ni ln i vo x v c ly ra khi l. Ngoi ra mangan cn c tc dng loi b tc hi ca lu hunh trong thp. Mangan ho tan vo pherit nng cao c tnh cho thp, tuy nhin tc dng khng ln. Lng mangan trong thp t 0,50-0,80% c-Silic : c cho vo thp di dng pher silc kh xy loi b tc hi c a FeO trong thp lng : Si + FeO Fe + SiO2 ixyt silic ni ln i vo x v c ly ra khi l. Ngoi ra silic cn ho tan vo pherit v nng cao c tnh cho thp. Silic kh xy v nng cao c tnh cho thp m nh h n mangan. Lng silc trong thp t 0,20-0,40%. Do vy tc dng nng cao c tnh khng ng k. d-Pht pho : Pht pho c kh nng ho tan vo pherit kh ln (n 1,20% trong Fe - C nguyn cht). Do gy x lch mng pha ny rt mnh lm tng tnh dn kh ln (ng knh nguyn t pht pho khc nhiu so vi st). Khi vt qu gii hn ho tan n t o ra Fe3P cng v dn. Do vy pht pho lm thp b dn nhit thng v gi l dn ngui. Do tnh thin tch rt mnh nn ch cn 0,10%P lm cho thp b dn. V th l ng pht pho trong thp nh hn 0,05%. V phng din gia cng ct gt th pht pho l nguyn t c li v lm cho phoi d gy, lc ny lng pht pho n 0,15%. e-Lu hunh : Lu hunh hon ton khng ho tan trong st m to nn hp cht FeS. Cng tinh (Fe+FeS) to thnh nhit thp (988OC) v phn b ti bin gii ht. Khi cn, rn, ko (nung n 1200OC) bin gii ht b chy ra lm thp b t, gy, hin tng ny gi l dn nng hay b nng. Tuy nhin c th dng mangan loi b tc h i c a lu hunh : Mn + FeS Fe + MnS (nhit chy 1620OC) V mt gia cng ct gt th lu hunh l nguyn t c li v n to ra sunphua lm cho phoi d gy, trng hp ny lng lu hunh n 0,35%. 3-K hiu thp cc bon (tiu chun thp cc bon) : a-Thp cc bon cht lng thng(thp cc bon thng dng) : Theo tiu chun Vit Nam TCVN 1765 - 75 nhm thp cc cht lng thng c k hiu bng ch CT(ch cht lng thng). Nu cui mc thp khng c g c l thp lng (lng), s l thp si, n l thp na lng. Chng c chia lm ba phn nhm : *Phn nhm A : l loi thp ch c quy nh v c tnh m khng quy nh v thnh phn ha hc. Gii hn bn ko ti thiu tnh theo n v kG/mm 2 (vi MPa phi

51

nhn thm 10), c th tra bng tm cc ch tiu 0,2, , v aK. Gm cc mc CT31, 33, 34, 38, 38, 42, 51, 61. *Phn nhm B : l loi thp ch c quy nh v thnh phn ho hc m khng quy nh v c tnh (thnh phn ny c th tm thy khi tra bng). K hiu ca phn nhm ny tng t phn nhm A, ch khc l thm ch B u mc. V d BCT31, BCT33...BCT61. *Phn nhm C : gm cc thp c quy c v c tnh v thnh ph n ho hc. K hiu ca chng tng t phn nhm A, ch khc l thm ch C u mc. V d CCT31, CCT33...CCT61. tm cc ch tiu ca thp phn nhm ny ta phi da vo hai phn nhm trn. Chng hn vi mc thp CCT38, khi tm thnh phn ho hc ta tra bng theo mc BCT38, c tnh theo mc CT38. b-Thp kt cu : Theo TCVN 1766-75 quy nh k hiu bng ch C v cc ch s tip theo ch lng cc bon trung bnh trong thp tnh theo phn vn. V d : C05, C10, C15... C65. Nu cui mc thp c ch A l loai cht lng cao hn (P, S 0,030%) c-Thp dng c : Theo TCVN 1822-75 quy nh k hiu bng ch CD (C-cc bon, D-dng c) v cc s ch lng cc bon trung bnh trong thp theo phn vn. Nu cui mc thp c thm ch A c ngha l cht lng cao hn. V d : CD70, CD80...CD130 (CD70A, CD80A...CD130A) 6.1.3.Khi nim v thp hp kim : 1-Khi nim : Thp hp kim l loi thp ngoi st v cc bon ra ngi ta c a thm vo cc nguyn t c li, vi s lng nht nh v ln lm thay i t chc v c i thi n tnh cht (c, l, ho ) ca chng. Cc nguyn t c li, c c a vo thp gi l nguyn t hp kim. Tu theo tc dng ca chng i vi thp m gii hn l nguyn t hp kim khng ging nhau, nguyn t tc dng cng mnh gii hn ny cng nh. Mn 0,80-1,00% Si 0,50-0,80% Cr 0,50-0,80% Ti 0,10% W 0,10- 0,50% Mo 0,05-0,20% Ni 0,50-0,80% Cu 0,30% B 0,0005% 2-K hiu : TCVN 1759-75 quy nh k hiu thp hp kim theo quy lut sau : *S u tin ca mc thp ch lng cc bon trung bnh c trong thp theo phn vn, nu 1% th khng ghi. *Cc ch l k hiu ho hc ca nguyn t hp kim, s ng sau cc ch ch lng cha ca n theo phn trm, nu xp x 1% th khng ghi. *Cui mc thp c ch A l thp c cht lng tt hn. V d : 12Cr18Ni9Ti - 0,12%C; 18%Cr; 9%Ni; 1%Ti 50CrNiMo - 0,50%C; 1%Cr; 1%Ni; 1%Mo 38CrMoAlA - 0,38%C; 1%Cr; 1%Mo; 1%Al; loi tt 6.2.CC LOI GANG THNG DNG : 6.2.1.Gang xm :

52

Gang xm l lo gang m phn ln hay ton b cc bon tn ti d i d ng t do graphit. Graphit ca n dng tm, phin, chui... Mt gy ca n c mu xm l mu ca graphit. y l loi gang ph bin nht v oc s dng rng ri trong k thu t, thng thng khi ni ti gang ngi ta hiu rng l gang xm. 1-Thnh phn ho hc : a-Cc bon : Lng cc bon cang nhiu nhit chy ca gang cng thp, nhng s lm cho graphit tng ln c tnh s cng thp. Xu hng ngy nay dng gang c cc bon th p c bn cao, V vy lng cc bon trong gang xm t 2,8-3,5%. b-Silc : L nguyn t hp kim quan trng nht trong gang xm, silic cng nhiu vi c t o thnh graphit cng d dng. Lng silic trong gang xm t 1,5-3% c-Mangan : l nguyn t cn tr vic to thnh graphit, nhng c tc dng nng cao c tnh. Nu trong gang xm lng mangan tng ln th silic cng phi tng ln t ng ng. Lng mangan t 0,50-1,0%. d-Pht pho : Pht pho khng nh hng g n s to thnh graphit nhng co stc dng lm tng chy long v nng cao tnh chng mi mn (to ra cng tinh Fe + Fe 3P v Fe +Fe3P + Fe3C). Lng pht pho t 0,1-0,20%, khi cn tnh chng mi mn cao c th n 0,50%. Khng s dng t l cao hn v s lm gang b dn e-Lu hunh : L nguyn t c hi v lm gim chy long ca gang v cn tr qu trnh to graphit. Lng lu hunh t 0,08-012% 2-T chc t vi : T chc t vi ca gang xm c phn ra lm hai phn : nn kim loi (c bn) v graphit. Tu theo mc graphit ho gang xm c ba loi : a-Gang xm pherit : T chc ca n gm nn kim loi l st nguyn cht k thut (pherit) v graphit. Loi gang ny c bn thp nht. b-Gang xm pherit-peclit : Gm c nn kim loi l thp trc cng tch v graphit, lng cc bon trong nn kim loi < 0,80%. c-Gang xm peclit : Gm c nn kim loi l thp cng tch v graphit, lng cc bon trong nn kim loi l 0,80%, loi gang ny co bn cao nht. 3-C tnh v bin php nng cao c tnh : a-C tnh : Do c graphit dng tm nn lm gim mnh bn ko ca gang, ch bng khang 1/3-1/5 so vi thp tng ng. Do graphit tm, b mt ln chia ct mnh nn kim loi v c hai u nhn l ni tp trung ng sut. Tuy nhin graphit c tnh bi trn tt lm gim ma st, tng tnh chng mi mn, c tc dng lm tt rung ng v dao ng cng hng. cng thp 150-250HB, phoi gy, ct gt tt. do xp x khng, khng bn dng do c. b-Cc bin php nng cao c tnh : Cc yu t nh hng n c tnh ca gang xm : nn kim loi, hnh dng, s lng v kch thc graphit. Trong nn kim loi nh hng quyt nh nht, nn kim loi cng bn th c tnh ca gang cng cao. Ta c cc bin php sau : *Gim lng cc bon ca gang : do gim c lng graphit t do. Ngy nay xu hng dng gang c lng cc bon thp t 2,2-2,5%. Tuy nhin phi dng l c nhi t cao (l in) mi nu chy c do nhit nng chy ca gang b nng cao.

53

*Bin tnh : lm nh mn graphit, cht bin tnh gm 65% pher silic v 35%Al trc khi rt gang lng vo khun. *Hp kim ho : cho thm cc nguyn t hp kim cn thi t khi nu luy n ho bn nn kim loi, nng cao thm ti, tnh chng n mn, mi mn, chu nhit ... *Nhit luyn : to ra cc nn kim loi ph hp vi yu cu s dng. 4-K hiu v cng dng : a-K hiu : Theo TCVN 1659-75 quy nh k hiu gang xm bng hai ch GX (c ngha l gang xm), tip l cc nhm s ch gii hn bn ko v gii hn bn un ti thiu tnh theo n v kG/mm2. V d : GX15-32 c gii hn bn ko ti thiu 15kG/mm2 v gii hn bn un ti thiu 32kG/mm2. b-Cng dng : Gang xm c s dng rt rng ri lm v, np my, thn my, v h p s, mt bch, cc te, bnh rng tc chm, bnh , s mi, xc mng, trt ... 6.2.2.Gang xm bin trng : Trong sn xut c kh hu nh khng dng gang trng, tuy nhin trong mt s trng hp sn xut bi nghin, trc nghin, trc xay xt ta s dng gang xm bi n trng. Loi gang ny c b mt b bin thnh gang trng vi chiu dy nht nh c cng cao v tnh chng mi mn ln. Ch to gang xm bin trng bng cch c gang xm trong khun kim loi, lp b mt ngui nhanh s bin thnh gang trng. 6.2.3.Gang do : L loi gang c t chc graphit tng i thu gn dng cm v bng, tnh d o tng i cao, mt gy c mu xm. Nhn b ngoi th khng th phn bit c vi gang xm. 1-Thnh phn ho hc : Do c t gang trng nn thnh phn ho hc tng t nh gang trng em . Tuy nhin vi gang do thng dng lng cc bon thp khong t 2,2-2,8% t graphit lm cho tnh do cao. Lng silc phi va nhn c gang hon ton trng khi c v thc y qu trnh graphit ho khi thng thng tng lng cc bon -silic khong 3,5%. Vt c em phi c tit din (thnh) mng ngui nhanh. 2-T chc t vi : Tng t nh gang xm, tu theo mc to thnh graphit (graphit ho), gang do c chia ra lm ba loi : a-Gang do pherit : L loi gang c nn kim loi l st nguyn cht k thut, trn c graphit cm hay bng phn b. b-Gang do pherit-peclit : L gang c nn kim loi thp trc cng tch v graphit cm hay bng. c-Gang do pc lt : L gang c nn kim loi l thp cng tch v graphit cm hay bng. Trong ba loi gang do trn th gang do pherit c bn thp nht v gang do peclit c bn cao nht. 3-C tnh :

54

c tnh ni bt ca gang do l c do cao do lng cc bon thp graphit t v dng tng i thu gn. C tnh ca n l trung gian gia gang xm v gang cu. 4-K hiu v cng dng : a-K hiu : TCVN 1659-75 quy nh k hiu gangdo bng hai ch GZ (gang do) v hai nhm s ch gii hn bn ko ti thiu tnh theo kG/mm2 v gin di tng i ( ) tnh theo %. V d : GZ60-03 - c gii hn bn ko ti thiu l 60 kG/mm 2 v gin di tng i 3%. b-Cng dng : Gang do thng c dng lm cc chi tit ng thi i hi ba yu cu sau : *Hnh dng phc tp (s dng tnh c cao) *Chu v p (tnh do) *Tit din mng. Trong thc t gang do cn s dng trong chi tit my dt, my nng nghip, cuc bn guc hm xe la... Nu vt c thng thng th dng gang xm do gi thnh thp hn. 6.2.4.Gang cu : L loi gang c t chc graphit thu gn nht dng qu cu, do gang cu c bn cao nht trong cc loi gang c graphit. 1-Thnh phn ho hc : Do c ch to t gang xm nn gang cu c thnh phn ho hc ging nh gang xm, nhng c mt s c im sau : *Lng cac sbon v silic cao ti 5-6% bo m kh nng graphit ho. *Khng c hay rt t cc nguyn t cn tr qu trnh cu ho nh : Ti, Al, Sn, Pb, Zn, Bi v c bit l S. *Cha mt lng nh cht bin tnh Mg hay Ce (0,04-0,08)% *C cc nguyn t nng cao c tnh : Ni < 1%, Mn (2%) 2-T chc t vi : Tu theo mc graphit ho gang cu c chia lm ba loi : *Gang cu pherit : nn kim loi l st nguyn cht v graphit cu *Gang cu pherit - peclit : nn kim loi l thp trc cng tch v graphit cu, *Gang cu pclit : nn kim loi l thp cng tch v graphit cu. 3-C tnh : Gang cu c c tnh kh cao, gii hn bn ko bng 70-80% so vi thp, bn t 400-1000MN/m2, % = 5-15%, aK = 300-600kJ/m2. Gang cu t b ph hu gin hn gang xm. cng xp x 200 HB gia cng ct gt tt. 4-K hiu v cng dng : a-K hiu : Theo TCVN 1659-75 quy nh k hiu gang cu bng hai ch GC (gang cu) v cc nhm s ch gi hn bn ko ti thiu theo kG/mm2 v gin di tng i %. V d : GC100-04 - c gii hn bn ko ti thiu 100kG/mm2 v gin di tng i = 4%. b-Cng dng :

55

Gang cu ch yu dng thay thp ch to cc chi tit hnh dng phc tp nh trc khuu xe t du lch v vn ti nh. Ngoi ra n cn dng lm m t s chi ti t quan trng khc. 6.2.5.Gang hp kim : Gang hp kim l gang m ngoi st v cc bon ra cn c thm cc nguyn t khc c c a vo nng cao cc tnh cht ca chng (ch yu l c tnh) nh : Cr, Mn, Ni, Cu ... Trong Cr lm tng mnh thm ti, Mn v Ni lm tng bn, Cu nng cao tc dng chng n mn... 6.3.CC LOI THP THNG DNG : 6.3.1.Thp cc bon cht lng thng (thp cc bon thng dng) : Nhm thp ny ch yu dng trong xy dng, chng c cung cp di dng bn thnh phm qua cn nng : ng, thanh, dy, thp hnh, si, bng... trng thi thng ho, khng qua ti v ram. Chng phi c tit din quy nh v bn t yu c u s dng. Ngoi ra chng cn c dng lm mt s chi tit khng quan trng lm. Gm cc mc thp sau y (theo TCVN 1765-75) : CT31, CT33 ...CT61, BCT31, BCT33...BCT61, CCT31, CCT33...CCT61. 6.3.2.Thp kt cu : Thp kt cu l thp c s dng vi khi lng ln nht ch to cc chi tit my v kt cu chu ti. Chng p ng c cc yu cu khc nhau v c tnh, chnh xc v hnh dng, kch thc v t c bng b mt theo yu cu lp rp. 1-Yu cu ca thp kt cu : a-C tnh tng hp cao : y l yu c c bn nht v n quyt nh kh nng chu ti v thi gin lm vi c cho chi tit my trong iu kin ti trng quy nh. * bn cao : nu bn cao s gip cho my mc c cng sut ln hn, nh gn hn v tui th cao hn. Trong cc chi tit my ng sut sinh ra khng c l n hn gi i hn chy v khng c php bin dng do. Do vy gii hn chy cao l yu cu quan trng nht v c tnh ca thp kt cu. * dai va p cao : y l ch tiu rt quan trng v chi tit my thng lm vi c trong iu kin ti trng ng. Ch tiu ny quyt nh tin cy khi lm vic, m bo cho chi tit khng b ph hu dn. y l yu cu c bit quan trng i vi cc ph ng tin giao thng. *Gii hn mi cao : Kh nhiu chi tit lm vic trong iu kin ti trng thay i c chu k cn phi c gi hn mi cao trnh ph hu mi. *Tnh chng mi mn cao : Chi tit my lm vic trong iu kin ma st v mi mn mnh, do vy b mt ca chng phi c cng cao chng mi mn t t. Nng cao tnh chng mi mn bng nhit luyn. b-Tnh cng ngh tt : Do c sn xut vi s lng ln v phi qua cc dng gia cng nh bin dng nng, ct gt ...nn thp ph c tnh cng ngh tt h gi thnh gia cng. Hu ht chi tit my u phi qua nhit luyn m bo cc yu cu v c tnh. Do vy nu thp c thm ti cao, d nhit luyn cng gp phn h gi thnh ng k. c-Tnh kinh t :

56

Do sn lng ln, chng loi nhiu nn yu cu gi thnh ca thp phi r. Tuy nhin yu cu ny phi t sau bn. Trong mt s trng hp quan trng phi dng thp qu th c th b qua yu cu ny. 2-Thnh phn ho hc : Thp kt cu phi c thnh phn ho hc ph hp c th p ng c cc yu cu nu trn. a-Cc bon : l nguyn t c bn nht quyt nh c tnh v tnh cng ngh ca thp kt cu. Do hm lng cc bon trong thp kt cu quy nh kh cht ch t 0,10-0,65%. Tu tng trng hp c th li chia lm ba nhm nh nh sau : *Nhm yu cu ch yu v do, dai c lng cc bon thp : 0,10-0,25% *Nhm yu cu ch yu v gii hn chy v do c lng cc bon trung bnh : 030-0,50% *Nhm yu cu ch yu v gii hn n hi c lng cc bon tng i cao : 055-0,65%. b-Thnh phn hp kim : Cc nguyn t hp kim c a vo thp kt cu nhm mc ich nng cao bn do ng cao thm ti v ho bn pherit, to cc bt phn tn v gi cho ht nh. Tuy nhin tnh cng ngh ca thp hp kim s xu hn v c gi thnh cao hn. Cc nguyn t hp kim s dng trong thp kt cu chia ra lm hai nhm : *Nhm cc nguyn t hp kim chnh : l cc nguyn t chim t l ch y u trong cc nguyn t a vo, c tc dng nng cao bn nh nng cao thm ti. Gm c cc nguyn t sau : Cr, Mn, Si, Ni (i khi c B) vi tng lng a vo 1-3% cao nh t 56%. Chng c c im l : -R, d kim -Nng cao thm ti. t c mc ch ny ngi ta thng dng hp kim ha phc tp (vi tng lng xc nh s dng nhiu nguyn t hp kim). *Nhm cc nguyn t hp kim ph : c a vo thp vi s lng rt t thng < 0,10% cao nht khng qu 0,20% vi mc ch ci thin mt nhc im no ca nguyn t hp kim chnh gm c : Ti, Zr, V, Nb, Mo. 3-Thp thm cc bon : a-Thnh phn ho hc : Thp thm cc bon l loi thp c thnh phn cc bon th p : 0,10-0,25% (m t s trng hp n 0,30%) ch to cc chi tit chu ti trng tnh v va p cao nhng b mt b mi mn mnh nh : bnh rng, cam, cht... c im nhit luyn ca chng l thm cc bon, ti v ram thp. *Cc bon : lng cc bon trong thp trong khong 0,10 - 0,25% m bo li c do, dai cao v sau khi nhit luyn t bn cao nht. *Hp kim : cc nguyn t hp kim phi c hai tc dng nng cao thm ti v thc y qu trnh thm (hoc khng cn tr qu trnh thm). Nguyn t ch yu c dng l crm v kt hp vi mangan, niken. b-Thp cc bon : Thng dng cc mc thp sau : C10, C15, C20, C25 v c CT38. c i m c a chng l :

57

*Sau khi thm cc bon v nhit luyn t cng b mt 60-62 HRC, chng mi mn tt, li c cng 30-40 HRC do tt, dai cao, bn tt : 500-600 MN/m2 * thm ti thp nn phi ti trong nc, bin dng ln, khng lm c cc chi tit c hnh dng phc tp. *Nhit thm khng vt qu 900OC, tc thm nh, thi gian thm di, ht ln. Sau khi thm phi thng ho, ti hai ln v ram thp bin dng ln. Cng dng : lm cc chi tit nh ( < 20 mm), khng quan trng, hnh dng n gin, yu cu chng mi mn khng cao lm nh : ph tng xe p, xe ko (trc, cn, ni, bi...). c-Thp crm : Thng dng cc mc thp sau : 15Cr, 20Cr, 15CrV, 20CrV. Chng c c im sau : *Sau khi thm cc bon v nhit luyn t cng 60-62 HRC, bn v tnh chng mi mn cao hn mt t ( bn t 700-800 MN/m2.) *Lm cc chi tit tng i phc tp do ti trong du bin dng nh. *Nhit thm 900-920OC, tc thm nhanh hn, ht khng ln lm. Tuy vy vn phi ti hai ln v ram thp. Cng dng : lm cc chi tit tng i phc tp , nh ( 20-40mm) nh : bnh rng, trc bc cht cn tnh chng mi mn cao. d-Thp crm-niken v crm-niken-mlipen : *Thp crm -ni ken : nhm thp ny c c im sau : -Sau khi thm cc bon ti v ram thp cng t 60-62HRC, tnh chng mi mn cao hn, bn t 1000-1200 MN/m2 -C bn cao kt hp vi do tt : y l im ni bt cuat thp Cr-Ni m khng c nhm thp no snh c - thm ti rt cao, lm c cc chi tit ln (chiu dy hay 100 mm) -Nhit thm cc bon 900-920OC Chng c chia ra lm hai loi, loi hp kim thp cha 0,50-1,00%Cr, Ni > 1% c thm ti cao v ti trong du. Tuy nhin hiu qu kinh t ca n khng cao nn t s dng. Mc thp in hnh l 20CrNi c dng lm cc chi ti t hnh dng ph c t p, kch thc trung bnh (50-70mm), chu ti trng va p cao nh bnh rng trong t du lch v xe ti nho. Loi Crm -niken cao : lng niken t 2-4% v Cr trn di 1%, thm ti rt cao, c th ti thu tit din n 100 mm. Gm cc mc sau : 12CrNi3A, 20Cr2Ni4A, 18Cr2Ni4WA. Loi thp ny c nhc im l : gi thnh cao (Ni l nguyn t d t), tnh gia cng ct km do qu do v nhit luyn phc tp sau khi th m cc bon. Cng d ng : lm cc chi tit tm cc bon rt quan trng, chu ti trng nng v mi mn mnh, yu cu c tin cy cao nh cc chi tit rong my bay, t. *Thp crm-niken-mlipen : Trn c s thp crm -niken cao nhng c thm 0,100,40% Mo nng cao thm thm ti. y l nhm thp thm cc bon tt nh t , s dng vo cc mc ch quan trng nht v cho cc chi tit c tit din ln nht. Bao gm cc mc thp sau : 20CrNi2Mo, 18Cr2Ni4MoA.

58

e-Thp crm-mangan-titan : Nhm thp ny c cc ch tiu kinh t k thut cao c s dng kh ph bi n l cc bnh rng trong t ti nh v trung bnh. Gi thnh ca chng thp (khng cha niken), bn tng ng thp crm niken nhng do v dai km hn. u im ca nhm thp ny l c tnh cng ngh tt hn : khng b qu bo ho cc bon,, h t khng ln nn c th nng cao nhit thm n 930-950OC, ti trc tip ngay sau khi thm, bin dng nh. Gm cc thp : 18CrMnTi, 25CrMnTi. 4-Thp ho tt : L loi thp c thnh phn cc bon trung bnh 0,30-0,50% dng ch to cc chi tit my chu ti trng tnh v va p tng i cao b mt c th b mi mn nh tr c, bnh rng, cht, tay bin ...Ch nhit luyn ca chng l ti v ram cao ( nhi t luy n ho tt) a-Thnh phn ho hc : *Cc bon : trong gii hn t 0,30-0,50% s m bo s kt hp tt nht gia cc chi tiu v c tnh : bn, cng, do, dai (c tnh tng hp). Trong th c t s dng ph bin nht l t 0,35-0,45 %C *Hp kim : m bo c tnh tng hp cao v ng u trn ton b ti t din cc nguyn t hp kim phi s dng hp l, tit din cng ln, lng nguyn t a vo cng cao. Nguyn t hp kim chnh l crm, mangan khong 1-2%, niken 1-4%. Ngoi ra c th dng thm silic khng qu 1%. Ngy nay c xu hng dng thm bo vi hm l ng 0,0005-0,003%. Nguyn t hp kim ph l molipen v vonfram ch yu chng sgin ram cho cc chi tit ln. b-c im v nhit luyn : ci thin tnh gia cng ct gt sau khi tao phi bng rn, dp nng thp c hon ton t cng 180-220 HB (thp crm-niken phi thng ho). Nhit luyn kt thc gm hai bc : *Bc th nht to cho li c c tnh tng hp cao chu c ti trng tnh v va p bng ti v ram cao, t chc nhn c l xoocbit ram ( c ng 25-30HRC). T chc ny cn c tc dng to c bng cao khi ct gt v gip cho chuyn bin xy ra nhanh chng, nhn c mctenxit mh mn. * To cho b mt cng cao v tnh chngmi mn l n b ng ti b mt v ram thp ( cng t 52-58HRC). Ngoi ra c th dng thm ni t hay thm ccbon - ni t khi cn cng cao hn. c-Thp cc bon : Thng s dng cc mc sau : C30, C35, C40, C45, C50 nhng thng dng nht l C45. c im ca nhm thp ny l p ng c cc yu cu ra nhng mc thp. C th nh sau : * bn thp do thm ti nh, bn 750-850MN/m2 *Khng lm c cc chi tit ln v hnh dng phc tp do ti trong nc. *R v c tnh cng ngh tt. Cng dng : lm cc chi tit my nh ( =20-30mm) nh: thanh truyn, cht phng, trc, bnh rng b ng ... d-Thp crm :

59

Thng dng loi thp cha 0,50-1,00% crm ch yu nng cao thm ti khi ti trong du. Gm cc mc thp : 35Cr, 40Cr, 45Cr, 50Cr, nhng thng dng nht l 40Cr v 40CrVA. So vi nhm thp cc bon chng c c im : * bn cao hn do c hp kim ho bng crm nn thm ti cao, bn t c 800-950MN/m2. *Lm c cc chi tit c tit din trung bnh hnh dng tng i ph c tp nh trc bc, bnh rng trong my ct kim loi v ti trong du. *B dn ram loi hai (vi chi tit nh lm ngui nhanh sau khi ram). e-Thp crm -mlipen : Cho thm khong 0,25% mlipen s nng cao thm ti v chng dn ram lo i hai. Thng dng nht l mc thp 38CrMoA lm cc chi tit my trung bnh ( > 50mm) hnh dng tng i phc tp nh bnh rng. f-Thp crm-mangan-silc : Loi thp ny c 1%Cr, 1%Si hay 1%Cr, 1%Mn, 1%Si, do c hp kim ho phc tp nn c thm ti cao hn, bn t 1000-1100MN/m2, dng lm cc chi tit kh ln ( 50-60mm). Tuy nhin do hp kim ho c Si ln Mn nn cng hn v dn hn, khng c dng ph bin lm. Thng dng nht l cc mc 40CrMn, 38CrMnSi. g-Thp crm-niken v crm-niken-mlipen : Do c hp kim ho c crm v niken nn loi thp ny c thm ti cao m vn gi c do v dai tt, c bit l khi niken cao 3% v c thm Mo. Chng c phn ra ba nhm nh : *Thp crm-niken thng : cha khong 1%Cr v 1%Ni, do niken thp nn thm ti cha cao, lm cc chi tit 50-60 mm, c bn 700-800MN/m2, aK = 700kJ/m2. Gm cc mc thp sau : 40CrNi, 45CrNi, 50CrNi thng dng nht l 40CrNi. c i m ca loi thp ny l : - bn tng i cao kt hp vi do dai tt. -Lm c cc chi tit c tit din kh ln v hnh dng phc tp. -Tnh gia cng ct khng cao lm (do kh do) -B dn ram loi hai. Cng dng : l cc chi tit chu ti trng ng cao v cn tin cy cao nh h thng li t, chi tit truyn lc trong my bay... *Thp crm - niken cao : loi thp ny cha khong 1-2%Cr, 3-4%Ni (t l Ni/Cr khong 3-4). in hnh l mc 30CrNi3A, c thm ti ln, c th ti thu v i >100mm, trong thc t c xem l ti thu vi tit din bt k. bn t 1100MN/m2 , aK = 800kJ/m2. Tuy nhin cng b dn ram loi hai v tnh gia cng ct km. Cng d ng nh nhm thp Cr-Ni nhng vi kch thc ln hn v hnh dng phc tp hn. *Thp crm-niken-mlipen : loi thp ny da trn c s thp crm niken cao v cho thm vo khong 0,10-0,40%Mo. y l loi thp ch to my tt nht do thm ti ln, bn cao ( B = 1200MN/m2 , aK = 800kJ/m2)., lm c chi tit ln, ( >100 mm) hnh dng phc tp v khng b dn ram loi hai. Gm cc mc thp : 38CrNi3MoA, 38Cr2Ni2MoA, 38CrNi3MoVA v 38CrMoAlA (thp thm ni t). Cng dng nh nhm thp trn nhng vi kich thc ln hn nhiu v hnh dng phc tp hn, tin cyh cao nht.

60

5-Thp n hi : Thp n hi l loi thp c hm lng cc bon tng i cao : 0,55-0,65%, c tnh n hi cao l cc chi tit nh l xo, nhp v cc chi tit n hi khc. c i m nhi t luyn ca chng l ti v ram trung bnh. a-iu kin lm vic v yu cu : c im lm vic ca chi tit n hi l chu ti trng tnh v va p cao nhng khng c php bin dng do. Cc yu cu ca thp n hi : *Gii hn n hi cao, kh nng chng bin dng do ln. T l h/ B cng gn n mt cng tt, thng thng t t 0,85-0,95. * cng kh cao, do v dai thp trnh b bin dng do (khng c qu thp d b ph hu dn) *Gii hn mi cao ph hp vi iu kin ti trng thay i c chu k. b-c im v thnh phn ho hc v ch nhit luyn : Thnh phn ho hc : *Cc bon : tho mn cc yu cu trn lng cc bon t 0,55-0,70% nhng thng s dng t 0,55-0,65 l tt nht. *Nguyn t hp kim : nguyn t hp kim c s dng vi mc ch : -Nng cao gii hn n hi v cng, vi yu cu ny dng mangan v silic l tt nht. -Nng cao thm ti m bo gii hn n hi cao v ng nht trn tit din vi mc ich ny thng dng crm v niken. Trong thp n hi thng dng 1%Mn, 2%Si, 2%(Cr+Ni), khng dng nhiu mangan v silic v s lm thp b qu dn, cng. c im v nhit luyn : t c yu cu gii hn n hi cao nht phi tin hnh ti v ram trung bnh to ra t chc trxtit ram. m bo gii hn n hi v gii hn mi cao cn lu : -Chng thot cc bon khi nhit luyn (do c silic), nu b mt c hm l ng cc bon thp hn quy nh d sinh ra vt nt mi khi chu ko. -To ng sut nn d trn b mt bng ln bi ko, cn ngui... -Nng cao bng b mt, loi b cc vt xc l mm mng cc vt nt mi bng cch cn, ko ngui hay mi. c-Cc loi thp n hi : *Thp cc bon v thp mangan : gm cc mc thp C65, C70, C80, C85...60Mn, 65Mn, 70Mn. c im ca nhm thp ny : -Gii hn n hi thp h 800MN/m2. - thm ti thp, ch ti thu n ng knh 15 mm. Nhm thp c cung cp ch yu dng dy trn dng l cc l xo thng, yu c u khng cao lm. *Thp silic v thp hp kim khc : y l nhm thp c gii h n n hi cao dng vo cc mc ch quan trng, gm cc mc : 55Si2, 60Si2, 65Si2, 70Si2... c i m c a chng nh sau : -C gii hn n hi cao h 1000MN/m2 , gi thnh tng i thp. - thm ti cao hn (ti thu tit din 20-30 mm trong du)

61

-D thot cc bon khi nung. Nhm khc phc nhc im trn ngi ta hp kim ho thm crm, mangan, niken v vanai, do to ra cc mc : 50CrMn, 50CrVA, 60Si2CrVA, 60Si2Ni2A...Cng dng ca nhm thp ny l lm l xo xe la, nhp xe t, cc tr c m m, dy ct ng h . C n lu rng cc thp ny nu dng dy trn vi ng knh < 6 mm c nhit luyn ri, do ch cn un ngui ri em thp d kh ng sut l s dng c. 6-Thp c cng dng ring : Nhm thp ny c s dng rt rng ri trong ch to my, chng c dng vo cc mc ch chuyn dng. a-Thp l dp ngui (dp su) : Nhm thp ny dng ch to cc chi tit bng phng php dp ngui, do vy yu cu ca chng l phi c tnh do cao, nht l khi dp su ( bin dng ln). Do yu cu ca chng nh sau : *Hm lng cc bon thp 0,20%, thng dng nht l 0,10% , t chc ch yu la phe rt v mt lng nh peclt. *Hm lng silic thp thp khng b cng, Si 0,05-0,07%, thuc loi thp si. *ht nh v u, cp ht 6-8. Cc mc thp thng dng : C5s, C8s, C10s, C15s...Cng dng : lm chn bn, ca bin xe...Vi thp l mng c th c trng km dng trong cng nghip thc phm lm hp hay trng km hay km -nhm lm tm lp. b-Thp d ct (t ng) : Thp d ct (cn c gi l thp t ng) c dng lm cc chi tit phi qua gia cng ct gt, s lng nhiu, khng chu ti trng ln, yu cu bng b mt cao v nng sut cao. Thnh phn ho hc : lng cc bon t 0,10-0,40%, t chc phn ln l phe rt v mt phn pclit. Lng pht pho v lu hunh cao hn mc bnh thng, phtpho khong 0,08-0,15%, lu hunh khong 0,15-0,35%. Lng mangan 0,80-1,00% to ra MnS lm phoi d gy vn. Thi gian gn y ngi ta cn cho thm ch (0,15-0,30) vo thp d c t tng kh nng ct gt ca n (ch c nhit chy thp 327OC d b chy khi ct gt, lm phoi t ri). Cc mc thp d ct :12S, 20S, 30S, 11SPb, 40SPb, 40MnS. Cng dng :bulng, ai c, vt, bc, mt s bnh rng... c-Thp ln : y l loi thp c cht lng rt cao dng ch to cc ln : bi, a (bi cn) trong my mc. *iu kin lm vic v yu cu : cc b mt lm vic ca ln chu ng sut tip xc cao vi s lng chu trnh rt ln, do hin tng trt ln vi nhau nn ti tng th i im chng b mi mn im. Cc yu cu : - cng v tnh chng mi mn cao ( 64HRC) -C tnh phi ng nht, tuyt i khng c c im mm. - bn mi tip xc cao. *c im v thnh phn ho hc v nhit luyn :

62

Thnh phn ho hc : lng cc bon cao 1%, hp kim ho crm t 0,5-1,5%, mangan v silic mi nguyn t 1%. trnh cc im mm phi hn ch lu hunh v phtpho, kh rt thp (P,S < 0,02%, khng cha kh). Nhit luyn : Ti trong du nhit 850-860OC, ram thp nhit 150-180OC. Tin hnh gia cng lnh gim ti a lng austenit d lc ny cng t 65 HRC. *Cc mc thp : OL100Cr0,6; OL100Cr0,9; OL100Cr1,5; OL100Cr1,5SiMn. Ngoi ra chng cn c dng lm bn ren, ta r, dng c o, pit tng bm cao p... d-Thp ng ray : L loi thp cc bon cht lng cao, vi hm lng cc bon v mangan t ng i cao : 0,50-0,80%C, 0,60-1,00%Mn, lng phtpho v lu hunh thp : 0,05%S, 0,0,4%P. Vit Nam cha c tiu chun cho thp ng ray, theo tiu chun c a Nga n c k hiu bng ch P (raytxnaia xtal) v s tip theo ch trng lng mt mt ray tnh b ng kilgam. V d P45; P60...(tng ng mi mt ray nng 45 kG v 60 kG). Ray hng c th tn dng lm cc chi tit v dng c khc nh : c, dao, nhp, dng c gia cng g ... e-Dy thp cc loi : Dy thp c sn xut t nh my luyn kim bng phng php ko ngui. C tnh ca dy thp ph tuc v hm lng cc bon v mc bi n dng. Dy thp c hm lng cc bon thp thng c trng km dng lm dy in thoi v trong sinh hot. Dy thp c hm lng cc bon trung bnh (0,50-0,70%C) dng lm cc l xo trn. Dy thp c hm lng cc bon cao, mc bin dng ln dng lm dy cp... 7-Thp c cng dng c bit : a-Thp khng r : Thp khng r bao gm mt h hp kim trn c s st m tnh cht c bn c a chng l chng n mn trong cc mi trng khc nhau. Mi loi thp khng r ch c kh nng chng n mn trong mt s mi trng nht nh. Tnh chng n mn ( bn n mn) ca thp chia ra cc cp sau : -Tnh chng n mn cao : khi chiu su kim loi b xm thc < 0,125 mm/nm -Tnh chng n mn t yu cu : khi chiu su xm thc : 0,125 - 1,25 mm/nm. -Tnh chng n mn yu (khng t yu cu) : khi xm thc > 1,25mm/nm. Nguyn nhn ca hin tng thp b r l do n mn in ho v trong thp c hai pha vi in th in cc khc nhau. V vy nguyn l chung ch to thp khng r l : -Nng cao in th in cc ca pherit v ccbit (hai pha c bn trong thp) lm gim dng in n mn. -Lm cho thp c t chc mt pha, vi thnh phn ng nht (austenit, pherit). c im chung ca cc loi thp khng r l : hm lng cc bon th p (cng thp tnh chng n mn cng tt) thnh phn crm v hp kim cao. Cc loi thp khng r u c lng crm > 12,5% *Thp khng r hai pha (mctenxit) : l loi thp c 0,10-0,40%C v 13%Cr v i hai pha l pherit v cc bt crm. Gm cc mc sau : 12Cr, 20Cr, 30Cr v 40Cr. Nhm thp ny c tnh chng n mn cao trong khng kh, nc sng, nc my v axit nit rit HNO 3. Cng dng : lm trang sc, c vit khng r, chi tit chu nhit (<450 OC) dng c m, bi chng n mn...

63

*Thp khng r pherit : l loi thp c lng cc bon thp hn t 0,08-0,20%C v i lng crm rt cao t 17-25%Cr, tnh chng n mn cao hn nhm trn. Do v y thp ch c mt pha l pherit. Gm cc mc sau : 08Cr13, 12Cr17, 15Cr25Ti...Chng c c im l nu nung nong lu cao hn 475OC s xut hin cc pha dn lm cho tnh do km i. Nhm thp nay s dng c trong kh hu bin, nc bin, mi trng axit, cng nghip ho du... *Thp khng r austenit : l loi thp c lng cc bon rt th p, l ng crm cao > 16-18% v niken cao 6-8%, t chc mt pha l austenit. in hnh nht l h 18.8 v 18.9 (18%Cr v 8-10%Ni). Gm cc mc thp sau : 12Cr18Ni9, 08Cr18Ni11, 08Cr18Ni10Ti, 12Cr18Ni9Ti, 04Cr18Ni10...c im chung l : tnh chng n mn cao, hon ton n nh trong nc sng, nc bin, hi nc bo ho, qu nhit, duun dch mu i. Hon ton n nh trong HNO3 vi mi nng , tong H2SO4 ngui, trong HCl long. C tnh do cao, c tnh bo m. Cng dng : s dng trong cng nghip sn xut axit, ho du v th c phm, chi tit chu nhit n 900-1000OC. Chng c nhc im l t tin (do lng niken cao), kh gia cng ct gt (rt do) v trong mt s tng hp b n mn tinh gii. *Thp khng r ho bn tit pha : c thnh phn v t chc tng t thp khng r austenit nhng cha lng crm v niken thp hn (13-17%Cr, 4-7%Ni), ngoi ra cn c Al, Cu, Mo...T chc l austenit nhng khng n nh. Thp ny c tnh cng ngh v c tnh cao, d gia cng bin dng v ct gt tt, c th tin hnh ho bn b ng ho gi nhit thp trnh c bin dng v xy ho, c tnh chng n mn cao tng ng h 18.8. Thng lm kt cu my bay. b-Thp chng mi mn cao : (thp Hadfield) Loi thp ny cha cc bon cao (0,90-1,30%) v lng mangan ln (11,40-14,50%), t chc l austenit, nhng chng mi mn rt cao khi lm vic tr ng i u ki n t i tr ng va p mnh, ma st ln v p lc cao. Khi lm vic trong i u ki n trn s x y ra hai hin tng sau : *Mng tinh th b x lch gy ra bin cng trn lp b mt. *Di tc dng ca ng sut s c chuyn bin austenit thnh mctenxit lm tng cng v tnh chng mi mn. im c bit ca thp ny l lp c tnh chng mi mn cao lun t n t i trn b mt ca n. Ch to chi tit bng thp chng mi mn cao bng phng php c. Hin ti ch c mt mc thp : 130Mn13 ( - ch ch to bng phng php c). Cng dng : lm xch xe tng, my ko, hm my nghin , rng gu xc, li ben my gt, ghi ray... c-Thp bn nng : Thp bn nng l loi thp c kh nng chu ti trng lu di trn 500OC c s dng trong cc lnh vc nh : ni hi, ng c phn lc, tua bin kh, tn la... *Yu cu ca thep bn nng : -C tnh n nh nng cao : l kh nng bn ho hc nhit cao, chng li vic to to thnh lp vy xyt v ngn cn s pht trin ca n. -C tnh bn nng ln : l kh nng vt liu chu c ti trng nhit cao. nhit cao di tc dng ca ti trng khng i nh hn gii hn chy kim loi b bin dng do mt cch chm chp theo thi gian v gi l do. nh gi b n c a

64

thp nhit cao bng hai ch tiu l gii hn do v bn do. b n do l ng sut gy ra ph hu do sau thi gian xc nh ti nhit cho (v d b/1000 = 250MN/m2 ti 850OC). Gii hn do cn thit c bin dng xc nh (v d 0,2%), sau thi gian th n nh (vi d 1000h) ti nhit cho (v d 0,2/1000 = 170 MN/m2). *Thp lm xu pap x : Xu pp x trong ng c t trong lm vic trong iu kin ti trng cao, mi mn v va p ln, b n mn do kh chy, chu nhit 650-700OC. lm xu pp x ta dng loi thp c cc bon trung bnh (0,35-0,50%), cha crm cao (9,00-10,00%) v 2% Si. Di tc dng ca nhit cao tao ra xyt Cr 2O3, SiO2 bn st cht chng n mn ho hc. Cc mc thp thng dng : 40Cr9Si2, 40Cr10Si2Mo, 30Cr13Ni7Si2, 45Cr14Ni14W2Mo *Thp lm ni hi v tua bin hi : cc ni hi v tua bin hi ti cc nh my nhi t in thng lm vic nhit 540OC v p sut 250 at hay 560OC v ap sut 160 at. m bo tui th lu di (n 100 000 h) ta phi s dng cc thp ph hp. Vi nhit nh hn 450OC c th dng CT34, CT38, C15, C20 lm ni hi. ng qu nung hi, ng dn hi (540-560OC) s dng mc : 12CrMo, 12CrMoV. Cnh tua bin hi dng thp : 15Cr12WNiMoV, 15Cr11MoV. Vi ni hi p sut siu cao dng loi thp 9Cr14Ni19W2NbB. 6.3.3.Thp dng c : Thp dng c l cc loi thp dng lm cc dng c ct gt v bin dng kim loi, dng c o. 1-Thp lm dng c ct : a-iu kin lm vic v yu cu : *iu kin lm vic : Nhn chung dng c ct gt lm vic trong iu ki n r t nng n.Ta kho st iu kin lm vic ca dao tin, l dng c ct in hnh. - to phoi li ct phi chu p lc ln v sinh cng c hc ln ph hu kim loi -Dao b mi st mnh : mt trc vi phoi, mt sau vi phi. Sau mt thi gian nht nh hai mt ny b mi mn mnh, khang cch hp li, li ct b gy v dao b cn, phi mi li mi dng c. -Cng tch phoi v mi st bin thnh nhit, phn ln tp trung mi dao lm cho cng gim i nhanh chng, lm xu kh nng ct gt. *Yu cu : xut pht t iu kin lm vic thp lm dng c ct c cc yu c u sau y : -C cng cao 60HRC vi vt liu c cng trn di 200HB. Khi ct thp khng r hay hp kim bn nng phi cao hn 65HRC. -Tnh chng mi mn cao hn ch to thnh rnh lm trn mt trc ca dao. cng cng cao tnh chng mi mn cng ln, khi cng cao hn 60HRC c tng ln mt n v tnh chng mi mn tng 25-30%. Vi cng gi tr cng th tnh chng mi mn ph thuc vo lng cc bit d, cc bt d cng nhiu tnh chng mi mn cng cao. -Tnh cng nng cao : tnh cng nng l kh nng thp gi c c ng ln h n 60HRC nhit cao. Khi ct gt cng c hc v ma st s tp trung ch y u vo mi dao v lm dao nng ln, cng gim i v kh nng ct gt s gi m i nhanh chng. Do vy phi a vo thp cc nguyn t hp kim nng cao tnh cng nng.

65

Ngoi ba yu cu chnh ra thp lm dng c ct cn phi tho mn cc yu cu v bn, dai, thm ti tt, tnh gia cng p lc v bin dng ... b-Thp lm dao ct c nng sut thp : Thp lm dao ct cn nng sut thp l loi thp c tc ct gt t 5-10 m/pht. *Thp cc bon : gm cc mc thp CD70, CD80... CD130 (hay CD70A... CD130A). y l loi thp cht lng tt v cht lng cao, vi l ng lu hunh v phtpho th p (P 0,030-0,035; S 0,020-0,030). Chng c c im : -Sau khi ti v ram thp c cng 60 HRC ct gt. -D bin dng nng v gia cng ct gt, gi thnh thp. - thm ti thp phi ti trong nc bin dng ln, khng lm c cc dng c ct hnh dng phc tp. -Tnh cng nng thp, khng lm vic cao hn 200-250OC. Cng dng : l cc dng c ct nh, hnh dng n gin vi nng su t thp hay gia cng bng tay : da, li ca st... *Thp hp kim : l nhm thp c cc bon cao (khong 1%) c hp kim ho trung bnh v thp, c thm ti tt v tnh chng mi mn cao. Gm hai loi : -Loi c tnh thm ti tt : in hnh l mc 90CrSi : tnh c ng nng trn d i O 300 C, ti trong du cng vn > 60HRC, gi thnh khng cao lm. Cng dng : lm cc dng c ct hnh dng phc tp, kch thc nh :tar, bn ren, mi khoan, dao doa, dao phay... D b thoat cc bon khi nung nng (do cha nhiu silic) -Loi c tnh chng mi mn cao : loi thp ny c cc bon rt cao > 1,30%, v i 0,5%Cr v 4-5%W. Gm hai mc thp in hnh l 130Cr0,5 sau khi ti v ram thp t cng 65-66HRC, dng lm dao co ru, xn giy, ct da... 140CrW5 ti trong nc v ram thp t 67-68HRC (cn c tn l thp kim cng) lm dao phay, tin sa cc phi cng (b mt trc cn thp ti). c-Thp lm dao ct c nng sut cao - thp gi : Thp gi l loi thp lm dng c ct quan trng nht v tt nht v n p ng y cc yu cu ca vt liu lm dao. -Tc ct gt 35-80 m/pht (gp 3-7 ln nhm trn) -Tnh chng mi mn v tui bn cao (gp 8-10ln) - thm ti c bit cao (thm ti vi tit din bt k) *Thnh phn ho hc v tc dng ca cc nguyn t trong thp gi : -Cc bon : t 0,70-1,50% ho tan vo mctenxit v to thnh cc bit v i cc nguyn t W, Mo v c bit l vanai lm tng cng v tnh chng mi mn. Crm :c trong mi loi thp gi vi s lng ging nhau khong 4% (3,8-4,40%) c tc dng nng cao thm ti. Do tng lng Cr + W + Mo cao nn thp gi c kh nng t ti v ti thu vi tit din bt k. -Vofram : l nguyn t hp kim quan trng nht v chim s lng ln nht trong thp gi (6-18%) c tc dng nng cao tnh cng nng. Cc bit vonfram ho tan vo austenit khi nung nn sau khi ti mctenxit cha nhiu vonfram. Cc bit ny ch ti t ra khi mctenxit 560-570OC nn duy tr cng sau khi ti n 600OC.

66

-Molipen : dng thay th vonfram do tc dng tng t vonfram, n c th rhay th vonfram theo t l nguyn t 1/1 nhng khi lng ring nh hn (10,3 g/cm3) so vi vofram (19,3 g/cm3) nn 1%Mo thay th c 2%W lm cho gi thnh thp. -Vanai : l nguyn t to thnh cc bit rt mnh. Ccbit vanai t ho tan vo austenit khi nung nng, n dng nh mn, rt cng v phn tn nn gi c ht nh khi nung nng v nng cao tnh chng mi mn. T l s dng trong thp gi t 1-2% khng nn dng qu 5% v rt kh mi nhn. -Cban : l nguyn t khng to thnh ccbit, n ho tan vo st to thnh dung dch rn. Lng cha ca n t 5-10% gp phn nng cao tnh c ng nng, vt qu gi i h n ny lm cho thp b dn m khng nng cao thm tnh cng nng. *T chc t vi : l loi thp hp kim cao (10-20%) v cc bon cao nn trng thi sau khi c l thp lburit, cha nhiu cc bit di dng cng tinh lburit hnh xng c rt cng v dn. V vy phi tin hnh cn, rn v i lng p l n lm nh m n cc bt vfa khng hon ton 840-860OC t cng 241-269HB mi tin hnh ct gt c. *Nhit luyn : tin hnh ti v ram nng cao cng, tnh chng mi mn v tnh cng nng. Nhit ti ca cc loi thp gi ni chung xp x 1300 OC vi sai s hp ( 10OC). Khng nung nng cao hn hay thp hn v nhng l do sau y : -Khi nung thp hn austenit cha bo ho W nng cao tnh c ng nng : khi nn n AC1 ( 850OC) mi c chuyn bin peclit thnh austenit. Ti nhit 850-900 OC thp c cng thp khang 45-50HRC, khng ct gt c. Khi nng nhit ln cao hn ccbit hp kim bt u ho tan cng nhiu vo austenit lm cho n cng giu nguyn t hp kim. Ti 1000OC bo ho Cr23C6. Fe3W3C ch bt u ho tan mnh nhit 1150OC, n gn 1300OC austenit cng ch ho tan c 8%W. Cc bit VC hu nh khng ho tan vo austenit. Nguyn l chung khi chn nhit ti l tn l ng nhit cao austenit cha nhiu vonfram nht mctenxit c tnh cng nng cao nht, cc bit VC cha ho tan gi ho ht nh, nn cao tnh chng mi mn. -Nu nung nng cao hn quy nh cc bit ho tan nhiu, ht pht tri n mnh lm thp gin, trong mt s trng hp b chy bin gii ht. Sau khi ti t chc thp gi gm mctenxit giu vonfram, austenit d (30%) v cc bt d (15-20%) cng 61-63 HRC cha t c cao nht v vy phi tin hnh ram tip theo. Tin hnh ram thp gi ba ln, nhit 560 OC, mi ln gi nhit mt gi. Ti nhit nung nng ccbit vonfram Fe3W3C nh mn bt u tit ra lm mac ten xit ngho nguyn t hp kim, nng cao im M ln v lm gim ng sut nn austenit d mi chuyn bin thnh mc ten xit ram lm cng tng ln. Nu tin hnh gia cng l nh th ch ram mt ln. T chc sau khi ram : mc ten xt ram, austenit d (5%), cc bt d (20%)., cng t 63-65 HRC. nng cao cng cho thp gio c th tin hnh thm cc bon - nit cng t 70 HRC nhng hi b dn. *Cc loi thp gi v cng dng : Cc mc thp gi thng dng gm : 75W18V; 90W9V2; 140W9V5; 90W18V2; 90W18Co5V2; 95W9Co10V2...Cng dng thp gi c s dng rng ri lm cc dng c ct gt ln, hnh dng phc t p, i u ki n lm vi c nng v c nng sut cao, tui th ln nh : dao phay, doa, chu t, x c, mi khoan, dao tin, bo...

67

2-Thp lm dng c bin dng ngui (khun dp ngui) : L loi thp lm dng c bin dng do kim loi nhit thng. y l hnh thc gia cng rt ph bin cho nng sut cao. a-iu kin lm vic v yu cu : Dng c bin dng ngui m in hnh l khun dp ngui c iu kin lm vic gn ging dng c ct nhng c c im khc hn. Ngoi chu p lc ln ra, khun dp cn chu ng sut un, lc va p v ma st mnh. Do din tch tip xc ln khng to phoi nn khun dp ngui thng b nng ln khong 200-250OC khi lm vic. Vi iu kin lm vic nh trn vt liu khun phi t c cc yu cu sau : *C cng cao : do tin hnh bin dng kim loi trng thi ngui nn vt liu c cng ln. Tu theo vt liu em dp cng khun t 58-62 HRC, khng nn cao hn gii hn ny v lm khun b gin, d st m khi lm vic. *Tnh chng mi mn ln, m bo hng vn, chc vn sn phm m kch thc khun khng thay i. * do v dai b m : chu c ti trng ln v va p. Vi cc khun c kch thc ln cn thm yu cu thm ti cao v t bin dng khi nhit luyn. b-c im v thnh phn ho hc v nhit luyn : *Thnh phn ho hc : m bo cc yu cu trn thp lm khun dp ngu i phi c thnh phn ho hc hp l. -Cc bon : lng cc bon cao trn di 1% m bo c ng cao, tnh ch ng mi mn ln. Khi chu va p mnh lng cc bon s gim xung c 0,40-0,60%. Khi yu cu chng mi mn tht cao lng cc bon n 1,50-2,00% -Nguyn t hp kim : thnh phn hp kim ph thuc vo hnh dng, kch thc tnh chng mi mn v thm ti. nng cao thm ti dng cc nguyn t crm, mangan, silic, vonfram (khong 1% mi loi). nng cao tnh chng mi mn phi dng lng crm n 12% *Ch nhit luyn : ti v ram thp. Khi ti ch ly nhit cao hn so vi dao ct t 20-40OC austenit ng nht hn. Khi ram cng chn nhit cao hn. c-Thp lm khun dp ngui : *Thp lm khun b : s dng mc thp CD100-CD120 lm cc khun b, hnh dng n gin, chu ti trng nh, cng cao, tnh chng mi mn thp. *Thp lm khun trung bnh : lm khun trung bnh (chiu dy thnh khun 7510 mm) hay khun b, hnh dng phc tp, chu ti trng l n ta dng cc thp h p kim thp : 100Cr, 100CrWMn, 10CrWSiMn. *Thp lm khun ln v chng mi mn cao : lm cc khun l n (chi u dy thnh khun 200-300 mm) chu ti nng v chu mi mn ln ta dng loi thp cha 12%Cr v lng cc bon rt cao (1,50-2,00%) : 200Cr12, 150Cr12Mo, 130Cr12V. Nhm thp ny c c im : - thm ti ln : ti trong du chiu su ti t 150-200 mm, do m bo bn, cng cao khi khun ln. -C th p dng nhiu ch ti v ram t c yu cu khc nhau.

68

*Thp lm khun chu ti trng va p : vi cc khun dp chu va p ln ta dng loi thp cha cc bon trung bnh v lng hp kim 3-5% m bo dai. Gm cc mc sau : 40CrW2Si, 50CrW2Si, 60Cr2Si, 40CrSi, 60CrSi. Hin ti c xu hng s dng hp kim cng lm cc khun dp ngu i c kch thc nh, t hiu qu cao hn thp. 3-Thp lm dng c bin dng nng : Bin dng nng l hnh thc gia cng ch yu ch to bn thnh phm v phi trong sn xut c kh. Trong c kh thng dng nht l cc loi khun rn, p ,ko a-iu kin lm vic v yu cu : Dng c bin dng nng (m in hnh l khun dp) c iu kin lm vi c khc hn khun dp ngui : -Dng c (khun) lun tip xc vi phi nng ti 1000OC, do vy chng b nung nng n 500-700OC nhng khng thng xuyn , lin tc. -Do c nung nng n nhit cao nn phi thp c tnh do cao, do vy khun khng cn cng cao nhng c bin dng ngui. -Dng c bin dng nng thng c kch thc ln, chu ti trng ln n hng trm hng nghn tn. Yu cu ca dng c bin dng nng : * bn v dai cao, cng va phi chu c ti ln v va p, cng khong 350-450 HB (35-46 HRC). *Tnh chng mi mn cao m bo to ra hng nghn hng vn sn phm. Do lm vic nhit cao nng sut ca dng c bin dng nng thp hn bi n d ng ngu i n khong ln. *Tnh chu nhit cao v chng mi nhit ln. b-c im v thnh phn ho hc v ch nhit luyn: t c cc yu cu trn thp lm dng c bin dng nng c cc c i m sau : *Cc bon : hm lng cc bon trung bnh trong khong t 0,30-0,50% tu theo tng loi khun. *Thnh phn hp kim : c hm lng ph hp m bo tnh ti th u c tnh ng nht v tnh chu nng. nng cao thm ti s dng crm, niken. Nng cao thm ti v chu nng phi dng n 8-10% W. *Ch nhit luyn : gm ti v ram trung bnh nhn c t chc trstit ram c cng, bn, dai ph hp vi iu kin lm vic. c-Thp lm khun rn : Cc khun rn thng c kch thc ln, chu ti trng cao v va p, b nung nng t (9500-550oC) do thi gian tip xc vi phi ngn. Thng dn cc mc sau : 50CrNiMo, 50CrNiW, 50CrNiSiW, 50CrNiTi, 50CrMnMo. Nhm thp ny c c im : *Tnh thm ti cao, ti thu trong du vi kch thc 400 x 300 x 300 mm. *Ti v ram t 500-600OC. * cng phn ui nn thp hn phn lm vic t 5-10 HRC. Vi ba rn c trong lng > 3 tn thng dng 50CrNiMo, cc mc cn li dng khi trng lng ba < 3 tn.

69

d-Thp lm khun p chy (chn, p) : Khc vi khun rn, thp lm khun chn, p nng (p chy) c kch thc b hn nhng li chu nhit cao hn ( do tip xc lu hn vi phi), chu p su t cao nh ng ti trng va p nh. Do nhit b mt kh cao n 600-700OC n phi dng loi thp hp kim cao (khong 10%) bng crm v vonfram. Lng cc bon t 0,30-0,50%. Ngoi ra cn dng vanai (1%) nng cao tnh chng mi mn v gi cho ht nh, molipen (1%) nng cao thm ti. Cc mc thp thng dng l : 30Cr2W8V, 30Cr2W8, 40Cr5W2VSi. nng cao thm cng v tnh chng mi mn cho b mt khun p ta thm cc bon - nit nhit 500-600OC (cn lu phi thm thp hn nhit ram) 4-Thp lm dng c o : Trong sn xut c kh thng s dng cc dng c o c cc c p chnh xc khc nhau : panme, thc cp, dng, calip, thc o di ... a-iu kin lm vic v yu cu : Cc dng c o thng xuyn tip xc, c st vi chi ti t gia cng n d b mai mn, bin dng lm sai lch kt qu o. Do vy thp lm dng c o phi c cc yu cu sau y : * cng v tnh chng mi mn cao 63-65 HRC m bo khng b hay t b mi mn ti phn lm vic, gi c chnh xc trong sut thi gian lm vic lu di. *Kch thc n nh : kch thc khng thay i hay rt t thay i trong sut thi gian lm vic (hng chc nm), ccn lu hai ch tiu sau : -H s gin n nhit nh. -S n nh ca t chc trng thi lm vic l lu di * nhn bng b mt cao khi mi (n cp 14) v t bin dng khi nhit luyn. b-Thp lm dng c o cp chnh xc cao : t c cng v tnh chng mi mn cao phi c hm lng cc bon 1%. Dng cc nguyn t hp kim crm v mangan (khong 1% mi loi) nng cao thm ti, t bin dng. Mangan c tc dng lm tng thm austenit d nn mc thch hp cho kch thc hu nh khng thay i. n nh kch thc sau khi ti tin hnh ho gi (ram nhit thp hn O 150 C) nhn c t chc mactenxit ti c cng v tnh chng mi mn cao, t d bng cao khi mi v h s gin n nhit rt nh 10-5 - 10-6/OC. Cc mc thp thng dng : 100Cr, 100CrWMn, 140CrMn... c-Thp lm c o cp chinh xc thp : Cc lai dng c o cp chnh xc thp ch yu cu b mt lm vic c tnh chng mi mn cao l do vy ta c th dng cc oi thp sau y : *Thp cc bon thp : %C 0,25% qua thm cc bon, ti v ram thp : C15, C20, BCT38... *Thp cc bon trung bnh : C45, C50, C55 ti v ram thp *Thp 38CrMoAlA : thm ni t.

CHNG 7 :

KIM LOI V HP KIM MU

70

Trong chng ny ta s nghin cu cc hp kim khng phi trn c s st l cc hp kim mu. Nh bit kim loi mu chim s lng ln trong cc nguyn t kim loi. Tuy nhin y ta ch kho st cc kim loi mu thng dng nht : nhm, ng. k m, magi, titan... 7.1.NHM V HP KIM NHM : V phng din sn xut v s dng th nhm v hp kim ca n chim v tr th hai sau thp. Vt liu ny c cc tnh cht rt ph hp vi nhi u cng d ng khc nhau, trong mt s trng hp em li hiu qu kinh t ln v khng th thay th c. 7.1.1.Khi nim v phn loi : 1-Nhm nguyn cht : Nhm l nguyn t c mng tinh th lp phng tm mt, c mu sng bc. Nhm c cc c im sau : *Khi lng ring nh (2,7 g/cm3) : ch bng khong 1/3 thp. Do vy lm gim khi lng kt cu, chi tit, c s dng rng ri trong hng khng, vn ti... *C tnh chng n mn nht nh trong kh quyn : do lun c l p mng xyt (Al2O3) st cht trn b mt c tnh bo v cao. *C tnh dn in cao : tnh dn in km hn vng, bc, ng. dn in bng 62% Cu nhng khi lng ring cha dn 1/3 ng th khi trong cng iu kin lm vic dy nhm nh bng mt na dy ng v b nung nng t hn. *Tnh do rt cao : rt d bin dng do khi ko si, dy, dt thnh tm, bng, l, mng, p thnh cc thanh di c bin dng phc tp. *Nhit nng chy thp (657OC). * bn cng thp. Cc loi nhm nguyn cht c k hiu theo TCVN nh sau : ng u l k hiu ho hc ca nhm, tip sau l s ch hm lng nhm. V d : Al 99,999 cha 99,999%Al Al 99,98 cha 99,98%Al.

CHNG 3 :

NHIT LUYN THP

71

Trong chng ny chng ta s nghin cu s thay i t chc v c tnh ca thp khi nung nng v lm ngui tip theo, chinh l qu trnh nhit luyn. Thp l vt liu thng dng nht v cng c nhit luyn nhiu nht. Cng ngh nhit luyn rt ph bin trong ngnh c kh. Trong chng ny chng ta ch nghin cu cc ph ng php nhi t luyn th tch. 3.1.KHI NIM V NHIT LUYN THP : 3.1.1.Khi nim v nhit luyn : 1-nh ngha : Nhit luyn l tp hp cc thao tc gm c nung nng kim loi hay hp kim n n nhit xc nh, gi ti mt thi gian thch hp (gi nhit) ri lm ngu i vi tc nht nh lm thay i t chc do nhn c c tnh v cc tnh cht khc theo mun. c im ca nhit luyn : -Khng nung nng n chy lng hay chy lng b phn, trong qu trnh nhi t luyn kim loi vn trng thi rn. -Trong qu trnh nhit luyn hnh dng v kch thc chi tit khng thay i (chnh xc l c thay i nhng khng ng k). -Nhit luyn ch lm thay i t chc t vi bn trong, do dn n thay i c tnh cho chi tit. 2-Cc thng s c trng cho nhit luyn : Bt k mt qa trnh nhit luyn no cng c c trng bi cc thng s sau y a-Nhit nung nng (t o ) : l nhit cao nht m qu trnh nhit luyn phi t n o ti, tnh bng C. b-Thi gian gi nhit ( gn ) : l thi gian duy tr chi tit ti nhit nung nng. c-Tc ngui (Vngui) : l tc gim nhit theo thi gian sau khi gi nhit. Ngoi ba thng s trn tc nung nng cng c nh hng n kt qu nhit luyn nhng khng ng k nn ta b qua n. Kt qu ca mt qu trnh nhi t luy n c nh gi bng cc ch tiu sau : - cng : l yu cu quan trng nht v d dng xc nh c, n lin quan n cc ch tiu khc nh bn, do, dai...Chi tit khi nhit luyn u c yu cu t gi tr nht nh v cng v phi c kim tra theo t l quy nh. -T chc t vi : cu to pha, kch thc ht, chiu su lp ha bn ...Ch tiu ny thng c kim tra theo tng m nhit luyn. - bin dng, cong vnh : ni chung bin dng, cong vnh khi nhit luyn thng rt nh v nm trong gii hn cho php. Tuy nhin trong mt s tr ng hp yu cu rt kht khe, cn phi kim tra chng. 3-S lc v nhit luyn thp : Trong thc t c nhng phng php nhit luyn ch yu sau y : a- : l phng php nung nng n nhit xc nh, gi nhit v lm ngu i chm nhn c t chc gn vi trng thi cn bng c cng, bn thp nht, do cao nht.

72

b-Thng ha : l phng php nung nng n t chc hon ton austenit, gi nhit v lm ngui ngoi khng kh tnh nhn c t chc gn vi tr ng thi cn bng. c-Ti : l phng php nung nng n cao hn nhit ti hn, lm xut hi n t chc austenit gi nhit v lm ngui nhanh nhn c t chc khng cn bng c cng cao nht. d-Ram : l phng php nung nng thp ti n thp hn nhit ti hn, gi nhit v lm ngui iu chnh cc ch tiu c tnh ( bn, cng...) t yu cu lm vic. e-Ha nhit luyn : l phng php bo ha vo b mt chi tit cc nguyn t cho nhit xc nh lm bin i thnh phn ha hoc, tc chc v c tnh. f-C nhit luyn : l phng php kt hp qu trnh ha bn bng nhit luy n v bin dng do ng thi trong mt nguyn cng. Do nhn c ha b mnh hn rt nhiu khi nhit luyn n thun. 4-Phn loi nhit luyn thp : Ngi ta phn cc phng php nhit luyn ch yu ca thp ra lm hai nhm ln : nhit luyn s b v nhit luyn kt thc. a-Nhit luyn s b : l cc phng php nhit luyn tin hnh trc khi gia cng c kh, khi chi tit l bn thnh phm. Thuc nhm ny c v thng ha. b-Nhit luyn kt thc : l cc phng php nhit luyn c thc hin sau khi gia cng c kh, khi chi tit l thnh phm. Sau khi nhit luyn xong khng cn gia cng c kh tip theo na. (nu c ch l mi tinh). Thuc nhm ny c : ti v ram. i vi thp cc bon thp th v thng ha l nhit luyn kt thc. 3.1.2.Tc dng ca nhit luyn i vi nghnh c kh : Nhit luyn l nguyn cng quan trng v khng th thiu c trong sn xut c kh do n c tc dng ch yu sau y. 1-Tng cng, tnh chng mi mn v bn ca thp : Mc tiu ca ngnh c kh l sn xut ra cc c cu v my mc bn h n cng sut ln hn v c nhiu tnh nng tt hn. Do khi nhi t luy n thch h p nng cao cng, bn v tnh chng mi mn s ko di tui th, tng sc chu ti, gi m kch thc cho chi tit v kt cu my. y l tc dng ch yu nht v quan tr ng nht c a nhit luyn, n mc c lc phi a vo ch tiu nh gi trnh ca ngnh c kh. Cht lng ca my mc, thit b oh thuc rt nhiu vo phng php s dng vt liu v nhit luyn chng. 2-Ci thin tnh cng ngh : to thnh chi tit my, phi thp phi qua cc dng gia cng nh : rn, d p cn...Sau cc dng gia cng ny thp thng b bin cng kh gia cng c kh hay bi n dng do tip theo lm gim nng sut. V vy phi tin hnh nhit luy n thch hp lm gim cng, tng do dai gip cho cc qu trnh gia cng tip theo d dng hn nng sut cao hn. V d : sau khi rn, dp phi thp b cng khng th ct gt c. Ta ph i ti n hnh hay thng ha gim cng, tng do. Do cc qu trnh gia cng ti p sau d dng hn.

73

3.2.CC T CHC T CKHI NUNG NNG V LM NGUI THP Khi tin hnh nhit luyn ta phi nung nng v lm ngui thp c thnh phn ha hc xc nh. Trong phn ny ta s kho st xem sau khi nung nng ln cc nhi t khc nhau s xy ra cc chuyn bin pha no v lm ngui tip theo vi tc khc nhau t chc mi nhn c s bin thnh t chc g t s bit c s thay i c tnh tng ng. Ta s xem xt tng qu trnh mt v kho st cho loi thp n gi n nh t l thp cc bon cng tch, vha 0,80%C. 3.2.1.Cc chuyn bin xy ra khi nung nng thp : 1-C s xc nh chuyn bin khi nung nng : C s xc nh chuyn bin xy ra khi nung nng l gin pha Fe - C. Ty theo thnh phn cc bon v nhit nung nng, trong thp s xy ra cc chuyn bin khc nhau. Trong tt c cc loi thp nhit thng u c t chc pc lt. Thp tr v sau cng tch th ngoi pc lit ra cn c phe rit v xmentit th hai. a-Thp cng tch : -Khi nung nng thp hn Ac1 (< 727oC) trong thp cha c chyn bin g. -Khi nhit nung nng t n Ac1 (> 727oC) s c chuyn bin ca t chc pc lit thnh austenit theo phn ng sau : [Fe + Fe3C]0,80%C Fe (C)0,80%C Khi nung nng cao hn Ac1 mt it ta c t chc austenit ng nht. b-Thp trc cng tch : -Khi nung nng n Ac1 s c chuyn bin pc lit thnh austenit ging nh trn. -Khi nung t nhit Ac1 n Ac3 s c qu trnh ha tan ca phe rt vo austenit. -Khi nung cao hn Ac3 ta c t chc austenit ng nht. c-Thp sau cng tch : -Khi nung nng n Ac 1 c chuyn bin pc lt thnh austenit. -Khi nung t nhit Ac1 n Accm s c qa trnh ha tan ca xmentit hai vo austenit. -Nhit nung cao hn Accm ta c t chc austenit ng nht. T ta thy rng khi nung nng cao hn ng GSE ca gin pha Fe -C trong cc thp u nhn c dung dch rn austenit, tuy nhin thnh phn cc bon c a n ph thuc vo thnh phn cc bon ca thp. 2.c im ca chuyn bin pc lit thnh austenit : a-Nhit chuyn bin : Trn gin pha Fe - C nhit chuyn bin pc lit thnh austenit l 727 oC, iu ny ch ng khi nung nng v cng chm. Trong thc t khi nhit luyn tc nung nng tng i ln, do nhit chuyn bin s lun cao hn 727 oC. Tc nung cng cao th nhit chuyn bin s cng cao. Kho st gin chuyn bin ng nhit pc lit thnh austenit ca thp cng tch ta thy khi nhit nung cng cao thi gian ca chuyn bin cng ngn. Trong thc t nhit luyn thp ta thng dng cch nung nng lin tc, khi nung vi tc V1 nhit bt u chuyn bin l a1 v kt thc chuyn bin l b1. Nu nung nng vi tc V2 > V1 th nhit c bt u v kt thc chun bin s l a 2 v b2, cc nhit ny cao hn a, b1, thi gian chuyn bin cng ngn i. Trong thc t hon

74

thnh chuyn bin khi theo quy nh ta phi nung nng cao hn nhit ti hn tng ng t 20-30oC, c khi hng trm C. Kt lun : Tc nung nng cng cao chuyn bin pc lit thnh austenit xy ra nhit cng cao v trong thi gian cng ngn. b-Kch thc ht austenit : Trong thc t khng s dng thp trng thi t chc austenit, nhng kch thc ca n quyt nh rt ln kch thc ht thp nhit thng. Chuyn bin peclit thnh austenit l mt qu trnh kt tinh v khu ch tn. Mm austenit c to ra gia bin gii ht phe rit v xmentit ca t chc peclit. Bin gii ht ca hai pha ny rt ln nn s mm kt tinh sinh ra rt nhi u. V vy h t austenit m i sinh bao gi cng rt nh mn. Do chuyn bin peclit thnh austenit bao gi cng lm nh ht thp. Ht austenit s cng nh mn nu kch thc ca pha xmentit cng cng nh v tc nung cng ln. Sau khi to thnh xong s c qu trnh khuch tn ca nguyn t cc bon t ni giu (v tr xmentit0 sang ni ngho (v tr phe rit) lm ng u thnh phn austenit. Nh vy ta thy rng ht austenit mi sinh ra rt nh mn nhng nu tip tc nung nng hay gi nhit chng s ln ln ngay. Ty theo c tnh pht trin ca ht austenit khi nung nng, thp c chia ra lm hai loi : thp bn cht (cn gi l di truyn) ht nh v bn cht ht ln. Thp bn cht ht ln l loi thp c ht austenit pht trin nhanh v u n mi nhit , tc l sau khi hnh thnh xong nu tip tc nung nng ht s pht tri n ln ngay. Do vy lm cho khi lm ngui ht thp to v c tnh gin cao. Thp bn cht ht nh c ht austenit lc ban u pht trin chm, ch khi vt qu 930 - 950oC s pht trin nhanh chng v c th ln hn c thp bn cht ht ln. Do vy trong cc dng nhit luyn thng dng ( nhit < 930-950oC) vi thp bn cht ht nh khng s ht ln khi nung nng. Thp bn cht ht nh c kh xy trit bng nhm v hp kim ha bng cc nguyn t to cc bt mnh : Ti, V, Zr, Nb, W ...s t o ra Al2O3, AlN, cc ccbt hp kim kh tan, nh mn, chung s nm bin gii ht cn tr s st nhp ca ht austenit vi nhau thnh ht ln hn. 3.2.2.Chuyn bin xy ra khi gi nhit : Khi gi nhit khng c chuyn bin no khc vi khi nung nng. Tin hnh gi nhit nhm cc mc ch sau : -Lm ng u nhit trn ton tit din, cho li cng c chuyn bin nh b mt. -C thi gian hon thnh cc chuyn bin khi nung nng. -Lm ng u thnh phn ha hc (cc bon v hp kim) ca austenit. Thi gian gi nhit ch nn va khng nn ko di qu mc lm cho ht ln. 3.2.3.Chuyn binca austenit khi lm ngui chm : Sau khi nhn c austenit c ht nh mn theo yu cu, ta s xem xt chuy n bin ca chng khi lm ngui. Qu trnh ny cphn ra hai nhm l n : lm ngu i ng nhit v lm ngui lin tc. n gin ta nghin cu chuyn bin ng nhit trong thp cc bon cng tch sau suy rng ra cho cc thp khc. 1-Gin chuyn bin ng nhit ca austenit qu ngui ca thp cng tch :

75

T gin pha Fe - C ta bit rng khi lm ngui austenit s chuyn bin thnh peclit ti nhit 727oC, vi iu kin lm ngui rt chm khng c trong thc t. Do vy ta dng phng php lm ngui ng nhit nh sau : lm ngu i nhanh austenit xung di nhit Ar1 mt khong nh, sau gi ng nhit ti nhit ny v o thi gian bt u v kt thc chuyn bin ca austenit. a-Gin chuyn bin ng nhit ca thp cng tch : Gin chuyn bin ng nhit ca austenit qu ngui cn gi l gi n T-T-T (transformation - temperature - time). Ta tin hnh o nh trn cho thp cng tch ti cc nhit chuyn bin khc nhau, ghi li thi gian bt u v kt thc chuyn bin tng nhit mt. Cui cng em biu din ln h trc nhit v thi gian ta s c gi n chuyn bin ng nhit austenit qu ngui ca thp cng tch. Gin ny c dng hai ng ch "C", ng th nht biu th s bt u, ng th hai bi u th s k t thc ca chuyn bin austenit thnh peclit (cn gi l gin ch C). Gin ny do hai nh vt liu hc ngi M l E.C.Bain v A.I.Davenpo xy dng nm 1930. b-Cc sn phm ca s phn ha ng nhit ca austenit qa ngui : T gin ch "C" ta thy rng austenit khi b lm ngu i xung di 727 oC n cha chuyn bin ngay m cn tn ti mt thi gian nht nh trc khi chuy n bi n, phn ha v c gi l austenit qu ngui. Austenit qu ngui khng n nh, r d dng b phn ha. Trn gin ch "C" phn chia ra cc khu vc sau : - trn 727oC l khu vc tn ti ca austenit n nh. -Bn tri ng cong ch "C" th nht l austenit qu ngui. -Khong gia hai ng ch "C" l austenit chuyn bin. -Bn phi ng cong ch "C" th hai l cc sn phm phn ha ng nhit ca austenit qu ngui (hn hp phe rit v xmentit vi nh mn khc nhau). -Di ng M l mctenxt v austenit d. Cc sn phm phn ha ng nhit : *Khi cho phn ha st A1 (trn di 700oC), vi qu ngui nh Tkhong 25oC. Hn hp phe rit - xmentit tm to thnh vi kch thc th to, khong cch gia cc tm khong 10-3mm, cng 10-15HRC gi l pc lit tm. *Khi cho austenit phn ha nhit thp hn (khong 650oC, vi qa ngui T xp x 75oC), hn hp phe rit - xmentit tm to thnh nh mn hn, khong cch gia cc tm c 0,25 0.30 m, khng phn bit c chng trn knh hin vi quang hc. T chc ny c cng 25 - 35HRC, gi l xoocbit ti. *Khi cho austenit phn ha nhit thp hn na (khong 500 - 600 oC, ng vi mi ca ng cong ch "C", hn hp phe rit - xmentit tm to thnh s nh mn hn na, khng phn bit c trn knh hin vi quang hc, khong cch gia cc tm khong 0,10 - 0,15 m, c cng cao hn c 40HRC gi l tr xtit ti. *Khi cho austenit phn ha nhit thp hn na, tc l thu c v na di c a ng cong ch "C" (khong 450 - 250oC), hn hp phe rit - xmentit tm nhn c rt nh mn, c cng cao c 50 - 55HRC gi l bainit. Tuy nhin t chc bainit c khc vi ba t chc trn : -Lng cc bon ln hn gii hn bo ha mt t khong 0,10%C. -Cc bit st y khng c cng thc chnh xc l Fe3C m l Fe2,4 - 3C

76

-Ngoi hai pha trn cn mt t austenit d v c ng sut bn trong. Sau khi lm ngui ng nhit t chc nhn c ng nht trn ton b tit di n. Nh vy cc t chc pcec lit tm, xocbit, trxtit (c bai nit na) l h n h p c h c c a phe rit v xmentt tm vi kch thc tm cng ngy cng nh mn h n v c ng cng cao hn. 2-S phn ha ca austenit khi lm ngui lin tc : Trong thc t khi nhit luyn thp thng dng phng php lm ngui lin tc, cc sn phm nhnc cng tng t trng hp ng nhit nhng c nhng c im khc hn. a-Vi cc tc ngui khc nhau, austenit s b qu ngui n cc nhit khc nhau v phn ha thnh cc sn phm tng ng vi cc nhit . -Lm ngui chm cng l (V1), vec t ngui ct ng cong ch "C" st A1 sn phm phn ha l peclit tm vi cng thp nht. -Lm ngui trong khng kh tnh (V2) austenit phn ha thnh xoocbit. -Lm ngui trong khng kh nn (V3), vc t ngui ct ch "C" ti phn li, austenit phn ha thnh trxtit. -Lm ngui trong du (V4) vc t ngui ch ct ng cong ch "C" th nht ti phn li, austenit ch c mt phn chuyn bin thnh trxtit phn cn li thnh mctenxit nn sn phm l trxtit - mctenxit. -Lm ngui nhanh hn na (trong nc lnh, ng vi V 5), vc t ngui khng ct ng cong ch "C" no c, phn ln austenit qu ngui chuyn bin thnh mactenxit. Khng c hcn hp phe rit - xmentit. b-T chc nhn c thng khng ng nht trn ton tit din, nht l trng hp tit din ln v b mt ngui nhanh hn li. c-Khng nhn c hon ton t chc bainit. Trong mt s trng hp thy t chc bainit hnh thnh cng trxtit v mactenxit. 3-Gin ch "C" ca cc thp khc cng tch : Vi cc thp trc cng tch v sau cng tch cng c dng ng cong ch "C" tng t thp cngtch ch khc l c thm cc nhnh ph. a-Thp trc cng tch : C thm nhnh ph tit ra phe rit trc trong khong nhit Ar 3 n Ar1 sau mi phn ha thnh hn hp phe rit - xmentit. b-Thp sau cng tch : C thm nhnh ph tit ra xmentit hai trc trong khong t Ar cm n Ar1, sau mi phn ha thnh hn hp phe rit - xmentit. Tuy nhin vi cc thp ny nu lm ngui ng nhit vi qu ngui ln hay tc ngui nhanh th austenit qu nguica chng s phn ha ngay thnh peclit, xoocbit trxtit v bainit nhng lng cc bon khng ng l 0,80%C. Cc sn phm gi l cng tch gi. 3.2.4.Chuyn bin austenit khi lm ngui nhanh (chuyn bin mactenxit) : Khi lm ngui nhanh austenit sao cho vc t biu di n tc ngu i c a n khng ct ng cong ch "C" ch c chuyn bin a hnh t Fe sang Fe m khng c s khuch tn ca cc bon. l chuyn bin austenit thnh mctenxit. Chuyn bin ny xy

77

ra nhit thp, khong t 250oC tr xung. Tc ngui nh nht chuyn bin ny xy ra l tc ng vi vc t tip xc vi ng cong ch "C" th nht ti mi ca n. Tc ngui ny c gi l tc ti ti hn V th (cn gi l tc ngui ti hn). Nh vy khi lm ngui austenit vi tc ngui ln hn tc ti h n s nhn c mactenxit ch khng phi hn hp phe rit - xmen tit. 1-Bn cht v cu trc ca mactenxit : a-nh ngha : Mctenxit l dung dch rn xen k qu bo ha ca cc bon trong Fe c c nng cc bon bng nng ca austenit ban u. Khi lm ngui rt nhanh cc bon trong austenit khng kp khuch tn to thnh xmentit. Lc t nhit tng i thp ch c s chuyn mng t Fe sang Fe. Lng cc bon trong hai t chc ny bng nhau. Fe (C) Fe(C) b-Cu trc ca mactenxit : -Mctenxit c kiu mng chnh phng tm khi vi hai thng s mng l a v c. T s c/a gi l chnh phng. Thng thng t s c/a = 1,001 - 1,06. -Mctenxit c dng hnh kim, mt u nhn, cc kim ny to vi nhau gc 120 o hay 60o. -Cc nguyn t cc bon chui vo cc l hng trong mng ca Fe c-Tnh cht mctenxit : -Do hm lng cc bon qu bo ha nn gy ra x l ch mng l n, do v y c c ng cao v tnh chng mi mn ln. Hm lng cc bon cng ln cng cng cao. -Mactenxit c tnh gin cao ph thuc vo kch thc ht ca n v ng sut bn trong. Ht cng nh, ng sut cng thp tnh gin cng thp. 2-c im ca chuyn bin mactenxit : a-Ch xy ra khi lm ngui nhanh v lin tc austenit vi tc ln hn hay bng tc ngui ti hn. Chuyn bin mctenxit khng xy ra khi lm ngui ng nhit. b-L chuyn bin khng khuch tn : Nguyn t cc bon vn gi nguyn v tr, ch c nguyn t st chuyn dch to ra kiu mng chnh phng tm khi, khong cch dch chuyn khng qu mt thng s mng. Gia hai kiu mng ca austenit v mctenxit c mi quan h nh hng xc nh sao cho cc mt v phng dy c ca chng song song vi nhau. c-L qu trnh to ra khng ngng cc tinh th mi vi tc rt ln (1000 - 7000m/s). d-Chuyn bin ch xy ra trong mt khong nhit nht nh t nhit bt u chuyn bin (M) n nhit kt thc (Mk). V tr hai nhit ny khng ph thuc vo tc ln ngui, ch ph thuc vo thnh phn cc bon v nguyn t hp kim trong thp. e-Chuyn bin xy ra khng hon ton : Khi lm ngui cng gn n i m M k lng mctenxit sinh ra cng nhiu, nhng khng bao gi t c 100% m vn cn mt lng nht nh austenit cha chuyn bin, gi l austenit d. Nguyn nhn ca hin tng ny l do s khc nhau v th tch ring ca chng. Th tch ring VM > V

78