ToanCaoCapA2

HC VIN CNG NGH BU CHNH VIN THNG
------- -------
BI GING
TON CAO CP (A2)

Bin son : Ts. L B LONG
Ths. PHI NGA
Lu hnh ni b
H NI - 2006
LI NI U
Ton cao cp A1, A2, A3 l chng trnh ton i cng dnh cho sinh vin cc nhm ngnh
ton v nhm ngnh thuc khi k thut. Ni dung ca ton cao cp A1, A3 ch yu l php tnh
vi tch phn ca hm mt hoc nhiu bin, cn ton cao cp A2 l cc cu trc i s v i s
tuyn tnh. C kh nhiu sch gio khoa v ti liu tham kho vit v cc ch ny. Tuy nhin
vi phng thc o to t xa c nhng c th ring, i hi hc vin lm vic c lp nhiu
hn, do cn phi c ti liu hng dn hc tp thch hp cho tng mn hc. Tp ti liu hng
dn hc mn ton cao cp A2 ny c bin son cng nhm mc ch trn.
Tp ti liu ny c bin son theo chng trnh qui nh nm 2001 ca Hc vin Cng
ngh Bu Chnh Vin Thng. Ni dung ca cun sch bm st cc gio trnh ca cc trng i
hc k thut, gio trnh dnh cho h chnh qui ca Hc vin Cng ngh Bu Chnh Vin Thng
bin son nm 2001 v theo kinh nghim ging dy nhiu nm ca tc gi. Chnh v th, gio trnh
ny cng c th dng lm ti liu hc tp, ti liu tham kho cho sinh vin ca cc trng, cc
ngnh i hc v cao ng.
Gio trnh c trnh by theo cch thch hp i vi ngi t hc, c bit phc v c lc
cho cng tc o to t xa. Trc khi nghin cu cc ni dung chi tit, ngi c nn xem phn
gii thiu ca mi chng cng nh mc ch ca chng (trong sch Hng dn hc tp Ton
A2 i km) thy c mc ch ngha, yu cu chnh ca chng . Trong mi chng, mi
ni dung, ngi c c th t c v hiu c cn k thng qua cch din t v chng minh r
rng. c bit bn c nn ch n cc nhn xt, bnh lun hiu su hn hoc m rng tng
qut hn cc kt qu. Hu ht cc bi ton c xy dng theo lc : t bi ton, chng minh
s tn ti li gii bng l thuyt v cui cng nu thut ton gii quyt bi ton ny. Cc v d l
minh ho trc tip khi nim, nh l hoc cc thut ton, v vy s gip ngi c d dng
hn khi tip thu bi hc.
Gio trnh gm 7 chng tng ng vi 4 n v hc trnh (60 tit):
Chng I: L gch ton hc, l thuyt tp hp, nh x v cc cu trc i s.
Chng II: Khng gian vc t.
Chng III: Ma trn.
Chng IV: nh thc.
Chng V: H phng trnh tuyn tnh
Chng VI: nh x tuyn tnh.
Chng VII: Khng gian vc t Euclide v dng ton phng.
Ngoi vai tr l cng c cho cc ngnh khoa hc khc, ton hc cn c xem l mt
ngnh khoa hc c phng php t duy lp lun chnh xc cht ch. V vy vic hc ton cng
gip ta rn luyn phng php t duy. Cc phng php ny c ging dy v cung cp
tng bc trong qu trnh hc tp ph thng, nhng trong chng I cc vn ny c h

thng ho li. Ni dung ca chng I c xem l c s, ngn ng ca ton hc hin i. Mt
vi ni dung trong chng ny c hc ph thng nhng ch vi mc n gin. Cc
cu trc i s th hon ton mi v kh tru tng v vy i hi hc vin phi c li nhiu
ln mi tip thu c.
Cc chng cn li ca gio trnh l i s tuyn tnh. Kin thc ca cc chng lin h
cht ch vi nhau, kt qu ca chng ny l cng c ca chng khc. V vy hc vin cn thy
c mi lin h ny. c im ca mn hc ny l tnh khi qut ho v tru tng cao. Cc
khi nim thng c khi qut ho t nhng kt qu ca hnh hc gii tch ph thng. Khi
hc ta nn lin h n cc kt qu .
Tuy rng tc gi rt c gng, song v thi gian b hn hp cng vi yu cu cp bch ca
Hc vin, v vy cc thiu st cn tn ti trong gio trnh l iu kh trnh khi. Tc gi rt mong
s ng gp kin ca bn b ng nghip, hc vin xa gn v xin cm n v iu .
Cui cng chng ti by t s cm n i vi Ban Gim c Hc vin Cng ngh Bu
Chnh Vin Thng, Trung tm o to Bu Chnh Vin Thng 1 v bn b ng nghip
khuyn khch ng vin, to nhiu iu kin thun li chng ti hon thnh tp ti lii ny.
H Ni, cui nm 2004.

Ts. L B Long
Khoa c bn 1
Hc Vin Cng ngh Bu chnh Vin thng
Chng 1: M u v lgc mnh , tp hp nh x v cc cu trc i s
1. CHNG 1: M U V LGC MNH , TP HP

NH X V CC CU TRC I S
1.1
S LC V LGC MNH
1.1.1
Mnh
Lgc mnh l mt h thng lgch n gin nht, vi n v c bn l cc mnh

mang ni dung ca cc phn on, mi phn on c gi thit l c mt gi tr chn l nht
nh l ng hoc sai.
ch cc mnh cha xc nh ta dng cc ch ci p, q, r... v gi chng l cc bin
p ng ta cho p nhn gi tr 1 v p sai ta cho nhn gi tr 0. Gi tr 1

hoc 0 c gi l th hin ca p .
mnh . Nu mnh
Mnh phc hp c xy dng t cc mnh n gin hn bng cc php lin kt

lgch mnh .
1.1.2
Cc php lin kt lgc mnh

1. Php ph nh (negation): Ph nh ca mnh
khng
p . Mnh p ng khi p sai v p sai khi p ng.
2. Php hi (conjunction): Hi ca hai mnh

l
p l mnh c k hiu p, c l
p, q l mnh c k hiu p q (c
p v q ). Mnh p q ch ng khi p v q cng ng.

3. Php tuyn (disjunction): Tuyn ca hai mnh
(c l
p, q l mnh c k hiu p q
p hoc q ). p q ch sai khi p v q cng sai.
4. Php ko theo (implication): Mnh p ko theo

sai khi
q , k hiu p q , l mnh ch
p ng q sai.
5. Php tng ng (equivalence): Mnh
( p q) (q p) c gi l mnh
p tng ng q , k hiu p q .
Mt cng thc gm cc bin mnh v cc php lin kt mnh c gi l mt cng
thc mnh . Bng lit k cc th hin ca cng thc mnh c gi l bng chn tr.
T nh ngha ca cc php lin kt mnh ta c cc bng chn tr sau
5
p q
p q
1 1
1 0
0
0
1
0
pq
pq
1
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
pq
1
0
p q
1 1
1 0
1
1
0
0
pq q p
1
1
0
1
1
0
1
1
0
1
Nh vy p q l mt mnh ng khi c hai mnh
pq
1
0
0
1
p v q cng ng hoc cng
sai v mnh p q sai trong trng hp ngc li.

Mt cng thc mnh c gi l hng ng nu n lun nhn gi tr 1 trong mi th hin
ca cc bin mnh c trong cng thc. Ta k hiu mnh tng ng hng ng l " "
thay cho " ".
1.1.3
Cc tnh cht
Dng bng chn tr ta d dng kim chng cc mnh hng ng sau:
1)
p p
lut ph nh kp.
2) ( p q ) ( p q ) .
3)
p q q p, p q q p
4)
p (q r ) ( p q) r
p (q r ) ( p q) r
lut giao hon.
lut kt hp.
5) [ p (q r )] [( p q) ( p r )]
[ p (q r )] [( p q) ( p r )]
lut phn phi.
p p lun ng
lut bi chung.
6) Mnh
p p lun sai
7)
pq pq
pq pq
lut mu thun.
lut De Morgan.

8)
pqq p
lut phn chng.
9)
p p p; p p p
lut ly ng.
10)
1.2
1.2.1
p ( p q) p ; p ( p q) p
lut hp thu.
TP HP
Khi nim tp hp
Khi nim tp hp v phn t l khi nim c bn ca ton hc, khng th nh ngha qua
cc khi nim bit. Cc khi nim "tp hp", "phn t" xt trong mi quan h phn t ca tp
hp trong l thuyt tp hp l ging vi khi nim "ng thng", "im" v quan h im trn
ng thng c xt trong hnh hc. Ni mt cch nm na, ta c th xem tp hp nh mt s t
tp cc vt, cc i tng no m mi vt hay i tng l mt phn t ca tp hp. C th ly
v d v cc tp hp c ni dung ton hc hoc khng ton hc. Chng hn: tp hp cc s t
nhin l tp hp m cc phn t ca n l cc s 1,2,3..., cn tp hp cc cun sch trong th vin
ca Hc vin Cng ngh Bu chnh Vin thng l tp hp m cc phn t ca n l cc cun
sch.
A, B,... X ,Y ,... cn cc phn t bi cc

ch thng x, y,... Nu phn t x thuc A ta k hiu x A , nu x khng thuc A ta k hiu
x A . Ta cng ni tt "tp" thay cho thut ng "tp hp".
Ta thng k hiu cc tp hp bi cc ch in hoa
1.2.2
Cch m t tp hp
Ta thng m t tp hp theo hai cch sau:
a) Lit k cc phn t ca tp hp
V d 1.1: Tp cc s t nhin l nh hn 10 l
Tp hp cc nghim ca phng trnh
{1, 3, 5, 7, 9 }.
x 2 1 = 0 l { 1,1}.
b) Nu c trng tnh cht ca cc phn t to thnh tp hp

V d 1.2: Tp hp cc s t nhin chn
Hm mnh trn tp hp
P = {n
n = 2m, m }
D l mt mnh S (x) ph thuc vo bin x D . Khi cho
bin x mt gi tr c th th ta c mnh lgch (mnh ch nhn mt trong hai gi tr hoc

ng hoc sai).
Nu
S (x) l mt mnh trn tp hp D th tp hp cc phn t x D sao cho S (x )
ng c k hiu
{x D S (x)} v c gi l min ng ca hm mnh S (x) .
S (x) xc nh trn tp cc s t nhin : " x 2 + 1 l mt s nguyn

t" th S (1), S ( 2) ng v S (3), S ( 4) sai ...
i) Xt hm mnh

ii) Mi mt phng trnh l mt hm mnh
{x
x 2 1 = 0 = { 1, 1}.
c hnh nh trc quan v tp hp, ngi ta thng biu din tp hp nh l min phng
gii hn bi ng cong khp kn khng t ct c gi l gin Ven.
c) Mt s tp hp s thng gp
- Tp cc s t nhin
= { 0, 1, 2, ... }.
- Tp cc s nguyn
= { 0, 1, 2, ... }.
- Tp cc s hu t
= { p q q 0, p, q
- Tp cc s thc
= z = x + iy x, y ; i 2 = 1 .
- Tp cc s phc
1.2.3
}.
Tp con
nh ngha 1.1: Tp A c gi l tp con ca

ca B , khi ta k hiu A B hay B A .
Khi
cha A.
B nu mi phn t ca A u l phn t
A l tp con ca B th ta cn ni A bao hm trong B hay B bao hm A hay B
Ta c:
nh ngha 1.2: Hai tp
A , B bng nhau, k hiu A = B, khi v ch khi A B v
B A.
A B ta ch cn chng minh x A x B v v vy khi
chng minh A = B ta ch cn chng minh x A x B .
Nh vy chng minh
nh ngha 1.3: Tp rng l tp khng cha phn t no, k hiu .

Mt cch hnh thc ta c th xem tp rng l tp con ca mi tp hp.
A ( X ) khi v ch khi
A X . Tp X l tp con ca chnh n nn l phn t ln nht cn l phn t b nht trong
Tp hp tt c cc tp con ca
X c k hiu
P (X ) . Vy
P (X ) .
V d 1.3:
X = {a, b, c}
P ( X ) = { ,{a},{b},{c},{a, b},{b, c},{c, a}, X }.
P (X ) c 23 = 8 phn t. Ta c th chng minh tng qut
Ta thy X c 3 phn t th
rng nu
1.2.4
X c n phn t th
P (X ) c 2n phn t.
Cc php ton trn cc tp hp
1. Php hp: Hp ca hai tp

nht mt trong hai tp A , B .
A v B , k hiu A B , l tp gm cc phn t thuc t
(x A B ) ((x A) (x B )) .
Vy
2. Php giao: Giao ca hai tp

ng thi c hai tp A , B .
A v B , k hiu A B , l tp gm cc phn t thuc
(x A B ) ((x A) (x B )) .
Vy
3. Hiu ca hai tp: Hiu ca hai tp

phn t thuc A nhng khng thuc B .
(x A \ B ) ((x A) (x B )) .
Vy
c bit nu
A v B , k hiu A \ B hay A B , l tp gm cc
B X th tp X \ B c gi l phn b ca B trong X v
c k hiu l
C XB . Nu tp X c nh v khng s nhm ln th ta k hiu B thay cho
C XB .
Ta c th minh ho cc php ton trn bng gin Ven:
A B
A B
C XB
p dng lgch mnh ta d dng kim chng li cc tnh cht sau:

1.
A B = B A,
A B = B A
2.
A ( B C ) = ( A B) C ,
A ( B C ) = ( A B) C
3.
tnh giao hon.
tnh kt hp.
A ( B C ) = ( A B) ( A C ) ,
9
A ( B C ) = ( A B) ( A C )
Gi s
1.2.5
tnh phn b.
A, B l hai tp con ca X th:
4.
A = A; A = A; A X = A
5.
A A = X; A A =
6.
A B = A B ; A B = A B lut De Morgan
7.
A \ B = A B = A A B = A \ ( A B) = C AA B .
Lng t ph bin v lng t tn ti

Gi s
S (x) l mt hm mnh xc nh trn tp D c min ng
DS ( x) = {x D S ( x)}. Khi :
a) Mnh
x D , S ( x) (c l vi mi x D , S ( x) ) l mt mnh ng nu
DS ( x ) = D v sai trong trng hp ngc li.

K hiu
Khi
(c l vi mi) c gi l
lng t ph bin.
D xc nh th ta thng vit tt x , S ( x) hay (x ), S ( x) .
b) Mnh
x D , S ( x) (c l tn ti x D , S ( x) ) l mt mnh ng nu
DS (x ) v sai trong trng hp ngc li.

K hiu
(c l tn ti) c gi l
lng t tn ti.
chng minh mt mnh vi lng t ph bin l ng th ta phi chng minh ng

trong mi trng hp, cn vi mnh tn ti ta ch cn ch ra mt trng hp ng.
c) Ngi ta m rng khi nim lng t tn ti vi k hiu
duy nht
! x D, S ( x) (c l tn ti
x D, S ( x) ) nu DS (x ) c ng mt phn t.
d) Php ph nh lng t
(
)
x D, S ( x) ( x D, S ( x) )
x D, S ( x) x D, S ( x)
(1.1)
V d 1.4: Theo nh ngha ca gii hn
lim f ( x) = L > 0 , > 0 ; x : 0 < x a < f ( x) L < .
x a
10

S dng tnh cht hng ng
( p q ) ( p q ) (xem tnh cht 1.3) ta c
0 < x a < f ( x) L < tng ng vi
(( x a ) (x = a )) ( f ( x) L < ) .
Vy ph nh ca
lim f ( x) = L l
xa
> 0 , > 0 ; x :
1.2.6
( 0 < x a < ) ( f ( x) L ).
Php hp v giao suy rng

Gi s
( Ai )iI l mt h cc tp hp. Ta nh ngha U Ai l tp gm cc phn t thuc

iI
t nht mt tp Ai no v
I Ai l tp gm cc phn t thuc mi tp Ai .
iI
(x UiI Ai ) (i0 I ; x Ai )
(x IiI Ai ) (i I ; x Ai ).
Vy
An = {x
V d 1.5:
Bn = {x
(1.2)
0 x n (n + 1)}
1 (n + 1) x < 1 + 1 (n + 1)}
U A = [0 ; 1) , I B = [0 ; 1] .
n
n =1
1.2.7
n =1
Quan h
1.2.7.1 Tch cc ca cc tp hp
nh ngha 1.4: Tch cc ca hai tp
dng
X , Y l tp, k hiu X Y , gm cc phn t c
( x, y ) trong x X v y Y .
Vy
V d 1.6:
X Y = {( x, y ) x X v y Y }.
(1.3)
X = {a, b, c}, Y = {1, 2}

X Y = {( a,1), (b,1), (c,1), ( a,2), (b,2), (c,2)}
nm
Ta d dng chng minh c rng nu

phn t.
X c n phn t, Y c m phn t th X Y c
11

Cho X 1 , X 2 , ..., X n l n tp hp no , ta nh ngha v k hiu tch cc ca n tp
hp ny nh sau:
X1 X 2 ... X n = { ( x1, x2 ,..., xn ) xi X i , i = 1,2,..., n}.
(1.4)
Ch 1.1:
1. Khi X 1 = ... = X n = X th ta k hiu
X n thay cho 1
X4
2
...
X.
43
n ln
2. Tch cc X 1 X 2 ... X n cn c k hiu

3. Gi s
iI X i .
( x1 ,..., xn ) X 1 ... X n ; ( x'1 ,..., x'n ) X 1 ... X n th
( x1,..., xn ) = ( x'1 ,..., x'n ) xi = x 'i , i = 1,..., n

4. Tch cc ca cc tp hp khng c tnh giao hon.
1.2.7.2 Quan h hai ngi
X , mi tp con R X X c gi l mt quan h hai

ngi trn X . Vi x, y X m ( x, y ) R ta ni x c quan h vi y theo quan h R v ta
vit xRy .
nh ngha 1.5: Cho tp
V d 1.7: Ta xt cc quan h sau trn tp cc s:
( x chia ht cho y ) , x, y
R1 : xR1 y xM y
R2 : xR2 y ( x, y ) = 1 ( x v y nguyn t cng nhau) x, y
R3 : xR3 y x y ( x nh hn hay bng y ) x, y
R4 : xR4 y x y Mm , x, y . Ta k hiu x y(mod m)
x ng d vi y mul m.
nh ngha 1.6: Quan h hai ngi
b) i xng, nu
X c gi l c tnh:
x, y X m xRy th cng c yRx ;
x, y, z X m xRy v yRz th cng c xRz ;
d) Phn i xng, nu
12
trn
xRx, x X ;
a) Phn x, nu
c) Bc cu, nu
x, y X m xRy v yRx th x = y .
v c l

V d 1.8:
R1 phn i xng, bc cu nhng khng i xng, khng phn x (v 0 khng

chia ht cho 0). R2 i xng, khng phn x, khng phn xng, khng bc cu. R3 phn x,
phn i xng, bc cu. R4 phn x, i xng, bc cu.
1.2.7.3 Quan h tng ng
trn
X c gi l quan h tng ng nu c
ba tnh cht phn x, i xng, bc cu.

Vi quan h tng ng
ta thng vit
x ~ y ( R ) hoc x ~ y thay cho xRy .
Ta nh ngha v k hiu lp tng ng ca phn t
x X l tp hp
x = {y X y ~ x}. Mi phn t bt k ca lp tng ng x c gi l phn t i din

ca
x . Ngi ta cng k hiu lp tng ng ca x l cl (x) .

Hai lp tng ng bt k th hoc bng nhau hoc khng giao nhau, ngha l
x x'
x = x' hoc bng , ni cch khc cc lp tng ng to thnh mt phn hoch

cc tp con ca X .
hoc bng
Tp tt c cc lp tng ng c gi l tp hp thng, k hiu X ~ . Vy
X ~ = {x x X }.
V d 1.9: Quan h
R4 trong v d 1.7 l mt quan h
d mul m trn tp cc s nguyn
. Nu
tng ng gi l quan h ng
x ~ y , ta vit
x y (mod m) .
Ta k hiu tp thng gm m s ng d mul m:
m = 0 , 1, ..., m 1 .
V d 1.10: Trong tp hp cc vc t t do trong khng gian th quan h "vc t
vc t
r
u
bng
r
v " l mt quan h tng ng. Nu ta chn gc O c nh th mi lp tng ng bt
k u c th chn vc t i din dng
OA .
1.2.7.4 Quan h th t
trn
X c gi l quan h th t nu c ba
tnh cht phn x, phn i xng, bc cu.

V d 1.11:
1) Trong ,
quan h
" x y" l mt quan h th t.

13

2) Trong
3) Trong
quan h " xM y" l mt quan h th t.
P (X ) , tp hp tt c cc tp con ca X , quan h "tp con" ( A B ) l mt
quan h th t.
Khi nim quan h th t c khi qut ho t khi nim ln hn (hay ng sau) trong
cc tp s, v vy theo thi quen ngi ta cng dng k hiu " " cho quan h th t bt k.
Quan h th t
k ca
" " trn tp X
c gi l quan h th t ton phn nu hai phn t bt
X u so snh c vi nhau. Ngha l vi mi x, y X th x y hoc y x . Quan
h th t khng ton phn c gi l quan h th t b phn.
X vi quan h th t " " c gi l tp c sp. Nu " " l quan h th t

ton phn th X c gi l tp c sp ton phn hay sp tuyn tnh.
Tp
V d 1.12: Cc tp
( , ), ( , ), ( , ), ( , )
c sp ton phn, cn
(P (X ), ) c sp b phn (nu X c nhiu hn 1 phn t).
( ,M)
( X , ) v tp con A X . Tp A c gi l b chn
trn nu tn ti q X sao cho a q , vi mi a A . Khi q c gi l mt chn trn ca A .
nh ngha 1.9: Cho tp c sp
Hin nhin rng nu

trn ca
q l mt chn trn ca A th mi p X m q p u l chn
A.
q ca A ( theo ngha q q' , vi mi chn trn q' ca A )

c gi l cn trn ca A v c k hiu q = sup A . R rng phn t cn trn nu tn ti l
Phn t chn trn nh nht
duy nht.
A c gi l b chn di nu tn ti p X sao cho p a , vi mi

a A . Phn t chn di ln nht c gi l cn di ca A v c k hiu inf A . Cn
Tng t tp
di nu tn ti cng duy nht.
sup A , inf A cha chc l phn t ca A . Nu q = sup A A th q

c gi l phn t ln nht ca A k hiu q = max A .
Ni chung
Tng t nu
p = inf A A th p c gi l phn t b nht ca A k hiu
p = min A .
V d 1.13: Trong ( , ) , tp
A = [0 ;1) = {x
0 x < 1} c
1 = sup A A , inf A = 0 A
do khng tn ti
14
max A nhng tn ti min A = inf A = 0 .

1.3
1.3.1
NH X
nh ngha v v d
Khi nim nh x c khi qut ho t khi nim hm s trong hm s thng c

cho di dng cng thc tnh gi tr ca hm s ph thuc vo bin s. Chng hn,
hm
s
y = 2 x vi x l quy lut cho ng
0 a 0,1 a 2, 2 a 4, 3 a 6, ...
Ta c th nh ngha nh x mt cch trc quan nh sau:
nh ngha 1.10: Mt nh x t tp
phn t x X vi mt phn t duy nht
X vo tp Y l mt quy lut cho tng ng mi mt

y = f (x) ca Y .
f :X
Y
Ta k hiu
X Y
hay
x a y = f (x)
x a y = f (x)
X c gi l tp ngun, Y c gi l tp ch.
V d 1.14:
Trong 3 tng ng trn ch c tng ng th 3 xc nh mt nh x t

V d 1.15: Mi hm s
xc nh ca
X vo Y .
y = f (x) bt k c th c xem l nh x t tp D l min
y = f (x) vo . Chng hn:
Hm lgarit
y = ln x l nh x ln : *+
x a y = ln x
Hm cn bc hai y =
x l nh x
: +
xa y= x.
nh ngha 1.11: Cho nh x
f ( A) = { f ( x) x A}
f : X Y v A X , B Y .
(1.5)
15

c gi l nh ca
Ni ring
A qua nh x f .
f ( X ) = Im f c gi l tp nh hay tp gi tr ca f .
f 1 ( B ) = {x X f ( x) B}
c gi l nghch nh ca tp con
Khi
(1.6)
B ca Y .
B l tp hp ch c mt phn t {y} th ta vit f 1 ( y ) thay cho f 1 ({y}) . Vy
f 1 ( y ) = {x X y = f ( x )}.
1.3.2
(1.7)
Phn loi cc nh x
nh ngha 1.12:
1) nh x
f : X Y c gi l n nh nu nh ca hai phn t phn bit l hai phn
t phn bit.
Ngha l: Vi mi x1 , x2 X ; x1 x2 f ( x1 ) f ( x2 ) hay mt cch tng ng,
vi mi x1 , x2 X ; .
f ( x1 ) = f ( x2 ) x1 = x2
(1.8)
f : X Y c gi l ton nh nu mi phn t ca Y l nh ca phn t no

ca X . Ngha l f ( X ) = Y hay
2) nh x
y Y , x X sao cho y = f (x) .

3) nh x
(1.9)
f : X Y va n nh va ton nh c gi l song nh.
f : X Y c cho di dng cng thc xc nh nh y = f (x)

th ta c th xc nh tnh cht n nh, ton nh ca nh x f bng cch gii phng trnh:
Ch 1.2: Khi nh x
y = f ( x), y Y
trong ta xem
(1.10)
x l n v y l tham bin.
Nu vi mi
y Y phng trnh (1.10) lun c nghim x X th nh x f l ton
Nu vi mi
y Y phng trnh (1.10) c khng qu 1 nghim x X th nh x f
nh.
l n nh.
Nu vi mi
f l song nh.
16
y Y phng trnh (1.10) lun c duy nht nghim x X th nh x
f:
V d 1.16: Cho nh x
x a y = f ( x ) = x ( x + 1)
Xt phng trnh
Bit s
y = f ( x) = x( x + 1) = x 2 + x hay x 2 + x y = 0 .
= 1 + 4 y > 0 (v y ). Phng trnh lun c 2 nghim thc
x1 = 1 + 1 + 4 y 2 , x2 = 1 1 + 4 y 2 . V x2 < 0 nn phng trnh c khng

qu 1 nghim trong . Vy f l n nh. Mt khc tn ti y m nghim x1 (chng hn
y = 1 ), ngha l phng trnh trn v nghim trong . Vy f khng ton nh.
V d 1.17: Cc hm s n iu cht:
ng bin cht: x1 < x2 f ( x1 ) < f ( x2 )
Nghch bin cht: x1 < x2 f ( x1 ) > f ( x2 )
l cc song nh t tp xc nh ln min gi tr ca n.
V d 1.18: Gi s
A l tp con ca X th nh x
i: A X
x a i ( x) = x
l mt n nh gi l nhng chnh tc.

c bit khi
A = X nh x i c k hiu Id X gi l nh x ng nht ca X .
V d 1.19: Gi s ~ l mt quan h tng ng th nh x sau l mt ton nh
p: X X ~
x a p( x) = x
1.3.3
nh x ngc ca mt song nh
f : X Y l mt song nh khi vi mi y Y tn ti duy

nht x X sao cho y = f (x) . Nh vy ta c th xc nh mt nh x t Y vo X bng cch
cho ng mi phn t y Y vi phn t duy nht x X sao cho y = f (x) . nh x ny c
nh ngha 1.13: Gi s
gi l nh x ngc ca
Vy
f v c k hiu f 1 .
f 1 : Y X v f 1 ( y ) = x y = f ( x) .
(1.11)
f 1 cng l mt song nh.

17

V d 1.20:
y = a x , a > 0, a 1
Hm m
l mt song nh (v hm m n iu cht) c hm ngc l hm lgarit
y = a x x = log a y .
V d 1.21
Cc hm lng gic ngc
Xt hm
sin : [ 2 ; 2] [ 1;1]
x
a sin x
n iu tng cht v ton nh nn n l mt song nh. Hm ngc c k hiu
arcsin : [ 1;1] [ 2 ; 2]
y
a arcsin y
x = arcsin y y = sin x , x [ 1;1], y [ 2 ; 2].

Tng t hm
cos : [0; ] [ 1;1] n iu gim cht c hm ngc
arccos : [ 1;1] [0; ] ;

x = arccos y y = cos x .
Hm ngc
arctg , arcotg c xc nh nh sau
x = arctg y y = tg x , x ( ; ), y ( 2 ; 2 ).
x = arc cot g y y = cot g x , x ( ; ), y (0; ) .
1.3.4
Hp (tch) ca hai nh x
X Y Z th tng ng x a g ( f ( x)) xc nh mt
nh x t X vo Z c gi l hp (hay tch) ca hai nh x f v g , k hiu g o f . Vy
g o f : X Z c cng thc xc nh nh
nh ngha 1.14: Vi hai nh x
g o f ( x) = g ( f ( x)) .
V d 1.22: Cho f :
(1.12)
, g:
vi cng thc xc nh nh
g ( x) = 2 x 2 + 4 . Ta c th thit lp hai hm hp g o f v f o g t
f ( x) = sin x,
vo .
f o g ( x) = sin( 2 x 2 + 4) , g o f ( x) = 2 sin 2 x + 4 .
Qua v d trn ta thy ni chung
giao hon.
18
f o g g o f , ngha l php hp nh x khng c tnh

Nu
f : X Y l mt song nh c nh x ngc f 1 : Y X , khi ta d dng
f 1 o f = Id X v f o f 1 = IdY . Hn na ta c th chng minh c

rng nh x f : X Y l mt song nh khi v ch khi tn ti nh x g : Y X sao cho
kim chng rng
g o f = Id X v f o g = IdY , lc g = f 1 .
1.3.5
Lc lng ca mt tp hp
Khi nim lc lng ca tp hp c th xem nh l s m rng khi nim s phn t ca

tp hp.
nh ngha 1.15: Hai tp hp
ln
X , Y c gi l cng lc lng nu tn ti song nh t X
Y.
{1,2,..., n} c gi l c lc lng n . Vy
X c lc lng
n khi v ch khi X c n phn t. n cn c gi l bn s ca X , k hiu Card X hay X .
Quy c lc lng ca l 0.
Tp cng lc lng vi tp
nh ngha 1.16: Tp c lc lng n hoc 0 c gi l cc tp hu hn. Tp khng hu

hn c gi l tp v hn. Tp c cng lc lng vi tp cc s t nhin hay hu hn c gi
l tp m c.
Ch 1.3:
1) Tp v hn m c l tp cng lc lng vi .
2) Bn thn tp
l tp v hn m c.
3) Ngi ta chng minh c

4) Gi s
l tp v hn m c, cn tp
khng m c.
X , Y l hai tp hu hn cng lc lng. Khi nh x f : X Y l n nh
khi v ch khi l ton nh, do l mt song nh.

1.4
1.4.1
GII TCH T HP- NH THC NEWTON

Hon v, php th
Cho tp hu hn E = {x1 , x2 ,... xn }. Mi song nh t
E ln E c gi l mt php
th, cn nh ca song nh ny c gi l mt hon v n phn t ca E .
Nu ta xp cc phn t ca
cc phn t ny.
c bit nu
E theo mt th t no th mi hon v l mt s i ch
E = {1,2,...n} th mi php th c k hiu bi ma trn
...
(1) (2) ... (n)
(1.13)
19
n sp theo th t tng dn, hng di l nh tng

ng ca n qua song nh . Cn [ (1), ( 2),..., ( n)] l hon v ca php th .
trong hng trn l cc s t 1 n
1 2 3 4
2 1 3] l hon v t php th =
c (1) = 4 ,
4 2 1 3
(2) = 2 , (3) = 1 , ( 4) = 3 .
V d 1.23: 4
{1,2} c hai hon v l [1 2] v [2 1].

Tp hp {1,2,3} c su hon v l [1 2 3] , [2 1 3] , [3 1 2], [1 3 2] , [2 3 1] v [3 2 1] .
Vi tp E = {x1 , x2 ,..., xn } th c n cch chn gi tr ( x1 ) , n 1 cch chn gi tr
Tp hp
( x2 ) .... cho mt php th

Vy c
1.4.2
bt k.
n(n 1)(n 2)...1 = n! hon v (php th) ca tp n phn t.
Chnh hp
Cho tp hp hu hn c
B = {1,2,..., p}.
n phn t E = {x1 , x2 ,..., xn } v tp hp hu hn
nh ngha 1.17: Mt chnh hp lp chp
p cc phn t ca E l nh ca mt nh x t
B n E .
p nh mt b gm p thnh phn l cc phn
t c th trng nhau ca E . Ni cch khc, mt chnh hp lp chp p l mt phn t ca tch
Ta cng c th xem mt chnh hp lp chp
Descartes
E p . Vy s cc chnh hp lp chp p ca n vt l n p .
n vt E = {x1 , x2 ,..., xn } v tin hnh bc c hon li p ln theo cch

sau: Bc ln th nht t tp E c xi , ta tr xi li cho E v bc tip ln th hai ... Mi kt
1
1
V d 1.24: Cho
qu sau
p ln bc xi1 , xi2 , ..., xi p l mt chnh hp c lp n chp p .
nh ngha 1.18: Mt chnh hp (khng lp) chp
p gm n phn t ca E ( p n) l
B vo E .
Hai chnh hp n chp p l khc nhau nu:
nh ca mt n nh t
hoc chng c t nht mt phn t khc nhau,

hoc gm
p phn t nh nhau nhng c th t khc nhau.
p thnh phn gm cc phn t khc

nhau ca E hay c th xem nh mt cch sp xp n phn t ca E vo p v tr.
Nh vy ta c th xem mi chnh hp l mt b c
20
n cch chn vo v tr th nht, n 1 cch chn vo v tr th hai, ... v n p + 1

cch chn vo v tr th p . Vy s cc chnh hp n chp p l
C
Anp = n(n 1)...(n p + 1) =

1.4.3
n!
(n p)!
(1.14)
T hp
n vt ca E chp p l mt cch ly ra ng thi p vt t

E c n vt. Nh vy ta c th xem mt t hp n chp p l mt tp con p phn t ca tp c
n phn t E .
nh ngha 1.19: Mt t hp
Nu ta hon v
p vt ca mt t hp th ta c cc chnh hp khc nhau ca cng p vt ny.
Vy ng vi mt t hp p vt c ng
hp
p! chnh hp ca p vt ny. K hiu Cnp l s cc t
n chp p th
Ap
n!
.
Cnp = n =
p!
p! (n p )!
(1.15)
V d 1.25: a) C bao nhiu cch bu mt lp trng, mt lp ph v mt b th chi on

m khng kim nhim ca mt lp c 50 hc sinh.
b) C bao nhiu cch bu mt ban chp hnh gm mt lp trng, mt lp ph v mt b
th chi on m khng kim nhim ca mt lp c 50 hc sinh.
Gii:
a) Mi kt qu bu l mt chnh hp 50 chp 3.
Vy c
3
A50
= 50 49 48 = 117.600 cch bu.
b) Mi kt qu bu mt ban chp hnh l mt t hp 50 chp 3.

Vy c
1.4.4
3
C50
=
50! 50 49 48
=
= 19.600 cch bu.
3!47!
6
Nh thc Niu-tn
Xt a thc bc
n : ( x + 1) n = ( x + 1)( x + 1)...( x + 1)
144424443
n tha s
Khai trin a thc ny ta c:
( x + 1) n = x n + an 1 x n 1 + an 2 x n 2 + ... + 1
21

H s ca
hp
x p bng s cch chn p tha s trong n tha s trn. Mi cch chn l mt t
n chp p , do a p = Cnp .
( x + 1) n = Cnn x n + Cnn 1 x n 1 + ... + Cnp x p + ... + Cn0
Vy
Thay x = a b (nu
b 0 ) ta c:
(a + b) = Cnn a n + Cnn 1a n 1b + ... + Cn0b n =

n
Cnp a p b n p
(1.16)
p =0
Cng thc ny c gi l nh thc Niu-tn, ng vi mi
a, b
(k c trng hp
b = 0 ).
1.4.5
S lc v php m
Khi mun m s phn t ca cc tp hu hn ta c th p dng cc cch m hon v,

chnh hp, t hp v cc cng thc sau:
a)
A B + A B = A + B ,
(cng thc cng)
(1.17)
b)
A B = A B ,
(cng thc nhn)
(1.18)
c)
{f
(chnh hp c lp)
(1.19)
d)
P ( A) = 2 A ,
: A B} = A
e) Nu
(1.20)
f : A B song nh th A = B .
(1.21)
Cng thc cng a) thng c s dng trong trng hp c bit khi A, B ri nhau
A B = , lc A B = A + B .
Cng thc nhn b) c th m rng cho k tp bt k
A1 ... Ak = A1 ... Ak
(1.22)
Hoc nu mt hnh ng H gm k giai on A1 ,..., Ak . Mi giai on Ai c th thc hin

theo ni phng n th c thy c n1 ... nk phng n thc hin H.
22

V d 1.26: Cho mch in
U3
U2
U1
a) C bao nhiu trng thi ca mch.

b) C bao nhiu trng thi c th ca mch c dng in chy t A n B
Gii:
p dng cng thc nhn ta c:
a) S cc trng thi ca mch
2 2.23.2 4 = 29 = 512 .
2 2 trng thi nhng c 1 trng thi dng in khng qua c, do U1
b) U1 c
c 3 trng thi dng in qua c. Tng t U 2 c 2 1 v U 3 c 2 1 trng thi

dng in qua c. Vy s cc trng thi ca mch c dng in chy t A n B l
3 7 15 = 315 .
V d 1.27: C bao nhiu s t nhin vit di dng thp phn c
n ch s ( n 3) trong
c ng hai ch s 8.
Gii: Gi s
ng hai ch s 8.
l s t nhin c
n ch s m ch s th nht bn tri khc ch s 0 v c
Trng hp 1: Nu ch s th nht bn tri l ch s 8 th c

th hai, c 9 cch chn cho mi ch s
n 1 v tr t ch s 8
n 2 v tr cn li. Vy c ng (n 1)9 n 2 s N
thuc loi ny.

Trng hp 2: Nu ch s th nht bn tri khng phi l ch s 8 th c
Cn21 v
tr t 2 ch s 8, c 8 cch chn ch s cho v tr th nht, c 9 cch chn cho mi ch

s n 3 v tr khc v tr th nht v hai v tr chn cho ch s 8. Vy c ng
Cn21 8 9 n 3 =
(n 1)(n 2)
8 9 n 3 s N thuc loi ny.
2
S dng cng thc cng ta suy ra s cc s t nhin cn tm l:
( n 1)9 n 2 + 4(n 1)(n 2)9 n 3 = (4n + 1)(n 1)9 n 3

23

V d 1.28: Trong mt phng cho
khc nhau ( n 4) .
n ng thng i mt ct nhau v cc giao im ny
a) Tm s cc giao im ca chng.
b) Tm s cc ng thng mi c to bi cc giao im trn.
Gii:
A
Dj
n=4
a) S cc giao im ca
Cn2
n ng thng bng s cc cp ca n ng thng ny. Vy c
giao im.
b) Xt ti im
ng trn i qua
A bt k trong Cn2 giao im ca cu a). Tn ti ng hai ng trong n
A l Di , D j ; i < j .
Trn mi ng c ng
Vy trn
n 1 im trong s Cn giao im ca cu a).
Di , D j c 2(n 1) 1 im, do c
Cn2 (2(n 1) 1) =
(n 2)(n 3)
ng thng mi ni n A . V mi ng
2
thng mi u ni hai im cu a) nn s ng thng mi l:
1 2 (n 2)(n 3) 1
Cn
= n(n 1)(n 2)(n 3) .
2
2
8
V d 1.29: Cho tp con
A c p phn t ca tp E c n phn t. Hy m s cc cp
( X , Y ) cc tp con ca E sao cho:

24
X Y = E, X Y A
Gii: K hiu
(1.23)
B = E \ A.
A = {( X ,Y ) X Y = E, X Y A }
B = {( X ',Y ') X ' B,Y ' B ; X 'Y ' = B }

Tng ng f : A B ; f ( X , Y ) a ( X B, Y B ) l mt song nh.
Mt khc
X ' B,Y ' B, X 'Y ' = B B \ X ' Y ' .
Vy s cc cp
( X , Y ) tho mn iu kin (1.23) cn tm bng bn s ca tp
{( X ", Y ' ) X " B, Y ' B, X " Y '}.

Vi mi tp
con
Y ' B c bn s y ' th bn s ca tp {X " X " Y '} l 2 y ' ; S cc tp
Y ' B c y ' phn t l C ny' p . p dng cng thc cng suy ra bn s cn tm l
n p
2 y' Cny' p = 3n p .
y'= 0
1.5
1.5.1
CC CU TRC I S
Lut hp thnh trong
nh ngha 1.20: Mt lut hp thnh trong trn tp
X l nh x t X X vo X .
*: X X X
Ta thng k hiu
( x, y ) a x * y
Lut hp thnh trong kt hp hai phn t
x, y ca X thnh mt phn t x y ca X v
vy lut hp thnh trong cn c gi l php ton hai ngi.

V d 1.30: Php cng v php nhn l cc lut hp thnh trong ca cc tp s ,
, ,
.
V d 1.31: Php cng vc t theo quy tc hnh bnh hnh l php ton trong ca tp
R3
cc vc t t do trong khng gian, nhng tch v hng khng phi l php ton trong v
r r r r
r r
u v = u v cos(u , v ) R3 .
nh ngha 1.21: Lut hp thnh trong * ca tp

1) C tnh kt hp nu
X c gi l:
x, y, z X : x ( y z ) = ( x y ) z
25

2) C tnh giao hon nu
x, y X : x y = y x
3) C phn t trung ho (hay c phn t n v) l
e X nu
x X : x e = e x = x
4) Gi s * c phn t trung ho
ca x X nu x x' = x' x = e .
e X . Phn t x' X c gi l phn t i xng
Ta d dng thy rng phn t trung ho c phn t i xng l chnh n.

Cc php hp thnh trong hai v d trn u c tnh kt hp v giao hon. S 0 l phn t
trung ho i vi php cng v 1 l phn t trung ho i vi php nhn trong. Vc t
t trung ho ca php ton cng vc t trong
r
0 l phn
R3 . i vi php cng th mi phn t x
trong
x . Phn t i ca x 0 ng vi php nhn trong , ,

1 x , nhng mi phn t khc 0 trong vi php + khng c phn t i.
,
u c phn t i l
,
l
Tnh cht 1.4:

1) Phn t trung ho nu tn ti l duy nht.
2) Nu * c tnh kt hp, th phn t i ca mi phn t l duy nht.
3) Nu * c tnh kt hp v phn t a c phn t i th c lut gin c:
a x = a y x = y v phng trnh a x = b c duy nht nghim x = a 'b vi a' l
phn t i ca
a.
Chng minh:
1) Gi s e v e' l hai phn t trung ho th e' = e'e = e (du "=" th nht c c do

l phn t trung ho, cn du "=" th hai l do e' l phn t trung ho).
2) Gi s
a c hai phn t i xng l a' v a" , khi :
a ' = e a ' = (a"a ) a ' = a"(a a ' ) = a"e = a" .

Theo thi quen ta thng k hiu cc lut hp thnh trong c tnh giao hon bi du "+" ,
khi phn t trung ho c k hiu l 0 v phn t i ca x l x . Nu k hiu lut hp
thnh bi du nhn
ca
"." th phn t trung ho c k hiu 1 v gi l phn t n v, phn t i
x l x .
1.5.2
Nhm
nh ngha 1.22: Gi s
G l tp khc trng vi lut hp thnh *, cp (G,*) c gi l
mt v nhm nu tho mn hai iu kin sau:

G1: * c tnh kt hp.
26

G2: * c phn t trung ho
V nhm
(G,*) l mt nhm nu tho mn thm iu kin:
G3: Mi phn t ca
Nhm
e.
G u c phn t i.
(G,*) c gi l nhm giao hon hay nhm Abel nu :
G4: * c tnh giao hon.

V d 1.32: (
,+ ) , ( ,+ ) , ( ,+ ) , ( ,+ ) , ( R3 ,+ ) , ( *,) , ( *,) , ( *+ ,) ,
( *+ ,) , ( *,) l cc nhm Abel.

Ch 1.5: Mt nhm l tp khc rng G vi lut hp thnh * tho mn G1, G2, G3,
nhng nu * xc nh v khng s nhm ln th ta ni tt nhm G thay cho nhm (G,*) .
nh ngha 1.23: ng cu nhm t nhm
(G,*) vo nhm (G ' , ) l nh x f : G G '
sao cho
x, y G : f ( x y ) = f ( x) f ( y ) .
Nu
(1.24)
f n nh (ton nh, song nh) th f c gi l n cu (ton cu, ng cu, mt
cch tng ng).
log a : *+ ; 0 < a 1 l mt ng cu nhm t nhm ( *+ ,) ln nhm ( ,+ ) .

1.5.3
Vnh
nh ngha 1.24: Gi s trn tp
v du nhn, khi
A1:
A c hai lut hp thnh trong k hiu bi du cng
( A,+,) c gi l mt vnh nu:
( A,+) l mt nhm Abel,
A2: Lut nhn c tnh kt hp,

A3: Lut nhn c tnh phn phi hai pha i vi lut cng, ngha l:
x, y, z A : x ( y + z ) = x y + x z
phn phi bn tri
x, y, z A : ( x + y ) z = x z + y z
phn phi bn phi
Nu tho mn thm iu kin:

A4: Lut nhn c tnh giao hon th
( A,+,) l vnh giao hon.
A5: Lut nhn c phn t n v l 1 th
( A,+,) l vnh c n v.
27

Ch 1.6:
1) Tn ti vnh giao hon nhng khng c n v v ngc li.
2) Ta ni tt vnh
A thay cho vnh ( A,+,) .
nh ngha 1.25:
x 0 ca A c gi l c ca 0 nu tn ti y A, y 0 sao cho
x y = 0 ( 0 l phn t trung ho ca lut cng ca vnh ( A,+,) ).
1) Phn t
2) Vnh khng c c ca
c gi l vnh nguyn.
( A,+,) l vnh nguyn khi v ch khi mi x, y A sao cho x y = 0 th

x = 0 hoc y = 0 .
Vy vnh
V d 1.33:
1)
( ,+,) l mt vnh nguyn.
2) K hiu
C[ a ;b ]
v php nhn trong
l tp hp cc hm lin tc trn on
[a; b] . Ta nh ngha php cng
C[ a ;b ] xc nh nh sau:
f , g C[ a;b] : ( f + g )( x) = f ( x) + g ( x); fg ( x) = f ( x) g ( x)
Ta c th kim chng c rng vi hai php ton ny th
C[ a;b] l mt vnh giao hon c
n v v c c ca 0.
3)
(K [x],+,) l mt vnh nguyn, trong K[x] l tp cc a thc ca bin x
thuc vo vnh s
4) Tp
K=
n =
c h s
, , , .
mod n cc s ng d mul n .
Ta c th chng minh c rng nu
x x' (mod n) , y y ' (mod n) th
x + y x'+ y ' (mod n) v xy x' y ' (mod n) . V vy ta c th nh ngha php cng v php
nhn trong
n bi:
x + y = x + y v x y = x y
Chng hn
(1.25)
5(mod 7) + 4(mod 7) = 2(mod 7)
5(mod 7) 4(mod 7) = 1(mod 7) = 6(mod 7) .

Vi hai php ton ny
28
n ,+ ,) l mt vnh giao hon c n v.

1.5.4
Trng
nh ngha 1.26: Vnh giao hon c n v
( K ,+,) c gi l mt trng nu mi phn
x 0 ca K u kh nghch (c phn t i ca lut nhn). Ngha l:

K1:
( K ,+ ) l nhm Abel,
K2:
( K *,) l nhm Abel, K * = K \ {0} ,
K3: Lut nhn phn phi i vi lut cng.

R rng rng mi trng l vnh nguyn, nhng iu ngc li khng ng.
( ,+,)
mt v d v vnh giao hon nguyn c n v nhng khng phi l trng.

V d 1.34: ( ,+ ,) , ( ,+,) , ( ,+ ,) l trng.
V d 1.35: (
n ,+,) l trng khi v ch khi
l s nguyn t.
Gii:
Gi s
n , m 0 (mod n) th ( m, n) = 1 do tn ti hai
l s nguyn t v m
u, v sao cho um + vn = 1 (nh l Bezout) u m = 1 (mod n) . Vy u l phn

t nghch o ca m .
s nguyn
Ngc li, nu
n l trng th vi mi m
( 0 < m < n ) tn ti m '
sao cho:
m m ' = 1 mm' = 1 + kn (m, n) = 1

Vy
1.6
n l s nguyn t.
I S BOOLE
L thuyt i s Boole c George Boole (1815 - 1864) gii thiu vo nm 1854 trong bi
bo "Cc quy lut ca t duy", trong k thut i s c dng phn tch cc quy lut ca
lgch v cc phng php suy din. Sau i s Boole c p dng trong cc lnh vc khc
nhau ca ton hc nh i s, gii tch, xc sut... Vo khong nm 1938, Claude Shannon (Clau
S-nn) ( mt k s vin thng ngi M) l ngi u tin p dng i s Boole vo lnh vc
my tnh in t v l thuyt mng.
1.6.1
nh ngha v cc tnh cht c bn ca i s Boole

nh ngha 1.27: Mt i s Boole
hai ngi
, : B B B
v php ton mt ngi

B1:
( B,,, ' ) l mt tp khc trng B vi hai php ton
': B B
tho mn cc tin sau:
, c tnh kt hp, ngha l vi mi a, b, c B

29
a (b c) = (a b) c, a (b c) = (a b) c
B2:
, c tnh giao hon, ngha l vi mi a, b B
a b = b a, a b = b a
B3: Tn ti cc phn t khng v phn t n v
0,1 B sao cho 0 1 v vi mi
a B a 0 = a, a 1 = a
a B th a ' B l phn t i theo ngha l:
a a ' = 1, a a' = 0
B4: Vi mi
B5: Lut
mi
a, b, c B
phn phi i vi lut
v lut
phn phi i vi lut
, ngha l vi
a (b c) = (a b) (a c), a (b c) = (a b) (a c) .
V d 1.36: Gi s
X , xt
P ( X ) l tp cc tp con ca
, l php hp, php giao cc tp con ca X

X . Khi
n v l chnh tp X .
tp con trong
X . Cc lut hp thnh
v php ton mt ngi ' l php ly phn b ca
(P ( X ),,, ') l i s Boole vi phn t
khng l
v phn t
V d 1.37: Xt B2 = {0;1} tp gm hai s 0 v 1. Ta nh ngha:
a b = max(a, b) , a b = min(a, b) , a ' = 1 a

th
( B2 ,,, ' )
l mt i s Boole.
V d 1.38: Xt B4 = { 0;1; a; b }, ta nh ngha cc php ton
0 1 a
0 0 1 a
1 1 1 1
a a 1 a
b b 1 1
0 1 a
0 0 0 0
1 0 1 a
a 0 a a
b 0 b 0
b
b
1
1
b
b
0
b
0
b
0
1
a
b
'
1
0
b
a
th ( B4 , ,, ' ) l i s Boole.
nh ngha 1.28: Hai cng thc Boole trong i s Boole
nu trong mt cng thc ta thay
V d 1.39: Hai cng thc
30
( B,,, ' ) c gi l i ngu
,,0,1, bng ,,1,0 th ta c cng thc hai.

x ( y 1) v x ( y 0) l i ngu.

Trong mi tin ca h tin B1-B5 ca i s Boole u cha tng cp cng thc i
ngu nhau, v vy ta c nguyn l i ngu sau:
Nguyn l i ngu: Nu mt cng thc ca i s Boole c chng minh l ng da
trn c s h tin B1-B5 th cng thc i ngu ca chng cng ng.
Chng hn, ta s chng minh
a 0 = 0.
Tnh cht 1.7: Gi s
vi mi
a 1 = 1 , do theo nguyn l i ngu ta cng c
( B,,, ' ) l i s Boole vi phn t khng v n v l 0, 1 th
a, b B ta c:
1)
a a = a, a a = a;
2)
0' = 1 , 1' = 0 ;
3)
a 1 = 1, a 0 = 0 ;
4)
a ( a b) = a , a ( a b) = a ;
5) Nu tn ti
6) Nu
7)
(tnh hp thu)
c B sao cho a c = b c v a c = b c th a = b ;
a b = 1 v a b = 0 th b = a' ; (tnh duy nht ca phn b)
(a b)' = a 'b' v (a b)' = a 'b' .
(cng thc De Morgan)
Chng minh:
Theo nguyn l i ngu ta ch cn chng minh cc ng thc th nht t 1)-7).
1)
2)
a =a0
= a (a a' )
theo B4
= (a a) (a a' )
theo B5
= (a a) 1
theo B4
=aa
theo B3
0' = 0'0
theo B3
=1
3)
theo B3
a 1 = a (a a' )
theo B2,B4
theo B4
= (a a) a'
theo B1
= a a'
theo 1)
=1
theo B4
31

4)
a (a b) = (a 1) (a b)
theo B3
= a (1 b)
theo B5
= a 1
theo 1)
=a
5)
theo B3
a = a (a c)
theo 4)
= a (b c)
= ( a b) ( a c )
theo B5
= (a b) (b c)
= b (a c)
theo B5
= b (b c)
=b
6) V
ac =bc
ac =bc
ac =bc
theo 4)
a b = 1 = a a ' v a b = 0 = a a ' , theo 5) suy ra b = a' .
7) Ta d dng kim chng
(a b) (a 'b' ) = 1 v (a b) (a 'b' ) = 0 , p dng 6)
suy ra iu phi chng minh.

p dng cc tnh cht ny cng vi h tin B1-B5 ta c th n gin ho cc cng thc
Boole bt k.
V d 1.40: n gin ho cng thc Boole
( x y ) ( x y ' ) ( x' y ) .
Gii:
Ta c
( x y) ( x y' ) = x ( y y' ) = x 1 = x .
( x y ) ( x y ' ) ( x' y )
= x ( x' y ) = ( x x' ) y = 1 y = 1.
V d 1.41: n gin ho cng thc Boole ( x y ' ) x ( y z )' z .

Gii:
Ta c
( x y ' ) [x ( y z )'] z
= ( x y ' ) [( x y ' ) ( x z ' )] z
= ( x y ' ) ( x z ' ) z = ( x y ' ) [( x z ) ( z ' z )]
32
= ( x y ' ) [( x z ) 1]
= ( x y ' ) ( x z ) = [( x y ' ) x ] z = x z .
V d 1.42: n gin cng thc
Gii: Ta c
( x y z ) ( x y z ' ) ( x' y z )
( x y z ) ( x y z ' ) ( x' y z )
= [( x y z ) ( x y z ' )] [( x y z ) ( x' y z )]
= [( x y ) ( z z ' )] [( y z ) ( x x ' )]
= ( x y) ( y z) = y ( x z) .
1.6.2
ng dng i s Boole vo mng chuyn mch (switching networks)
Ta ch xt cc mng gm cc chuyn mch c hai trng thi ng (dng in i qua c)

v m (dng in khng qua c). Hai mng n gin nht l mng song song c bn (basic
parallel network) v mng ni tip c bn (basic series network) c m t trong hnh v sau:
y
mng song song c bn (hnh 1)
mng ni tip c bn (hnh 2)
Mt mng bt k c th nhn c bng cch ghp ni tip hay song song cc mng c bn
ny.
Ta k hiu cc chuyn mch bi cc ch
x, y, z ,... . Nu x trng thi m ta x cho nhn
gi tr 0 v trng thi ng ta cho x nhn gi tr 1. Trong mt mng nu hai chuyn mch lun
cng trng thi th ta k hiu cng mt ch. Hai chuyn mch c trng thi lun ngc nhau, nu
mt chuyn mch c k hiu l x th chuyn mch kia c k hiu l x' .
Mng song song (hnh 1) nhn gi tr 1 khi c t nht mt trong hai chuyn mch
x, y nhn
x y . Cn mng ni tip (hnh 2) nhn gi tr 1 khi c hai chuyn mch

x, y nhn gi tr 1, ta k hiu x y . Nh vy x' , x y, x y c th c xem nh cc bin
gi tr 1, ta k hiu
nhn gi tr trong i s Boole B2 (v d 1.37). Bng phng php ny ta c th m t mt mng

bt k bi mt cng thc Boole v ngc li. Chng hn mng sau y:
33
y'
x
tng ng vi cng thc
Cn cng thc Boole
( y z ) ( x y' ) .
( x z ) ( y z ) ( y ' x) m t mng:
y'
Ch rng trong cc cng thc cn xt ta thay
( x y )' bi x' y ' v ( x y )' bi
x' y ' .
Hai mng N1 v N2 c gi l tng ng nu n thc hin cng mt chc nng, ngha
l vi bt k cch chn cc trng thi ng m mi v tr chuyn mch trong mng th trng thi
u vo v u ra ca N1 v N2 u nh nhau.
Ta c th p dng i s Boole gii quyt hai vn sau:
1.6.3
Vi mt mng cho trc tm mng tng ng n gin hn

V d 1.43: Tm mng tng ng n gin hn ca mng sau
x
y
y
w
] [
Cng thc Boole tng ng: ( x z ) y (( x w) w ) y .

34
( x w) w = w (lut hp thu), do cng thc trn c th bin i thnh

[( x z ) y ] [w y ] = ( x z w) y .
Ta c
Vy ta c mng tng ng n gin hn
z
w
V d 1.43: Tm mng tng ng n gin hn ca mng sau:
y
x
z'
Cng thc Boole tng ng: ( z x ) ( x ( y z ' ) ) ( z x ) ( z y ) .
Ta c ( z x ) ( x ( y z ' ) ) ( z x ) ( z y )
= [( z x ) (( x y ) ( x z ' ) )] [z ( x y )]
= [( x ( z z ' ) ) ( x y )] [z ( x y )]
= x [ z ( x y ) ] = ( x z ) [x ( x y ) ]
= ( x z) ( x y) = x ( z y)
Vy ta c mng tng ng n gin hn
y
35

1.6.4
Thit k mt mng tho mn cc iu kin cho trc
V d 1.45: Thit k mt mng in cho mt bng n cu thang m c th bt tt c hai

u cu thang.
Gii:
x v y l hai cng tc hai u cu thang. Theo yu cu t ra ta cn thit k mt

mng in sao cho khi thay i trng thi ca mt trong hai v tr x, y th trng thi ca u ra
Gi
(bng n) phi thay i.

Ta bit rng, mi mnh logic cng nhn hai gi tr, v vy ta c th xem mnh nh
mt bin nhn gi tr trong B2 (v d 1.37). Ta bit rng mnh x y cha hai mnh
x, y v mnh ny thay i gi tr khi mt trong hai mnh x hay y thay i gi tr. Mc d

mnh x y hay ( x y ) ( y x ) khng phi l cng thc Boole nhng n c cng
thc tng ng di dng cng thc Boole ( x' y ) ( y ' x ) . Ta c:
( x' y ) ( y ' x) = [x'( y ' x )] [ y ( y ' x)] = ( x' y ' ) ( y x) .
Vy mng cn tm l
36
x'
y'
Chng 2: Khng gian Vc t
2. CHNG 2: KHNG GIAN VC T

2.1
2.1.1
KHI NIM KHNG GIAN VC T

nh ngha v cc v d
nh ngha 2.1: Gi s V l tp khc
t trn trng
, K
K nu c hai php ton:
- Php ton trong
+: V V V
(u , v) a u + v
- Php ton ngoi
: K V V
( , u ) a u
tho mn cc tin sau vi mi

V1)
l mt trng. V c gi l khng gian vc
u, v, w V v , K
(u + v) + w = u + (v + w)
V2) C
0 V sao cho u + 0 = 0 + u = u
V3) Vi mi
u V c u V sao cho u + (u ) = (u ) + u = 0
V4) u + v = v + u
V5)
( + )u = u + u
V6)
(u + v) = u + v
V7)
( )u = ( u )
V8)
1u = u , trong 1 l phn t n v ca K .
Khi
K = th V c gi l khng gian vc t thc.
Khi K = th V th c gi l khng gian vc t phc.

Cc phn t ca
v hng.
c gi l cc vc t, cc phn t ca
c gi l cc phn t
37

Bn tin u chng t
(V ,+) l nhm Abel. Tin V5),V6) ni rng php nhn s v
hng vi vc t phn phi i vi php cng ca s v hng v php cng vc t. Tin V7)
l tnh kt hp ca tch cc s v hng vi php nhn vi vc t.
R3
V d 2.1: Tp
cc vc t t do trong khng gian (trong ta ng nht cc vc t
tng ng: cc vc t cng phng, cng hng, cng di). Xt php cng hai vc t theo
quy tc hnh bnh hnh v tch mt s thc vi mt vc t theo ngha thng thng th
R3
khng gian vc t thc.

V d 2.2: Gi s
l mt trng, xt
K n = x = ( x1 ,..., xn ) xi K , i = 1, n
( x1,..., xn ) + ( y1,..., y n ) = ( x1 + y1 ,..., xn + y n )
Ta nh ngha:
( x1,..., xn ) = (x1,..., xn ) , K
D dng kim chng li hai php ton ny tho mn 8 tin ca khng gian vc t c vc
t khng l
0 = (0,...,0) .
123
n phn t
Khi
K = ta c khng gian vc t thc n .

K = ta c khng gian vc t phc n .
V d 2.3: Gi
C[a,b] l tp cc hm lin tc trn on [a, b] . Ta nh ngha php
ton cng v nhn vi s thc nh sau:
( f + g )(t ) = f (t ) + g (t ) , (f )(t ) = f (t ) , t [a, b]

R rng
f + g , f C[a, b] , f , g C[a,b ] , .
Vi hai php ton ny
0 (t ) = 0, t [a, b].
V d 2.4: Gi
Pn
C[a,b] c cu trc khng gian vc t thc vi vc t khng l
l tp cc a thc bc
n, n
l s nguyn dng cho trc:
Pn = p p = a0 + a1t + ... + an t n ; a0 , a1,..., an .

Ta nh ngha php cng hai a thc v php nhn mt s vi mt a thc nh php cng
hm s v php nhn mt s vi hm s trong V d 2.3 th
khng l a thc
38
0.
Pn
l khng gian vc t vi vc t

V d 2.5: Gi
P=
l tp cc a thc
U Pn = {p p = a0 + a1t + ... + ant n ; a0 , a1,..., an , n + }
n +
Ta nh ngha php cng l php cng hai a thc v php nhn vi mt s vi a thc theo
ngha thng thng V d 2.4 th
2.1.2
P l khng gian vc t v Pn P vi mi n + .
Tnh cht
1) V
(V ,+) l mt nhm Abel nn vc t 0 v vc t i u ca u l duy nht vi mi
u V .
2) C lut gin c: u + v = u + w v = w .
3) Vi mi
u V , 0u = 0 , (1)u = u .
4) Vi mi K , 0
5) Nu u
=0.
= 0 th = 0 hoc u = 0 .
Chng minh:
1) 2) Xem Tnh cht 1.4.
3) Vi mi
u V , (0 + 0)u = 0u + 0u . Mt khc (0 + 0)u = 0u = 0u + 0 .
Theo lut gin c ta c

Tng t vi mi
Suy ra
4)
0u = 0 .
u V , u + (u ) = 0 = 0u = (1 1)u = 1u + (1)u .
(1)u = u .
0 + 0 = 0 = (0 + 0) = 0 + 0 0 = 0, K .
5) Nu u
= 0 v gi s 0 1 K
0 = 1 0 = 1 (u ) = ( 1 )u = 1u = u .
T nh ngha ca khng gian vc t ta c th m rng cc khi nim sau:
1) Ta nh ngha
u v := u + (v) , khi
u +v = w u = wv.
2) Do tnh kt hp ca php cng nn ta c th nh ngha theo qui np:
uk = u1 + ... + un = (u1 + ... + un 1) + un .
k =1
39
Tng t
k uk = 1u1 + ... + nun = (1u1 + ... + n 1un 1) + nun
k =1
biu thc ny c gi l mt t hp tuyn tnh ca cc vc t u1 ,..., u n .

T y tr i ta ch hn ch xt cc khng gian vc t thc.
2.2
2.2.1
KHNG GIAN VC T CON

nh ngha v v d
(V ,+,.) l khng gian vc t. Tp con W ca V sao cho

hai php ton t V thu hp vo W tr thnh khng gian vc t (tho mn cc tin V1-V8) th
W c gi l khng gian vc t con ca V (hay ni tt: khng gian con ca V ).
nh ngha 2.2: Gi s
V c th thu hp c vo W th cc
tin V1-V8 lun tho mn, do W l khng gian vc t con ca V .
nh l sau y ch ra rng nu 2 php ton trong
nh l 2.2: Gi s
(i)
W l tp con khc rng ca V . Ba mnh sau y tng ng:
W khng gian vc t con ca V .
(ii) Vi mi
u, v W , vi mi th u + v W , u W
(iii) Vi mi
u, v W , vi mi , th u + v W .
Chng minh: (i) (ii): Hin nhin theo nh ngha.

(ii) (iii): Vi mi
u, v W , vi mi , th u W , v W
u + v W .
(iii) (i):
u, v W , : u + v = 1u + 1v W , u = u + 0u W .
V vo W . Hn na W
u W 0 = 0u + 0u W ( tin V2), vi mi u W , u = 0u + (1)u W (tin
V3), cc tin cn li hin nhin ng. Vy W l khng gian vc t con ca V .
Vy php cng v php nhn vi s thc thu hp c t
V d 2.6: T nh l trn ta thy rng mi khng gian vc t con ca V u phi cha vc
0 ca V . Hn na tp {0} ch gm vc t khng v chnh V cng l cc khng gian vc t
con ca V .
V d 2.7: Tp
40
{x = ( x1, x2 ,0) x1, x2 } 3 l khng gian con ca 3 .
C[a,b]0 = {f C[a,b] f (a) = 0} l khng gian con ca C [a, b],

nhng tp C[a,b] = {f C[a,b ] f (a ) = 1} khng l khng gian con ca C[a, b ] .
1
V d 2.8: Tp
V d 2.9:
thc bc
2.2.2
n.
Pn
l khng gian con ca
Pm
nu
n m , trong Pn
l khng gian cc a
Khng gian con sinh bi mt h vc t

nh l 2.3: Nu
(Wi )iI
l h cc khng gian con ca
V th
IWi
cng l khng gian
iI
con ca V .
Chng minh: p dng nh l 2.2. ta d dng suy ra iu cn chng minh.
S bt k ca V lun tn ti khng gian con

W b nht ca V cha S . W chnh l giao ca tt c cc khng gian con ca V cha S .
T nh l 2.3 suy ra rng vi mi tp con
W b nht cha S c gi l khng gian sinh bi h S , k

hiu W = spanS , v S c gi l h sinh ca W .
nh ngha 2.4: Khng gian
nh l 2.4: W
= spanS bng tp hp tt c cc t hp tuyn tnh ca S .
W ' l tp tt c cc t hp tuyn tnh ca S . Ta chng minh W ' l

khng gian con b nht cha S .
Chng minh: Gi
(i) Vi mi
u S th u = 1u W ' vy S W ' .
(ii) u W ' , v W ' , u = 1u1 + ... + n u n , v = 1v1 + ... +
m vm W '
vi u1 ,..., u n , v1 ,..., vm S .
Do
u + v = 1u1 + ... + n u n + 1v1 + ... + m vm W '
W ' l khng gian con ca V cha S . Gi s W " l khng gian con ca V cha S .
Vi mi u W ' , u = 1u1 + ... + n u n , u1 ,..., u n S . V W " cha S nn
Vy
u1 ,..., u n W " u = 1u1 + ... + n u n W " . Do W ' W " . Ni cch khc W ' l
khng gian con nh nht ca V cha
2.2.3
S . Vy W ' = W = spanS .
Tng ca mt h khng gian vc t con

Gi s W1 ,..., Wn l n khng gian con ca V . S dng nh l 2.2 ta chng minh c tp
{u1 + ... + un V
ui Wi , i = 1,..., n} cng l mt khng gian vc t con ca V . Ta gi
khng gian vc t con ny l tng ca cc khng gian con W1 ,..., Wn v k hiu W1 + ... + Wn .
41
u W1 + ... + Wn u = u1 + ... + u n , ui Wi ; i = 1,..., n . (2.1)
Vy
Tuy nhin, ni chung cch vit trn khng duy nht .

Ta c th chng minh c
W1 + ... + Wn = span (W1 ... Wn )
(2.2)
Mt cch tng qut ta nh ngha tng ca mt h cc khng gian vc t con nh sau.

nh ngha 2.5: Nu
UWi
iI
(Wi )iI
l h cc khng gian con ca
c gi l tng ca cc khng gian Wi , k hiu
Vy
Wi = span ( UWi ) .
i I
V . Khng gian con sinh bi
Wi .
iI
Theo nh l 2.4 ta c
i I
Wi = {ui1 + ... + uik
iI
ui j Wi j , i j I , j = 1,..., k ; k = 1, 2, ... .
(2.3)
nh ngha 2.6: Nu mi u W1 + ... + Wn c vit mt cch duy nht di dng
u = u1 + ... + u n , ui Wi , i = 1,..., n th tng cc khng gian con ny c gi l tng trc

tip. Lc ta k hiu W1 ... Wn .
nh l 2.5: Gi s W1 ,W2 l hai khng gian con ca
ny l tng trc tip W1 W2 khi v ch khi W1 W2
V , khi tng hai khng gian con
= {0} .
Chng minh:
(): Gi s W1 W2 , v W1 W2 th
duy nht suy ra
v = 0 . Vy W1 W2 = {0} .
(): Gi s
v = 0 + v = v + 0 W1 W2 . Do cch vit
u = u1 + u 2 = v1 + v2 W1 + W2 th
u1 v1 = v 2 u 2 W1 W2 = {0} u1 = v1 , u 2 = v2 .
Vy tng ca hai khng gian con l tng trc tip W1 W2 .
2.3
C LP TUYN TNH, PH THUC TUYN TNH
Ta xt cc h vc t c tnh cht l nu mt vc t bt k biu din c thnh t hp tuyn

tnh ca h ny th cch vit l duy nht.
42

nh ngha 2.7: Cho h n vc t S = {u1 ,..., u n } ca V (cc vc t ny c th trng nhau).
H
S c gi l c lp tuyn tnh nu t:
1u1 + ... + n u n = 0 ,1 ,..., n
th
1 = ... = n = 0 .
H khng c lp tuyn tnh c gi l ph thuc tuyn tnh.
S = {u1,..., u n } ph thuc tuyn tnh khi v ch khi ta c th tm c

1,..., n khng ng thi bng 0 sao cho 1u1 + ... + n u n = 0 .
Vy h
{e1, e2 }
e1 = (1,0), e2 = (0,1) 2 l c lp, v nu

1e1 + 2 e2 = (1 , 2 ) = (0,0) th 1 = 2 = 0 .
V d 2.10: H
trong
V d 2.11: H cha vc t
H hai vc t
0 l h ph thuc tuyn tnh.
{u1,u 2 } l h ph thuc tuyn tnh khi v ch khi chng t l, ngha l
u1 = u 2 hay u 2 = u1 .
Trong
R2 hai vc t ph thuc tuyn tnh khi v ch khi cng phng.
Trong R3 ba vc t ph thuc tuyn tnh khi v ch khi ng phng.

Tnh cht 2.6:
1) H vc t cha h con ph thuc tuyn tnh l h ph thuc tuyn tnh. V vy, mi h
con ca h c lp tuyn tnh l h c lp tuyn tnh.
2) Mt h vc t l ph thuc tuyn tnh khi v ch khi c mt vc t l t hp tuyn tnh
ca cc vc t cn li.
3) Gi s h {v1 ,..., vn } c lp tuyn tnh. Khi h {v1 ,..., vn , u} ph thuc tuyn
tnh khi v ch khi u l t hp tuyn tnh ca cc vc t {v1 ,..., vn } , khi ta c th biu din
duy nht
u = 1v1 + ... + n vn .
Chng minh: Ta chng minh 3).

(): suy t 2).
(): Gi s {v1 ,..., vn , u} ph thuc khi tn ti cc s
1 ' v1 + ... + n ' vn + u = 0 ,
0 , u = 1 v1 ... n vn .
ng thi bng 0 sao cho
Hn na gi s
1 ' ,..., n ' ,
v h
{v1,..., vn }
khng
c lp nn
u = 1v1 + ... + n vn th
43
'
'
'
'
0 = u u = ( 1 + 1 )v1 + ... + ( n + n )vn 1 + 1 = ... = n + n = 0
Do
2.4
2.4.1
'
'
1 = 1 ,..., n = n . Vy cch vit trn l duy nht.
HNG CA MT H HU HN CC VC T
H con c lp tuyn tnh ti i
S cc vc t ca khng gian vc t V . H con {v1 ,..., vn } ca h

S c gi l c lp tuyn tnh ti i ca S nu n l h c lp tuyn tnh v nu thm bt k
vc t no ca S th ta c h ph thuc tuyn tnh.
nh ngha 2.8: Cho h
Ni ring h {v1 ,..., vn } l h c lp tuyn tnh ti i ca

v nu thm bt k vc t khc ca V ta c h mi l ph thuc.
V nu h {v1 ,..., vn } c lp
Tnh cht 2.7:

1) Nu S ' l h con c lp tuyn tnh ti i ca h S th mi vc t ca S l t hp
tuyn tnh cc vc t ca S ' v cch biu din thnh t hp tuyn tnh l duy nht (iu ny suy
t tnh cht 2.6 - 3)).
2) Gi s {v1 ,..., vn } l h con c lp tuyn tnh ca mt h hu hn S . Khi ta c th
b sung thm c mt h con c lp tuyn tnh ti i ca S cha {v1 ,..., vn } .
Tht vy, nu {v1 ,..., vn } khng ti i th tn ti mt vc t ca
cho h {v1 ,..., vn , vn +1} c lp tuyn tnh. Lp lun tng t v v h
S , ta k hiu vn +1 , sao
S hu hn nn qu trnh
b sung thm ny s dng li, cui cng ta c h {v1 ,..., vn , vn +1 ,..., vn + k } c lp tuyn
tnh ti i ca S .
2.4.2
Hng ca mt h hu hn cc vc t
B 2.8 (nh l th Steinitz (Xti-nt)): Nu h S c lp tuyn tnh c n vc t v mi

vc t ca S l t hp tuyn tnh cc vc t ca h R c k vc t th n k .
Chng minh: Gi s S = {v1,..., vn }, R = {u1 ,..., u k }. Ta s chng minh rng c th
R bng cc vc t ca h S c cc h R1 , R2 ,... m mi vc t
ca h S vn cn l t hp tuyn tnh ca R1 , R2 ,....
thay dn cc vc t ca h
Tht vy, ta c v1 = 1u1 + ... + k u k , v1 0 (v S c lp) nn 1 ,..., k

khng ng thi bng 0, ta gi s 1 0 (c th nh li s th t ca R ), suy ra
u1 =
44
v1 2 u 2 ... k u k .
1

Xt h R1 = {v1 , u 2 ,..., u k }. R rng mi vc t ca
S vn cn l t hp tuyn tnh cc
vc t ca R1 .
2u 2 + ... + k u k , v {v1, v2 } c lp nn 2 ,..., k

2 0 .
Tng t ta c v2 = 1v1 +
khng ng thi bng 0, ta gi s
Khi
u2 =
v2 1 v1 3 u3 ... k u k .
2
Xt h R2 = {v1 , v2 , u3 ,..., u k } , mi vc t ca
S cng l t hp tuyn tnh cc vc t
ca R2 .
n > k , tip tc qu trnh ny cui cng ta c mi vc t ca S l t hp tuyn tnh

cc vc t ca h Rk = {v1 , v2 ,..., vk }, l h con ca S . iu ny mu thun vi gi thit h
Nu
S c lp tuyn tnh. Vy n k .
nh l 2.9: Mi h con c lp tuyn tnh ti i ca h hu hn
c s phn t bng nhau.
Chng minh: Gi s
S cc vc t ca V u
{vi1 ,..., vik } v {v j1 ,..., v jn } l hai h con c lp tuyn tnh ti
S . T tnh ti i ca mi h, suy ra rng mi vc t ca h ny l t hp tuyn tnh

cc vc t ca h kia. Do n k v k n , vy n = k .
i ca h
nh ngha 2.9: S cc vc t ca mt h con c lp tuyn tnh ti i ca h

l hng (rank) ca
S , k hiu r (S ) .
Qui c h ch c vc t
2.5
S c gi
0 c hng l 0 .
C S, S CHIU CA KHNG GIAN VC T
nh ngha 2.10:
1) Nu khng gian vc t V c mt h sinh hu hn th V c gi l khng gian hu hn sinh.
2) Mi h sinh c lp tuyn tnh ca V c gi l mt c s ca
V.
Gio trnh ny ch hn ch xt cc khng gian hu hn sinh.

Gi s S = { v1 ,..., vn } l h sinh ca V th vi mi
u V
u = x1v1 + ... + xn vn , x1,..., xn .

45

nh l 2.10: Gi s
{e1,..., en } l
mt h cc vc t ca
V . Cc mnh sau l
tng ng:
(i) H { e1 ,..., en } l mt c s ca V .
(ii) H { e1 ,..., en } l h c lp tuyn tnh ti i ca V .
(iii) Mi vc t
u V tn ti mt cch vit duy nht:
u = x1e1 + ... + xn en , x1,..., xn .
(2.4)
Chng minh: (i)(ii): Hin nhin t nh ngha ca c s.

(ii)(iii): Suy t tnh cht 3.2 - 3).
(iii)(i): R rng
{e1,..., en } l h sinh. Ngoi ra nu
x1e1 + ... + x n en = 0 , mt khc
0 = 0e1 + ... + 0en . Do cch vit duy nht suy ra x1 = ... = xn = 0 .

nh ngha 2.11: ( x1 ,..., xn ) trong (2.4) c gi l to ca vc t u trong c s
{e1,..., en }.
Ta k hiu to ca vc t
Vy nu
u trong c s
B = {e1,..., en } l [u ] B .
u tha mn (2.4) th
[u ] B
nh l 2.11: Gi s
= ( x1 ,..., xn )
(2.5)
V l khng gian hu hn sinh v { v1 ,..., vk } l h c lp tuyn tnh
V . Khi c th b sung thm c c h {v1 ,..., vk , vk +1 ,..., vk + m } l

mt c s ca V .
cc vc t ca
Chng minh: Gi s
V c mt h sinh c n vc t. Nu S = { v1 ,..., vk } khng phi l c
S khng phi l h sinh, theo tnh cht 2.6-3) tn ti vc t, ta k hiu v k +1 , sao cho h
{v1,..., vk , vk +1} c lp tuyn tnh. Tip tc qu trnh ny cui cng ta c h
s th
{v1,..., vk , vk +1 ,..., vk + m } c lp tuyn tnh v l h sinh, k + m n

{v1,..., vk , vk +1 ,..., vk + m } l mt c s cn tm.
(theo B 2.8). Vy
H qu 2.12: Mi khng gian hu hn sinh u tn ti c s.

nh l 2.13: S phn t ca mi c s ca u bng nhau.
Chng minh: p dng B 2.8 ta c hai c s bt k ca V u c s phn t bng nhau.
46

nh ngha 2.12: S vc t ca mt c s ca
dim V . Quy c dim{0} = 0 .
V d 2.12: Trong khng gian
n ta xt h
V c gi l s chiu ca V , k hiu
B = {e1,..., en } trong :
e1 = (1,0,...,0) , e2 = (0,1,...,0) ,..., en = (0,0,...,1)

l mt c s ca
V d 2.13: H
(2.6)
n gi l c s chnh tc. Vy dim n = n .
B = {1, t,..., t n } l mt c s ca
Pn , gi l c s chnh tc. Vy
dim Pn = n + 1 .
Ch 2.14: Khng gian
P=
U Pn l mt v d v khng gian vc t khng hu hn
n =1
sinh. Tht vy, h
{1, t, t 2 ,....} c v hn vc t v c lp tuyn tnh nn khng th l hu hn
sinh.
dim V = n v S = {v1,..., vm } l h m vc t ca V . Khi : (i)

Nu h S c lp tuyn tnh th m n .
nh l 2.15: Gi s
(ii) Nu h
(iii) Nu
S l h sinh ca th m n .
m = n th h S c lp tuyn tnh khi v ch khi S l h sinh.
B l mt c s ca V . p dng b 2.8 cho hai h B v S suy ra
Chng minh: Gi
cc iu cn chng minh.
nh l 2.16: Gi s W1 ,W2 l hai khng gian con ca V th
dim W1 + dim W2 = dim(W1 + W2 ) + dim(W1 I W2 )

c bit:
(2.7)
dim(W1 W2 ) = dim W1 + dim W2
(2.8)
{ e1,..., el } l mt c s ca W1 I W2 (nu W1 I W2 = th
l = 0 ). Theo nh l 2.11 ta c th b sung thm { e1 ,..., el , u1 ,..., u m } l mt c s ca W1
v { e1 ,..., el , v1 ,..., vk } l mt c s ca W2 . Vi mi v W1 + W2 th:
Chng minh: Gi s
v = ( x1 + x '1 )e1 + ... + ( xl + x 'l )el + y1u1 + ... + y m u m + z1v1 + ... + z k vk .

Vy
{e1 ,..., el , u1 ,..., u m , v1,..., vk }
l h sinh ca W1 + W2 . Mt khc, gi s
x1e1 + ... + xl el + y1u1 + ... + y m u m + z1v1 + ... + z k vk = 0

47

th x1e1 + ... + xl el + y1u1 + ... + y m u m = z1v1 ... z k vk W1 I W2 .
z1v1 ... z k vk = t1e1 + ... + tl el W1 I W2
z1v1 + ... + z k vk + t1e1 + ... + tl el = 0

z1 = ... = z k = t1 = ... = tl = 0 x1 = ... = xl = y1 = ... = y m = 0 .
Vy {e1 ,..., el , u1 ,..., u m , v1 ,..., vk } l mt c s ca W1 + W2 .
dim W1 + dim W2 = 2l + m + k = dim(W1 + W2 ) + dim(W1 I W2 ) .

nh l 2.17: Gi s
(i)
S l h hu hn cc vc t ca V . Khi
r ( S ) = dimW , vi W = spanS .
(ii) Khi thc hin mt s hu hn cc php bin i s cp sau ln h

Nhn mt s khc 0 vi mt vc t ca h
Cng vo mt vc t ca h
bin thnh h S ' c r ( S ) = r ( S ' ) .
S:
S;
S mt t hp tuyn tnh cc vc t khc ca S ; th h S
Chng minh: (i) Gi s S 0 l h con c lp tuyn tnh ti i ca S th S 0 cng sinh ra

, do S 0 l mt c s ca W r (S ) = s vc t ca S 0 = dim W .
(ii) Nu W
= spanS , W ' = spanS ' th W = W ' r ( S ) = r ( S ' ) .
Nhn xt 2.18: tm hng ca h vc t { v1 , v 2 , ... , v n } ta c th s dng 2 cch sau:

1) p dng nh l 2.17 bng cch thc hin cc php bin i s cp ln h vc t cho
a v h vc t m ta d dng nhn c hng ca n.
Khi thc hnh ta c th vit ta cc vc t thnh mt bng, mi vc t nm trn mt
hng, sau bin i bng s ny c dng tam gic.
2) p dng tnh cht 2.6 theo tng bc nh sau:
1.
Loi cc vc t vi = 0 ,
2.
Gi s v1 0 , loi cc vc t vi t l vi v1 ,
3.
Gi s vi , ... , vi
1
k
} c lp, khi {vi1 , ..., vik , v j } c lp khi v ch khi

v j khng biu din thnh t hp tuyn tnh ca {vi1 , ... , vi k } .
V d 2.14: Tm hng ca h vc t sau:
v1 = (1,1,1,1) , v 2 = (1,1,1,1) , v3 = (1,3,1,3) ,

48
v 4 = (1,2,0,2) , v5 = (1,2,1,2) .
Gii:
Cch1:
1 1
1 1
1 3
1 2
1 2
1
1
1 1
0 2 0 2
0 2
0
2
0 1 1 1
0 0
1
0
1 1
1 3
0
(Hng1 hng 1, hng 2 - hng1 hng 2, hng 3 - hng1 hng 3, hng 4 - hng1
hng 4, hng 5 - hng4 hng 5)
1 1
0 2
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 2
0 0
0 0
1
1
0
0
0
1 1 1
1 0 1
0 1 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
(Hng 3 + hng 2 hng 3, hng 4 +(1/2) hng 2 - hng 5 hng 4).

(-1/2hng 2 hng 2, hng 5 hng 3).
Vy h vc t c hng l 3.
Cch 2: v1 , v 2 khng t l nn c lp. Nu v3
x + y = 1
x y = 3
x + y = 1
x y = 3
= xv1 + y v 2 th
x = 2 , y = 1 .
Vy v3 = 2v1 v 2 . Ngha l {v1 , v 2 , v3 } ph thuc.
x + y = 1
x y = 2
, h v nghim. Vy {v1 , v 2 , v 4 } c lp.

Nu v 4 = xv1 + y v 2 th
+
=
0
x
y
x y = 2
49

Nu v5 = xv1 + y v 2 + zv 4 th
x + y + z = 1
x y + 2 z = 2
x + y = 1
x y + 2 z = 2
x = 3 / 2 , y = 1 / 2, z = 0 .
Vy v5 = 3 / 2v1 1 / 2 v 2 . Ngha l {v1 , v 2 , v 4 , v5 } ph thuc.

Vy
50
{v1 , v2 , v4 } l mt h con c lp tuyn tnh ti i ca {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v5 }.
Chng 3: Ma trn
3. CHNG 3: MA TRN
3.1
KHI NIM MA TRN
m hng n ct
nh ngha 3.1: Mt bng s c
a11
a
A = 21
M
am1
c gi l mt ma trn c
a12
...
a22
...
am 2
...
a1n
a2n
amn
(3.1)
m n . aij l phn t hng th i v ct j .
Khi aij , i, j th
A c gi l ma trn nguyn, aij , i, j th A c gi

l ma trn phc. Nu khng ch r aij th ta quy c A l ma trn thc.
Ma trn
A c m n c th c vit tt dng
[ ] ji==11,,nm
A = aij
Khi
hay
[ ]
A = aij
m n
(3.2)
m = n ta ni A l ma trn vung cp n .
m n c k hiu
Mmn .
Tp hp tt c cc ma trn vung cp n c k hiu Mn .
Tp hp tt c cc ma trn c
V d 3.1:
0 1
3 2
[ ]
l ma trn c
2 3.
[ ]
, B = bij
bng nhau, k hiu A = B , khi v
A = aij
m n
m n
ch khi a ij = bij vi mi i = 1, m ; j = 1, n .
Hai ma trn cng c
51
Chng 3: Ma trn
3.2
3.2.1
CC PHP TON MA TRN

Php cng
Cho hai ma trn cng c
Tng ca hai ma trn
[ ]mn , B = [bij ]mn
A = aij
A, B l ma trn cng c c k hiu v nh ngha bi
[ ]mn
A + B = cij
, cij = aij + bij vi mi i = 1, m ;
j = 1, n .
(3.3)
V d 3.2:
3.2.2
2 3 0 0 8 5 2 5 5
9 4 1 + 3 1 7 = 6 5 6 .
Php nhn ma trn vi mt s

Cho ma trn
[ ]
c m n , v s thc k . Ta nh ngha v k hiu

A = aij
m n
[ ]mn
kA = kaij
V d 3.3:
(3.4)
1 1 2 1 0 1 4 1 2 0
=
.
2 3 8 10 3 2 4 5
Tnh cht 3.1: Cc tnh cht sau y ng i vi cc ma trn cng c:
A + ( B + C ) = ( A + B) + C ;
1)
2) Ma trn c cc phn t u bng 0 gi l ma trn khng v k hiu

Khi :
A + 0 = 0 + A = A;
3)
A + ( A) = 0 , trong A = aij
4)
A + B = B + A.
Vy
( Mmn ,+ )
]mn
l mt nhm Abel.
Ta cng kim chng c cc tnh cht sau ng vi mi s thc
[ ]
[ ]
c m n :
, B = bij
A = aij
m n
m n
52
0.
5)
k ( A + B) = kA + kB ;
6)
(k + h) A = kA + hA ;
k, h vi mi ma trn
Chng 3: Ma trn
7)
k (hA) = (kh) A ;
8)
1A = A .
Vi 8 tnh cht ny tp
K hiu
Eij l ma trn c m n c cc phn t u bng 0 ngoi tr phn t hng i ct
j bng 1 th h cc ma trn
Vy
3.2.3
Mmn l khng gian vc t.
{Eij i = 1, m ; j = 1, n } l mt c s ca Mmn .
dim Mm n = m n .
Php nhn ma trn

nh ngha 3.2: Tch hai ma trn
[ ]
[ ]
v B = bij
l ma trn c
A = aij
m p
p n
mn c k hiu v nh ngha bi
[ ]mn
AB = cij
, trong
cij =
aik bkj
vi mi
i = 1, m ; j = 1, n .
(3.5)
k =1
Vy phn t hng th i ct th j ca AB bng tng ca tch cc phn t ca hng th i

ca A vi cc phn t tng ng ca ct th j ca B .
j
V d 3.4:
cij

= ai1

ai 2
aip
b1 j
b2 j
b pj
1 3
1 2 3
9 15
1 2 5 1 0 = 7 17 .
2 4
2 8 4
2
3[1 4 2] = 3 12 6 .

53
Chng 3: Ma trn
Ta thy rng tch ca hai ma trn A v B nh ngha c khi s ct ca A bng s hng
ca B . V vy c th nh ngha AB nhng khng nh ngha c BA nu s ct ca B
khng bng s hng ca A .
A, B l hai ma trn vung cng cp th ta c ng thi AB v BA . Mc du vy

cha chc c ng thc AB = BA , ni cch khc tch ma trn khng c tnh giao hon. Chng
Khi
hn, xt
1
2
A= 0
M
0
1
3
=
B 0
M
0
0 0 K 0
3 0 K 0
0 0 K 0
M M O M
0 0 0 0
1 2
11 4
AB = 0
0
M
M
0
0
0 K 0
0 K 0
0 K 0
M O M
0 0 0
Tnh cht 3.2: Gi s
2 0 K 0
0 0 K 0
0 0 K 0
M M O M
0 0 0 0
3
3
BA = 0
M
0
6 0 K 0
0 0 K 0
0 0 K 0
M M O M
0 0 0 0
A, B, C l cc ma trn vi s ct s hng thch hp cc php ton
sau xc nh c th ta c cc ng thc:
1)
A( BC ) = ( AB)C tnh kt hp.
2)
A( B + C ) = AB + AC tnh phn phi bn tri php nhn ma trn vi php cng.
3)
( B + C ) A = BA + CA tnh phn phi bn phi php nhn ma trn vi php cng.
4) Vi mi k , k ( AB ) = ( kA) B = A( kB ) .
5) Vi mi s t nhin dng n ta xt ma trn I n vung cp n c cc phn t trn ng
cho bng 1 v cc phn t v tr khc u bng 0.
In = O
1
54
Chng 3: Ma trn
Khi vi mi ma trn
A c m n ta c I m A = A = AI n .
Ma trn I n c gi l ma trn n v cp n.
T cc tnh cht trn ta thy tp hp cc ma trn vung cp
nhn ma trn
n 2 cng vi php cng v
( Mn ,+,.) l mt vnh khng giao hon, c n v v khng nguyn v c c ca
0. Chng hn
1
2
A = 0
M
0
2
4
0
M
0
0
0
0
M
0
K
K
K
O
0
0
0
M
0
2 6
1 3
B=0
0
M
M
0
0
0
0
0
M
0
K
K
K
O
0
0
0
M
0
A, B 0 nhng AB = 0 .
3.2.4
Ma trn chuyn v
nh ngha 3.3: Cho ma trn A c m n , nu ta i cc hng ca ma trn A thnh cc

ct (v do cc ct thnh cc hng) th ta c ma trn mi c n m , gi l ma trn chuyn v
ca ma trn trn
A , k hiu At
[ ]
At = cij
; cij = a ji
n m
V d 3.5:
4 1
A = 2 0 ;
5 9
i = 1, n j = 1, m .
(3.6)
4 2 5
At =
.
1
0
9
Tnh cht 3.3:

1)
( A + B)t = At + B t .
2)
(kA)t = kAt .
3)
( AB)t = B t At .
nh ngha 3.4:
1) Nu A = A th A c gi l ma trn i xng ( A l ma trn vung c cc phn t

i xng nhau qua ng cho th nht).
55
Chng 3: Ma trn
2) A = A th A c gi l phn i xng (hay i xng lch) ( A l ma trn vung

c cc phn t i xng v tri du qua ng cho th nht, cc phn t trn ng cho th
nht bng 0).
3.3
MA TRN CA MT H VC T TRONG MT C S NO
B = {e1,.....en }.
c to trong c s B :
Gi s V l khng gian n chiu vi mt c s
{v1,..., vm } l mt h vc t ca V
n
v j = aij ei , j = 1, m
i =1
c s
[ ]
c cc ct l cc to ca cc vc t { v1 ,..., vm } trong
A = aij
n m
c gi l ma trn ca h vc t { v1 ,..., vm } trong c s B .
Khi ma trn
A c n m cho trc th ta c h m vc t m to ca n
l cc ct ca A .
Ngc li, vi ma trn

trong c s
V vi c s c nh B = { e1 ,.....en } th c tng ng 1 - 1
gia cc ma trn c n m vi cc h m vc t ca V .
Vy khi khng gian vc t
Ma trn chuyn c s
B = {e1,.....en }, B '= {e'1 ,.....e'n } l hai c s ca V . Ma trn ca h vc t

B ' trong c s B c gi l ma trn chuyn t c s B sang c s B ' . Ngha l nu
Gi s
[ ]
e' j = tij ei , j = 1, n ... th P = tij
(3.7)
i =1
l ma trn chuyn t c s
Khi vi vc t bt k
Ta c:
B sang B ' .
n
i =1
i =1
u V ; u = xi ei = x'i e'i .
[xi ]n1 = [tij ]n n
[x' j ]n1
(3.8)
(3.8) c gi l cng thc i ta

Nu
A, A' ln lt l ma trn ca { v1 ,..., vm } trong c s
A = PA'
56
B , B ' th
(3.9)
Chng 3: Ma trn
3.4
HNG CA MA TRN
nh ngha 3.5: Ta gi hng ca ma trn
A , k hiu r ( A) , l hng ca cc vc t ct ca A .
Phng php tm hng ca ma trn bng php bin i s cp
r (S ) ca mt h vc t S ca khng gian V l s vc t ca mt h con c lp

tuyn tnh ti i ca S hay l chiu ca spanS (xem nh l 2.17). V vy khi ta thc hin lin
tip cc php bin i sau, gi l cc php bin i s cp, th spanS khng i do hng ca
Hng
h khng thay i:
1) i ch cho nhau hai vc t ca h.
2) Nhn vo mt vc t ca h mt s khc
0.
3) Cng vo mt vc t ca h mt t hp tuyn tnh cc vc t khc ca h.

V vy tm hng ca mt ma trn ta thc hin cc bin i s cp ln cc ct (sau ny ta
s chng minh c rng ta cng c th bin i theo cc hng) a ma trn v dng tam gic,
t suy ra hng ca ma trn.
V d 3.6:
3c + c c
1
2
2
0
0 0
1 3 4 2
1
4
c
+
c
c
3
1 1 4 1 3
2
7 7 0
A= 2
2c + c c
1
4
4
1 2 1 2
1 5 5 0
c1 c1
c2 c2
0 0 0
1
2
7 0 0
c2 + c3 c3
1 5 0 0
Vy
r ( A) = 2 .
1 2
a 1
B=
1 a
1 2
c
c1
2
c4
c c1
1
c +c c
1
2
2
c + c c
1 3
3
c1 + c 4 c 4
1 1 1
1 1 1 1 2
c5
1 1 1 c3 c1 1 1 1 a 1
c
0 1 1 4 2 0 1 1 1 a
c c
2 1 1 5 3 2 1 1 1 2 2c1+ c5 c5
57
Chng 3: Ma trn
1
1
0 0 0
0
0 2 a + 1 3
1 1 1
a
1 1 3 2
Vy
c c
1
1
c c
2
3
c c
3
2
( a + 3) c + ( a + 1) c + 2 c c
2
3
4 4
(3 - 2a)c -3c + 2c c
2 3
5
5
1 0
1 2
0 1
2 1
1
0
0
1 2 2a 2 2a
0
0
0
0
0
0
4 nu a 1
.
r ( B) =
3 nu a = 1
Xt cc ma trn vung cp n sau:
hng k
1

R (k , ) = [aij ] =
0 i j
aij = 1 i = j k
i = j = k
(3.10)
ct k
1 hng i
0 hng j
1
1
0
P (i, j ) = [akl ] =
ct i
ct j
1 k = l i; j
0 k = l v bng i hay j
akl = 1 k = i, l = j
1 k = j , l = i
0 trong cc trng hp khc

58
(3.11)
Chng 3: Ma trn
1
1
Q(i, j , ) = [akl ] =
1 hng i
1
ct j
1 k = l
akl = k = i, l = j
0 trong cc trng hp khc
(3.12)
Tnh cht 3.5: Ta d dng kim tra c:
R(k , ) vo bn phi ca ma trn A th ma trn tch AR ( k , ) c c

bng cch nhn thm vo ct k ca ma trn A .
a) Nu nhn
a b c 1 0 0 a b c
a ' b ' c ' 0 0 = a ' b ' c '
a" b" c" 0 0 1 a" b" c"

P(i, j ) vo bn phi ca ma trn A th ma trn tch AP(i, j ) c c bng
cch i ch hai ct i v j ca A cho nhau.
b) Nu nhn
a b c 0 1 0 b a c
a ' b' c' 1 0 0 = b' a' c'
a" b" c" 0 0 1 b" a" c"

Q(i, j , ) vo bn phi ca ma trn A th ma trn tch AQ(i, j , ) c c
bng cch nhn vo ct i v cng vo ct j ca ma trn A .
c) Nu nhn
a b c 1 0 0 a + c b c
a' b' c' 0 1 0 = a'+c' b' c'
a" b" c" 0 1 a"+c" b" c"

59
Chng 3: Ma trn
d) Nu nhn P, Q, R vo bn tri ca ma trn
A th ta c cc kt qu tng t nh trn,
trong cc tc ng ln hng i thnh tc ng ln ct v ngc li. Chng hn
b
c
1 0 0 a b c a
0 0 a' b' c' = a' b' c'
0 0 1 a" b" c" a" b" c"

b
c
1 0 0 a b c a
0 1 0 a ' b ' c ' = a '
b'
c' .
0 1 a" b" c" a'+ a" b'+b" c'+c"
60
Chng 4: nh thc
4. CHNG 4: NH THC
4.1
HON V V PHP TH
nh ngha 4.1:
1) Mi song nh
: {1,2,..., n} {1,2,..., n} c gi l mt php th bc n.
Ta thng k hiu mt php th bng mt ma trn c hng th nht l cc s 1,2,...,n sp

theo th t tng dn cn hng th hai l nh ca n:
...
(1) (2) ... (n)

2) nh ca mt php th c gi l hon v. Vi php th ta c hon v tng ng
[ (1)
(2) ... ( n)] .
3) Du ca php th:
Cho hon v
[ (1)
c mt nghch th ca
(2) ... ( n)] , nu c cp i < j
Gi s k l s cc nghch th ca
sgn = (1) k
(i) > ( j )
, ta nh ngha v k hiu du ca php th
th ta ni
l
(4.1)
Ta d dng kim chng c rng tp cc php th bc n vi lut hp thnh l php hp ca

hai nh x to thnh mt nhm khng giao hon, gi l nhm i xng bc n, k hiu
Trong chng 1 ta bit tp
Sn .
S n c ng n! phn t. Chng hn S 2 c 2 phn t, S 3 c
6 phn t ...
V d 4.1: Hon v
[1
1 2 3
3 2] ng vi php th =
c mt nghch th. Vy
1 3 2
sgn = (1)1 = 1 .
tm s cc nghch th k ca php th ta thc hin cc bc sau:
Trong hon v
[ (1)
( 2) ... ( n)] c i1
l gi tr sao cho
(i1 ) = 1 .
61
Chng 4: nh thc
Gi k1 l s cc s trong
[ (1)
(2) ... ( n)] ng trc (i1 ) = 1;
(i1 ) = 1, tn ti i2 sao cho (i2 ) = 2 ,

[ (1) (2) ... (n)] ng trc (i2 ) = 2 ;
Xo s
Xo s
(i2 ) = 2
gi
k2 l s cc s cn li trong
v tip tc m nh th ...
Cui cng s cc nghch th ca l:
k = k1 + k 2 + ... + k n 1
V d 4.2: Hon v 3
Vy
4 2 1] c k1 = 3 , k 2 = 2 , k3 = 0 .
k = 5 v sgn = (1)5 = 1 .
Tnh cht 4.1:

1) Cp
(i, j ), i j l mt nghch th ca php th ( ngha l i < j v (i ) > ( j ) )
khi v ch khi du ca
sgn =
(i ) ( j )
i j
bng
1 . Vy
(i ) ( j )
.
du
i
j
1 i j n
2) Chuyn v
= [i0
(4.2)
j0 ] l php th ch bin i hai phn t i0 , j0 cho nhau v gi
nguyn cc phn t cn li:
1 2 ... i0 ... j0 ... n

j0 ... i0 ... n
=
1 2 ...
(4.3)
D dng tnh c: k1 = ... = ki 1 = 0 , ki = j0 i0 ,

0
0
ki0 +1 = ... = k j 1 = 1 , k j = ... = k n = 0 k = 2( j0 i0 ) 1

0
0
Vy
sgn = (1) k = 1 .
3) Vi mi
, S n : sgn( o ) = sgn sgn .
Tht vy, khi
(i, j ) chy khp tp {1,2,..., n} {1,2,..., n} \ {(1,1),..., (n, n)} th
( (i ), ( j )) cng chy khp tp ny. Do :

62
(4.4)
Chng 4: nh thc
sgn =
( (i )) ( ( j ))
(i ) ( j )
=
du
du
i
j
(
i
)
(
j
)
1 (i ) ( j ) n
1 i j n
( (i )) ( ( j ))
.
du
(
i
)
(
j
)
1 i j n
sgn sgn =
( (i )) ( ( j ))
(i ) ( j )
du
du
i
j
i
j
(
)
(
)
1 i j n
1 i j n
( (i )) ( ( j ))
= sgn ( o ) .
du
i
j
1 i j n
4) Vi mi chuyn v i0 j0 (xem 4.3) v php th :
sgn o [i0 j0 ] = sgn .

4.2
NH THC
Khi gii h phng trnh tuyn tnh
D=
ax + by = c
ta tnh cc nh thc
a
'
x
b
'
y
c
'
+
=
a b
c b
a c
= ab'ba' , Dx =
= cb'bc' , D y =
= ac'ca' .
a ' b'
c ' b'
a' c'
Nh vy nh thc ca ma trn
a12
a
A = 11
vung cp 2 l
a
a
21
22
a
a12
A = 11
= a11a22 a12 a21 .
a21 a22
Mt khc nhm i xng S 2 c 2 phn t l
1 2
1 2
=
v
2
c du
1 2
2 1
1 =
sgn 1 = 1 , sgn 2 = 1 . Vy
a
a12
A = 11
= a11a22 a12 a21
a21 a22
63
Chng 4: nh thc
= sgn 1 a1 1 (1) a2 1 ( 2) + sgn 2 a1 2 (1) a2 2 ( 2) =

Ta m rng nh ngha ny cho ma trn vung cp
nh ngha 4.2: nh thc ca ma trn vung
sgn a1 (1) a2 (2) .
S 2
n bt k nh sau.
[ ]
c k hiu l
A = aij
n n
det A hay A v nh ngha bi biu thc:
sgn a1 (1) ...an (n)
det A =
(4.5)
S n
[ ]
l tng tt c cc tch gm n phn t

A = aij
n n
trn n hng m trn n ct khc nhau ca ma trn A v nhn vi +1 hoc -1.
Nh vy nh thc ca ma trn vung
V d 4.3: a) Nhm i xng
S 2 c 6 phn t l (xem v d 1.23 chng 1)
1 2 3
1 2 3
1 2 3
=
=
,
,
2
3
,
1 2 3
1 3 2
2 1 3
1 =
1 2 3
1 2 3
1 2 3
=
=
,
,
5
6
3 1 2
3 2 1 .
2 3 1
4 =
c du
sgn 1 = sgn 4 = sgn 5 = 1 , sgn 2 = sgn 3 = sgn 6 = 1 . Vy
a11
a12
a21 a22
a31 a32
a13
a23 =
a33
sgn a1 (1) a2 (2) a3 (3)
S 3
= a11a22 a33 a11a23a32 a12 a21a33 (4.6)

+ a12 a23a31 + a13a21a32 a13a22 a31 .
a11
b) Tnh nh thc
64
Dn =
a12
a22
a13
a23
a33
... a1n
... a2n
... a3n
O M
ann
Chng 4: nh thc
Xt php th
Vi mi
1 2 ... n
0
c sgn 0 = ( 1) = 1.
1 2 ... n
0 =
Sn , nu 0
th tn ti
k sao cho (k ) k tn ti k ' sao cho
(k ' ) < k ' ak ' ( k ') = 0 a1 (1) ...an ( n) = 0 . Vy

Dn =
sgn a1 (1) ...an (n) = sgn 0 a11...ann = a11...ann . (4.7)
S n
a11
a21 a22
Tng t D ' n = a31 a32
M
M
an1 an 2
= a11... ann .
a33
M O
an3 ... ann
(4.8)
a1n
a2, n 1 a2n
c) Tnh nh thc D"n =
N
M
M
an 1,2 ...
...
an 1n
an1
an 2
...
...
ann
Xt php th
2
... n
1
tho mn 1 ( k ) + k = n + 1, k = 1, ..., n .
1
...
1
n
n
1 =
Ta d dng tnh c
k1 = n 1, k 2 = n 2,..., k n 1 = 1 k = 1 + ... + ( n 1) = n(n 1) 2
sgn 1 = (1) n( n 1) 2 . Mt khc vi mi S n , nu 1 th tn ti k sao

cho
(k ) + k < n + 1 a k ( k ) = 0 a1 (1) ...an ( n) = 0 .

Vy
D"n =
sgn a1 (1) ...an (n) = sgn 1 an1...ak , n k ...a1n
S n
= (1) n( n 1) 2 an1...ak , n k ...a1n
(4.9)
Tng t
65
Chng 4: nh thc
a11 a12 ... a1n 1 a1n

a21 a22 ... a2n 1
D" 'n = M
= (1) n( n 1) 2 an1...ak , n k ...a1n . (4.10)
M N
M
N
an1
[ ]
ca h vc t { v1 ,..., vn } ng vi
A = aij
n n
c s B trong khng gian vc t V cng c gi l nh thc ca h vc t { v1 ,..., vn } v k
hiu D B {v1 ,..., vn } . Vy
nh ngha 4.3: nh thc ca ma trn
DB {v1 ,..., vn } = det A .

4.3
(4.11)
CC TNH CHT C BN CA NH THC

Tnh cht 4.2:
1) Nu i ch hai hng ca ma trn th nh thc i du:
aij nu i k , m
, A' = a 'ij
, a 'ij = akj nu i = m
th det A' = det A .
A = aij
n n
n n
amj nu i = k
[ ]
Tht vy:
[ ]
det A' =
sgn a'1 (1) ...a'k (k ) ...a'm (m) ...a'n (n)
S n
sgn a1 (1) ...am (k ) ...ak (m) ...an (n)
S n
sgn a1 '(1) ...ak '(k ) ...am '(m) ...an '(n)
S n
sgn 'a1 '(1) ...am '(k ) ...ak '(m) ...an '(n) = det A
'S n
trong
' = o [k m ] .
2) nh thc c tnh cht tuyn tnh i vi mi hng:
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
, B = bij
v ma trn C = cij
c hng th k
A = aij
n n
n n
n n
l t hp tuyn tnh ca hng th k ca A v B .
Cho hai ma trn
66
Chng 4: nh thc
Ngha l
cij = aij = bij nu i k
vi mi j = 1,..., n.
ckj = akj + bkj ;
th
det C = det A + det B .
Tht vy:
det C =
sgn c1 (1) ...ck (k ) ...cn (n)
S n
sgn a1 (1) ...( ak (k ) + bk (k ) )...an (n)
S n
sgn a1 (1) ...ak (k ) ...an (n) + sgn b1 (1) ...bk (k ) ...bn (n)
S n
S n
= det A + det B .
3) T 1) v 2) suy ra rng trong mt ma trn c hai hng t l th nh thc bng 0.

4) Nu ta cng vo mt hng mt t hp tuyn tnh cc hng khc th nh thc khng
thay i.
5) nh thc ca ma trn chuyn v bng nh thc ca ma trn :
Gi s
th
[ ]
[ ]
t
, a 'ij = a ji , i, j = 1,..., n
, A = a 'ij
A = aij
n n
n n
det At = det A .
det At =
sgn a'1 (1) ...a'k (k ) ...a'n (n)
S n
sgn a (1)1...a (k )k ...a (n)n
S n
sgn a
1 1 (1)
S n
sgn 1 a
S n
v
...a
1 1 (1)
k 1 ( k )
...a
...a
k 1 ( k )
n 1 ( n)
...a
n 1 ( n)
= det A
sgn = sgn 1 .
67
Chng 4: nh thc
6) T 5) suy ra rng cc tnh cht ca nh thc ng vi hng th cng ng vi ct v
ngc li. V vy ta ch cn chng minh cc nh l v nh thc ng vi hng. Chng hn, t 4)
suy ra nu ta cng vo mt ct mt t hp tuyn tnh cc ct khc th nh thc khng thay i.
nh thc ca mi h vc t ph thuc tuyn tnh u bng 0.
a11 ... a1n

7) det( A)(mod p ) = sgn a1 (1) ...an ( n ) = M
O M
S n
an1 ... ann
(4.12)
V d 4.4:
a
1
a) Dn = 1
M
1
1
1
= (a + n 1) 1
M
1
1
a
1
M
1
1
1
a
M
1
...
...
...
O
...
1
a + n 1
a + n 1
1
1 = a + n 1
M
M
a
a + n 1
1
a
1
M
1
1
1
a
M
1
...
...
...
O
...
1
1
1 (cng cc ct vo ct 1)
M
a
1 0
0
1 ... 1
1 a 1 0
1 ... 1
a ... 1 = (a + n 1) 1
0
a 1
M O M
M
M
M
1 ... a
1 0
0
1
a
1
M
1
Dn = (a + n 1)(a 1) n 1 .
b)
[ ]
vi aij = 1
A = aij
n n
...
det( A)(mod 2) = M O M = 0 (mod 2) det A chn.

1 ... 1
4.4
4.4.1
CC CCH TNH NH THC

Khai trin theo hng, theo ct
Nu ta nhm theo ct th j cng thc (4.5) th ta c:
68
...
...
...
0
0
0
... a 1
Chng 4: nh thc
det A = a1 j
sgn a2 ( 2) a3 (3) ...an ( n) +
S , (1) = j
n
sgn a1 (1) a3 (3) ...an ( n) + ... +

+ a2 j
S , ( 2) = j
n
+ anj
sgn a1 (1) a2 (2) ...an 1 (n 1) .
S n , ( n) = j
V vy nh thc ca ma trn
A c vit li di dng
det A = a1 j A1 j + ... + anj Anj
gi l cng thc khai trin ca
(4.13)
A theo ct th j.
Aij c gi l phn b i s ca aij .
Aij = (1)i + j M ij
nh l 4.3:
Trong
trn
(4.14)
M ij l nh thc ca ma trn cp n-1 c c bng cch xo hng i ct j ca ma
A.
Chng minh: Trc ht ta chng minh A11 = M 11 . Ta c:
A11 =
vi
sgn
S n , (1) =1
a 2 ( 2 ) ...a n ( n ) =
' = {2,..., n}
Trng hp
sgn ' a
'S n 1
l php th trong tp hp
2 '( 2 )
...a n '( n ) = M 11
{2,..., n} .
Aij bt k, ta thc hin i-1 ln i ch cc hng v j-1 ln i ch cc ct
a v hng 1 ct 1.
Do
Aij = (1) (i 1) + ( j 1) M ij = (1) i + j M ij .
Cng thc khai trin theo hng i c suy t tnh cht 3.7: 6)
69
Chng 4: nh thc
det A = ai1 Ai1 + ... + ain Ain
(4.15)
c + c c3
1
3
1 2 3
4
2c1 + c 4
1 0 1
2
V d 4.5: D =
=
3 1 1 0
1 2 0 5
c4
1 2
2
2
1 0
0
0
3 1 4 6
1 2 1 7
2
2
2
2
0
0
= (1) 2 +1 1 1 4 6 = 1 3 5
2 1 7
2 3 9
= (2)(3)(1)
4.4.2
1 5
1 9
= 6(9 5) = 24 .
nh l khai trin Laplace (theo k hng k ct)

T ma trn
[ ]nn
A = aij
ta k hng: i1 ,..., ik v k ct: j1 ,..., jk .
Giao ca k hng k ct ny l mt ma trn cp k. nh thc ca ma trn ny c k hiu l

j ,..., j
M i 1,..., i k . Nu t ma trn A ta xo i k hng i1 ,..., ik v k ct j1 ,..., jk th ta c ma trn con
1
cp n-k. nh thc ca ma trn ny c k hiu l
j ,..., j k
Ai 1,...,i
1
i + ...+ ik + j1 +...+ j k
= (1) 1
c gi l phn b i s ca
V d 4.6:
70
j ,..., j k
M i 1,...,i
1
(4.16)
j ,..., j k
.
M i 1,..., i
a11 a12
a
a
A = 21 22
a31 a32
a41 a42
23 a12
=
M 13
a32
j ,..., j k
v
M i 1,...,i
a13
a23
a33
a43
a14
a24
a34
a44
a13
a
a24
23
1+ 3 + 2 + 3 a21 a 24
, A13 = ( 1)
.
= 21
a33
a41 a44
a41 a44
Chng 4: nh thc
nh l 4.4 (Laplace):
1) Khai trin k hng i1 ,..., ik :
det A =
1 j1 <...< j k n
nh thc ca
j ,..., j k j1 ,..., j k
Ai ,...,i
1
k
1
k
M i 1,...,i
(4.17)
A bng tng tt c cc nh thc con cp k nm trn k hng i1 ,..., ik nhn
vi phn b i s tng ng ca n.
2) Khai trin k ct j1 ,..., jk :
det A =
1 i1 <...< ik n
nh thc ca
j ,..., j k j1 ,..., j k
Ai ,...,i
1
k
1
k
M i 1,...,i
(4.18)
A bng tng tt c cc nh thc con cp k nm trn k ct j1 ,..., jk nhn
vi phn b i s tng ng ca n.
c bit khi k =1 ta c cng thc khai trin theo hng v theo ct (3.4).
Chng minh: Trng hp i1 = 1,..., i k = k :
,..., k
M 11,...,
k =
1,..., k
M 1,..., k =
sgn a1 (1) ...ak (k )
S k
,..., k
sgn 'ak +1 '(k +1) ...an '(n) = A11,...,
k
'S n k
ca tp {1,..., k } v ' ca {k + 1,..., n} th php th c

hon v tng ng [ (1),..., ( k ), ( k + 1),..., ( n)] c s cc nghch th bng s cc nghch
th ca cng vi s cc nghch th ca ' . Do sgn = sgn sgn ' . V vy mi tch
ng vi mi php th
sgn a1 (1) ...ak ( k ) sgn 'ak +1 '( k +1) ...an '( n)

1,..., k
,..., k
det A . Ni cch khc M 11,...,
k M 1,..., k ch bao gm cc
hng t ca det A ; n l mt b phn trong biu thc tng ca det A . Trng hp tng qut
l mt hng t trong tng ca
j ,..., j k
j ,..., j k
v nh thc con bc k gc
, ta bin i hng v ct ca det A a M 1
i
1
k
1 ,..., ik
M i 1,..., i
trn bn tri. Ta thc hin i1 1 ln i ch hng th i1 a v hng th 1, ..., ik 1 ln i

71
Chng 4: nh thc
ch hng th ik a v hng th k. Tng t i ch j1 1,..., j k 1 ln a cc ct
j1 ,..., jk v cc ct 1,..., k. V vy nh thc i du
(1) (i1 1) + ...+ (ik 1) + ( j1 1) + ...+ ( j k 1) = (1)i1 + ...+ ik + j1 + ...+ j k .

Khi i v tr nh vy nh thc b ca
Do
j ,..., j k
vn l
M i 1,..., i
1
j ,..., j
M i11,..., i kk .
j ,..., j
j ,..., j k
i + ...+ ik + j1 +...+ j k
= (1) 1
M i 1,...,i k , nh vy cc hng t ca
1
k
1
k
Ai 1,...,i
j ,..., j k
j ,..., j
Ai 1,..., i k cng ch l cc hng t ca det A .
1
k
1
k
M i 1,..., i
Mt khc mi
j ,..., j k
j ,..., j
Ai 1,..., i k c k!(n k )! hng t. S cc nh thc con
1
k
1
k
M i 1,..., i
j ,..., j k
k
trn k hng i1 ,..., ik bng s cc t hp n chp k v bng C n . Cc hng t ca
1
k
M i 1,..., i
j ,..., j k
j ,..., j
Ai 1,..., i k
1
k
1
k
M i 1,..., i
j ' ,..., j ' k

j '1 ,..., j ' k
Ai ,...,
ik
1
1
M i ,...,
ik
1
{ j1,..., jk } { j '1 ,..., j 'k } .

Do tng
1 j1 <...< j k n
bit ca
khc nhau tng i mt nu
j ,..., j k j1 ,..., j k
k
Ai ,..., i
c Cn k!( n k )! = n! hng t phn
1
k
1
k
M i 1,..., i
det A nhng det A cng ch c n! hng t. Vy mi hng t ca det A u l hng t
no ca mt trong nhng
j ,..., j k
j ,..., j
Ai 1,..., i k vi
1
k
1
k
M i 1,..., i
1 j1 < ... < jk n . Vy ta c
ng thc (3.6).
Cng thc khai trin theo ct (3.7) c chng minh trc tip hon ton tng t cch trn
t
hoc c th suy ra t kt qu trn v p dng tnh cht det A = det A .
a11
M
a k1
...
a1k
O
M
... akk
V d 4.7: Dn =
ak +11 ... ak +1k
M
O
M
an1
... ank
72
0
M
0
...
0
O
M
...
0
ak +1k +1 ... ak +1n
M
O
M
akk +1
... ann
Chng 4: nh thc
a11 ... a1k ak +1k +1 ... ak +1n

= M O M
M
O
M
ak1 ... akk ank +1 ... ann
j ,..., j k
= 0 nu { j1 ,..., jk } {1,..., k }.
1
M 1,...,
k
V d 4.8: Vi mi ma trn cng cp A, B lun c

Tht vy, gi s
[ ]
det AB = det A det B .
[ ]
,
, B = bij
A = aij
n n
n n
[ ]nn
C = AB = cij
cij =
aik bkj
k =1
Xt nh thc cp 2n:
aij
D2n =
1
1
bij
1
Khai trin Laplace theo n hng u ta c
D2n = det A det B . Mt khc, nhn b11 vi ct
1, b21 vi ct 2,..., bn1 vi ct n ca D2 n xong cng tt c vo ct n+1 th nh thc D2 n tr

thnh:
a11
M
a
D2n = n1
1
... a1n
O
M
... ann
1
1
c11
M
cn1
0
0
O
0
b12
0
M
0
b1n
M
0
O
bn 2
M
bnn
73
Chng 4: nh thc
Tip tc bin i tng t nh trn cui cng c:
D2n =
a11
...
a1n
c11
...
c1n
an1
...
ann
cn1
... cnn
0
1
1
Khai trin Laplace theo n hng cui ta c:
1+ 2 + ...+ n + n +1+ ...+ 2n
c11 ... c1n

1
M O M
1 cn1 ... cnn
D2n = (1)
2n( 2n +1)
+n
2
= (1)
det C = det C .
4.5
4.5.1
NG DNG NH THC TM MA TRN NGHCH O

nh ngha ma trn nghch o
Ta bit vnh
( Mn ,+,.)
cc ma trn vung cp n l khng nguyn, v vy vi ma trn
vung cho trc cha chc c ma trn nghch o i vi php nhn ma trn.
nh ngha 4.4: Ma trn vung
cp B sao cho AB = BA = I .
A c gi l kh nghch nu tn ti ma trn vung cng
Php nhn ma trn c tnh kt hp nn ma trn

nht, ta gi ma trn ny l ma trn nghch o ca
4.5.2
A , k hiu A1 .
iu kin cn v tn ti ma trn nghch o
nh l 4.5: (iu kin cn) Nu

khng suy bin).
Chng minh:
74
B nh ngha trn nu tn ti th duy
A kh nghch th det A 0 (lc ta ni ma trn A
AA1 = I det A det A1 = det AA1 = det I = 1 .
Chng 4: nh thc
det A =
Do
1
det A1
nh ngha 4.5: Ma trn

ca ma trn
[ ]
0.
[ ]nn
B = Aij
Aij l phn b i s ca phn t aij
, c gi l ma trn ph hp ca A .
A = aij
n n
nh l 4.6: (iu kin ) Nu
A 1 =
vi
, trong
det A 0 th A kh nghch v
1
Bt ,
det A
(4.19)
B l ma trn ph hp ca A .
Chng minh: Khai trin nh thc ca ma trn
A theo hng th k ta c:
ak1 Ak1 + ... + akn Akn = det A

Vy ai1 Ak1 + ... + ain Akn l khai trin theo hng th k ca nh thc ca ma trn c
c bng cch thay hng th k ca A bi hng th i ca A , do bng 0.
Tm li
det A nu i = k
t
ai1 Ak1 + ... + ain Akn =
AB = (det A) I .
nu i k
0
Tng t, khai trin theo ct ta c:
det A nu i = k
t
a1i A1k + ... + ani Ank =
B A = (det A) I .
nu i k
0
H qu 4.7: Nu
Chng minh:
(4.20)
BA = I hoc AB = I th tn ti A1 v A1 = B .
BA = I det A 0 A1 v
B = B( AA1 ) = ( BA) A1 = A1 .
1 2 3
V d 4.9: Ma trn A = 2 5 3 c det A = 1 .
1 0 8
A11 = (1)1+1
5 3
0 8
= 40 ,
A12 = (1)1+ 2
2 3
1 8
= 13 ,
75
Chng 4: nh thc
A13 = (1)1+ 3
2 5
= 5 ,
1 0
A21 = (1) 2 +1
1 3
=5 ,
1 8
A23 = (1) 2 + 3
A22 = (1) 2 + 2
A31 = (1)3+1
A33 = (1) 3+3
2 3
5 3
1 2
2 5
= 9 ,
2 3
= 16 ,
0 8
1 2
= 2,
1 0
A32 = (1)3+ 2
1 3
2 3
=3 ,
=1 ,
Vy
t
40 13 5
40 16 9 40 16 9
1
16 5
2 = 13 5
3 = 13 5 3 .
A1 =
1
9
5
2 1
3
1
2
1 5
4.5.3
Tm ma trn nghch o theo phng php Gauss-Jordan
Khi ta thc hin lin tip cc php bin i s cp ln cc hng ca ma trn A a A

v ma trn n v, theo tnh cht 3.5 chng 3 th iu ny cng c ngha l ta nhn bn tri ca
A cc ma trn sao cho E1...Ek A = I , trong E1 ,..., Ek l cc ma trn dng R(k , ) ,
P(i, j ) , Q(i, j , ) (xem 3.10, 3.11, 3.12). Mt khc theo H qu 4.7 th A1 = E1...Ek .
E1...Ek = E1...Ek I l ma trn c c bng cch
thc hin bi cng cc php bin i s cp tng ng nh thc hin i vi ma trn A ln
Cng vi lp lun nh trn ta c:
cc hng ca ma trn n v
I . V vy tm ma trn A1 ta thc hin cc bc sau:
1) Vit ma trn n v
I bn phi ma trn A :
AI
2) Thc hin cc php bin i s cp ng thi ln cc hng ca
AI
a ma trn
v tri v ma trn n v.
3) Khi v tri tr thnh ma trn n v th v phi l ma trn
A I .......... I A1 .
76
A1 .
(4.21)
Chng 4: nh thc
V d 4.10: Tm
1 2 3
vi A = 2 5 3
1 0 8
1 2 31 0 0
2 5 30 1 0
1 0 80 0 1
h1 h1
2 h1 + h2 h2
h1 + h3 h3
1 2 3 1 0 0
0 1 32 1 0
2 h2 + h3 h3
0 0 1 5 2 1
h1 h1
h2 h2
h3 h3
h1 h1
h2 h 2
3h3 + h1 h1 1
3h3 + h2 h2
0
h3 h3
1 2
3 1 0 0
0 1 32 1 0
0 2 5 1 0 1
2 0 14 6
3
1 0 13 5 3
0 0 1 5 2 1
1 2 3 1
0
0
0 1 32 1
0
0 0 1 5 2 1
3h2 + h1 h1
h2 h2
h3 h3
1 0 0 40 16 9
0 1 0 13 5 3
0 0 1 5 2 1
40 16 9
1
Vy A = 13
5 3 .
5
2 1
1
Ch 4.8: Tm A theo phng php Gauss-Jordan s d dng khi cc phn t ca

l cc s nguyn ( thng gp khi det A = 1 ).
4.6
A1
TM HNG CA MA TRN BNG NH THC

T tnh cht 4.2 ta bit rng nh thc ca mt h ph thuc tuyn tnh bng 0. Do nu
nh thc DB {v1 ,..., vn } 0 th h {v1 ,..., vn } c lp tuyn tnh.

Ngc li, gi s h
{v1,..., vn }
c lp tuyn tnh, ta s chng minh
[ ]
DB {v1,..., vn } 0 . Tht vy, gi s v j = aij ei , A = aij ,

i =1
det A = DB {v1,..., vn }, v h {v1 ,..., vn } c lp tuyn tnh nn n l mt c s ca V .

77
Chng 4: nh thc
Vy ta c
[ ]
e j = bij vi , B = bij
AB = I det A 0 . (4.22)
i =1
nh l 4.9: H
{v1,..., vn } c lp khi v ch khi DB {v1,..., vn } 0 .
nh l 4.10: Gi s
[ ]
A = aij
khc 0 v mi nh thc con cp
l mt ma trn c
m n . Nu c nh thc con cp p
p + 1 bao quanh n u bng 0 th r ( A) = p .
Chng minh: Khng mt tnh tng qut ta c th gi thit nh thc con cp
p gc tri
,..., p
M 11,...,
p 0 . Khi p vc t ct u c lp tuyn tnh, v nu c mt vc t l t hp tuyn
tnh ca
,..., p
p 1 vc t cn li th mu thun vi gi thit M 11,...,
p 0 , do r ( A) p . Ta cn
chng minh bt ng thc ngc li.

Vi mi
k = 1,..., m; s = p + 1,..., n ; Xt ma trn cp p + 1 :

a11
a
21
B= M
a p1
a k1
... ... a1 p
... ... a2 p
M
... ... a pp
... ... akp
a1s
a2 s
a ps
aks
Khi
k p : Ma trn B c hai hng bng nhau, do det B = 0 .
Khi
,..., p
k > p : det B = 0 , v det B l nh thc cp p + 1 bao M 11,...,
p.
Mt khc khai trin theo hng cui ta c dng sau:
,..., p
ak11 + ... + akp p + aks M 11,...,
p =0
aks = 1ak1 + ... + p a kp , vi mi k = 1, 2, ..., m
V vy vc t ct v s l t hp tuyn tnh ca p vc t ct u. Vy
H qu 4.11:
78
r ( A) p .
A l mt ma trn c m n th r ( A) = r ( At ) min(m, n) .
Chng 4: nh thc
Ch 4.12: 1) T cng thc (4.20) ta chng minh c nu
c s
A l ma trn chuyn t t
B sang c s B ' th A1 l ma trn chuyn t t c s B' sang c s B .
2) tm hng ma trn A ta tm nh thc con cp 2 khc 0. Bao nh thc ny bi cc

nh thc con cp 3. Nu tt c cc nh thc cp 3 bao quanh u bng 0 th r ( A) = 2 . Nu c
nh thc con cp 3 khc 0 th ta tip tc bao nh thc cp 3 ny bi cc nh thc cp 4...
2 1 2 3
V d 4.11: a) Ma trn A = 2 9 4 7
4 3 1 1
2 1 2
2 1 3
= 20 , 2 9 4 = 2 9 7 = 0 .
c
2 9
4 3 1
4 3 1
Vy
r ( A) = 2
1
0
4
2
4 2 1 7
2
1
1 0
c
= 0 nhng
= 1.
b) Ma trn B =
3
1 1 4
4 2
2 1
1 4 3 4
2
1
0
Bao nh thc ny bi nh thc cp 3 4 2 1 = 1 .
3
1 1
nh thc cp 4 duy nht
B = 0 . Vy r ( B) = 3 .
a
1
V d 4.12: Tm hng ca ma trn A =
1
1
Ta c
Vy:
1 1 1
a 1 1
1 a 1
1 1 a
A = (a + 3)(a 1)3 .
Khi
a 3, a 1 th r ( A) = 4 ;
79
Chng 4: nh thc
Khi
a = 1 th r ( A) = 1 ;
1 3 1
Khi a = 3 , 1 1
3 0 r ( A) = 3 .
1 1
1
Trong thc hnh ta c th kt hp phng php ny vi phng php bin i s cp ln
cc hng cc ct ma trn th qu trnh tm hng ma trn s nhanh hn.
80
Chng 5: H phng trnh tuyn tnh
5. CHNG 5: H PHNG TRNH TUYN TNH

5.1
5.1.1
KHI NIM V H PHNG TRNH TUYN TNH

Dng tng qut ca h phng trnh tuyn tnh
H m phng trnh tuyn tnh n n c dng tng qut:
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + ... + a1n xn = b1

a x + a x + ... + a x = b
21 1
22 2
2n n
2
..............................................
am1 x1 + am 2 x2 + ... + amn xn = bm
(5.1)
Hay
aij x j = bi , i = 1, ..., m
j =1
Trong
x1 , x2 ,..., xn l n n,
aij l h s ca n th j trong phng trnh i,

bi l v phi ca phng trnh th i; i = 1,..., n; j = 1,..., m.
Khi cc v phi bi = 0 th h phng trnh c gi l thun nht.
Nghim ca h phng trnh l b gm
n s ( x1 , x2 ,..., xn ) sao cho khi thay vo (5.1)
ta c cc ng thc ng. Gii mt h phng trnh l i tm tp hp nghim ca h. Hai h

phng trnh cng n l tng ng nu tp hp nghim ca chng bng nhau. V vy gii
mt h phng trnh ta c th gii h phng trnh tng ng ca n.
5.1.2
Dng ma trn ca h phng trnh tuyn tnh

Vi h (5.1) ta xt cc ma trn:
a11 a12 ... a1n

b1
x1
a
b
x
21 a22 ... a2 n
2
2
, B=
, X =
A=
M
M
M
M
O
M

am1 am 2 ... amn
bm
xn
(5.2)
81
A , B , X ln lt c gi l ma trn h s, ma trn v sau v ma trn n. Khi h

phng trnh (5.1) c vit li di dng ma trn:
AX = B
5.1.3
Dng vc t ca h phng trnh tuyn tnh

Nu ta k hiu vc t ct th i ca ma trn
sau
(5.3)
A l vi = (a1i ,..., ami ) m v vc t v
b = (b1,..., bm ) m , th h (5.1) c vit di dng vc t:

x1v1 + x2 v2 + ... + xn vn = b
(5.4)
Vi cch vit ny ta thy rng h phng trnh (5.1) c nghim khi v ch khi
b Span{ v1 , ..., vn } .
5.2
NH L TN TI NGHIM
nh l 3.18: (Kronecker-Kapelli) H phng trnh (5.1) c nghim khi v ch khi
~
~
r ( A) = r ( A ) trong A l ma trn c c bng cch b sung thm vo ma trn h s A mt
ct cui l v phi ca h phng trnh.
a11 ... a1n

~
M
A= M O
am1 ... amn
b1
M
bm
(5.5)
x1, x2 ,..., xn n sao cho

x1v1 + x2 v2 + ... + xn vn = b . Ngha l b c biu din thnh t hp tuyn tnh ca {v1 ,..., vn } .
~
Vy r (v1 ,..., vn ) = r (v1 ,..., vn , b) . Do r ( A) = r ( A ) .
Chng minh: H (5.1) c nghim khi v ch khi tn ti
5.3
PHNG PHP CRAMER
nh ngha 5.1: H n phng trnh tuyn tnh n n c ma trn h s

gi l h Cramer.
A khng suy bin c
nh l 5.2: Mi h Cramer u tn ti duy nht nghim. C th
aij x j = bi , i = 1, ..., n c nghim xi = Di
D , i = 1,..., n;
j =1
Trong
D = det A = DB {v1 ,..., vi 1 , vi , vi +1 ,..., vn }

Di = DB {v1 ,..., vi 1 , b, vi +1 ,..., vn }
82
(5.6)
Di l nh thc ca h cc vc t ct l cc h s ca h phng trnh nhng vc t ct th

i c thay bi vc t ct v sau.
det A 0 h {v1 ,..., vn } l mt c s ca n . Do b c biu

din duy nht thnh t hp tuyn tnh ca { v1 ,..., vn } . Ngha l tn ti duy nht x1 , x2 ,..., xn
sao cho x1v1 + x2 v 2 + ... + xn vn = b .
Chng minh:
Gi
B = {e1,..., en } l c s chnh tc ca n . Khi :
Di = DB {v1,..., vi 1, b, vi +1,..., vn } = DB v1,..., vi 1 , xk vk , vi +1 ,..., vn
k =1
= xi DB {v1 ,..., vi 1 , vi , vi +1 ,..., vn } = xi D xi = Di D , i = 1,..., n;

Gii h phng trnh tuyn tnh trng hp tng qut
Gi s h phng trnh c nghim, do r (v1 ,..., vn ) = r (v1 ,..., vn , b) . Gi s
r (v1,..., vn ) = r (v1,..., v p ) ; p n (trong trng hp khc cch gii hon ton tng t). Vi
p vc t hng pha trn ca A to thnh h c lp tuyn tnh ti i ca h cc vc

t hng ca A . V vy h (5.1) tng ng vi p phng trnh u
gi thit ny
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + ... + a1n xn = b1

a x + a x + ... + a x = b
22 2
2n n
2
21 1
..............................................
a p1x1 + a p 2 x2 + ... + a pn xn = b p
a11 ... a1 p
Gi s M
O
M 0 (trng hp khc cch gii hon ton tng t)
a p1 ... a pp
H phng trnh trn c vit li:
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + ... + a1 p x p = b1 a1 p +1 x p +1 ... a1n xn
a21 x1 + a22 x2 + ... + a2 p x p = b2 a2 p +1 x p +1 ... a2n xn
............................................................................
a x + a x + ... + a x = b a
p2 2
pp p
p
pp +1 x p +1 ... a pn xn
p1 1
83

y l h Cramer c v sau ph thuc vo cc n x p +1 ,..., xn . Vy h c v s nghim
ph thuc
x p +1 ,..., xn .
x1 + x2 + x3 + x4
x + x + x + x
1
2
3
4
V d 5.1: Gii v bin lun theo tham s h
x1 + x2 + x3 + x4
x1 + x2 + x3 + x4
T v d 4.12 chng 4 ta c
Khi
=1
=1
=1
=1
det A = ( + 3)( 1)3 .
3, 1 : H cho l h Cramer nn c nghim duy nht. Ngoi ra vai tr
ca cc n trong h u nh nhau, do nghim ca h:
x1 = x2 = x3 = x4 x1 = x2 = x3 = x4 =
Khi
1
+3
= 1 : r ( A) = r ( A) = 1 , h phng trnh cho tng ng vi phng trnh
x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 = 1
H phng trnh c v s nghim x1
Khi
sung
= 3 : det A = 0 r ( A) < 4
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
r ( A) = 3 ) nhng ma trn b
3 1 1
1 3 1
~
= 64 0 r ( A) = 4 h v nghim.
PHNG PHP MA TRN NGHCH O
nh l 5.3: H Cramer
aij x j = bi , i = 1, ..., n, vi cc ma trn tng ng

j =1
84
(theo V d 3.18
~
A c nh thc con cp 4
1
3
5.4
= 1 x2 x3 x4 vi x2 , x3 , x4 tu .
a11 a12 ... a1n

b1
x1
a
b
x
21 a22 ... a2 n
2
2
, B=
, X =
A=
M
M
M
M O M

an1 an 2 ... ann
bn
xn
c nghim
5.5
X = A1B .
GII H PHNG TRNH TUYN TNH BNG PHNG PHP KH GAUSS
Ta c th kim tra c rng: khi thc hin cc bin i s cp sau ln cc phng trnh
ca h th s c h mi tng ng:
i ch hai phng trnh;
Nhn, chia mt s khc 0 vo c 2 v ca mt phng trnh;
Cng vo mt phng trnh mt t hp tuyn tnh cc phng trnh khc.
Gii h phng trnh tuyn tnh bng phng php kh Gauss l thc hin cc php bin i
n
aij x j = bi ; i = 1,..., m
s cp (c th i ch s cc n nu cn) a h phng trnh (5.1)
j =1
v h tng ng
a'ij x' j = b'i ;

j =1
i = 1,..., m. Cc n x '1 ,..., x 'n l cc n x1 ,..., xn nhng c th thay i th t ch s v

ma trn b sung ca h mi c dng
a'11
a ' pp
trong
b'1
b' p
b ' p +1
b 'm
(5.7)
a '11...a ' pp 0 .
Nu mt trong cc
b' p +1 ,..., b'm khc 0 th c phng trnh m v tri bng 0, v phi
khc 0 nn h v nghim.
85

Nu b' p +1 = ... = b'm
= 0 th h cho tng ng vi h p phng trnh
... + a'1n x'n = b'1

a'11 x'1 + a'12 x'2 +
a'22 x'2 +
... + a'2n x'n = b'2
.........................................
a ' p1 x'1 +... + a ' pn x'n = b' p
(5.8)
Ta c cc nghim x '1 ,..., x ' p ph thuc x ' p +1 ,..., x 'n .

Ch rng khi ta bin i tng ng ln cc phng trnh th thc cht l bin i cc
h s trong cc phng trnh. V vy khi thc hnh ta ch cn bin i ma trn b sung (5.5) ca
h a v ma trn c dng (5.7), t suy ra nghim ca h phng trnh.
2 x1 + 5 x2 8 x3 = 8
4 x + 3 x 9 x = 9
1
2
3
V d 5.2: Gii h phng trnh
2 x1 + 3x2 5 x3 = 7
x1 + 8 x2 7 x3 = 12
~ 4
A=
2
5 8
8
1
2
3 9 9
4
3 5 7
8 7 12
2
8 7 12
1 8 7 12
2 5 8 8
5 8 8
0 7 7 7
3 9 9
3 5 7
0 2 3 1
1 8 7 12
1
0 11 6 16
0
0 1
0
1
1
1
0 2 3
0
1
0
8 7 12
1
0
1 1 1
0
0 5 5
0 1
1
0
0 0 3
1 0 2
.
0 1 1
0 0 0
x1 = 1
Vy h cho c nghim duy nht x2 = 2 .

x = 3
3
86
8 7 12
1 1 1
0 1
1
0 0
0

V d 5.3: Gii v bin lun theo tham s
h phng trnh
3x1 + 2 x2 + 5 x3 + 4 x4 = 3
2 x + 3 x + 6 x + 8 x = 5
1
2
3
4
x1 6 x2 9 x3 20 x4 = 11
4 x1 + x2 + 4 x3 + mx4 = 2
5
4
3
3 2
1 6 9 20 11
3 2
6
8
5
5
4
3
~ 2 3
A=
1 6 9 20 11
2 3
6
8
5
4
m
2
4
m
2
4 1
4 1
1 6 9 20 11
1 6 9 20 11
0 5
0 20 32
8
16
9
64
36
0 0
0 15 24
0
0
0
48
27
0
1
m
0 0
0 5 8 m 16 8
1 1 1 4 2
0 5 8 16 9
.
0 0 0
0
0
1
0 0 0 m
x1 x2 x3 4 x4 = 2
H cho tng ng vi h: 5 x2 + 8 x3 + 16 x4 = 9
mx4 = 1
m = 0: h v nghim;
m 0: h c v s nghim
x4 =
hay
1
9m 16 8
4m 3
x3 , x1 =
x3 .
, x2 =
m
5m
5
5m
5
9m 16 8
1
4m 3
x3 ,
x3 , x3 , ; x3 ty .
5
5m
5
m
5m
87
x3 + x4 x5 = 3
x1
2 x + 2 x + x 9 x
=2
2
3
4
1
V d 5.4: Gii h phng trnh 3 x1 x2 + x3 8 x4 4 x5 = 2
6 x + x + x 16 x 5 x = 3
3
4
5
1 2
x1 + x2 +
x4 + 2 x5 = 2
1 3
1 3
1 0 1 1
1 0 1 1
0 2 3 11 2
2 2 1 9
0
2
8
~
A = 3 1 1 8 4 2 0 1 4 11 1 7
0 1 7 22 1 15
0 1 1 16 5 3
0 1 1
1 1 0
1
2 2
0
3
1
1
0
0
0
0 1 1
1 3
1 0 1 1
0 1 1
1 1
0
3
1
0
0 1 11 4 6 0 0 1 11
0 5 11 2
8
44
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 6 22 2 14
44
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0 0
1 0
1 3
0 2
0 0
3
3
1
4
6
22 22
22 22
0 2
3 1
0 2
1 1
0 0
H cho tng ng vi h:
= 2
x1
+ 3 x5 = 1
x2 + x3
=2
x3 3 x4
2 x4 + x5 = 1
88
x1 = 2
x = 3 + 3x
2
4
c nghim
x3 = 2 + 3 x4
x5 = 1 2 x4 ; x4 tu

5.6
H PHNG TRNH TUYN TNH THUN NHT
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + ... + a1n xn = 0

a x + a x + ... + a x = 0
21 1
22 2
2n n
..............................................
a m1 x1 + a m 2 x2 + ... + a mn xn = 0
(5.9)
R rng rng vi h phng trnh tuyn tnh thun nht (5.9) th
~
r ( A) = r ( A) n v
lun c nghim tm thng x1 = ... = xn = 0 .

nh l 5.4:
a) H (3.14) ch c nghim tm thng khi v ch khi
b) Nu
r ( A) = n .
r ( A) = p < n th nghim ca h (5.9) l khng gian con n p chiu ca n .
Chng minh: Ta chng minh b). Thc hin cc bin i tng ng ln ma trn b sung
(5.8) ca h a v h tng ng vi ma trn b sung c dng
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
(5.10)
x'1 = c11 x' p +1 + ... + c1n p x'n
Suy ra nghim c dng .........................................

x' = c x'
p1 p +1 + ... + c pn p x'n
p
Trong ( x '1 ,..., x 'n ) l mt hon v ca ( x1 ,..., xn ) . n gin ta gi s x '1 = x1 ,..., x 'n = xn
(trng hp khc c chng minh tng t), khi tp hp nghim:
{(c11 x p +1 + ... + c1n p xn ,..., c p1 x p +1 + ... + c pn p xn , x p +1,..., xn ) x p +1,..., xn }

89
= (c11 ,..., c p1 ,1,0,...,0) x p +1 + ... + (c1n p ,..., c pn p ,0,0,...,1) xn x p +1 ,..., xn

l khng gian con
n p chiu ca .
nh l 5.5: Gi s ( x1 ,..., xn ) l mt nghim ca phng trnh khng thun nht (5.1) th

( x1 ,..., xn ) l nghim ca phng trnh thun nht tng ng (5.9) khi v ch khi ( x1 + x1,..., xn + xn )
l nghim ca phng trnh (5.1).
90
Chng 6: nh x tuyn tnh
6.
6.1
6.1.1
CHNG 6: NH X TUYN TNH
KHI NIM NH X TUYN TNH

nh ngha v v d
nh ngha 6.1: nh x
f t khng gian vc t V vo khng gian W tho mn:
(i) vi mi
u, v V ; f (u + v) = f (u ) + f (v)
(ii) vi mi
u, v V , ; f (u ) = f (u )
(6.1)
c gi l nh x tuyn tnh (ng cu tuyn tnh hay gi tt l ng cu) t V vo W .

Khi V
= W th f c gi l t ng cu.
V d 6.1: Xt cc nh x sau:
1) nh x khng
0:V
u a
0(u ) = 0
IdV : V V
2) nh x ng nht
u a IdV (u ) = u
3) Php v t t s k
f :V V
u a f (u ) = ku
4) Gi s
W1 W2 V , xt php chiu ln thnh phn th nht :

Pr1 : W1 W2
v1 + v2 a v1
5) Php tnh tin theo vc t v0
V , T : V V
u a u + v0
nh x 1), 2), 3), 4) l nh x tuyn tnh; 2), 3) l t ng cu; 5) khng phi l nh x

tuyn tnh nu v0
0.
91

6) Cho ma trn
nh x
[ ]
,
A = aij
m n
T : n
m
( x1,..., xn ) a T ( x1,..., xn ) = ( y1,..., ym )
xc nh bi
y1
M = a
ij

ym
[ ]
x1
M

xn
(6.2)
l mt nh x tuyn tnh.
Ngc li ta c th chng minh c (xem mc 4) mi nh x tuyn tnh t
u c dng nh trn.
6.1.2
n vo m
Cc tnh cht
nh l 6.1: Nu
(i)
f (0 ) = 0
(ii) vi mi
(iii)
v V : f ( v ) = f (v )
n
n
f xi vi = xi f (vi ) , x1,..., xn , v1,..., vn V .
i =1
i =1
Chng minh: (i)

(ii)
f : V W l nh x tuyn tnh th
f (0 ) = f (0 0 ) = 0 f (0 ) = 0
f (v) + f (v) = f (v + (v)) = f (0 ) = 0
(iii) D dng chng minh bng cch quy np theo
n.
nh l 6.2: nh x f : V W l nh x tuyn tnh khi v ch khi vi mi u , v V , , :
f (u + v) = f (u ) + f (v) .
Chng minh: Vi mi u , v V , , :
() : f (u + v) = f (u ) + f ( v) = f (u ) + f (v)
f (u + v) = f (1u ) + f (1v) = 1 f (u ) + 1 f (v) = f (u ) + f (v)

() :
f (u ) = f (u + 0v) = f (u ) + 0 f (v) = f (u ) .
92
V vo W hon ton c xc nh bi nh ca mt
c s ca V , ngha l vi c s B = { e1 ,..., en } ca V v h vc t u1 ,..., u n W cho trc
nh l 6.3: Mi nh x tuyn tnh t
th tn ti duy nht mt nh x tuyn tnh
f : V W sao cho f (ei ) = ui , i = 1,..., n .
Chng minh:
*) Tn ti: Vi mi
v V , gi s ( x1 ,..., xn ) l to ca
v trong c s B , ngha l
v = x1e1 + ... + xn en . t f (v ) = x1u1 + ... + xn u n W .
f l nh x tuyn tnh v f (ei ) = ui , vi mi
Ta c th kim chng c rng
i = 1,..., n .
g : V W l nh x tuyn tnh sao cho g (ei ) = ui , vi mi
i = 1,..., n khi vi bt k v V , v = x1e1 + ... + xn en ,
*) Duy nht: Gi s
g (v) = g ( x1e1 + ... + xn en ) = x1 g (e1 ) + ... + xn g (en )

= x1u1 + ... + xn u n = f (v )
Vy
6.1.3
g= f.
Cc php ton trn cc nh x tuyn tnh
6.1.3.1 Hom(V,W)
Cho hai khng gian vc t
V ,W . Tp cc nh x tuyn tnh t V vo W c k hiu l
Hom(V ,W ) hay L(V , W ) .

Vi
f , g Hom(V ,W ) , tng ng
V W
v a f (v ) + g ( v )
l mt nh x tuyn tnh, c k hiu

Tng t, vi k , tng ng
f + g v gi l tng ca f v g .
V W
v a kf (v)
l nh x tuyn tnh c k hiu l
(6.3)
(6.4)
kf .
Vy ta xc nh hai php ton "+," trn tp cc nh x tuyn tnh t V vo W . Vi hai php

ton ny th ( Hom (V ,W ),+ ,) c cu trc khng gian vc t v dim Hom(V ,W ) = dimV dimW .
93

6.1.3.2 EndV
Gi s f : V V ' v g : V ' V " l hai nh x tuyn tnh th nh x hp g o f : V V "
cng l mt nh x tuyn tnh. V vy tp cc t ng cu ca V , k hiu EndV , vi hai php ton

cng v hp nh x th (EndV ,+,o) l mt vnh khng giao hon, c n v , khng nguyn. Ngoi
ra vi hai php ton nh nghi (1.3.1)
6.2
(EndV ,+,) cn l mt khng gian vc t.
NHN V NH CA NH X TUYN TNH

nh l 6.4: Gi s
(i) Nu
f : V W l nh x tuyn tnh, khi :
V1 l khng gian con ca V th f (V1 ) l khng gian con ca W v
dim f (V1 ) dim V1 .
W th f 1 (W1 ) l khng gian con ca V v
(ii) Nu W1 l khng gian con ca

dim W1 dim f 1 (W1 ) .
Chng minh: (i) Vi mi u1 , u 2 f (V1 ); , tn ti v1 , v2 V1 sao cho

u1 = f (v1 ), u 2 = f (v2 ) . Do
u1 + u 2 = f (v1 ) + f (v2 ) = f (v1 ) + f ( v2 ) f (V1 ) .

Gi s
{e1,..., en }
l mt c s ca
V1 vi mi u f (V1 ) , tn ti v V1 :
v = x1v1 + ... + xn vn v f (v) = u u = x1 f (e1 ) + ... + xn f (en )
{ f (e1 ),..., f (en )} l mt h sinh ca
iu ny suy ra
f (V1 ) .
dim f (V1 ) dim V1 .
(ii) c chng minh tng t.

nh ngha 6.2: Vi nh x tuyn tnh
f : V W ta k hiu v nh ngha
Kerf = f 1{0}, Im f = f (V )
l ht nhn v l nh ca
f , k hiu
r ( f ) = dim Im f
l hng ca nh x
(6.6)
f.
nh l 6.5: Vi mi nh x tuyn tnh
f :V W
dimV = r ( f ) + dim Kerf

94
(6.5)
(6.7)

Chng minh: Gi s {e1 ,..., em } l mt c s ca Kerf (khi Kerf = {0} th m = 0). Ta b
sung {e1 ,..., em , em +1 ,..., em + k } l mt c s ca V . Ta chng minh { f (em +1 ),..., f (em + k )}
l mt h sinh, c lp tuyn tnh ca
Im f (do l mt c s).
f (v) Im f ;
Vi mi
v = x1e1 + ... + xm em + xm +1em +1 + ... + xm + k em + k V

f (v) = x1 f (e1 ) + ... + xm f (em ) + xm +1 f (em +1 ) + ... + xm + k f (em + k )
= xm +1 f (em +1 ) + ... + xm + k f (em + k ) .
Gi s
y1 f (em +1 ) + ... + y k f (em + k ) = 0 th
y1em +1 + ... + y k em + k Kerf

y1em +1 + ... + y k em + k = z1e1 + ... + z m em
y1em +1 + ... + y k em + k z1e1 ... z m em = 0
y1 = ... = yk = z1 = ... = z m = 0 .
6.3
6.3.1
TON CU, N CU, NG CU

Ton cu
nh ngha 6.3: nh x tuyn tnh m ton nh c gi l ton cu.
nh l 6.6: Vi nh x tuyn tnh
(i)
f : V W , cc mnh sau tng ng:
f ton cu.
(ii) nh ca h sinh ca V l h sinh ca W .

(iii)
r ( f ) = dim W .
(i ) (ii ) : Gi s {v1 ,..., vn } l h sinh ca V . Khi vi mi u W ,

tn ti v V sao cho f (v) = u (v f (V ) = W ).
Chng minh:
v = x1v1 + ... + xn vn u = x1 f (v1 ) + ... + xn f (vn ) .

Vy
{ f (v1 ),..., f (vn )} l h sinh ca W .
(ii) (i ) : Gi s { e1 ,..., en } l mt c s ca V th { f (e1 ),..., f (en )} l h sinh ca

W W = span{ f (e1 ),..., f (en )} = f (V ) .
(i ) f (V ) = W dim f (V ) = dim W r ( f ) = dim W .
95

6.3.2
n cu
nh ngha 6.4: nh x tuyn tnh m n nh c gi l n cu.
nh l 6.7: Vi nh x tuyn tnh
(i)
f : V W , cc mnh sau tng ng:
f n cu.
(ii) Kerf = {0} .

(iii) nh ca h c lp tuyn tnh ca V l h c lp tuyn tnh ca W .
(iv)
r ( f ) = dim V .
Chng minh:
(i ) (ii) : Hin nhin.
(ii) (i ) : Gi s f (v1 ) = f (v2 ) 0 = f (v1 ) f (v2 ) = f (v1 v2 )

v1 v2 = 0 v1 = v2 .
(ii ) (iii ) : Gi s {v1 ,..., vm } c lp:

x1 f (v1 ) + ... + xm f (vm ) = 0 x1v1 + ... + xm vm Kerf
x1v1 + ... + xm vm = 0 x1 = ... = xm = 0
(iii ) (iv) : Gi s {e1 ,..., en } l mt c s ca V th { f (e1 ),..., f (en )} l h sinh

c lp tuyn tnh ca f (V ) . Do r ( f ) = dim V .
(iv ) (ii ) :
6.3.3
dimV = r ( f ) + dim Kerf

dim Kerf = 0 Kerf = {0}.
dimV = r ( f )
ng cu
nh ngha 6.5: nh x tuyn tnh va n cu va ton cu c gi l ng cu.
Vy ng cu l mt nh x tuyn tnh v song nh.
Hai khng gian
V ,W c gi l ng cu nu c nh x tuyn tnh ng cu
f :V W .
f : V V c gi l t ng cu ca khng gian V . Tp hp cc t
ng cu ca V c k hiu l Gl(V ) .
Php ng cu
nh l 6.8: V v W ng cu khi v ch khi dim V

Chng minh:
96
() : Nu f : V W
ng cu th
= dim W .
dim V = r ( f ) (don cu)

dim V = dim W .
dim W = r ( f ) (ton cu)
() : Ngc li nu dim V = dim W = n .

Gi s
B = {e1,..., en }, B ' = {1,..., n } l c s ln lt ca V v W . Gi
f :V W
l nh x tuyn tnh tho mn f (ei ) = i ; i = 1,..., n (xem chng minh nh l 4.3). Khi
r ( f ) = dim V = dim W f ng cu.

nh l 6.9:
(Gl(V ),o ) l mt nhm (khng giao hon).
Chng minh: Ta d dng chng minh nu
f l t ng cu ca V th nh x ngc
f 1 cng l t ng cu ca V . Nu f , g t ng cu th g o f cng t ng cu.

Ta bit rng nh x t mt tp hu hn vo mt tp hu hn c cng s phn t l n
nh khi v ch khi l ton nh ( Ch 1.3-4, chng 1 trang 20). iu ny cng cn ng i vi
nh x tuyn tnh gia hai khng gian vc t c cng s chiu.
nh l 6.10: Gi s dim V = dim W v
f : V W l nh x tuyn tnh t V vo
W th: f n cu khi v ch khi f ton cu, do ng cu.

Chng minh:
f ton cu r ( f ) = dim W r ( f ) = dim V f n cu.

6.4
6.4.1
NH X TUYN TNH V MA TRN

Ma trn biu din nh x tuyn tnh
f : V W hon ton c xc nh bi nh ca
mt c s ca V . Gi s B = { e1 ,..., en } l mt c s ca V th nh x tuyn tnh f hon
ton c xc nh bi h vc t { f (e1 ),..., f (en )}. Mt khc theo chng 3-(1.3), nu
B ' = {1,..., m } l mt c s ca W th h { f (e1 ),..., f (en )} hon ton c xc nh bi
ma trn c m n c n ct l cc to ca cc vc t f (e1 ),..., f (en ) trong c s B ' . V
vy vi hai c s B , B ' cho trc th nh x tuyn tnh f hon ton c xc nh bi ma
Theo nh l 6.3, mi nh x tuyn tnh
trn
[ ]
, trong
A = aij
m n
f (e j ) = aij i ; j = 1,..., n
(6.8)
i =1
97

nh ngha 6.6: Ma trn
x tuyn tnh
f trong c s
A c cc phn t aij xc nh bi (6.8) c gi l ma trn ca nh
B ca V v B ' ca W .
B ca V v B ' ca W l ma trn c
cc ct l to ca { f (e1 ),..., f (en )} vit trong c s B ' .
Nh vy ma trn ca nh x tuyn tnh
V d 6.2: Xt nh x
f trong c s
f : 3 2
( x, y, z ) a (2 x + y 4 z ,3 x + 5 z )
f (1,0,0) = (2,3) = 2(1,0) + 3(0,1) .
f (0,1,0) = (1,0) = 1(1,0) + 0(0,1) .
f (0,0,1) = (4,5) = 4(1,0) + 5(0,1) .
Vy ma trn ca
f trong c s chnh tc ca 3 v 2 l
2 1 4
A=
3 0 5
Nu ( x1 ,..., xn ) l to ca
v V trong c s
B.
( y1 ,..., y m ) l to ca f (v) W trong c s
B ' th
y1
x1
M = a

ij m n M

ym
xn
(6.9)
y1 = a11x1 + ... + a1n xn
....................................
y = a x + ... + a x
m1 1
mn n
m
(6.10)
[ ]
hay
(6.10) c gi l biu thc to ca nh x tuyn tnh

Gi s
V ,W l hai khng gian vc t vi hai c s ln lt
B ' = {1,..., m }. Vi nh x tuyn tnh

xc nh bi ( 6.8).
98
f.
B = {e1,..., en }
[ ]
f : V W th c ma trn tng ng A = aij

m n
[ ]mn
Ngc li, cho ma trn A = aij

c ma trn l A
, biu thc to (6.9) xc nh nh x f : V W
Mmn . Vy c tng ng 1 - 1 gia Hom(V ,W ) v Mm n . Hn na, ta d
dng chng minh c rng nu
A, B l ma trn ca f , g th A + B l ma trn ca f + g v
kA l ma trn ca kf , vi mi k .
Hom (V ,W )
nh l 6.11: Tng ng
Mm n
A
xc nh bi (6.8) l mt ng cu tuyn tnh v
r ( f ) = r ( A) .
r ( A) ca ma trn A l hng ca h cc vc t ct
do r ( A) = dim f (V ) = r ( f ) .
Chng minh: Hng
Cho hai nh x tuyn tnh
{ f (e1 ),..., f (en )}
f , g : V V ' V " . V ,V ' ,V " c c s ln lt
B = {e1,..., en }, B ' = {e'1 ,..., e'm }, B " = {e1" ,..., el "}. Gi s A l ma trn ca f
trong c s B , B ' v B l ma trn ca g trong c s B ' , B" th BA l ma trn ca
g o f trong c s B , B" (xem thm (3.1)). Tht vy:
[ ]
, trong f (e j ) = aij e'i ; j = 1,..., n

A = aij
m n
i =1
B = [bki ]l m , trong g (e'i ) =
Ta c
bki e"k
i = 1,..., m
k =1
m
m
g o f (e j ) = g aij e'i = aij g (e'i )
i =1
i =1
l
l m
= aij bki e"k = bki aij e"k .
i =1 k =1
k =1 i =1
iu ny chng t
BA l ma trn ca g o f .
V = V ' = V " v ta chn c nh mt c s ca V th c tng ng 1-1 gia cc t

ng cu ca V v cc ma trn vung cp n.
Khi
99

nh l 6.12: Tng ng End (V )
Mn
f aA
A l ma trn ca f trong mt c s c nh ca V xc
l mt ng cu vnh, trong
nh bi (6.8).
A , B tng ng vi nh x tuyn tnh f , g trong mt c

s c nh ca V xc nh bi (6.8) l f A , g B th:
Ch : Nu ta k hiu ma trn
f + g A+ B
kf kA
f o g AB
r ( f ) = r ( A)
6.4.2
Ma trn ca nh x tuyn tnh trong cc c s khc nhau

Gi s
f : V W l nh x tuyn tnh.
T l ma trn chuyn c s
khng gian V .
B1 = {e1,..., en } sang c s B '1 = {e'1 ,..., e'n } ca
P l ma trn chuyn c s
B2 = {1,..., m } sang c s B '2 = { '1 ,..., 'm }
Gi
Gi
ca W .
B1 , B2 ,
trong c s B '1 , B '2
A l ma trn ca f trong c s
A' l ma trn ca f
A' = P 1 AT
Th
Tht vy: Gi s
[ ]mn
A = [aki ]m n , A' = [a 'ki ]m n , P = [ pki ]m m , T = tij
f (ei ) = aki k ;
i =1
f (e' j ) = a'ij 'i

i =1
'i = pki k
i =1
100
(6.11)
e' j = tij ei
i =1
m
mm
Ta c f (e' j ) = a 'ij 'i = a 'ij pki k = pki a 'ij k
i =1
i =1
k =1
k =1 i =1
Mt khc:
n
n
n
m
m n
f (e' j ) = f tij ei = tij f (ei ) = tij aki k = aki tij k
i =1 k =1
i =1
i =1
k =1 i =1
Do
pki a'ij = akitij
i =1
Suy ra
trong hai c s
j = 1,..., n ; k = 1,..., m .
i =1
PA' = AT . Vy
c bit nu
vi mi
A' = P 1 AT .
f l t ng cu ca khng gian vc t V . Gi A, A' l ma trn ca f
B , B ' v T l ma trn chuyn t c s B
sang
B ' th:
A' = T 1 AT
Ch : Nu
s
T l ma trn chuyn c s
B sang c s B ' th
(6.12)
T 1 l ma trn chuyn c
B ' sang c s B (xem ch 4.12 chng 4 trang 114).

nh ngha 6.7: Hai ma trn
bin
A, B c gi l ng dng nu tn ti ma trn khng suy
T sao cho B = T 1 AT .
T (6.12) cho thy hai ma trn ca mt t ng cu bt k trong hai c s khc nhau l
A, B ng dng th det A = det B . V vy ta c th nh ngha nh thc ca

mt t ng cu f l
ng dng. Nu
det f = det A
trong
6.4.3
(6.13)
A l ma trn ca f trong mt c s no .
nh x tuyn tnh v h phng trnh tuyn tnh

Cho nh x tuyn tnh
f c biu thc to xc nh bi (6.7), (6.8). Khi h phng
trnh tuyn tnh (5.1-5.4) tng ng (trang 130-131) c nghim khi v ch khi
b Im f
(6.14)
v ( x1 , ... , xn ) l nghim khi v ch khi f ( x1 , ... , xn ) = b .

101
(x1 , ..., xn )
l nghim ca phng trnh tuyn tnh thun nht (5.9) (trang 137) khi v
ch khi
(x1, ..., xn ) Ker f
(6.15)
Nhn xt: T hai nh l 6.11 v 6.12 ta thy rng mt bi ton v nh x tuyn tnh c th
chuyn sang bi ton ma trn, h phng trnh tuyn tnh v ngc li. Chng hn chng minh
nh thc ca ma trn A khc 0 ta ch cn chng minh t ng cu tuyn tnh c ma trn l A l
n cu hoc ton cu, hoc h phng trnh tuyn tnh tng ng c duy nht nghim.
6.5
CHO HO MA TRN
Trong phn ny ta gii quyt bi ton: Vi t ng cu tuyn tnh
hy tm mt c s ca V ma trn ca
f ca khng gian V ,
f trong c s ny c dng cho:
n
Bi ton trn cng tng ng vi bi ton: Cho ma trn
(6.16)
A tm ma trn khng suy bin
T sao cho T 1 AT c dng cho.

Ta s ch ra khi no bi ton ny c li gii, cch tm ma trn
ca f trong c s ny c dng cho.
6.5.1
T v tm c s ma trn
Khng gian con bt bin

nh ngha 6.8: Khng gian con W ca khng gian V c gi l bt bin i vi t ng
cu
f trn V nu f (W ) W .
Gi s {e1 ,..., ek } l mt c s ca
ca V . Vi c s ny ma trn ca
W , ta b sung {e1 ,..., ek , ek +1 ,..., en } l c s
f c dng
nk
k
102
nk

Nu V = W1 W2 , W1 ,W2 bt bin i vi
c dng
nk
k
6.5.2
f th c th chn c s ma trn ca f
nk
Vc t ring, gi tr ring
v V , v 0 sao cho f (v) = v th c gi l

mt gi tr ring v v l vc t ring ng vi gi tr ring ca t ng cu f .
nh ngha 6.9: Nu tn ti vc t
Vi mi
, k hiu
V = {v V f (v) = v} = Ker ( f idV )

R rng rng V l khng gian con ca
nh ngha 6.10: Nu
ring
.
nh l 6.13: 1)
gi tr ring .
2) Nu
V.
l gi tr ring th V c gi l khng gian ring ng vi gi tr
l gi tr ring ca
l gi tr ring ca
3) Vi mi
(6.17)
f khi v ch khi V {0}.
f th mi vc t v 0 ca V u l vc t ring ng vi
, khng gian con V
bt bin i vi
f.
Chng minh: Ta chng minh 3)

a) Trng hp V
= {0} l hin nhin.
b) Trng hp V l khng gian ring:

Vi mi v V f (v ) = v
103
f ( f (v )) = f (v ) = f (v ) f (v ) V
nh ngha 6.11:
c gi l gi tr ring ca ma trn
(6.18)
[ ]
nu tn ti
A = aij
n n
x1 ,..., xn khng ng thi bng 0 sao cho
x1
x1
x1 0
A M = M hay ( A I ) M = M

xn
xn
xn 0
Khi
6.5.3
v = ( x1,..., xn ) n c gi l vc t ring ng vi gi tr ring .
a thc c trng
nh ngha 6.12: Gi s
trn
(6.19)
f l mt t ng cu trong khng gian vc t n chiu V c ma
A trong mt c s no ca V . Khi :
P ( ) := det ( f idV ) = det( A I )
l mt a thc bc
trng ca
(6.20)
n ca khng ph thuc vo c s ca V c gi l a thc c
f v ca A .
nh l 6.14:
0 l gi tr ring ca f
Chng minh:
khi v ch khi
l nghim ca a thc c trng.
l gi tr ring khi v ch khi V {0}. iu ny tng ng vi cc iu

0
tng ng sau: nh x f 0idV khng n cu, h phng trnh tuyn tnh thun nht (5.9) c
nghim khng tm thng. Vy r ( f 0 idV ) < n ; det ( f 0idV ) = 0 , det ( A 0 I ) = 0 .

V d 6.3: Tm vc t ring v gi tr ring ca t ng cu trong
l
2 c ma trn chnh tc
3 2
A=
.
1 0
Phng trnh c trng
P ( ) =
3
1
c cc nghim
104
2
1 2
1
=
=
1
0
1 = 1, 2 = 2 .
2
= (1 )(2 ) = 0
2

* Vc t ring
v = ( x, y ) ng vi gi tr ring 1 = 1 l nghim ca h
( A 1I )
x 0
2 2 x 0
=
hay

1 1 y = 0 .
y 0
H phng trnh tng ng vi phng trnh

Vy
x + y = 0.
v = ( x, x) = x(1,1), x 0 .
* Vc t ring
v = ( x, y ) ng vi gi tr ring 2 = 2 l nghim ca h
2 x 0
1
x 0
= hay
y = 0 .
2
0
y
( A 2 I )
H phng trnh tng ng vi phng trnh

Vy
x + 2y = 0 .
v = (2 y, y ) = y (2,1); y 0 .
nh l 6.15: Mi t ng cu
f trong khng gian thc n chiu (n 1) u c t nht
mt khng gian con bt bin mt chiu hoc hai chiu.
A l ma trn ca t ng cu f trong c s {e1 ,..., en }. a thc c

trng P ( ) = A I l a thc bc n ca . Nu phng trnh P ( ) = 0 c nghim thc
0 th theo nh l 6.14 v nh ngha 6.9 tn ti v 0 sao cho f (v) = 0 v . Khng gian con
mt chiu sinh bi {v} bt bin i vi f . Nu phng trnh P ( ) = 0 khng c nghim thc
th c t nht mt nghim phc 1 = a + ib (xem ph lc). Xt h phng trnh tuyn tnh phc
Chng minh: Gi s
z1 0
[A 1I ] M = M
z n 0
(6.21)
Tng t nh trng hp h phng trnh thun nht thc (5.9), v det ( A 1I ) = 0 nn

h phng trnh (6.21) tn ti nghim ( z1 ,..., z n ) khng ng thi bng 0, nghim ( z1 ,..., z n )
khng th l nghim thc.
Gi s z1 = x1 + iy1 , ... , z n = xn + iy n th x1 ,..., xn v y1 ,..., y n khng t l. Tht
vy, nu x1 = ky1 , ... , xn = ky n th
z 1
x 1 0
x 1 0
[A 1I ] M = [A 1I ](1 + ki ) M = M [A 1I ] M = M
z n
x n 0
x n 0
105

iu ny tri vi gi thit 1 l mt s phc nn (6.21) khng th c nghim thc khc 0.
t v = x1e1 + ... + xn en , u = y1e1 + ... + y n en , v x1 ,..., xn v y1 ,..., y n khng t
l nn h hai vc t
{v, u} c lp. Mt khc bng cch ng nht phn thc v phn o ca s
phc ta suy ra
x 1
x 1
y 1
A M = a M b M ;

x n
x n
y n
y 1
x 1
y 1
A M = b M + a M

y n
x n
y n
f (v) = av bu
f (u ) = bv + au
Vy
Do W = span {v, u} l khng gian con hai chiu bt bin i vi

6.5.4
(6.22)
f.
T ng cu cho ho c
nh ngha 6.13: T ng cu
c s ca V ma trn ca
f trong khng gian vc t V cho ho c nu tn ti mt
f trong c s ny c dng cho.
T nh ngha ny ta thy rng
f cho ho c khi v ch khi tn ti mt c s ca
V gm cc vc t ring ca f .
Mt cch tng ng, ta ni ma trn
A cho ho c nu tn ti ma trn khng suy bin
T sao cho T 1 AT l ma trn cho.

nh l 6.16: Gi s v1 ,..., vm l cc vc t ring ng vi cc gi tr ring phn bit
1 ,..., m ca t ng cu f th h vc t {v1 ,..., vm } c lp tuyn tnh.
Chng minh: Ta chng minh quy np theo
1 k m.
* Khi
k rng h {v1 ,..., vk } c lp tuyn tnh vi
k = 1 h mt vc t v1 0 l c lp tuyn tnh.
* Gi s h {v1 ,..., vk } vi 1 k
{v1,..., vk , vk +1} c lp. Tht vy, gi s
m 1 c lp tuyn tnh. Ta chng minh h
x1v1 + ... + xk vk + xk +1vk +1 = 0
(6.23)
f ( x1v1 + ... + xk vk + xk +1vk +1 ) = 0

1 x1v1 + ... + k xk vk + k +!xk +1vk +1 = 0
106
(6.24)

Nhn
k +1 vo (6.23) ri tr cho (6.24) ta c
(k +1 1 ) x1v1 + ... + (k +1 k ) xk vk = 0
V
{v1,..., vk }
c lp v cc
1,..., m
khc nhau tng i mt suy ra
x1 = ... = xk = 0 xk +1 = 0 .
H qu 6.17: Nu a thc c trng ca t ng cu
ng
f trong khng gian n chiu V c
n nghim thc phn bit th f cho ho c.
Chng minh: V a thc c trng c n nghim phn bit nn n vc t ring tng ng

vi n gi tr ring ny l mt h c lp, do l mt c s ca V gm cc vc t ring ca f .
Vy
f cho ho c.
H qu 6.18: Gi s a thc c trng ca t ng cu
f ch c cc nghim thc:
P ( ) = ( 1) n ( 1 ) m1 ...( k ) mk vi m1 + ... + mk = n v cc 1 ,..., k khc

nhau tng i mt. Khi f cho ho c khi v ch khi vi mi i = 1,..., k :
dim Vi = mi .
Chng minh:
() : Trong mi Vi
ta chn mt c s gm mi vc t. H
(6.25)
n vc t gp
li t cc vc t ca cc c s va chn l mt h c lp tuyn tnh, do h ny l mt c s

ca V gm cc vc t ring ca f . Vy f cho ho c.
() : Gi s f
cho ho c, khi tn ti c s gm cc vc t ring ma trn
c dng cho
P ( ) = (1) n ( 1 )...( n )
Suy ra cc gi tr ring
1 ,..., n
phi trng vi 1 ,..., k .
Vy c ng mi gi tr ring trong cc 1 ,..., n bng i , i = 1,..., k . Do c ng

mi vc t ring ng vi gi tr ring i , ngha l
dim Vi = mi .
107

6.5.5
Thut ton cho ho
Bi ton 1: Cho t ng cu
f trn khng gian V . Hy tm c s ca V ma trn
f trong c s ny c dng cho.
Bi ton 2: Cho ma trn
A vung cp n . Tm ma trn khng suy bin T sao cho
T 1 AT c dng cho.
f trong khng gian vc t V . Gi s B = {e1 ,..., en } l mt c s
trong V v ma trn ca f trong c s B l A . Khi bi ton 1 tr thnh bi ton 2. Ngc
Cho t ng cu
li, cho ma trn vung

tc l
A ta xt nh x tuyn tnh f : n n c ma trn trong c s chnh
A . Khi bi ton 2 tr thnh bi ton 1.
B ' = {e'1 ,..., e'n } gm cc vc t ring

v ma trn cn tm T chnh l ma trn chuyn t c s B sang B ' . Vy ta cn thc hin
V vy, gii hai bi ton ny ta cn tm c s

ca
cc bc sau:
Bc 1: Tm nghim ca phng trnh c trng:
P ( ) := det ( f idV ) = det( A I ) = 0
P ( ) = (1) n ( 1 ) m1 ...( k ) mk .
Bc 2: Vi mi gi tr ring
(x1 , ..., xn ) l nghim ca h phng trnh
ta tm cc vc t ring v = x1e1 + ... + xn en c
x 1 0
[A i I ] M = M
x n 0
(6.26)
Tp hp nghim l khng gian con d i chiu; d i = n r ( A i I ).

Nu d i < mi vi
no , 1 i k th
f khng ho cho c.
Nu d i = mi th ta chn mi vc t c lp tuyn tnh ng vi gi tr ring
i = 1,..., k . H gm m1 + ... + mk = n cc vc t ring ny l c s

2 1 0
V d 6.4: Cho ha ma trn A = 9

4
6
8 0 3
108
B ' cn tm.
i , vi mi

a thc c trng ca
P ( ) =
9
8
4
0
6 = 9
3
8
= (3 ) 9
8
Do
5
8
4
0
6
3
0
3 = (3 )( 1)( + 1)
5
A c cc gi tr ring 1 = 1, 2 = 1, 3 = 3 .
*) Gi tr ring
= 1 c vc t ring v = ( x, y, z )
l nghim ca h phng trnh
3 1 0 x 0
9
5
6 y = 0

8 0 2 z 0
Ta c:
3
3 1 0
3 1 0
0
0
9
5
6
0
0
4
8 0 2
8 0 2
1 0
0 0
0 1
Vy h phng trnh trn tng ng vi h:
3x y = 0
4 x + z = 0
y = 3x

z = 4 x
v = ( x,3 x,4 x ) = x (1,3,4) chn e'1 = (1,3,4) .

**) Gi tr ring
= 1 c vc t ring v = ( x, y, z )
1 1 0 x 0
9
3
6 y = 0

8 0 4 z 0
Ta c:
1 1 0
1
3
6 0
9
8 0 4
2
1
0
0
1
109

=0
x y
+ z=0
2 x
x = y

z = 2 x
v = ( x, x,2 x ) = x (1,1,2) chn e'2 = (1,1,2) .

***) Gi tr ring
= 3 c vc t ring v = ( x, y, z )
1 1 0 x 0
9
1
6 y = 0

8 0 6 z 0
Ta c
1 1 0
1 1 0
1
6 0 0 0
9
8 0 6
4 0 3
=0
x + y
+ 3z = 0
4 x
x = y

4
z = 3 x
4 x
v = x , x,
x = (3,3,4) chn e'3 = (3,3,4) .
3 3
C s mi gm cc vc t ring
B ' = {e'1 , e'2 , e'3}. Ma trn chuyn c s
1
3
1
T= 3
1 3 .
4 2 4
Do
1 0 0
T 1 AT = 0 1 0 .
0 0 3
3 2 0

3 0
0
0 1
110

a thc c trng ca
3
P ( ) = 2
0
2
3
= 1 3
1
=
0
0
5
0
0
1
= (5 )( 1) 2 .
Do
A c cc gi tr ring 1 = 5 v 2 = 1 (kp).
*) Gi tr ring
=5
c vc t ring
v = ( x, y, z ) l nghim ca h phng trnh:
2 2 0 x 0
2 2 0 y = 0

0
0 4 z 0
c h phng trnh tng ng:
x + y = 0
z=0
x = y

z = 0
v = ( y , y ,0 ) = y ( 1,1,0) chn e'1 = ( 1,1,0) .
**) Gi tr ring
= 1 c vc t ring v = ( x, y, z )
2 2 0 x 0
2 2 0 y = 0

0
0 0 z 0
H phng trnh trn tng ng vi phng trnh:
x y = 0 , z tu .
v = ( x, x, z ) = x (1,1,0) + z (0,0,1) chn e'2 = (1,1,0) , e'3 = (0,0,1) .
1 1 0
5 0 0
1
Ma trn chuyn c s T = 1 1 0 v T AT = 0 1 0 .
0 0 1
0 0 1
111
1 1 1
1 1
1
1 1
a thc c trng ca
1
1
P ( ) =
1
1
1
1
= 1
1 1
1
1
1
1
1
= (1 ) 0 2
0
0
0
= (1 )( + 2) 2 .
2
a thc c trng c nghim 1 = 1 v

*) Gi tr ring 1 = 1 c vc t ring
2 = 2
(kp).
v = ( x, y, z ) l nghim ca h phng trnh
1 x 0
2 1
1 2 1 y = 0

1
0 2 z 0
2
Ta c 1
1
1
2
1
3
0
2
1
1
1
1 0 1
3 0 1 1 0
0
0 0
0 0
Vy h phng trnh trn tng ng vi:
x + z = 0
x y=0
x = z

x = y
v = ( x, x, x ) = x (1,1,1) chn e'1 = (1,1,1) .

**) Gi tr ring
2 = 2
1 1 1 x 0
1 1 1 y = 0

1 1 1 z 0
112
c vc t ring
v = ( x, y, z ) l nghim ca h phng trnh

H phng trnh trn tng ng vi phng trnh:
x + y + z = 0.
v = ( y z , y , z ) = y (1,1,0) + z (1,0,1) .
Chn e'2 = ( 1,1,0) , e'3 = ( 1,0,1) .
0
1 1 1
1 0
Ma trn chuyn c s T = 1 1
0 v T 1 AT = 0 2 0 .
1 0 1
0 0 2
1 3 4
Cho ha ma trn A = 4 7 8
6 7 7
V d 6.7:
a thc c trng ca
1
P ( ) = 4
6
3
4
1
7
8 = 2 + 2
7
7
6
5
= (1 + )
0
8
1
= (1 + )
0
0
4
0
1
7
7
1
3
4
1
0 = (1 + ) 0
7 7
1
4
0
1
7 7
3
4
1
0 = (3 )( + 1) 2 .
4 3
a thc c trng c nghim 1 = 3 v

Gi tr ring
2 = 1 (kp).
2 = 1 c vc t ring v = ( x, y, z )
2 3 4 x 0
4 6 8 y = 0

6 7 8 z 0
113

Bin i ta c h phng trnh tng ng:
2 x 3 y + 4 z = 0
y 2z = 0
Vy khng gian ring

cho ho c.
114
y = 2z

v = ( x,2 x, x ) = x (1,2,1)
x = z
V2 = {x(1,2,1) x } c dim V2 = 1 < 2 nn ma trn khng
Chng 7: Khng gian vc t Euclide dng ton phng
7. CHNG 7: KHNG GIAN VC T EUCLIDE

DNG TON PHNG
7.1
7.1.1
TCH V HNG, KHNG GIAN VC T EUCLIDE

Cc nh ngha v tnh cht
nh ngha 7.1: Mt dng song tuyn tnh trn khng gian vc t V l mt nh x
:V V
(u , v) a (u , v)
sao cho khi c nh mi bin th n tr thnh nh x tuyn tnh i vi bin kia.
Ngha l vi mi x1 , x2 , y1 , y 2
, vi mi u1 , u 2 , v; u , v1 , v2 V th
( x1u1 + x2u 2 , v) = x1 (u1 , v) + x2 (u 2 , v)
(u , y1v1 + y 2 v2 ) = y1 (u , v1 ) + y 2 (u , v2 ) .
nh ngha 7.2: Dng song tuyn tnh
c gi l c tnh:
i) i xng: Nu
(u , v) = (v, u )
ii) Khng m: Nu
(u, u ) 0
iii) Khng dng: Nu

iv) Xc nh: Nu
(u , u ) = 0
vi mi
vi mi
(u, u ) 0
(7.1)
u, v V ;
(7.2)
u V ;
vi mi
u V ;
khi v ch khi
u = 0.
(7.3)
(7.4)
(7.5)
Ta d dng thy rng xc nh dng khi v ch khi (u , u ) > 0 vi mi
u 0.
Mt dng song tuyn tnh i xng xc nh dng c gi l tch v hng. Ta thng

k hiu tch v hng ca
u v v l u, v thay cho (u, v) .
Mt khng gian vc t
Euclide.
V vi mt tch v hng <,> c gi l khng gian vc t

115

V d 7.1: Trong khng gian vc t
t
R3
R2
cc vc t t do trong mt phng v khng gian vc
cc vc t t do trong khng gian, ta xt tch v hng ca hai vc t theo ngha thng
u v = u v cos(u, v) .
thng
Ta d dng kim chng c tch v hng (theo tn gi thng thng) l mt dng song
tuyn tnh xc nh dng, do n l tch v hng theo nh ngha trn. Vy
R2 , R3
l hai
khng gian vc t Euclide.
x = ( x1,..., xn ) , y = ( y1,..., yn ) n , ta nh ngha:
Vi
th
x, y = x1 y1 + ... + xn yn
Gi s
= {( x1,..., xn ) xi ; i = 1,..., n}
V d 7.2: Xt khng gian vc t
) l mt khng gian vc t Euclide.
, ,
(V ,
) l mt khng gian vc t Euclide.
nh ngha 7.3: Vi mi vc t
qua biu thc
v =
Nu
(7.6)
v V ta nh ngha v k hiu chun hay mun ca vc
v, v .
(7.7)
v = 1 th v c gi l vc t n v.
Tnh cht 7.1: Bt ng thc Cauchy-Schwarz

Vi mi
u, v V th
u, v u v
ng thc xy ra khi v ch khi
u , v t l.
Chng minh: Nu mt trong hai vc t bng

bng
th c hai v ca bt ng thc trn u
0 , do bt ng thc nghim ng.

Gi s
v 0 th vi mi t
Mt khc
Cauchy-Schwarz.
ta c:
u + tv, u + tv = t 2 v
v lun lun khng m. V vy
116
(7.8)
u + tv, u + tv 0 .
+ 2t v, u + u
' = v, u
l mt tam thc bc hai i vi
0 . T suy ra bt ng thc

Khi
u = kv th
u , v = kv, v = k v
= kv v = u v .
u, v = u v th ' = 0 . Suy ra tn ti t0
u + t0 v, u + t 0 v = 0 u = t 0 v .
Ngc li: nu
p dng bt ng thc Cauchy-Schwarz vo khng gian

Bunnhiacopsky:
sao cho
ta c bt ng thc
(x1 y1 + ... + xn yn )2 (x12 + ... + xn 2 )(y12 + ... + yn 2 )
(7.9)
ng thc xy ra khi v ch khi x1 = ty1 ,..., xn = ty n .

7.1.2
Trc giao - trc chun ho Gram-Shmidt

nh ngha 7.4: Hai vc t
u, v V gi l trc giao nhau, k hiu u v , nu u, v = 0 .
H cc vc t S = {v1,..., vn } ca
V c gi l h trc giao nu hai vc t bt k ca h
S u trc giao nhau.

H trc giao cc vc t n v c gi l h trc chun.
nh l 7.2: Mi h trc chun l h c lp tuyn tnh.
S = {v1,..., vn } trc chun v x1v1 + ... + xn vn = 0 th

xi = x1v1 + ... + xn vn , vi = 0 vi mi i = 1,..., n .
Chng minh: Nu h
nh l 7.3: Gi s
gian Euclide
S = {u1,..., u n } l mt h c lp tuyn tnh cc vc t ca khng
V . Khi ta c th tm c h trc chun
span{v1 ,..., vk } = span{u1 ,..., u k }; vi mi k = 1,..., n .

Chng minh: Ta xy dng h trc chun
qu trnh trc chun ho Gram-Shmidt.
S ' = {v1,..., vn } sao cho
S ' theo cc bc quy np sau y m c gi l
u
k = 1: V h S c lp nn u1 0 . t v1 = 1 .
u1
k = 2 : Xt v2 = u 2 , v1 v1 + u 2 , ta c v2 0 (v nu v2 = 0 th u 2 = kv1 ,
iu ny tri vi gi thit h
S c lp). t v2 =
v2
v2
, h
{v1, v2 }
trc chun v
span{v1 , v2 } = span{u1 , u 2 }.
117

) Gi s xy dng c n
k 1. Tc c {v1 ,..., vk 1} trc chun sao cho
span { v1 ,..., vk 1} = span {u1 ,..., u k 1} . Tng t trn ta xt

k 1
vk = u k , vi vi + u k
(7.10)
i =1
vk 0 ( v nu vk = 0 th u k l t hp tuyn tnh ca v1 ,..., vk 1 , do l

t hp tuyn tnh ca u1 ,..., u k 1 , iu ny mu thun vi gi thit h S c lp). t
ta cng c
vk =
vk
(7.11)
vk
th vk vi ; i = 1,..., k 1 . Vy h {v1 ,..., vk } trc chun v
span{v1,..., vk } = span v1 ,..., vk 1 , vk = span{u1 ,..., u k 1 , u k }.

V d 7.3: Hy trc chun ho h S = {u1 , u 2 , u3 } trong
vi u1 = (1,1,1) , u 2 = ( 1,1,1) , u3 = (1,2,1) .

Bc 1:
Bc 2:
u
1 1 1
u1 = 3 v1 = 1 = , , .
u1 3 3 3
v2 = u 2 , v1 v1 + u 2
=
v2 =
Bc 3:
2 1 1
,
,
v2 =
.
6 6 6
v3 = u3 , v1 v1 u3 , v2 v2 + u3
4 1 1 1 1 2 1 1
1 1
, ,
,
,
+ (1,2,1) = 0, ,
3 3 3 3
6
6 6 6
2 2
v3 =
118
2
6
3
1 1 1 1
4 2 2
, ,
+ (1,1,1) = , ,
3 3 3 3
3 3 3
1
2
1
1
,
v3 = 0,
.
2
2
{v1, v2 , v3} l h vc t trc chun ho ca h {u1, u 2 , u3}.

7.1.3
C s trc chun
nh ngha 7.5: Mt c s ca khng gian vc t V m l h trc chun c gi l mt c

s trc chun.
nh l 7.4: Mi h trc chun ca
chun.
V u c th b sung thm tr thnh c s trc
k vc t trc chun S l h c lp tuyn tnh nn ta c th b sung

thm c mt c s ca V .Trc chun ho Gram-Shmidt c s ny c mt c s trc
chun ca V . Trong qu trnh trc chun ho k vc t ca h S khng thay i v vy thc cht
ta b sung vo h S c c s trc chun ca V .
Chng minh: H gm
H qu 7.5: Mi khng gian vc t Euclide u tn ti c s trc chun.

nh l 7.6: Gi s {e1 ,..., en } l mt c s trc chun ca V th vi mi
u, v V , ta c
v = v, e1 e1 + ... + v, en en .
i)
(7.12)
ii)
u , v = u , e1 v, e1 + ... + u, en v, en .
iii)
= v, e1
+ ... + v, en
(7.13)
(7.14)
Chng minh: Cc ng thc trn c suy ra t cc khng nh sau:
v = x1e1 + ... + xn en , u = y1e1 + ... + y n en
Nu
7.1.4
th
v, ei = x1e1 + ... + xn en , ei = xi vi mi i = 1,..., n
v, u = x1e1 + ... + xn en , y1e1 + ... + yn en = x1 y1 + ... + xn yn .
Khng gian con trc giao, phn b trc giao

nh nghi 7.6: Vc t
nu
v V c gi l trc giao vi tp con S V , k hiu v S ,
v u vi mi u S .
Tp con S1 trc giao vi tp con S 2 , k hiu S1 S 2 , nu
v u vi mi
v S1, u S 2 .
Tnh cht 7.7:
1) Nu
v S th v spanS .
119

2) Gi s {e1 ,..., ek } l mt c s ca
W th v W khi v ch khi v ei , vi mi
i = 1,..., k .
S V . Ta k hiu S = {v V v u , u S }.
3) Vi mi tp con
Tp
S l khng gian vc t con ca V .
4) Vi mi khng gian con W ca V . Ta c:
( ) = W
V = W W , W
Hai khng gian con W , W
Chng minh: 1) Vi mi
c gi l phn b trc giao ca nhau.
u spanS , u = x1u1 + ... + xk u k , u1,..., u k S
v, u = v, x1u1 + ... + xk uk = x1 v, u1 + ... + xk v, u k = 0 .

2) Hin nhin t 1).
3)
0 S S . Vi mi v1 , v2 S , , , u S :
v1 + v2 , u = v1, u + v2 , u = 0 v1 + v2 S .
4) Gi s {e1 ,..., ek } l mt c s trc chun ca W .
v V , t u = v, e1 e1 + ... + v, ek ek
W .
Ta c: v u , ei = 0, i = 1, ..., k v u W
Vy
V =W +W .
Ngoi ra
u W W th u , u = 0 u = 0 , do V = W W .
Theo nh ngha ta d dng c W

Ngc li vi mi
( ) .
( ) V v = u
v W
+ u 2 , u1 W , u 2 W
0 = v, u 2 = u1 + u 2 , u 2 = u1, u 2 + u 2 , u 2 = u 2 , u 2
( ) W .
u 2 = 0 v = u 1 W W
120

Nu h vc t {ek +1 ,..., ek + m } l mt c s trc chun ca W th {e1 ,..., ek , ek +1 ,..., ek + m }
l c s trc chun ca V .
7.2
7.2.1
MA TRN TRC GIAO V NH X TUYN TNH TRC GIAO

Ma trn trc giao
nh ngha 7.7: Ma trn vung
Nu
A c gi l ma trn trc giao nu At A = I .
[ ]
A = aij th A l ma trn trc giao khi

n
1 nu j = k
;
nu j k
aij aik = jk = 0
i =1
jk
(7.15)
l k hiu Kronecker.
A l kh nghch v c A1 = At . Mt khc t (7.15) ta cng

thy rng ma trn A trc giao khi v ch khi cc vc t ct v cc vc t hng ca A to thnh
Nh vy ma trn trc giao
hai h trc chun.

Ta c
A t A = I = 1 A = 1 .
V d 7.4: Ma trn
1 3 2 6
A = 1 3 1 6
1 3 1 6
1 2
1 2
0
l ma trn trc giao.
V d 7.5: Mi ma trn vung cp 2 trc giao u c dng
cos
A=
sin
sin
cos
A
=
hay
sin
cos
Tht vy, ta d dng kim chng hai ma trn

Ngc li nu
sin
.
cos
(7.16)
A trn tho mn At A = I .
a b
a c a b 1 0
t
A=
A
A
=
I
v
th
b d c d = 0 1
c d
121
a 2 + c 2 = 1
Suy ra ab + cd = 0
2
2
b + d = 1
Mt khc t
(1)
(2)
(3)
A = 1 v (2) & (3) suy ra b, d l nghim duy nht ca h phng trnh
ax + cy = 0
bx + dy = 1
Cramer
b=
a
c
, d =
.
A
A
) Nu
a b
cos
2
2
A = 1 th A =
v a + b = 1 A =
b a
sin
sin
.
cos
) Nu
a b 2
cos
2
A
=
A = 1 th A =
,
a
+
b
=
1
sin
b a
sin
.
cos
nh l 7.8: Ma trn ca mt h trc chun vit trong c s trc chun l mt ma trn trc
giao. c bit mi ma trn chuyn t c s trc chun sang c s trc chun l ma trn trc giao.
Chng minh: Gi
trc chun
[ ]
A = aij l ma trn ca h trc chun { v1 ,..., vn } vit trong c s
B = {e1,..., en }.
T (7.12) ta c
i =1
i =1
v j = aij ei = ei , v j ei
n
T (7.13) ta c
aij aik =
i =1
Vy
7.2.2
v j , vk = jk
A l ma trn trc giao.
nh x tuyn tnh trc giao
(V ,
) (
, V v V ' , , V ' l hai khng gian vc t Euclide. nh

x tuyn tnh f : V V ' c gi l nh x trc giao nu vi mi u, v V :
nh ngha 7.8: Gi s
f (u ), f (v) V ' = u, v V
122
(7.17)

Ta d dng thy rng mi nh x tuyn tnh trc giao u n cu. V vy mi t ng cu
tuyn tnh trc giao l ng cu.
nh l sau ch ra rng, nu iu kin (7.17) tho mn i vi mi vc t ca mt c s trc
chun no th f cng l nh x tuyn tnh.
nh l 7.9: Gi s
B = {e1,..., en }
f l t ng cu tuyn tnh ca khng gian vc t Euclide V .
l mt c s trc chun ca
V . Khi f trc giao khi v ch khi
{ f (e1 ),..., f (en )} l mt c s trc chun ca V .

Chng minh: (): Hin nhin v
f (ei ), f (e j ) = ei , e j .
{ f (e1 ),..., f (en )}
l c s trc chun th vi mi
(): Gi s
u, v V :
v = x1e1 + ... + xn en , u = y1e1 + ... + y n en
f (v), f (u ) = x1 f (e1 ) + ... + xn f (en ), y1 f (e1 ) + ... + yn f (en )

= x1 y1 + ... + xn yn = v, u .
7.2.3
Ma trn ca t ng cu trc giao

Gi s
trc chun
v ch khi
[ ]
A = aij
l ma trn ca t ng cu
f trong khng gian Euclide V vi c s
B = {e1,..., en }. Theo nh l 7.8 v nh l 7.9 th t ng cu
f l trc giao khi
A l mt ma trn trc giao.
Vy ma trn ca t ng cu trc giao trong mt c s trc chun l mt ma trn trc
A l ma trn trc giao v f l t ng cu tuyn tnh c ma trn trong c

s trc chun l A th f l nh x trc giao.
giao. Ngc li, nu
nh l 7.10: Mi ma trn trc giao ch c cc gi tr ring l

Chng minh: Gi s
l
1 hay 1.
f l t ng cu trc giao c ma trn trong mt c s trc chun no
A . Nu l mt gi tr ring ca A th tn ti vc t ring v 0 sao cho f (v) = v .

Khi
Mt khc
f (v), f (v) = v, v = 2 v, v .
f (v), f (v) = v, v 2 v, v = v, v
v, v 0 2 = 1 . Vy = 1 .
123

7.3
CHO HO TRC GIAO MA TRN - T NG CU I XNG
7.3.1
Bi ton cho ho trc giao

Cho ma trn
A tm ma trn trc giao T sao cho T t AT l ma trn cho.
nh l 7.11( iu kin cn): Nu

Chng minh: Nu T
v
A cho ho trc giao c th A l ma trn i xng.
AT l ma trn cho th T t AT t = T t AT . Do T t At T = T t AT ,
T kh nghch nn At = A .
Ngc li, ta s chng minh nu A i xng th cho ho trc giao c.
7.3.2
T ng cu i xng
nh ngha 7.9: T ng cu
f : V V c gi l i xng nu vi mi u, v V :
f (u ), v = u , f (v)
Tnh cht 7.12: Nu
khi v ch khi vi mi
(7.18)
B = {e1,..., en } l mt c s ca V
th t ng cu
f l i xng
i, j = 1,..., n ,
f (ei ), e j = ei , f (e j )
Tht vy, nu c (7.19) th
(7.19)
v = x1e1 + ... + xn en , u = y1e1 + ... + yn en :
f (v), u = x1 f (e1 ) + ... + xn f (en ), y1e1 + ... + yn en

n
= xi y j f (ei ), e j = xi y j ei , f (e j ) = v, f (u )
i =1 j =1
i =1 j =1
Nh vy chng minh mt t ng cu l i xng th thay v chng minh cng thc

(7.18) ng vi mi
7.3.3
v, u V ta ch cn chng minh cng thc (7.19) ng vi mt c s no .
Ma trn ca mt t ng cu i xng trong mt c s trc chun
[ ]
Gi s A = aij l ma trn ca t ng cu
f (e j ) = aij ei = f (e j ), ei ei
i =1
Vy vi mi
124
f trong mt c s trc chun
i =1
i, j = 1,..., n :
aij = f (e j ), ei .
(7.20)
B = {e1,..., en }

T tnh cht 7.12, kt hp vi (7.20) ta c:
nh l 7.13:
f i xng khi v ch khi ma trn A ca f trong mt c s trc chun no
l ma trn i xng.
nh l 7.14: Cc gi tr ring ca mt ma trn i xng l cc s thc. Ni cch khc,
phng trnh c trng ca ma trn i xng vung cp n c n nghim thc.
Chng minh: Gi s
f l t ng cu i xng c ma trn trong mt c s trc chun no
n . Gi s = a + ib l nghim ca a thc c trng

P( ) = A I . Khi theo nh l 6.15 tn ti hai vc t c lp tuyn tnh u, v V sao
l ma trn i xng A cp
cho
f (v) = av bu
f (u ) = bv + au
Do
V
f (v), u = a v, u b u , u , v, f (u ) = a v, u + b v, v .
f i xng suy ra b u , u = b v, v 0 b = 0 . Ni cch khc, mi nghim ca
a thc c trng l nghim thc.

nh l 7.15: Hai vc t ring ng vi hai gi tr ring khc nhau ca mt t ng cu i
xng l trc giao nhau.
Chng minh: Gi s f (v1 ) = 1v1 , f (v2 ) = 2 v2 ; v1 , v2 0 ; 1 2
th
1 v1, v2 = f (v1 ), v2 = v1, f (v2 ) = 2 v1, v2
(1 2 ) v1, v2 = 0 v1, v2 = 0 .
nh l 7.16: Nu
f l t ng cu i xng trong V th tn ti mt c s trc chun ca
V gm cc vc t ring ca f .
f c vc t ring u1 ng vi gi tr ring 1 ,
u1 = 1. t W1 = {u1 } = span{u1}.
Chng minh: Theo nh l 7.14
v W1 , f (v), u1 = v, f (u1 ) = v, 1u1 = 0 f (v) W1 .
Vy W1 bt bin i vi
V = W1 W1 nn ta c th xt:
f1 = f W : W1 W1 , dim W1 = dim V 1 .
1
125

Quy np theo s chiu ca khng gian th c c s trc chun {u 2 ,..., u n } ca
cc vc t ring ca f1 . Do {u1 , u 2 ,..., u n } l c s trc chun ca

ring ca
W1 gm
V gm cc vc t
f.
H qu 7.17: Mi ma trn i xng u cho ho trc giao c.

Chng minh: Gi s
f l t ng cu i xng c ma trn A trong c s trc chun
B = {e1,..., en }. Theo nh l 7.16

t ring ca
tn ti c s trc chun
f . Gi T l ma trn chuyn t c s
B ' = {e'1 ,..., e'n } gm cc vc
B sang B ' th T trc giao v
T t AT =
O
n
trong
7.3.4
1 ,..., n
l cc gi tr ring ca
A.
Thut ton cho ho trc giao

Mun cho ho trc giao mt ma trn i xng
cho
(7.21)
A , ngha l tm ma trn trc giao T sao
T t AT c dng cho, ta thc hin cc bc sau:

Bc 1: Tm cc gi tr ring ca
A (nghim ca a thc c trng).
Bc 2: Trong mi khng gian ring tm mt c s v trc chun ho Gram-Shmidt c s

ny.
Bc 3: Gp cc c s c trc chun ho bc 2 ta c mt c s trc chun ca
Ma trn cc vc t ca c s ny l ma trn trc giao
T cn tm.
0 2 2
V d 7.6: Cho ho trc giao ma trn i xng A = 2 3 1
2 1 3
a thc c trng
2
A I = 2 3
2
126
4
2
2
1 = 4 3
3
2
1
3
V.
(4 )
2
= 0
1
0
(4 )
2
2
3 = 0
2
1
Vi gi tr ring 1 = 2 , vc t ring
2
3 = (4 ) 2 ( + 2)
4
v = ( x, y, z ) l nghim ca h
2 x 0
2 2
2 5 1 y = 0

2 1 5 z 0
2
1
2 2
1 1
1 1 1
1 2 0
3 3 0 1 1 0 1 1
ta c 2 5 1 0
2 1 5
0 3 3
0 0 0
0 0 0
H phng trnh trn tng ng vi h
x + 2 y = 0
x = 2 y
c nghim
y z=0
y = z
v = (2 y, y, y ) = y (2,1,1) . Chn v1 = ( 2,1,1) .
Trc chun ho c
Vi gi tr ring
u1 = ( 2
6 ,1
6 ,1
6) .
2 = 4 (nghim kp), vc t ring v = ( x, y, z ) l nghim ca h
4 2 2 x 0
2 1 1 y = 0

2 1 1 z 0
ta c
2 1 1
4 2 2
2 1 1 0 0 0
0 0 0
2 1 1
H phng trnh trn tng ng vi phng trnh
y z
v = ( x, y , z ) = + , y , z =
2 2
2x y z = 0
1
1
y ,1,0 + z ,0,1 .
2
2
127

Chn v2
= ,1,0 , v3 = ,0,1 .
2
Trc chun ho hai vc t ny ta c
u 2 = (1
5 ,0 ) , u 3 = ( 2
5,2
30 , 1
30 , 5
30 ) .
2 6 1 5 2 30
2 0 0
t
Vy T = 1 6
2 5 1 30 v T AT = 0 4 0 .
1 6
0
0
4
0
5
30
7.4
DNG TON PHNG
7.4.1
Dng song tuyn tnh v dng ton phng
: V V
Gi s
l mt dng song tuyn tnh trn khng gian vc t
V.
B = {e1,..., en } l mt c s ca V
[ ]
A = aij , aij = (ei , e j )
Ma trn
(7.22)
c gi l ma trn ca dng song tuyn tnh trong c s
B.
u , v V ; u = x1e1 + ... + xn en v v = y1e1 + ... + y n en
(u, v) = ( x1e1 + ... + xn en , y1e1 + ... + yn en )

=
(ei , e j ) xi y j =
i , j =1
(7.23)
aij xi y j
i , j =1
(7.23) c gi l biu thc ta ca dng song tuyn tnh trong c s

Ngc li ta c th chng minh c rng nh x
(u , v) =
: V V
B.
xc nh bi
aij xi y j
l mt dng song tuyn tnh c ma trn tho mn (7.22) v (7.23).
i, j =1
nh ngha 7.10: Gi s
V.
nh x Q : V
: V V
v a Q (v ) = (v, v )
c gi l mt dng ton phng trn V .
128
l dng song tuyn tnh trn khng gian vc t

Nu
B = {e1,..., en } l mt c s ca V , v V ; v = x1e1 + ... + xnen
theo (7.23) ta c
i , j =1
i, j =1
Q (v ) = (v, v ) =
Ngc li nh x Q : V
Q (v ) =
(ei , e j ) xi x j = aij xi x j
c biu thc to trong c s
aij xi x j , vi v = xi ei
i , j =1
(7.24)
i =1
l mt dng ton phng ng vi dng song tuyn tnh sao cho aij = (ei , e j ) .
Ni cch khc mt dng ton phng Q : V
l mt hm s xc nh trong khng
V c cng thc xc nh nh Q(v) l mt a thc thun nht bc hai i vi cc to

ca vc t v trong c s bt k.
gian vc t
Ch rng trong biu thc Q (v) =
aij xi x j ta c th thay
i, j =1
aij xi x j + a ji x j xi bi a 'ij xi x j + a ' ji x j xi tho mn aij + a ji = a 'ij + a ' ji .

V vy cng mt dng ton phng
Q c nhiu dng song tuyn tnh sao cho
Q(v) = (v, v) . Nhng nu ta thm iu kin

aij = a ji ngha l (ei , e j ) = (e j , ei )
Q ch c duy nht mt dng song tuyn tnh i xng

tha mn Q (v) = (v, v) . Dng song tuyn tnh i xng ny c gi l dng cc ca Q .
th vi mi dng ton phng
A xc nh bi (7.22) tho mn thm iu kin aij = a ji (ma trn A i

xng) th A cng cn c gi l ma trn ca dng ton phng Q trong c s B .
Nu ma trn
V d 7.7: Tm ma trn ca dng ton phng

ca
c biu thc to trong c s chnh tc
, v = ( x1 , x2 , x3 ) = x1e1 + x2 e2 + x3e3 l
Q(v) = x12 2 x1x2 + x2 2 + 4 x1x3 + 4 x32 + 2 x2 x3

129
Q(v) = x12 x1x2 x2 x1 + x2 2 + 2 x1x3

+ 2 x3 x1 + 4 x32 + x2 x3 + x3 x2
Do ma trn
A ca Q c s chnh tc
1 1 2
A = 1 1 1 .
2
1 4
7.4.2
Biu thc to ca dng ton phng trong cc c s khc nhau

Gi s
Q l dng ton phng trong khng gian vc t V c dng cc tng ng l .
[ ]
[ ]
A = aij , A'= a'ij l hai ma trn ca Q trong hai c s
B ' = {e'1 ,..., e'n } ca V :

Gi
[ ]
T = tij
B = {e1,..., en }.
aij = (ei , e j ) , a 'ij = (e'i , e' j ) .
l ma trn chuyn t c s
B sang B ' :
e' j = tij ei
i =1
n
n
Khi a'ij = (e'i , e' j ) = t ki ek , tlj el
l =1
k =1
n
n n
=
t
(
e
,
e
)
t
t
a
t
ki k l lj ki kl lj
k =1 l =1
k =1 l =1
Vy
A' = T t AT
Nu ta k hiu to ca cc vc t di dng ma trn ct:
v = x1e1 + ... + xn en , v' = x'1 e'1 +... + x'n e'n
x1
x'1

th X = TX '
t X = M , X ' = M

xn
x'n
Xt ma trn mt hng mt ct
t
[Q(v)] = aij xi x j = X AX = a'ij x'i x' j = X 't A' X ' .
i, j =1
i, j =1
130
(7.25)
[Q(v)] = X t AX = (TX ' )t A(TX ' ) = X 't (T t AT ) X ' = X 't A' X ' .
7.4.3
(7.26)
Biu thc to dng chnh tc ca mt dng ton phng
Ta cn tm mt c s ca V trong c s ny ma trn ca dng ton phng l ma trn

cho, ngha l biu thc to c dng chnh tc:
Q(v) = a11 x12 + a22 x2 2 + ... + ann xn 2

7.4.4
(7.27)
a v chnh tc bng cho ho trc giao

Gi s
Q l dng ton phng trong khng gian Euclide V vi c s trc chun
B = {e1,..., en } c ma trn
cho trc giao ma trn
[ ]
A = aij
[ ]
(ma trn i xng). Theo H qu (7.17) ta c th ho
A = aij , ngha l ta tm c ma trn trc giao T T t AT l ma
B sang c s trc chun B ' gm cc vc t ring

ca A .V vy biu thc (7.24) trong c s B ' c dng chnh tc (7.27).
trn cho.
T l ma trn chuyn t c s
V d 7.8:
Q:
v = ( x1 , x2 , x3 ) a Q (v ) = 3x2 2 + 3x32 + 4 x1x2 + 4 x1x3 2 x2 x3

Ma trn ca
Q c s chnh tc ca
l:
0 2 2
A = 2 3 1
2 1 3
Theo V d 7.6 tn ti c s
B ' = {e'1 , e'2 , e'3}:
e'1 = ( 2
6) ,
e'3 = (2
6 ,1
6 ,1
30 , 1
30 , 5
e'2 = (1
5,2
5 ,0 ) ,
30 ) .
v = ( x1, x2 , x3 ) = x '1 e'1 + x '2 e'2 + x'3 e'3
Q(v) = 2 x'12 +4 x'2 2 +4 x'32 .

7.4.5
a v dng chnh tc theo phng php Lagrange

Gi s trong c s
B = {e1,..., en } ca khng gian vc t V
Euclide) biu thc to ca dng ton phng
(khng gi thit khng gian
Q c dng:
131
Q (v ) =
aij xi x j ,
i, j =1
aij = a ji , v = xi ei .
i =1
Ta thc hin cc php i to sau:

Trng hp 1: Gi s c
aii 0 ,
chng hn
a11 0
th ta c th sp xp li:
n
n
2
a1i
Q(v) = a11 x1 + 2 x1
xi + aij xi x j
a
i = 2 11 i, j = 2
n
n
n a
a1i
1
i
xi + aij xi x j a11
xi
= a11 x1 +
a
a
i = 2 11
i, j = 2
i = 2 11
2
(7.28)
n
n
a1i
= a11 x1 +
xi + a'ij xi x j
a
i = 2 11
i, j = 2
a
y1 = x1 + 1i xi
a
t
th
i = 2 11
y j = x j ; j = 2,..., n
Q(v) = a11 y12 +
a'ij yi y j
i, j = 2
Tip tc qu trnh ny vi biu thc
a'ij yi y j .
i, j = 2
Trng hp 2: Nu mi aii = 0 th tn ti aij
x1 = y1 + y2
x2 = y1 y2
x = y ; j = 3,..., n
j
j
th
0 , chng hn a12 0 .
Q (v ) =
i , j =1
i, j =1
aij xi x j = a'ij yi y j
c a '11 = a12 0 , v vy ta c th a v trng hp 1.

132
(7.29)

V d 7.9: Cho dng ton phng
c biu thc to trong c s chnh tc ca
v = ( x1, x2 , x3 ) :
Q(v) = x12 2 x1x2 + 2 x2 2 + 4 x1x3 + 4 x32 + 2 x2 x3 ,

Ta c
Q(v) = x12 + 2 x1 ( x2 + 2 x3 ) + 2 x2 2 + 4 x32 + 2 x2 x3

= ( x1 x2 + 2 x3 ) 2 ( x2 + 2 x3 ) 2 + 2 x2 2 + 4 x32 + 2 x2 x3
= ( x1 x2 + 2 x3 ) 2 + x2 2 + 6 x2 x3
= ( x1 x2 + 2 x3 ) 2 + ( x2 + 3 x3 ) 2 9 x32
y1 = x1 x2 + 2 x3
t y 2 = x2 + 3 x3
y = x
3
3
x1 = y1 + y2 5 y3
x 2 = y 2 3 y3
x = y
3
3
Q(v) = y12 + y2 2 9 y32

x1 1 1 5 y1
1 1 5

x2 = 0 1 3 y2 ma trn chuyn c s T = 0 1 3 .
x3 0 0 1 y3
0 0 1

Vy trong c s mi e'1 = (1,0,0) , e'2 = (1,1,0) , e'3 = ( 5,3,1) ;
v = ( x1 , x2 , x3 ) = y1e'1 + y 2 e'2 + y3e'3 c Q(v) = y12 + y2 2 9 y32 .

Ch rng khi s dng phng php Lagrange th ma trn
T nhn c ni chung khng
phi l ma trn trc giao v c s {e'1 , e'2 , e'3 } khng phi l c s trc chun.
V d 7.10: Cho dng ton phng
Q c biu thc to trong c s chnh tc
Q(v) = x12 + 4 x2 2 + x32 + 4 x1x2 + 2 x1x3 + 2 x2 x3 .

Ta c
Q(v) = x12 + 2 x1 (2 x2 + x3 ) + 4 x2 2 + x32 + 2 x2 x3

= ( x1 + 2 x2 + x3 ) 2 (2 x2 + x3 ) 2 + 4 x2 2 + x32 + 2 x2 x3
133
= ( x1 + 2 x2 + x3 ) 2 2 x2 x3
y1 = x1 + 2 x2 + x3
x1 = y1 2 y2 y3
t y 2 = x2
hay x2 = y 2
y = x
x = y
3
3
3
3
th
Q (v) = y12 2 y2 y3
y1 = z1
t y2 = z 2 + z3
y = z z
2
3
3
th
Q(v) = z12 2 z 2 2 + 2 z32
x1 1 2 1 1 0 0 z1 1 3 1 z1
x = 0 1
0 0 1 1 z 2 = 0 1
1 z2

2

x3 0 0
1 0 1 1 z3 0 1 1 z3
Vy trong c s mi e'1 = (1,0,0) , e'2 = ( 3,1,1) , e'3 = ( 1,1,1) ;
v = ( x1 , x2 , x3 ) = z1e'1 + z 2 e'2 + z3e'3 th Q(v) = z12 2 z 2 2 + 2 z32 .

7.4.6
a v dng chnh tc theo phng php Jacobi

Cho dng ton phng
vi dng cc tng ng
Q trong khng gian vc t V (khng gi thit khng gian Euclide)
v c ma trn trong c s
B = {e1,..., en }
[ ]
A = aij :
aij = (ei , e j ) ; i, j = 1,..., n .

Nu cc nh thc con chnh ca
A u khc khng
a11 ... a1n

D1 = a11 0 , D2 =
0 , ... , Dn = M O M 0 (7.30)
a21 a22
an1 ... ann
a11
th vi mi
134
a12
j = 1,..., n cc h phng trnh Cramer sau
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + ... + a1 j x j = 0
a21 x1 + a22 x2 + ... + a2 j x j = 0
.............................................
a x + a x + ... + a x = 1
j2 2
jj j
j1 1
lun c nghim duy nht k hiu l
(7.31)
(1 j , 2 j ,...., jj ).
f1 = 11e1
f = e + e
2
12 1
22 2
.........................................
f n = 1n e1 + 2n e2 + .... + nn en
Xt h vc t
(7.32)
Ta quy c D0 = 1 , t iu kin (7.30) v h (7.31) th
j = 1,..., n . nh thc ca h
11 22 .... nn 0
nn h
trong
D j 1
Dj
{e1 ,..., en }
B ' c lp tuyn tnh v vy l mt c s ca V .
( f j , ei ) = ai11 j + ai 2 2 j + ... + aij jj = 0

( f j , e j ) = a j11 j + a j 2 2 j + ... + a jj jj = 1 . Do ta
T (7.31) v (7.32)
i = 1,..., j 1 v
B ' = { f1,..., f n }
jj =
( f j , f i ) = 0 vi mi i < j
vi mi
cng c
( f j , f j ) = ( f j ,1 j e1 + ... + jj e j ) = jj ( f j , e j ) = jj .
Mt khc dng song tuyn tnh i xng nn ( f j , f i ) = 0 vi mi
Vy
Gi
nu i j
0
( f i , f j ) = D j 1
D nu i = j
j
A' l ma trn ca Q trong c s
vi
i, j = 1,..., n
i > j.
(7.33)
B ' . T l ma trn chuyn t c s B sang B '
th :
135
1n
11 12
11
n
22
2
t
T AT = A' = ( f i , f j ) =
O
T =
O
M
nn
nn
Vy biu thc to ca
Q trong c s
v = y1 f1 + ... + y n f n Q(v) =
B ' c dng chnh tc:
D
1 2 D1 2
y1 +
y 2 + ... + n 1 y n 2 .
D1
D2
Dn
V d 7.11: Xt dng ton phng trong V d 7.9
Q(v) = x12 2 x1x2 + 2 x2 2 + 4 x1x3 + 4 x32 + 2 x2 x3

1 1 2
Ma trn ca Q trong c s chnh tc A = 1 2 1
2 1 4
c cc nh thc con chnh
D1 = 1, D2 =
1
= 1;
D1
k =1
k = 2 : H phng trnh (7.31) c dng
ta c 11
x1 x2 = 0
x1 + 2 x2 = 1
)
(7.34)
nghim x1 = x2 = 1
(7.35)
k = 3 : H phng trnh (7.31) c dng

x1 x2 + 2 x3 = 0
x1 + 2 x2 + x3 = 0
2 x + x + 4 x = 1
3
1 2
Ta chn c s dng (7.32)

(7.34)
136
1 1
= 1, D3 = A = 9 .
1 2
f1 = e1 = (1,0,0)
x1 =
5
1
1
, x2 = , x3 = .
9
9
3
(7.36)

(7.35)
f 2 = e1 + e2 = (1,1,0)
(7.36)
f3 = 5 9 e1 + 1 3 e2 1 9 e3 = (5 9 ,1 3 ,1 9) .
Trong c s mi ny biu thc to ca
Q c dng:
v = ( x1 , x2 , x3 ) = y1 f1 + y 2 f 2 + y3 f 3
Q (v ) =
1 2 D1 2 D2 2
1
y2 +
y3 = y12 + y 2 2 y32 .
y1 +
9
D1
D2
D3
Cc v d 7.9, 7.11 cho thy rng cng mt dng ton phng ta c th a v cc dng
chnh tc vi cc h s khc nhau. Tuy nhin s cc h s dng v h s m l nh nhau. Ta s
chng minh iu ny qua lut qun tnh.
7.4.7
Lut qun tnh

Gi s
[ ]
[ ]
A = aij , A'= a'ij l hai ma trn ca Q trong hai c s
B ' = {e'1 ,..., e'n } ca
[ ]
V . Gi T = tij l ma trn chuyn t c s
B = {e1,..., en },
B sang B ' th
A' = T t AT . Theo tnh cht hng ca ma trn ta c r ( A' ) = r (T t AT ) r ( A) . Mt khc T

kh nghch nn
( )1 A'T 1 r( A) r ( A' ) . Vy r( A) = r( A' ) . Do ta c th
A = Tt
nh ngha hng ca dng ton phng
Q l hng ca ma trn ca n trong mt c s no .
nh l 7.18 (Sylvester - Jacobi): S cc h s dng v s cc h s m trong dng chnh

tc ca mt dng ton phng Q l nhng bt bin ca dng (tc l khng ph thuc vo vic
la chn c s).
Chng minh: Gi s trong c s
to ca dng ton phng
Q c dng:
v = xi ei , Q(v) =
i =1
Gi s
B = {e1,..., en } (khng gi thit trc chun) biu thc
aij xi x j ,
i, j =1
aij = a ji .
B ' = {e'1 ,..., e'n }, B" = {e"1 ,..., e"n } l hai c s sao cho biu thc to ca
n
i =1
i =1
i =1
Q c dng chnh tc: v = xi ei = yi e'i = zi e"i ;

137
Q (v) = k1 y12 + ... + k p y p 2 k p +1 y p +12 ... k r yr 2

= l1z12 + ... + lq z q 2 lq +1z q +12 ... lr z r 2
vi
(7.37)
r = r ( A) l hng ca A , cc h s k1 ,..., k r ; l1 ,..., lr > 0 .
Ta chng minh
Gi s
Ta c
p = q bng phng php phn chng.
p < q (trng hp q < p c chng minh hon ton tng t).
y1 = b11x1 + ... + b1n xn

z1 = c11x1 + ... + c1n xn
.................................. , ..................................
y = b x + ... + b x
z = c x + ... + c x
n1 1
nn n
n1 1
nn n
n
n
(7.38)
k1 y12 + ... + k p y p 2 + lq +1z q +12 + ... + lr z r 2
(7.37)
= l1z12 + ... + lq z q 2 + k q +1 yq +12 + ... + k r yr 2

Ta s chng minh rng tn ti mt vc t
(7.39)
i =1
i =1
i =1
v V , v = xi ei = yi e'i = zi e"i 0
tho mn iu kin:
y1 = ... = y p = 0
z q +1 = ... = z r = z r +1 = ... = z n = 0
(7.40)
Tht vy, cc iu kin (7.40) kt hp vi (7.38) xc nh mt h n q + p < n phng

trnh tuyn tnh thun nht
n n x1 , x2 , ..., xn . V s phng trnh t hn s n nn tn ti
nghim x1 ,..., xn khng ng thi bng
0.
Xt vc t
v0 = xi0ei 0 .
i =1
Mt khc t (7.39) v (7.40) z1 = ... = z q = z q +1 = ... = z n = 0
v0 = zi e"i = 0 , mu thun. Vy p = q .
i =1
138

nh ngha 7.11: S cc h s dng c gi l ch s qun tnh dng v s cc h s m
c gi l ch s qun tnh m ca dng ton phng.
( p, q ) l cp ch s qun tnh dng v m ca dng ton phng Q trong khng

gian n chiu V th p + q = r (hng ca Q ).
Gi s
Nu
r = n th Q c gi l khng suy bin;

p = n th Q c gi l xc nh dng;
q = n th Q c gi l xc nh m.
R rng
Q xc nh dng khi v ch khi Q(v) > 0 , vi mi v 0 ;

Q xc nh m khi v ch khi Q(v) < 0 , vi mi v 0 .
Nu l dng cc ca dng ton phng
Q th:
Q xc nh dng khi v ch khi xc nh dng;

Q xc nh m khi v ch khi xc nh m;
Q khng suy bin khi v ch khi xc nh.
Dng ton phng
Q V d 7.11 c ch s qun tnh dng l 2 v m l 1. Q khng
suy bin.
nh l 7.19 (Sylvester): Gi s dng ton phng
Q c ma trn l A trong mt c s no
ca V . Khi :
(i)
Q xc nh dng khi v ch khi cc nh thc con gc tri ca A lun dng.
(ii)
Q xc nh m khi v ch khi cc nh thc con gc tri cp chn l dng v cp l l
m.
Chng minh: (i) Gi s
[ ]
A = aij
l ma trn ca dng ton phng
Q trong c s
B = {e1,..., en }. Xt Vk = span{e1,..., ek } th Q Vk : Vk c ma trn trong c s

Bk = {e1,..., ek } l ma trn con Ak cp k nm gc tri ca ma trn A . Nu Q xc nh
dng th
Q Vk
cng xc nh dng. Mt khc theo lut qun tnh ta suy ra rng cc gi tr trn
ng cho ca ma trn dng chnh tc ca dng ton phng xc nh dng l lun lun dng
nn nh thc ca n cng dng. Vy det Ak > 0 , vi
k = 1,..., n .
139

Ngc li, gi s Dk = det Ak > 0 , vi
k = 1,..., n . Theo phng php Jacobi (4.3.3)
B ' = { f1,..., f n } sao cho biu thc to ca Q trong c s B ' c dng chnh
tn ti c s
tc:
v = y1 f1 + ... + y n f n Q(v) =
Vy
D
1 2 D1 2
y1 +
y2 + ... + n 1 yn 2 .
D1
D2
Dn
Q xc nh dng.
Trng hp (ii) c chng minh tng t.
7.5
7.5.1
NG BC 2 TRONG MT PHNG V MT BC 2 TRONG KHNG GIAN

Mt phng vi h to trc chun
7.5.1.1 H to trc chun trong mt phng

Trong mt phng ta xt hai trc vung gc
dng, to nn mt h trc
Ox , Oy
Oxy
x' Ox
y' Oy
ct nhau ti
theo chiu
gi l h trc to vung gc cc trong mt phng. Trn
ta chn hai vc t n v ln lt l
{ }
i v j . H i, j l mt c s trc chun.
7.5.1.2 To ca mt vc t, to ca mt im trong mt phng

Cho vc t
vc t
nu
trong mt phng vi h to
vx , v y
l hnh chiu ca
Oxy . Cp (v x , v y )
xung hai trc
Ox, Oy
c gi l to ca
Theo cc php ton cng vc t (theo quy tc hnh bnh hnh), nhn mt s vi mt vc t
v tnh v hng ca hai vc t
th
Nu
u v = u v cos(u, v)
v = vx i + v y j = v ,i i + v , j j .
OM = xi + y j th ( x, y ) c gi l to ca im M , k hiu M ( x, y ) . Ni
cch khc to ca vc t OM l to ca im
c to ( x A , y A ); ( x B , y B ) th vc t
140
M . Hai im A, B
AB c to ( x B x A , y B y A ) .
vy
M
j
O
j
i
vx
O i
7.5.1.3 Cc ng bc 2 trong mt phng

Trong mt phng, ta xt 3 ng bc 2 sau:
a) ng Ellipse (lp)
Cho
F1 , F2
c nh. ng ellipse nhn tiu im
F1 , F2
vi di trc ln
l tp
hp:
( E ) = {M MF1 + MF2 = 2a} ; a > c vi F1F2 = 2c .

Nu F1 ( c,0) , F2 (c,0) th phng trnh ca ellipse
x2
a
y2
b
=1
vi
(E )
c dng:
a2 = b2 + c2 .
(7.41)
a l di trc ln, b l di trc b.

Khi
a = b c = 0 : ellipse (E ) tr thnh ng trn tm O bn knh a .
b) Hyperbol
( H ) = M MF1 MF2 = 2a , a < c .

Phng trnh
(H ) :
x2
a
y2
b
= 1 vi b 2 = c 2 a 2
(7.42)
c) Parabol:
Cho ng thng
() v im F . Parabol c tiu im F , ng chun () l tp hp:
( P ) = {M MF = d ( M , )}
141

trong
d ( M , ) l khong cch t M n ng thng () .
Nu F ( p 2 ,0) ,
() : x = p 2
th
(P ) c phng trnh:
y 2 = 2 px
(7.43)
(7.41), (7.42), (7.43) l phng trnh chnh tc ca 3 ng cnic
()
Ellipse
Hyperbol
Parabol
7.5.1.4 Phn loi ng bc 2 trong mt phng

Trong mt phng cho h to Descartes vung gc
Oxy . Mt ng cong bc 2 c
phng trnh tng qut:
a11x 2 + 2a12 xy + a22 y 2 + 2a1x + 2a2 y + a0 = 0
(7.44)
trong a11 , a12 , a 22 khng ng thi bng khng.

Ta tm mt h trc to Descartes vung gc mi trong h to ny ng cong
(7.44) c dng chnh tc.
t
a12
a
A = 11
, a12 = a21 .
a21 a22
A i xng nn cho ha trc giao c, ngha l tn ti ma trn trc giao T sao

1 0
t
cho det T = 1 v T AT =
.
0 2
Ma trn
Theo v d 7.5 v (7.16) ta c th chn
142
cos
T =
sin
sin
.
cos
x cos
y = sin

Nh vy h to mi
gc
sin x'
cos y '
Ox' y ' c c bng cch quay h trc Oxy quanh gc O mt
.
Phng trnh ng bc 2 (7.44) trong h to
Ox' y ' l:
1x'2 +2 y '2 +2a'1 x'+2a'2 y '+ a0 = 0
(7.45)
(nu a12 = 0 th khng cn bc ny).

1) Nu
1 2 0
phng trnh (7.45) vit c thnh
a'
a'
1 x'+ 1 + 2 y '+ 2 + a '0 = 0
1
2
Tnh tin h to
Ox' y ' n h to XY :
a'
a'
X = x'+ 1 , Y = y '+ 2 , ta c:
1 X 2 + 2Y 2 + a'0 = 0
(7.46)
a)
a '0 0 , 1 2 > 0 , 1a '0 < 0 :
(7.46) l phng trnh mt Ellipse;
b)
a '0 0 , 1 2 > 0 , 1a '0 > 0 :
(7.46) l phng trnh mt Ellipse o;
c)
a '0 0 , 1 2 < 0 :
d)
a '0 = 0 , 1 2 < 0 : Phng trnh (7.46) c dng 1 X 2 2 Y 2 = 0
(7.46) l phng trnh mt Hyperbol;

l phng
trnh cp ng thng ct nhau.

e)
a '0 = 0 , 1 2 > 0 :
Phng trnh (7.46) c dng
1 X 2 + 2 Y 2 = 0
phng trnh mt cp ng thng o.

2) C mt trong hai gi tr
a)
1 , 2 bng 0 :
1 = 0 , 2 0 , a'1 0 : Phng trnh (7.44) c th vit li:

143
a'
2 y '+ 2 + 2a'1 ( x'+ a"0 ) = 0
2
t X = x '+ a"0 ,
a
a'
Y = y '+ 2 ta c: Y 2 = 2 1 X .
Vy (7.47) l mt Parabol nhn trc

b)
(7.47)
X lm trc i xng.
2 = 0 , 1 0 , a '2 0 : ng cong (7. 44) l mt Parabol nhn trc Y
lm
trc i xng.
c)
1 = 0 , 2 0 , a '1 = 0 hay 1 0 , 2 = 0 , a '2 = 0 : ng cong (7.44) l
mt cp ng thng thc hoc o.

V d 7.12: Cho ng bc 2 c phng trnh
(G ) : 5 x 2 4 xy + 8 y 2 = 36 .
5 2
A=
c gi tr ring 1 = 4, 2 = 9 cho ho trc giao ta c:
2
8
2
1
2
1
i ' = 5 i + 5 j
x = 5 X + 5 Y

1
2
j' =
y = 1 X + 2 Y
i+
j
5
5
5
5
Ma trn
phng trnh ca
(G ) trong h to mi:
4 X 2 + 9Y 2 = 36
X2 Y2
+
= 1.
9
4
X
2
144

7.5.2
H to trc chun trong khng gian
7.5.2.1 To ca mt vc t v to ca mt im trong khng gian
O : x' Ox , y' Oy , z' Oz ; To

thnh mt h trc gi l h trc to vung gc Descartes trong khng gian, vit tt Oxyz .
Trong khng gian ta xt ba trc vung gc chung gc
Trn ba trc to ny ta chn cc vc t n v ln lt l

l h thun, ngha l nu ng theo chiu vc t
kim ng h. Vi mi vc t
i , j , k . Ta ch xt h trc Oxyz
k ta s thy i quay sang j theo ngc chiu
v ta c th vit
v = vx i + v y j + vz k = v , i i + v , j j + v , k k
trong v x , v y , v z ln lt l hnh chiu ca
xung cc trc Ox, Oy, Oz .
(v x , v y , v z ) c gi l to ca vc t v , k hiu v = (v x , v y , v z ) . To ca vc
t
OM = ( x, y, z ) c gi l to ca im M , k hiu M ( x, y, z ) .
7.5.2.2 Mt s mt bc 2 thng gp trong khng gian

a) Ellipsoid (lpxt) l mt
(E ) bc 2 c phng trnh
x2
a2
y2
b2
z2
c2
= 1.
a, b, c bng nhau th ta c mt ellipsoid trn xoay. Chng hn nu

a = b th ta c mt trn xoay quanh trc z' Oz . Nu a = b = c = R th ta c mt cu tm O
bn knh R ;
*) Nu 2 trong 3 s
*) Gc
O l tm i xng, cc mt phng to l mt phng i xng;
*) Giao tuyn vi cc mt phng song song vi cc mt phng to l cc ellipse.

b) Hyperboloid mt tng (Hyperblt) c phng trnh ( H1 ) :
*) Gc
x2
a
y2
b
z2
c
= 1.
O l tm i xng;
*) Cc trc to l trc i xng;

*) Cc mt phng ta l mt phng i xng;
*) Giao ca ( H1 ) vi mt phng vung gc vi trc
z' Oz l mt ellipse;
145

*) Giao ca ( H1 ) vi mt phng cha trc
z' Oz l mt Hyperbol.
Tng t c cc Hyperboloid mt tng:
x2
a
y2
b
z2
c
=1 ,
x2
a
y2
b
z2
c
c) Hyperboloid hai tng c phng trnh ( H 2 ) :

*) Mt phng vung gc vi trc
= 1.
x2
a
y2
b
z2
c
= 1 .
z' Oz c phng trnh z = h sao cho h > c ct
( H 2 ) theo mt elippse;
*) Giao ca ( H 2 ) vi mt phng cha
z' Oz l mt Hyperbol.
Ellisoid
x
Hyperboloid mt tng
d) Paraboloid elliptic (Parablt lptc) ( P1 ) :
Oxy
Hyperboloid hai tng
x2
a
y2
b
*) Giao tuyn ca ( P1 ) vi mt phng vung gc trc

l mt ellipse;
*) Giao tuyn ca ( P1 ) vi mt phng cha trc
146
x2
a
y2
b
= 2z .
= 2z .
z' Oz nm pha trn mt phng
z' Oz l Parabol.
e) Paraboloid hyperbolic (mt yn nga) c phng trnh
( P2 ) :

*) Giao ca ( P2 ) vi mt phng vung gc vi trc
z' Oz l mt Hyperbol;
x' Ox l mt Parabol;
y' Oy l mt Parabol.
Paraboloid elliptic
Paraboloid hyperbolic
g) Cc mt tr bc 2
Cc mt tr bc 2 i xng qua mt phng
*) Tr elliptic:
x2
a2
*) Tr Hyperbolic:
*) Tr Parabolic:
+
x2
a2
y2
b2
xOy
= 1.
y2
= 1.
b2
x 2 = 2 py .
x
y
y
y
Tr elliptic
Tr Hyperbolic
x
Tr Parabolic
147

h) Cc mt nn
Cc mt nn i xng qua mt phng
x2
a
y2
b
z2
c
xOy c phng trnh
= 0.
*) Giao vi mt phng vung gc vi trc

*) Giao vi mt phng cha trc
z' Oz l mt ellipse;
z' Oz cp ng thng.
7.5.3
Phn loi cc mt bc 2
Trong h to Descartes vung gc
Oxyz xt mt (Q ) bc 2 c phng trnh:
a11x 2 + a22 y 2 + a33 z 2 + 2a12 xy + 2a13 xz + 2a23 yz

+ 2b1 x + 2b2 y + 2b3 z + c = 0 .
[ ]
(7.48)
vi aij = a ji l ma trn i xng nn tn ti ma trn trc giao

A = aij
i , j =1,3
T sao cho det T = 1 ( h trc to mi to thnh tam din thun) v
0
1 0
T t AT = 0 2 0 . Tng ng vi ma trn chuyn c s T l php quay quanh gc to
0 0 3
Ma trn
.
148
x
x'
y = T y ' .
Cng thc i to

z
z '
Mt bc 2
(Q ) c phng trnh trong ta mi:
1 x'2 +2 y '2 +3 z '2 +2b'1 x'+2b'2 y '+2b'3 z '+c = 0
(7.49)
Ty theo cc gi tr ca 1 , 2 , 3 , b '1 , b '2 , b '3 , c mt
(Q ) c cc dng sau:
a) Cc gi tr ring 1 , 2 , 3 khc 0 ( 1 2 3 0 )
Bng cch tnh tin h to ta c th a phng trnh (7.49) v dng:
1 X 2 + 2Y 2 + 3 Z 2 = C ' .
*) Nu
(7.50)
C' 0
1, 2 , 3 , C ' cng du: (Q )
1, 2 , 3 cng du, C '
1, 2 , 3 ch c hai s cng du: (Q ) l Hyperboloid mt tng hoc hai tng.
*) Nu
l Ellipsoid;
tri du:
(Q ) l Ellipsoid o;
C' = 0
1, 2 , 3
ch c hai s cng du:
1, 2 , 3
cng du:
(Q ) l nn bc 2.
(Q ) l nn o (mt im).
Cc trng hp cn li sau y ta ch xt mi trng hp mt loi i din, cc loi khc c

kt qu tng t.
b) C ng mt gi tr trong ba gi tr 1, 2 , 3 bng
Chng hn
0.
3 = 0 , 12 0
*) b'3 0 : Tnh tin h to ta c: 1 X
y l phng trnh Paraboloid elliptic nu
+ 2Y 2 + 2b'3 Z = 0 .
12 > 0
v Paraboloid hyperbolic nu
12 < 0 .
*) b'3 = 0 : Tnh tin to ta c: 1 X
+ 2Y 2 = C ' .
149

y l phng trnh cc mt tr nu
C ' 0 v cc cp mt phng ct nhau nu C ' = 0 .
c) C ng hai gi tr trong ba gi tr 1, 2 , 3 bng

Chng hn
0.
3 = 0 , 2 = 0 , 1 0
*) b'2 , b'3 khng ng thi bng 0. Gi s b'2 0 : Tnh tin to ta c

1 X 2 + b"2 Y = 0 : (Q ) l mt tr Parabolic.
2
*) b'2 = b'3 = 0 : Tnh tin h to ta c: 1 X = C ' . Do (7.49) l phng trnh
cp mt phng song song nu C ' 0 v trng nhau nu C ' = 0 .
V d 7.13: Trong khng gian vi h to
Oxyz cho mt bc 2 c phng trnh
(Q) : 7 x 2 + 7 y 2 + 10 z 2 + 2 xy + 4 xz + 4 yz 12 x + 12 y + 72 z = 24
7 1 2
Ma trn ca dng ton phng tng ng A = 1 7 2 .
2 2 10
a thc c trng
A I = (6 ) 2 (12 ) .
Tm c s ca cc khng gian ring v trc chun ho Gram-Shmidt ta c ma trn trc giao
1 2
T =1 2
0
1 3 1
1 3 1
1 3 2
6
6 0 0
t
6 c det T = 1 v T AT = 0 6 0
0 0 12
6
x
x'

i to y = T y ' th phng trnh ca mt (Q ) trong to mi:

z
z '
1
1
1
6 x'2 +6 y '2 +12 z '2 12
x'
y '+
z'
2
3
6
1
1
2
1
1
+ 12
x'
y '
z ' + 72
y '+
z ' = 24
3
6
6
2
3
150
) (
) (
6 x'2 +2 2 x' + 6 y '2 +4 3 y ' + 12 z '2 +2 6 = 24

Tnh tin to : X = x '+ 2 ,
X 2 Y2 Z2
+
+
= 1.
30 30 15
suy ra (Q ) :
Vy
Y = y '+2 3 , Z = z '+ 6 ,
(Q ) l mt Ellipsoid trn xoay theo trc Z ' Z , c to 2 ,2 3, 6 .
V d 7.14: Trong khng gian vi h to
Oxyz cho mt bc 2 c phng trnh
(Q) : 2 xy + 2 xz + 2 yz 6 x 6 y + 6 z = 0 .
0 1 1
Ma trn ca dng ton phng tng ng A = 1 0 1 .
1 1 0
A I = ( + 1) 2 (2 ) .
a thc c trng
Tm c s ca cc khng gian ring v trc chun ho Gram-Shmidt ta c ma trn trc giao
1 2
T =1 2
0
1
1
6 1
6 1
3
1 0 0
3 c det T = 1 v T t AT = 0 1 0
0 0 2
3
x
x'

i to y = T y ' th phng trnh ca mt (Q ) trong to mi:

z
z '
x'2 y '2 +2 z '2 6
) (
x'2 y '2 4 6 y ' + 2 z '2 3z ' = 0
Tnh tin to :
suy ra
Vy
1
1
1
x'
y '+
z'
2
6
3
1
1
1 2
1
x'
y '+
z ' + 6
y '+
z ' = 0.
2
6
3 6
3
(Q) :
X = x' , Y = y '2 6 , Z = z ' 3 2 ,

2 X 2 2Y 2 4 Z 2
+
= 1.
45
45
45
(Q ) l mt Hyperboloid mt tng.
151
Ti
Mcliu
lc tham kho
TI LIU THAM KHO
1.
G. M. FICHTENGN, Gio trnh php tnh vi tch phn, Tp 1,2,3. Nauka,

Moskva, 1969. (ting Nga)
2.
G. M. FICHTENGN, C s gii tch ton hc, Tp 1,2,3. NXB i hc v Trung hc

chuyn nghip, H ni, 1977.
3.
K. MAURIN, Analiza,
4.
R. A. ADAMS, Calculus-a complete, Addison,Wesley, New York,Don Mills, 1991.
5.
NGUYN NH TR (ch bin), Ton hc cao cp ,Tp 1,2,3. NXB i hc v Gio

dc chuyn nghip, H ni, 1990.
6.
JEAN-MARIE MONIER, Gio trnh ton, Tp 1,2,3,4. NXB Gio dc, H ni, 1999
(dch t ting Php, DUNOD, Paris,1999)
152
Czes , c , 1. PWN, Warszawa, 1976.
Mc lc
mc lc
Li ni u .......................................................................................................................................3
Chng 1: M u v lgc mnh , tp hp nh x v
cc cu trc i s.............................................................................................................5
1.1. S lc v lgc mnh ......................................................................................................5
1.2. Tp hp .................................................................................................................................7
1.3. nh x ................................................................................................................................15
1.4. Gii tch t hp - Nh thc Newton.....................................................................................19
1.5. Cc Cu trc i s.............................................................................................................25
1.6. i s Boole .......................................................................................................................29
Chng 2: Khng gian vc t......................................................................................37
2.1. Khi nim khng gian vc t..............................................................................................37
2.2. Khng gian vc t con ........................................................................................................40
2.3. c lp tuyn tnh, ph thuc tuyn tnh............................................................................42
2.4. Hng ca mt h hu hn cc vc t ..................................................................................44
2.5. C s, s chiu ca khng gian vc t................................................................................45
Chng 3: Ma trn..............................................................................................................51
3.1. Khi nim ma trn ..............................................................................................................51
3.2. Cc php ton ma trn ........................................................................................................52
3.3. Ma trn ca mt h vc t trong mt c s no .............................................................56
3.4. Hng ca ma trn................................................................................................................57
Chng 4: nh thc..........................................................................................................61
4.1. Hon v v php th ............................................................................................................61
4.2. nh thc ............................................................................................................................63
4.3. Cc tnh cht c bn ca nh thc .....................................................................................66
4.4. Cc cch tnh nh thc ......................................................................................................68
153
Mc lc
4.5. ng dng nh thc tm ma trn nghch o..................................................................74
4.6. Tm hng ca ma trn bng nh mc ................................................................................77
Chng 5: H phng trnh tuyn tnh ................................................................81
5.1. Khi nim v h phng trnh tuyn tnh ...........................................................................81
5.2. nh l tn ti nghim........................................................................................................82
5.3. Phng php Cramer ..........................................................................................................82
5.4. Phng php ma trn nghch o........................................................................................84
5.5. Gii h phng trnh tuyn tnh bng phng php kh Gauss..........................................85
5.6. H phng trnh tuyn tnh thun nht ...............................................................................89
Chng 6: nh x tuyn tnh.......................................................................................91
6.1. Khi nim nh x tuyn tnh...............................................................................................91
6.2. Nhn v nh ca nh x tuyn tnh.....................................................................................94
6.3. Ton cu, n cu, ng cu...............................................................................................95
6.4. nh x tuyn tnh v ma trn..............................................................................................97
6.5. Cho ha ma trn..............................................................................................................102
Chng 7: Khng gian vc t Euclide dng ton phng.....................115
7.1. Tch v hng, khng gian vc t Euclide .......................................................................115
7.2. Ma trn trc giao v nh x tuyn tnh trc giao ..............................................................121
7.3. Cho ha trc giao ma trn - T ng cu i xng.........................................................124
7.4. Dng ton phng.............................................................................................................128
7.5. ng bc 2 trong mt phng v mt bc 2 trong khng gian .........................................140
ti liu tham kho .........................................................................................................152
154

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HC VIN CNG NGH BU CHNH VIN THNG

TON CAO CP (A2)

tng bc trong qu trnh hc tp ph thng, nhng trong chng I cc vn ny c h

H Ni, cui nm 2004.

Chng 1: M u v lgc mnh , tp hp nh x v cc cu trc i s

1. CHNG 1: M U V LGC MNH , TP HP

Lgc mnh l mt h thng lgch n gin nht, vi n v c bn l cc mnh

p ng ta cho p nhn gi tr 1 v p sai ta cho nhn gi tr 0. Gi tr 1

Mnh phc hp c xy dng t cc mnh n gin hn bng cc php lin kt

Cc php lin kt lgc mnh

p . Mnh p ng khi p sai v p sai khi p ng.

2. Php hi (conjunction): Hi ca hai mnh

p v q ). Mnh p q ch ng khi p v q cng ng.

p hoc q ). p q ch sai khi p v q cng sai.

4. Php ko theo (implication): Mnh p ko theo

5. Php tng ng (equivalence): Mnh

Chng 1: M u v lgc mnh , tp hp nh x v cc cu trc i s

Nh vy p q l mt mnh ng khi c hai mnh

p v q cng ng hoc cng

sai v mnh p q sai trong trng hp ngc li.

lut giao hon.

lut phn phi.

Chng 1: M u v lgc mnh , tp hp nh x v cc cu trc i s

lut phn chng.

A, B,... X ,Y ,... cn cc phn t bi cc

b) Nu c trng tnh cht ca cc phn t to thnh tp hp

D l mt mnh S (x) ph thuc vo bin x D . Khi cho

bin x mt gi tr c th th ta c mnh lgch (mnh ch nhn mt trong hai gi tr hoc

S (x) l mt mnh trn tp hp D th tp hp cc phn t x D sao cho S (x )

{x D S (x)} v c gi l min ng ca hm mnh S (x) .

S (x) xc nh trn tp cc s t nhin : " x 2 + 1 l mt s nguyn

Chng 1: M u v lgc mnh , tp hp nh x v cc cu trc i s

nh ngha 1.1: Tp A c gi l tp con ca

A l tp con ca B th ta cn ni A bao hm trong B hay B bao hm A hay B

nh ngha 1.2: Hai tp

A , B bng nhau, k hiu A = B, khi v ch khi A B v

nh ngha 1.3: Tp rng l tp khng cha phn t no, k hiu .

P ( X ) = { ,{a},{b},{c},{a, b},{b, c},{c, a}, X }.

Chng 1: M u v lgc mnh , tp hp nh x v cc cu trc i s

P (X ) c 23 = 8 phn t. Ta c th chng minh tng qut

Cc php ton trn cc tp hp

1. Php hp: Hp ca hai tp

A v B , k hiu A B , l tp gm cc phn t thuc t

2. Php giao: Giao ca hai tp

A v B , k hiu A B , l tp gm cc phn t thuc

3. Hiu ca hai tp: Hiu ca hai tp

C XB . Nu tp X c nh v khng s nhm ln th ta k hiu B thay cho

p dng lgch mnh ta d dng kim chng li cc tnh cht sau:

tnh giao hon.

Chng 1: M u v lgc mnh , tp hp nh x v cc cu trc i s

A, B l hai tp con ca X th:

Lng t ph bin v lng t tn ti

S (x) l mt hm mnh xc nh trn tp D c min ng

DS ( x ) = D v sai trong trng hp ngc li.

D xc nh th ta thng vit tt x , S ( x) hay (x ), S ( x) .

DS (x ) v sai trong trng hp ngc li.

chng minh mt mnh vi lng t ph bin l ng th ta phi chng minh ng

V d 1.4: Theo nh ngha ca gii hn

lim f ( x) = L > 0 , > 0 ; x : 0 < x a < f ( x) L < .

Chng 1: M u v lgc mnh , tp hp nh x v cc cu trc i s

( p q ) ( p q ) (xem tnh cht 1.3) ta c

0 < x a < f ( x) L < tng ng vi

Php hp v giao suy rng