Nit l mt nguyn t ha hc trong bng tun hon cc nguyn t c k hiu N v s nguyn t bng 7.

iu kin bnh thng n l mt cht kh khng mu, khng mi, khng v v kh tr v tn ti di dng phn t N2, cn gi l m kh. Nit chim khong 78% kh quyn Tri t v l thnh phn ca mi c th sng. Nit to ra nhiu hp cht quan trng nh cc axt amin, amnic, axt nitric v cc xyanua. Cc c trng ni bt Nit l mt phi kim, vi m in l 3,0. N c 5 in t trn lp ngoi cng, v th thng th n c ha tr ba trong phn ln cc hp cht. Nit tinh khit l mt cht kh dng phn t khng mu v khng tham gia phn ng ha hc nhit phng. N ha lng nhit 77 K (-196 C) trong iu kin p sut kh quyn v ng bng 63 K (-210 C). Nit lng l cht lm lnh ph bin. ng dng Hp cht nit Phn t nit trong kh quyn l tng i tr, nhng trong t nhin n b chuyn ha rt chm thnh cc hp cht c ch v mt sinh hc v cng nghip nh mt s c th sng, ch yu l cc vi khun (xem Vai tr sinh hc di y). Kh nng kt hp hay c nh nit l c trng quan trng ca cng nghip ha cht hin i, trong nit (cng vi kh thin nhin) c chuyn ha thnh amnic (thng qua phng php Haber). Amnic, trong lt ca mnh, c th c s dng trc tip (ch yu nh l phn bn), hay lm nguyn liu cho nhiu ha cht quan trng khc, bao gm thuc n, ch yu thng qua vic sn xut axt nitric theo phng php Ostwald. Cc mui ca axt nitric bao gm nhiu hp cht quan trng nh xanpet (hay dim tiu- trong lch s nhn loi n l quan trng do c s dng lm thuc sng) v nitrat amni, mt phn bn ha hc quan trng. Cc hp cht nitrat hu c khc, chng hn trinitrglyxrin v trinitrotoluen (tc TNT), c s dng lm thuc n. Axt nitric c s dng lm cht xi ha trong cc tn la dng nhin liu lng. Hirazin v cc dn xut ca n c s dng lm nhin liu cho cc tn la. Nit phn t (kh v lng) Nit dng kh c sn xut nhanh chng bng cch cho nit lng (xem di y) m ln v bay hi. N c nhiu ng dng, bao gm c vic phc v nh l s thay th tr hn cho khng kh khi m s xi ha l khng mong mun; bo qun tnh ti ca thc phm ng gi hay dng ri (bng vic lm chm s i thiu v cc dng tn tht khc gy ra bi s xi ha) trn nh ca cht n lng m bo an ton

N cng c s dng trong: sn xut cc linh kin in t nh tranzito, it, v mch tch hp (IC). sn xut thp khng g bm lp t v my bay[1] do tnh tr v s thiu cc tnh cht m, xi ha ca n, ngc li vi khng kh (mc d iu ny l khng quan trng v cn thit i vi t thng thng [2]) Ngc li vi mt s kin, nit thm thu qua lp cao su khng chm hn khng kh. Khng kh l hn hp ch yu cha nit v xy (trong dng N2 v O2), v cc phn t nit l nh hn. Trong cc iu kin tng ng th cc phn t nh hn s thm thu qua cc vt liu xp nhanh hn. Mt v d khc v tnh a dng ca n l vic s dng n (nh l mt cht thay th c a chung cho ixt cacbon) to p lc cho cc thng cha mt s loi bia, c th l bia en c cn cao v bia ale ca Anh v Scotland, do n to ra t bt hn, iu ny lm cho bia nhuyn v nng hn. Mt v d khc v vic np kh nit cho bia dng lon hay chai l bia ti Guinness. Nit ha lng. Nit lng c sn xut theo quy m cng nghip vi mt lng ln bng cch chng ct phn on khng kh lng v n thng c ni n theo cng thc gi LN2. N l mt tc nhn lm lnh (cc lnh), c th lm cng ngay lp tc cc m sng khi tip xc vi n. Khi c cch ly thch hp khi nhit ca mi trng xung quanh th n phc v nh l cht c c v ngun vn chuyn ca nit dng kh m khng cn nn. Ngoi ra, kh nng ca n trong vic duy tr nhit mt cch siu phm, do n bay hi 77 K (-196C hay -320F) lm cho n cc k hu ch trong nhiu ng dng khc nhau, chng hn trong vai tr ca mt cht lm lnh chu trnh m, bao gm: lm lnh vn chuyn thc phm bo qun cc b phn thn th cng nh cc t bo tinh trng v trng, cc mu v ch phm sinh hc. trong nghin cu cc tc nhn lm lnh minh ha trong gio dc trong da liu hc loi b cc tn thng da c tnh xu x hay tim nng gy ung th, v d cc mn cc, cc vt chai sn trn da v.v. Nit lng c th s dng nh l ngun lm mt tng tc CPU, GPU, hay cc dng phn cng khc. Lch s

Nit (ting Latinh: nitrum, ting Hy Lp: Nitron c ngha l "sinh ra sa", "ngun gc", "to thnh") v hnh thc c coi l c Daniel Rutherford pht hin nm 1772, ng gi n l khng kh c hi hay khng kh c nh. C iu ny l do mt phn ca khng kh khng h tr s chy c cc nh ha hc bit n vo cui th k 18. Nit cng c Carl Wilhelm Scheele, Henry Cavendish v Joseph Priestley nghin cu vo cng khong thi gian , l nhng ngi ni n n nh l khng kh chy hay khng kh phlogiston. Kh nit l tr n mc Antoine Lavoisier coi n nh l azote vo nm 1789, c ngha l khng c s sng; thut ng ny tr thnh tn gi trong ting Php ch "nit" v sau lan rng sang nhiu th ting khc. Nm 1790, Jean Antoine Chaptal t ra tn gi nitrogen ch nit. Cc hp cht ca nit c bit ti t thi Trung c. Cc nh gi kim thut bit axt nitric (HNO3) nh l aqua fortis (tc nc khc ng). Hn hp ca axt nitric v axt clohirc (HCl) c bit n di tn gi aqua regia (tc nc cng toan), do n c kh nng ha tan c vng. Cc ng dng sm nht trong cng nghip v nng nghip ca cc hp cht nit s dng n trong dng xanpet (c th l nitrat natri (NaNO3) hay nitrat kali (KNO3)), ch yu lm thuc sng v sau l lm phn bn, v mun hn na l lm ha cht b sung S ph bin Nit l thnh phn ln nht ca kh quyn Tri t (78,084% theo th tch hay 75,5% theo trng lng). Henry Cavendish l ngi xc nh tng i chnh xc thnh phn "kh chy" (xy, khong 21%) ca khng kh vo cui th k 18. Hn mt th k sau, ngi ta xc nh phn cn li ("khng chy") ca khng kh ch yu l nit[1]. Nit c sn xut cho cc mc ch cng nghip nh chng ct phn on khng kh lng hay bng cc bin php c hc khc i vi khng kh dng kh (mng thm thu nghch p sut hay PSA (vit tt ca t ting Anh: Pressure Swing Adsorption). Cc hp cht cha nit cng c quan st l c trong v tr. Nit N14 c to ra nh l mt phn ca phn ng tng hp ht nhn trong cc ngi sao. Nit l thnh phn ln ca cc cht thi ng vt (v d phn), thng thng trong dng ur, axt uric, v cc hp cht ca cc sn phm cha nit ny. Nit dng phn t c bit l c trong kh quyn ca Titan, v cng c David Knauth v cc cng s pht hin l tn ti trong khng gian lin sao nh s dng FUSE. Cc hp cht

Hirua chnh ca nit l amnic (NH3) mc d hirazin (N2H4) cng c bit n rt nhiu. Amnic l mt cht c tnh baz nhiu hn nc, v trong dung dch th n to ra cc cation amni (NH4+). Amnic lng trn thc t l mt cht c tnh to cc ion kp (amni v amit (NH2-); c hai loi mui amit v nitrua (N3-) u c bit n, nhng u b phn hy trong nc. Cc hp cht ca amnic b thay th n v kp c gi l cc amin. Cc chui ln, vng v cu trc khc ca hirua nit cng c bit n nhng trn thc t khng n nh. Cc lp anion khc ca nit l azua (N3-), chng l tuyn tnh v ng electron vi ixt cacbon. Cc phn t khc c cu trc tng t l init mnxt (N2O), hay kh gy ci. y l mt trong cc dng xt ca nit, ni bt nht trong s cc xt l nit mnxt (NO) v nit ixt (NO2), c hai xt ny u cha cc in t khng bt cp. xt sau th hin mt s xu hng vi s nh trng ha v l thnh phn chnh trong cc loi khi. Cc xt tiu chun hn l init trixt (N2O3) v init pentxt (N2O5), trn thc t l tng i khng n nh v l cc cht n. Cc axt tng ng l axt nitr (HNO2) v axt nitric (HNO3), vi cc mui tng ng c gi l nitrit v nitrat. Axt nitric l mt trong t cc axt mnh hn hirni. Vai tr sinh hc Nit l thnh phn quan trng ca cc axt amin v axt nucleic, iu ny lm cho nit tr thnh thit yu i vi s sng. Cc cy h u nh u tng, c th hp th nit trc tip t khng kh do r ca chng c cc nt sn cha cc vi khun c nh m chuyn ha nit thnh amnic. Cc cy h u sau s chuyn ha amnic thnh cc ion xt nit v cc axt amin to ra cc protein. ng v C hai ng v n nh ca nit l: 14N v 15N . Ph bin nht l 14N (99,634%), l ng v to ra trong chu trnh CNO trong cc ngi sao. Phn cn li l 15N . Trong s 10 ng v tng hp nhn to th 1 c chu k bn r l 9 pht cn cc ng v cn li c chu k bn r mc 1 giy hay nh hn. Cc phn ng trung gian sinh hc (v d: ng ha, nitrat ha v kh nitrat) kim sot cht ch cn bng ng ca nit trong t. Cc phn ng ny gn nh l to ra s lm giu 15N trong cht nn v lm suy kit sn phm. Mc d nc ma cha cc lng tng ng amnium v nitrat, nhng do amnium l tng i kh chuyn ha/hp th hn so vi nitrat kh quyn nn phn ln nit trong kh quyn ch c th i vo trong t di dng nitrat. Nitrat trong t c cc loi r cy hp th tt hn so vi khi nit di dng amnium. Phng nga

Cc cht phn bn cha nitrat b ra tri l ngun nhim chnh nc ngm v cc con sng. Cc hp cht cha xyanua (-CN) to ra cc mui cc c hi v gy ra ci cht ca nhiu ng vt. Axt nitric Axit nitric Thng tin chung Danh php IUPACAxt nitric Tn khc Aqua fortis Spirit of nitre Salpetre acid cng thc phn t HNO3 Acidic Ion Concentration pH = -2 (1 N) Phn t gam63.01 g/mol Biu hin Cht lng trong, khng mu S CAS7697-37-2 c tnh T trng v phase1.51 g/cm ha tan trong ncmiscible im nng chy-42 C (231 K) im si83 C (356 K) axt (pKa)-2 nht ? cP at ? C Axt nitric l mt hp cht ha hc c cng thc ha hc (HNO3), l mt dung dch nitrat hir (axt nitric khan). Trong t nhin, axt nitric hinh thnh trong nhng cn ma ging km sm chp v hin nay chng l mt trong nhng tc nhn gy ra ma axt. N l mt cht axt c v n mn c th d gy chy. Axit nitric tinh khit khng mu sc cn nu lu s c mu hi vng do s tch t ca cc xt nit. Nu mt dung dch c hn 86% axt nitric, n c gi l axt nitric bc khi. Axt nitric bc khi c c trng axt nitric bc khi trng v axt nitric bc khi , ty thuc vo s lng ixt nit hin din. Lch s S tng hp axt nitric c ghi nhn ln u vo khong nm 800 AD bi mt nh gi kim ngi Rp tn l Jabir ibn Hayyan. [1] L tnh Axt nitric khan tinh khit (100%) l mt cht lng vi t trng khong 1522 kg/m3 ng c nhit -42 C to thnh cc tinh th trng, si nhit

83 C. Khi si trong nh sng, k c ti nhit trong phng, s xy ra mt s phn hy mt phn vi s to ra nit ixt theo phn ng sau: 4HNO3 2H2O + 4NO2 + O2 (72 C) iu ny c ngha axt nitric khan nn c ct cha nhit di 0 C trnh b phn hy. Cht nit ixt (NO2) vn ha tan trong axt nitric to cho n c mu vng, hoc nhit cao hn. Trong khi axt tinh khit c xu hng bc khi trng khi ra khng kh, axt vi ixt nit bc khi hi c mu nu hi cho nn mi c tn axt bc khi trng v axt bc khi nh nu trn. [cn dn ngun] Axt nitric c th pha trn vi nc vi bt k t l no v khi chng ct to ra mt azeotrope mt nng 68% HNO3 v c nhit si 120,5 C ti p sut 1 atm. C hai cht hydrat c bit n; monohydrat (HNO3H2O) v trihydrat (HNO33H2O). xt nit (NOx) tan c trong axt nitric v c im ny nh hng t nhiu n tt c cc c trng l tnh ph thuc vo nng ca cc xt ny, ch yu bao gm p sut hi trn cht lng v nhit si cng nh mu sc c cp trn. Axt nitric b phn hy khi c nhit cao hoc nh sng vi nng tng ln m iu ny c th lm tng ln s bin i tng i p sut hi trn b mt cht lng do cc xt nit to ra mt phn hoc ton b trong axt. Ha tnh Axt nitric l mt monoaxt mnh, mt cht xi ha mnh c th nitrat ha nhiu hp cht v c v l mt axt monoproton v ch c mt s phn ly. Cc tnh cht axt L mt axt in hnh, axt nitric phn ng vi cht kim, xt baz v cacbonat to thnh cc mui, trong s quan trng nht l muis amoni nitrat. Do tnh cht xi ha ca n, axt nitric khng (ngoi tr mt s ngoi l) gii phng hir khi phn ng vi kim loi v to ra cc mui thng c trng thi xi ha cao hn. V l do ny, tnh trng n mn nng c th xy ra v cn phi bo v thch hp bng cch s dng cc kim loi hoc hp kim chng n mn khi cha axt ny. Axt nitric l mt axt mnh vi mt hng s cn bng axt (pKa) = 2: trong dung dch nc, n hon ton in ly thnh cc ion nitrat NO3 v mt proton hydrat, hay cn gi l ion hirni, H3O+. HNO3 + H2O H3O+ + NO3Cc c tnh xi ha Phn ng vi kim loi L mt cht xi ha mnh, axt nitric phn ng mnh lit vi nhiu cht hu c v phn ng c th gy n. Ty thuc vo nng axt, nhit v tc nhn gy gim lin quan, sn phm to ra cui cng c th gm nhiu loi.

Phn ng xy ra vi tt c kim loi, ngoi tr dy kim loi qu v mt s hp kim. Trong phn ln cc trng hp, cc phn ng xi ha ch yu vi axt c thng to ra ixt nit (NO2). Cu + 4HNO3 Cu(NO3)2 + 2NO2 + 2H2O Tnh cht axt th hin r i vi axt long, i i vi vic to ra xt nit (NO). 3Cu + 8HNO3 3Cu(NO3)2 + 2NO + 4H2O Do axt nitric l mt cht xi ha, hir (H) thng him khi c to ra. Cho nn khi kim loi phn ng vi axt nitric long v lnh ( gn 0C ) th mi gii phng hir: Mg(rn) + 2HNO3 (lng) Mg(NO3)2 (lng) + H2 (kh) S th ng ha D Crm (Cr), st (Fe) v nhm (Al) d ha tan trong dung dch axt nitric long, nhng i vi axt c ngui li to mt lp xt kim loi bo v chng khi b xi ha thm, hin tng ny g l s th ng ha. Phn ng vi phi kim Khi phn ng vi cc nguyn t kim, ngoi tr silic v halogen, cc nguyn t ny thng b xi ha n trng thi xi ha cao nht v to ra ixt nit i vi axt c v xt nit i vi axt long. C + 4HNO3 CO2 + 4NO2 + 2H2O hoc 3C + 4HNO3 3CO2 + 4NO + 2H2O Tng hp v sn xut axit nitric Axit nitric c to ra bng cch pha trn ixit nit (NO2) vi nc vi s c mt ca xi hay s dng khng kh xi ha axt nitr cng to ra axit nitric. Axit nitric long c th c c n 68% axit vi mt hn hp azeotropic vi 32% nc. Vic c c hn c thc hin bng cch chng ct vi axit sulphuric vi vai tr l cht kh nc. Trong quy m phng th nghim, cch chng ct nh th phi c tin hnh bng dng c thy tinh vi p sut thp trnh phn hy axit ny. Cc mi ni bng thy tinh v nt bn cng nn trnh dng do axit nitric tn cng cc cht ny. Dung dch axit nitric cp thng mi thng c nng gia 52% v 68% axit nitric. Vic sn xut axit nitric c thc hin bng cng ngh Ostwald do Wilhelm Ostwald pht minh. Trong phng th nghim, axit nitric c th iu ch bng cch cho nitrat ng (II) hoc cho phn ng nhng khi lng bng nhau nitrat kali (KNO3) vi axit sulfuric (H2SO4) 96%, v chng ct hn hp ny ti nhit si ca axit nitric l 83 C cho n khi cn li cht kt tinh mu trng, potassium hydrogen sulfate (KHSO4), cn lu li trong bnh. Axit nitric bc khi thu c c th chuyn thnh axit nitric mu trng. Cn lu khi th

nghim th phi dng cc trang thit b bng thy tinh, hay nht l bnh c cong nguyn khi do axit nitric khan tn cng c nt bn, cou v da v s r r c th cc k nguy him. H2SO4 + KNO3 KHSO4 + HNO3 Cht NOx ha tan c loi b bng cch s dng p sut gim ti nhit phng (10-30 pht vi p sut 200 mmHg hay 27 kPa). Axit nitric bc khi trng thu c c t trng 1.51 g/cm. Quy trnh ny cng c thc hin di p sut v nhit gim trong mt bc to ra t kh ixit nit hn. axit ny cng c th c tng hp bng cch xi ha ammoniac, nhng sn phm b pha long bi nc do phn ng to ra. Tuy nhin, phng php tng hp ny quan trng trong vic sn xut nitrat ammoni t amnic theo cng ngh Haber, do sn phm cui cng c th sn xut t nit, hyr v xi l nguyn liu u vo chnh. Axit nitric bc khi trng, cng gi l axit nitric 100% hay WFNA, rt gn ging vi sn phm axit nitric khan. Mt c tnh k thut ca axit nitric bc khi trng l n c ti a 2% nc v ti a 0,5% NO2 ha tan. Axit nitric bc khi hay RFNA, cha mt lng ixit nit (NO2) ng k thot khi dung dch vi mu nu . Mt cng thc ca RFNA th hin t nht 17% NO2, nhm khc l 13% NO2. Trong trng hp, axit nitric b c ch bc khi (hoc IWFNA, hoc IRFNA) c th lm tng khi cho thm thm khong 0,6 n 0,7% hiro florit, HF. Cht florit ny c b sung vo chng n mn trong cc bn cha kim loi (cht florit to ra mt lp florit kim loi bo v kim loi ). S dng Nitric acid trong phng th nghim. Thng c dng lm thuc th trong phng th nghim, axit nitric c s dng sn xut thuc n bao gm nitroglycerin, trinitrotoluen (TNT) v cyclotrimethylenetrinitramin (RDX), cng nh phn bn (nh phn m mt l nitrat amoni). Axit nitric cng c s dng trong phng th nghim trng hc tin hnh cc th nghim lin quan n vic th clorit. Cho axit nitric tc dng vi mu th, sau cho dung dch bc nitrat vo tm kt ta trng ca bc clorua. Trong k thut ICP-MS v ICP-AES, axit nitric (vi nng t 0,5% n 2,0%) c s dng nh mt hp cht nn xc nh du vt kim loi trong cc dung dch. Trong k thut ny cn phi dng axit nitric cc tinh khit v mt s lng ion kim loi nh c th gy nh hng n kt qu phn tch.

Axt ny cn c s dng trong ngnh luyn kim v tinh lc v n phn ng vi phn ln kim loi v trong cc tng hp cht hu c. Khi kt hp vi axt clohyric, n to thnh nc cng toan, mt trong nhng cht phn ng c th ha tan vng v bch kim (platinum). Mt trong nhng ng dng cho IWFNA l mt cht xi ha trong nhin liu lng tn la. Ngoi ra, axit nitric cn c dng lm cht th mu (colorometric test) phn bit heroin v morphine. Nguy him Axt Nitric l mt cht xi ha mnh, v cc phn ng ca axt nitric vi cc hp cht nh cyanit, carbit, v bt kim loi c th gy n. Cc phn ng ca axt nitric vi nhiu hp cht v c nh turpentine, rt mnh lit v t bc chy. Axt c lm cho mu da ngi chuyn qua mu vng do phn ng vi cht protein keratin. Vt mu vng ny s chuyn thnh mu cam khi c trung ha. Amoniac Amoniac Danh php IUPAC Ammonia Cng thc phn t NH3 Phn t gam 17,0304 g/mol Biu hin Cht kh khng mu mi khai Thuc tnh T trng v pha 0,6813 g/l, kh ha tan trong nc 89,9 g/100 ml 0 C im nng chy -77,73 C (195,42 K) im si -33,34 C (239,81 K) Amoniac l mt hp cht v c c cng thc phn t NH3. iu kin tiu chun, n l mt cht kh c, c mi khai, tan nhiu trong nc. Tnh cht ha hc Trn nguyn t nit ca amoniac c cp electron t do nn amoniac c tnh baz v c th xy ra phn ng ha hc: NH3 + H+ NH4+ Trong amoniac, nit c s oxi ha thp nht nn amoniac c tnh kh. V d nh trong phn ng ha hc: 2NH3 + 3Cl2 N2 + 6HCl

Thm na, amoniac tng i km bn bi nhit. N c th b phn hy ti nhit cao theo phn ng ha hc: 2NH3 N2 + 3H2 Cch sn xut Phn ln NH3 (90%) c sn xut theo phng thc Haber-Bosch vi N2 t khng kh, H2 t kh Mtan (CH4) v nc. CH4 + H2O CO + 3H2 N2 + 3H2 2NH3 Phng thc CaCN2 ca Rothe-Frank-Caro CaCN2 + 3H2O CaCO3 + 2NH3 Phng thc Persek t nitrua nhm AlN v nc 2AlN + 3H2O Al2O3 + 2NH3 T NO v H2 2NO + 5H2 2NH3 + 2H2O T NH4Cl NH4Cl + NaOH NH3 + H2O + NaCl ng dng ng dng ch yu ca amoniac l iu ch phn m, iu ch axit nitric, l cht sinh hn, dng lm bnh bao, sn xut hirazin N2H4 dng lm nhin liu cho tn la. Nguy him Nu ht nhiu amoniac s b bng ng h hp (rt c hng). a. Nit a s nit tn ti di dng cha s dng c ngay cho sinh vt. Trong kh quyn, nit ch yu tn ti di dng nit phn t (N2). Trong tri t, a s nit nm bt ng trong v t. Vic cung cp nit v cc chu trnh vt cht trong t nhin ph thuc nhiu vo qu trnh phn hu sinh hc cc hp cht cha nit v phospho trong mi trng. S trao i v phn hu sinh khi khc nhau ng k gia cc ni sng, kch c v hot ng sng ca cc qun x vi sinh vt (VSV) v nm: Trong cc mi trng nng m v c oxy, s phn hu v gii phng cht dinh dng din ra nhanh chng ( vng nhit i, thi gian tn ti ca cacbon trong l cy l 3 thng); rng n i t 4-16 nm; trong khi cc h Bc bn cu c th ti hn 100 nm). S phn hu thng rt hn ch bi lng nit c sn. T l trung bnh ca C:N trong sinh khi VSV xp x 10:1; Thc vt (TV) c t l C:N l 40-80:1 ngha l c s thiu ht nit; ng vt (V) duy tr t l C:N gn bng t l ca VSV phn hu, gy phn hy nhanh. Trong t, t l C:N n nh nht, vo khong 10.

Theo Begon (1990), khi mt cht c hm lng N < 1,2-1,3 % c b sung vo t th bt k ion NH4+ no cng c hp th, khi cc cht c hm lng N > 1,8% c b sung, th cc ion NH4+ c xu hng c gii phng. a. S ph dng Con ngi l ngun gy nn s giu dinh dng cho cc h nc ngt v nc bin ven b. Nit theo nc thi sinh hot, sn xut v hot ng nng nghip x xung cc thy vc khng qua x l l nguyn nhn gy ra s nhim cho cc ngun nc. Cc cht gy nhim hu c b kh dn do hot ng ca VSV, qu trnh ny gy ra s gim oxy di h lu, lm ng cong oxy gim xung. Mc oxy ho ph thuc vo s pha long ca dng thi v thnh phn tnh cht nc thi. Lng cht hu c ny c nh gi qua Nhu cu oxy sinh ha (BOD5) v nhu cu oxy ha hc (COD). Dng thi c BOD5 v COD cao gy ra s thiu ht oxy cho thy vc. Do qu trnh pha long v ho tan oxy, nn h lu lng oxy li tng ln. Nhng thay i v cht lng nc c phn nh qua h cc sinh vt ch th nc: gn im x, sinh vt sinh si mnh, nht l cc loi c kh nng chng chu c vi nng oxy thp. Vi cc mc x ln hay u ngun x c th lm cho ngun nc b ph dng (Eutrophication). Hin trng nhim t nhin ch yu c xc nh bng mu m ca lu vc cha nc. cn nit l yu t hn ch ch yu cc vng nc bin. Nhng cht thi dinh dng giu nit v phospho do con ngi gy ra thng lm ph dng thu vc. Lc u nh hng cn nh, sinh khi tng t. Qu trnh tip tc, dn dn dn n ton b h sinh thi ca h thng b xo trn. Nhng thay i ch yu din ra trong thnh phn cc loi TV ni (phytoplankton), ch yu sinh si cc loi n hoa gm c to lc c. Vi sn lng to tng ln lm cho c tng, xuyn nh sng gim, gy tn tht cho h i TV (Marcrophyte) mc di nc. Cc h TV ny l thc n cho cc h V h, l ni c tr ca c v V khng xng sng. Do tn tht ny, cc loi ng vt khng xng sng b cn kit, thnh phn ca qun x c b thay i. c bit l vo ma xun, khi nhit , nh sng tng ln v nc phn tng, sinh khi to tng nhanh, ri cht gy ra mu nc xanh do s phn hy ca to, to ra mi kh chu v mt s cht c, lm gim hm lng oxy ca nc mt cch nghim trng, thng gy cht c. Do cc loi n hoa thng gy c cho

ngi v V nui nn phi cn thn, khng vt nui vo cc vng ny v c bit lu trong vic cp nc ung, khng nc b nhim bn ca nc h b ph dng. H Lan nm 1987, tng chi ph cho vic x l hin tng ph dng mt ti 760 triu Guider H Lan. Cn Nauy, cc cht c do to to ra gy thit hi hn 10 triu USD cho ngnh cng nghip nui c hi nm 1988. Gn y hin tng ph dng nui trng c coi l vn nan gii trong cc vng nc ni a. Tuy nhin tn sut n hoa to cng tng ln cc vng nc duyn hi cho thy vn ny khng cn l trng hp in hnh. S phong ph v dinh dng do con ngi gy ra l mt yu t gp phn quan trng i vi kh nng xy ra hin tng n hoa ca nc, nhng y khng phi l nguyn nhn duy nht. Hin tng n hoa thng hay xy ra nht ni nc phn tng, ni m s vn chuyn/ xo trn ngang b hn ch, cng bc x cao v thi gian ban ngy di. b. Nitrat v vic cp nc ung Trong nhng thp nin gn y, mc NO3- trong nc ung tng ln ng k. Nguyn nhn l do s s dng phn m v c tng, gy r r NO3xung nc ngm. Hm lng NO3- trong nc ung tng gy ra nguy c v sc kho i vi cng ng. y ban chu u quy nh mc ti a ca NO3- trong nc ung l 50 mg/l, M l 45 mg/l, T chc sc kho th gii (WHO): 100 mg/l. Bn thn NO3- khng gy ri ro cho sc khe, tuy nhin NO3- gim thnh NO2- do men kh nitrat v gy c. NO2- nh hng n sc kho vi 2 kh nng sau: chng mu Methaemoglobin v ung th tim tng. * Chng mu Methaemo- globinaemia (hi chng xanh xao tr em) Tr nh khong 1 tui d mn cm vi s tn lu huyt cu t bo thai v do trong d dy khng c chua hn ch s chuyn ho NO3- thnh NO2-. NO2- hnh thnh d dy, truyn qua ng mu, phn ng vi huyt sc t mang O2, oxy ho st to thnh huyt Methaemoglobin lm gim kh nng mang oxy ca mu, c kh nng gy t vong do ngt ngt ha cht. Rt may l cc ca t vong rt him. a s cc trng hp trn th gii lin quan n vic s dng nc ging khi do nc ging b nhim bn bi cc cht bi tit ca ngi v ng vt. Mc an ton v NO3- cho nc ung l 100 mg/l. nhng quc gia c NO3- cao phi cp nc chai c

nng NO3- thp cho cc b m ang cho con b v cho tr em c nui bng sa bnh. * Ung th tim tng iu kin pH axit ca d dy, NO2- chuyn ha thnh axit nitr (HNO2). Axit l mt tc nhn nitro ha mnh, phn ng vi cc thnh phn thc phm k c cc axit amin v hn hp st, gy tch lu ln O2 c bp. Nhiu th nghim trn hng lot V (nh chut cng) chng minh rng: nui bng thc n c cha hm lng mui NO3- cao gy ra ung th. Rau l ngun thc n cha NO3- ch yu. V d rau dip, cn ty: 100 mg/kg; u H Lan, hnh, khoai ty: ~200mg/kg cc mc NO3- thay i theo ma v iu kin trng trt. NO3- cn c mt trong tht. Thng trong qu trnh p tht, ngi ta hay tm tht sng vi mui c cha NO3- hoc tm KNO3 trong mt s gia v. Gii hn cao nht cho php ca NO3- trong sn phm dm bng v tht xng khi l 500 ppm; ca KNO3 l 595 ppm. Vi mt s ngi, bia l ngun NO3- ch yu: 4 chai bia con c hm lng NO3- trung bnh bng 2 ln lng hp th t thc n c cha nitrat. d dy ngi ln nhiu axit hn tr em nn vic chuyn NO3- thnh NO2- b hn ch. Nitrat l ngun nitrit ch yu trong rau v tht p, cn s lng trong nc ung khng ng k. Thc ra nng NO2- trong rau thp (ch khong 1 ppm trong rau ti) nhng do s lng n v nng NO3- cao nn rau l ngun NO2- quan trng, chim 75 % tng mc cung cp. Trong tht p, NO2- gii hn ti a l 200 ppm. p tht bng NaNO3 v KNO3 lm cho tht c hng v thm v mu c trng, bo qun cho tht khi b hng do s sinh trng ca VK k kh gy hi tim tng nh Clostridium botulinum. Nitrat trong nc ung ch l ngun rt nh gy ra NO2-, tuy nhin nu ung nhiu s tr thnh ngun quan trng. Ngi ta cn pht hin thy rau mui ngm trong nc nhiu tun v bnh ng cng c hm lng NO3- v NO2- cao. Trong rau mui pht hin thy cha hn hp stnitronsyl (Fe2(SCH3)2(NO)4), hp cht ny khng gy ung th m ch gy t bin yu, nhng chng c th lm tng tc ng ung th ca cc hp cht khc. Mt s nghin cu cho thy N-nitrosamines v cc hydrocacbon thm lm tng kh nng sinh u ca ng vt. Trong bnh ng thng b nhim mc Fusarium moniliform c th to ra nitrosamines, gy d tip xc vi mm sinh ung th tim tng.

R rng c mi quan h phc hp gia t l mc ung th vi mc nitrat trong nc ung, mc nitrat/ nitrit trong thc n. Phi ht sc thn trng v nghim tc xem xt y bng chng v cc ri ro i vi nitrat. Vic lm gim thiu mc nitrat trong nc ung theo cc tiu chun quy nh l rt phc tp v tn km. Thng ngi ta s dng gii php dng cc ngun thay th c mc nitrat thp hn. Tuy vai tr ca nitrat v nitrit trong cng tc bo qun thc phm l rt quan trng nhng cn c gng gim thiu mc s dng chng trong cng nghip thc phm. Cc h sinh thi t nhin t b r r nit, dinh dng hu nh c gi v quay vng trong h thng. Tuy nhin t nng nhip th s xo trn lm r r nhiu cht dinh dng lu ng. R r phn bn l mt ngun a cc cht dinh dng trong nng nghip xung nc mt v nc ngm. Vic gim thiu mc phn bn c tc dng lm gim nng nitrat n nc ngm v gim ph dng ti nc mt. Vic gim thiu mc s dng phn m l rt quan trng gim hm lng nitrat trong nc ngm. Nit (N) v cc hp cht cha Nit (NH4+, NO2-, NO3-): S phn hy ca rc thi, cc cht hu c c trong nc thi sinh hot, nc thi cng nghip to thnh cc sn phm amoniac, nitrt, nitrt. S hin din ca cc hp cht ny l cht ch th nhn bit trng thi nhim bn ca ngun nc.

Ton b nit trong chu trnh nit sinh hc din ra ch yu qua hot ng c nh m ca cc vi khun (VK) sng trong cy, cc to lc v cc VK cng sinh trong r ca mt s loi thc vt (v d Rhizobium c trong nt sn ca r mt s loi h u). Nhng sinh vt (SV) ny c kh nng chuyn ha N2 thnh NH4+, mc d ch chim t l nh dng nit trn ton cu, qu trnh c nh m l ngun cung cp nit cao nht cho c 2 ni sng cn v nc. NH4+ ch c cc thc vt s dng hn ch, hu ht nit c tch lu di dng NO3-. Vic chuyn ha nit hu c gm 4 giai on: - Amon ha: ngha l thy phn protein v oxy ha cc axit amin thnh NH4+. - Nitrit ha: NH4+ t do c oxy ha nh VK sng trong cy di t (Nitrosomonas) v di bin (Nitrosococcus) t N3- thnh N3+, cho NO2-.

- Nitrat ha: NO2- c oxy ha tip do VK Nitrobacter trong t v nc bin cho NO3- (th N5-). Di dng ny nit c cc TV sng trn cn v di nc s dng. - Kh nitrat: trong iu kin khng c oxy (ngp ng, cn lng) s din ra qu trnh kh nitrat. Trong NO2- v NO3- c cc VK s dng lm cht nhn electron (cht gy oxy ho) v chuyn thnh N2, tr li nit cho kh quyn. Nit c c nh gn b mt t c th b mt do kh nitrat ha. Qu trnh ny xy ra do cc VK nh Pseudomonas denitrificans. Theo Hardy v Havelka (1975), qu trnh c nh nit v kh nitrat cn bng trn quy m ton cu v chim khong 2% tng nit tun hon.

Bin php x l nc thi:

Nc c s dung cho muc ich tiu thu va cng nghip thng giam sut trong qua trinh s dung bi nhiu cht gy nhim gm cht cn oxi, vi khun, cht dinh dng, mui, cht rn l lng va nhiu cht hoa hoc khac. Mi, nhng tiu chun phai c kim soat trc khi thai ra mi trng. Chi phi x li nc thai thng xp xi 12 ti USD, va no oi hoi gp i thp ki tip theo. Bi vi co rt nhiu khoan tin lin quan, x li nc thai la mt qua trinh ln. vung nng thn, phng phap x li c truyn la dung h rac t hoai (b cha trong o nc rac chay vao va ong lai cho n khi tac ng cua vi khun lam cho no u long co th rut ra). cng ng ln hn, nc thai thng c thu gom va tp trung lai t h thng cng ranh. nhiu ni, tai nguyn nc rt c chu trong, va khi kt qua c chp nhn thi c phat trin cai tao nc thai ho coa th s dung cho nhiu muc ich nh ti rung, cng vin hay sn golf, ung hn la ra gn ngun nc. Nhng ki thut mi c s dung x li nc thai khng phai la nc thai ma la mt ngun tai nguyn s dung. Vic phat trin nhng cng ngh mi nay nu ln rng vic x li nc thai khng nn bi che giu trong qun chung. Hn na, chung ta nn tin ti nc thai se c cai thin bng chi phi nho khi san xut hoa va ru t nc trai cy. H rac t hoai:

Hanh ng pho bin Mi, t thanh thi n nng thn. Mc du phng phap khng tuyt i an toan nhng vn c s dung x li vi d thc hin. Vic xy dng mt h thng hoan chinh thng khng theo kip s tng tin. Do o, h rac t hoai ca nhn la mt phng phap x li quan trong. Co trn 22 triu h thng ang hoat ng, va khoang na triu h thng mi c a vao s dung mi nm. Do o, h phn huy c khoang 30% ngi dn Mi s dung. Khng phai tt ca ia phng, tuy nhin thich hp cho vic t h thng h t hoai, nn s inh gia mi h thng la cn thit va thng cn phai co iu l trc khi c s dung. Cac phn c ban cua h t hoai c th hin nh trong hinh. ng nc thai t nha hoc c s kinh doanh nho dn n h t hoai di mt t trong vn. Cht rn hu c lng di ay cua h, ni ma chung c phn huy va hoa long bi hoat ng cua vi khun. Cht long a c loc c a vao ni thao nc, bao gm cac ng dn thng ma nc co th thm vao t xung quanh. Khi nc di chuyn vao trong t, no se c x li va loc nhiu hn bi cac qua trinh loc va oxi hoa t nhin. Cac nhn t ia cht anh hng la: loai t, chiu su mc nc, chiu su nn a va ia hinh. Cac bin s nay thng c lit k vi s m ta v t lin quan vi s xem xet t ai vung o va cac vung khac. S nghin cu t c thanh lp bi T Chc Bao Tn t ai, co y nghia quan trong trong vic giai thich kha nng s dung t, nh vic s dung cho h t hoai. Tuy nhin, s tin ang tin cy cua ban t con han ch i vi vung t rng khoang vai ngan m, va loai t co th thay i vai m nn rt cn thit

nu co mt inh gia cua cac nha khoa hoc va ki s. tinh kich thc cua t hp thu, cn bit tc dong nc di chuyn trong t, y la cach tt nht xac inh kha nng loc nc. Kha nng loc rac thai cua t co th gp mt vai li do han ch. Nguyn nhn ph bin la kha nng rut nc cua t kem, lam cho nhanh sng dng ln khi thi tit m t. Vic thao nc kem co th c mong i ni t set hoc t rn vi tinh dn nc thp, va nhng vung co mc nc cao, a gn b mt dn nc kem, hoc hay bi ngp lut. Nu h t hoai bi ro ri, cht thai chay ra ngoai se rt nguy him cho sc khoe. S c nay rt hay gp. Khng may la, nhng gi xay ra bn di mt t khng d thy, nu qua trinh loc nc trn din rng xay ra, thi tai nguyn nc ngm co th bi nhim. Mt iu lin quan t bit la h rac c cung cp cho cac c s kinh doanh va cng nghip nho, nhng nhu cu nay gy ra nhiu vn nhim nc ngm hn la h nha. Co nhng nguy c t nhng hoat ng nay, cac tac nhn gy nhim co th la : Nitrat, kim loai nng, kem, ng, chi, cac cht hu c tng hp, benzene, carbon tetraclorua, vinyl clorua. Wastewater treatment plants (x l nc thi ): Mc tiu chnh ca qu trnh x l ny l gim lng huyn ph, vi khun v b sung lng Oxy cn thit cho nc. Kt hp vi k thut pht trin loi b cc cht dinh dng v cc qu trnh phn hu v c c th gy hi cho hin ti. Hin nay qu trnh x l nc thi thng c hai hoc ba giai on: Tin x l: lc b i cc loi cn nh ct, si, cc loi vt cht ln khc v nhiu nhng ht vt cht ng li gi l bn. Bn c loi ra cn phn nc lc theo ng dn i vo x l giai on hai. Giai on tin x l lo b c 30 40% cc cht gy nhim trong nc thi. X l giai on hai: ci tuyt vi nht ca x l giai on hai ny l hiu c tc dng ca bn hot tnh. Nc thi t giai on tin x l i vo b thng kh, y khng kh c bm vo tun hon (buc phi c oxy) vi khun s phn hu cc hp cht hu c cn li trong nc. qa trnh ny mt vi gi sau nc thi c bm vo b lng, bn ng c loi ra. To mi trng ngho oxy vi khun k kh phn hu cc vt cht hu c trong bn. Phn hu k kh to ra kh methane lm nhin liu cho cc x nghip hoc chy cc loi my mc khc. Theo qu trnh x l giai on hai ny khong 90% cc cht gy nhim c loi b khi nc thi. Mc

d qu trnh x l khng loi c hon ton cc cht nh nitrogen, phosphorus v cc kim loi nng hoc cc ho cht nh dung mi v thuc tr su. Phn cui ca giai on hai l qu trnh ty u nc thi. Qu trnh ny thng dng clo nhng thnh thong ozone c s dng. Nc thi qua x l thng ra mt nc, nhng nhiu ni vic thi ny c chuyn i rt tt, v d nh Maui, Hawaii Advanced treatment ( x l cao cp): nn loi b ht cc cht dinh dng, cc kim loi nng, hay cc loi ho cht trong nc nu cn cht lng nc cao hn s dng cho nhng mc ich ring. V d nh to mi trng sng cho sinh vt, ti sn golf, cng vin hay cy trng. qu trnh x l nc thi ny gn nh l ti ch nc. phng php x l cao cp s dng gm cc loi ho cht, ct lc, than lc. Theo quy trnh x l caco cp ny loi b c 95% cht gy nhim nc. Mt rc ri ca qu trnh x l nc thi l vic loi b bn. Lng bn to ra trong quy trnh x l l kh t c lng vo khong 54 - 112 gram cho mi ngi mi ngy, v theo tnh ton th chi ph x l bn thi chim 25 - 50% vn hot ng ca mt nh my x l. Qa trnh lng v thi bn c 4 phn chnh sau: Loi b nhng cht hu c th. Gim kch thc bn bng cch a v dng lng. Dit hoc lm gim cc sinh vt c hi. Gii thiu sn phm ti ngi dng hoc bn gim chi ph hot ng. Kt thc ca bn thi l bng cch t, chn vo trong t, dng ci to t trng hoc thi n xung bin. Quan im ca mi trng, tt nht l dng bn cho ci to t cho nhng vng t ngho dinh dng nhng khu bo tn hay vng m.

S hi phuc nc thai
Qua trinh tai ch nc thai goi la chu trinh hi phuc va bao tn nc thai. Qua trinh chinh trong chu trinh la tra lai nc thai a x li bng vao cac vu mua bng binh ti nc hoc cac h thng ti tiu ; phuc hi, hay lam sach t nhin cac dong nc thai vao t va khi vao nc ngm la nc sach; bao tn, bng cach bm nc ra khoi mt t cho s dung, cng nghip, hoc muc ich nng nghip. Di nhin la, khng phai tt ca cac khia canh cua chu trinh u thich hp ngang nhau. Phuc hi nc thai nng trng nu gia suc khng ging nh phuc hi nc thai khu cng nghip

hoc khu dn c. Nhng ngun gc cn ban cua phuc hi nc thai la vng chc va theo hoc thuyt. Qua trinh phuc hi va a tr lai la ct yu trong chu trinh tai ch nc thai, loai a va t, ia hinh, khi hu, thc vt ong vai tro quan trong. Yu t c bit quan trong la kha nng ng hoa cht thai cua t, kha nng thc vt s dung cht dinh dng, va kin thc v cht thai c ap dung. Nc thai c tai ch tr quy m rng ln Muskegon va Whitehall, Michigan. Nc cng t nha va khu cng nghip dc vn chuyn bng cac ng ng x li s cp va th cp. Nc thai sau o c x li bng clo va vn chuyn bng cac mang ng, tung ra ngoai. Sau khi nc thai chay ra t, no c gom lai trn cac ng dn nc va c a v sng Muskegon. Bc cui cung nay la x li cao cp gian tip, cho mi trng t nhin loc nc. D an Michigan co th tranh lun vi lin quan n kha nng nhim cua nc mt va nc ngm, cung nh kt hp mc nc ngm cao. Tuy nhin, no cung cp mt kha nng la chon phng phap x li cao cp, va kinh nghim at c t nhng d an co gia tri trong vic c lng nhng phn khac trong vic tai ch nc thai. X LI NC THAI NH LA VIC KHI PHUC TAI NGUYN Bt u phn nay chung ta se noi rng chung ta hi vong con ngi se xem nc thai nh la mt tai nguyn va cac nha may x li se c xy dng. Nhng ni hoan thanh u tin se la Arcata, California, t vinh Humboldt. x li th cp va cao cp nc thai, cng ng y phai xy dng nhng cai ao co kha nng oxi hoa, c tao thanh mt vung m ly rng ln vinh. Nc t nhng cai h oxi hoa co th c x dung nui ca hi con Thai Binh Dng. Nh vy, k hoach x li nc thai c ng dung trn vung m ly nh mt phn cua tin trinh x li ma co th san xut tai nguyn- vi du nh ca hi thai binh dng- sau o c tha vao ai dng. Mi a phat trin kha nng to ln vic x li nc thai. S phn loa phng phap x li a em n nhng hiu qua chc chn va ghi nhn du hiu tng i tt. Mt khac, o la mt d an vi nhng n lc gy tn kem va nhng tht bai hoan toan co th xay ra. c bit la khi h thng chiu nhng tac ng t cac yu t bn ngoai nh gia u t, nguyn liu cho cac cng thoat nc chn hang trong mua lu. Trong giai oan cui cua ln x li th cp, clo c thm vao, rt co hiu qua trong vic git cht cac mm bnh co hai trong nc. Nhng lai san xut nhng san phm gy c co cha hp cht clo, mt trong s o la nguyn nhn gy ra bnh ung th. Cui cung, x li tip theo lng bun.

Chung ta phai khng ngng t ra nhng cu hoi i vi cng ngh cua chung ta la: o la cach tt nht, mang tinh kinh t cao, ng dung cac phng phap mi trng ung cach cho phng phap x li nc thai co th cha co cu tra li. Tuy nhin, nhng kinh nghim a c a ra kim tra gia thuyt rng h thng phuc hi c ngun tai nguyn mi trng c a thich hn la co th. Bng qua trinh phuc hi tai nguyn, chung ta co th san xut khi metan (co th c s dung lam nhin liu), hoc san xut cy canh va cac san phm co gia tri khac.