Ds Va HHGT

AI SO VA HNH HOC GIAI TCH 1-2
Giao trnh ai hoc ai cng Nganh Toan-Tin hoc
Ta Le Li
- ai Hoc alat - 2005 -
ai so va Hnh hoc giai tch 1-2

Ta Le Li
Muc luc
Phan I:
Chng 0. Kien thc chuan b
1. Cac cau truc ai so c ban . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2. Trng so phc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 3. a thc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Vector hnh hoc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C s Descartes - Toa o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cong thc ai so cua cac phep toan tren vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ng thang va mat phang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 17 19 22
Chng I. Khong gian vector hnh hoc

1. 2. 3. 4.
Chng II. Ma tran - Phng phap kh Gauss
1. Ma tran . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 2. Cac phep toan tren ma tran . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 3. Phng phap kh Gauss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Chng III. Khong gian vector
1. Khong gian vector - Khong gian vector con . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 2. C s - So chieu - Toa o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 3. Tong - Tch - Thng khong gian vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Chng IV. Anh xa tuyen tnh
1. Anh xa tuyen tnh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 2. Anh xa tuyen tnh va ma tran . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 3. Khong gian oi ngau . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 1. 2. 3. 4. nh thc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tnh chat cua nh thc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tnh nh thc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mot so ng dung cua nh thc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 67 69 73
Chng V. nh thc
Phan II:
Chng VI. Cheo hoa
1. Chuyen c s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 2. Vector rieng - Ga tr rieng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 3. Dang ng cheo - Cheo hoa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 1. 2. 3. 4. Khong gian vector Euclid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 Mot so ng dung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 Toan t trc giao - Ma tran trc giao . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 Toan t oi xng - Cheo hoa trc giao ma tran oi xng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Chng VII. Khong gian vector Euclid
Chng VIII. Dang song tuyen tnh - Dang toan phng
1. Dang song tuyen tnh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 2. Dang toan phng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 3. Dang chnh tac . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 1. Cau truc affin chnh tac cua mot khong gian vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 2. Mot so anh xa affin thong dung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 3. ng, mat bac 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Chng IX. Ap dung vao hnh hoc
Bai tap
0. Kien thc chuan b
Chng nay neu nh ngha ve cac cau truc ai so c ban la nhom, vanh va trng. Phan tiep theo la mot so kien thc toi thieu ve so phc va a thc.
1. Cac cau truc ai so c ban
anh xa:
1.1 nh ngha. Cho
la mot tap hp. Mot phep toan hai ngoi tren

:AAA
la mot
Khi o anh cua cap (x, y) A A bi anh xa se c ky hieu la x

Phep toan goi la co tnh ket hp neuu1 (x y) z = x (y z), x, y, z A Phep toan goi la co tnh giao hoan neuu x y = y x, x, y A Phan t e A, goi la phan t n v , neuu x e = e x = x, x A Khi viet theo loi cong + th phan t n v goi la phan t khong va ky hieu la 0. Khi viet theo loi nhan th phan t ky hieu la 1. Gia s phep toan co phan t n v e. Khi o x A goi la kha nghch neuu ton tai x A sao cho: x x = x x = e. Khi o x phan t nghch ao cua x. Khi viet theo loi cong, th phan t nghch ao cua x goi la phan t oi va ky hieu 1 la x. Khi viet theo loi nhan, th phan t nghch ao cua x ky hieu la x1 hay .
x
Nhan xet. Phan t n v neu co la duy nhat: Neu e1 , e2 la hai phan t n v, th e1 = e1 e2 = e2 . Nhan xet. Neu co tnh ket hp, th phan t nghch ao cua x neu co la duy nhat: Neu x , x la hai phan t nghch ao cua x, th x = x e = x (x x ) = (x x) x = e x =x . Bai tap: Hay xet cac phep toan cong va nhan tren g? Co phan t n v? Co phan t nghch ao?
A := N, Z, Q, R
co tnh chat
1.2. Nhom. Mot nhom la mot cap (G, ), trong o G la mot tap hp khong rong, con
la mot phep toan hai ngoi tren G, thoa cac ieu kien sau: (G1) co tnh ket hp. (G2) co phan t n v. (G3) Moi phan t cua G eu co phan t nghch ao. Nhom G c goi la nhom giao hoan hay nhom Abel neu: (G4) co tnh giao hoan.
Ngi ta thng noi nhom G thay v (G, ) khi a ngam hieu phep toan nao. Qui c nay cung dung cho khai niem vanh, trng tiep sau.
1
Trong giao trnh nay:
neuu
neu va ch neu.
2 V du. a) Tap N vi phep cong khong la nhom v khong cha phan t oi. Tap Z, Q, R la nhom giao hoan vi phep cong, nhng khong la nhom vi phep nhan v 0 khong co phan t nghch ao. b) Tap cac song anh t mot tap X len chnh X la mot nhom vi phep hp anh xa. Noi chung nhom nay khong giao hoan. va la cac phep toan tren R, thoa cac ieu kien sau: (R1) (R, +) la mot nhom giao hoan. (R2) Phep nhan co tnh ket hp. (R3) Phep nhan co tnh phan phoi ve hai pha oi vi phep cong:
+ x(y + z) = xy + xz
1.3 Vanh. Mot vanh la mot bo ba (R, +, ), trong o R la mot tap khong rong, con
va
(y + z)x = yx + zx x, y, z R
Neu phep nhan co tnh giao hoan th R goi la vanh giao hoan. V du. a) Z, Q, R vi phep cong va nhan la cac vanh giao hoan. b) Zp cac lp cac so nguyen ong d theo mot so p la vanh giao hoan vi phep cong va nhan c nh ngha:
[m] + [n] = [m + n], [m][n] = [mn] 1 = 0 va moi phan t khac khong cua K eu co phan t nghch ao. Mot cach ay u, mot trng la bo ba (K, +, ), trong o K la tap khong rong, + va la cac phep toan tren K thoa 9 ieu kien sau vi moi x, y, z K : (F1) (x + y) + z = x + (y + z) (F2) 0 K , x + 0 = 0 + x = x (F3) x K , x + (x) = x + x = 0 (F4) x + y = y + x (F5) (xy)z = x(yz) (F6) 1 K, 1 = 0, x1 = 1x = x (F7) Khi x = 0, x1 K , xx1 = x1 x = 1 (F8) xy = yx (F9) x(y + z) = xy + xz
1.3 Trng. Mot trng la mot vanh giao hoan co n v
V du. a) Vanh (Z, +, ) khong la trng. (Q, +, ), (R, +) la cac trng. b) Neu p la so nguyen to, th Zp la mot trng. Hn na, Zp la tap hu han va vi moi [n] Zp , [n] + + [n] = [0].
ac so cua mot trng
p lan
K,
ky hieu char(K), la so t nhien dng be nhat sao
cho 1 + + 1 = 0. Neu khong co so t nhien nh vay, th K goi la co ac so 0. V du.

n lan
Q, R
co ac so 0, con
Zp
co ac so p. Ta co
1+1=0
trong Z2 !
2. Trng so phc
Tren trng so thc, khi xet phng trnh bac hai ax 2 + bx + c = 0 trng hp b2 4ac < 0 phng trnh vo nghiem v ta khong the lay can bac hai so am. e cac phng trnh nh vay co nghiem, ta can them vao tap cac so thc cac can bac hai cua so am. Phan nay ta se xay dng tap cac so phc C la m rong tap so thc R, tren o nh ngha cac phep toan cong va nhan e C la mot trng. Hn na, moi phng trnh bac hai, chang han x2 + 1 = 0, eu co nghiem trong C.
T so ao sinh ra t viec ngi ta khong hieu chung khi mi phat hien ra so phc. Thc ra so phc rat thc nh so thc vay. V du. a) So phc z = 6 + i 2 co phan thc Rez = 6, phan ao Imz = 2. 2 b) e giai phng trnh z 2 + 2z + 4 = 0, ta bien oi z 2 + 2z + 4 = (z + 1) + 3. Vay phng trnh tng ng (z + 1)2 = 3. Suy ra nghiem z = 1 i 3. Sau ay la nh ngha cac phep toan va thc hien.
2.1 nh ngha. Ta dung ky hieu i, goi la c so ao , e ch nghiem phng trnh x2 + 1 = 0, i.e. i2 = 1. Tap so phc la tap dang: C = {z : z = a + ib, vi a, b R} z = a + ib goi la so phc, a = Rez goi la phan thc, b = Imz goi la phan ao. z1 = z2 neuu Rez1 = Rez2 , Imz1 = Imz2 . Ta xem R la tap con cua C khi ong nhat R = {z C : Imz = 0}
2.2 Cac phep toan. Tren C co hai phep toan c nh ngha nh sau: Phep cong. Phep nhan.
(a + ib) + (c + id) = (a + c) + i(b + d) (a + ib)(c + id) = (ac bd) + i(ad + bc)
Nhan xet. Phep nhan c tnh nh nhan cac so thong thng vi chu y la i 2 = 1.
Menh e. Vi cac phep toan tren C la trng so.

Menh e tren de suy t nh ngha vi chu y la: Phep cong co phan t khong la 0 = 0 + i0, phan t oi cua z = a + ib la z = a ib. Phep nhan co phan t n v la 1 = 1 + i0, nghch ao cua z = a + ib = 0 la
z 1 = a 1 b = 2 i 2 2 z a +b a + b2
S ton tai va viec tm nghch ao c thc hien bi phep chia
a + ib (c + id = 0) c + id
4 khi giai phng trnh

a + ib = (c + id)(x + iy).
ong nhat phan thc, phan ao ta co
cx dy = a dx + cy = b
Vay
ac + bd bc ad a + ib = 2 +i 2 2 c + id c +d c + d2 z = a ib
Phep lien hp. Tnh chat.
goi la so phc lien hp cua z = a + ib. z = z , z 1 + z2 = z1 + z2 , z 1 z2 = z1 z2 .
Nhan xet. Neu z = a + ib, th z z = a2 + b2 . T o co the chia 2 so phc bang cach nhan so lien hiep cua mau, chang han
(2 5i)(3 4i) 6 23i + 20i2 14 23i 2 5i = = = 2 42 i 2 3 + 4i (3 + 4i)(3 4i) 3 25
2.3 Bieu dien so phc. Sau ay la mot so bieu dien khac nhau cua so phc
y
T
B r i T
E x
Dang ai so. Dang hnh hoc.
z = a + ib, a, b R, i2 = 1. z = (a, b), a, b R.
Trong mat phang a vao he toa truc Descartes vi 1 = (1, 0), i = (0, 1) la 2 vector c s. Khi o moi so phc z = a + ib c bieu dien bi vector (a, b), con C c ong nhat vi R2 . Trong phep bieu dien nay phep cong so phc c bieu th bi phep cong vector hnh hoc. Bieu dien so phc z = (a, b) trong toa o cc (r, ), trong o r la o dai cua z , la goc nh hng tao bi 1 = (1, 0) va z trong mat phang phc. Ta co:
a = r cos b = r sin
Dang lng giac.
z = r(cos + i sin )
va
a
r = |z| = a2 + b2 , goi la modul cua z = Arg z, goi la argument cua z b
Vay neu z = 0, th cos = 2 2 , sin = 2 2 . a +b a +b Ta thay co vo so gia tr sai khac nhau k2, k Z, trong o co mot gia tr (, ]
goi la gia tr chnh va ky hieu la argz . Vay co the viet Argz = argz + k2,
k Z.
V du. z = 3 i co modul |z| = ( 3)2 + (1)2 = 2, va argument argz = 3 1 (suy t tan = 3 va Rez > 0). Vay 3 i = 2(cos( ) + i sin( )). 3 3 Moi cach bieu dien so phc co thuan tien rieng. Sau ay la mot so ng dung.
2.4 Menh e.
Suy ra cong thc de Moivre
|z1 z2 | = |z1 ||z2 |
va
Arg(z1 z2 ) = Argz1 + Argz2
(r(cos + i sin ))n = rn (cos n + i sin n), n N
Chng minh: Neu z1 = r1 (cos 1 + i sin 1 ), z2 = r2 (cos 2 + i sin 2 ), th

z1 z2 = r1 r2 (cos 1 cos 2 sin 1 sin 2 ) + i(sin 1 cos 2 + cos 1 sin 2 ) = r1 r2 (cos(1 + 2 ) + i sin(1 + 2 ))
Suy ra
|z1 z2 | = r1 r2 = |z1 ||z2 |,
va Arg(z1 z2 ) = 1 + 2 + 2k = Argz1 + Argz2 .

z
Nhan xet. Ve mat hnh hoc phep nhan so phc r(cos + i sin ) vi so phc la phep co dan vector z t so r va quay goc . (xem hnh ve)
n cua so phc. Cho z C va n N. Mot can bac n cua z la mot so phc w thoa phng trnh w n = z . e giai phng trnh tren, bieu dien z = r(cos + i sin ) va w = (cos + i sin ). T cong thc de Moivre n (cos(n) + i sin(n)) = r(cos + i sin ). Suy ra = nr (can bac n n = + 2k, k Z
2.5 Can bac
theo ngha thc)
Vay khi z = 0, phng trnh co ung n nghiem phan biet:

wk = n r(cos( 2 2 + k ) + i sin( + k )), n n n n k = 0, , n 1.
Khi z = 0, ky hieu n z la tap n can bac n cua z . 0 = 0. Ve mat hnh hocchung la cac nh cua mot a giac eu n canh, noi tiep ng tron tam 0 ban knh n r.
6
T s
r(cos + i sin )z w3 s
s s E
w2 s
sw1 s w0 s
sz
Nhan r(cos + i sin ) vi z
w n = 1,
vi n = 8
V du. n1 a) Can bac n cua 1 la n so phc: 1, n , , n , vi n = cos 2 + i sin 2 n n 3 b) e tm cac ga tr cua 1 + i, ta bieu dien 1 + i = 2(cos + i sin ). 4 4 1 Suy ra 3 1 + i = 2 6 (cos( 12 + 2k ) + i sin( 12 + 2k )), k Z. 3 3 Vay co 3 gia tr phan biet la: 1
k = 0, w0 = 2 6 (cos( 12 ) + i sin( 12 )) 1 k = 1, w1 = 2 6 (cos( 3 ) + i sin( 3 )) = 3 w0 4 4 1 k = 2, w2 = 2 6 (cos( 17 ) + i sin( 17 )) = 3 w0 12 12
3. a thc
3.1 nh ngha. Cho K la mot trng. Mot a thc tren K la bieu thc dang
P (X) = a0 + a1 X + + an X n ,
trong o n N, va ak K, k = 0, , n, goi la he so bac k cua P (X). Hai a thc goi la bang nhau neuu moi he so cung bac cua chung bang nhau. Neu an = 0, th n goi la bac cua P (X) va ky hieu n = deg P (X), an = lcP (X). Neu ak = 0 vi moi k, th P (X) goi la a thc khong va qui c deg(0) = . n Ta thng viet di dang tong: P (X) = ak X k hay P = ak X k la tong vo han nhng ch co hu han ak = 0. Ky hieu K[X] la tap moi a thc tren K . ngha nh sau: Phep cong: Phep nhan:
(
i k=0 k
3.2 Cac phep toan tren a thc. Tren K[X] co hai phep toan cong va nhan nh
ak X k + ai X )(
j i k
bk X k = bj X ) =
k j k
(ak + bk )X k ck X k
vi ck = a0 bk + + ak b0 =
Menh e.
i+j=k
ai bj .
K[X]
la vi hai phep toan tren la mot vanh giao hoan.
Bai tap: Chng minh menh e tren.
7 vi moi P (X), Q(X) K[X].

P1 (X) = 0.
Nhan xet.
deg P (X)Q(X) = deg P (X) + deg Q(X),
3.3 Phep chia Euclid. Cho hai a thc P0(X), P1(X) K[X],
Khi o ton tai duy nhat cac a thc Q(X), R(X) K[X], sao cho
P0 (X) = Q(X)P1 (X) + R(X), deg R(X) < deg P1 (X)
Ta goi Q(X) la thng , R(X) la phan d cua phep chia P0 (X) cho P1 (X), va c xay dng cu the theo thuat toan sau:
Thuat toan chia Euclid.
Input: P0 , P1 K[X], P1 = 0 Output: Q, R K[X], thoa P0 = QP1 + R, deg R < deg P1 .
Trc het cho R0 = P0 , Q0 = 0. Gia s vong lap th k ta co Qk , Rk K[X], thoa P0 = Qk P1 + Rk Neu nk = deg Rk deg P1 < 0, th a chia xong Q = Qk , R = Rk Neu nk = deg Rk deg P1 > 0, th kh he so bac cao nhat cua Rk bang cach: lc(Rk ) nk X P1 Rk+1 = Rk lc(P1 ) lc(Rk ) nk X Qk+1 = Qk + lc(P1 ) Ta co P0 = Qk+1 P1 + Rk+1 Do deg Rk+1 < deg Rk , nen en vong lap th m deg P0 , ta co deg Rm < deg P1 . Khi o Q = Qm , R = Rm . V du. Thuat toan chia Euclid co the thc hien theo s o
X 4 2X 3 6X 2 + 12X + 15
cho X 3 + X 2 4X 4
R0 = X 4 2X 3 6X 2 + 12X + 15 | X 3 + X 2 4X 4 R1 = 3X 3 2X 2 + 16X + 15 X 3 2 X + 4X + 3 R2 =
Vay
X 4 2X 3 6X 2 + 12X + 15 = (X 3 + X 2 4X 4)(X 3) + X 2 + 4X + 3
Bai tap: Thc hien phep chia P (X) = a0 + a1 X + + an X n cho X c.

P (X) K[X] goi la chia het cho a thc D(X) K[X] neuu ton tai a thc A(X) K[X], sao cho P (X) = A(X)D(X). Khi o D(X) goi la mot c cua P (X) va ky hieu D(X)|P (X). c chung ln nhat cua cac a thc P0 (X), P1(X) K[X], la mot a thc D(X) K[X], thoa ieu kien: D(X)|P0 (X), D(X)|P1 (X)
3.4 c chung ln nhat. a thc
va neu
C(X)|P0 (X), C(X)|P1 (X)
th C(X)|D(X)
Khi o ky hieu D(X) = GCD(P0 (X), P1 (X)) Nhan xet. c chung ln nhat c xac nh sai khac mot hang so t le. Nhan xet. Neu P0 = QP1 + R, th GCD(P0 , P1 ) = GCD(P1 , R), v c chung cua
8
P0 , P1 la c chung cua P1 , R. Ngoai ra GCD(R, 0) = R, nen c chung ln nhat c xay dng t day phan d cua thuat chia Euclid, nh sau:
Thuat toan tm GCD.
Input : P0 , P1 K[X], P0 , P1 = 0 Output : GCD(P0 , P1 ) va U, V K[X], thoa U P0 + V P1 = GCD(P0 , P1 )

P1 , P2 , , Pm ),
Xay dng day a thc khac khong (P0 , chia Pk2 cho Pk1 :
vi Pk la phan d cua phep
Pk2 = Qk1 Pk1 + Pk (k = 2, , m 1) Pm2 = Qm1 Pm1 + Pm Pm1 = Qm Pm
Theo nhan xet tren ta co GCD(P0 , P1 ) = GCD(Pm , 0) = Pm Thuat toan con cho cac day a thc
(U0 , , Um )
va (V0 , , Vm ), thoa
()
Pk = Uk P0 + Vk P1 , (k = 0, , m)
Trc het, khi k = 0, 1, ta phai co U0 = 1, V0 = 0 va U1 = 0, V1 = 1. Sau o e qui

Uk = Uk2 Qk1 Uk1
va
Vk = Vk2 Qk1 Vk1
(k = 2, m)
Ta kiem tra day thoa () bang qui nap. Gia s () ung en k 1. Khi o
Pk = = = = Pk2 Qk1 Pk1 (Uk2 P0 + Vk2 P1 ) Qk1 (Uk1 P0 + Vk1 P1 ) (Uk2 Qk1 )P0 + (Vk2 Qk1 Vk1 )P1 Uk P0 + Vk P1
Khi U = Um , V
sao cho
= Vm
ta co U P0 + V P1 = Pm = GCD(P0 , P1 ). Vay ta co:
ang thc Bezout. Cho P0(X), P1(X) K[X]. Khi o ton tai U (X), V (X) K[X]
GCD(P0 (X), P1 (X)) = U (X)P0 (X) + V (X)P2 (X)
V du. Vi P0 (X) = X 4 2X 3 6X 2 + 12X + 15 va P1 (X) = X 3 + X 2 4X 4, cac bc cua thuat toan tren c the hien qua bang sau
k 2 3 4 5 X4 2X 3 Pk2 6X 2 + 12X + 15 3 + X 2 4X 4 X X 2 + 4X + 3 5X + 5 X3 Pk1 + X 2 4X 4 X 2 + 4X + 3 5X + 5 0 Qk1 X 3 X 3 1 3 5X + 5 X2 Pk + 4X + 3 5X + 5 0
U0 = 1, U1 = 0, U2 = 1, U3 = X + 3, U4 = 1 X 2 4 , U5 = X + 3 5 5 1 3 3 V0 = 0, V1 = 1, V2 = X+3, V3 = X 2 6X+10, V4 = X 3 + X 2 + X3, V5 = X 2 6X+10 5 5 5
9
(X + 3)P + 0 + (X 2 6X + 10)P1 = 5X + 5.
Vay GCD(P0 , P1 ) = 5X + 5 va
3.5 Nghiem - Boi. Cho a thc P (X) = a0 + a1 X + + an X n K[X].

Gia tr cua P (X) tai c K nh ngha la P (c) = a0 + a1 c + + an cn . Nhan xet. e dung t phep toan khi tnh P (c), ta co qui tac Horner sau
P (c) = ( ((an c + an1 )c + an1 )c + + a1 )c + a0
Neu P (c) = 0, th c goi la mot nghiem cua P (X).
nh ly Bezout. c K la nghiem cua a thc P (X) khi va ch khi ton tai a thc Q(X) K[X], sao cho P (X) = (X c)Q(X)
Chng minh: Theo phep chia Euclid P (X) = (X c)Q(X) + r, vi r K . Suy ra P (c) = r. Vay P (c) = 0 khi va ch khi r = 0 hay P (X) = (X c)Q(X).
Nhan xet. Theo nh ly tren, so nghiem cua mot a thc bac n la khong qua n. Phan t c K goi la nghiem boi m cua P (X) neuu P (X) = (X c)mP1 (X), vi P1 (X) K[X] va P1 (c) = 0, i.e. P (X) chia het cho (X c)m, nhng khong chia het cho (X c)m+1
3.6 a thc tren trng phc. Ta cong nhan nh ly sau nh ly c ban cua ai so. Moi a thc bac > 0 tren trng phc eu co nghiem phc. Menh e. Moi a thc phc P (X) C[X], bac n eu co n nghiem phc ke ca boi, i.e. ton tai cac so phc c1 , , cs C, khac nhau, sao cho
P (X) = an (X c1 )m1 (X cs )ms
trong o an la he so bac n cua P (X), m1 + + ms = n Chng minh: Theo nh ly tren, neu n > 0, P (X) co nghiem c 1 C. Theo nh ly Bezout P (X) = (X c1 )P1 (X). Neu deg P1 = n 1 > 0, th lap ly luan tren cho P := P1 . Khi en bac 0, ta co P (X) = (X c1 ) (X cn )A, vi A la so. ong nhat he so bac cao nhat cua a thc 2 ve, ta co an = A.
3.7 a thc tren trng thc.

(i) Neu c C la nghiem cua P (X), th so phc lien hp c cung la nghiem cua P (X). (ii) Neu n = deg P (X), th P (X) co phan tch thanh tha so bac 1 hay bac 2 nh sau
P (X) = an (X c1 )m1 (X cr )mr (X 2 + p1 X + q1 )n1 (X 2 + ps X + qs )ns
Menh e. Cho a thc thc P (X) R[X]. Khi o
trong o an la he so bac n cua P (X), cj (j = 1, r) la cac X 2 + pk X + qk (k = 1, , s) la cac tam thc bac hai khong
nghiem thc cua P (X), co nghiem thc.
10 (iii) Neu n = deg P (X) la le, th P (X) co nghiem thc.

Chng minh:
(i) Gia s P (X) = a0 + a1 X + + an X n R[X]. Khi o vi moi c C , ta co

P (c) = a0 + a1 c + + an cn = a0 + a1 c + + an cn = P () c
(e y la ak R nen ak = ak , va lien hp cua tong (tch) la tong (tch) lien hp) Vay P (c) = 0 khi va ch khi P () = 0. Suy ra (i). c (ii) Cho c = a + ib C. Khi o
c (X c)(X c) = X 2 (c + c)X + c = X 2 2aX + (a2 + b2 )
la a thc co he so thc dang (X a)2 + b2 , nen vo nghiem khi b = 0, i.e. khi c R. Vi nhan xet tren va nh ly phan tch a thc tren trng phc ta co (ii). (iii) Theo (ii) neu deg P (X) = n le, th P (X) phai co mot tha so (X c), vi c R, i.e. co nghiem thc c.
3.8 Tm nghiem a thc bang phep khai can. Phan nay e cap en viec giai
tm nghiem a thc phc.
Phng trnh bac 2:
ax 2 + bx + c = 0 (a = 0) c b Chia cho a: x2 + x + = 0 a a b2 4ac b =0 Tnh tien e kh so hang bac 1: X = x+ , phng trnh co dang X 2 2a (2a)2 b r r Tm r la mot can bac 2 cua b2 4ac. Suy ra X = . Vay x = 2a 2a
ax 3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0 (a = 0) d b 2 c Chia cho a: x3 + x + x + = 0 a a a b Tnh tien e kh so hang bac 2: X = x + , phng trnh co dang X 2 + pX + q = 0 3a Viec giai phng trnh X 2 + pX + q = 0, nh sau: at X = u + v, phng trnh co dang u3 + v3 + (3uv + p)(u + v) + q = 0. Ta can tm u, v thoa he phng trnh: u3 + v 3 = q p uv = 3
Phng trnh bac 3:
at U = u3 , V
= v3.
Ta co U + V
= q, U V =
p3 = 0. Giai tm nghiem U0 , V0 . 27 2 2 Giai u3 = U0 , ta co 3 nghiem u0 , ju0 , j 2 u0 , vi j = cos( ) + i sin( ). 3 3 3 = V , tm nghiem v thoa phng trnh th hai cua he u v = p . Giai v 0 0 0 0 3 2 v ), (j 2 u , jv ) Vay co 3 nghiem cua he la (u0 , v0 ), (ju0 , j 0 0 0
p3 . 27
Vay U, V la nghiem phng trnh X 2 + qX
11
Vay 3 nghiem can tm:
X1 = u0 + v0 , X2 = ju0 + j 2 v0 , X3 = j 2 u0 + jv0
Cac tnh toan tren c tong ket bang cong thc Cardano:
x= b + 3a
3
q + 2
p3 q2 + + 4 27
q 2
p3 q2 + 4 27
Nhan xet. Trong thc hanh cong thc tren la vo dung. Chang han, cong thc tren oi vi x3 21x + 20 = 0 (co cac nghiem la 1, 4, 5):
x=
3
10 + i 243 +
10 i 243 =??? 2x3 + 18x2 42x + 10 = 0.
Bai tap: Giai cac phng trnh; x3 15x 4 = 0,
Phng trnh bac 4:

Chia cho a, roi tnh trnh:
ax 4 + bx3 + cx2 + dx + e = 0 (a = 0) b tien e kh so hang bac 3, at X = x + , a 4a X 4 + pX 2 + qX + r = 0
ve giai phng
Phan tch: X 4 + pX 2 + qX + r = (X 2 + X + )(X 2 X + ) ong nhat he so, ta co , , la nghiem cua he:

+
= p + 2 = r = q
T o 2 la nghiem phng trnh bac 3: 2 (p + 2 )2 4r2 q = 0 Giai ta co , , . Thay vao phng trnh tch, roi giai phng trnh bac 2 ta co cac nghiem X1 , X2 , X3 , X4 Bai tap: Giai phng trnh:
x4 + 2x3 + 5x2 + 6x + 9 = 0
trnh a thc bac 5 tong quat, theo ngha khong the bieu dien nghiem nh la bieu thc gom cac phep toan ai so (cong, tr, nhan, chia) va can so (bac 2, 3, ) cua cac he so cua a thc. Sau o Galois (1811-1832) dung ly thuyet nhom a tm c tieu chuan e mot phng trnh bac 5 cu the co giai c bang can thc khong. V du phng trnh x5 x 1 = 0 khong giai c bang can thc
Phng trnh bac 5. Abel (1802-1829) a chng minh khong the giai mot phng
Tm nghiem hu t cua phng trnh he so nguyen. Cho mot a thc co he so

nguyen
P (X) = a0 + a1 X + + an X n p ak Z, k = 0, , n, an = 0
Khi o neu mot so hu t , vi gcd(p, q) = 1, la nghiem cua P (X), th p la c so q cua a0 va q la c so cua an .
12
Chng minh: Neu
p q
la nghiem cua P (X), th t P (
p ) = 0, q
ta co
a0 q n + a1 q n1 p + + an1 qpn1 + an pn = 0
Do gcd(p, q) = 1, t ang thc tren de suy ta p la c so cua a 0 , q la c cua an . Bai tap: Tm cac nghiem hu t cua phng trnh:
P (X) , Q(X) 3x4 + 5x3 + x2 + 5x 2 = 0
3.9 Phan thc. Mot phan thc tren K la mot bieu thc dang
trong o
P (X), Q(X) K[X], Q(X) = 0
Hai phan thc bang nhau:
P1 (X) P (X) = P (X)Q1 (X) = P1 (X)Q(X). Q(X) Q1 (X)
nh ly. Cho P (X), Q(X) K[X]. Gia s
Q(X) = Q1 (X)k1 Qs (X)ks , vi Q1 (X), , Qs (X) K[X] thoa ieu kien GCD(Qi (X), Qj (X)) = 1, neu i = j . Khi o ton tai duy nhat cac a thc A(X), Pij (X) K[X], i = 1, , s, j = 1, , ki , sao cho deg Pij (X) < deg Qi (X) va
s i Pij (X) P (X) = A(X) + Q(X) Q (X)j i=1 j=1 i
Chng minh: S ton tai: Neu deg P th theo ang thc Bezout ta co
< deg Q
va Q = D1 D2 , vi GCD(D1 , D2 ) = 1,
1 = U1 D1 + U2 D2 , U1 , U2 K[X]
Suy ra P = P U1 D1 + P U2 D2 . Chia Euclid, ta co P U1 = AD2 + V2 , deg V2 < deg D2 . Vay P = V2 D1 + V1 D2 , vi V1 = AD1 + P U2 . Do deg P < deg Q, deg V2 < deg D2 , ta co deg V1 < deg D1 . Suy ra ta co bieu dien
V1 V2 P = + , Q D1 D2
vi
deg V1 < deg D1 , deg V2 < deg D2
Trng hp tong quat, trc het chia Euclid P cho Q ta co thng la A. Sau o ap dung bieu dien tren cho D1 = Qk1 , D2 = Qk2 Qks . Tiep tuc ap dung bieu dien s 1 2 tren cho Q = Qk2 Qks . Sau hu han bc ta co phan tch s 2
s i Pij P =A+ , j Q i=1 j=1 Qi
vi
deg Pij < deg Qi
Tnh duy nhat: Gia s co cac a thc khac A , Pij K[X], sao cho
s i Pij P , =A + Q Qj i=1 j=1 i
vi
deg Pij < deg Qi
13
ki
Suy ra
A=A
do tnh duy nhat cua phep chia Euclid.

s
Tr hai bieu dien ta co
Pij Pij Qj i = 0.
=0
Gia s phan chng la P1k1 P1,k1
i=1
j=1
().
Nhan () vi Q, suy ra vi U K[X]
(P1k1 P1,k1 )Qk2 Qks + Q1 U = 0, s 2
Do GCD(Q1 , Qk2 Qks ) = 1, nen Q1 |(P1k1 P1,k1 ). Vay deg(P1k1 P1,k1 ) deg Q1 . s 2 ieu nay mau thuan vi deg(P1k1 P1,k1 ) max(deg P1k1 , deg P1k1 ) deg Q1 . Vay phai co P1k1 P1,k1 = 0. Tng t lap luan tren, ta co Pij = Pij , ij .
He qua 1. Moi phan thc tren trng phc eu co phan tch duy nhat di dang
s i P (X) aij = A(X) + Q(X) (X ci )j i=1 j=1 m
trong o A(X) C[X], aij C, c1 , , cs C la cac nghiem cua Q(X) vi boi m1 , , ms tng ng.
He qua 2. Moi phan thc tren trng thc eu co phan tch duy nhat di dang
r s i i aij bij X + cij P (X) = A(X) + + Q(X) (X ci )j i=1 j=1 (X 2 + pi X + qi )j i=1 j=1 m n
trong o Q(X) = an (X c1 )m1 (X cr )ms (X 2 +p1 X +q1 )n1 (X 2 +ps X +qs )ns , X 2 + pi X + qi (i = 1, , s) khong co nghiem thc., A(X) R[X], aij , bij , cij R.
V du. Phan tch
X5
1 X2
thanh phan thc n tren trng thc:
Ta co X 5 X 2 = X 2 (X 1)(X 2 + X + 1). B DX + E A C 1 + 2+ + . = Vay phan tch co dang 5 X X2 X X X 1 X2 + X + 1 e tnh cac he so A, B, C, D, E da vao

1 = AX(X1)(X 2 +X+1)+B(X1)(X 2 +X+1)+CX 2 (X 2 +X+1)+(DX+E)X 2 (X1)
ong nhat he so a thc 2 ve (goi la phng phap he so bat nh), roi giai he phng trnh tuyen tnh, ta co
X5 1 X 1 0 1 1 2+ = 2 2 + X + 1) X X X 3(X 1) 3(X
I. Khong gian vector hnh hoc
Chng nay vector c trnh bay da vao trc quan, vi muc ch tao mo hnh hnh hoc giup cho viec t duy tru tng va khai quat hoa cac chng sau. e co the lam viec cu the hn tren cac vector, ngui ta ai so hoa khong gian hnh hoc bang cach a vao he c s Descartes1 . Khi o cac phep toan tren vector se co cong thc tnh thuan li, con cac oi tng hnh hoc nh ng, mat cong se c mo ta bi cac phng trnh giup cho viec nghien cu hnh hoc de dang va cu the hn.
1. Vector hnh hoc

Trong nhieu van e toan hoc cung nh vat ly ngoai cac ai lng vo hng, con co nhieu ai lng co hng chung c ac trng bi o ln va hng, chang han lc, van toc,... . Cac ai lng nay c mo hnh hoa thanh cac vector. oan thang c nh hng AB . Ky hieu: AB= v, hay n gian ch la v. A goi iem goc, B goi la iem ngon. ng thang AB goi la phng, hng t A en B . o dai oan AB , ky hieu la AB . phng
Q v
1.1 nh ngha. Trong khong gian Euclid
E3
mot vector c mo ta nh la mot
A
Q v

Hai vector AB , CD goi la bang nhau, ky hieu AB=CD, neuu chung cung o dai va hng, i.e. ABDC la hnh bnh hanh. Vector khong, ky hieu la O hay O, la vector co goc trung vi ngon. Vector oi cua AB c ky hieu va nh ngha AB=BA. Nhan xet. Phan biet nh ngha tren vi khai niem vector buoc khi ta xem hai vector co goc khac nhau la khac nhau.
Rene Descartes (1596-1650) va Pierre Fermat (1601-1665) c xem la cac cha e cua Hnh hoc giai tch
1
16 cua hai vector hnh bnh hanh hay qui tac hnh tam giac sau:
Q 0 u v X $ $$$$ $ $ $
1.2 Cong vector:
u + v,
u, v ,
la vector xac nh bi qui tac

X $ $$$ Q v$
+ u v
+ u v
$$$ 0 u
u, v w Tnh chat. Vi moi vector , , ta co u+ v = ( u + v )+ w = v +O =

v +u u +( v + w)

v +( v )
= O
He thc Chasles. Trong khong gian cho cac iem A0 , A1 , An . Khi o

A0 A1 + A1 A2 + + An1 An = A0 An

1.3 Nhan vector vi so:
Co o dai la || v . v Cung hng vi neu > 0, ngc hng vi

Q v t
v ,
v cua vector va so , la vector:
v neu < 0, va 0 =O.
Q v t v ( < 0) C
( > 0)
u, v Tnh chat. Vi moi vector va cac so , , ta co ( v ) ( + ) v ( u + v ) 1 v
= () v = v + v = u + v = v
17
2. C s Descartes - Toa o
e co the lam viec cu the hn tren cac vector, ngi ta ai so hoa nh sau
2.1 He c s Descartes. Descartes a ai so hoa mat phang E2 hay khong gian tru Euclid E3 bang cach a vao he toa c, ma chung ta a quen biet vi cai ten goi he c s Descartes , la bo bon (O; e1 , e2 , e3 ): iem O goi la goc cua he. Cac vector e1 , e2 , e3 , goi la cac vector c s, thoa cac tnh chat sau: (i) e1 , e2 , e3 vuong goc vi nhau tng oi. (ii) e1 = e2 = e3 = 1. (iii) Bo ba (e1 , e2 , e3 ) tao thanh tam dien thuan (?).
z
T
e3
O
M t
T
e2 E t
Cac ng thang co vector ch phng e1 , e2 , e3 thng c goi ten la cac truc Ox, Oy, Oz tng ng. He c s trong mat phang E 2 c nh ngha tng t nh trong E3 . Hn na, ta se ong nhat E2 vi mat phang Oxy trong E3 , nen tiep sau ay cac khai niem se ch c trnh bay trong khong gian.
2.2 Toa o. Khi co nh mot he c s Descartes (O; e1, e2 , e3 ), ta co:
e1
M,
Moi iem M E3 tng ng duy nhat mot bo ba so (x, y, z), goi la toa o iem xac nh qua cac vector c s nh phep chieu vuong goc:
OM = x e1 +y e2 +z e3 .

goc ve O se co ngon la A E 3 , tng t nh tren v Ta co the mo ta ai so vector nh bo ba (v1 , v2 .v3 ) v v goi la toa o vector . Ta viet: = (v1 , v2 , v3 ). Viec viet cung ky hieu toa o cho vector va iem se c ch nh ro khi can.
Moi vector v , sau khi a v =OA= v1 e1 +v2 e2 +v3 e3 .
Nhan xet. Nh vay khi a vao he c s ta a ong nhat ai so hoa khong gian E3 . Co thuan tien g ? Hay xem ...
E3
vi
R3 ,
i.e. ta a hay khong
2.3 Mo ta oi tng hnh hoc bang phng trnh hay phng trnh tham so.
Xet cac oi tng hnh hoc (ng, mat, khoi, ) trong mat phang
E2
18 thoa ieu kien (P )} Co nh mot c s Descartes. Khi o cac iem M thay oi va thoa ieu kien (P ), th tng ng cac toa o (x, y, z) cua M cung thay oi va thoa ieu kien (F ) nao o. Cu the hn, ta thng gap cac trng hp sau:
X = {M : M
gian E3 :
ieu kien hnh hoc co the mo ta bi phng trnh:

M
thoa (P )
(x, y, z)
thoa phng trnh F (x, y, z) = 0
trong o F : D R, la mot ham so xac nh tren D R 3 . Khi o ta noi X c cho bi phng trnh F (x, y, z) = 0. V du. a) Trong mat phang, ng tron tam A = (a, b) ban knh R > 0 la tap nh ngha
C = {M E2 : khoang C
cac t M en A bang R}
c cho bi phng trnh: F (x, y) = (x a)2 + (y b)2 R2 = 0. b) Tng t, trong khong gian mat cau tam A = (a, b, c), ban knh R > 0 c cho bi phng trnh
F (x, y, z) = (x a)2 + (y b)2 + (z c)2 R2 = 0
Tong quat hn, khi cac ieu kien (P1 ), , (Pk ) co the mo ta bi cac phng trnh tng ng F1 = 0, , Fk = 0, th
X = {M : M
thoa ieu kien (P1 ) va va (Pk )} =
k i=1
{M : M
thoa ieu kien (Pi )}
Khi o ta noi X c cho bi he phng trnh: F1 (x, y, z) = 0, , Fk (x, y, z) = 0 V du. He phng trnh: (x a)2 + (y b)2 + (z c)2 = R2 , z = 0, mo ta giao cua mat cau va mat phang, vay la ng tron tren mat phang Oxy
Khi tap ang xet la ng cong C (chang han quy ao cua mot iem), no thng con c mo ta bi
M C (x = f (t), y = g(t), z = h(t)), t I
ieu kien hnh hoc co the mo ta bi phng trnh tham so:
trong o f, g, h : I R la cac ham xac nh tren I R. Khi o ta noi ng cong C c cho bi phng trnh tham so
x = f (t) z = h(t)
y = g(t)
vi tham so t I
19
Tng t, mat cong S thng con c mo ta bi

M S (x = f (s, t), y = g(s, t), z = h(s, t)), (s, t) D
trong o f, g, h : D R la cac ham xac nh tren D R2 . Ta noi mat S c cho bi phng trnh tham so
x = f (s, t) z = h(s, t)
y = g(s, t) ,
vi 2 tham so (s, t) D
V du. a) ng tron tam A = (a, b), ban knh R, co the cho bi phng trnh tham so trong mat phang:
x = a + R cos t y = b + R sin t t [0, 2]
(t trong trng hp nay la o ln cua goc quay) b) Mat cau tam A = (a, b, c), ban knh R, co the cho bi phng trnh tham so trong khong gian:
x = a + R cos s sin t z = c + R cos t
y = b + R sin s sin t ,
(s, t) [0, ] [0, 2]
(s, t trong trng hp nay co the xem la v o va kinh o tren mat cau) Ngoai ra, con nhieu trng hp ieu kien hnh hoc co the mo ta bi he phng trnh va bat phng trnh ma ta khong xet ay.
3. Cong thc ai so cua cac phep toan tren vector

Trong E3 co nh he c s Descartes (O; e1 , e2 , e3 ). u v w= Cho ba vector = (u1 , u2 , u3 ), = (v1 , v2 , v3 ), (w1 , w2 , w3 ).
3.1 Cong thc cong vector. 3.3 Cong thc tnh o dai.
u + v = (u1 + v1 , u2 + v2 , u3 + v3 ) v = (v1 , v2 , v3 ). =
2 2 2 v1 + v2 + v3
3.2 Cong thc nhan vector vi so.
(cong thc Pythagore)
cach gia chung la o dai vector AB=OB OA= (b1 a1 , b2 a2 , b3 a3 ). Vay

d(A, B) = AB
3.4 Cong thc tnh khoang cach. Cho cac iem A(a1 , a2, a3 ) va B(b1 , b2 , b3). Khoang

(b1 a1 )2 + (b2 a2 )2 + b3 a3 )2
Ngoai cac phep toan cong va nhan vi so, con cac phep toan c ban tren cac vector ma ta se nh ngha va tnh toan sau ay.
20 ngha:
3.5 Tch vo hng:
= u . v , =

cua hai vector
u, v ,
la mot so c nh

cos ( u, v ) < u, v > v

2
u v Ve mat hnh hoc hnh chieu vuong goc cua len phng la
(Bai tap)
Cong thc qua toa o:

2
= u1 v1 + u2 v2 + u3 v3
Chng minh: Goi u =OA, v =OB . Ta co
Mat khac, ta co he thc

AB
2
AB
v u OA
2 2 2 = u2 + u2 + u2 + v1 + v2 + v3 2(u1 v1 + u2 v2 + u3 v3 ) 1 2 3 lng giac cho tam giac OAB : 2
So sanh ve phai cua cac ang thc tren, ta co cong thc can tm.
u, v w Tnh chat. Vi moi vector , va cac so , , ta co = <v , u> <u, v > = < u, w> + < v , w> < v , v >= v 2 0, va < v , v >= 0 v = O

+ OB
2 OA
OB cos (AOB)
3.6 Tch hu hng:
un th o), la mot vector: g t u v vuong goc vi mat phang ( u, v ). ( u, v , u v ) la tam dien thuan.
u v =u v ,
goi la tch vector cua hai vector
u, v
(theo
Ve mat hnh hoc
u v
v | sin ( u, v )| = u 2 v 2 < u, v >2 u v = dien tch hnh bnh hanh tao bi u , v .
u v
T
v
E
u
O
u v e nh ngha c chat che ta qui c la vector trong hai vector bang O, hay hai vector song song.
trong trng hp mot
V du.
e1 e1 =O, e1 e2 =e3 , e1 e3 = e2 .

Cong thc qua toa o:
u v=
e1 e2 e3 u1 u2 u3 v1 v2 v3
u2 u3 v2 v3
e1
u1 u3 v1 v3
e2 +
u1 u2 v1 v2
e3
Chng I. Khong gian vector hnh hoc Chng minh: Goi u v = (x, y, z). T cac tnh chat

21
u v u,
u v v ,
u v
sin2 ( u, v ) ,
ta co cac phng trnh tng ng

u1 x + u2 y + u3 z = 0 v1 x + v2 y + v3 z = 0 = (u1 v2 u2 v1 )2 + (u1 v3 u3 v1 )2 + (u2 v3 u3 v2 )2 x2 + y 2 + z 2 u, v u v Giai he phng trnh, ket hp vi ieu kien ( , ) la tam dien thuan, ta co cong thc tren. u v w Tnh chat. Vi moi vector , , va cac so , , ta co u v = v u ( u + v ) w = u w + v w u v w 3.7 Tch hon hp: cua ba vector , , c nh ngha la so ( u, v , w) =

Ve mat hnh hoc

|( u, v , w)| = = =

Dien tch hop bnh hanh tao bi u v w The tch hnh hop bnh hanh tao bi , ,
u v
w | cos( u v , w)| ay chieu cao cua hnh
u, v , w
T u v
w v B
Cong thc qua toa o:

( u, v , w) =

u1 u2 u3 v1 v2 v3 w1 w2 w3
u, v w) u v w) u, v w) Khi ( , > 0, i.e. cos( , > 0, he ( , goi la thuan . Khi ( u, v , w) < 0, he goi la nghch .
V du. u v u v a) Hai vector , vuong goc khi va ch khi <, >= 0. u v song v b) Hai vector , song khi va ch khi u =O. v c) Ba vector u, v , w ong phang khi va ch khi ( u, , w) = 0.
22
4. ng thang va mat phang

Trong E3 co nh mot he c s Descartes. Sau ay la vai ap dung cua phng phap toa o. phng
4.1 Phng trnh ng thang. ng thang qua
v = (a, b, c) = O
c nh ngha la tap
M0 = (x0 , y0 , z0 )
co vector ch
= {M E3 : M0 M
song song vi
v}
Q M t M0
vQ
ng thang
v Vay M = (x, y, z) neu va ch neu M0 M = t , T o ta co phng trnh tham so cua :

x = x0 + ta z
t R.
y = y0 + tb , t R = z0 + tc
Khi a, b, c = 0, kh t ta co phng trnh chnh tac cua :

y y0 z z0 x x0 = = a b c
4.2 Phng trnh mat phang. Cho M0 = (x0 , y0, z0 ) va hai vector khong song song
c nh ngha la tap
u= (u1 , u2 , u3 ), v = (v1 , v2 , v3 ).
u, v Mat phang qua M0 va co cac vector ch phng

P = {M E3 : M0 M , u , v
T
ong phang }
n
E M
M0 P
I v t rr j u r
Vay M = (x, y, z) P neu va ch neu
M0 M = s u +t v , s, t R.
23
T o ta co phng trnh tham so cua P :

z
x = x0 + su1 + tv2
y = y0 + su2 + tv2 , s, t R = z0 + su3 + tv3 (M0 M , u , v ) =<M0 M , u v >= 0.

Ta cung co M = (x, y, z) P neu va ch neu T o ta co phng trnh tong quat cua P trong o vector phap

Ax + By + Cz + D = 0 , n= u v = (A, B, C) = O
la vuong goc vi P .
4.3. Mot so bai toan. Da vao toa o va phng trnh co the a cac bai toan
hnh hoc ve bai toan ai so:
Bai toan 1: Xet v tr cua 2 mat phang P1 , P2 . So giao iem chnh la so nghiem cua he phng trnh xac nh bi 2 mat phang:
A1 x + B1 y + C1 z + D1 = 0 A2 x + B2 y + C2 z + D2 = 0 P1 P2 A1 B2 A2 B1 , B1 C2 B2 C1 , C1 A2 C2 A1 P1 P2 A1 : A2 = B1 : B2 = C1 : C2 = D1 : D2 P1 P2 A1 : A2 = B1 : B2 = C1 : C2 = D1 : D2
khong ong thi bang 0
Bai toan 2: Xet v tr ng thang vi mat phang P . Tng t bai toan tren xet he phng trnh xac nh bi ng thang va mat phang.
x x0
y y0 z z0 = a b c Ax + By + Cz + D = 0 = (Aa + Bb + Cc)t + Ax0 + By0 + Cz0 + D = 0. P Aa + Bb + Cc = 0 P Aa + Bb + Cc = 0, Ax0 + By0 + Cz0 + D = 0 P Aa + Bb + Cc = 0, Ax0 + By0 + Cz0 + D = 0 v Ta co M = M0 + t P
Vay
Bai toan 3: Tnh goc gia cac mat phang / ng thang. Vi ky hieu tren ta co
cos(P1 , P2 ) = | cos(n1 , n2 )| =

|A1 A2 + B1 B2 + C1 C2 |
2 2 2 2 A2 + B1 + C1 A2 + B2 + C2 1 2 |Aa + Bb + Cc| sin(, P ) = | cos( v , n)| = A2 + B 2 + C 2 a2 + b2 + c2
Bai toan 4: Tnh khoang cach t iem M0 = (x0 , y0 , z0 ) en mat phang

P : Ax + By + Cz + D = 0 .
24
tM
d
c H
n Goi H = (x, y, z) la hnh chieu cua M0 len P , ta co: M0 H va H P . Tng ng vi: M0 H= t n va Ax + By + Cz + D = 0 Thay toa o H vao phng trnh tren: A(x0 + tA) + B(y0 + tB) + C(z0 + tC) + D = 0. Ax + By + Cz + D Suy ra t = 0 2 0 2 02 A +B +C Vay H = (x0 , y0 , z0 )
Ta co cong thc tnh khoang cach la

d(M0 , P ) =
Ax0 + By0 + Cz0 + D (A, B, C) A2 + B 2 + C 2 Ax0 + By0 + Cz0 + D A2 + B 2 + C 2 = (x, y, z)
M0 H
Bai toan 5: Tnh khoang cach t iem M v co vector ch phng .

M
0
en ng thang qua M0 va

M0
Da vao hnh hoc, roi dung cac phep toan tren vector, ta co:
d(M, ) = = = v chieu cao hnh bnh hanh tao bi M0 M , dien tch hnh bnh hanh tao bi M0 M , v
M0 M v
25
Bai toan 6: Tnh khoang cach gia 2 ng thang 1 , 2 . Gia s 1 qua M1 = (x1 , y1 , z1 ) va co vector ch phng = (a1 , b1 , c1 ) v1 2 qua M2 = (x2 , y2 , z2 ) va co vector ch phng v2 = (a2 , b2 , c2 )
2 M2 v2 B s E
M1
v1
Da vao hnh hoc, roi dung cac phep toan tren vector, ta co:
d(1 , 2 ) = = =
chieu cao hop bnh hanh tao bi v1 , v2 , M1 M2 the tch hop bnh hanh tao bi v1 , v2 , M1 M2 dien tch hnh bnh hanh tao bi v1 , v2
|(v1 , v2 , M1 M2 )| v1 v2
Bai toan 7: Tm phng trnh ng vuong goc chung cua 2 ng thang 1 , 2 . Vi ky hieu nh tren, goi A1 1 , A2 2 sao cho A1 A2 1 , A1 A2 1 . Khi o ng vuong goc chung D la ng thang qua A 1 , co vector ch phng A1 A2 . , ta e xa A1 , A2 tien hanh nh sau: c nh at M1 A1 = x v1 , M1 A2 = y v2 . Suy ra A1 A2 =M1 M2 +y v2 x v1 . T <A1 A2 , v1 >= 0, <A1 A2 , v2 >= 0, ta co he phng trnh:

<v , v > x 1 2
v1
2x
<v1 , v2 > y = <M1 M2 , v1 > v2

2y
<M1 M2 , v2 >
Giai he phng trnh, ta co x, y, suy ra A1 , A2 . Vay xac nh c D.

Nhan xet. Khi 1 2 v1 v2 v1 v2 = v1 2 v2 2 <v1 , v2 >2 = 0: he phng trnh tren duy nhat nghiem, i.e. co duy nhat mot ng vuong goc chung. v Mot cach lam khac e tm D, da nhieu vao hnh hoc hn: goi =v1 v2 = (a, b, c), P1 la mat phang qua M1 va co cac vector ch phng v1 , v , P2 la mat phang qua M2 va co cac vector ch phng v2 , v Khi o ng vuong goc chung D = P1 P2 . Vay M D khi va ch khi:
(M M , v , ) = 1 1 v (M M , v , ) = v
2 2
0 0
26 Thay toa o M = (x, y, z) va cac toa o cua cac yeu to tren vao cac tch hon hp, ta co he phng trnh xac nh ng vuong goc chung.
II. Ma tran - Phng phap kh Gauss
Trong khoa hoc, ky thuat nhieu bai toan a ve viec tm nghiem he phng trnh tuyen tnh. Trong chng nay se e cap en phng phap kh Gauss 1 , la phng phap n gian va hieu qua e giai he phng trnh tuyen tnh. Phan au la khai niem ve ma tran2 , no la cong cu hu hieu va t nhien e the hien, lu tr d lieu. e s ly cac so lieu ngi ta a vao cac phep toan thc hien tren ma tran. Ngoai ra, chng nay con neu ng dung cua phep bien oi s cap tren ma tran e tnh hang, tm ma tran ngc. Cac tnh toan cac chng sau da nhieu vao phng phap tnh chng nay.
1. Ma tran
ma tran hay ma tran cap m n tren trng so (K = R hay C) la mot bang cac so thuoc K c sap xep nh sau
mn
1.1 nh ngha. Mot
A = (aij )mn =
a11 a21
am1 am2
.. .
a12 a22
.. .
a1n a2n
.. .
amn
trong o aij K goi la phan t dong i cot j cua A. Hai ma tran goi la bang nhau neuu chung co cung cap va cac phan t cung dong, cung cot bang nhau. Ky hieu M atK (m, n) la tap moi m n ma tran tren K . V du. a) Mot m 1 ma tran la ma tran cot. Mot 1 n ma tran la mot ma tran dong.

a1 a2
.. .
(x1 x2 xn )
am
b) Ma tran sau goi la ma tran lien thuoc cua o th ben canh

V1 s r
2 0
0 2 0 2 1 1
0 2 0 1
1 1 1 0
Trong ma tran tren, phan t aij = so ng noi Vi vi Vj .
rr rr rr rs V4 V2 s V3 s
1 Goi la phng phap kh Gauss v Karl Friedrich Gauss (1777-1855) e cap khi tnh toan e xac nh quy ao hanh tinh Pallas. Thc ra ngi Trung quoc a biet phng phap nay t lau (khoang 200 B.C) 2 Ngi Trung quoc a s dung ma tran vao khoang 2200 B.C, xem v du ve o vuong ky ao cap 3
28 c) Cac ma tran sau c goi la cac o vuong ky ao

7
6 1 8 5 3 2 9 4
16 2 3 13 5 11 10 8 9 7 6 12 4 14 15 1
15 8 1 24 17 16 14 7 5 23 22 20 13 6 4 3 21 19 12 10 9 2 25 18 11
Cac ma tran tren co cac phan t la n2 (n = 3, 4, 5) so t nhien au tien c sap xep sao cho tong cac so hang tren moi dong, moi cot, cung nh tren hai ng cheo chnh la mot hang so !
1.2 Cac ma tran ac biet. Cho A = (aij ) M atk (m, n).
Ma tran khong la ma tran ma moi phan t aij = 0. Ky hieu Omn . Ma tran vuong cap n la ma tran cap n n. Ky hieu M atK (n, n) = M atK (n). Ma tran ng cheo la ma tran vuong va cac phan t khong nam tren ng cheo eu bang 0, i.e. aij = 0 neu i = j . Ky hieu diag(a11 , a22 , , ann ). Ma tran n v cap n la ma tran ng cheo cap n ma cac phan t tren ng cheo bang 1, i.e. aij = 0 neu i = j va aii = 1. Ky hieu In . Ma tran tam giac tren (t.. di ) la ma tran vuong ma moi phan t di (t.. tren) ng cheo eu bang 0, i.e. a ij = 0 neu i > j (t.. neu i < j ).
diag(1 , 2 , , n ) =

1 0 0 2
.. .
.. .
0 0
In =
1 0 0 1 0 0
.. .. . .
0 0
.. .
.. .
a11 a12 0 a22
.. .
.. .
a1n a2n
.. .
ann
2. Cac phep toan tren ma tran

2.1 Cong ma tran. Cho A = (aij ),
B = (bij ) M atK (m, n). A + B = (aij + bij ) M atK (m, n)
T nh ngha phep cong ta co: (i) (ii) (iii)
Tnh chat. Cho A, B, C M atK (m, n). Khi o

A+B =B+A (A + B) + C = A + (B + C) A + O = O + A = A , trong o O M atK (m, n)
la ma tran khong.
2.2 Nhan mot so vi ma tran. Cho A = (aij ) M atK (m, n) va K .

A = (aij ) M atK (m, n)
29
T nh ngha de kiem chng cac tnh chat sau: (i) (ii) (iii)
Tnh chat. Cho A, B M atK (m, n) va , K . Khi o

(A) = ()A ( + )A = A + A (A + B) = A + B
V du.
3 1 2 x 0 1 2 2 1 1 y 1 0 1 =
1 4 3x 2y 2 3 8 B = (bjk ) M atK (n, p).

n
2.3 Nhan ma tran. Cho A = (aij ) M atK (m, n),

AB = (cik ) M atK (m, p)
cik = ai1 b1k + ai2 b2k + + ain bnk =
aij bjk
j=1
S o tnh phan t cik

Chu y: Ch nh ngha phep nhan AB khi so cot cua A = so dong cua B (= n).
ai1 ai2 ain
b1k b2k
.. .
cik
bnk
V du. a) b)
0 1 1 2 3 3 4 = 4 5 6 x y x1 x2 a1 a2 an .
1.0 + 2.3 + 3.x 1.1 + 2.4 + 3.y 4.0 + 5.3 + 6.x 4.1 + 5.4 + 6.y
= a1 x1 + a2 x2 + + an xn .
..
xn
a21 0) , A = . . .
a11
c) Cho t ei =
(0
cot i Khi o
te iA
a12 a22
am1 a12
.. .
.. .
a1n a2n
.. .
amn
. . . , e j = 1 . . . (cot j
dong j .
= (ai1 ai2 ain )
(dong i cua A),

In A = A
Aei =
a1j a2j
.. .
cua A)
Vay vi moi m n ma tran A, ta co:
va AIm = A.
amj
30
(i) A(BC) = (AB)C (ii) (A + A )B = AB + A B (iii) A(B + B ) = AB + AB (iv) Noi chung AB = BA, i.e. phep nhan ma tran khong co tnh giao hoan.
Chng minh: Cac tnh chat (ii),(iii) de dang suy t nh ngha. e chng minh (i), goi
A = (aij ), B = (bjk ), C = (ckl ).
bieu thc sau co ngha, th
Tnh chat. Cho
A, A , B, B
va C la cac ma tran. Neu cac cac phep toan cac
Theo nh ngha, ta co
Ta can so sanh
bjk ckl ) =
k
A(BC) = (dil ) aij bjk ckl

j k
va
(AB)C = (dil ).
dil =
j
aij (
dil =
(
k j
aij bjk )ckl =

k j
aij bjk ckl
Vay dij = dij , i, j . De tm v du e chng minh (iv), chang han Khi o AB = A con BA = O.
A= 0 1 0 0
va
B=
0 0 0 1
2.4 Ma tran ngc. Mot ma tran vuong
A M atK (n) goi la kha nghch neuu ton tai X M atK (n) sao cho XA = AX = In . Khi o de thay X la duy nhat, goi la ma tran ngc cua A va ky hieu la A1 . Vay theo nh ngha, ta co A1 A = AA1 = In Ky hieu GlK (n) la tap moi ma tran vuong cap n tren K kha nghch.
Tnh chat. Cho A, B GlK (n). Khi o A1 , B 1 , AB GlK (n) va

(i)
(A1 )1 = A.
(ii)
(AB)1 = B 1 A1 .
Do (AB)(B 1 A1 ) = A(BB 1 )A1 = AIA1 = AA1 = I . Tng t, (B 1 A1 )AB = I . Vay ta co (ii). V du. a) e tnh ma tran ngc cua
X M atK (2). A= 2 1 3 2
Chng minh: Do AA1 = A1 A = In , nen A1 co ma tran ngc la A.
ta giai phng trnh AX

2 1 3 2
= I2
vi an
Suy ra ma tran ngc la
A1 =
.
1 1 2 2
b) De tm v du ma tran khong kha nghch, chang han ma tran khong, hay
Viec xac nh mot ma tran kha nghch khi nao va tnh ma tran ngc se c e cap sau.
31 Ma tran chuyen v
2.5 Phep chuyen v ma tran. Cho
cua ma tran A c ky hieu va nh ngha nh sau t A = ( taji ) M atK (n, m) , trong o i.e. chuyen dong cua A thanh cot cua tA.
1 2 3 4 5 6
A = (aij ) M atK (m, n).

t
aji = aij

V du. Ma tran chuyen v cua ma tran

co ngha, th
la
1 4 2 5 3 6
Tnh chat. Cho A, B, C, D la cac ma tran. Neu cac phep toan trong cac bieu thc sau
(i) t(A + B) = tA + tB (ii) t(A) = tA (iii) t(AC) = tC tA (iv) t(D1 ) = (tD)1
Chng minh: (i),(ii) va (iii) de kiem chng. e chng minh (iv), ga s D Gl K (n). T (iii) suy ra tD t(D1 ) = t(D1 D) = tIn = In . Tng t t(D1 ) tD = In . Vay t(D1 ) la ma tran ngc cua tD.
nh ngha
2.6 Luy tha ma tran. Cho
la mot ma tran vuong cap n. Vi moi

k lan
k N,
A0 = In , A1 = A, Ak = AA A
V du. Bang qui nap co the chng minh vi moi k N,

cos sin sin cos
k
cos k sin k sin k cos k
diag(1 , 2 , , n )k = diag(k , k , , k ) 1 2 n
2.7 Bien oi s cap tren ma tran. Cac phep bien oi tren ma tran sau ay c goi
la bien oi s cap : Bien oi 1- Chuyen v hai dong (cot). Bien oi 2- Nhan mot dong (cot) vi mot so khac khong. Bien oi 3- Cong mot dong (cot) vi boi cua mot dong (cot) khac.
Ky hieu.
Di Dj Di Di + Dj Ci Cj Ci Ci + Cj
Phep chyen v dong th i va th j. Phep nhan dong th i vi so . Phep cong dong th i vi lan dong th j. Phep chyen v cot th i va th j. Phep nhan cot th i vi so . Phep cong cot th i vi lan cot th j.
32 Cho A, B M atK (m, n). Khi o B goi la tng ng s cap vi A., ky hieu A B , neuu B nhan c t A qua hu han bien oi s cap tren A. Nhan xet. Cho A M atK (m, n), B M atK (n, p). Ky hieu ai la dong th i cua A, bj la cot th j cua B Theo qui tac nhan ma tran ta co
AB =
a1 2 a am
.. .
(b1 b2 bp ). =
a1 B 2 a B am B
= (Ab1 Ab2 Abp ) ,
.. .
i.e. dong i cua AB = (dong i cua A)B , va cot j cua AB = A (cot j cua B ). Vay bien oi s cap tren dong AB = (bien oi s cap tren dong A)B , va bien oi s cap tren cot AB = A(bien oi s cap tren cot B ). Suy ra cac bien oi s cap co the bieu dien qua phep nhan ma tran:
Menh e. Cho A M atK (m, n). Khi o
(i) Neu d la bien oi s cap tren dong cua A, th d(A) = d(Im)A (nhan ben trai). (ii) Neu c la bien oi s cap tren cot cua A, th c(A) = Ac(In ) (nhan ben phai).
Ma tran s cap la ma tran nhan t bien oi s cap ma tran n v. Bai tap: Hay liet ke moi dang cua ma tran s cap cap 2: d(I2 ), c(I2 ). Chng minh cac ma tran s cap la kha nghch. Tm cac ma tran ngc tng ng.
V du. a)
0 1 0 1 a b c 2 d e f 1 0 0 2 d e f = 1 a b c 0 0 1 3 g h i 3 g h i
(d = D1 D2 )
1 2 3 1 0 1 2 3+ x y z 0 1 0 = x y z + x t u v 0 0 1 t u v + t
(c = C3 + C1 )
b) Ga s a11 = 0. Cho
a21 A= . . .
a11
a12 a22
am1 a12
.. .
.. .
a1n a2n
.. .
va
amn
a21 a11 a31 E = a11 .. .
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
am1 a11
.. .. . .
0 0 0
.. .
1 Im
Bai tap: Ma tran E bieu dien phep bien oi g tren dong cua ma tran n v Viet cot au cua ma tran EA.
33 Khi o
A
2.8 Ma tran dang bac thang. Cho

co dang bac thang neuu
A = (aij ) M atK (m, n).
goi la
aij = 0, j < j ai j = 0, i > i,
i.e. neu tren dong i cac phan t pha trai aij eu bang 0, th tren cot j moi phan t pha di aij eu bang 0.

neu
aij 0 0
.. .
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
( = 0)
th
2.9 Menh e. Moi ma tran eu co the a ve dang bac thang bang hu han phep bien
oi s cap tren dong.
Viec chng minh c the hien qua thuat toan sau:
Thuat toan Gauss.
Thuat toan c tien hanh qui nap (lap) nh sau: Ga s vong lap th k 1, k 1 dong au cua A co dang bac thang. Bay gi ch thc hien bien oi tren cac dong i k. Trng hp 1: Moi phan t moi dong i k bang 0. Khi o A a co dang bac thang. Trng hp 2: Tm phan t co v tr khac 0 gan pha trai nhat
j(k) = min{j : aij = 0, i k}
Input: A M atK (m, n) Output: B M atk (m.n) dang bac thang va A B
Bc 1: Chuyen v dong, Di Dk , e dong k co akj(k) = 0. Bc 2: Kh cac phan t cot j(k) cac dong i > k bang bien oi:
Di i Dk ,
vi i =
aij(k) akj(k)
Bc 3: Neu k < m, tang k len 1. Tien hanh lap nh tren, sau hu han ( m) bc, ta co ma tran B dang bac thang.
Hang cua ma tran A la so nguyen r, ky hieu r = rankA, neuu co the dung cac phep bien oi s cap a A ve dang bac thang vi r dong khac khong. Viec chng minh tnh ung an cua nh ngha va neu: hai ma tran tng ng s cap la co cung hang (i.e. r khong phu thuoc bien oi s cap) c chng minh cac
34 chng sau. ay ch neu ap dung cua thuat toan tren e tnh hang. S o tnh hang:
A B
(dang bac thang),
rankA =
so dong khac khong cua B
V du. Cho
1 0 2 2 A = 1 1 3 2 2 1 5 0
e tnh hang cua A ta dung cac phep bien oi tren dong ma tran nh sau
1 0 2 2 1 1 3 2 2 1 5 0
D2 D1 ,D3 2D1
1 0 2 2 1 4 0 1 0 1 1 4
D3D2
1 0 2 2 0 1 1 4 0 0 0 0
T o suy ra
rankA = 2.
e ket thuc tiet nay ta phat bieu nh ly sau, viec chng minh xem nh bai tap.
2.10 nh ly. Cho
A M atK (m, n).
Khi o rankA = r khi va ch khi ton tai

Ir 0 .. 0 0 P GlK (m), Q GlK (n),
0 0 .. .
hu han phep bien oi s cap tren dong va tren cot e A Noi mot cach khac, ton tai cac ma tran kha nghch
. . . 0 0 . . .
sao cho
. . . ... .. .
P AQ =
1 0
.. .
0
r
Hng dan: Dung thuat toan Gauss bien oi s cap tren dong (= nhan ben trai A vi cac ma tran s cap) a A ve dang bac thang. Tng t, co the dung cac bien oi s cap tren cot (= nhan phai bi cac ma tran s cap) cua mot ma tran dang bac thang a ma tran o ve dang ng cheo nh tren. Goi P (t.. Q) la tch cac ma tran s cap tng ng vi phep bien oi tren dong (t.. cot) e y la cac ma tran s cap la kha nghch, nen P, Q kha nghch.
Bai tap: Thc hien cu the hng dan tren tm P, Q cho ma tran v du phan tren. T o viet thuat toan cho nh ly tren.
35
3. Phng phap kh Gauss

K,
3.1 nh ngha. Mot he phng trnh tuyen tnh m phng trnh, n an, tren trng
la bieu thc dang
a11 x1 a21 x1
.. . a x m1 1
+ a12 x2 + a22 x2
+ am2 x2 +
.. .
+ +
+ a1n xn + a2n xn
.. .
= =
b1 b2
.. .
+ amn xn = bm
trong o aij , bj K , va x1 , , xn la cac ky hieu goi la cac an. Neu b1 = = bn = 0, th he goi la he phng trnh thuan nhat. Bo n so (x1 , , xn ) K n , thoa cac phng trnh tren goi la nghiem cua he. He phng trnh goi la tng thch neuu no co tap nghiem khac trong.
Bai toan.
1- Khi nao he tng thch, i.e. co nghiem ? 2- Khi he co nghiem th duy nhat nghiem hay bao nhieu nghiem ? 3- Giai he, i.e. tm tap nghiem cua he.
3.2 Bieu dien ma tran he phng trnh tuyen tnh. Neu ky hieu
A=
a11 a21
am1 a12
.. .
a12 a22
.. .
.. .
a1n a2n
.. .
x=
x1 x2
.. .
b=
b1 b2
.. .
amn
xn
bm Ax = b.
th t phep nhan ma tran he phng trnh co the viet gon thanh
Nhan xet. Phng phap the la phng phap n gian nhat e giai he phng trnh tuyen tnh. Gia s he co he so a 11 = 0. Khi o t phng trnh au
x1 = 1 ( b1 a12 x2 a1n xn ). a11
The bieu thc tren vao cac phng trnh con lai, ta a ve viec giai m 1 phng trnh, n 1 an x2 , , xn . Tiep tuc tien hanh tng t cho he mi ... . e giai he phng trnh c ln, ngi ta thng dung phng phap kh Gauss (hay cai tien cua phng phap nay)3 . Phng phap nay da vao nhan xet n gian sau:
3.3 Menh e. Cac phep bien oi s cap sau ay a he phng trnh ve he tng
ng vi he a cho, i.e. he a bien oi co cung tap nghiem vi he xuat phat: Bien oi 1- Chuyen v hai phng trnh cua he. Bien oi 2- Nhan mot phng trnh vi mot so khac khong. Bien oi 3- Cong mot phng trnh vi boi mot phng trnh khac cua he.
3
Xem chng nh thc e biet anh gia so phep toan can e thc hien thuat toan Gauss
36 Nhan xet. Cac phep bien oi s cap tren tng ng vi bien oi s cap tren dong ma tran m rong (A | b) cua he.
tng ng vi he co dang bac thang. i.e. he co dang Ax = b vi A la ma tran dang bac thang.
3.4 nh ly. Moi he phng trnh tuyen tnh, bang cac phep bien oi s cap, eu
Viec chng minh nh ly tren c the hien qua phng phap sau:
3.5 Phng phap kh Gauss.
Giai he Ax = b, trong o A = (aij ) M atK (m, n), b K m . S o cua phng phap: Bc 1: Dung thuat toan Gauss (A | b) (A | b ) (A co dang bac thang) Bc 2: Giai phng trnh A x = b bang phng phap the. Nhan xet. Rat de giai he phng trnh dang bac thang bang phng phap the. Chang han, e giai he phng trnh sau:
2x1
+ x2 + x3 3x4 + x5 = 1 3x2 + x3 x4 + x5 = 2 x4 + x5 = 3
Bat au t phng trnh cuoi, lan lt ta co:

x4 = 3 x5 , x2 = 1/3(2 + ), x1 = 1/2(1 + )
Vay he tren co vo so nghiem, phu thuoc 2 tham so x 3 va x5 .
3.6 Bien luan. Ga s he Ax = b co dang bac thang, i.e.

(A | b) =
a1j(1) 0
.. . .. .
a1j(2) a2j(2)
0 0 0
.. . .. .
a1j(r) a2j(r) arj(r) 0
0 0 0
.. . .. .
a1n | a2n |
.. . .. .
arn 0 0
.. | | br | br+1
| |
b1 b2
. .. .
bm
Trng hp 1: r = m = n, he duy nhat nghiem. Trng hp 2: r = m < n, he co vo so nghiem. Cac bien x j(1) , , xj(r) c giai Trng hp 3: r < m, 3a) br+1 = = bm = 0, he co nghiem (vi bac t do la n r). 3b) (br+1 , , bm ) = (0, , 0), he vo nghiem.
Trong o m la so phng trnh, n la so an, va r chnh la hang cua A.
theo n r bien con lai, goi la cac bien t do con so (n r) goi la bac t do.

37
Minh hoa trng hp 1:
| 0 | 0 0 | 0 0 0 | 0 0 0 0 |
Minh hoa trng hp 2:
| 0 | 0 0 0 | 0 0 0 0 |
Minh hoa trng hp 3a va 3b:
| | 0 0 | | 0 0 0 | | 0 0 0 0 0 | | 0 0 0 0 0 0 | 0 | 0 0 0 0 0 0 | 0 |
V du. Giai ong thi 2 he phng trnh ch khac nhau cot b

x2 + x3 2x1 x2 6x1 3x2 + x3 2x1
3x4 + 2x4 + 7x4 + x4
+ 2x5 6x5 10x5 + 12x5
= 6 | 3 = 4 | 6 = 8 | 10 = 15 | 7
Ta thc hien cac phep bien oi tren ma tran m rong:

2 0 6 2
1 1 3 0
0 2 6 | 1 3 2 | 0 7 10 | 1 1 12 |
4 6 8 15
| | | |
6 3 10 7
(D1 D2 )
1 1/2 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1/2 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1/2 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 3 | 2 | 3 1 3 2 | 6 | 3 0 1 8 | 20 | 8 1 1 18 | 11 | 13 0 1 3 | 2 | 3 1 3 2 | 6 | 3 0 1 8 | 20 | 8 0 2 16 | 5 | 16 0 1 3 | 2 | 1 3 2 | 6 | 0 1 8 | 20 | 0 0 0 | 45 | 3 3 8 0
(1/2D1 , D3 3D1 , D4 2D1 )
(D4 D2 )
(D4 2D3 )
38 Sau bien oi he co dang bac thang

x1
1/2x2 + x4 3x5 x2 + x3 3x4 2x5 x4 + 8x5 0
= 2 | 3 = 6 | 3 = 20 | 8 = 45 | 0
Vay he vi cot au vo nghiem v co ph trnh cuoi 0 = 45. He vi cot sau co phng trnh cuoi la tha (0 = 0). Tiep tuc giai bang phng phap the t phng trnh cuoi cua he, ta co
x4 = 8 8x5 x2 = 3 x3 + 3x4 x5 = 21 x3 26x5 x1 = 8 1/2x2 x4 + 3x5 = 1/2 1/2x3 2x5
Nghiem tong quat cua he vi cot sau:

(1/2 1/2x3 2x5 , 21 x3 26x5 , x3 , 8 8x5 , x5 ), x3 , x5 K.
Vay he co vo so nghiem phu thuoc 2 tham so, i.e. he co bac t do la 2. Nhan xet. Co the giai tiep he phng trnh dang bac thang bang bien oi s cap tren ma tran. Tng t nh phan cuoi cua thuat toan sau:
3.7 Phng phap Gauss-Jordan tnh ma tran ngc. Cho A M atK (n).
Nhan xet. S ton tai vaviec tm ma tran ngc cua A tng ng vi viec giai ong thi n he phng trnh n an. Cu the, goi X i , i = 1, , n, la nghiem (neu co) cua he phng trnh:
AXi = ei ,
trong o
. . . ei = 1 . . .
cot th i
Khi o
A1 = (X1 Xn )
Thuat toan Gauss-Jordan.
- rankA < n, i.e mot trong cac phan t ng cheo bang 0: A khong kha nghch. - rankA = n: chia dong i vi aii e phan t tren ng cheo la 1. Bc 2: Kh cac phan t khong nam tren ng cheo bat au t dong ap cuoi (i = n 1, , 1) bang cac bien oi Di ik Dk (k = n, , i + 1), vi ik = a1 ik a he ve dang (In | X) Ma tran ngc la A1 = X
Input: Cho A M atK (n) Ouput: A co kha nghch? Neu co xac nh A1 Bc 1: Dung thuat toan Gauss tren (A | I) a A ve dang tam giac.
39

V du sau minh hoa cho thuat toan Gauss-Jordan. V du. Tnh ma tran nghch ao cua ma tran Thiet lap ma tran m rong va bien oi

0 1 2 A = 2 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 2 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 | 0 0 1 | 0 1 0 | 1 0 0 | 0 0 1 | 0 1 2 | 1 0 0 | 0 0 1 | 1 2 4 | 1 1 2
0 2 1 1 2 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0
2 1 0 0 1 2 0 1 1 0 0 1
| 1 0 | 0 1 | 0 0 | 0 0 | 0 1 | 1 0 | 0 0 | 0 1 | 1 1 | 1 2 | 1 2 | 1 1
0 0 1 1 0 0 1 2 2 3 4 2
0 1 2 0 1 2 0 0 1
Vay
A1
1 2 3 = 1 2 4 1 1 2
Mot phng phap khac e tnh ma tran ngc se c trnh bay chng nh thc. Nhan xet. Cho A la ma tran vuong cap n. Khi o cac ieu A la ma tran kha nghch. rankA = n Co the bien oi s cap e A I n . Vi moi b, phng trnh Ax = b co duy nhat nghiem. sau tng ng:
III. Khong gian vector
Trong chng nay, khai niem khong gian vector 1 c trnh bay theo phng phap tien e. V co rat nhieu mo hnh co cau truc khong gian vector, ma thoat tien nhn vao co the rat khac nhau, nen phng phap nay ngoai tnh chat che, con co thuan li khi nghien cu cac tnh chat chung, cac ket qua chung cho mot lp cac oi tng. Chang han, thuat ng vector c s dung cho nhieu oi tng: lc, van toc, ... (cac ai lng co hng trong vat ly); vector hnh hoc, ma tran, a thc, ham lien tuc, ... . Cau truc khong gian vector co ca ac trng hnh hoc lan ai so. ac trng hnh hoc lam cho van e mang tnh trc quan, con ac trng ai so tao ieu kien thuan tien cho viec nh lng, tnh toan ket qua.
1. Khong gian vector - Khong gian vector con
la mot trng (K = R hay C). Mot khong gian vector hay khong gian tuyen tnh) tren K la mot bo ba (V, +, ), trong o V la mot tap hp khac trong, con + va la cac phep toan, goi la: phep cong + : V V V (x, y) x + y phep nhan vi so : K V V (, x) x , cac phep toan thoa cac tien e sau: x, y, z V , , K ,
K (V 1) (V 2) (V 3) (V 4) (V 5) (V 6) (V 7) (V 8) x+y =y+x (x + y) + z = x + (y + z) O V : x + O = x x V : x + (x) = O ( + )x = x + x (x + y) = x + y (x) = ()x 1x = x
1.1 nh ngha. Cho
(tnh giao hoan) (tnh ket hp) ( O goi la vector khong) ( x goi la vector oi cua x) (tnh phan phoi) (tnh phan phoi)
Moi phan t x V goi la vector, K goi la vo hng hay so. Neu K = R (t. K = C), th V c goi la khong gian vector thc (t.. phc). Phep tr c nh ngha: x y = x + (y). Do tnh ket hp ta co the viet tong hu han vector v1 , , vk V khong can viet dau ngoac
v1 + + vk =
k
Qui c. Ta se s dung cung mot ky hieu cho phep cong (phep nhan) tren K va tren V (ieu o se khong gay lam lan). Hn na, ta thng noi V la khong gian vector thay v bo ba (V, +, ).
1 Khong gian vector c trnh bay au tien bi Herman Grassmann (1809-1877) trong Ausdehnungslehre nam 1862, nham mo ta cac y tng hnh hoc trong khong gian n chieu qua ngon ng ai so ma khong phu thuoc he toa o.
i=1
vi .
42 V du. Sau ay la mot so mo hnh khong gian vector quan trong.

b & & & & & ! & & & I y && & &
+ y x
a) Khong gian vector hnh hoc (la mo hnh trc quan). b) Khong gian vector ai so K n = {x = (x1 , , xn ) : xi K, i = 1, , n} (la mo hnh quan trong khi tnh toan). e thuan tien, khi thc hien cac phep toan lien quan en ma tran ta qui c dung bieu dien vector thuoc K n di dang cot. Tren khong gian nay, phep cong va phep nhan vi so c nh ngha nh oi vi ma tran:

x1
.. .
y1
.. .
x1 + y1
.. .
x1
.. .
x1
.. .
( K).
xn
yn
xn + yn
xn
xn
c) Khong gian M atK (m, n) vi phep cong ma tran va phep nhan so vi ma tran. d) Khong gian cac a thc he so tren K , bien X , ky hieu K[X], vi phep cong a thc va nhan so vi a thc. Khong gian cac a thc bac khong qua n, ky hieu Kn [X]. e) Cac khong gian ham vi phep cong ham va nhan so vi ham: F [a, b] khong gian cac ham xac nh tren oan [a, b]. C[a, b] khong gian cac ham lien tuc tren [a, b]. C k (a, b) khong gian cac ham kha vi lien tuc en cap k tren (a, b) (k N ). R[a, b] khong gian cac ham kha tch tren [a, b]. (1) O la vector duy nhat thoa: O + x = x + O = x (2) x la vector duy nhat thoa: x + (x) = x + x = O (3) Qui tac gian c: x + z = y + z x = y (4) Qui tac chuyen ve: x + y = z x = z y (5) 0x = O va O = O (6) (1)x = x.
Chng minh: Da vao he tien e, dung cac suy dan toan hoc, ta suy ra cac ket co
Menh e. Cho
la khong gian vector tren K . Khi o x, y, z V, K , ta
qua tren. Chang han, chng minh: (1) Ga s O V co tnh chat nh O. Khi o O (2) Ga s x V co tnh chat nh x. Khi o
x
(V 3) (V 4) (V 2)
(V 3)
= O + O = O.
(gt) (V 3)
(gt)
= x + O = x + (x x) = (x + x) x = O x = x.

(3) = = = = (5) x (V 8) 1x(K) (1 + 0)x (V 5) 1x + 0x (V 8) x + 0x = Viec chng minh cac tnh chat con lai xem nh bai tap.
43
0x = O.
1.2 Khong gian vector con. Cho V la khong gian vector tren K . Mot tap hp con khac trong W V c goi la khong gian vector con cua V neuu W la khong gian vector vi cung cac phep toan tren V han che tren W . nh ngha tren tng ng vi:
x, y W x + y W
va
K, x W x W.
Va cung tng ng vi:

x, y W, , K x + y W.
Nhan xet. Moi khong gian vector con eu cha vector O. Moi khong gian V eu cha cac khong gian con tam thng:
va O.
V du. a) Khong gian vector con cua khong gian vector hnh hoc R3 co mot trong cac dang: goc O, ng thang qua goc O, mat phang qua goc O va toan bo khong gian R 3 . b) Tap nghiem cua he phng trnh tuyen tnh thuan nhat: Ax = O, vi A M atK (m, n), la khong gian con cua K n , i.e. neu x, y la nghiem, th x + y (, K) cung la nghiem. c) Kn [X] la khong gian con cua K[X]. d) Cac bao ham thc sau ay xac nh cac khong gian vector con
C k [a, b] C[a, b] R[a, b] F [a, b]
e) Khong gian nghiem cua phng trnh vi phan tuyen tnh:

{y C n (a, b) : an y (n) + an1 y (n1) + + a0 y = 0},
vi ai F (a, b)
la khong gian con cua C n (a, b).
Menh e. Giao cua mot ho khong gian vector con la mot khong gian vector con.
x, y W = iI Wi . W = iI Wi .
Chng minh: Ga s Wi , i I la cac khong gian con cua V . Cho , K va
Khi o, theo ga thiet x + y Wi , i I , i.e.
x + y
Nhan xet. Hp hai khong gian con noi chung khong la khong gian con (chang han, hp cua 2 ng thang trong mat phang).
Bai toan. Cho A V , xac nh khong gian con be nhat cua V cha A. V du. Cho vector e = O. Khi o khong gian con be nhat cha e chnh la ng thang {x = te, t K}. Tng t, khong gian con be nhat cha hai vector khong song song e1 , e2 la mat phang {x = x1 e1 + x2 e2 , x1 , x2 K}.
44
B x = x1 e 1 + x2 e 2 e1 E E
x1 e 1
x2 e 2
e2
Tong quat, ta co:

la mot khong gian vector tren K . Cho A V la tap khac trong. Khi o ton tai duy nhat mot khong gian con be nhat cha A, ky hieu L(A), goi la khong gian sinh bi A.
V
1.3 Khong gian con sinh bi mot tap con. Cho
L(A) chnh la giao cua cac khong gian con cha A, va co bieu dien (Bai tap): Neu A = {e1 , , en }, th L(A) = {x V : x = x1 e1 + + xn en , xi K}. Neu A co vo han phan t, th L(A) la tap cac vector x co bieu dien di dang xi ei , trong o xi K va ch co hu han xi = 0. (hu han): x =
ei A
tong
2. C s - So chieu - Toa o
Cung nh trong khong gian cac vector hnh hoc, e nh lng va tnh toan, ta se ai so hoa khong gian vector bang cach a vao khong gian he c s (la khai niem khai quat hoa khai niem he c s Descartes trong R2 , R3 ). Khi o moi vector c hoan toan xac nh bi toa o cua no trong c s nay, cac toa o c bieu dien nh la mot vector cot trong khong gian vector ai so. Hn na, cac phep toan tren vector c chuyen thanh cac phep toan tng ng tren toa o. Cho V la khong gian vector tren K .
2.1 nh ngha.
Mot to hp tuyen tnh cua mot he vector e1 , , en V la mot vector co dang

x = x1 e1 + + xn en ,
trong o x1 , , xn K.
Khi o x goi la to hp tuyen tnh hay la bieu dien tuyen tnh cua cac vector e1 , , en . Mot tap con A V goi la mot he sinh cua V , hay ta noi A sinh ra V , neuu L(A) = V , i.e. moi vector thuoc V eu la mot to hp tuyen tnh cua cac vector thuoc A. Mot khong gian vector hu han chieu la mot khong gian co mot he sinh gom hu han vector. Trng hp ngc lai ta noi khong gian la vo han chieu. Nhan xet. Cho a1 , , an va b la cac vector trong K n . Khi o b la to hp tuyen tnh cua a1 , , an phng trnh x1 a1 + +xn an = b co nghiem. V du.
7 b = 6 1

co la to hp tuyen tnh cua
1 2 a1 = 2 , a2 = 5 3 2
hay
45
khong, tng ng vi he phng trnh sau co nghiem hay khong

1 2 7 x1 2 + x2 5 = 6 3 2 1

Dung thuat toan Gauss, ta co
1 2 | 7 1 2 | 7 1 2 | 7 8 0 1 | 8 2 5 | 6 0 1 | 3 2 | 1 0 8 | 20 0 0 | 84
V he vo nghiem, nen b khong la to hp tuyen tnh cua a 1 , a2 Bai tap: Chng minh cac khong gian K[X], F ([a, b]) la vo han chieu. Nhan xet. Trong khong gian vector hnh hoc: Mot ng thang c sinh ra bi ung 1 vector khac khong. Mot mat phang c sinh ra bi ung 2 vector khong song song. Khong gian sinh bi ung 3 vector khong ong phang. Khai niem song song, ong phang va sinh ra bi ung ... c khai quat hoa nh sau:
2.2 nh ngha. Mot he

x1 , , xn K
e1 , , en V goi la phu thuoc tuyen tnh neuu ton tai khong ong thi bang 0 sao cho x1 e1 + + xn en = O. Trng hp ngc lai he goi la oc lap tuyen tnh, i.e. x1 e1 + + xn en = O x1 = = xn = 0.
Tap B V c goi la mot c s cua V neuu (B1) B la mot he sinh cua V , i.e. L(B) = V . (B2) B la mot he vector oc lap tuyen tnh, i.e. moi ho hu han vector thuoc B la oc lap tuyen tnh. Nhan xet. T nh ngha, ta co: He e1 , , en phu thuoc tuyen tnh khi va ch khi ton tai i {1, , n}, sao cho ei la to hp tuyen tnh cua cac vector con lai. Mot he oc lap tuyen tnh khong the cha vector O. Mot he con cua mot he oc lap tuyen tnh la oc lap tuyen tnh. Neu V co c s, th V = {O}. V du. a) Trong K n he a1 , , ap la oc lap tuyen tnh khi va ch khi he phng trnh thuan nhat x1 a1 + + xp ap = O ch co nghiem tam thng O. Chang han, xet tnh oc lap tuyen tnh cua he 3 vector sau trong K 3
1 1 1 a1 = 2 , a2 = 1 , a3 = 0 . 1 0 1

46 He phng trnh x1 a1 + x2 a2 + x3 a3 = O co nghiem khong tam thng, chang han x1 = 1, x2 = 2, x3 = 1, nen a1 , a2 , a3 khong oc lap tuyen tnh ( i.e. chung ong phang).
b) C s chnh tac trong K n la he vector e1 = .. .
1 0 0
e2 =
0 1
.. .
, , en =
0 0
.. .
Bai tap: Chng minh cac he vector tren la c s.
0 c) Mot c s t nhien cua Kn [X] la he cac n thc {1, X, X 2 , , X n }. d) Ho vo han n thc {1, X, X 2 , } la mot c s cua K[X].
(i) Moi khong gian vector V = O eu ton tai c s. (ii) Moi c s cua V eu co cung so phan t (lc lng). T o so chieu cua khong gian vector V tren K c ky hieu va nh ngha:
dimK V =
2.3 nh ly (c s).
so phan t cua c s cua V,
dimK {O} = 0.
he sinh cua V . Trc het ta xay dng mot c s B t A bang cach loai bt mot so vector. Cu the, xet phng trnh x 1 a1 + + xN aN = O. Neu phng trnh ch co nghiem tam thng x1 = = xN = 0, th B = A la c s. Neu phng trnh co nghiem khac khong (x1 , , xn ), vi xi = 0, th loai ai khoi A: A1 = A \ {ai }. Lap lai lap luan tren cho A1 , . Sau < N bc ta co c s B A. Viec chng minh (ii) da vao bo e sau:
Chng minh: Trng hp V la khong gian hu han chieu. Goi A = {a 1 , , aN } mot
Bo e. Neu B
m n.
= {e1 , , en }
la c s va f1 , , fm la he oc lap tuyen tnh, th
Viec chng minh bo e da vao phng phap thay the nh sau: Do f1 L(e1 , , en ), f1 = x1 e1 + + xn en . V f1 = O, khong mat tnh tong quat, gia s x1 = 0. Khi o e1 = x1 (f1 x2 e2 + + xn en ). Vay L(e1 , , en ) = 1 L(f1 , e2 , , en ). Do f2 L(f1 , e2 , , en ), f2 = y1 f1 + y2 e2 + + yn en . V f1 , f2 oc lap tuyen tnh, ton tai i 2 sao cho yi = 0. Khong mat tnh tong quat, gia s y2 = 0. Khi o 1 e2 = y2 (f2 y1 f1 y2 e2 + + yn en ). Vay L(e1 , , en ) = L(f1 , f2 , , en ). Lap lap luan tren, bc k, f1 , , fk c thay the vao B. Ta phai co m n, v neu khong, bc n, V = L(f 1 , , fn ) va khi o fn+1 L(f1 , , fn ), ieu nay trai ga thiet ve tnh oc lap tuyen tnh cua f 1 , , fm . Bay gi, ta chng minh (ii). Cho B va B la cac c s cua V . Ky hieu #B va #B la so phan t cua chung. Khi o, theo bo e tren, #B #B va #B #B . Vay #B = #B . Trng hp V vo han chieu, co the chng minh nh ly da vao tien e chon. V du. a) dimK K n = n (c s chnh tac). b) dimK M atK (m, n) = m n (c s chnh tac {Eij , i = 1, , m; j
= 1, , n},
47
vi Eij la m n ma tran ma phan t dong i cot j la 1, cac phan t khac la 0). c) dimR C = 2 (c s la 1, i). d) dimK Kn [X] = n + 1 (c s t nhien {1, X, , X n }).
2.4 Menh e. Cho V la khong gian vector n chieu. Khi o
W =V.
(i) Moi he sinh cua V eu cha c s cua V . (ii) Moi he > n vector eu phu thuoc tuyen tnh. (iii) Moi he = n vector oc lap tuyen tnh la c s. (iv) Moi he < n vector eu co the bo sung thanh c s. (v) Neu W la khong gian con cua V , th dim W V , va dau = xay ra khi va ch khi
Chng minh: Suy trc tiep t nh ly tren va chng minh cua no.
V du. Cho A M atK (n). V dim M atK (n) = n2 , nen neu k n2 , cac ma tran I, A, , Ak la phu thuoc tuyen tnh. Nh vay, moi A M atK (n), ton tai a thc bac k n2 , PA (X) = a0 + a1 X + + ak X k K[X], sao cho
PA (A) = a0 I + a1 A + + ak Ak = 0.
Neu A co a thc PA ma a0 = 0, th A co ma tran ngc c tnh bi cong thc

A1 = 1 (a1 I + a2 A + + ak Ak1 ). a0
2.5 Toa o. Cho B = (e1, , en ) la mot c s c sap th t cua V . Khi o vi moi x V , ton tai duy t (x1 , , xn ) K n sao cho x = x1 e1 + + xn en . nha
Ky hieu
x2 xB = . . .
x1
goi la toa o cua x theo c s B.
Nhan xet. Viec x la to hp tuyen tnh cua e1 , , en la do B la he sinh cua V . Tnh duy nhat cua cac toa o la do B la he oc lap tuyen tnh. nh ngha toa o phu thuoc vao th t cua cac vector trong c s. V vay khi cac van e co lien quan en toa o, ta qui c he c s la he c sap th t. Nhan xet. He (e1 , , en ) la c s cua K n tng ng vi cac ieu sau: Vi moi b K n phng trnh x1 e1 + + xn en = b co duy nhat nghiem. Dung thuat toan Gauss-Jordan co the thc hien c bien oi (e 1 en ) In rankA = rank(e1 en ) = n. Ma tran A = (e1 en ) kha nghch. Dung phng phap Gauss-Jordan
xn
S o tm toa o x K n theo c s B = (e1 , , en ):

(e1 e2 en | x) (In | xB )
48
x1 x2
V du. Trong K 2 . Khi viet x = v x = x1

1 0 + x2 0 1
chnh la toa o cua x trong c s chnh tac,
e tm toa o x trong c s B :
f1 =
1 1
, f2 =
1 1
, giai he phng trnh
x = X1 f1 + X2 f2
x1 = X1 X2 x2 = X1 + X2
Suy ra
xB =
X1 X2 B
1 2
x1 + x2 x2 x1
x, y V, K ,
Menh e. Ga s
la c s cua khong gian vector V tren K . Khi o vi moi
(x + y)B = xB + yB
va
(x)B = xB
Chng minh: De dang suy t nh ngha.
Nhan xet. Khi co nh mot c s cho mot khong gian tng ng 1-1:
V x x+y
chieu
tren
ta co
Kn x
B
xB + yB
xB
Khi o K n la mo hnh hay ban sao cua V . Phep tng ng nay lam cho tnh toan, nh lng thuan li. nh ngha
2.6 Hang cua he vector. Hang cua he vector
a1 , , am V
c ky hieu va
rank(a1 , , am ) = dim L(a1 , , am ) =
so vector oc lap tuyen tnh cc ai cua he.
e tnh hang ta co the da vao nhan xet sau (Bai tap):

bien oi s cap tren he. Cu the, i = j, K \ 0, ta co: 1- L(a1 , , ai , , aj , , am ) = L(a1 , , aj , , ai , , am ). 2- L(a1 , , ai , , am ) = L(a1 , , ai , , am ). 3- L(a1 , , ai + aj , , am ) = L(a1 , , ai , , am ). Suy ra hang cua mot he vector khong oi qua cac phep bien oi s cap tren he.
Menh e. Khong gian sinh bi mot he vector la khong oi khi thc hien cac phep
S o tnh hang he a1 , , am K n :
Bc 1: Lap ma tran A ma moi dong la toa o cua moi vector cua he.
Chng III. Khong gian vector Bc 2: Dung thuat toan Gauss, suy ra rankA = rank(a1 , , am ).
49
V du. Trong K 4 Cho a1 =

e tnh hang cua he va tm mot

1 0 2 2 1 1 3 2 2 1 5 0
1 0 2 2
1 2 1 1 , a2 = , a3 = . 3 5 2 0 c s cua L(a1 , a2 , a3 ), ta dung thuat
D2 D1 ,D3 2D1
1 0 2 2 0 1 1 4 0 1 1 4
toan Gauss
D3D2
1 0 2 2 0 1 1 4 0 0 0 0
T o suy ra rank(a1 , a2 , a3 ) = 2. Hn na, t ma tran cuoi ta co L(a1 , a2 , a3 ) la khong gian co c s la (1, 0, 2, 2), (0, 1, 1, 4).
3. Tong - Tch - Thng cac khong gian vector
Tong cua V1 , V2 : V1 + V2 = {x V : x = x1 + x2 , x1 V1 , x2 V2 } = L(V1 V2 ). Tong tren goi la tong trc tiep , ky hieu V 1 V2 , neuu V1 V2 = O. Nhan xet. Tong 2 khong gian con la khong gian con. V du. Tong 2 ng thang qua goc O trong khong gian la mat phang cha 2 ng thang o.
3.1 Tong. Cho V1 , V2 V la cac khong gian con.
Menh e. Tong
tai duy nhat
V1 + V2 la tong trc tiep x1 V1 , x2 V2 , x = x1 + x2 .
khi va ch khi vi moi x V1 + V2 ton
Chng minh: Ga s x = x1 + x2 = y1 + y2 , vi x1 , y1 V1 , x2 , y2 V2 . Khi o x1 y1 = y2 x2 V1 V2 . Neu V1 V2 = O, th x1 = y1 , x2 = y2 . Ngc lai, moi x V1 V2 eu co cac bieu dien x = x1 = x1 + O V1 , x = x2 = O + x2 V2 , nen neu bieu dien la duy nhat, th x 1 = O, x2 = O, i.e. x = O. Vay V1 V2 = O.
Tong quat, tong cua hu han khong gian con, ky hieu
V 1 + + Vs =
Vi
i=1 s
,
Vi
la khong gian cac vector co dang x1 + + xs , vi xi Vi . Tong tren la trc tiep, ky hieu V 1 Vs = s Vi , neuu vi moi x i=1 bieu dien duy nhat x = x1 + + xx , vi xi Vi .
gian con V2 sao cho V = V1 V2 .
i=1
co
3.2 Phan bu ai so (hieu). Cho V1 la khong gian con cua V . Khi o ton tai khong
Ta goi V2 la mot phan bu ai so cua V1 .
Chng minh: Goi B1 la mot c s cua V1 . Theo Menh e 2.4, co the bo sung he o e co c s B cua V . Khi o V2 = L(B \ B1 ) la mot phan bu cua V1 .
50 Nhan xet. Phan bu ai so noi chung khong duy nhat (chang han, phan bu ai so cua ng thang trong mat phang.) Trng hp V hu han chieu, neu V 2 la phan bu ai so cua V1 , th dim V2 = dim V dim V1 khong oi vi moi phan bu ai so, so tren goi la so oi chieu cua V 1 trong V va ky hieu la codimV1 . (i) dim(V1 + V2 ) = dim V1 + dim V2 dim(V1 V2 ). (ii) dim V = dim V1 + codimV1 .
Menh e. Cho V la khong gian hu han chieu. Khi o

Chng minh: Goi {a1 , , am }, {a1 , , am , b1 , , bn1 }, {a1 , , am , c1 , , cn2 }
lan lt la c s cua V1 V2 , V1 , V2 . e chng minh (i), can chng minh B = {a1 , , am , b1 , , bn1 , c1 , , cn2 } la c s cua V1 + V2 . De thay B sinh ra V1 + V2 . e kiem tra tnh oc lap tuyen tnh, ga s
m n1 n2
i ai +
i=1 j=1
j bj +
k=1 n1 j=1
k ck = O.
Suy ra
n2 k=1
k ck =
m i=1
i ai
j bj V1 V2 = L(a1 , , am ).
n2 k=1
Do {a1 , , am , c1 , , cn2 } oc lap tuyen tnh, Suy ra

m n1
k ck = O.
i ai +
i=1 j=1
j bj = O.
T tnh oc lap tuyen tnh cua {c1 , , cn2 } va
{a1 , , am , b1 , , bn1 },
t hai ang thc tren suy ra

k = 0, i = 0, j = 0, i, j, k.
Vay B la he oc lap tuyen tnh.
3.3 Tch. Cho
V1 , V2 la cac khong gian vector tren cung trng K . Tch V 1 , V2 la khong gian V1 V2 = {(x1 , x2 ) : x1 V1 , x2 V2 }, vi phep cong va nhan vi so c nh ngha: (x1 , x2 ) + (y1 , y2 ) = (x1 +1 y1 , x2 +2 y2 ) (x1 , x2 ) = ( 1 x1 , 2 x2 )
De thay tch tren la khong gian vector tren K . Tong quat, bang qui nap co the nh ngha tch cac khong gian vector tren K :
V1 Vs =
s i=1
Vi = (V1 Vs1 ) Vs .
Menh e. Neu Vi , i = 1, , s la cac khong gian hu han chieu tren K , th

s s
dim
i=1
Vi =
i=1
dim Vi
51
Chng minh: Thc vay, neu e1 , , en la c s cua V1 va f1 , , fm la c s V2 , th
de kiem tra (e1 , O), , (en , O), (O, f1), , (O, fm) la c s cua quy nap theo s.
Kn = K K.
n
V1 V2 .
Sau o
V du.
3.4 Thng. Cho W la mot khong gian vector con cua khong gian vector V .
Khong gian thng V /W c xay dng nh sau: Tren V xet quan he ong d modulo W :
x, y V, x y (mod W ) x y W
Nhan xet. Quan he tren la quan he tng ng. Quan he tren phan hoach V thanh cac lp tng ng:
[x] = x + W (x V ).
Neu [x] = [x ], [y] = [y ] va K , th
[x + y] = [x + y ]
va [x] = [x ].
T cac nhan xet tren, nh ngha khong gian thng vi phep cong va nhan vi so:
[x] + [y] = [x + y] ,
V /W = {[x] = x + W : x V },
[x] = [x].
Nhan xet. nh ngha la hp cach va V /W la khong gian vector tren K .
Menh e. Cho V la khong gian hu han chieu. Khi o

dim V /W = dim V dim W =
codimW.
Chng minh: Goi e1 , , em la c s cua mot phan bu ai so cua W . Khi o
[e1 ], , [em ] la c s cua V /W . That vay, moi x V , co bieu dien duy nhat x = x1 e1 + + xm em + y , vi y W . Suy ra, [y] = O V /W . Do o, moi [x] V /W co bieu dien duy nhat [x] = x1 [e1 ] + + xn [en ].
V du. Cho W la ng thang qua goc O trong R2 . Khi o x y( mod W ) neuu x, y thuoc ng thang song song vi W , i.e. x y W , con [x] = ng thang qua x song song W . Khong gian thng R2 /W = tap cac ng thang song song vi W . (e y la phan t cua tap nay la ng thang).
IV. Anh xa tuyen tnh

Mot anh xa gia hai khong gian vector ma bao toan phep cong va nhan vi so c goi la anh xa tuyen tnh. Trong lp cac anh xa, anh xa tuyen tnh la n gian va quan trong nhat. Mat khac, nhieu anh xa co the xap x bi anh xa tuyen tnh, khi o viec nghien cu anh xa goc de dang hn. V vay phan ln cac van e toan hoc cung nh ky thuat co lien quan en anh xa tuyen tnh. chng nay cac ket qua nh tnh cua he phng trnh tuyen tnh c suy ra mot cach de dang thong qua khai niem anh xa tuyen tnh. Khi co nh c s tren cac khong gian vector, anh xa tuyen tnh c bieu dien bi ma tran. Moi quan he nay cho phep tnh toan, nh lng cac anh xa tuyen tnh.
1. Anh xa tuyen tnh

Anh xa
(L1) (L2)
1.1 nh ngha. Cho

f : V V
V va V la cac khong gian vector tren cung trng so goi la K -tuyen tnh neuu vi moi x, y V, K
K.
f (x + y) = f (x) + f (y) f (x) = f (x) (L1)(L2)
Nhan xet.
tng ng vi
(L) f (x + y) = f (x) + f (y) x, y V, , K.
Thuat ng: Khi a ro trng K ang xet la trng nao, ta thng goi f la anh xa tuyen tnh thay cho K -tuyen tnh. Anh xa tuyen tnh con c goi la ong cau tuyen tnh hay toan t tuyen tnh. Neu V = V , th anh xa tuyen tnh c goi la t ong cau. Khi V = K , ngi ta con dung thuat ng phiem ham tuyen tnh hay dang tuyen tnh. Ky hieu LK (V, V )= tap moi anh xa tuyen tnh t V vao V , va LK (V ) = LK (V, V ).
Tnh chat. Cho f LK (V, V ). Khi o

f (O) = O
va
f(
i=1
i vi ) =
i=1
i f (vi ), vi V, i K; i = 1, , n
1.2 V du.
a) Anh xa khong OV , anh xa ong nhat idV la cac anh xa tuyen tnh. b) Anh xa tuyen tnh sinh bi ma tran A M atK (m, n), c nh ngha:
LA : K n K m , LA (x) = Ax.
De kiem tra LA la tuyen tnh, do tnh chat cua cac phep toan tren ma tran. Ngc lai, 2.2 se chng minh moi anh xa tuyen tnh K n K m eu co dang tren.
54 c) Cac phep bien oi hnh hoc trong R 2 sau ay la tuyen tnh: x1 1 Phep co dan cac truc: x1 1 x1 = 0 0 x x x
2 2 2 2 2
Phep oi xng qua Ox1 : Phep oi xng qua Ox2 : Phep oi xng qua tam O: Phep quay goc :
r cos r sin x1 x2
x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2
x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2
1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 = 1 0 0 1 =
x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2 r cos r sin
r cos( + ) r sin( + ) x1 0 =
cos sin sin cos x1 x2
Phep chieu len Ox1 :
1 0 0 0
Bai tap: Xac nh phep oi xng qua ng thang ax1 + bx2 = 0. d) ao ham, tch phan la cac anh xa tuyen tnh. (Hay neu cac khong gian vector nguon va ch tng ng). e) Anh xa khong tuyen tnh c goi la phi tuyen . Chang han: ham a thc bac 2, ham sin, cos, exp, log, ...
1.3 Im - Ker. Cho f LK (V, V ) Ta co cac ky hieu va nh ngha:

Imf = f (V ) = {y V
: x V, y = f (x)} : f (x) = 0} dim
goi la anh cua f .
Kerf = f 1 (O) = {x V
goi la nhan hay tam, hach cua f . Kerf goi la so khuyet cua f .
rankf = dim Imf goi la hang cua f .
Nhan xet. Imf , Kerf la khong gian vector con cua V , V tng ng. ieu tren suy t khang nh sau (ma viec chng minh xem nh bai tap): (i) Neu W V la khong gian con, th f (W ) la khong gian con. (ii) Neu W V la khong gian con, th f 1 (W ) la khong gian con. Nhan xet. Co the xem Kerf va Imf o o n anh hay toan anh cua f . T nh ngha de suy ra (bai tap): (i) Kerf = O khi va chi khi f la n anh. (ii) Imf = V khi va ch khi f la toan anh.
Menh e.
Menh e.
55
Nhan xet. Khi f = LA : K n K m , LA (x) = Ax, vi A M atK (m, n). Viet A di dang n vector cot A = (a1 an ), vi aj K m . Khi o
LA (x) = Ax = x1 a1 + + xn an x = t(x1 xn ) K n
ImLA = {b K m : x, b = x1 a1 + + xn an } = L(a1 , , an ). KerLA = {x K n : Ax = 0} = Khong gian nghiem phng trnh Ax = 0. V du. Cho f : R4 R3 , f (x, y, z, t) = (x y + z + t, x + 2z t, x + y + 3z 3t). e xac nh Imf va Kerf ta tien hanh nh sau. Viet f di dang ma tran:
f
x y z t
= A
x y z t
vi
1 1 1 1 A= 1 0 2 1 1 1 3 3
Ta co Imf = Khong gian sinh bi cac cot cua A e xac nh khong gian tren, bien oi s cap tren dong ma tran

tA
:
1 2 0 0

1 1 1 0 1 2 1 1
1 1 3 3
1 1 1 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 2 4
1 0 0 0
1 1 0 0
Suy ra Imf co c s la cac vector (1, 1, 1), (0, 1, 2). Ta co Kerf la khong gian nghiem he phng trnh
x
y + z + t = 0 x + 2z t = 0 x + y + 3z 3t = 0
Dung phng phap kh Gauss bien oi tren ma tran

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 2 1 0 1 1 2 0 1 1 2 1 1 1 3 3 0 2 2 4 0 0 0 0
Suy ra y = z + 2t, x = 2z + t, z, t R. Vay Kerf la khong gian 2 chieu, co c s la
(2, 1, 1, 0), (1, 2, 0, 1).
nh ly. Cho f
Khi o
:V V
la anh xa tuyen tnh gia cac khong gian hu han chieu.
Imf + dim Kerf = dim V Chng minh: Goi e1 , , ep la c s cua Kerf . Bo sung e e 1 , , ep , ep+1 , , en la c s cua V . e chng minh cong thc tren can chng minh f (e p+1), , f (en ) la c s cua Imf . He sinh: Moi y Imf , ton tai x = x1 e1 + + xp ep + xp+1 ep+1 + + xn en V , sao
dim
56 cho y = f (x). Vay y = f (x) = xp+1 f (ep+1)+ +xn f (en ) L(f (ep+1 ), , f (en)). n n oc lap tuyen tnh: Cho xi f (ei ) = O. Suy ra f ( xi ei ) = O, i.e.
n i=p+1 i=p+1 i=p+1
xi ei
Kerf = L(e1 , , ep). T tnh oc lap tuyen tnh cua e1 , , en , ta
co xp+1 = = xn = 0.
He qua 1. Cho
f LK (V, V ). Ga s dim V = dim V . Khi o cac ieu sau tng ng (i) f la n anh (ii) f la toan anh (iii) f la song anh (iv) Ker f = 0
He qua 2. (nh ly ve ong cau) Cho f

f ([x]) = f (x)
la n anh, va
f : V/
LK (V, V ). Khi o f : V / Kerf V , Kerf Imf la song anh tuyen tnh.
1.4 Ap dung vao he phng trnh tuyen tnh. 1

Ax = b ,
Xet he phng trnh tuyen tnh m phng trnh, n an tren trng K : trong o A M atK (m, n).
Phan nay se giai quyet hai bai toan sau: 1 - Khi nao he co nghiem, i.e. tng thch ? 2 - So nghiem cua phng trnh? Nhan xet. Viet A = (a1 an ) dang n vector cot trong K m . Khi o Ax = b la he tng thch x1 , , xn K : x1 a1 + + xn an = b T o ta co:
L(a1 , , an ) = L(a1 , , an , b) rank(a1 , , an ) = rank(a1 , , an , b).
nh ly (Kronecker-Capelli).
He phng trnh Ax = b tng thch khi va ch khi rankA = rank(A b)
Nhan xet. Goi LA : K n K m , LA (x) = Ax = x1 a1 + + xn an . (i) Tap nghiem phng trnh thuan nhat S0 = {x K n : Ax = 0} = KerLA , nen la khong gian vector con so chieu dim KerLA = n dim ImLA = n rankA. (ii) Ga s x0 thoa Ax0 = b. Khi o
Ax = b A(x x0 ) = 0 x = x0 + x ,
vi Ax
= 0.
Tom tat lai, ta co:
Bien luan. Xet he Ax = b, vi A M atK (m, n).

rankA < rank(A b) he vo nghiem. rankA = rank(A b) = n (so an) he duy nhat nghiem. rankA = rank(A b) < n he vo so nghiem (bac t do n rankA).
1
So sanh vi cac ket qua Chng II.
57
(i) Tap nghiem he thuan nhat Ax = 0 la khong gian vector (n rankA) chieu. (ii) Neu he co nghiem, th tap nghiem cua he la mot phang (n rankA) chieu
Sb = x0 + S0 = {x K n : x = x0 + x , x S0 },
Cau truc khong gian nghiem.
trong o x0 K n la mot nghiem rieng cua he, i.e. Ax0 = b. S0 la khong gian nghiem cua he thuan nhat Ax = O.
phng trnh Hb1 : a11 x1 + + a1n xn = b1 , (a1j goi la mot sieu phang . Khi o ta noi Hb1 song song vi chieu H01 : a11 x1 + + a1n xn = 0. Nh vay, tap nghiem Sb cua he phng trnh Ax = b, vi A M atK (m, n), la giao cua m sieu phang trong K n . Neu he tng thch, th Sb = , va khi o Sb = x0 + S0 , nen Sb c goi la mot phang (n rankA) chieu hay (n rankA)-phang, song song vi khong gian con S0 : Ax = 0 (dim S0 = n rankA). V du. Mot 1-phang la mot ng thang, mot 2-phang la mat phang.
Bieu dien hnh hoc cua he phng trnh. Tap cac iem
(x 1 , , xn ) K n thoa khong ong thi bang 0) khong gian vector con (n 1)
1.5 ang cau tuyen tnh. Cho V, V la 2 khong gian vector tren K .
Mot anh xa f : V V goi la ang cau tuyen tnh neuu f song anh va f, f 1 la tuyen tnh. Hai khong gian V, V goi la ang cau neu ton tai mot ang cau tuyen tnh gia chung. Mot ang cau tuyen tnh t V len chnh no goi la t ang cau hay bien oi tuyen tnh. Tap cac t ang cau tren V , ky hieu GlK (V ), goi la nhom tuyen tnh cua V . Nhan xet. Neu f : V V la song anh va f tuyen tnh, th f 1 tuyen tnh.
cau khi va ch khi chung cung so chieu. ac biet, moi khong gian n chieu tren K eu ang cau vi K n .
nh ly (ang cau). Hai khong gian vector hu han chieu tren cung trng K ang
= n. V
Chng minh: Ga s dim V co ang cau tuyen tnh
Co nh c s
cua V . Khi o, theo II.2.5, ta
x xB K n .
Nhan xet. Y ngha cua nh ly la neu ch xet cau truc tuyen tnh, th cac khong gian co cung so chieu n c xem la nh nhau, va nh vay ch can xet mot ai dien, chang han mo hnh K n . V du. ang cau
Kn [X] P (x) = a0 + a1 X + + an X n (a0 , a1 , , an ) K n ,
cho phep xet cac tnh chat tuyen tnh cua cac a thc bac n, thong qua cac he so cua chung.
58
2. Anh xa tuyen tnh va ma tran

Bai toan. Cho
V, V
tng
f : V V la anh xa tuyen tnh. ng. Khi y = f (x), hay tm quan he cua
Gia s B, B la cac c s cua cac toa o yB va xB .
Ta se chng minh rang khi co nh c s anh xa tuyen tnh c bieu dien bi mot ma tran. Nh vay, cho phep tnh toan cu the. Trc het, ta nhan xet la mot anh xa tuyen tnh c hoan toan xac nh bi gia tr cua no tren c s (v vay hu han ga tr neu khong gian la hu han chieu). Cu the:
y) cua V . Khi o ton tai f (e1 ) = f1 , , f (en ) = fn .
2.1 Menh e. Ga s {e1, , en} la c s cua V va f1 , , fn la cac vector (tuy

Chng minh: Anh xa tuyen tnh o la f (x) = f (
n n
duy nhat mot anh xa tuyen tnh f : V V sao cho

xi ei ) =
i=1
xi fi .
i=1
V du. e xac nh anh xa tuyen tnh f : R2 c s chnh tac e1 , e2 : f (e1) = 2 , f (e2 ) = 4 Ta co, vi moi x R2 , x =
x1 x2
R2 , 3 2
khi biet gia tr cua
tren
= x1 e1 + x2 e2 2 4 + x2 3 2 = 2x1 + 3x2 4x1 2x2
Suy ra f (x) = x1 f (e1 ) + x2 f (e2 ) = x1 Cho B = (e1 , , en ) la c s cua V va Khi o

f (e1 ) f (e2 )
2.2 Ma tran bieu dien anh xa tuyen tnh. Xet f LK (V, V ).

B = (f1 , , fm ) = = a11 f1 + a21 f2 + + am1 fm a12 f1 + a22 f2 + + am2 fm
la c s cua V .
f (en ) = a1n f1 + a2n f2 + + amn fm

.. .
.. .
i.e.
f (ej ) =
i=1
aij fi
hay
a1j
f (ej )B = B, B
.. .
(j = 1, , n)
amj
Ma tran bieu dien cua f trong c s

n j=1
c ky hieu va nh mgha:
m i=1
B MB (f ) = (f (e1 )B f (en )B ) = (aij ) M atK (m, n).
Cho x =
m
xj ej ,
i.e.
x1
xB =
.. .
va y =
yi fi ,
i.e.
y1
yB =
.. .
Khi y = f (x), ta co
n n m
xn aij xj )fi .
ym
n
yi fi = f (
i=1 j=1
xj ej ) =
(
i=1 j=1
So sanh he so, suy ra
yi =
j=1
aij xj
59
Viet lai theo phep nhan ma tran, ta co tng ng:

y = f (x)
B yB = MB (f )xB
B = (e1 , , en ), B = (f1 , , fm ):
S o tm ma tran bieu dien anh xa tuyen tnh f : K n K m , trong cac c s

B (f1 fm |f (e1 ) f (en )) (Im |MB )
viet toa o cac vector theo cot, roi dung thuat toan Gauss-Jordan
V du. a) Ma tran bieu dien anh xa khong O trong moi c s la ma tran O. b) Ma tran bieu dien anh xa ong nhat id V trong cung c s la ma tran n v I . c) Ma tran bieu dien anh xa tuyen tnh K n K m trong c s chnh tac: Lap luan tren cho thay moi anh xa tuyen tnh f : K n K m , eu co dang f (x) = Ax, vi A M atK (m, n) chnh la ma tran bieu dien cua f trong c s chnh tac cua K n va K m . Chang han, phep nhung i va phep chieu p:
i : K n K n+p , i(x1 , , xn ) = (x1 , , xn , 0, , 0). p : K n1 K n2 K n1 , p(x1 , , xn1 , y1 , , yn2 ) = (x1 , , xn1 ),
co ma tran bieu dien trong c s chnh tac la:

0 M (i) = 0 . . .
...
1 = 0 .. .
In Opn
, M (p) =
1 0
...
0 0 1 0
.. .
= (In1 On1 n2 )
.. .
d) Cho f : K 3 K 2 , f (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (2x1 x2 + 2x3 , 3x1 x2 x3 ). e tm ma tra bieu dien f n trong c s

1 1 1 1 B : e1 = 0 e2 = 1 e3 = 1 , va B : f1 = 1 0 1 1 Ta giai cac he phng trnh: a1j f1 + a2j f2 = f (ej ), j = 1, 2, 3. 1 1 | 2 3 5 1 2 | 3 1 3 1 1 | 2 3 5 0 1 | 1 2 2 1 5 3 1 2 2 f2 = 1 2
Dung thuat toan Gauss-Jordan:
1 0 | 1 5 3 0 1 | 1 2 2
Suy ra ma tran can tm
B MB (f ) =
e) Anh xa C-tuyen tnh w : C C co dang
z = x + iy w = (a + ib)z = (ax by) + i(bx + ay),
vi a + ib = w(1).
60 Khi xem C = R2 la khong gian vector thc vi ong nhat x + iy = (x, y), th ma tran bieu dien anh xa tren trong c s chnh tac (= {1, i}) la
a b b a =r cos sin sin cos ,
vi r =
a2 + b2 , a = r cos , b = r sin .
Vay anh xa tuyen tnh tren C thc hien phep co dan t so r va phep quay goc tren mat phang R2 . f) Cho T : K2 [X] K3 [X] la toan t vi phan nh ngha bi T (f ) = X 2 f 2f +Xf. Ta se xac nh (4 3) ma tran bieu dien T trong cac c s t nhien B = (1, X, X 2 ) va B = (1, X, X 2 , X 3 ) cua K2 [X] va K3 [X] tng ng. e lam dieu o can xac nh toa o T (1), T (X), T (X 2 ) theo c s B . Ta co T (1) = X, T (X) = X 2 2, T (X 2 ) = X 3 + 2X 2 4X . Vay cac toa o can tm
1 T (1)B = , T (X)B = 0
2 0 1 0
4 , T (X 2 )B = . 2
Vay ma tran can tm la
A=
0 2 0 1 0 4 . 0 1 2 0 0 1
Bai tap: Vi ky hieu v du tren, cho p(X) = a0 + a1 X + a2 X 2 . Hay kiem tra ang thc
A p(X)B = T (p(X))B .
ma tran M atK (m, n) la khong gian vector tren K vi phep cong ma tran va nhan ma tran vi so. Tren LK (V, V ) cung co cau truc khong gian vector tren K vi phep cong anh xa va phep nhan anh xa vi so thong thng. Hn na hp 2 anh xa tuyen tnh la tuyen tnh. Ta co
2.3 Quan he gia anh xa tuyen tnh va ma tran. Nh a biet khong gian cac
V, V , V la cac khong gian vector tren K co B , B , B la cac c s tng ng. Ga s f, g : V V , h : V V la cac anh xa tuyen tnh, K . Khi o
B B B MB (f + g) = MB (f ) + MB (g) B (f ) B (f ) = MB MB B (h f ) = M B (h)M B (f ) MB B B
Menh e. Cho
Chng minh: Goi B = {e1 , , en }, B = {e1 , , em }, B = {e1 , , ep }.
Khi o (f + g)(ej )B
= f (ej )B
va (f )(ej )B
= f (ej )B
61
p i=1 p i=1 m
T o suy ra hai ang thc au. m Ga s f (ej ) = bkj ek , h(ek ) =

k=1
aik ei ,
m
va h f (ej ) =
p
cij ei .
Khi o
h f (ej ) = h(
m k=1
bkj ek ) =
k=1
bkj h(ek ) =
(
i=1 k=1
aik bkj )ei
Vay cij =
m k=1
aik bkj ,
chnh la ang thc cuoi.
nh ly. Cho V, V la cac khong gian hu han chieu tren K . Ga s B, B la cac c s tng ng. Khi o ta co ang cau tuyen tnh
B M : LK (V, V ) M atK (m, n), f M (f ) = MB (f ).
Cu the co tng ng 1-1:

LK (V, V ) f +g
f : x y = f (x)
M atK (m, n)
M (f ) + M (g)
M (f ) : xB yB = M (f )xB
M (f )
Nhan xet. T nh ly tren suy ra dim LK (V, V ) = dim M atK (m, n) = m n. Nhan xet. Khi co nh c s anh xa tuyen tnh c bieu dien mot cach nh lng bi ma tran bieu dien no.
2.4 Hang.
Hang cua ma tran A: rankA = so vector cot oc lap tuyen tnh cua A. Hang cua he vector : rank(a1 , , an ) = dim L(a1 , , an ) = so vector oc lap tuyen tnh cua he. Hang cua anh xa tuyen tnh f : rankf = dim Imf .
Chu y: Chng sau se chng minh:

rankA = so dong oc lap tuyen tnh cua A. Nhan xet. Do nh ngha hang he vector va hang anh xa tuyen tnh khong phu thuoc c s, nen hang cua he vector chnh la hang ma tran ma cac cot la cac toa o cac vector cua he trong mot c s bat ky, va hang cua anh xa tuyen tnh la hang cua ma tran bieu dien no trong c s bat ky. Vay viec tnh hang a ve viec tnh hang ma tran. Neu A co dang bac thang, th rankA = so dong khac khong cua A. Trong Chng I, a neu nh ngha hang ma tran qua phep bien oi s cap, phat bieu sau ay khang nh tnh ung an cua nh ngha o, ong thi cho phep tnh hang cua ma tran.
62
Tnh hang bang bien oi s cap. Hang cua ma tran khong oi qua phep bien oi s
cap tren dong hay cot.
V cac phep bien oi s cap tren dong (cot) cua mot ma tran A tng ng vi phep nhan mot ma tran kha nghch E ve pha trai (phai) cua A, nen phat bieu tren suy t
Menh e. Cho cac ma tran A M atK (m, n), B M atK (n, p). Khi o Neu B la ma tran kha nghch, th rank(AB) = rankA. Neu A la ma tran kha nghch, th rank(AB) = rankB .
Chng minh: Goi LA , LB la cac anh xa tuyen tnh lien ket vi ma tran A, B tng
ng. Khi o
rankAB = rankLA LB = dim Im(LA LB ) = dim LA ( ImLB ).

B
kha nghch khi va ch khi LB song anh. Khi o LA (ImLB ) rankAB = dim ImLA = rankA. A kha nghch khi va ch khi LA song anh. Khi o rankAB = dim ImLB = rankB . Nh vay, theo nh ly I.2.10, ta co:
ImLA . Suy ra
dim LA (ImLB ) =
rankA = r khi va ch khi dung cac phep bien oi s cap co the a A ve dang
Ir ? O O
V du. Xem lai cac v du II.2.6 va III.1.3.
3. Khong gian oi ngau

goi la khong gian oi ngau cua V (tren ham tuyen tnh hay dang tuyen tnh. V du. a) Phep chieu pri = e : K n K, pri (x1 , , xn ) = xi . i b) Ham Dirac : F (R) R, (f ) = f (0).
V = LK (V, K)
3.1 nh ngha. Cho V la khong gian vector tren K .
K ). V
goi la phiem
3.2 C s oi ngau. Cho

B
B = (e1 , , en ) la mot c s cua V . nh ngha cac phiem ham e : V K bi e (ej ) = ij (delta Kronecker) i, j = 1, , n. Khi o i i B = (e , , e ) la mot c s cua V . n 1
goi la c s oi ngau cua B
Chng minh: Cho f V . Khi o vi moi x = x1 e1 + + xn en V ,

f (x1 e1 + + xn en ) = x1 f (e1 ) + + xn f (en ) = f (e1 )e (x) + + f (en )e (x). 1 n
Suy ra f = f (e1 )e + + f (en )e , i.e. B la he sinh. n 1 Hn na, theo menh e au tiet 2, f c xac nh duy nhat bi cac ga tr f (e 1 ), , f (en ).
63
Vay B la c s cua V . Nhan xet. Neu V la khong gian hu han chieu, th

tf
dim V = dim V . f
3.3 Anh xa lien hp. Cho f LK (V, V ). Anh xa lien hp vi

:V
tf (u)
= u f, u V .
la anh xa tuyen tnh
Tnh chat. Vi ga thiet thch hp ta co:

(i) t(f +g) =
tf +
6tg
(ii)
t(f )
= tf
(iii) t(hf )
= tf th
(iv) t(f 1 )
= (tf )1 .
3.4 Ma tran bieu dien anh xa lien hp trong c s oi ngau.

B B MB (tf ) = tMB (f )
Cho V, V la cac khong gian vector hu han chieu tren K va f LK (V, V ). Ga s B, B la c s cua V, V . Goi B , B la c s oi ngau tng ng. Khi o
Chng minh: Ga s B = {e1 , , en }, B = {f1 , , fm }.
Ga s f (ej ) =
t
i=1
aij fi .
Ta can xac nh cac phan t a : tf (fk ) = jk m m
n j=1
a e . jk j
Ta co
f (fk )(ej ) = fk f (ej ) = fk ( n j=1
aij fi ) =
i=1 i=1
aij fk (fi ) = akj .
Theo chng minh 3.2, tf (fk ) =
akj e . j
Suy ra a = akj . jk
V. nh thc
Vi moi ma tran vuong co tng ng mot so goi la nh thc . So nay phan anh nhieu thong tin quan trong cua ma tran. Trong chng nay nh thc c trnh bay theo phng phap truyen thong: da vao hoan v va ky so. Tuy nhien, tnh a tuyen tnh thay phien cua nh thc c neu ro ngay sau o, va nh o co the tnh nh thc mot cach hieu qua. Phan cuoi chng neu mot so ap dung quan trong cua nh thc nh tieu chuan kha nghch va tnh ma tran ngc, cong thc Cramer, tnh hang, quan he gia nh thc va the tch, .
1
1. nh thc
la mot phep hoan v
1.1 Hoan v. Ky hieu
Jn = {1, 2, , n}. Mot cua Jn . Thng ky hieu bi n (n) hoac
song anh
: J n Jn
c goi
1 2 (1) (2)
(1) (2) (n)
Ky hieu Sn e ch tap moi phep hoan v cua Jn . Mot chuyen v la mot hoan v ch oi cho 2 phan t. V du. Vi n = 3 ta co 6 phep hoan v sau
123 213 321 132 231 312
Menh e.
(i) So phan t cua Sn la n! (ii) Sn la mot nhom oi phep hp anh xa, i.e.
(iii) Neu la chuyen v th 1 = . (iv) Moi hoan v eu co the bieu dien nh la hp cua hu han phep chuyen v.
S n . Mot cap ((i), (j)) goi la mot nghch neuu i < j va (i) > (j), i.e. so ng trc ln hn so ng sau. V du. Hoan v 3 1 4 2 co cac nghch the: (3, 1), (3, 2), (4, 2).
hp cac phep hoan v la mot hoan v, nghch ao cua mot hoan v la hoan v.
1.2 Nghch the. Cho
the cua
1.3 Ky so. Ky so cua phep hoan v Sn c ky hieu va nh ngha la

() = +1 1
neu so nghch the cua chan neu so nghch the cua le sign((j) (i)) =
= (1) (so nghch the cua )
Nhan xet. T nh ngha co the tnh ky so bi cong thc:

() =
1i<jn
1
nh thc c e cap au tien bi Gotfied von Lebniz nam 1683 va Takakazu Seki (1642-1708)
(j) (i) . ji 1i<jn
66
(i) Neu la chuyen v, th ( ) = 1. (ii) : Sn {+1, 1} la mot ong cau nhom, i.e.
, Sn , ( ) = () ( ), (idSn ) = +1
Tnh chat.
va ( 1 ) = ().
Chng minh: Goi la phep chuyen v 2 phan t p, q (1 p < q n), i.e.

= 1 1 p p + 1 q p + 1 q 1 q q 1 p n n
Vay cac cap nghch the la

(q, p + 1), , (q, q 1), (q, p)
va
(p + 1, p), , (q 1, p). ( ) = 1.
Vay so nghch the la 2(q p) 1 (so le), i.e. e chng minh (ii), at
N1 = #{(i, j) : i < j, (i) < (j), ( (i)) > ( (j))}, N2 = #{(i, j) : i < j, (i) > (j), ( (i)) < ( (j))}, N3 = #{(i, j) : i < j, (i) > (j), ( (i)) > ( (j))}.
Khi o: so nghch the cua = N2 + N3 , so nghch the cua = N1 + N2 , so nghch the cua = N1 + N3 . Suy ra () ( ) = (1)N2 +N3 (1)N1 +N2 = (1)N1 +N3 = Cac tnh chat khac la ro rang.
nh thc cua A c ky hieu va nh ngha la so
det A = a11 a21
( ).
1.4 nh thc cua ma tran. Cho mot ma tran vuong A = (a ij ) M atK (n).
a12 a22 a1n a2n
an1 an2
.. .
.. .
.. .
.. .
=
Sn
()a(1)1 a(n)n
ann
1.5 nh thc cua mot he vector. Trong K n , cho n vector
a1 =
a11 a21
.. .
, a2 =
a12 a22
.. .
, , an =
a1n a2n
.. .
an1
an2
ann
nh thc cua n vector tren c ky hieu va nh ngha

det(a1 , , an ) =
Sn
()a(1)1 a(n)n
Chng V. nh thc
67 gom n! hang t dang

D() = ()a(1)1 a(n)n
Nhan xet. Tong
so hang khong cung dong, khong cung cot cua A. V du. a) nh thc cap 2, 3:
a11 a12 a21 a22 a11 a12 a13 a21 a22 a23 a31 a32 a33 = a11 a22 a12 a21
Sn
la tch cac
= a11 a22 a33 +a21 a31 a13 +a31 a12 a23 a13 a22 a31 a23 a32 a11 a33 a12 a21
b) nh thc ma tran tam giac

a11 a12 0 a22
.. .
.. .
.. .
a1n a2n
.. .
= a11 a22 ann
(tch cac so hang ng cheo)
ann
Nhan xet. nh ngha tren cho bieu thc tng minh cua nh thc (la a thc cua n2 bien aij , thuan nhat bac n). Tuy nhien, viec tnh nh thc theo nh ngha can mot so rat ln phep tnh (c n!). e giam ang ke so phep tnh, trc het ta can nghien cu ky hn cac tnh chat cua nh thc.
2. Tnh chat cua nh thc
2.1 Menh e.
det tA =
det tA = det A 1 Sn
Chng minh: Ta co Sn
Sn
, la song anh va
1 Sn
() = ( 1 ).
Vay
()a1(1) an(n) =
( 1 )a1 (1)1 a1 (n)n = det A
nh ly sau neu cac tnh chat c ban nhat cua nh thc: tnh a tuyen tnh, thay phien.
2.2 nh ly. nh thc la anh xa

det : M atK (n) (K n )n K , A = (a1 , , an ) det(a1 , , an )
thoa cac ieu kien sau vi moi aj , bj , ak , bk K n , j, k Jn , K ,
(D1) (D2) (D3)
det(a1 , , aj +bj , , an ) = det(a1 , , aj , , an )+det(a1 , , bj , , an ) det(a1 , , aj , , an ) = det(a1 , , aj , , an ) det(a1 , , aj , , ak , , an ) = det(a1 , , ak , , aj , , an )
68 (D4)
det(e1 , , en ) = 1
, trong o e1 , , en la c s chnh tac cua K n .
Nhan xet. (D1)(D2) la tnh tuyen tnh theo cot th i, (D3) la tnh phan oi xng. Nhan xet. Cac tnh chat tren cung ung khi xem nh thc nh anh xa cua n vector dong cua mot ma tran, do Menh e 2.1.
Chng minh: Viec chng minh (D1),(D2),(D4) suy de dang t nh ngha nh thc.
i (i = j, k). Khi o ( ) = (). Suy ra
e chng minh (D3), goi la phep chuyen v j va k, i.e. (j) = k, (k) = j, (i) = anh xa Sn = Sn la mot song anh va ve trai (D3)
=
Sn
()a(1)1 a(j)j a(k)k a(n)n ( )a (1)1 a (k)j a (j)k a (n)n
=
Sn
ve phai (D3) .
det(a(1) , , a(n) ) = () det(a1 , , an )
He qua 1. Vi moi Sn ,
(i) Neu A co 2 cot (dong) t le, th det A = 0. (ii) Neu A co mot cot (dong) bang 0, th det A = 0.
1. B lap t A bi chuyen v 2 cot (dong), th det B = det A. 2. B lap t A bi nhan mot cot (dong) vi so , th det B = det A. 3. B lap t A bi cong mot cot (dong) vi boi cua cot (dong) khac, th det B = det A.
He qua 2. Cho A M atK (n).
He qua 3. Cho A M atK (n), B la bien oi s cap cua A:
V du.
1 x x2 1 y y2 1 z z2 = 1 0 0 1 y x (y x)y 1 z x (z x)z 1 0 0 0 y x (y x)y 0 z x (z x)z (C3 xC2 , C2 xC1 )
(D2 D1 , D3 D1 )
1 0 0 = (y x)(z x) 0 1 y 0 1 z 1 0 0 0 = (y x)(z x) 0 1 0 1 zy = (y x)(z x)(y z)
(Bien
oi 2)
(C3 yC2 )
Chng V. nh thc
69
nh thc Vandermonde: tng t cach tnh nh thc tren, tong quat ta co

1 x0 1 x1 1 xn xn 0 xn 1 xn n
V (x0 , x1 , , xn ) =
.. .
.. .
.. .
.. .
(xj xi )
0i<jn
ac biet, x0 , , xn la cac so khac nhau tng oi khi va ch khi nh thc tren khac 0. (i) Cho A, B M atK (n). Khi o det AB = det A det B. (ii) Neu A kha nghch, th det(A1 ) = (det A)1
Chng minh: Neu A = (aij ), B = (bij ), AB = (cij ), th hieu cj la cot th j cua AB va ak la cot th k cua A, th
cj = a1 bj1 + + an bjn =
n
2.3 Menh e.
cij =
aik bkj .
Neu ky
bjk ak
k=1
Suy ra
det AB = det(c1 , , cn ) = det( k1 b1k1 ak1 , , b1k1 bnkn det(ak1 , , akn ) =
k1 , ,kn kn bnkn akn )
Neu k1 , , kn khong khac nhau tng oi, th det(ak1 , , akn ) = 0 (He qua 2). Neu k1 , , kn khac nhau tng oi, th ton tai Sn sao cho ki = (i), i. Suy ra
det AB =
Sn
b1(1) bn(n) det(a(1) , , a(n) ) ()b1(1) bn(n) det(a1 , , an ) det tB det A = det B det A
=
Sn
T (i) ta co det A1 det A = det A1 A = det In = 1. Suy ra (ii).

3.Tnh nh thc
3.1 Dung bien oi s cap. Da vao tnh chat cua nh thc, He qua 3 cua nh
Bc 1: Dung cac phep bien oi s cap 1 va 3 a A ve B dang tam giac tren. Bc 2: det A = (1)p tch cac so hang ng cheo cua B ,
ly 2.2, ta co thuat toan tnh det A:
trong o p la so phep bien oi 1.
70 V du.
3 5 7 1 2 3 2 3 3 1 3 5 2 4 2 4 1 2 3 3 5 7 = 2 3 3 1 3 5 4 2 2 4 (D1 D2 )
1 2 3 4 0 1 2 10 = 0 1 9 12 0 1 2 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 10 = 0 0 7 2 0 0 0 10 = 1.(1).7.(10) = 70
(D2 3D1 , D3 + 2D1 , D4 D1 )
(D3 + D2 , D4 + D2 )
3.2 Khai trien theo dong (cot). Cho A = (aij ) M atK (n)
Cong thc khai trien theo dong i: Cong thc khai trien theo cot j : Qui tac dau
(1)i+j
n
at Aij = ma tran con cua A tao bi A bang cach bo dong i cot j . Khi o ta co
det A =
n
(1)i+j aij det Aij (1)i+j aij det Aij
j=1
det A =
i=1
co the mo ta:

+ + + + + +
.. .
.. .
.. .
.. .
Chng minh: Do Menh e 2.1, ch can chng minh cong thc khai trien theo cot.
Goi e1 , , en la c s chnh tac cua K n . Trc het ta co
det(a1 , , an1 , en ) = det Ann
Mot cach tng t, vi moi i, j bang cach hoan v cot i ve cot cuoi (co (n i) nghch the), va dong j ve dong cuoi (co (n j) nghch the), do He qua 1 cua 2.2, ta co
det(a1 , , ei , , an ) = (1)ni+nj det Aij = (1)i+j det Aij
cot j
Chng V. nh thc
71
Vay khi co nh j
det A = det(a1 , , aj , , an ) = det(a1 , ,
n n i=1
aij ei , , an )
=
i=1
aij det(a1 , , ei , , an ) =
n i=1
aij (1)i+j det Aij
Nhan xet. Khi dung phng phap nay nen khai trien theo cot hay dong co nhieu phan t khong. V du. a) Khai trien theo cot 2 nh thc sau, ta co
1 12 11 10 2 0 0 9 3 0 0 8 4 5 6 7 12 0 5 = 2 11 0 6 10 8 7 = 2.(8). = 187 12 5 11 6 1 3 4 + 9 12 0 5 11 0 6 + 9(3) 12 5 11 6
b) Tnh
Dn =
+ 0 0 1 + 0 0 1 +
.. .
.. .
.. .
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
.. .
0 0 0
.. .
0 0 0
.. .
+ 1 +
Ta co D1 = + va D2 = ( + )2 . Khai trien theo cot 1, ta co

0 1 + 0 1 Dn = ( + )Dn1 0 0 0 +
.. .
.. .
.. .
.. .
Vay Dn = ( + )Dn1 Dn2. Suy ra Dn Dn1 = (Dn1 Dn2) = = n2 (D2 D1 ). Suy ra Dn = n + Dn1 = n + ( n1 + Dn2 ) = = n + n1 + + n . Vay
Dn = n+1 n+1 ( = )
72 Nhan xet. anh gia so phep toan e tnh nh thc ma tran cap n: Phng phap bien oi s cap: e c bac thang th 1 ta thc hien bien oi Dj + j D1 (j = 2, , n), so phep toan can la 1 phep chia (tnh j ), n 1 phep nhan (tnh j D1 ), n 1 phep cong (tnh Dj + j D1 ). Vay bc nay can (1 + 2(n 1))(n 1) phep toan. Tng t, e co bac thang th 2 can (1 + 2(n 2))(n 2) phep toan. Vay e ma tran co dang tam giac, roi tch so hang ng cheo, so phep toan can:
[(n 1) + (n 2) + + 1] + 2[(n 1)2 + (n 2)2 + + 12 ] + n 1 (n 1)n(2n 1) n(n + 1) +2 1 = O(n3 ) = 2 6
Phng phap khai trien theo dong hay cot: la viec e qui e tnh nh thc
det(ma
tran cap n) =
n i=1
ci det(ma
tran cap n 1)
Goi T (n) la so phep toan e tnh nh thc cap n theo cach tren. Ta co
T (n) = n (phep
cong
)+n (phep
nhan ci det(..))+nT (n1) (phep tnh cac det cap n1)
Suy ra
T (n) = 2n + nT (n 1) nT (n 1) n!
2nnn en
(cong thc Stirling)
Vay trong viec tnh toan nh thc cap ln, ngi ta khong dung phng phap th hai. e so sanh, chang han n = 20, neu n3 phep tnh c thc hien trong 1 giay, th n! phep tnh can 8.1010 gi 9.000.000 nam.
3.3 Cong thc Laplace. Cho A = (aij ) M atK (n).
Cho I = (i1 , , ik ) va J = (j1 , , jk ) la cac bo a ch so tang dan. Goi AIJ = ma tran con cua A giao cua k dong ch so thuoc I , k cot ch so thuoc J . AIJ = ma tran con cua A giao cua n k dong ch so thuoc Jn \ I , n k cot ch so thuoc Jn \ J . Ky hieu n(I, J) = (i1 + + ik ) + (j1 + + jk ). Khi o
det A =
J={j1 , ,jk }j1 <<jk
(1)n(I,J) det AIJ det AIJ
det A =
I={i1 , ,ik }i1 <<ik
(1)n(I,J) det AIJ det AIJ
Cong thc tren tong quat cong thc khai trien theo cot/dong, ay khong trnh bay chng minh. Thng dung e tnh nh thc ma tran chia khoi.
Chng V. nh thc
4. Mot so ng dung cua nh thc
73
4.1 Cong thc tnh ma tran ngc. Cho A M atK (n). at Aij = ma tran con cua A tao bi A bang cach bo dong i cot j , va aij = (1)i+j det Aij goi la phan phu ai so cua phan t aij . Ma tran phu hp cua A c nh ngha: adj(A) = t (ij ) a Tnh chat.
adj(A)A = Aadj(A) = (det A)In
k
Theo cong thc khai trien nh thc theo dong ta co: - neu i = j , th cii = det A; - neu i = j , th cij = (nh thc cua ma tran co 2 dong giong nhau) = 0. Vay Aadj(A) = (det A)In . Lap luan tng t cho adj(A)A = (det A)In .
Chng minh: Goi Aadj(A) = (cij ). Khi o cij =
aik ajk .
Menh e.
A M atK (n)
kha nghch khi va ch khi det A = 0. Khi o

A1 = (det A)1 adj(A)
Nhan xet. Ngi ta t dung cong thc tren e tnh ma tran ngc v so phep toan ln. Tuy nhien, u iem la no cho dang tng minh cua ma tran ngc. V du. Cho ma tran cap 2
A=
ieu kien ton tai ma tran nghch: Khi o:

A1 =
a b c d det A = ad bc = 0 +d c b +a = 1 (ad bc) d b c a
1 (ad bc)
Bai tap: Tnh
2 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 2
4.2 Cong thc Cramer. Xet phng trnh Ax = b co so phng trnh bang so an. Khi o neu x = (x1 , , xn ) la nghiem , th
xi det A = det Ai (i = 1, , n)
trong o Ai = ma tran A thay cot i bi cot b.
Suy ra
Chng minh: Do x la nghiem phng trnh ta co x1 a1 + + xn an = b.

x1 det A = = = = det(x1 a1 , a2 , , an ) det(b x2 a2 xn an , a2 , , an ) det(b, a2 , , an ) x2 det(a2 , a2 , , an ) xn det(an , a2 , , an ) det A1 0 0
74 Ta a chng minh cong thc cho i = 1. Tng t cho i > 1.
He Cramer la he phng trnh Ax = b co so phng trnh bang so an va det A = 0. Nh vay he Cramer co duy nhat nghiem la x = A1 b, va theo cong thc tren
xi = det A (i = 1, , n) det Ai
Nhan xet. Cong thc tren cho dang tng minh cua nghiem (la thng cua cac a thc cua cac he so cua he). Tuy nhien trong tnh toan so, e giai he phng trnh c ln ngi ta thng dung phng phap kh Gauss (hay cai tien cua no). V du. Tm a thc bac hai P (x) ma o th trong mat phang Oxy qua 3 iem (1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 6). Ga s P (x) = a + bx + cx2 . e xac nh a, b, c t ieu kien: P (1) = 2, P (2) = 3, P (3) = 6, ta co he phng trnh
a +
b + c = 2 a + 2b + 4c = 3 a + 3b + 9c = 6
He la he Cramer v nh thc cua ma tran bieu dien la nh thc Vandermonde:

1 1 1 1 2 22 1 3 32 = (2 1)(3 1)(3 2) = 2 (= 0)
T cong thc Cramer, ta co

a= 1 2 2 1 1 3 2 4 6 3 9 = 3, b = 1 2 1 2 1 1 3 4 1 6 9 = 2, c = 1 2 1 1 2 1 2 3 1 3 6 = 1.
Vay a thc can tm la: Tong quat, ta co: cho bi bang sau
P (x) = 3 2x + x2
a thc noi suy. Ga s mot ham so

x f (x) x0 y0
y = f (x) x2 y2
a xac nh c
xn yn
n+1
ga tr
x1 y1
Mot a thc noi suy cho f la a thc bac n co dang

P (x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + + an xn ,
sao cho P (xi ) = yi = f (xi ) vi i = 0 , n. e xac nh a0 , a1 , , an ta co he phng trnh tuyen tnh ma ma tran bieu dien la
Chng V. nh thc
75

ma tran Vandermonde:

1 x0 1 x1
1 xn x2 n
.. .
.. .
x2 0 x2 1
.. .
xn a0 0 xn a1 1 xn n
.. .
.. .
y0 y1
.. .
an
yn
T cong thc Cramer va nh thc Vandermonde, ta co
Menh e. Cho n + 1 so khac y0 , y1 , , yn K , luon ton tai cho P (xi ) = yi , i = 0, 1, , n.

n
nhau x0 , x1 , , xn K va n + 1 ga tr tuy y duy nhat mot a thc P (x) bac khong qua n sao
Nhan xet. De kiem chng a thc can tm co dang

P (x) =
i=0
yi Pi (x),
Pi (x) =
xk ) . k=i (xi xk )
k=i (x
Cong thc tren c goi la cong thc noi suy Lagrange. xa tuyen tnh co the a ve tnh hang ma tran. Trong tnh toan ta thng dung phng phap bien oi s cap e tnh hang. Ngoai ra e biet hang ta co tieu chuan da vao nh thc sau. Cho A M atK (m, n). Mot k-minor hay t thc cap k cua A la mot nh thc cua mot ma tran con cap k cua A (tao bi giao cua k dong k cot). Ta co
4.3 Tnh hang. Nh lap luan III.1.4, viec tnh hang cua he vector va hang anh
Menh e. rankA
= cap cao nhat cua t thc cua A khac khong, i.e. rankA = r ton tai mot r-minor = 0 va moi (r + 1)-minor = 0
Chng minh: Goi r = rankA va r la cap cao nhat cua t thc cua A khac khong.
Bang cach anh so lai co the ga s a1 , , ar la cac vector cot oc lap tuyen tnh cua A. Theo Bo e thay the Ch.I.2.3, co the bo sung them n r vector thuoc c s chnh tac e he a1 , , ar , ej1 , , ejnr la c s cua K n . Suy ra det(a1 , , ar , ej1 , , ejnr ) = 0, i.e. A co mot r-minor khac khong. Do nh ngha r , r r . Mat khac, theo nh ngha r , khong mat tnh tong quat ta co the ga thiet det(aij )1i,jr = 0. Viet cach khac det(a1 , , ar , er +1 , , en ) = 0. Suy ra a1 , , ar oc lap tuyen tnh. Vay r r(= rankA). Suy ra r = r .
He qua. Hang ma tran = so cot oc lap tuyen tnh = so dong oc lap tuyen tnh.
V du.
1 2 3 4 rank 5 6 7 8 = 2 6 8 10 12

v co t thc cap 2
1 2 5 6
= 0
va moi
76 t thc cap 3 eu triet tieu. (that ra ch can kiem tra cac t thc cap 3 la m rong cua t thc tren).
R co the nh hai hng (dng neu cung hng vi chieu tang, am neu ngc lai). Trong R 2 co the nh hai hng (thuan hay ngc chieu kim ong ho). nh ngha chnh xac cua hng nh sau: Cho V la khong gian vector n chieu tren R. Cho (e 1 , , en ) va (f1 , , fn ) la cac c s cua V . Khi o ma tran chuyen c s P = (pij ) sao cho fj = i pij ei . Ta noi (e1 , , en ) va (f1 , , fn ) cung hng neuu det P > 0, (e1 , , en ) va (f1 , , fn ) ngc hng neuu det P < 0. Nh vay tap cac c s cua V c chia thanh hai lp tng ng, moi lp gom cac c s cung hng vi nhau. Lp cung hng vi (e 1 , , en ) ky hieu la [e1 , , en ], lp cac c s ngc hng ky hieu la [e 1 , , en ].
4.4 Hng - nh hng. Trc quan: tren
V du. Trong Rn c s chnh tac xac nh hng chnh tac. Do nh thc cua c s chnh tac la 1 > 0, nen c s (e1 , , en ) la cung hng chnh tac khi va ch khi det(e1 , , en ) > 0. Theo ngon ng trc quan, hng chnh tac trong R la hng dng, hng chnh tac trong R2 la hng ngc chieu kim ong ho, con hng chnh tac trong R3 la hng tam dien thuan. Vay trong R3 , bo ba (u, v, w) la thuan khi chung cung hng vi hng chnh tac hay tch hon hp (u, v, w) = det(u, v, w) > 0 Mot bien oi tuyen tnh T : V V, goi la bao toan hng neuu det T > 0, va goi la ao hng neuu det T < 0. Nh vay mot toan t bao toan hng khi va ch khi no bien oi mot c s thanh mot c s cung hng.
4.5 nh thc va o dai, dien tch, the tch. Trong R 3, vi tch vo hng Euclid
< , >,
nen co khai niem o dai, dien tch, the tch. Ta co moi lien he vi nh thc:
a1 = det < a1 , a1 > < a1 , a1 > < a1 , a2 > < a2 , a1 > < a2 , a2 >
1 2 1 2
o dai vector a1 :
Dien tch hnh bnh hanh tao bi a1 , a2 : dt(a1 , a2 ) = The tch khoi bnh hanh tao bi a1 , a2 , a3 : tt(a1 , a2 , a3 ) = | det(a1 , a2 , a3 )| =
< a1 , a1 > < a1 , a2 > < a1 , a3 > < a2 , a1 > < a2 , a2 > < a2 , a3 > < a3 , a1 > < a3 , a2 > < a3 , a3 >
Chng minh: Ta co
dt(a1 , a2 )2
a2 2 (1 cos2 (a1 , a2 ) < a1 , a2 > = < a1 , a1 >< a2 , a2 > 1 < a1 , a1 >< a2 , a2 > = < a1 , a1 >< a2 , a2 > < a1 , a2 >< a2 , a1 > < a1 , a1 > < a1 , a2 > = < a2 , a1 > < a2 , a2 > = a1 a2 = a1
2 sin2 (a , a ) 1 2
Chng V. nh thc
77
< a i , aj >=
ta a i j
e chng minh cong thc the tch, e y la A = (a1 a2 a3 ), th
, nen neu ma tran
< a1 , a1 > < a1 , a2 > < a1 , a3 > t AA = < a2 , a1 > < a2 , a2 > < a2 , a3 > < a3 , a1 > < a3 , a2 > < a3 , a3 >
Vay det
t AA
= dett A det A = (det A)2 = det(a1 , a2 , a3 )2 = tt(a1 , a2 , a3 )2 .

2
Tong quat, trong Rn co trang b tch vo hng Euclid < , >. The tch k chieu cua hnh bnh hanh tao bi a1 , , ak Rn , c nh ngha qui nap theo k:
V1 (a1 ) = a1 , Vk (a1 , , ak ) = Vk1 (a1 , , ak1 ) a k
trong o ak = ak + a la phan tch: ak L(a1 , , ak1 ) va ak la hnh chieu vuong k goc cua ak len L(a1 , , ak1 ). The tch co quan he vi ma tran Gramm c nh ngha:
G(a1 , , ak ) =
< a1 , a1 > < a1 , a2 > < a2 , a1 > < a2 , a2 > < ak , a1 > < ak , a2 >
.. .
.. .
< a1 , ak > < a2 , ak >
.. .
< ak , ak >
Nhan xet. Goi A = (a1 ak ). Theo phep nhan ma tran t AA = G(a1 , , ak ). Ta co moi quan he gia the tch va nh thc ma tran Gramm:
V (a1 , , ak ) = det G(a1 , , ak ) = det t AA
ac biet khi k = n, ta co
V (a1 , , an ) = | det A|
Ta co a2 = a1 , < a2 , a1 >= 0. Suy ra

< a1 , a1 > < a1 , a2 > < a2 , a1 > < a2 , a2 > = = =
Chng minh: Trng hp tong quat chng minh giong nh trng hp k = 2 sau ay.
< a1 , a1 > < a1 , a2 > + < a1 , a2 > < a2 , a1 > < a1 , a2 > + < a2 , a2 > < a1 , a1 > < a1 , a2 > < a1 , a1 > + < a2 , a1 > < a2 , a2 > < a2 , a1 > a1 2 a2 2 a2 0
2
T o suy ra cong thc tren Nhan xet. tnh.

2
det G(a1 , , ak ) 0,
va = 0 khi va ch khi a1 , , ak phu thuoc tuyen
Xem chng khong gian vector Euclid
78 V du. Trong R3 e tnh dien tch hnh bnh hanh tao bi a1 = (3, 1, 0), a2 = (1, 3, 2), ta lap ma tran cot toa o
3 1 A= 1 3 0 2

Ta co
AA =
3 1 0 1 3 2
3 1 1 3 = 0 2
10 6 6 14
Vay dt(a1 , a2 ) = det t AA = 140 60 = 2 26. Mot cach khac e tnh la dt(a1 , a2 ) = a1 a2 . Cho T : Rn Rn , la anh xa sinh bi ma tran A M atR (n), T (x) = Ax. Goi P la hnh bnh hanh tao bi b1 , , bn Rn . Khi o the tch cua P la
V (P ) = | det(b1 , , bn )| = det B,
vi
B = (b1 bn )
Anh cua P qua T la hnh bnh hanh T (P ) tao bi T (b1 ) = Ab1 , , T (bn ) = Abn . Theo phep nhan ma tran AB = (Ab1 Abn ). Vay the tch cua T (P ) la
V (T (P )) = | det(Ab1 , , Abn )| = | det(AB)| = | det A|| det B| = | det A|V (P )
Nh vay, | det A| xem nh la yeu to co dan the tch cua hnh khi qua anh xa T . V du. Cho T : R3 R3 , T (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (x1 + x3 , 2x2 , 2x1 + 5x3 ). The tch hnh bnh hanh anh cua hnh hop tao bi ce1 , ce2 , ce3 (c > 0) la cac vector song song vi c s chnh tac c tnh nh sau: Ma tran bieu dien T trong c s chnh tac: Vay the tch hnh o la V
A= 0
= | det A|c3 = 6c3 .
1 0 1 2 0 . | det A| = 6. 2 0 5
Tong quat hn, cho T : Rk Rn , la anh xa sinh bi A M atR (n, k), T (x) = Ax, vi k n. Khi o, co the chng minh the tch k chieu cua hnh bnh hanh P R k , va cua hnh bnh hanh anh T (P ) Rn co quan he:
Vk (P ) = det t AA Vk (P )
he ham. Cho f0 , f1 , , fn la cac ham so xac nh tren [a, b]. He ham phu thuoc tuyen tnh khi va ch khi ton tai a0 , , an R khong ong thi triet tieu sao cho a0 f0 (x) + a1 f1 (x) + + an fn (x) = 0, vi moi x [a, b]. Neu cac ham trong he kha vi en cap u ln, th ang thc tren tng ng

4.6 Wronskian. Mot ng dung khac cua nh thc la khai niem Wronskian cua mot
a0 f0 (x) + a0 f0 (x) +
(n)
.. .
a1 f1 (x) + a1 f1 (x) +
(n)
.. .
+ +
an fn (x) = 0 an fn (x) = 0
(n)
.. .
.. .
x [a, b].
a0 f0 (x) + a1 f1 (x) +
+ an fn (x) = 0
Chng V. nh thc
79
T o nh ngha Wronskian cua he ham la ma tran
W (f0 , , fn )(x) =
f0 (x) f (x) 0
(n)
.. .
f1 (x) f1 (x)
(n)
.. .
fn (x) fn (x) fn (x)

(n)
.. .
f0 (x) f1 (x)
Vay neu ton tai x0 [a, b], sao cho det W (f0 , , fn )(x0 ) = 0, th he ham la oc lap tuyen tnh. Chang han, he ham {x, sin x, cos x} co Wronskian khac khong, nen oc lap tuyen tnh. He ham {sin2 x, | sin x| sin x, sin x} vi x [1, 1], tuy co wronskian bang khong, nhng cung oc lap tuyen tnh. (Co mau thuan g khong? Tai sao?)
VI. Cheo hoa
Toa o mot vector hay ma tran bieu dien cua mot anh xa tuyen tnh la phu thuoc vao c s. Chng nay chung ta quan tam en moi quan he cua cac bieu dien o trong cac c s khac nhau. ac biet, bai toan tm c s tot e mot anh tuyen tnh co ma tran bieu dien dang n gian (e co thong tin ro rang ve mat nh tnh cung nh nh lng cho anh xa nay) c giai quyet mot phan. Cu the, chng nay cho li giai cua cau hoi: khi nao mot phep bien oi tuyen tnh co ma tran bieu dien trong c s nao o co dang ng cheo? thuat toan tm c s o?. Mot vai ng dung neu cuoi chng nh giai phng trnh sai phan hay xet day e qui tuyen tnh.
1. Chuyen c s
Bai toan 1: Cho B va C la cac c s cua khong gian vector V . Khi o moi x V co toa o theo B, mat khac cung co toa o theo C . Tm moi quan he gia toa o cu xB va mi xC cua x V . 1.1 Ma tran chuyen c s.
c s cua V . Khi o
f1 f2 . . . f n
Cho
= =
B = (e1 , , en )
va
C = (f1 , , fn )
la cac
p11 e1 + p21 e2 + + pn1 en p12 e1 + p22 e2 + + pn2 en
= p1n e1 + p2n e2 + + pnn en

.. .
i.e.
p1j
fj =
i=1
pij ei , hay B
(fj )B =
.. .
(j = 1, , n).
pnj
Ma tran chuyen c s
sang C c nh ngha:
P = ((f1 )B (fn )B ) = (pij )nn
Nhan xet. Theo phep nhan ma tran, co the viet (f 1 fn ) = (e1 en )P hay C = BP . B T nh ngha cua ma tran bieu dien cua anh xa idV , ta co P = MC (id). C (id)M B (id) = M C (id) = I , nen P la ma tran kha nghch va ma tran chuyen Do MB C C C c s t C sang B chnh la P 1 = MB (id). S o tm ma tran chuyen c s B = (e1, , en ) sang C = (f1 , , fn ) trong K n : Dung thuat toan Gauss-Jordan, ta co Khi viet x = id(x), t ma tran bieu dien cua anh xa tuyen tnh id, ta co he thc lien he gia cac toa o cua x trong cac c s tren: C xB = MB (id)xC = P xC va xC = P 1 xB
B (e1 en |f1 fn ) (I|P ), P = MC (id)
82
Ga s f : V V la anh xa K -tuyen tnh. Goi P la ma tran chuyen c s B sang C cua V . Goi Q la ma tran chuyen c s B sang C cua V . Khi o
1.2 Ma tran bieu dien anh xa tuyen tnh trong cac c s khac nhau.
C B MC (f ) = Q1 MB (f )P
Chng minh: Cong thc tren suy t moi lien he gia hp anh xa tuyen tnh va tch
ma tran, va nh ngha:
C C C B B B MC (f ) = MC (id f id) = MB (id)MB (f )MC (id) = Q1 MB (f )P
1.3. Menh e. Cho f : V

chieu. Khi o ton tai c dang
V s B
la anh xa K -tuyen tnh gia cac khong gian hu han cua V va B cua V sao cho ma tran bieu dien f co
B MB (f ) =
Ir 0 0 0
Cho A M atK (m, n). GlK (m), sao cho:
Theo ngon ng ma tran, khang nh tren tng ng vi khang nh sau:

Q1 AP = Ir 0 0 0 .
Khi o ton tai cac ma tran kha nghch P GLK (n), Q
la c s cua
V c xay dng (f (e1 ), , f (er )) la c s cua
bang cach bo sung he vector a cho. Khi o he Imf . Goi B la c s cua V c xay dng bang cach bo sung he o. De thay cac c s va xay dng co tnh chat can tm. Co the chng minh menh e di dang ma tran (xem I.2.8). Nhan xet. So r trong menh e tren chnh la hang. Cho A, A M atK (m, n). Xet quan he sau:
AA P Glk (n), Q GlK (m) : A = Q1 AP
Chng minh: Goi (er+1 , , en ) la c s cua Kerf . Goi B = (e1 , , er , er+1 , , en )
Khi o la quan he tng ng tren M atK (m, n). Theo menh e tren ta co: A A khi va ch khi rankA = rankA . Menh e tren cho thay neu la chon cac c s thch hp, th viec nh tnh cung nh nh lng anh xa tuyen tnh tr nen ro rang, thuan li. Chang han: Neu r = n = dim V , th n m va f co tnh chat nh phep nhung:
Kn (x1 , , xn ) (x1 , , xn , 0, , 0) K n O K n K mn .
Neu r = m = dim V , th m n va f co tnh chat nh phep chieu:

K m K nm (x1 , , xm , , xn ) (x1 , , xm ) K m .
Chng VI. Cheo hoa
83
Phan con lai cua chng nay ta quan tam en bai toan sau:
V f : V V la mot t ong cau tuyen tnh. Tm c s B cua B sao cho ma tran bieu dien cua f trong c s o, M B (f ), co dang n gian (chang han, dang ng cheo), e co thong tin ro hn ve f , va tnh toan de dang hn.
Bai toan 2: Cho
Nhan xet. A va A la cac ma tran bieu dien cua cung mot anh xa tuyen tnh f trong cac c s khac nhau khi va ch khi A = P 1 AP (vi P la ma tran chuyen c s). T o, ngi ta a ra khai niem:
1.4 Ma tran ong dang.
tran kha nghch P sao cho A
A, A M atK (n) = P 1 AP .
goi la
ong dang
neuu ton tai ma
Nhan xet. Quan he ong dang la quan he tng ng tren M at K (n). Theo ngon ng ma tran, bai toan tren tng ng vi bai toan:
Bai toan 2: Cho ma tran vuong A. Tm ma tran kha nghch

co dang n gian. V du. Cho anh xa tuyen tnh f : R2 R2 ,
x y
sao cho .
P 1 AP
Trong c s chnh tac viec nh tnh f hay tnh toan da tren A khong thuan li. Thay v c s chnh tac, neu chon c s (f1 = (1, 1), f2 = (1, 1)), th ma tran bieu dien f trong c s o la ma tran ng cheo A = 1 0 . 0 3 Nh vay, trong c s mi f co dang truc OY (chang han anh cua ng tron tam O la ellip). Con viec tnh chuyen ve tnh A k n gian hn nhieu.
Y y Y
s d d f2 d f1 s d d d d d d
Hoi: f thc hien phep bien oi hnh hoc? (chang han, tm anh cua hnh tron, hnh vuong,... qua f ). Tnh Ak ? 2 Ma tran bieu dien f trong c s chnh tac la A = 1 1 . 2
2x y x + 2y
X Y
X 3Y
la phep dan 3 lan theo

Ak
co the
X f x
s d d 3f2 d X s d d d d f1 d d d d d d d
Viec tm mot c s nh v du tren se c trnh bay tiep sau ay.
84
2. Vector rieng - Gia tr rieng
goi la ga tr rieng cua f neuu ton tai x V, x = 0, sao cho f (x) = x . goi la ga tr rieng cua A neuu ton tai x K n , x = 0, sao cho Ax = x . Khi o x goi la vector rieng ng vi ga tr rieng .
K K
2.1 nh ngha. Cho f LK (V, V ) va A M atK (n).
tr rieng cua A khi va ch khi phng trnh thuan nhat khong tam thng. T o e tm gia tr rieng va vector rieng, ta da vao menh e sau: (i) K la gia tr rieng cua A khi va ch khi det(A I) = 0. (ii) x la vector rieng ng vi ga tr rieng khi va ch khi x la nghiem khong tam thng cua phng trnh thuan nhat: (A I)x = 0.
K la ga (A I)x = 0 co nghiem
Nhan xet.
Menh e. Cho A M atK (n). Khi o
2.2 a thc ac trng.

A M atK (n).
P A () = det(A I)
goi la
a thc ac trng
cua
Dang cua a thc ac trng: Tnh nh thc ta co

PA () = a11 a12 a21 a22
.. .
an1
an2
...
a1n a2n ann
.. .
= (1)n n + an1 n1 + + a0 .
Cac so hang bac n va n1 chnh la so hang bac tng ng trong (a 11 ) (ann ). Vay he so bac n la (1)n , va he so bac n 1 la an1 = (a11 + + ann ). Ky hieu Tr(A) = a11 + + ann (tong cac phan t ng cheo) goi la vet cua A. Khi cho = 0, PA (0) = det A. Vay a0 = det A.
2.3 Menh e. Neu A ong dang vi A, th PA () = PA (). ac biet, khi o Tr(A) = Tr(A ), det A = det A .
Chng minh: Neu A = P 1 AP , th
PA () = det(P 1 AP I) = det(P 1 (A I)P ) = det P 1 det(A I) det P = det(A I) = PA ()
ong nhat cac he so bac n 1 va bac 0, ta co tnh bat bien cua Tr(A) va det A.
2.3 nh ngha. Cho t ong cau tuyen tnh f : V V . Goi A la ma tran bieu dien f trong c s nao o cua V . T menh e tren cac nh ngha sau la hp cach (i.e. khong phu thuoc c s): nh thc cua f : det f = det A, vet cua f : Tr(f ) = TrA, va
Chng VI. Cheo hoa

a thc ac trng cua
85
f : Pf () = det(A I),
V du. a) Phep oi xng qua phan giac th I trong R2 :
a thc ac trng la 2 1 = ( 1)( + 1), nen cac ga tr rieng Vay cac vector rieng thoa:
y x = x y
x y
y x
0 1 x 1 0 y la 1 va 1.
hay
y x
x y
Vay neu (a + d)2 4(ad bc) < 0, th A khong co gia tr rieng thc. Chang han cac phep quay goc = k (k Z)
chnh la cac phan giac th I va th II (la cac tap bat bien qua phep oi xng). b b) Cho A = a d M atR (2). Khi o PA () = 2 (a + d) + (ad bc). c
Chu y: Theo nh ly c ban cua ai so: moi a thc phc eu co nghiem phc.
Vay moi ma tran tren C eu co gia tr rieng (phc). Bai tap: Xem v du phan trc, tm lai cac gia tr rieng 1 vector rieng la cac vector nam tren phan giac th I va th II.
3. Dang ng cheo - Cheo hoa
= 1, 2 = 3
va cac
Anh xa K -tuyen tnh f : V V goi la cheo hoa c tren K neuu ton tai c s B cua V sao cho ma tran bieu dien cua f trong c s B co dang ng cheo, i.e. ton tai c s B cha toan la vector rieng cua f . Ma tran A M atK (n) goi la cheo hoa c tren K neuu ton tai ma tran kha nghch P sao cho P 1 AP la ma tran ng cheo.
3.1 nh ngha.
3.2 Tieu chuan cheo hoa c. A M atK (n) cheo hoa c tren K khi va ch khi hai tieu chuan sau ay thoa: (i) a thc ac trng PA () = 0 co moi nghiem trong K (ke ca boi), i.e.
ton tai 1 , , s K khac nhau sao cho: PA () = (1)n
s i=1
( i )ri .
(ii) Vi moi i {1, , s}, phng trnh:
(A i I)x = 0
co u ri nghiem c s.
Trc khi chng minh, ta co nhan xet sau: Vi moi K , V = {x : Ax = x} = {x : (A I)x = 0}, la khong gian vector con. Hn na, neu x V , th Ax = x, i.e. A(V ) V (V co tnh A-bat bien).
86
Chng minh: Ta can bo e sau: Bo e. Ga s 1 , , s K la cac ga tr rieng khac nhau cua A, va e1, , es K n la cac vector rieng ng vi cac ga tr rieng o. Khi o e1 , , es K n la he oc lap tuyen tnh.
Ta chng minh Bo e bang qui nap theo s. Vi s = 1, Bo e ung v moi vector rieng theo nh ngha eu khac O. Ga thiet Bo e ung ti s 1. Cho e1 , , es la cac vector rieng ng vi ga tr rieng khac nhau 1 , , s K . Gia s 1 , , s K , sao cho: 1 e1 + + s es = O. (). 1 + + es = O. (). Nhan A vao hai ve, ta co: 1 1 e s s Thc hien s () (): 1 (s 1 )e1 + + s1 (s s1 )es1 = O. T gia thiet qui nap va s = i , suy ra 1 = = s1 = 0. Thay vao (), ta cung co s = 0. Vay e1 , , es oc lap tuyen tnh, i.e. Bo e ung vi s. Bay gi la chng minh nh ly: (): Ga s ton tai P GlK (n) sao cho
P 1 AP = D =
diag(1 , , 1 , , s , , s ).
r1 rs s
Khi o PA () = PD () = (1)n
Do AP = DP , i.e. moi cot cua P la mot vector rieng cua A. Hn na, P kha nghch nen cac cot la cac vector oc lap tuyen tnh. Suy ra (ii). (): T (i) suy ra A co cac ga tr rieng 1 , , s K khac nhau. T (ii) suy ra moi ga tr rieng i , co ri vector rieng oc lap tuyen tnh: ei , , ei i . r 1 Theo Bo e he e1 , , e11 , , es , , ess la oc lap tuyen tnh, va theo (ii), he gom r r 1 1 r1 + + rs = n vector, nen he la mot c s cua K n . at P = (e1 ess ). Khi o P kha nghch va AP = diag(1 , , 1 , , s , , s )P , r 1 i.e.
P 1 AP
i=1
( i )ri ,
i.e. (i) thoa.
co dang ng cheo.
A
r1
rs
hoa c.
He qua. Neu moi gia tr rieng cua

Input: A M atK (n). Output: A cheo hoa c?
thuoc K va khac nhau tng oi, th A cheo
3.3 Thuat toan cheo hoa ma tran.

Neu co xac nh P
GlK (n)
va D la ma tran ng cheo:
P 1 AP = D
Bc 1: Giai phng trnh PA () = det(A I) = 0, tm gia tr rieng. - Neu khong u n nghiem thuoc K , th A khong the cheo hoa (tren K ). - Neu u n nghiem 1 , , s K vi boi r1 , , rs tng ng, th qua bc 2. Bc 2: Vi i = 1, , s, giai phng trnh tuyen tnh:
(A i I)x = 0 ,
tm vector rieng .
Chng VI. Cheo hoa
87
- Neu so bien t do < ri (so boi), th A khong the cheo hoa (tren moi trng). - Neu so bien t do = ri , xac nh ri nghiem oc lap tuyen tnh: ei , , ei i . r 1 Bc 3: Xep cac nghiem ei theo cot: P = (e1 ess ). Khi o P kha nghch va r 1 j
P 1 AP =
diag(1 , , 1 , , s , , s )
r1 rs
Thuat toan cheo hoa anh xa tuyen tnh.
Input: f : V V la K -tuyen tnh. C Output: C s C sao cho MC (f ) co dang ng cheo.
B Bc 1: Co nh mot c s B cua V , xac nh A = MB (f ). Bc 2: Cheo hoa A, ta co P sao cho P 1 AP = D la ma tran cheo. C Bc 3: C s C = BP thoa MC (f ) = D.
Chu y: Khong co cach giai bang can thc phng trnh a thc bac 5 tong quat, theo ngha khong the bieu dien nghiem nh la bieu thc gom cac phep toan ai so (cong, tr, nhan, chia) va can so (bac 2, 3, ) cua cac he so cua a thc. Nh vay, Bc 1 cua thuat toan tren khong phai luc nao co the tm nghiem chnh xac c khi n 5.
V du. Ta n hanh cheo a (neu c) cac ma tran: tie ho a)
A = 3
+ 3y z = 0 3x + 3y z = 0 . He co nghiem tong quat: (x, y, 3x+3y), x, y K . 3x + 3y z = 0 1 0 Chon vector c s: 0 , 1 . 3 3 - Vi := 1 (n), he phng trnh 2x + 3y z = 0 3x + 4y z = 0 , co nghiem tong quat: (x, x, x), x K . 3x + 3y = 0 1 Chon vector c s: 1 . 1 1 0 1 Vay A cheo hoa c. Lap P = 0 1 1 . Khi o P 1 AP = diag(2, 2, 1). 3 3 1
Tm ga tr Tm vector rieng: - Vi := 2 (boi 2), vector rieng tng ng la nghiem he phng trnh
3x
1 3 1 5 1 . 3 3 1 rieng: PA () = ( 2)2 ( 1).
b) Xet
R =
cos sin sin cos
( = k).
88 a thc ac trng: P () = 2 2 cos + 1, co biet thc cos2 1 = sin2 < 0. Tren R a thc vo nghiem. Vay R khong cheo hoa c tren trng thc R. Ve mat hnh hoc R la ma tran bieu dien phep quay goc trong c s chnh tac. Tren C a thc co 2 nghiem khac nhau: 1 = cos + i sin , 2 = cos i sin . Vay R cheo hoa c tren C. c)
3 a b A = 0 1 1 . 0 0 1

Ta co: PA () = ( 1)2 ( 3). Vi := 1 (boi 2), he phng trnh

2x + ay
Nghiem phu thuoc 1 tham so, i.e. khong gian nghiem co so chieu 1 A khong the cheo hoa c (tren moi trng). c s chnh tac:
+ bz = 0 z = 0 0z = 0
, co nghiem tong quat:
( a y, y, 0), y K . 2 <
so boi. Vay
3.4 Mot ap dung vao hnh hoc. Xet bien oi trong R 2 , co ma tran bieu dien trong
S = cos sin sin cos
a thc ac trng cua S la P () = 2 1. Vay cac gia tr rieng la 1 va 1. Vi gia tr rieng 1, cac vector rieng thoa phng trnh: (cos 1)x + sin y = 0. o la ng thang trong R2 : (D) sin x cos y = 0 2 2 Vi gia tr rieng 1, cac vector rieng thoa phng trnh: (cos + 1)x + sin y = 0. o la ng thang trong R2 : (D ) cos x + sin y = 0. 2 2 Ta co D D . Goi P la ma tran chuyen c s chnh tac sang c s (f1 , f2 ) la cac vector ch phng n v cua D, D . 0 Ta co P 1 S P = 1 1 0 Ma tran tren bieu dien phep oi xng qua truc trong R 2 . Vay ve mat hnh hoc S la ma tran bieu dien (trong c s chnh tac) cua phep oi xng qua ng thang D trong R2 .
e2
T
M s
t t
E e1
ts t
S (M )
Chng VI. Cheo hoa

= D hay A = P DP 1 . Ak = P DP 1 P DP 1 P DP 1 = P Dk P 1 . luy tha Ak dc tnh bi phep nhan ba ma tran: Ak = P
89
3.5 Ap dung tnh Ak . Neu A M atK (n) cheo hoa c, th ton tai P GlK (n) va
D=
Vay Vay
diag(1 , , n ), e P 1 AP
diag(k , , k )P 1 1 n
V du. Day Fibonacci c nh ngha qui nap:

F0 = 1, F1 = 1, Fk = Fk2 + Fk1 (k 2)
e tm bieu thc tng minh Fk = f (k), co the dung phng phap sau. at
x0 = F0 F1 , xk = Fk1 Fk , k = 1, 2, 0 1 1 1
Ta co
xk = Axk1
vi A =
Suy ra xk == Ak x0 . e tm xk , ta can tnh Ak . 1 1 Ta co PA () = 2 1, nen A co cac ga tr rieng 1 = (1 + 5), 2 = (1 5). 2 2 Vay A cheo hoa c. Goi P Gl(2), sao cho P 1 AP = D = diag(1 , 2 ). Suy ra Ak = P Dk P 1 . Do Dk = diag(k , k ), va t phep nhan ma tran ta co 1 2
Fk = ak + bk , 1 2
vi a, b R, k = 2, 3,
Cac he so a, b co the tnh theo qua trnh tren, hay giai he phng trnh:
F2 = 1 = a2 + b2 , F3 = 2 = a3 + b3 1 2 1 2 1 (k k ). Bai tap: : Chng minh Fk = 1 2 5 1 1 5 1+ 5 < 1, nen Fk Nhan xet. Do |2 | = 2 2 5 1 So 1 = (1 + 5) goi la t le vang , no co nhieu tnh chat 2
, khi k ln.
thu v.
3.6 Ap dung vao phng trnh sai phan. Phng phap v du tren co the khai
quat hoa e nghien cu cac day so (ak ) trong K , thoa tnh e quy tuyen tnh:
ak+n = n ak+n1 + n1 ak+n2 + + 1 ak , k = 0, 1, 2,
vi n gia tr au a0 , , an1 cho trc, va 1 , , n K . Bang cac at
x0 =
a0 a1
.. .
xk =
ak ak+1
.. .
va A =
0 0
.. .
1 0
0 1
an1
ak+n1
1 2
... ...
0 0 n
90 Ta co day (xk ) trong K n , thoa phng trnh sai phan bac nhat:
xk = Axk1 ,
vi A M atK (n), va ieu kien au x0 K n .
Khi o a) xk = Ak x0 . b) Neu A co the cheo hoa, i.e. ton tai P GlK (n): P 1 AP = D = diag(1 , , n ), th Ak = P Dk P 1 = P diag(k , , k )P 1 . n 1 c) Ga s e1 , , en la cac vector rieng tng ng, vi cac ga tr rieng 1 , , n . Neu x0 = A1 e1 + + An en , th xk = A1 k e1 + + An k en . n 1 d) Xap xep sao cho |1 | = max |i |. Ga s A1 = 0. Khi o: Neu |1 | < 1 , th Neu |1 | = 1 , th Neu |1 | > 1 , th
M : |xk | < M, k .
k k
lim xk = 0.
lim |xk | = .
VII. Khong gian vector Euclid
Khong gian vector Euclid la khong gian vector thc cung vi mot tch vo hng. Lp cac khong gian nh vay co ac trng hnh hoc ro net. Cac khai niem nh o dai vector, goc gia 2 vector, hnh chieu vuong goc, ... c khai quat hoa mot cach t nhien t hnh hoc Euclid 2, 3 chieu. Trong khong gian vector Euclid, mot so bai toan, chang han bai toan cc tr, co the mo ta mot cach hnh hoc va nh vay li giai co the c tm de dang hn. Trong chng nay, trc het la he tien e cua khong gian vector Euclid, sau o trnh bay mot so tnh chat c ban nhat cua phep chieu trc giao, toan t (ma tran) trc giao va toan t (ma tran) oi xng. Ap dung cua phep chieu trc giao la phng phap tm nghiem xap x bnh phng be nhat cho mot so bai toan. Mot ap dung cua cheo hoa trc giao ma tran oi xng e tm phng trnh chnh tac cua ng cong hay mat cong bac 2 se c trnh bay cac chng sau.
1. Khong gian vector Euclid

1.1 nh ngha. Mot khong gian vector Euclid la mot cap (E, < ,
E la khong gian vector tren R. < , >: E E R, goi la tch vo >),
trong o:
hng , la mot dang song tuyen tnh oi xng, xac nh dng, i.e. thoa cac tien e sau: x, x , y E, , K,
(SP 1) < x + x, , y > = < x, y > + < x , y > (SP 2) < x, y > = < y, x > (SP 3) < x, x > > 0, x = 0 Khi o x = < x, x > goi la chuan hay modul hay o dai cua x. Hai vector x, y E goi la trc giao hay vuong goc, ky hieu x y, neuu < x, y >= 0.
V du. a) Khong gian vector hnh hoc vi tch vo hng < x, y >= x y Khai niem trc giao chnh la khai niem vuong goc thong thng. n b) Khong gian Rn vi tch vo hng Euclid < x, y > = txy =
cos(x, y). xi yi .
Khi o chuan x = x2 + + x2 . (chnh la o dai vector khi n := 1, 2, 3). n 1 c) Khong gian cac ham thc lien tuc tren oan [a, b], C[a, b]. Trong nhieu bai toan, ngi ta xac nh tren khong gian nay tch vo hng nh sau:
b
i=1
< f, g > =
fg
(f, g C[a, b]).
d) Trong khong gian C[, ] vi tch vo hng fk (x) = sin kx, gl (x) = cos lx (k, l = 1, 2, ). Khi
cho v du tren, xet cac ham o fk gl , bi v
< fk , gl >=
sin kx cos lxdx = 0
92
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v)
1.2 Tnh chat.
x, y E, R, x 0 va x = 0 khi va ch khi x = 0. x = || x . x+y x + y (bat ang thc tam giac). | < x, y > | x y (bat ang thc Schwarz). 2 = 2 + y 2 x (cong thc Pythagore). xy x+y
Chng minh: (i) va (ii) suy de dang t nh ngha.

f (t) = tx + y
2
Viec chng minh (iv) co the tien hanh nh sau. Xet a thc bac 2:
= t2 x
2
+ 2t < x, y > + y 2 , t R
2 2
Khi x = 0, f (t) la a thc bac 2 khong am, nen biet thc

| < x, y > |2 x y 0
2
(iv)
y = ( x + y )2 .
T (iv) ta co
x+y
2
= x
+ y
+ 2 < x, y > x
+ y
+2 x
Suy ra (iii). ang thc au cua bieu thc tren cung cho (v) khi x y. V du. Bat ang thc Schwarz trong khong gian co dang:
|
n
Rn
n
va
C[a, b]
cho v du 1.2
xi yi |
b
i=1
i=1
x2 i
i=1 b a
2 yi .
fg
b a
f2
g2.
Nhan xet. T (iv) cho phep nh ngha cosin cua goc 2 vector x, y khac 0:
cos(x, y) = < x, y > . x y
Trong khong gian vector Euclid he c s gom cac vector trc giao vi nhau ong vai tro ac biet quan trong: tnh toan trong c s trc giao de dang, thuan tien hn nhieu so vi viec tnh toan trong c s bat ky. Ngoai ra, cac ac trng hnh hoc the hien ro rang hn trong mot he c s nh vay.
1.3 He trc giao - C s trc giao. Trong khong gian vector Euclid E mot he gom cac vector khac khong va trc giao vi nhau tng oi goi la mot he trc giao. Mot c s trc giao cua E la mot he va la c s cua E va la he trc giao. Mot c s trc chuan la mot c s trc giao va them ieu kien o dai moi vector cua he bang 1. Vay B = (e1 , , en ) la c s trc chuan cua E neuu:
< ei , ej >= ij = 0 , 1 ,
neu i = j neu i = j
(ky hieu delta Kr onecker)
93
Nhan xet. Mot he trc giao la mot he oc lap tuyen tnh. That vay, neu f 1 , , fm la he trc giao va x1 f1 + + xm fm = O, th khi tch vo hng hai ve vi fi (i = 1, , m), ta co xi < fi , fi >= 0, i. Do < fi , fi >= fi 2 = 0, nen xi = 0, i. V du. a) Trong Rn , c s chnh tac la mot c s trc chuan. b) Trong khong gian C[, ] vi tch vo hng cho V du 1.1 c) he ham lng giac {1, sin x, cos x, , sin kx, cos kx} la he trc giao. Chung sinh ra mot khong gian con 2k + 1 chieu. Tng t nh cac cong thc trong c s chnh tac cua Rn , ta co
chuan cua khong gian E . Khi o:
n
Cong thc cac phep toan trong c s trc chuan. Cho (e 1, , en) la c s trc
n n
x=
i=1
< x, ei > ei ,
< x, y >=
i=1
< x, ei >< y, ej >,
x =
i=1
< x, ei >2 .
Chng minh: Cho x = x1 e1 + + xn en . Tch vo hng hai ve vi ei . T tnh trc
chuan, suy ra toa o xi cua x:
< x, ei >= x1 < ei , e1 > + + xn < ei , en >= xi < ei , ei >= xi .
Cac ang thc con lai lap luan tng t. Nhan xet. Cho e E la vector khac khong. Khi o vi moi x E ton tai duy nhat hnh chieu vuong goc cua x len phng e, i.e. vector P e (x) co tnh chat
Pe (x) = e L(e)
1.4 Phep chieu vuong goc len khong gian con.

va
x Pe (x) L(e). < x, e > . < e, e >
T cac ieu kien tren, x e e Vay

Pe (x) = < x, e > e, < e, e >
< x e, e >= 0 =
vi
< x, e > < e, e >
goi la he so Fourier cua x oi vi e.

x
O W
B E E
P (x)
94 Khai quat hoa nhan xet trc quan va neu, ta co
Menh e. Cho
E.
W la khong gian con hu han chieu cua khong gian vector Euclid Khi o vi moi x E , ton tai duy nhat vector chieu vuong goc hay chieu trc giao cua x len W , ky hieu PW (x), thoa cac ieu kien PW (x) W
va x PW (x) W.
Cu the: (i) Neu (e1 , , em ) la c s trc giao cua W , th

PW (x) = Pe1 (x) + + Pem (x) = < x, e1 > < x, em > e1 + + em . < e1 , e1 > 
(ii) Neu a1 , , ak la he sinh cua W , th

PW (x) = x1 a1 + + xk ak ,
trong o x1 , , xk la nghiem cua he phng trnh

< a1 , a1 > x1 < a2 , a1 > x1
< ak , a1 > x1 + < ak , a2 > x2 +
. . .
+ < a1 , a2 > x2 + + < a2 , a2 > x2 +
. . .
+ < a1 , ak > xk = < x, a1 > + < a2 , ak > xk = < x, a2 >
. . .
. . .
+ < ak , ak > xk = < x, ak >
Chng minh: Ta co x PW (x) W khi va ch khi x PW (x) ai , i = 1, , k. ieu kien tren tng ng vi < x PW (x), ai >= 0, i = 1, , k. Hay la < PW (x), ai >=< x, ai >, i = 1, , k. Thay PW (x) = x1 a1 + + xk ak , vao ta co he phng trnh neu (ii)
< ai , a1 > x1 + < ai , a2 > x2 + + < ai , ak > xk =< x, ai >, i = 1, , k.
Ta can chng minh he tren co nghiem. Trng hp a1 , , ak oc lap tuyen tnh: Goi phng trnh thuan nhat tng ng:
k
x = (x1 , , xk )
la nghiem cua he
< ai ,
j=1 k k
xj aj >= 0, i = 1, , k.
k k k
Suy ra Vay
k
0=
i=1
xi < ai ,
j=1
xj aj >=<
i=1
xi ai ,
j=1
xj aj >=
i=1
xi ai
. Vay he
phng trnh thuan nhat la he Cramer, nen he ang xet co duy nhat nghiem. Trng hp a1 , , ak phu thuoc tuyen tnh: Neu ap la to hp tuyen tnh cua cac vector con lai, th phng trnh th p cua he la to hp tuyen tnh cua cac phng trnh con lai. Loai cac phng trnh phu thuoc, a he ve trng hp oc lap tuyen tnh.
i=1
xi ai = 0.
Do a1 , , am oc lap tuyen tnh,
x1 = , = xk = 0.
95
Cong thc (i) suy t he phng trnh neu tren (khi o he co dang ng cheo)
Phan bu trc giao cua tap W
E
la khong gian vector con c nh ngha:
W = {x E : x y, y W }.
Khi W la khong gian vector con, ta a chng minh ton tai phep chieu trc giao len W
PW : E E,
moi x E co bieu dien duy nhat x = PW (x) + x , vi PW (x) W va x W . Ta co PW PW = PW , i.e. PW (x) = x, x W, va PW (x) = 0 x W . Vay E = W W = Im PW KerPW .
Ma tran Gramm cua he vector a1 , ak E c ky hieu va nh ngha:
G(a1 , , ak ) =
< a1 , a1 > < a1 , a2 > < a2 , a1 > < a2 , a2 > < ak , a1 > < ak , a2 >
.. .
.. .
< a1 , ak > < a2 , ak >
.. .
< ak , ak >
Nhan xet. Goi A = (a1B akB ) la ma tran toa o cua he vector a cho trong mot c s trc chuan B. Khi o < ai , aj >= t ai B aj B . Theo phep nhan ma tran , ta co
G(a1 , , ak ) = tAA
Khi ky hieu x =
t (x x ) 1 k
, phng trnh (ii) cua menh e tren co dang:
x x G(a1 , , ak ) = tAA = tAxB
va c goi la phng trnh chuan tac ng vi phng trnh A = x B . x t AA kha nghch. Khi o, t Neu a1 , , ak la c s cua W , th G(a1 , , ak ) = x PW (x)B = A = A(tAA)1 tAxB , suy ra ma tran bieu dien cua phep chieu P W trong c s trc chuan B la
P = A(tAA)1 tA
Bai tap: Chng minh: P 2 = P (tnh luy linh), t P = P (tnh oi xng). Bai tap: Chng minh neu ma tran vuong P , thoa P 2 = P va t P = P , th P la ma tran (trong c s chnh tac) cua phep chieu len khong gian sinh bi cac cot cua no. Nhan xet. Theo menh e tren, e tm hnh chieu trc giao cua x len khong gian W ta co 2 cach sau: Cach 1: Giai he phng trnh chuan tac (ii). Cach 2: Tm mot c s trc giao cho W . Roi dung cong thc (i). e xay dng mot he c s trc giao cho mot khong gian, ta dung thuat toan sau:
96
1.5 Thuat toan trc chuan hoa Gram-Schmidt.

Bc trc giao hoa:
b1 = a1 , bj = aj
Input: (a1 , , ak ) la mot he vector oc lap tuyen tnh. Output: (e1 , , ek ) la mot c s trc chuan cua L(a1 , , ak )
< aj , b1 > < aj , bj1 > b1 bj1 , j = 2, , k. < b1 , b1 > < bj1 , bj1 >
He b1 , , bk la c s trc giao cua khong gian sinh bi he vector a cho.

Bc chuan hoa: ej =
He e1 , , ek
, j = 1, , k. la c s trc chuan cua khong gian sinh bi he vector a cho.
bj bj
Nhan xet. Theo thuat toan tren:
Wj = L(a1 , , aj ) = L(b1 , , bj ) = L(e1 , , ej ) (j = 1, , k). bj = aj PWj1 (aj ). Vay bj b1 , , bj1 . aj = q1j e1 + q2j e2 + + qjj ej , trong o qjj = bj = 0.
Viet lai dong cuoi theo cach nhan ma tran, ta co

tai phan tch
Phan tch
QR.
Cho A la ma tran co cac cot la oc lap tuyen tnh. Khi o ton

A = QR
trong o Q la ma tran ma cac cot la cac vector trc chuan, R la ma tran tam giac tren kha nghch.
V du. Trong R4 cho a1 = (1, 1, 0, 1), a2 = (1, 2, 0, 0), a3 = (1, 0, 1, 2). Xac nh mot c s trc chuan cho khong gian sinh bi a 1 , a2 , a3 . Ta tien hanh thuat toan tren. Viec a1 , a2 , a3 oc lap tuyen tnh hay khong c the hien trong qua trnh tien hanh (co xuat hien vector 0 hay khong). Trc giao hoa:
b1 = a1 = (1, 1, 0, 1), < a2 , b1 > b1 b2 = a2 < b1 , b1 > 1.1 + (2)1 + 0.0 + 0.1 = (1, 2, 0, 0) (1, 1, 0, 1) 1 2 + 12 + 02 + 12 1 (4, 5, 0, 1). = 3 < a3 , b1 > < a3 , b2 > b1 b2 b3 = a3 < b1 , b1 > < b2 , b2 > 1 3 = (1, 0, 1, 2) (1, 1, 0, 1) (4, 5, 0, 1) 3 42 1 (4, 2, 7, 6) = 7
97
Chuan hoa:
1 1 1 e1 = (1, 1, 0, 1), e2 = (4, 5, 0, 1), e3 = (4, 2, 7, 6). 3 42 105
Bai tap: Tm phan tch QR cho ma tran A co cac cot la a1 , a2 , a3 cua v du tren:

A=
1 1 1 1 2 0 0 0 1 1 0 2
V du. Trong C[0, 1] vi tch vo hng v du 1.1.c), tm c s trc chuan cho khong gian sinh bi {f0 (x) = 1, f1 (x) = x, f2 (x) = x2 }. Goi (p0 , p1 , p2 ) la c s can tm, ta co p0 (x) = 1 va
p1 (x) = x < p0 , x > p0 (x). < p0 , p0 >
Tnh
< p0 , x >=
1 0
xdx = 1/2
va
< p0 , p0 >=
Vay
dx = 1.
p1 (x) = x 1/2. p2 (x) = x2 < p0 , x2 > < p1 , x2 > p0 (x) p1 (x). < p0 , p0 > < p1 , p1 >
1
Tnh
< p0 , x2 >= < p1 , x2 >=
1 0 0 1
x2 dx = 1/3, (x3 x2 /2)dx = 1/12,
< p0 , p0 >= < p1 , p1 >=
0 0
dx = 1
1
(x2 x + 1/4)dx = 1/12.
Vay
p2 (x) = x2 p0 (x)/3 p1 (x) = x2 x + 1/6.
V du. Trong R4 cho a1 = (1, 1, 0, 1), a2 = (1, 2, 0, 0), a3 = (1, 0, 1, 2). Xac nh hnh chieu trc giao cua x = (1, 0, 0, 0) len khong gian sinh bi a1 , a2 , a3 . Cach 1: (dung phng trnh chuan tac) Goi hnh chieu cua x la
P (x) = x1 a1 + x2 a2 + x3 a3 .
Khi o x1 , x2 , x3 la nghiem cua he phng trnh

< a1 , a1 > x1
+ < a1 , a2 > x2 + < a1 , a3 > x3 = < x, a1 > < a2 , a1 > x1 + < a2 , a2 > x2 + < a2 , a3 > x3 = < x, a2 > < a , a > x + < a , a > x + < a , a > x = < x, a > 3 1 1 3 2 2 3 3 3 3
Thay vao ta co:
3x1
x2 + 3x3 = 1 x1 + 5x2 + x3 = 1 3x + x2 + 6x3 = 1 1
98 Suy ra
x1 = 11 6 4 , x2 = , x3 = . 15 15 15
Vay
P (x) =
1 (13, 1, 4, 3). 15
Cach 2: (dung phng phap G-S) Sau khi trc chuan hoa he vector, ta co he vector trc chuan e1 , e2 , e3 a tnh v du 1.4. Vay hnh chieu cua x la
P (x) = < x, e1 > e1 + < x, e2 > e2 + < x, e3 > e3 1 1 1 1 1 1 (4, 2, 7, 6) = (1, 1, 0, 1) + (4, 5, 0, 1) + 3 3 42 42 105 105 =
Bai tap: Xac nh hnh chieu f (x) = ex len khong gian sinh bi khong gian C[0, 1], vi tch vo hng cho v du 1.1.c. khoang cach en x be nhat, i.e. tm x W , sao cho
{1, x, x2 },
trong
1.6 Xap x bnh phng be nhat. Bai toan. Ga s W E la khong gian con. Cho x E , tm phan t thuoc W co
x x y x , y W.
Noi cach khac x lam cc tieu bnh phng khoang cach Q(y) = Khi o x goi la xap x bnh phng be nhat cua x trong W .
y x 2, y W ,
Gi y trc quan hnh hoc cho ta tien oan la hnh chieu vuong goc cua x len khong gian W chnh la vector thuoc W co khoang cach be nhat en x. Thc vay ta co
Menh e. Hnh chieu trc giao
bnh phng be nhat cua x trong W , i.e.
PW (x)
cua x len khong gian W chnh la xap x
x W, x x = min{ y x : y W } x = PW (x).
Pythagore
yx
Chng minh: Do y PW (x) W va x PW (x) y, y W , theo cong thc

2
= (y PW (x)) + (PW (x) x)
= y PW (x)
+ PW (x) x 2 .
Suy ra y x PW (x) x , y W , y = PW (x).
va dau ang thc xay ra khi va ch khi
2. Mot so ng dung.
2.1 Tm nghiem xap x bnh phng be nhat cua he phng trnh tuyen tnh.
Xet he phng trnh tuyen tnh:
Ax = b,
vi A M atR (m, n)
at r(x) = Ax b . Khi o x la nghiem phng trnh khi va ch khi r(x) = 0. Trong trng hp he phng trnh khong co nghiem (thng xay ra khi so phng
99
trnh rang buoc m ln hn so an n), ngi ta thng tm nghiem xap x x lam r(x) at minimum, i.e.
A b x
2
Ax b 2 , x Rn ,
goi la nghiem bnh phng be nhat cua phng trnh Ax = b.

Ax = x1 a1 + + xn an , = x1 a1 + + xn an b
Nhan xet. Viet lai A. Khi o Ax b
vi a1 , , an Rm la cac cot cua . Vay nghiem bnh phng be nhat
x x Rn : A =
chieu trc giao cua b len L(a1 , , an )
T cac ket qua phan trc ta co
Menh e. Xet he phng trnh
Ax = b, A M atR (m, n). Khi o ton tai nghiem bnh phng be nhat x cua he va la nghiem cua phng trnh chuan tac:
t
AA = tAb. x
Neu rankA = n, th nghiem o la duy nhat x = (tAA)1 tAb.
V du. Cho
A=
1 0 1 1
0 2 2 2 1 1 2 0
, b=
3 3 0 3
Phng trnh Ax = b vo nghiem (hay kiem tra). Ta tm nghiem bnh phng be nhat cua he t phng trnh chuan tac t AAx = t Ab. Tnh toan va bien oi
3 3 3 | 6 1 1 1 | 2 t t 9 3 | 12 0 1 1 | 1 ( AA| Ab) = 3 3 3 9 | 0 0 0 0 | 0

Nghiem bnh phng be nhat cua he:
1 2x3 x = 1 x3 x3
2.2 Phng phap bnh phng be nhat. Bai toan xap x tuyen tnh, bnh phng be nhat: Cho hai ai lng t, y ma quan
he gia chung cho qua bang d lieu sau (nh quan trac thc nghiem chang han)
t y t1 y1 t2 y2 tm ym
Ta muon tm ham tuyen tnh y = a0 + a1 t, thoa cac d kien tren, i.e. tm a0 , a1 thoa he phng trnh
Ax = b
a0 + a1 t1
= y1 a +a t 0 1 m = ym
100 Trong o

A=
.. .
t1
.. .
x=
1 tm
a0 a1
b=
y1
.. .
ym
Neu t1 , , tm khac nhau, th co duy nhat mot a thc bac m 1 thoa bo d lieu tren (a thc noi suy). Tuy nhien, ay ta muon tm a thc bac 1, nen noi chung he phng trnh tren vo nghiem (thng xay ra khi m > 2 hay t 1 , , tm khong khac nhau). a Nghiem bnh phng be nhat cua he x =t (0 a1 ) co tnh chat
A b x
2 m
= min
a0 ,a1
(a0 + a1 ti yi )2
i=1
i.e. lam cc tieu tong bnh phng cac sai so gia gia tr a thc tai ti vi d lieu yi . Ham y = a0 + a1 t, goi la xap x tuyen tnh, bnh phng be nhat cho y = y(t). V du. Tm xap x tuyen tnh, bnh phng be nhat cho ham y = y(t) cho bi d kien: t 0 3 6 . Khong co a thc bac 1 nao thoa d lieu tren (khong co y 1 4 5 ng thang nao i qua 3 iem khong thang hang). Ta can tm nghiem bnh phng be nhat cua he:
Ax = b
vi
1 0 A= 1 3 1 6
x=
a0 a1
1 b= 4 5
Giai phng trnh chuan tac

t
AAx =t Ay 4 2 + t. 3 3
T
3 9 9 45
a0 a1
10 40
Ham xap x can tm la y =
s s s 0 3 6
101
Bai toan xap x bac n, bnh phng be nhat. Tong quat bai toan tren. Vi d
Q(a0 , , an ) =
n i=1
kien cho nh phan tren, tm a thc bac n, p(t) = a0 + a1 t + + an tn , i.e. tm a0 , a1 , , an , sao cho tong bnh phng sai so la be nhat:
(p(ti ) yi )2
min
Ax b

2
Bai toan tren chnh la bai toan tm nghiem x lam cc tieu

A=
1 tm
.. .
t1
tn m
tn 0 .. .
a0
, trong o

x=
.. .
y1
b=
.. .
an
ym
p(t) = a0 + a1 t + + an tn .
Vay nghiem bai toan tren chnh la nghiem bnh phng be nhat cua phng trnh Ax = b. Goi x = t(a0 an ) la nghiem cua he tAAx = tAb, khi o a thc can tm la
2.3 Khai trien Fourier. Trong khong gian C[, ], vi tch vo hng cho v du 1.1 c), he ham Bn = (1, sin x, cos x, , sin nx, cos nx) la he trc giao. Vi f C[, ], hnh chieu cua no len khong gian L(Bn ) goi la khai trien Fourier en cap n cua f :
Fn [f ] = a0 + a1 sin x + b1 cos x + + an sin nx + bn cos nx,
trong o cac he so Fourier:

1 ak = 1 f (x) sin kxdx, bk =

f (x) cos kxdx
Khi o Fn [f ] chnh la xap x bnh phng be nhat cua f trong khong gian sinh bi Bn , i.e. Fn [f ] lam cc tieu phiem ham sai so trung bnh bnh phng
L(Bn ) R, g Q(g) =

(f g)2
2.4 The tch k-chieu va nh thc Gram. Cho a 1 , ak E .

Hnh bnh hanh tao bi cac vector a cho nh ngha la tap
{x E : x = t1 a1 + + tk ak , t1 , , tk [0, 1]}
The tch cua hnh bnh hanh tren, c nh ngha qui nap theo k:
V1 (a1 ) = a1 , Vk (a1 , , ak ) = Vk1 (a1 , , ak1 ) a k
trong o
ak = ak + a , k
vi ak L(a1 , , ak1 ) la chieu cao cua hnh.

E
a Ta3 3 a2 B
a1
102 Ma tran Gram cua he vector tren la
G(a1 , , ak ) =
< a1 , a1 > < ak , a1 >
.. .
< a1 , ak >
.. .
< ak , ak >
Ta co moi quan he gia the tch va ma tran Gramm: (i) Vk (a1 , , ak ) = Vk (b1 , , bk ) (ii) Vk (a1 , , ak ) = det G(a1 , , ak ). (iii) det G(a1 , , ak ) 0, va = 0 khi va ch khi a1 , , ak phu thuoc tuyen tnh. (iv) det G(a1 , , ak ) a1 2 ak 2 , va dau bang xay ra khi va ch khi a1 , , ak
la he trc giao.
Menh e. Goi b1 , , bk la trc giao hoa Gram-Schmidt cua a1 , , ak . Khi o
(v)
| det(aij )|
j=1 i=1
a2 , ij
vi (aij ) M atR (n) (Bat ang thc Hadamard).

= L(a1 , , ak )
(vi) Khoang cach t x en W
la d(x, W ) =
det G((a1 , , ak , x) det G(a1 , , ak )
(i) suy t Vk (a1 , , ak ) = Vk1 (a1 , , ak1 ) bk , v a = bk . k (ii) Goi A la ma tran toa o cua he vector a cho trong mot c s trc chuan nao o. Ta co G(a1 , , ak ) = tAA. Mat khac, theo thuat toan Gram-Schmidt, ta co phan tch A = QR, vi Q co cac cot la he trc chuan trong Rk , va R la ma tran tam giac co cac phan t ng cheo la rii = bi . Vay
det G(a1 , , ak ) = det tAA = det tRtQQR = det tR det tQQ det R = det Q det Ik det R = b1 2 bk 2 = Vk (a1 , , ak )2
Chng minh: (Xem mot chng minh khac phan ap dung cua nh thc)
(iii) suy t (ii). (iv) T (ii) (i), det G(a1 , , ak ) = Vk (a1 , , ak ) = b1 2 bk 2 a1 2 ak 2 . Hn na, dau bang xay ra khi va ch khi ai = bi , i = 1, , k , i.e. he vector a cho la he trc giao. (v) suy t (ii) va (iv) khi E = Rn va he vector la cac cot cua ma tran. (vi) suy t nh ngha va (ii).
3. Toan t trc giao - Ma tran trc giao

3.1 nh ngha. Cho (E, <, >) la khong gian vector Euclid. Anh xa T : E E goi la toan t trc giao hay bien oi trc giao neuu T tuyen tnh va thoa mot trong cac ieu kien tng ng sau: 1 (O) < T x, T y >=< x, y > x, y E (bao toan tch vo hng) (O) T x = x x E (bao toan chuan). Ky hieu O(E) tap moi toan t trc giao tren E .
1
Khi
la anh xa tuyen tnh, ngi ta thng viet
T x = T (x)
(bo dau ngoac)
103
T x + T y 2 = T x 2 + T y 2 + 2 < T x, T y > x + y 2 = x 2 + y 2 + 2 < x, y > T ieu kien (O ), ta co T x + T y 2 = x + y 2 , T x = x , T y = y So sanh ve phai cua hai ang thc tren, suy ra < T x, T y >=< x, y > Neu E la khong gian vector hu han chieu, th T O(E) T (O) = O
Nhan xet. Hai ieu kien tren la tng ng: (O) (O): T x = < T x, T x >(O) < x, x > = = (O) (O): Ta co cac ang thc sau
va
T (x) T (y) = x y , x, y E
Tnh chat cuoi goi la tnh bao toan khoang cach.

Chng minh: Ro rang neu T O(E), th T (O) = O va vi moi x, y E ta co
T x T y = T (x y) = x y
Ngc lai, gia s T : E E la anh xa thoa T (O) = O va bao toan khoang cach. Trc het ta chng minh T bao toan tch vo hng. Vi moi x, y E , ta co
T (x) T (y)
2
= T (x)
+ T (y)
2 < T (x), T (y) >
(1)
T gia thiet T (x) T (y) 2 = x y 2 = x 2 + y 2 2 < x, y > (2). So sanh (1) va (2) suy ra < T (x), T (y) >=< x, y >. Goi B = {e1 , , en } la mot c s trc chuan cua E . Do T bao toan chuan {T (e1 ), , T (en )} la c s trc chuan cua E . Vay ton tai anh xa tuyen tnh A : E E sao cho Aei = T (ei ), i = 1, , n. De thay A la toan t trc giao. n Anh xa A1 T la bao toan tch vo hng. Hn na vi moi x = xi ei E , toa o th i cua A1 T (x): Vay A1 T (x) = x, i.e.
A1 T = idE .
i=1
A1 T (x)i =< A1 T (x), ei >=< A1 T (x), A1 T (ei ) >=< x, ei >= xi
Suy ra T
= A O(E). O(E).
3.2 Ma tran bieu dien toan t trc giao trong c s trc chuan.
Cho B = (e1 , , en ) la c s trc chuan cua E va T B Goi A = (aij ) = MB (T ), i.e T ej = aij ei . Ta co Do
i
< T ei , T ej >=<
k
aki ek ,
h
ahj eh >=
aki ahj < ek , eh > .

k,h
< T ei , T ej >=< ei , ej >= ij

n
va
< ek , eh >= kh ,
n
suy ra
aki akj = 0 (i = j) ,
k=1 k=1
a2 = 1 (i = 1, , n) ki
104 Ma tran co tnh chat tren goi la ma tran trc giao. Ma tran vuong cap n tren trng R goi la trc giao neuu no thoa mot trong cac ieu kien tng ng sau: (i) Cac cot la c s trc chuan cua Rn (vi tch vo hng Euclid). (ii) Cac dong la c s trc chuan cua Rn . (iii) t AA = A tA = I (iv) A1 = t A Ky hieu O(n) tap moi ma tran trc giao cap n. Nhan xet. O(E) la nhom con cua Gl(E) va goi la nhom trc giao cua E . O(n) la nhom con cua Gl(n) va goi la nhom trc giao cap n. Neu A O(n), th (det A)2 = det t AA = det I = 1 nen det A = 1. Neu T O(E), th cac gia tr rieng thc R cua T la 1. That vay, t T x = x, suy ra T x = || x = x . Vay || = 1. Ky hieu SO(E) = {T O(E) : det T = 1} va SO(n) = {A O(n) : det A = 1}. Khi do chung la cac nhom con va goi la nhom trc giao ac biet cua O(E), O(n) tng ng. Vay neu T SO(E), th T bao toan hng. Theo nh ngha va chng minh tren ta co:
3.3 Ma tran trc giao.
3.4 Menh e. Trong khong gian vector Euclid:
(i) Ma tran bieu dien toan t trc giao trong c s trc chuan la ma tran trc giao. (ii) Ma tran chuyen c s trc chuan sang c s trc chuan la ma tran trc giao. (iii) Mot toan t trc giao bien c s trc chuan thanh c s trc chuan.
3. 5 Tnh chat hnh hoc cua toan t trc giao khi

n = 1, 2, 3.
Xet T
O(R). Do |T x| = |x|, suy ra T =id (phep ong nhat) hay T = id
(phep oi xng qua 0, ao hng).
Xet T O(R2 ). Neu (e1 , e2 ) la c s trc chuan, th ma tran bieu dien toan t trc b giao T trong c s o la M (T ) = a d O(2). Vay c
a2 + c2
= 1 + = 1 ab + cd = 0 b2 d2
T he phng trnh tren suy ra: hoac d = a, b = c hoac d = a, b = c, i.e.

O(2) = { a c c a : a2 + c2 = 1 } { a c c a : a2 + c2 = 1 }
at a = cos , c = sin . Ta co: - Neu det T = +1, i.e. T SO(R2 ), th T la phep quay goc

e2 cos sin sin cos T e2
T
105
T e1
M (T ) = R =
s d d d E e1
- Neu det T
= 1,
th T la phep oi xng qua ng thang D

e2
T
M (T ) = S =
cos sin sin cos
x s
t t t ts t
E e1
Tx
ng thang D la cac vector rieng ng vi gia tr rieng +1, co phng trnh trong c s (e1 , e2 ) la (cos 1)x1 sin x2 = 0 hay sin x1 cos x2 = 0.
2 2
Xet T O(R3 ). Khi o a thc ac trng cua T la a thc bac 3 nen luon co t nhat mot nghiem thc. Vay co mot ng thang D gom cac vector rieng ng vi gia tr rieng 1 hay 1. V D la T -bat bien, i.e. T (D) D, va T trc giao, nen mat phang P = D cung T -bat bien. Khi o han che T len P la toan t trc giao trong khong gian 2 chieu. Nh vay T |P la phep quay hay phep oi xng trong P . Tom lai, ton tai c s trc chuan (e1 , e2 , e3 ) cua R3 vi e1 la c s cua D, (e2 , e3 ) la co s cua D , sao cho ma tran bieu dien cua T trong c s o co mot trong cac dang sau
1 0 0 0 cos sin 0 sin cos
1 0 0 0 cos sin 0 sin cos
1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
e y la 2 ma tran cuoi co the a ve 2 dang au bang phep hoan v vector trong c s. Vay ve mat hnh hoc, vi T O(R3 ), ta co: - Neu det T = +1: T la phep quay quanh truc D mot goc . - Neu det T = 1: T la hp cua phep oi xng qua mat phang D va phep quay quanh truc D mot goc .
106
D x s

D Tx

x s

Sx c
Tx
Nhan xet. Truc D cha trong tap cac vector rieng cua T ng vi gia tr rieng 1. Goc tnh c nh giai phng trnh ac trng P () = ( 1)(2 2 cos + 1) hay 1 + 2 cos = Tr(T ). V du. Xet ma tran trc giao
0 0 1 T = 1 0 0 O(3) 0 1 0

V det T = 1, nen T SO(3). Vector rieng vi gia tr rieng 1 la ng thang D co vector ch phng la (1, 1, 1). 2 Ta co 1 + 2 cos = 0. Suy ra = . Vay T la ma tran bieu dien phep quay quanh vector (1, 1, 1) mot goc
3 2 . 3
Bang lap luan hoan toan tng t nh trng hp khong gian Euclid 3 chieu ta co:
T trong khong gian Euclid hu han chieu E . Khi o ton tai phan tch E = E1 Es , trong o Ei la cac khong gian con, T -bat bien, co so chieu 1 hay 2 va Ei Ej neu i = j . Vay ton tai c s trc chuan B sao cho ma tran bieu dien cua T trong c s B co dang
3. 6 nh ly. Cho toan t trc giao
chuan tac sau

107
0
...
1 1
...
cos 1 sin 1 sin 1 cos 1
...
cos p sin p
sin p
cos p
Chng minh: Trc het ta chng minh 2 bo e:

T tren khong gian vector thc eu ton tai khong gian T bat bien E1 co so chieu 1 hay 2. That vay, neu T co gia tr rieng thc va x la mot vector rieng ng vi gia tr rieng o, th E1 = L(x) la mot khong gian T -bat bien 1 chieu. Trng hp T khong co gia tr rieng thc, goi a + ib C, vi b = 0, la mot gia tr rieng cua T . Ta co the xem V = Rn va T la mot ma tran. Nh vay ton tai z = x + iy Cn , z = 0, sao cho T (x + iy) = (a + ib)(x + iy) T x = ax by, T y = bx + ay
Bo e 1. Moi toan t
Goi E1 = L(x, y). Khi o ro rang E1 la T -bat bien. Hn na, dim E1 khong the bang 0 v z = 0, cung khong the bang 1 v gia thiet T khong co gia tr rieng thc. Vay trong trng hp nay dim E1 = 2. la toan t trc giao. Neu khong gian con E1 la T -bat bien, th phan bu trc giao E1 cung T -bat bien. ieu nay suy ra t tnh trc giao cua T : Do E1 T -bat bien va T la song anh nen E1 = T (E1 ). Vay khi x E1 , i.e.x y, y E1 , ta co < T x, T y >=< x, y >= 0, y E1 , i.e T x T (E1 ) = E1 .
T
Bo e 2. Cho
Bay gi ta chng minh nh ly qui nap theo so chieu cua E . Do cac bo e tren ta co phan tch E = E1 E1 thanh tong cac khong gian T - trc giao co dim E1 = 1 hay 2. Dung gia thiet qui nap cho han che cua T len khong gian E1 ta co ket qua. Hn na, theo tnh chat hnh hoc cua toan t trc giao tren khong gian 1 hay 2 chieu, neu goi Bi la c s trc chuan cua Ei , i = 1, , s, th B = (B1 , , Bs ) la c s cua E = E1 Es va ma tran bieu dien cua T trong c s o co dang chuan tac neu tren. Nhan xet. Do a thc ac trng cua T co he so thc, nen neu a + ib C la gia tr rieng cua
108 th a ib cung la gia tr rieng cua T . Hn na, theo chng minh bo e 1, khi chon c s trc chuan (x, y) cho khong gian E1 , th x + iy la vector rieng ng vi gia tr rieng a + ib, va ta co T x = ax by, T y = bx + ay . Vay khoi ma tran oi vi c s a chon ng vi cap a b gia tr rieng a ib nay la b a .
T

Vay neu b = sin > 0, th (, 0). Noi cach khac muon chon (0, ) ta tm c s (x, y) sao cho x + iy la vector rieng ng vi gia tr rieng a + ib vi b < 0. V du. a ma tran trc giao sau ve dang chuan tac
2 1 2 1 A= 2 2 1 . 3 1 2 2
a thc ac trng PA () = ( 1)(2 + 1). Cac gia tr rieng la 1 = 1, 2,3 = 12 3i Vi 1 = 1, ta co cac vector rieng la (x = x, y = x, z = z). 1 C s trc chuan la e1 = (1, 1, 1) Vi 2,3 = 1i 3 , giai phng trnh (A ( 1+i 2 2
)I)Z = 0 1 3i 1 + 3i x, z = x). Ta co nghiem: (x = x, y = 2 2 Cho x = 1, roi tach phan thc va phan ao ta co: X1 = (1, 1 , 1 ), Y1 = (0, 23 , 23 ) 2 2 1 1 Trc chuan Gram-Schmidt, ta co: e2 = (2, 1, 1), e3 = (0, 1, 1) 6 2 1 2 0 1 0 0 3 6 1 1 1 at P = 3 6 2 . Ta co P O(3) va P 1 AP = 0 1 23 2 1 1 1 1 3 6 0 2 2 3 2
Nhan xet. Nhom SO(3) con co mo ta hnh hoc bang 3 goc Euler nh sau: Xet T SO(R3 ). Do det T = 1 > 0, nen neu (e1 , e2 , e3 ) la c s trc chuan thuan, th (T e1 , T e2 , T e3 ) la c s trc chuan thuan. Khi o T la hp cua 3 phep quay:
M (T ) = R3 ()R1 ()R3 () R3 () R1 () R3 ()
quay quanh e3 goc = (e1 , d), d la giao tuyen mp(e1 , e2 ) va mp(T e1 , T e2 ). quay quanh d goc = (e3 , T e3 ). quay quanh T e3 goc = (d, T e1 ).

Cu the
cos sin 0 R3 () = sin cos 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 R1 () = 0 cos sin 0 sin cos
Cac goc , , goi la cac goc quay Euler.

e3
T r rr rr s d rr d r d d d dr E e2 rrr j e I T 2 % e1 rr rr rr T e1 r d r
109
T e3
4. Toan t oi xng - Cheo hoa trc giao ma tran oi xng

4.1 nh ngha. Anh xa tuyen tnh A : E E goi la toan t oi xng neuu
< Ax, y >=< x, Ay >, x, y E
4.2 Ma tran bieu dien toan t oi xng trong c s trc chuan.

< Aej , ei >=<
k
Ma tran bieu dien toan t oi xng trong c s trc chuan la ma tran oi xng.
That vay, neu (e1 , , en ) la c s trc chuan va A la toan t oi xng, th:

akj ek , ei >= aij akj ek >= aji
k
< ej , Aei >=< ei ,
Do tnh oi xng suy ra aij = aji .
4.3 Dang chnh tac cua ma tran oi xng.
(i) Moi toan t oi xng trong khong gian vector Euclid hu han chieu eu ton tai c
s trc chuan gom toan vector rieng (khi o ma tran bieu dien co dang ng cheo). (ii) Moi ma tran oi xng A M atR (n) ton tai ma tran trc giao P O(n) sao cho tP AP la ma tran ng cheo. Chng minh: Viec chng minh da vao cac bo e sau:
Ga s C la ga tr rieng cua A. Ta can chng minh la so thc, i.e. = . Ta co Ax = x, vi x Cn \ 0 la vector rieng (phc) cua A. Lay lien hp hai ve
Ax = Ax = x = x.
Bo e 1. Moi ga tr rieng cua ma tran oi xng eu la so thc.
Do A la ma tran thc nen A = A. Suy ra Ax = x, i.e. Ta co txAx = txx = txx.
la mot ga tr rieng cua A.
110 Mat khac, do tA = A, txAx = t(tAx)x = t(Ax)x = txx. Vay ( )txx = 0. Do txx = |x1 |2 + + |xn |2 > 0, = .
Bo e 2. Neu
la ga tr rieng cua ma tran oi xng A va V = V , th V la A-bat bien, ngha la A(V ) V .
Thc vay, vi moi x V , i.e.

Ax V = V
< x, e >= 0, e V ,
ta co
< Ax, e >=< x, Ae >=< x, e >= < x, e >= 0, e V .
Suy ra
, i.e.
A(V ) V
e chng minh nh ly ta lap luan qui nap theo dim E . Do Bo e 1, A co ga tr rieng 1 . at V = V , theo Bo e 2, A|V : V V . Theo ga thiet qui nap ton 1 tai c s trc chuan B cua V gom toan vector rieng cua A|V . Goi B1 la c s trc chuan cua V1 . B = B1 B la c s trc chuan cua E gom toan vector rieng cua A. Nhan xet. Ga s 1 va 2 la cac ga tr rieng khac nhau cua ma tran oi xng A. Khi o cac khong gian con rieng V1 = {x E : Ax = 1 x} va V2 = {x E : Ax = 2 x} la trc giao vi nhau, V1 V2 . Thc vay, ga s e1 V1 va e2 V2 . Khi o
1 < e1 , e2 >=< 1 e1 , e2 >=< Ae1 , e2 >=< e1 , Ae2 >=< e1 , 2 e2 >= 2 < e1 , e2 > .
Do
1 = 2 , < e1 , e2 >= 0,
i.e.
V1 V2 .
Tom tat ta co thuat toan sau:
4.4 Thuat toan cheo hoa trc giao ma tran oi xng.

Bc 1: Giai phng trnh PA () = det(A I) = 0.
Input: A M atR (n), t A = A. Output: P O(n), D ma tran ng cheo, sao cho P 1 AP = D.

1 , , s
Bc 2: Vi i = 1, , s, giai phng trnh tuyen tnh:

(A i I)x = 0 ,
Phng trnh luon co u n nghiem thc:
boi r1 , , rs (r1 + + rs = n).
tm vector rieng .
O(n)
i Phng trnh co u ri nghiem oc lap tuyen tnh: f1 , , frii . Trc chuan hoa G-S ta co: ei , , ei i . r 1 Bc 3: Xep cac nghiem ei theo cot: P = (e1 ess ). Khi o P r 1 j
va
P 1 AP = tP AP =
diag(1 , , 1 , , s , , s )
r1 rs
1 2 2 V du. Cheo hoa trc giao ma tran sau A = 2 1 2 . 2 2 1 a thc ac trng: PA () = ( 5)( + 1)2 .
111
- Vi ga tr rieng = 5, giai phng trnh tuyen tnh tng ng, ta co cac vector rieng la (x, x, x), x R. Chon mot vector (nghiem) c s, chang han a 1 = (1, 1, 1). 1 Chuan hoa: e1 = (1, 1, 1). 3 - Vi ga tr rieng = 1 (boi 2), cac vector rieng ng vi ga tr rieng nay co dang tong quat: (x, y, x y), x, y R. Chon 2 vector c s, chang han a2 = (1, 0, 1), a3 = (0, 1, 1). Trc giao hoa:
b2 = a2 = (1, 0, 1), b3 = a3 < a3 , b2 > b2 = (1, 2, 1). < b2 , b2 >
Chuan hoa: at
1 1 e2 = (1, 0, 1), e3 = (1, 2, 1). 2 6 1/3 1/ 2 1/6 P = 1/3 2/6 . 0 1/ 3 1/ 2 1/ 6 P 1 AP =
Khi o P la ma tran trc giao va
diag(5, 1, 1).
VIII. Dang song tuyen tnh - Dang toan phng
Dang song tuyen tnh oi xng tng ng mot mot vi dang toan phng. Bieu dien qua toa o dang toan phng la mot a thc thuan nhat bac hai. Dang toan phng co nhieu ng dung vao cac bai toan c hoc, hnh hoc, cc tr,.... Chng nay se e cap en: thuat toan Lagrange nham a dang toan phng ve dang chnh tac, dang xac nh dau va tieu chuan Sylvester e nhan biet khi nao dang xac nh dau, tieu chuan nay co the ng dung vao bai toan cc tr (ieu kien ao ham cap 2). Phan cuoi chng xet viec tm bien oi trc giao e a mot dang toan phng trong khong gian Euclid ve dang chnh tac (nh ly truc chnh), e ap dung vao viec nghien cu hnh hoc cac ng, mat bac 2 chng sau.
1. Dang song tuyen tnh
Cho V la khong gian vector tren K . 1.1 nh ngha. Mot dang song tuyen tnh tren V la anh xa q : V cac ieu kien sau vi moi x, x , y, y V va , K :
(B1) (B2) q(x + x , y) q(x, y) q(x, y + y ) q(x, y) = = = = q(x, y) + q(x , y) q(x, y) q(x, y) + q(x, y ) q(x, y)
V K ,
thoa
Noi cach khac q tuyen tnh theo tng bien. Dang song tuyen tnh q goi la oi xng neuu q(x, y) = q(y, x), x, y V. V du. a) nh thc cap 2 la dang song tuyen tnh theo vector cot (dong) trong K 2 . b) Tch vo hng tren khong gian cac vector hnh hoc E 3 : x.y = x y cos(x, y). c) Tch vo hng Euclid trong Rn : < x, y >= x1 y1 + + xn yn = t xy. d) Dang song tuyen tnh sinh bi ma tran A = (aij ) M atK (n):
qA : K n K n K, qA (x, y) = t xAy =
n n
aij xi yj .
i=1 j=1
e y la qA oi xng khi va ch khi A la ma tran oi xng, i.e.
a ij = aji , i, j .
1.2 Ma tran bieu dien dang song tuyen tnh.

q(x, y) = q(
i
Gia s B = (e1 , , en ) la c s cua V va q la dang song tuyen tnh tren V . Khi o n

xi ei ,
j
yj ej ) =
i,j=1
q(ei , ej )xi yj
Vay q c hoan toan xac nh bi ma tran A = (ai,j ) = (q(ei , ej )) M atK (n). Ma tran A goi la ma tran bieu dien cua q trong c s B.
114 Ta co
q(x, y) = t xB AyB
Bai tap: Chng minh q oi xng khi va ch khi A oi xng. V du. Ma tran bieu dien cua qA trong v du 1.1 d) trong c s chnh tac chnh la ma tran A. V vay tch vo hng co ma tran bieu dien trong c s chnh tac la ma tran n v. Bai tap: Xac nh ma tran bieu dien cua nh thc cap 2 trong c s chnh tac. la ma tran bieu dien q trong c s B. la ma tran bieu dien q trong c s B . Goi P la ma tran chuyen c s t B sang B , i.e. B Khi o vi x, y V , xB = P xB va yB = P yB . Vay q(x, y) = txB AyB = atxB t P AP yB , x, y V. Suy ra moi quan he gia A va A :
A A A = t P AP
1.3 Chuyen c s.
Gia s
= BP .
Nhan xet. T cong thc tren suy ra hang cua ma tran bieu dien q khong phu thuoc c s. Ta co
1.4 nh ngha. Hang cua dang song tuyen tnh q, ky hieu rank(q), la hang cua ma tran bieu dien A trong c s nao o. Ta noi q la khong suy bien neuu rank(q) = dim V .
2. Dang toan phng
2.1 nh ngha. Q : V K goi la dang toan phng neuu ton tai dang song tuyen tnh q tren V sao cho: Q(x) = q(x, x), x V. Khi o ta noi dang toan phng Q sinh bi dang song tuyen tnh q. Nhan xet. Q la thuan nhat bac 2, i.e. Q(x) = 2 Q(x), x V, K .
V du. a) Trong R2 vi toa o (x1 , x2 ), moi dang toan phng co dang:
Q(x1 , x2 ) = ax2 + bx1 x2 + cx2 = (x1 x2 ) 1 2 a b/2 b/2 c x1 x2
b) Mot dang toan phng trong Rn la a thc thuan nhat bac 2 theo n bien:
Q(x) = t xAx =
n
aij xi xj
i,j=1
e y la dang song tuyen tnh qA (x, y) = t xAy cho v du 1.2 d), sinh ra dang toan phng tren.
115
c) Tch vo hng Euclid trong Rn sinh ra dang toan phng: x2 + + x2 . n 1 d) Dang Lorentz trong khong-thi gian R4 = {(x, y, z, t)}: x2 + y2 + z 2 ct2 (c > 0). Nhan xet. Co the co nhieu dang song tuyen tnh sinh ra cung mot dang toan phng. Chang han, cac dang song tuyen tnh q = ax1 y1 +x1 y2 +x2 y1 +cx2 y2 , vi + = b, cung sinh ra mot dang toan phng Q = ax2 + bx1 x2 + cx2 . 1 2
2.4 Menh e. Moi dang toan phng Q ton tai duy nhat dang song tuyen tnh oi xng q sinh ra Q, i.e. co tng ng 1-1 gia dang toan phng va dang song tuyen tnh oi xng.
q(y, x). Khi o q la dang song tuyen tnh oi xng sinh ra Q. T tnh oi xng cua q, ta co
Chng minh: Ga s q la dang song tuyen tnh sinh ra Q. at q (x, y) = (q(x, y) +
1 2
q (x + y, x + y) = q (x, x) + q (y, y) + 2(x, y). q
Suy ra q c xac nh bi cong thc:

1 q (x, y) = (Q(x + y) Q(x) Q(y)). 2
Vay tnh duy nhat cua q c chng minh. Nhan xet. Theo chng minh tren, dang song tuyen tnh oi xng sinh ra
Q(x) = t xAx =
n
aij xi xj
i,j=1
co ma tran la ma tran oi xng hoa cua
A:
1 1 A = (A + tA) , i.e. aij = (aij + aji ). 2 2
Ma tran bieu dien dang toan phng trong mot c s la ma tran (oi xng) bieu dien dang cc cua no trong c s o.
3. Dang chnh tac
2.3 Dang cc cua dang toan phng = Dang song tuyen tnh oi xng sinh ra no.
ma tran n gian. 3. Cho dang toan phng
Bai toan. Xet 3 bai toan tng ng sau: 1. Tm c s e ma tran bieu dien dang song tuyen oi xng co dang n gian. 2. Cho ma tran oi xng A M atK (n), tm ma tran P GlK (n) sao cho tP AP la
n
Q=
i,j=1
aij xi xj ,
tm phep oi bien x = P X sao cho Q
co dang n gian theo bien mi.
116 Ta se chng minh co the a ve dang ma tran ng cheo.
3.1 nh ngha. Cho q la dang song tuyen tnh tren V . C s B = (e 1, , en ) cua V goi la c s q-trc giao neuu q(ei , ej ) = 0, i = j . Nhan xet. Mot c s q-trc giao khi va ch khi ma tran bieu dien q trong c s o co dang ng cheo.
Ket qua sau c phat bieu di 3 dang tng ng:
3.2 nh ly.
ton tai c s q -trc giao. (ii) Moi ma tran oi xng A M atK (n) eu ton tai ma tran kha nghch P GlK (n) sao cho t P AP la ma tran ng cheo.
(i) Moi dang song tuyen tnh oi xng q tren khong gian vector hu han chieu eu
n
(iii) Moi dang toan phng tren

x = P X,
K, Q =
sao cho theo bien mi Q co dang chnh tac

2 2 Q = 1 X1 + + n Xn .
i,j=1
aij xi xj ,
ton tai biei oi tuyen tnh
nh ly dang (iii) c chng minh qua thuat toan sau:
3.3 Thuat toan Lagrange.

Input: Dang toan phng Q =
n
aij xi xj = 0 , (aij = aji )

i,j=1
2 2 Ouput: Dang chnh tac Q = 1 X1 + + n Xn .
Gia s vong lap th k 1, trong o

Bc 1:
2 Qk = akk Xk + 2(
2 2 Q = 1 X1 + + k1 Xk1 + Qk (Xk , , Xn ),
akj Xj )Xk +
j>k i,j>k
aij Xi Xj
Bay gi ch bien oi Qk .
Trng hp ton tai aii = 0: Hoan v v tr i va k bang oi bien Xi = yk , Xk = yi , Xj = yj (j = i, k). at k = akk , roi qua bc 2. Trng hp moi aii = 0, va ton tai akl = 0: Dung oi bien Xk = yk + yl , Xl = yk yl , Xj = yj (j = k, l). at k = akl , roi qua bc 2. Trng hp akj = 0 vi noi j k : at k = 0, roi qua bc 3. 2 Bc 2: Sau bc 1 ta co Qk = k yk + vi k = 0.
117
Dung bien oi
y 2 + 2by = (y +
b 2 b2 ) ,
ta co
aij yi yj aij yi yj
2 Qk = k yk + 2(
= k [ yk +
1 1 ( akj yj ) ]2 ( a yj )2 + k j>k k j>k kj akj yj , Xj = yk (j k).
j>k
akj yj )yk +
i,j>k
i,j>k
oi bien: Khi o
Xk = yk +
2 Qk = k Xk + Qk+1 (Xk+1 , , Xn ).
1 k
jk
Bc 3: Neu k < n, tang k len 1.
Sau hu han vong lap (khi k = n) Q co dang chnh tac can tm. V du. a ve dang chnh tac dang toan phng
Q = 2x1 x2 4x2 x3 + 6x3 x1
V cac he so cua x2 , x2 , x2 bang 0, va he so cua x1 x2 khac 0, ta oi bien: 1 2 3

x1 = y1 + y2 , x2 = y1 y2 , x3 = y3 .
Thay vao:
Q = 2(y1 + y2 )(y1 y2 ) 4(y1 y2 )y3 + 6y3 (y1 + y2 ) 2 2 = 2y1 + 2y3 y1 2y2 + 10y2 y3 1 2 1 2 2 = 2(y1 + y3 ) y3 2y2 + 10y2 y3 2 2
oi bien
1 X1 = y1 + y3 , 2
roi tien hanh tng t cho cac bien sau:
1 2 2 2 Q = 2X1 2y2 + 10y2 y3 y3 2 2 2[(y 5/2y )2 25/4y 2 ] 1 y 2 = 2X1 2 3 3 2 3 2 2(y 5/2y )2 + 12y 2 = 2X1 2 3 3
oi bien
X2 = y2 5/2y3 , X3 = y3 .
Ta co dang chnh tac:
2 3 2 Q = 2X1 2X2 + 12X3
Nhan xet. Co the xay dng thuat toan dang ma tran cua nh ly tren: e tm P sao cho t P AP = D co dang ng cheo, ta can lan lt bien oi s cap tren dong (= nhan ben trai A bi ma tran s cap E ) i oi vi bien oi s cap cung kieu tren cot (= nhan ben phai A bi ma tran s cap t E ). T o ta co:
118
Thuat toan:
Input: Ma tran oi xng A. Output: Cac ma tran P kha nghch va D ng cheo, sao cho t P AP = D
Bat au thc hien cac bien oi s cap t (I|A). Gia s vong lap th k 1, I a bien oi thanh I va A co dang
0 0 . . .
...
k1 0 0 akk
.. .
.. .
ank
.. .
0 akn .. .
.. .
ann
Trng hp ton tai aii = 0: Bien oi Di Dk , roi qua bc 2. Trng hp moi aii = 0, va ton tai akl = 0: Bien oi Dk + Dl & Dl Dk (= Dk + Dl , 2Dl Dk ) tren cap (I |A). Bien oi Ck + Cl & Cl Ck ch tren A, roi qua bc 2. Trng hp akj = 0 vi moi j k : qua bc 3. Bc 2: Sau bc 1 ta co akk = 0. Kh cac phan t khac 0 pha di akk , bang bien oi tren (I |A):
Dj j Dk ,
Bc 1:
vi j =
aij (j > k) akk
Kh cac phan t khac 0 pha phai akk , bang bien oi ch tren A:

Cj j Ck ,
vi j =
aij (j > k) akk
Bc 3: Neu k < n, tang k len 1
Sau n vong lap A D co dang ng cheo va I
tP
, thoa
t P AP
= D.
V du. Ma tran bieu dien cua dang toan phng v du tren:

0 1 2 3 A= 1 0 2 3 0

119
Thuat toan tren c tien hanh nh sau (khong thc hien bien oi tren cot cua I )
(I|A) =
1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 3 1 1 3
0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0
1 2
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1
1 2 1 0 1 0 2 1 1 0 1 0 2 1
| | | | | | | | | 0 0 1 0 0 1 | | | | | |
0 1 2 1 0 3 2 3 0 1 1 0 1 1 5 2 3 0 2 0 1 0 2 5 1 5 0 | 2 0 1 | 0 2 5 | 0 5 1 2 | 2 0 0 | 0 2 5 | 0 5 1 2 2 0 0 0 2 5 0 0 12 2 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 12
(D1 + D2 & D2 D1 ) (C1 + C2 & C2 C1 )

(D3 1 D1 ) 2 (C3 3 C1 ) 2 (D3 + 5 D2 ) 2 (C3 + 5 C2 ) 2
Vay
1 1 0 t P = 1 1 0 3 2 1
va
2 0 0 D = 0 2 0 0 0 12 := k Xk
Nhan xet. Khi co dang chnh tac, tiep tuc bien oi Xk K := C, va Xk := |k |Xk khi K := R ta co:
eu ton tai c s sao cho
trong trng hp
3.5 Dang chuan tac phc. Moi dang toan phng Q tren khong gian vector phc
2 2 Q = X1 + + Xr
(r =
rank(Q))
3.6 Dang chuan tac thc (luat quan tnh). Moi dang toan phng Q tren khong gian
thc V eu ton tai c s sao cho
2 2 2 2 Q = X1 + + Xp Xp+1 Xr
Cac so r va p la khong phu thuoc cach chon c s. Noi cach khac, ton tai phan tch V = V+ V V0 , thoa ieu kien: Q|V+ \{0} > 0, Q|V \{0} < 0, Q|V0 = 0. Vi moi cac phan tch nh tren dim V+ , dim V , dim V0 la khong oi.
120 goi la ch so quan tnh dng cua Q. Ky hieu ind+ Q = p ind Q = r p goi la ch so quan tnh am .
Chng minh: Theo nh ly 3.2, ton tai c s (e1 , , en ) sao cho
2 2 2 2 Q = X1 + + Xp Xp+1 Xr
Khi o V+ = L(e1 , , ep ), V = L(ep+1 , , er ), V0 tch neu tren. Ga s trong mot c s khac (f1 , , fn ) ta co
= L(er+1 , , en )
thoa phan
2 Q = Y12 + + Yq2 Yq+1 Yr2
Ro rang r = r = hang cua Q. Ta can chng minh p = q. at V1 = L(e1 , , ep ), V2 = L(fq+1 , , fn ). Khi o neu x V1 V2 , th
2 2 2 Q(x) = X1 + + Xp = Yq+1 Yr2 .
Suy ra X1 = = Xp = 0, i.e. x = 0. Vay V1 V2 = {0}. Suy ra dim V1 + dim V2 = dim(V1 + V2 ) dim V , i.e. p + n q n. Suy ra p q. Do tnh oi xng ta cung co q p. Vay p = q.
3.7 Dang xac nh dau. Cho Q la dang toan phng tren khong gian vector thc.
Khi o
Q Q Q
goi la xac nh dng , ky hieu Q > 0,neuu Q(x) > 0, x = 0. ky hieu Q < 0,neuu Q(x) < 0, x = 0. goi la xac nh am , neuu ton tai x, y : Q(x) > 0, Q(y) < 0 . goi la khong xac nh dau
Nhan xet. Dang xac nh dau lien quan en bai toan cc tr ham nhieu bien (vi Q la ao ham cap 2): Neu Q > 0, th Q at min tai 0; neu Q < 0, th Q at max tai 0; va neu Q khong xac nh dau, th Q khong co cc tr tai 0. Nhan xet. Dung thuat toan Lagrange a Q ve dang chnh tac:
2 2 Q = 1 X1 + + n Xn .
Khi o
Q > 0 khi va ch khi 1 , , n > 0, i.e. Q < 0 khi va ch khi 1 , , n < 0, i.e. Q khong xac nh dau khi va ch khi ton
ind+ Q = dim V . ind Q = dim V . tai i, j sao cho i j < 0.

b ac b2 2 y a
V du. Vi a = 0, Q = ax2 + 2bxy + cy2 = a(x + y)2 + a Vay Q > 0 khi va ch khi a > 0, ac b2 > 0. Q < 0 khi va ch khi a < 0, ac b2 > 0. Q khong xac nh dau khi va ch khi ac b2 < 0.
121
Trong v du tren ta thay la co the da vao mot so ieu kien ve dau cua nh thc cua ma tran bieu dien cua mot dang toan phng e biet dang o khi nao xac nh dau. Tong quat, ta co cong thc sau: Cho dang toan phng thc Goi
n
Q=
i,j=1
aij xi xj .
Dk = det(aij )1i,jk (k = 1, , n),
la k-minor chnh.
3.8 Cong thc Jacobi. Neu D1 = 0, , Dr = 0, th t thuat toan Lagrange

2 Q = D1 X1 +
D2 2 Dr X2 + + X 2 + Qr+1 (Xr+1 , , Xn ). D1 Dr1 r
Chng minh: Ga s Q(x) = txAx va A = tP AP . Goi Dk va Dk la cac k-minor
chnh cua A va A tng ng.

cheo chnh bang 1
Bo e 1. Ga s ma tran chuyen P co dang tam giac tren vi cac phan t tren ng
P =
1 0 1
. . .
. . .
Khi o Dk = Dk , vi k = 1, , n.
That vay, neu goi Ak , Ak va Pk la cac ma tran con chnh cap k, i.e. cac ma tran tao bi k dong k cot au cua A, A va P tng ng, th de thay Ak = tPk Ak Pk . Suy ra Dk = det( tPk Ak Pk ) = det tPk det Ak det Pk = (det Pk )2 det Ak = Dk .
th thuat toan Lagrange cac vong lap r co ma tran cua phep oi bien co dang cho Bo e 1.
Bo e 2. Neu D1
= 0, , Dr = 0,
Ta chng minh bo e bang qui nap theo k (1 k r). Vi k = 1, a 11 = D1 = 0 nen theo bc 2 cua thuat toan ta dung oi bien co dang neu tren. Bay gi ga s bo e ung ti k 1. Theo thuat toan Lagrange vong th k 1, qua phep oi bien x = P X , v P co dang Bo e 1, sao cho Q co dang
2 2 2 Q(x) = Q(P X) = 1 X1 + + k1 Xk1 + akk Xk + 2( j>k
akj Xj )Xk + ,
i.e. ma tran bieu dien cua Q theo bien X co dang

0 A = tP AP = 0 . . .
...
.. .
k1 0 0 akk
.. .
ank
.. .
0 akn .. .
.. .
ann
122 Theo Bo e 1, akk = Dk = Dk = 0. Vay vong lap th k cua thuat toan se s dung bien oi dang cho Bo e 1, i.e. Bo e ung ti k. Da vao 2 bo e tren, ta co cong thc Jacobi. T cong thc tren ta co:
3.9 Tieu chuan Sylvester.

Q>0 Q<0
khi va ch khi khi va ch khi
D1 > 0, D2 > 0, , Dn > 0 D1 < 0, D2 > 0, , (1)n Dn > 0.
3.10 Ap dung vao bai toan cc tr. Dang xac nh dau c ap dung vao bai toan
tm cc tr a phng ham f : U R, vi U R3 la tap m. Neu f kha vi en cap 2, th theo khai trien Taylor cua f tai M0 U :
f (M ) = f (M0 )+Df (M0 )(M M0 )+ 1t (M M0 )Hf (M0 )(M M0 )+o( M M0 2 ). 2 f f f
)M trong o phan bac nhat xac nh bi ma tran Jacobi Df (M0 ) = t ( x y z 0 va phan bac hai xac nh bi ma tran Hess Hf (M0 ), la ma tran oi xng:
Hf (M0 ) =
2f x2 2f yx 2f zx
2f xy 2f y 2 2f zy
2f xz 2f yz 2f z 2

M0
Theo ieu kien can neu f at cc tr tai M0 , th Df (M0 ) = 0. Khi Df (M0 ) = 0, t cong thc tren ta thay khi M M0 u be, gia tr f (M ) ln hn hay nho hn f (M0 ) phu thuoc vao dau cua dang toan phng xac nh bi Hf (M0 ). V du. Xet cc tr ham f (M ) = x3 + y3 3xy + z 2 , iem nghi ng cc tr la iem M , sao cho:

M = (x, y, z) R3 .

3x2 3y 0 2 3x = 0 Df (M ) = 3y 2z 0
Vay ta co hai iem can xet la O = (0, 0, 0) va M0 = (1, 1, 0). Ma tran Hess cua f :
6x 3 0 Hf (M ) = 3 6y 0 0 0 2
123
Tai M0 cac nh thc chnh la: D1 = 6 > 0, D2 = 27 > 0, D3 = 54 > 0. Theo tieu chuan Sylvester Hf (M0 ) > 0. Suy ra f at cc tieu tai M0 . Tai O dang toan phng
t
M Hf (0, 0, 0)M = 6xy + 2z 2 = 6(X + Y )(X Y ) + 2z 2 = 6X 2 + 6Y 2 + 2Z 2
co hang cc ai va khong xac nh dau. Vay f khong at cc tr tai O. khong gian vector Euclid. Xet dang toan phng Q : E R. Khi co nh c s trc chuan trong E , ta co the xem Q la dang toan phng tren R n vi tch vo hng Euclid <, >. Ta co bieu dien
n
3.10 Dang chnh tac cua toan phng trong khong gian vector Euclid Cho E la
Q(x) =
i,j=1
aij xi xj = txAx = < Ax, x >,
trong o
A = (aij )nn
la ma tran oi xng,
x=
x1
.. .
xn
T thuat toan cheo hoa trc giao ma tran oi xng, ta co cac ket qua tng ng sau:
nh ly truc chnh.
(i) Moi dang song tuyen tnh oi xng q trong khong gian vector Euclid hu han chieu
eu ton tai c s va trc chuan (theo tch vo hng), va q -trc giao. (ii) Moi dang toan phng Q tren khong gian vector Euclid eu ton tai c s trc chuan sao cho Q co dang chnh tac.
Cu the, neu Q(x) =t xAx, th ton tai P O(n) la ma tran ma cac cot la mot he c n A s trc chuan cua Rn , gom cac vector rieg cua ng vi ga tr rieng 1 , , n , sao cho phep oi bien x = P X , vi
X=
X1
.. .
ta co
Xn
2 2 Q(x) = Q(P X) = 1 X1 + + 2 Xn . n
Nhan xet. Thuat toan Lagrange a dang toan phng ve dang chnh tac nhng trong c s khong nhat thiet trc chuan. Con thuat toan cheo hoa trc giao chng VII, phep bien oi la trc giao, i.e. bieu dien dang toan phng trong c s trc chuan, nen khong lam thay oi kch thc cua dang. V vay phng phap nay c ap dung vao hnh hoc Euclid (xem chng sau)
IX. Ap dung vao hnh hoc

Chng nay se neu mot so ap dung cua ai so tuyen tnh vao hnh hoc affin va hnh hoc Euclid. Cu the ta se xet en cac phep bien hnh thong dung va cac ng, mat bac hai.
1. Cau truc affin chnh tac cua mot khong gian vector
Cho E la mot khong gian vector hu han chieu tren R. Khi cac phan t cua E c xem la cac iem th ta noi E c trang b cau truc affin chnh tac, va E goi la khong gian affin. Hn na, neu E la khong gian vector Euclid, th luc o ta goi E la khong gian Euclid. Khi o ta nh ngha: Khoang cach gia hai iem A, B E la d(A, B) = AB Goc AOB , vi O, A, B E , la goc co cos(AOB) = cos(OA, OB).
b &w & f f & & f d(A, B) = & f & f & AOB & s E f
1.1 nh ngha. Vi A, B E , ta ky hieu AB= B A.
AB
Khi xem E la khong gian vector, th phan t cua no la vector va dung ky hieu x . Khi xem E la khong gian affin, th phan t cua no la iem va dung ky hieu A, B, O, M, . ac biet, dung ky hieu 0 cho iem ng vi vector khong cua E .
Qui c: e phan biet vector va iem trong E , trong chng nay ta qui c:
Menh e. Vi moi iem A, B, C E , ta co:

AB= 0 A = B, BA= AB, AB + BC=AC

(he
thc Chasles)
Anh xa f : E F , goi la affin neuu ton tai anh xa tuyen tnh f : E F , sao cho
f (A)f (M )= f (AM )

1.2 Anh xa affin. Cho E, F la cac khong gian vector hu han chieu tren R.
hay
f (M ) = f (A) + f (AM ), A, M E
De thay khi o f la duy nhat va goi la phan tuyen tnh cua f . Ky hieu Aff(E, F ) la tap moi anh xa affin t E vao F .
126
Menh e. Cho f A(E, F ), g A(F, G). Khi o

g f A(E, G),
va
(g f ) = g f
Bai tap: Chng minh menh e tren.
1.3 ang cau affin. Mot song anh affin t E len F goi la mot ang cau affin. Khi E = F mot ang cau affin goi la t ang cau affin hay phep bien oi affin tren E . Tap cac phep bien oi affin tren E , ky hieu GA(E), goi la nhom affin cua E . Khi E la khong gian Euclid, mot phep ang c tren E la song anh f : E E sao cho
d(f (A), f (B)) = d(A, B), A, B E
Tap cac phep ang c tren E , ky hieu Iso(E), goi la nhom ang c tren E .
Menh e.
GA(E)
va Iso(E) la cac nhom vi phep hp thanh .
Bai tap: Chng minh menh e tren. Theo mot ngha nao o, hnh hoc affin nghien cu cac tnh chat hnh hoc bat bien (khong oi) qua cac phep bien oi affin (chang han tnh song song), con hnh hoc euclid nghien cu cac tnh chat hnh hoc bat bien qua cac phep ang c (chang han tnh bao toan goc, tnh bao toan khoang cach).
1.4 C s affin. Mot c s affin cua E la mot cap (O; B) = (O; e1, , en), trong o iem O E goi la goc , B = (e1 , , en ) la mot c s cua E . Neu E la khong gian Euclid va B la c s trc chuan, th (O; B) goi la c s euclid. 1.5 Toa o affin. Cho (O; B) = (O; e1, , en ) la mot c s affin cua E . Khi o vi moi M E , ta co bieu dien duy nhat
OM = x1 e1 + + xn en
Bo so x = ...
x1
Rn
goi la toa do iem M theo c s (O; B).
Khi o E c ong nhat vi Rn qua ang cau M x.

cM B e1 E t E
xn
x1 e1
x1 x2
x2 e2
e2
127
la hai c s affin cua E . Goi x va x la cac toa o tng ng cua cung mot iem M E theo hai c s tren. Goi P la ma tran chuyen c s B sang B va b la toa o I trong c s (O, B). T he thc OM =OI + IM , ta co cong thc sau
x = b + Px
1.6 Cong thc chuyen c s. Cho (O; B) = (O; e1, , en) va (I; B ) = (I; e1, , en)
hay
x 1
P b O 1
x 1
Neu B = B , th ta goi phep chuyen c s tren la phep tnh tien c s t O en I . Khi o P = I va x = b + x . Neu cac c s la c s euclid, th P la ma tran trc giao.
1.7 Bieu dien ma tran anh xa affin. Cho f : E F la anh xa affin. Cho (O; B) = (O; e1 , , en ) la c s cua E , (I; C) = (I; f1 , , fn ) la c s cua F . C Goi c la toa o cua f (O) trong c s (I, C) va A = MB (f ). Vi moi M E , ky hieu x la toa o M trong c s (O, B) va y la toa o f (M ) trong c s (I, C). T he thc f (M ) = f (O) + f (OM ), ta co cong thc
y = c + Ax
hay
y 1
A c O 1
x 1
goi la mot khong gian affin con hay mot phang trong E neuu ton tai mot iem A E va mot khong gian vector con F cua khong gian vector E , sao cho:
F = A + F = {A+ x : x F } = {M E : AM F }

1.8 Khong gian affin con - Phang k chieu. Mot tap con F cua khong gian affin E
Khi o F goi la mot phang qua A, co phng F va co so chieu dim F = dim F . Khi dim F = 1, 2, dim E 1, th F lan lt c goi la ng thang, mat phang, sieu phang.
F 0s s A
F

A s

F

0 s

Bai tap: Chng minh neu mot phang co hai bieu dien th F = F va AA F .
F = A + F = A + F ,
128 Cho (O; B) = (O; e1, , en ) la c s affin cua E . Tng t nh phng trnh ng thang va mat phang trong khong gian ba chieu, mot phang F = A + F trong E co the bieu dien bi tap cac iem M co toa o x trong c s a cho thoa:
Phng trnh tham so: x = a + t v1 + + tk vk , t1 , , tk R, 1 trong o a la toa o cua A va v1 , , vk la c s cua F .
F = { v E :
Phng trnh:
Ax = b, trong o A M at(k, n) va b M at(k, 1) sao cho v toa o v cua thoa Av = 0} va b = Aa (a la toa o cua A) F
Phang F goi la song song vi phang F , ky hieu F
, neuu F F .
E
Bai tap: Chng minh quan he song song tren tap cac phang cua xa va bac cau, i.e vi cac phang F, F , F trong E , ta co:
F F
co tnh phan
va
F ,F
2. Mot so anh xa affin thong dung.

thoa
2.1 Phep tnh tien. Cho

v E.
v Phep tnh tien theo , la anh xa
t : E E , v
M t (M )= v v
hay
t(M ) = M + v , M E v
s t (M ) v

U v
sM
idE , (t)1 = t v v Noi mot cach khac, tap cac phep tnh tien {t : v E} vi luat hp thanh va ang v cau vi nhom (E, +).
t t = t+, t = u v u v
0
u, v Menh e. Vi moi E , ta co
Bai tap: Chng minh phep tnh tien trong khong gian Euclid bao toan o dai, bao toan goc va v vay bao toan the tch n chieu. Neu (O; B) la c s affin cua E , th phep tnh tien t co bieu dien trong c s v o la x c + x, vi c la toa o v trong c s B Nhan xet. Vi moi f A(E, E) va O E , ta co f (M ) = f (O) + f (OM ). v Vay f la hp cua anh xa bao toan O va phep tnh tien vector =Of (O)
129
E va la hp cua mot f O(E) sao cho
2.2 Phep ang c. Cho E la khong gian Euclid. Xet cac phep ang c f Iso(E ). Menh e. f : E E la mot phep ang c khi va ch khi f la mot ang cau affin tren
phep tnh tien va mot phep bien oi trc giao tren E , i.e. ton tai
f (M ) = f (O) + f (OM ), M E
Ngc lai, gia s f la mot phep ang c. Trc het ta chng minh f la anh xa affin. v Goi I = f (0) va = I0 . Xet anh xa hp f = t f . v Khi o f (0) = 0, nen f co the xem la anh xa tuyen tnh tren E . Hn na, vi moi M, N E , ta co
f (M ) f (N ) = t(f (M )) t (f (N )) = f (M ) f (N ) = M N v v
Chng minh: Ro rang phep tnh tien va phep bien oi trc giao la cac phep ang c.
Vay f la anh xa bao toan khoang cach trong khong gian vector Euclid E . Do E la khong gian hu han chieu, f la toan t trc giao (xem phan toan t trc giao cua chng VII). Suy ra f = t f la ang cau affin va co dang can chng minh. v
He qua. Iso(E) la nhon con cua nhom GA(E).

Bai tap: Chng minh cac phep ang c bao toan o dai, bao toan goc va v vay bao toan the tch n chieu. Neu (O; B) la c s euclid cua E , th theo chng minh tren moi phep ang c tren E co bieu dien trong c s a cho la
x c + P x , P O(n) f
Ngi ta thng phan biet hai loai bien hnh cua phep ang c f : Phep di hnh khi det f = 1. Phep phan di hnh khi det f = 1.
' r W t t t t t'
RI, (M )
SD (M )
e e e r er
r rr s r D r s e e e s er M
V du. Mo ta cu the phep ang c trong R2 , f Iso(R2 ). Khi o f la phep quay hay phep oi xng qua ng thang tuy thuoc nh thc cua no la 1 hay 1.
130 Khi dung c s chnh tac trong R2 , f co bieu dien la

y1 = c1 + ax1 + bx2 y2 = c2 + cx1 + dx2
trong o
a b c d
O(2)
(1) Trng hp det f = 1, i.e.
la phep di hnh. Khi o
y1 = c1 + cos x1 sin x2 y2 = c2 + sin x1 + cos x2 v (1a) Neu = 0 (mod2), th f = t la phep tnh tien vector = (c1 , c2 ). v (1b) Neu = 0 (mod2), th f = RI, la phep quay tam I mot goc . e tm tam I ta tm iem bat ong cua f , i.e. tm nghiem phng trnh f (I) = I (1 cos )x1 + sin x2 = c1 sin x1 + (1 cos )x2 = c2
He phng trnh tren co nh thc (cos 1)2 + sin2 = 0, nen co duy nhat nghiem. (2) Trng hp det f = 1, i.e. f la phan di hnh. Trong trng hp nay, ta co
y1 = c1 + cos x1 + sin x2 y2 = c2 + sin x1 cos x2
Goi D la tap cac iem bat ong cua f , i.e.

f (M ) = M
la tap nghiem he phng trnh
(1 cos )x1 sin x2 = c1 sin x1 + (1 + cos )x2 = c2
He phng trnh co nh thc (1 cos )(1 + cos ) sin2 = 0. Ta can xet tiep. (1 cos ) c , th tap nghiem la ng thang (2a) Neu 1 =
c2 sin D : (1 cos )x1 sin x2 c1 = 0
T bai tap sau suy ra f = SD la phep oi xng qua D (con goi la phep phan chieu hay phep lat hnh qua D). Bai tap: Trong R2 , cho ng thang D : Ax1 + Bx2 + C = 0. Chng minh phep oi xng SD qua ng thang D cho bi cong thc
(y1 , y2 ) = SD (x1 , x2 ) = (x1 , x2 ) 2
Trong trng hp nay (c1 , c2 ) la vector vuong goc vi D (ng vi phep tnh tien vuong goc vi truc oi xng D cua f ) (1 cos ) c , he vo nghiem, i.e. tap iem bat ong cua f la trong. (2b) Neu 1 = c2 sin Trong trng hp nay f la phep lat hnh qua D roi tnh tien mot vector (c1 , c2 ) khong vuong goc vi D . Bai tap: Da vao tnh chat hnh hoc cua f O(3), hay mo ta hnh hoc cac phep di hnh trong R3 .
Ax1 + Bx2 + C (A, B) A2 + B 2
131
k
2.3 Phep ong dang. Cho E la khong gian Euclid. Mot phep ong dang t so (k > 0) la mot anh xa f : E E , thoa
d(f (A), f (B)) = kd(A, B), A, B E
Nhan xet. Neu f la phep ong dang t so k, th dang la ang cau affin.
1 f k
la phep ang c nen phep ong
Menh e. Tap cac phep ong dang tren E la mot nhom con cua GA(E)
Bai tap: Chng minh menh e tren, vi chu y la neu f, f la cac phep ong dang t so k, k tng ng, th f f la phep ong dang t so kk va f 1 la phep ong dang t so k 1 . Chng minh cac phep ong dang bao toan goc. Mot phep ong dang t so k , lam thay oi: o dai mot t le k , dien tch t le k 2 , the tch n chieu t le kn . Mot trong cac phep ong dang ac biet la phep v t. Cho Phep v t tam I t so k, la anh xa h = hI,k : E E , thoa
Ih(M )= k IM , M E

I E , k R \ {0}.
De thay phep v t hI,k la phep ong dang t so |k|. Neu (O; B) la c s affin cua E , th t h(M ) = I + k IM = (1 k) OI +k OM , phep v t co dang
x c + kx.
T phep di hnh trong R2 , ta co mo ta cac phep ong dang thuan sau (Bai tap): (1) Neu k = 1, th f la phep tnh tien hoac la phep quay. (2) Neu k = 1, th f ch co mot iem bat ong I va la hp cua mot phep quay tam I
f (M )
Menh e. Cho f : R2 R2 la phep ong dang t so k co det f > 0. Khi o
va mot phep v t tam I t so k.
s ' '
t t t
t t
ts
t ts
h(M )
132
2.4 p chieu - Phep oi xng. Cho Phe
H la mot sieu phang trong khong gian va v E khong song song vi H . v Phep chieu song song vi len H la anh xa P = PH, : E E , thoa v P (M ) H
va
M P (M )
v , M E
v Phep oi xng qua H song song vi la anh xa S = SH, : E E , thoa v
M S(M )= 2 M P (M ), M E
sM G s P (M )
v
c H
sM
c P (M )
s S(M )
T nh ngha de dang suy ra:
Menh e. Phep chieu P va phep oi xng S la cac anh xa affin. Ngoai ra,
P P =P
va S S = IdE
e tm bieu thc cu the ta co cac cong thc sau xem nh bai tap:
v Bai tap: Trong R3 , cho mat phang H : Ax + By + Cz + D = 0, va = (a, b, c). Ax + By + Cz + D v a) Chng minh pH, (x, y, z) = (x, y, z) v Aa + Bb + Cc b) Suy ra cong thc phep chieu vuong goc len H , i.e. khi v = n H . c) Chng minh phep oi xng (vuong goc) qua H cho bi SH, (x, y, z) = (x, y, z) 2 n Ax + By + Cz + D (A, B, C) A2 + B 2 + C 2
Bai tap: Trong R3 cho ng thang D : Tm bieu thc cua phep chieu vuong goc SD (x, y, z) cua M = (x, y, z) len D.
y y0 z z0 x x0 = = . a b c P D (x, y, z) va phep oi xng
vuong goc
133
3. ng, mat bac 2

3.1 nh ngha. Trong khong gian affin E cho c s (O; e1, , en ). Tap cac iem
M
co toa o x1 , , xn , thoa phng trnh

n
F (x) =
i,j=1
aij xi xj + 2
i=1
a0i xi + a00 = 0,
goi la sieu mat bac 2. Khi n = 2, ta co ng cong bac 2, goi la conic. Khi n = 3, ta co mat cong bac 2, goi la quadric. Khi dung ky hieu ma tran:
A = (aij )nn
la ma tran oi xng, = ...
a01
va x = ...
x1
phng trnh tren co dang
a0n F (x) = txAx + 2tx + a00 = 0.
xn
3.2 Cac bat bien c ban. Qua phep chuyen c s affin cac he so cua phng trnh
tren thay oi. Tuy nhien hang va ch so quan tnh cua cac ma tran sau khong oi
A = (aij )
va
A=
a00
Chng minh: Qua chuyen c s x = b + P x , A bien oi thanh A = tP AP .

Neu ky hieu P = V P va P eu kha nghch nen theo luat quan tnh hang va ch so quan tnh cua la khong oi khi qua bien oi tren. va A P b O 1 , th A bien oi thanh A = tP AP . A
T cac bat bien neu tren va cac ket qua ve dang chnh tac cua dang toan phng, ta co cac phan loai sau:
3.3 Phan loai affin sieu mat bac 2. Moi sieu mat bac 2 trong khong gian affin
eu ton tai c s affin e phng trnh co mot (va ch mot) trong cac dang sau:
(I) (II) (III)
2 2 2 2 (p r n) X1 + + Xp Xp+1 Xr = 1 2 + + X2 X2 2 Xr = 0 (p [ n ]) X1 p p+1 2 2 2 2 2 X1 + + Xp Xp+1 Xr = 2Xr+1 (p r < n)
trong o r = rankA, p = ind+ A.
134
3.4 Phan loai euclid sieu mat bac 2. Moi sieu mat bac 2 trong khong gian euclid eu
ton tai c s euclid e phng trnh co mot (va ch mot) trong cac dang sau:
(I) (II) (III)
2 2 2 2 2 X1 + + 2 Xp 2 Xp+1 2 Xr = 1 (p r n) p r 1 p+1 2 X 2 + + 2 X 2 2 X 2 2X 2 = 0 (p [ n ]) 1 1 p p p+1 p+1 r r 2 2 2 2 2 2 X1 + + 2 Xp 2 Xp+1 2 Xr = 2Xr+1 (p r < n) p r 1 p+1
trong o r = rankA, p = ind+ A, va 1 , , r = 0.
Cu the trong khong gian 2 hay 3 chieu, ta co:
3.5 Dang chnh tac cua conic trong mat phang Euclid.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
x2 y 2 + 2 +1 a2 b 2 y2 x + 2 1 a2 b 2 y2 x + 2 a2 b 2 y2 x 2 1 a2 b 2 y2 x 2 a2 b 2 2px y y 2 + a2 y 2 a2 y2 =0 =0 =0 =0 =0 =0 =0 =0 =0
Ellip ao Ellip iem Hyperbol Cap ng thang giao nhau Parabol Cap ng thang ao Cap ng thang song song ng thang
det A > 0, det A > 0 det A > 0, det A < 0 det A > 0, det A = 0 det A < 0, det A > 0 det A < 0, det A = 0 det A = 0, det A = 0 det A = 0, det A = 0 det A = 0, det A = 0 =0 det A = 0, det A
y b
b y = a x
0
x2 y 2 + 2 =1 a2 b
a E x
x2 y 2 2 =1 a2 b
y 2 2px = 0
Bai tap: Ve cac ng cong con lai.
135
3.6 Dang chnh tac cua quadric trong khong gian Euclid.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
x2 a2 x2 a2 x2 a2 x2 a2 x2 a2 x2 a2 x2 a2 x2 a2 + + + + + + + y2 b2 y2 b2 y2 b2 y2 b2 y2 b2 y2 b2 y2 b2 y2 b2 + + + z2 c2 z2 c2 z2 c2 z2 c2 z2 c2 z2 c2 +1 =0 1 =0 =0 +1 =0 1 =0 +1 =0 =0 =0
Ellipsoid ao. Ellipsoid. Non ao. Hyperboloid 2 tang. Hyperboloid 1 tang. Non. Paraboloid-Elliptic.
2z 2z
Paraboloid-Hyperbolic (mat yen nga). Mat tru sinh bi ng bac 2 th n. n Phng trnh th n bang tren Sau ay la phac hoa mot so mat quadric neu tren. (Dung phng phap cat lat )
Bai tap: Ve cac mat tru.
136
3.7 Phng phap a sieu mat ve dang chnh tac. Ga s trong he c s ban
au sieu mat cho bi phng trnh
F (x) = txAx + 2tx + a00 = 0.
2 2 2 2 khi oi bien x = P y, Q = y1 + + yp yp+1 yr . Trng hp euclid: Dung thuat toan cheo hoa trc giao, ta co P O(n), sao cho khi 2 2 2 2 oi bien x = P y, Q = 2 y1 + + 2 yp 2 yp+1 2 yr p r 1 p+1
Bc 1: Xet dang toan phng Q(x) = t xAx. Trng hp affin: Dung thuat toan Lagrage a Q ve dang chuan tac, ta co P Gl(n),
Bc 2: Trong c s mi (vi cac toa o la cac cot cua P ), ta co

2 2 2 2 F (P y) = 2 y1 + + 2 yp 2 yp+1 2 yr + 2 1 p p+1 r n i=1
a0i yi + a00 a 2 a2 ) 4, 2
Neu a0i = 0, vi moi i > r, th dung bien oi 2 y2 + 2ay = 2 (y +

F = 2 (y1 + 1 a a01 2 a0r 2 2 2 ) + r (yr 2 ) + C 1 r
ta co
Tnh tien Xi = yi 0i (i = 1, , r); Xk = yk (k > r). 2 i T o ta co dang (I) khi C = 0, dang (II) khi C = 0. Neu ton tai i > r ma a0i = 0, th chuyen v e co i = r + 1. Cung dung bien oi nh tren, ta co
F = 2 (y1 + 1 a01 2 a0r 2 2 a0i yi + C 2 ) + r (yr 2 ) + 2 1 r i>r
Trng hp affin: oi bien

Xi = yi
la oi bien
Trng hp euclid: e co phep chuyen c s trc chuan, ta phai trc giao hoa phep
a0i C (i = 1, , r), Xr+1 = a0i yi , 2 2 i i>r affin a F ve dang (III). a0i (i = 1, , r), 2 i a0i yi
i>r
Xk = yk (k > r + 1)
oi bien tren nh sau

Xi = yi
Xr+1 =

trong o bk j co c nh trc giao hoa G-S cac vector dong ma tran:

a0r+1
2 a2 0r+1 + + a0n 0
a2 0,r+1
+ a2 0n
C , Xk = bkj yj (k > r + 1), 2 j>r a0r+2
.. .
2 a2 0r+1 + + a0n 1
a0n
2 a2 0r+1 + + a0n 0
...
.. .

G-S
137
a0r+2
2 a2 0r+1 + + a0n br+1,r+2
a0r+1
2 a2 0r+1 + + a0n br+1,r+1
a0n
2 a2 0r+1 + + a0n br+1,n
.. .
.. .
.. .
bn,r+1
bn,r+2
bnn
Sau viec oi bien nay F co dang (III). V du. Trong R2 vi he c s chnh tac Oxy cho ng cong bac 2
F (x, y) = 2x2 2xy + 2y 2 + 2x + 2y = 0.
e mo ta hnh hoc ng cong ta tm cach a ve dang truc chnh: 2 Trc het ta cheo hoa trc giao A = 1 1 . Ta co PA () = ( 1)( 3). 2 Cac vector rieng sau khi trc chuan hoa la f1 = (1, 1), 2 Vay e a A ve dang ng cheo ta dung oi bien
x y 1 = 2 1 1 1 1 X Y . 1 1 f2 = (1, 1). 2
o la phep quay he toa truc Oxy mot goc . Trong toa truc OXY ng cong co 4 phng trnh
F = X 2 + 3Y 2 + X +Y X Y 2( ) + 2( ) = (X + 1)2 + 3Y 2 1 = 0 2 2
oi bien u = X + 1, v = Y (phep tnh tien he toa o OXY en Iuv trong o I co toa o trong he OXY la (1, 0)). Khi o trong he toa truc Iuv ng cong co phng trnh
u2 + 3v 2 = 1.
o la mot ellip tam I vi cac truc chnh Iu va Iv.

y Y
T
s d d u d d v E d s d x 0 d d d d d d d d d I d d d
138 Bai tap: Xac nh tnh chat hnh hoc cua mat bac 2 cho bi phng trnh sau trong R3 :
F (x, y, z) = x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 4xy + 4yz + 4zx + 10 3(x + y + z) = 0.
Bai tap
0. So phc - a thc.
1. Tm phan thc va phan ao cua cac so phc sau:
5 1 3 24 1 i (1 + 2i)3 (1 i)3 , ) , (1+i)n +(1i)n , , (1+i 3) , ( i 3 (2 + i)3 1 + i (3 + 2i) 2 2 1+i 3 1i
20
3+i 3
2. Tm modul va argumrnent cac so phc:

1 + i, 1 i 3, , (1 + cos + i sin )n
3. Tm moi nghiem trong C cua cac phng trnh sau:

1+i z 3 + 1 = 0, z 5 1 = 0, z 6 + 27 = 0, z 8 = 3i
4. Bieu dien cos 5x, cos 8x, sin 6x, sin 9x qua cos x, sin x. 5. Bieu dien
sin3 x, sin4 x, cos5 x, cos6 x
qua cos kx, sin kx (k N).
6. Cho la mot can bac n cua n v (n N). Tnh 1 + + + n1 . 7. Goi 0 , , n1 la cac can bac n cua n v.
p p p Tnh S = 0 + 1 + + n1 , vi a) p la boi cua n. b) p khong la boi cua n.
8. Tm thng va phan d cua phep chia 2X 4 3X 3 + 4X 2 5X + 6 cho X 2 3X + 1 X 4 2X 3 + 4X 2 6X + 8 cho X 1 9. Tm c chung ln nhat cua cac a thc: a) P = X 6 7X 4 + 8X 3 7X + 7 va Q = 3X 5 7X 3 + 3X 2 7 b) P = X 5 + X 4 X 3 3X 2 3X 1 va Q = X 4 2X 3 X 2 2X 1 10. Vi cac a thc P, Q bai tap tren, tm cac a thc U, V sao cho: U P + V Q = GCD(P, Q). 11. Chng minh tong S va tch P cua cac nghiem a thc a0 z n + a1 z n1 + + an = 0 la a a1 va P = (1)n n . S= a0 a0 Suy ra
cos 4 2(n 1) 2 + cos + + cos = 1 n n n 4 2(n 1) 2 + sin + + sin =0 n n n
sin
140 12. Chng minh neu x1 , x2 la nghiem cua phng trnh ax2 + bx + c = 0, th
a2 (x1 x2 )2 = b2 4ac
13. Chng minh neu x1 , x2 , x3 la nghiem cua phng trnh x3 + px + q = 0, th

(x1 x2 )2 (x1 x3 )2 (x2 x3 )2 = 4p3 27q 2
14. Giai cac phng trnh bac 3 sau tren C: a) x3 6x + 9 = 0 b) x3 + 45x 98 = 0 c) x3 + 9x2 + 18x + 28 = 0 d) x3 + 6x2 + 30x + 25 = 0 15. Giai cac phng trnh bac 4 sau tren C: a) x4 2x3 + 2x2 + 4x 8 = 0 b) x4 x3 x2 + 2x 2 = 0 16. Tm nghiem hu t cac a thc:
X 3 6X 2 +15X 14, X 5 2X 4 4X 3 +4X 2 5X +6, 10X 4 13x3 +15X 2 18X 24
17. Phan tch thanh tha so bac 1 hay bac 2 tren C roi tren R cac a thc:
X 4 + 1, X 4 1, X 5 + 1, X 5 1, X n + 1, X n 1 P (X) . Q(X)
18. Cho phan thc f (X) =

A X a
Gia s a la nghiem n cua Q(X). Chng minh neu

P (a) Q (a)
la phan thc trong phan tch f (X) thanh cac phan thc n gian, th A =
19. Phan tch thanh phan thc n gian (tren C, roi tren R) cac phan thc sau:
2 X5 X3 X2 4X 3 X2 + 1 , , , , X(X 2 1) (X 1)(X 2)(X 3) X2 1 (X 2 + 1)2 X5 3X 2 + 3X X6 X2 + 1 , , (X 1)3 X 3 3X 2 (X 4 1)2
I. Khong gian vector hnh hoc.

Cac bai tap phan nay c xet trong khong gian R3 vi c s Descartes chnh tac. 1. Lap phng trnh mat phang: u= v a) Qua M0 (3, 1, 4) va co cac vector ch phng (1, 3, 1), = (1, 2, 2). b) Qua A(4, 1, 3), B(3, 2, 1), C(1, 3, 2). c) Qua A(a, 0, 0), B(0, b, 0), C(0, 0, c).
v 2. Lap phng trnh ng thang qua M0 (2, 1, 3) va co vector ch phng = (1, 3, 2). v 3. Tm mot iem M0 va mot vector ch phng cua ng thang D: 2x y + 3z 1 = 0 x + y 4z 6 = 0
Bai tap
141
4. nh ieu kien cho a, b R e hai ng thang sau song song

D: x = 2z + 1 y = az 2
va D
x = bz 3 y = 4z + 1
5. nh ieu kien cho a R e ng thang va mat phang sau song song

D: x = 2z 3 y = az + 1
va P
: x + 2y 4z + 5 = 0
6. nh ieu kien cho a R e hai ng thang sau ong phang

D: x = az 1 y = 2z + 3
va D
x = bz 2 y = 3z 1
7. Xac nh giao cua 3 mat phang:

P1 : x 2y + z + 3 = 0, P2 : 2x + y z 2 = 0, P3 : 4x 3y + z + 4 = 0.
8. Cho cac mat phang P qua A(1, 1, 0) co vector ch phng u= (2, 1, 1) va v = (1, 4, 1) P qua A (1, 2, 1) co vector ch phng u = (0, 2, 1) va v = (1, 1, 3) Chng minh P, P cat nhau theo mot ng thang D. Xac nh mot iem va mot vector ch phng cua D. 9. Cho D : Chng minh ton tai duy nhat cap mat Lap phng trnh cap mat phang o. 10. Cho D : Tm tat ca cac ng thang song
D1 : z = 1 y = 2x + 1 D2 : y = x+2 z = x x = z1 y = 2z + 1
va D
y = 3x . z = 1 phang (P, P )
sao cho D P, D
P ,P
va D
y = 2x + 1 . z = 2x 1 song vi xOy va
cat D, D , Oz .
z = 2 y = x+2
11. Xac nh moi ng thang cat cac ng thang va song song vi mat phang
z = 0 D3 : y = x + 3 P : x + y z + 2 = 0.
12. Tm ieu kien ai so tng ng ieu kien hnh hoc: a) Cac iem trong mat phang: Mi (xi, yi ), i = 1, 2, 3, cung nam tren mot ng thang. b) Cac ng thang trong mat phang: Ai x + Bi y + Ci = 0, i = 1, 2, 3 , ong qui. c) Cac ng thang trong mat phang: Ai x + Bi y + Ci = 0, i = 1, 2, 3 , tao nen mot tam giac. d) Cac iem trong khong gian: Mi (xi , yi , zi ), i = 1, 2, 3, cung nam tren mot mat phang. e) Cac mat phang trong khong gian: Ai x + Bi y + Ci z + Di = 0, i = 1, 2, 3 , ong qui. 13. Tm khoang cach t A en mat phang P : a) A(3, 1, 2) P : 2x + 6y z = 7. u v b) A(3, 1, 2) P qua (2, 1, 0) va ch phng bi = (1, 6, 2), = (3, 1, 1).
142 14. Tnh cac goc: a) Cua cac mat phang P : x + y + z = 3, P : 2x + y z = 4. x 2y + z = 4 x+y+z b) Cua cac ng thang D : 2x + y z = 0 D : 2x + 3y z c) Cua ng thang va mat phang
D: x + 2y + z = 0 2x y + zy = 1
= 0 = 0
P : x + 2z = 3.
15. Lap phng trnh mat phan giac cua:
P : 7x 4y + 4z 8 = 0, P : 4x + 8y + z 11 = 0.
16. Tnh khoang cach t A(4, 3, 2) en ng thang D qua (1, 0, 1) va co vector ch v phng = (2, 1, 3) 17. Tnh khoang cach gia hai ng thang D qua A(1, 2, 1) va co vector ch phng u = (2, 1, 3) D qua A (1, 0, 3) va co vector ch phng v = (1, 1, 1). 18. Lap phng trnh ng vuong goc chung cua cac ng thang D qua A(2, 3, 1) va co vector ch phng u = (1, 6, 2) D qua A (1, 1, 2) va co vector ch phng v = (2, 1, 4) 19. Cho a, m R+ , D1 : Xac nh cac ng
y = mx y = mx va D2 : z = a z = a thang cat D1 , D2 di cung mot goc.
II. Ma tran - He phng trnh tuyen tnh.1

1. Cho cac ma tran
A= 2 3 1 4

B= 2 1 4 0 8 1 3 2
1 2 1 4
D=
u=
1 3
v=

2 4
C=
2 1 3 6 2 0 0 4 1 1 1 1 1 5 1 2
Tnh
2A 3B, AB, CD, DC, uv, vu, Bu, CB, (AB)u, A(Bu), t (A + B), t CD. A2 = I2 .
2. Trong M atK (2), tm v du: a) A = O : A2 = O. b) A = I2 :
c) B = C :
AB = AC .
3. Cac menh e sau ung hay sai? a) Cho A, B la cac ma tran vuong cung cap. Khi o (A + B)(A B) = A2 B 2 . b) Cho A la m n ma tran. Neu Ax = 0, vi moi ma tran cot x, th A = O. c) Cho A, B la cac m n ma tran. Neu Ax = Bx, vi moi ma tran cot x, th A = B .
1
Mot so bai tap ve he phng trnh co s dung kien thc cua chng nh thc.
Bai tap
143
4. Cho A, B la cac ma tran vuong cung cap. Chng minh menh e sau la sai:
(A = O va A2 = AB) = A=B
Tm cho sai trong lap luan sau ay nham chng minh menh e tren: A2 = AB A2 AB = O A(A B) = O . Do A = O A B = O A = B. 5. Cho
A=
Chng minh
0 1 0 1 va B = 1 1 . 1 0 A4 = I, B 3 = I , nhng (AB)12 = I .
Giai thch tai sao.
6. Trong M atK (n) tm cac ma tran A sao cho AB = BA vi moi ma tran B . 7. Chng minh rang A2 + I = O, neu A la n n ma tran thc va n la so le. 8. Cho A, B la cac ma tran vuong cung cap. Chng minh a) Neu B co mot cot bang 0, th AB cung vay. b) Neu B co hai cot bang nhau, th AB cung vay. 9. Chng minh tch cac ma tran tam giac tren la ma tran tam giac tren. 10. Tnh An neu A =
1 0 0 2 , cos sin sin cos sin cos , 0 1 , 1 1 1 1
11. Cho
A() =
A()1 .
cos sin
. Chng minh
A( + ) = A()A().
Suy ra
12. Tm v du:
A, B
la cac ma tran cung cap, kha nghch, nhng A + B khong kha nghch.
13. Mot ma tran s cap la ma tran lap t ma tran n v bang cach bien oi s cap tren dong hay cot. Tm ma tran ngc cua cac ma tran s cap. 14. Cho P, Q, R la cac ma tran kha nghch, cung cap. Ga s P QR = I . Hay bieu dien Q1 qua P, R. 15. Ga s A la ma tran kha nghch. Goi B ma tran lap t A bang cach chuyen v dong (cot) i va j . Hay tm moi quan he gia B 1 va A1 . 16. Cho A la ma tran vuong. Ga s ton tai so nguyen dng k sao cho A k = O. Chng minh (I A)1 = I + A + + Ak1 . 17. Cho
0 1 1 A = 1 0 1 . 1 1 0

Chng minh:
A2 = A + I .
Suy ra
A1 .
144 18. Cho ma tran vuong cap 2 a) Chng b) Suy ra

a b . c d minh: A2 (a + d)A + (ad bc)I = O. neu ad bc = 0, th A co ma tran ngc. A=
Tnh A1 .
19. Tm moi ma tran A, vuong cap 2, thoa A2 = I . 20. Cho cac ma tran
A= 1 c b d , I= 1 0 0 1 .
Chng minh neu d bc = 0, th co the dung bien oi s cap tren dong e a A ve I . 21. Dung bien oi s cap a cac ma tran sau ve ma tran n v
A= 1 2 2 3 B= 1 2 3 4 C= 1 4 3 7
Xac nh cac bien oi s cap A B, B C, A C . 22. Mot ma tran A goi la co hang r, ky hieu r = rank A neu co the dung bien oi s cap a A ve dang bac thang vi r hang khac khong. Tnh hang cac ma tran sau bang cach a ve dang bac thang
1 1 1 1 1 1 , 1 1 1

0 2 4 1 1 1 1 2 3 1 , 2 0 2 0 1 0 3 5 2 0 n + 2 2n + 2
1 2 3 1 5 1 2 3 2 1 , 0 0 1 1 1 2n 1 3n 1 2n 3n

1 2 1 5 , 1 10 6 1 1
n+1 2n + 1
mn + 1 mn + 2
.. .
.. .
(m + 1)n 1 (m + 1)n
.. .
.. .
23. Cho he phng trnh

a11 x1 + a12 x2 = a21 x1 + a22 x2 = b1 b2
Chng minh neu a11 a22 a12 a21 = 0, th he tren tng ng vi he co dang
c11 x1 + c12 x2 = c22 x2 = d1 , d2
trong o c11 = 0, c22 = 0. 24. Dung phng phap kh Gauss giai cac phng trnh sau:
Bai tap
145
x1
a)
x1 x1 x1
+x2 x2 +x2 +2x2 3x2 x2 x2 +2x2
+x3 +x3 x3 +x3 x3
= = =
8 4 0 = = = 4 3 7 = = = 10 1 2 1 2 3 1
b) c)

3x 1
x4 +x4 +2x4 x4 +2x4 x4
x1 x1
+x3 3x3 x3
+5x5 x5 +x5
25. Cho
A=
1 1 3 2 1 4
C=
Bang cac giai ong thi cac he phng trnh, tm ma tran X sao cho AX = C . 26. Tm moi ga tr a R e cac he sau vo nghiem: a)
x1 + x2 = 2x1 + ax2 = 5 4
b)
x1 + ax2 = ax1 + 2ax2 =
2 4
27. Chng minh moi he phng trnh tuyen tnh m phng trnh n an eu co the bieu dien di dang ma tran: Ax = b, trong o A la m n ma tran, x la cot cac bien con b la vector cot. Suy ra: He phng trnh tng thch khi va ch khi hang A bang hang ma tran m rong (A b). Khi o khong gian nghiem phu thuoc s = n rank(A) tham so. 28. Xet moi kha nang cho tap nghiem he phng trnh tuyen tnh, i.e. he vo nghiem, duy nhat nghiem hay vo so nghiem (vi so bac t do bao nhieu?): a) He 3 phng trnh 4 an. b) He 4 phng trnh 5 an. c) He 3 phng trnh 3 an. d) Cac he c nh cac bai tren them ieu kien thuan nhat. 29. Giai cac phng trnh sau bang phng phap Cramer: a)
2x1
+ 3x2 5x3 = 3x1 + x2 + 3x3 = x 2x + x3 = 1 2

7 3 0 1 d d2 d d2 d3
b) c)
x1 + x2 + x3 = ax1 + bx2 + cx3 = a2 x + b2 x + c2 x = 1 2 3
ax1
+ bx2 + cx3 = a2 x1 + b2 x2 + c2 x3 = a3 x + b3 x + c3 x = 1 2 3
146 30. Giai va bien luan cac phng trnh sau (m la tham so): a)
mx1
+ x2 + x3 = x1 + mx2 + x3 = x2 + mx3 = x1 +
1 m m2 m+2 0 m+2
b)
x1 + x2 + (1 m)x3 = (m + 1)x1 x2 + x3 = 3x3 = 2x1 mx2 +

c)
x1 mx2 + m2 x3 = mx1 m2 x2 + mx3 = mx + x2 m3 x3 = 1
m 1 1
31. Cho x0 , x1 , , xn la cac so khac nhau, y0 , y1 , , yn la cac ga tr cho trc. Chng minh ton tai duy nhat mot a thc P bac n sao cho P (xi ) = yi , i = 0, 1, , n. Tm a thc bac 3: P (1) = 0, P (1) = 4, P (2) = 3, P (3) = 16. 32. Vi cac ieu kien a cho, xac nh cac hang so cua cac ham sau a) f (x) = c1 e2x + c2 e3x , f (0) = 3, f (0) = 7. b) f (x) = c1 ex + c2 ex + c3 e2x , f (0) = 8, f (0) = 3, f (0) = 11. 33. Xac nh a thc p(x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d, thoa a) p(0) = 2, p (0) = 3, p(1) = 8, p (1) = 10. b) p(1) = 3, p (1) = 4, p(2) = 15, p (2) = 22. 34. Cho A la 2 2 ma tran. Tm ma tran ngc cua A bang cach giai he phng trnh AX = I2 , vi X la 2 2 ma tran. Vi A =
2 1 5 3 2 1 4 1 a b c d
35. Dung phng phap giai he phng trnh tm ma tran ngc cua cac ma tran sau

1 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 1
4 1 1 0 2 6 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
36. Xac nh x e ma tran sau kha nghch. Tm ma tran ngc.
A(x) =
1 0 0 0
0 x 1 x
0 x x 1
0 1 x x
Bai tap
147
III. Khong gian vector.

1. Chng minh tap cac ham so xac nh tren R vi phep cong va nhan thong thng la khong gian vector tren R. Cac tap con nao sau ay la khong gian vector con: a) cac ham lien tuc. b) cac ham khong am. c) cac ham hang. d) cac ham kha vi. e) cac ham kha tch tren [a, b]. f) cac ham co the bieu dien di dang chuoi luy tha tai 0 co ban knh hoi tu dng. g) cac ham b chan. 2. Trong khong gian C 2 [a, b] cac ham kha vi lien tuc en cap 2 tren [a, b], tap nao trong cac tap sau la khong gian con: a) {f C 2 [a, b] : f (x) + f (x) = 0, x [a, b] }. b) {f C 2 [a, b] : f (x) + f (x) = x, x [a, b] }. 3. Trong khong gian M atK (m, n), cac tap sau tap nao la khong gian con: a) {A = (aij ) M atK (m, n) : a11 = 0}. b) {A = (aij ) M atK (m, n) : moi aij Z}. 4. Cho S la tap cac day so thc S = {u = (un )nN : un R}. Tren S xac nh cac phep toan Kiem chng S la khong gian vector tren R. Cac tap con nao sau ay la khong gian vector con: a) cac day so hoi tu. b) cac day so b chan. Trong khong gian K n , cac tap nao la khong gian con: a) {(x1 , , xn ) K n : x1 + + xn = 0}. b) {(x1 , , xn ) K n : x1 + + xn = 1}. c) {(x1 , , xn ) K n : x1 x2 xn = 0}. Trong khong gian Rn [X] cac a thc bac n, cac tap nao la khong gian con: a) {p(X) Rn [X] : p(0) = 0}. b) {p(X) Rn [X] : bac cua p(X) = k}. Trong R3 cho: a = (1, 1, 0), b = (0, 1, 1), x = (2, 6, 4). x co la to hp tuyen tnh cua a, b ? Trong R4 cho: x = (1, 2, , 1), y = (, 1, 2, 3), z = (0, 1, , 0). Xac nh cac so , sao cho x, y, z phu thuoc tuyen tnh. Tm bieu thc lien he gia x, y, z . Ga s e1 , e2 , e3 la cac vector oc lap tuyen tnh. Xet tnh oc lap tuyen tnh cua cac he vector sau: a) e1 , e1 + e2 , e1 + e2 + e3 . b) e1 + e2 , e2 + e3 , e3 + e1 . c) e1 + e2 , e1 + e3 , e3 .
(un ) + (vn ) = (un + vn ) (un ) = (un ), R.
5.
6. 7. 8. 9.
148 10. Trong khong gian R2 [X], cho p = 2X 2 +X +1, Xac nh m R e p, q, r oc lap tuyen tnh.
q = X 2 +3X +1, r = 2X 2 +X +m.
11. Chng minh neu L(x, y) = L(x, z), th cac vector x, y, z phu thuoc tuyen tnh. ieu ngc lai ung hay sai ? 12. Trong khong gian cac ham R R, at k (x) = cos kx, k (x) = cosk x. Chng minh L(0 , 1 , 2 ) = L(0 , 1 , 2 ). 13. Trong khong gian C[a, b] cac ham lien tuc tren oan sau oc lap tuyen tnh a) ex , e2x , e3x . b) sin x, cos x, ex . 14. Chng minh cac vector (a, b),
(c, d) R2 [a, b],
chng minh cac he ham
tao thanh c s khi va ch khi
ad bc = 0.
15. Chng minh (e1 , e2 , e3 ) la mot c s cua R3 , tm toa o vector x oi vi c s nay. a) e1 = (1, 0, 0), e2 = (0, 1, 0), e3 = (0, 0, 1), x = (1, 2, 3). b) e1 = (1, 1, 1), e2 = (1, 1, 2), e3 = (1, 2, 3), x = (6, 9, 14). 16. Tng t bai tren cho R4 :
e1 = (1, 2, 1, 2), e2 = (2, 3, 0, 1), e3 = (1, 2, 1, 4), e4 = (1, 3, 1, 0), x = (7, 14, 1, 2).
17. Trong K 4 , cho e1 = (1, 0, 2, 1), e2 = (1, 2, 1, 0), e3 = (3, 2, 5, 2), e4 = (6, 6, 9, 2). a) Tnh hang cac he vector: {e1 , e2 }, {e1 , e2 , e3 }, {e2 , e3 , e4 }. b) Tm c s va so chieu cua khong gian vector con: L(e 1 , e2 ), L(e1 , e2 , e3 ). 18. Chng minh M atK (m, n) la mot khong gian vector mn chieu tren K . Tm mot c s. 19. Cho A M atK (n). a) Chng minh ton tai a thc P (X) = a0 + a1 X + + ak X k K[X], bac k n2 , sao cho P (A) = 0. b) Suy ra neu a0 = 0, th A co ma tran ngc cho bi cong thc
A1 = 1 (a1 I + a2 A + + ak Ak1 ). a0
20. Trong khong gian R3 [X]. Cac tap sau tap nao la c s: {1, X, X 2 , X 3 }, {X + 4, X 2 1, X 3 X}, {1, X + 1, X 2 + 1, X 3 + 1}. Khi tap o la c s, xac nh toa o cua p(X) = 1 + X + X 2 trong c s o. 21. Goi Rn [X] la khong gian vector cac a thc mot bien X , he so thc, bac n. a) Xac nh so chieu cua Rn [X]. b) Cho P (X) Rn [X] co bac ung bang n. Goi P (k) (X) la ao ham cap k cua P (X). Chng minh B = {P (x), P (1) (X), , P (n) (X)} la mot c s cua Rn [X]. c) at Q(X) = P (X + h), vi h R. Tm toa o cua Q(X) trong c s B. 22. Cac phat bieu sau ung hay sai: a) Neu W la khong gian vector con va x + y W , th x W va y W .
Bai tap
149
b) Neu S = {e1 , , em } K n va m n, th S la he oc lap tuyen tnh. c) Neu S = {e1 , , em} K n va m > n, th S la he phu thuoc tuyen tnh. d) Neu S = {e1 , , em } K n va m < n, th S khong the sinh ra K n . e) Neu S1 , S2 la cac he oc lap tuyen tnh, th S1 S2 la he oc lap tuyen tnh. f) Neu B1 va B2 la cac c s cua cac khong gian con W1 , W2 tng ng, th B1 B2 la c s cua khong gian W1 W2 .
IV. Anh xa tuyen tnh.

1. Cac anh xa sau anh xa nao la tuyen tnh: a) f : Rn Rn , f (x) = x + a (phep tnh tien theo vector a Rn ). (phep oi xng qua tam). b) f : Rn Rn , f (x) = x c) f : R2 R2 , f (x1 , x2 ) = (x2 , x1 ) (phep oi xng qua phan giac th I). d) f : Rn Rn , f (x) = kx (k > 0) (phep v t t so k). e) f : R2 R2 , f (x, y) = (x cos y sin , x sin + y cos ) (phep quay goc ). f) f, g, h : R2 R, f (x, y) = xy, g(x, y) = sin x, h(x, y) = ex ln(1 + |y|). 2. Bieu dien cac anh xa tuyen tnh bai tren di dang nhan ma tran. 3. Chng minh f : K n K m la anh xa tuyen tnh khi va ch khi f (x) = AX , trong o A M atK (m, n) con X la toa o vector x viet di dang cot. 4. Phep ao ham, phep tch phan la cac anh xa tuyen tnh tren cac khong gian nao? Neu vai v du. 5. Cho a1 , , an C[a, b]. Chng minh toan t vi phan sau la tuyen tnh
L : C n [a, b] C[a, b], L(f ) = a0 f + a1 f + + an f (n) .
6. Trong khong gian C[0, 1], cho V = L(ex , e2x , e3x), va D : V V xac nh bi D(f ) = f . Chng minh D la kha nghch. Tnh D 1 (ex ), D1 (e2x ), D1 (e3x ). 7. Mot anh xa tuyen tnh c hoan toan xac nh bi cac ga tr tren c s. Cu the: a) Cho f : R3 R la anh xa tuyen tnh: f (1, 0, 1) = 1, f (0, 1, 2) = 1, f (1, 1, 0) = 3. Tnh f (a, b, c). b) Xac nh anh xa tuyen tnh T : R2 R2 , thoa T (1, 1) = (1, 1), T (2, 3) = (1, 2). 8. Cho f : R3 R2 , B = ( (0, 1, 1), (1, 0, 1), (1, 1, 0) ) va B = ( (1, 1), (1, 1) ). Tm ma tran bieu dien f trong c s chnh tac va trong cac c s B, B , vi: a) f (x, y, z) = (x + y, y + z) b) f (x, y, z) = (x + y + z, x + 2y + 3z). 9. Cho f : R2 R2 la phep oi xng qua ng thang l. Tm ma tran bieu dien f trong c s chnh tac khi l: a) Truc Ox = {(x, y) : y = 0} b) Truc Oy c) Phan giac y = x d) ng thang y = 3x. 10. Trong K 3 cho cac c s:
f:
Xac nh cac
K3
K 3,
B la c s chnh tac, C = ( (1, 1, 0), (0, 1, 1), (1, 0, 1) ). f (x, y, z) = (x + y, x + y + z, z). B C B ma tran bieu dien f : MB (f ), MC (f ), MC (f ).
Cho
150 11. Cho f : Rm Rn co ma tran bieu dien trong c s chnh tac la A. Xac nh Imf, Kerf, rankf , neu A =
1 2 3 6
2 1 2 2 2 1 2 3 0
1 2 3 1 3 5 8 2 1 1 2 0
12. Cho f : R3 R2 la anh xa tuyen tnh sao cho

f (1, 0, 0) = (1, 2), f (0, 1, 0) = (1, 1), f (0, 0, 1) = (2, 3).
a) Xac nh f (x1 , x2 , x3 ). b) Tm Imf va Kerf . Tnh dim Kerf va dim Imf . 13. Cho f : R3 [X] R2 [X], f (P (X)) = P (X + h) P (X + k), trong o h = k la cac so cho trc. a) Chng minh f la tuyen tnh. b) Chng minh f la toan anh. Tm Kerf . 14. Cho f : Rn Rn la ang cau tuyen tnh. Cac phat bieu sau ung hay sai: a) Kerf = 0 b) dim Imf = n c) dim Kerf 1 = dim Imf . 15. Cho f : R3 [X] R4 [X], f (P (X)) = (X + 2)P (X). a) Chng minh f la anh xa tuyen tnh. b) Tm ma tran bieu dien f trong cac c s chnh tac (i.e c s gom cac n thc 1, X, X 2 , .) c) Tm Kerf . 16. Tng t bai tren cho
f : R2 [X] R3 [X], f (P (X)) = X 2 P (X)2P (X)+XP (X).
17. Cho f : V V la anh xa tuyen tnh. Cac phat bieu sau ung hay sai: a) Neu v1 , , vk V oc lap tuyen tnh, th f (v1 ), , f (vk ) oc lap tuyen tnh. b) Neu v1 , , vk V phu thuoc tuyen tnh, th f (v1 ), , f (vk ) phu thuoc tuyen tnh. c) Neu f n anh, th f bien he vector oc lap tuyen tnh thanh he vector oc lap tuyen tnh. d) Neu dim V > dim V , th f khong the n anh. e) Neu dim V < dim V , th f khong the toan anh. g) f la ang cau khi va ch khi A la kha nghch, vi A la ma tran bieu dien cua f trong c s bat ky.
V. nh thc.
1. Tnh
1 1 1 2 1 0 0 1 3 2 3 2 3 1 1 2 0 0 1 1 2 0 1 1 2
2. Cho A = (a1 a2 a3 a4 ) la 4 4 ma tran (vi cac cot a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 ). Ga s det A = 3. Tnh det B , neu a) B = (2a1 a2 a4 a3 ) b) B = (a1 + 2a2 a2 a3 a4 ) c) B = (2a1 a2 2a2 a3 a3 a4 ).
Bai tap
151
det 3A, det AB 2 A1 , det(2(AB)1 ).
3. Cho A, B M atK (4). Ga s det A = 2, det B = 3. Tnh
4. Cho A, B, C la cac ma tran vuong cung cap. Cac phat bieu sau ung hay sai: a) det(A + B) = det A + det B. b) Neu AB = AC va det A = 0, th B = C . c) Neu ton tai k N sao cho Ak = O, th det A = 0. d) Neu AB = I , th BA = I . 5. Cho A, B la cac ma tran vuong cap n, va la so. Chng minh cong thc sau: a) det(A) = n det A. b) det( t A I) = det(A I). c) det(A I) = det(P 1 AP I), vi P la ma tran kha nghch. 6. Chng minh vi moi a, cac nh thc sau bang khong
a+1 a+4 a+7 a+2 a+5 a+8 a+3 a+6 a+9 a 4a 7a 2a 5a 8a 3a 6a 9a a a4 a7 a2 a5 a8 a3 a6 a9
7. Tnh nh thc sau bang cach phan tch thanh tong

1 + a1 a2 a3 a1 1 + a2 a3 a1 a2 1 + a3 an an an
.. .
.. .
.. .
a1
a2
a3
.. .
1 + an
8. Tnh cac nh thc sau sau khi bien oi ve dang tam giac:
1 1 1 1 2 0 2 2 3 3 0 3 n n n a0 x 0 a1 x x a2 0 x an 0 0
.. .
.. .
.. .
.. .
.. .
.. .
.. .
.. .
9. Chng minh nh thc sau chia het cho 17

2 5 2 2 7 0 3 5 0 8 6 2 7 9 4 0 2 5 2 2 4 7 5 7 1
Hd: e y cac dong, chang han 20604 = 2.105 + 0.104 + 6.103 + 0.102 + 4 chia het cho 17.
152 10. Cho

.
A=
a b c d b a d c c d a b d c b a
Tnh
A tA.
Suy ra det A.
11. Cho ma tran chia khoi dang

M= A O C D ,
trong o A, D la cac ma tran vuong .
Chng minh det M = det A det D. Tm v du ma tran cap 4 chia khoi vuong cap 2), ma
A B C D det M = det A det D det B det C . M=
(vi A, B, C, D la cac ma tran
12. Cho A la ma tran tam giac tren, kha nghch. Chng minh A 1 cung la ma tran tam giac tren. 13. Tm ma tran nghch ao cac ma tran sau:

0 2
1 0
1 2 1
1 1 4
2 3 0
1 1 1
2 1 1
3 4 2
14. Vi ga tr thc nao cua x, e ma tran sau kha nghch. Tnh ma tran ngc trong cac trng hp o
x 1 1 x
2 x x 2
2 x 0 2 x x 0 x 2
1 x x2 1 1 1 1 3 9
sin x 0 cos x 0 1 0 cos x 0 sin x
VI. Cheo hoa ma tran.

1. Trong R3 , xac nh ma tran chuyen c s chnh tac sang c s:
(1, 1, 0), (0, 1, 1), (1, 0, 1).
2. Trong R2 , tm ma tran chuyen c s:
(1, 1), (3, 1)
sang
(2, 1), (1, 2)
3. Cho f : R2 R2 , f (x1 , x2 ) = (2x1 + x2 , x1 + 2x2 ). a) Tm ma tran A bieu dien f trong c s chnh tac B. b) Tm ma tran A bieu dien f trong c s C = ( f1 = (1, 1), f2 = (1, 1) ). c) Xac nh ma tran chuyen c s P , t B sang C . Kiem chng lai A = P 1 AP .
Bai tap
153
: R2 [X] R2 [X],
4. Cho T
T (a0 + a1 X + a2 X 2 ) = (2a0 a1 a2 ) + (a0 a1 )X + (a0 + a1 + a2 )X 2
a) Viet ma tran A bieu dien T trong c s chnh tac B = (1, X, X 2). b) Viet ma tran A bieu dien T trong c s C = (1 + X X 2 , 1 + X 2 , 1 + X). c) Xac nh ma tran chuyen c s P t B sang C . Kiem tra lai A = P 1 AP . 5. Trong khong gian R2 [X], cho cac a thc:
p = 3 + 5X + X 2 , q = 8 6X + 2X 2 , r = 5 X 2
a) Xac nh toa o cac a thc tren trong c s chnh tac (1, X, X 2). Bang cach dung cong thc chuyen c s, hay viet cac a thc tren di dang: b) a0 + a1 x + a2 x(x 1). c) b0 + b1 (x 1) + b2 (x 1)2 . 6. Cho A = (aij ) M atK (n). nh ngha vet cua A la Tr(A) = a11 + a22 + + ann
(
tong cac so hang ng cheo)
a) Chng minh PA () = det(A I) = (1)n (n Tr(A)n1 + + (1)n det A). b) Chng minh det(P 1 AP I) = PA (), vi moi ma tran kha nghch P . c) Chng minh Tr(A) = Tr(P 1 AP ), vi moi ma tran kha nghch P . d) Ga s 1 , , n K , la cac ga tr rieng cua A. Tnh Tr(A) va det A qua cac ga tr rieng o. 7. Ga s la ga tr rieng cua ma tran A. Chng minh: a) k la ga tr rieng cua Ak , vi k N. b) 1/ la ga tr rieng cua A1 , neu A kha nghch. c) + a la ga tr rieng cua A + aI . 8. Cho ma tran vuong P , thoa P 2 = P . Chng minh cac ga tr rieng cua P ch co the la 0 hay 1. 9. Cho a thc q(x) = a0 + a1 x + + ak xk K[x], va A M atK (n). nh ngha a thc ma tran
q(A) = a0 In + a1 A + + ak Ak .
Chng minh neu K la ga tr rieng cua A, th q() la ga tr rieng cua q(A). 10. Cho A M atK (n). Ga s ton tai P GlK (n) : P 1 AP a) Tm PD (). Chng minh PD (D) = 0. b) Suy ra PA (A) = 0.

=D=
diag(1 , , n ).
11. nh ly Hamilton-Caley: Cho A M atK (n). Khi o A la nghiem cua ma tran a thc ac trng cua no, i.e. PA (A) = 0. Cho
1 2 0 A= 0 2 0 , 0 2 1
154 a) Kiem tra a thc ac trng la PA () = 3 + 42 5 + 2. b) Kiem tra PA (A) = A3 + 4A2 5A + 2I = O. 1 5 c) Kiem tra A1 = A2 2A + I .
2 2
12. Tm vector rieng va gia tr rieng cua:

1 2 2 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 2 4
13. Tm cac vector rieng va ga tr rieng cua f : R3 R3 , vi a) f (x, y, z) = (3x + z, x + 2y z, x + z) b) f (x, y, z) = (4x 5y + 7z, x 4y + 9z, 4x + 5z). 14. Ga s 1 , , s la cac ga tr rieng khac nhau cua ma tran A. Chng minh he cac vector rieng e1 , , es ng vi cac ga tr rieng o la oc lap tuyen tnh. 15. Cho D : C 1 (R) C 1 (R), la anh xa ao ham D(f ) = f . Tm cac vector rieng cua D. 16. Chng minh cac ma tran sau co cung a thc ac trng la P () = ( 1)4 , i.e. = 1 la ga tr rieng boi 4, nhng so chieu cac khong gian con rieng Ker(A I), co so chieu la 1, 2, 3, 4 tng ng

1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
1 0 0 0
1 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
1 0 0 0
1 1 0 0
0 1 1 0
0 0 0 1
1 0 0 0
1 1 0 0
0 1 1 0
0 0 1 1
17. Xac nh cac ma tran sau co cheo hoa c khong? Neu co a ve dang cheo, i.e. tm ma tran kha nghch P , sao cho P 1 AP la ma tran cheo. Vi A =
3
5 2 2
3 2 0
2 5 1
1 3 0
2 3 2
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
18. Xac nh cac gia tr , a, b, c, d R e ma tran sau co cheo hoa c.
1 0 0
2 0
1 0
1 0
0 1+ 0
0 0 1
1 0 0
a 2 0
b c d
0 1 0 0 1
0 1
19. Bang cach bieu dien x qua cac vector rieng cua A. Tm A10 x, vi a) A =
4 2 5 3 x= 0 9
b)
1 2 1 A = 0 5 2 0 6 2
2 x= 4 7
Bai tap
155
=D
20. Ga s ma tan vuong A cheo hoa c va P 1 AP Ak = P Dk P 1 . Ap dung, tnh A100 , khi A =
la ma tran cheo. Chng minh
5 6 3 4
25 8 30 30 24 7 12 4 14 R
21. Cho
M =
= 2.
+1 1 0
. Xac nh
co the cheo hoa. Tnh Tnh Fk .
Mk
khi
22. Xet day Fibonacci tong quat:
F0 = a, F1 = b, Fk+1 = Fk + Fk1 .
23. Tm bieu thc cu the cua cac day so (uk ) va (vk ), vi u0 = v0 = 1 va vi k = 1, 2,

uk = 2uk1 + 4vk1 vk = uk1 + 2vk1
24. Tm bieu thc cu the cua cac day so

k = 1, 2,
xk k z k xk k z k
(x k ), (yk )
va
(zk )
theo
x, y0 , z0
va
neu vi
= 3xk1 yk1 + zk1 = 2xk1 + 4yk1 zk1 = 4xk1 + 4yk1 zk1
25. Cho x0 , y0 , z0 R, va vi k = 1, 2,
y = 2xk1 yk1 + zk1 = xk1 + zk1 = xk1 yk1 + 2zk1
Chng minh ton tai
lim xk , lim yk ,
k
va
lim zk .
26. Cho day trong Rn , c nh ngha qui nap:

xk = Axk1 ,
vi A M atK (n), va ieu kien au x0 K n .
a) Chng minh xk = Ak x0 . b) Neu A co the cheo hoa, i.e. ton tai P GlK (n): P 1 AP = D = diag(1 , , n ), th Ak = P Dk P 1 = P diag(k , , k )P 1 . n 1 c) Ga s e1 , , en la cac vector rieng tng ng, vi cac ga tr rieng 1 , , n . Neu x0 = a1 e1 + + an en , th xk = a1 k e1 + + an k en . n 1 d) Xap xep sao cho |1 | = max |i |. Ga s a1 = 0. Khi o: Neu |1 | < 1 , th Neu |1 | = 1 , th Neu |1 | > 1 , th
M : |xk | < M, k .
k k
lim xk = 0.
lim |xk | = .
156 27. Ap dung bai tap tren tm a) A = 28. Cho

A= 0, 8 0, 2 0, 2 0, 8
k
lim xk , 1 2
khi b)
, x0 =
0, 6 0, 1 0, 1 200 A = 0, 1 0, 8 0, 2 , x0 = 200 0, 3 0, 1 0, 7 200
0 0, 9 . Xet day (xk ) trong R2 , nh 0, 9 0, 8 h vi ga tr x0 R2 cho trc. Hay xac nh h R sao cho: a) lim xk = 0 b) lim xk = c) Day (xk ) gii noi.
k k
ngha bi
xk = Axk1 ,
VII. Khong gian vector Euclid.

1. Cho dang song tuyen tnh q(x1 , x2 ; y1 , y2 ) = x1 y1 + 2x1 y2 + 2x2 y1 + mx2 y2 . nh m e q la mot tch vo hng trong R2 . 2. Trong khong gian Euclid chng minh: a) x + y 2 + x y 2 = 2 x 2 + 2 y b) x + y 2 x y 2 = 4 < x, y > .
2.
3. Trong R3 xac nh cac so a, b, c sao cho he vector sau la he trc giao: a) (1, 1, 1), (2, 2, 4), (a, b, c) b) (2, 1, 1), (a, 1, 1), (b, 3, c). 4. Chng minh moi he vector khac khong, trc giao nhau tng oi la he oc lap tuyen tnh. 5. Trong R3 , cho mat phang co phng trnh phep chieu trc giao len mat phang a cho.
Ax + By + Cz = 0.
Tm bieu thc cho
6. Trong R4 , trc giao hoa Gram-Schmidt cac he vector: a) f1 = (0, 0, 1, 0), f2 = (1, 1, 2, 3), f3 = (1, 0, 1, 1). b) f1 = (1, 0, 1, 1), f2 = (0, 1, 0, 0), f3 = (1, 0, 0, 1). 7. Cho f1 , f2 , f3 R4 la cac vector bai tren, khong gian L(f1 , f2 , f3 ).
x = (1, 0, 0, 0).
Tm hnh chieu
len
8. Hay tm mot c s trc giao cho khong gian W va hnh chieu PW x cua x len W , neu a) W = {(x1 , x2 , x3 ) R3 : x1 2x2 + x3 = 0}, x = (1, 2, 6). b) W = ImA, vi A(x1 , x2 ) = (x1 + 2x2 , x1 + x2 , x2 ), va x = (3, 0, 3). 9. Xac nh phep chieu trc giao P a2 = P .
P
len khong gian
cho bai tap tren. Kiem tra
f g. 10. Xet C[, ] vi tch vo hng < f, g >= a) Chng minh he ham 1, sin x, cos x, , sin kx, cos kx, la he trc giao. b) Cho f (x) = x3 . Tm hnh chieu PW f cua f len khong gian W sinh bi 1, sin x, cos x (i.e. khai trien Fourier). Kiem tra lai f PW f = min{ f g : g W }.
Bai tap
1
157
11. Xet khong gian C[1, 1] vi tch vo hng < f, g >= f g . Trc giao hoa he 1 ham a thc 1, x, x2 , x3 , . Tm hnh chieu cua f (x) = ex len khong gian sinh bi 1, x, x2 , x3 . 12. Trong khong gian C[1, 1], chng minh bieu thc sau xac nh mot tch vo hng
< f, g >= 1 2
1 1
f (x)g(x) dx, f, g C[1, 1]. 1 x2
Hay trc giao hoa he ham 1, x, x2 , x3 , xac nh cac a thc Chebyshev loai 1 T0 , T1 , T2 , T3 . ( Hd: oi bien x = cos ) 13. Chng minh cac he phng trnh Ax = b sau ay vo nghiem. Tm nghiem bnh phng be nhat x, i.e. x Ax b at minimum khi x = x. a)
1 2 A = 1 1 1 3

1 b= 1 1

b)
3 3 0 3
1 0 0 A= 3 0 0 1 1 1
11 b= 3 1
c) A =
1 0 1 1
0 2 2 2 1 1 2 0
b=
14. Tm xap x tuyen tnh, bnh phng be nhat cua ham y = y(t) cho bi d kien: t t b) y 1 4 8 11 c) y 1 0 1 2 a) t 0 3 6 y 1 4 5 1 2 4 5 0 1 2 4 15. Tm xap x bac hai, bnh phng be nhat cua ham y = y(t) cho bi d kien: t b) y 2 1 0 1 2 a) t 2 1 1 2 y 2 1 1 2 12 5 3 2 4 16. Cho T : R2 R2 la toan t trc giao. Ga s u, v R2 la cac vector trc giao nhau. Cac cap vector sau cap nao trc giao a) u, v (, R) b) u + v, u v c) T u, u d) T u, T v. 17. Trong R3 bieu dien phep quay bi tch phang (vi cac goc quay Euler).

ma tran ng vi
phep quay trong mat
18. Xac nh cac ga tr , , a, b, c sao cho cac ma tran sau la trc giao
a 0 2 b c
a 3 b 2 c
19. Chng minh neu A, B la cac ma tran trc giao, th AB va Aa1 la trc giao.
158 20. Kiem tra tnh chat sau: neu ma tran thc A la oi xng, th cac ga tr rieng la thc va cac vector rieng ng vi cac ga tr rieng khac nhau la trc giao nhau. Vi A =
3 2 0 0 0 2 0 0 3
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
21. Cheo hoa trc giao cac ma tran oi xng
1 0 4 4 0 5 4 4 3
1 3 0 3 2 1 0 1 1
VIII. Dang song tuyen tnh - Dang toan phng.

1. Cho V la khong gian cac ham R R. at q : V
3
V R
q(f, g) =
i=1
f (i)g(i), f, g V
Chng minh q la dang song tuyen tnh. q co oi xng khong? 2. Cho dang song tuyen tnh q : R3 R3 R,
q(x, y) = x1 y1 +3x1 y2 5x1 y3 +4x3 y2 2x3 y3 , x = (x1 , x2 , x3 ), y = (y1 , y2 , y3 ) R3
a) Tm ma tran bieu dien A cua q trong c s chnh tac B. b) Tm ma tran bieu dien A cua q trong c s C = ( (1, 1, 1), (0, 1, 1), (0, 0, 1) ). c) Xac nh ma tran chuyen c s P , t B sang C . Kiem tra lai A = t P AP . 3. Cho dang toan phng Q(x) = x1 a2+3x1 x2 +x2 a2. Tm moi ma tran thc (tng ng, dang song tuyen tnh) A M atR (2) (t., q tren R2 ), sao cho Q(x) =t xAx = q(x, x). Tm dang cc (i.e. dang song tuyen tnh oi xng) cua Q. 4. Xac nh ma tran oi xng bieu dien dang toan phng sau R 3
Q(x1 , x2 , x3 ) = x2 + 2x2 + 3x2 + 6x1 x2 + 4x1 x3 10x2 x3 1 2 3
5. Cho dang toan phng thc:

Q = x2 + x2 + 3x2 + 4x1 x2 + 2x1 x3 + 2x2 x3 . 1 2 3
a) Xac nh dang cc va ma tran bieu dien Q trong c s chnh tac. b) a Q ve dang chnh tac. Suy ra hang va ch so quan tnh dng, am. 6. Tng t bai tap tren vi a) Q = 2x2 + x2 + 5x2 + 2x1 x2 + 4x1 x3 + 4x2 x3 . 1 2 3 b) Q = x2 + x2 + 4x2 2x1 x2 + 62x1 x3 . 1 2 3 c) Q = 2x2 x2 2x2 + 2x1 x2 + 2x1 x3 2x2 x3 . 1 2 3
Bai tap
159
7. Dung thuat toan Lagrange a dang cac toan phng sau ve dang chuan tac: a) x2 + x2 + 3x2 + 4x1 x2 + 2x1 x3 + 2x2 x3 . 1 2 3 b) x2 2x2 + 1x2 + 2x1 x2 + 4x1 x3 + 2x2 x3 . 1 2 3 c) x2 3x2 2x1 x2 + 2x1 x3 6x2 x3 . 1 3 d) x1 x2 + x1 x3 + x1 x4 + x2 x3 + x2 x4 + x3 x4 . 8. Hay tm phep bien oi tuyen tnh e a cac dang cua bai tap tren ve dang chnh tac. (Chu y la phep bien oi o la khong duy nhat) 9. Kiem tra cac dang toan phng thc sau co xac nh dau? a) Q = 2x2 + 6xy + 2y2 . b) Q = 5x2 4xy + 5y2 . c) Q = x2 + 2x2 + 3x2 + 2x1 x2 . 1 2 3 d) Q = x2 x2 5x2 + 4x1 x3 . 1 2 3 e) Q = x2 + y2 + z 2 + t2 2(xy + xz + xt + yz + yt + zt). 10. Cho dang toan phng thc Q =
n i,j=1
aij xi xj .
Cac phat bieu sau ung hay sai?
a) Neu Q > 0, th aii > 0 vi moi i = 1, , n. b) Neu aii > 0 vi moi i = 1, , n, th Q > 0. c) Neu aij > 0 vi moi i, j = 1, , n, th Q > 0. 11. Tm moi ga tr R, e dang toan phng sau la xac nh dng: a) 5x2 + x2 + x2 + 4x1 x2 2x1 x3 2x2 x3 . 1 2 3 b) 2x2 + x2 + 3x2 + 2x1 x2 + 2x1 x3 . 1 2 3 12. Cho A la ma tran oi xng. Chng minh: vi C la ma tran kha nghch.
A xac nh dng khi va ch khi A = t CC ,
13. a dang toan phng sau ve dang chnh tac bang phep bien oi trc giao: a) 4x1 x2 4x1 x3 + 3x2 2x2 x3 + 3x2 . 2 3 b) 3x2 + 3x2 + 4x1 x2 + 4x1 x3 2x2 x3 . 2 3 c) 3x2 + 3x2 x2 6x1 x2 + 4x2 x3 . 1 2 3 14. Cho dang toan phng Q(x) = t xAx, vi x Rn va A la ma tran oi xng. a) Ga s 1 n la cac ga tr rieng cua Q. Chng minh
1 x
2
Q(x) n x 2 , x Rn
x =1 Q(x)
b) Suy ra
min
x =1 Q(x)
= 1 , max
= n .
IX. Ap dung vao hnh hoc.

1. Cho E la khong gian affin 3 chieu. Chng minh mot anh xa affin f : E E , c xac nh mot cach duy nhat bi anh cua bon iem khong ong phang. 2. Trong R2 , cho ng thang D : Ax + By + C = 0. Viet bieu thc SD cua phep oi xng qua D.
160 3. Trong R2 cho 2 ng thang D, D . Goi SD , SD la cac phep oi xng qua Xac nh tnh chat hnh hoc cua SD SD .
D, D
v 4. Trong R3 , cho mat phang P : Ax + By + Cz + D = 0 va = (a, b, c) khong song song P . v a) Viet bieu thc phep chieu p(x, y, z) = (x , y , z ), len P song song . b) Viet bieu thc phep chieu vuong goc len P . c) Viet bieu thc phep oi xng qua P v d) Cu the cac cau tren vi P : x + 2y + 3z 6 = 0, = (1, 1, 1).
5. Cho f : R3 R3 , f (x, y, z) = (x , y , z ). Xac nh tnh chat hnh hoc cua f a)

x z
= = =
1 (2x 2y + z + 1) 3 1 (2x + y 2z + 2) 3 1 (x 2y 2z + 1) 3
b)
y z
= z+2 = x + 1 = y+1
c)
y z
= z 2 = x + 1 = y+1
6. Phac hoa c ng bac 2 (conic) cho bi phng trnh sau trong R2 : ca a) 2x2 + 3xy + y2 = 10. b) 3x2 + 2xy + 3y2 = 8. c) x2 + 6xy 7y2 = 8. d) x2 + 2xy + y2 = 1. 7. Ve cac mat bac 2 chnh tac cho bi phng trnh sau trong R3 : a) b) c) d) e) f)
x2 a2 x2 a2 x2 a2 x2 a2 x2 a2 x2 a2 + + + + + y2 b2 y2 b2 y2 b2 y2 b2 y2 b2 y2 b2 z2 c2 z2 2 c z2 2 c z2 2 c + =1 =1
(Ellipsoid) (Hyperboloid 1 tang) 2 tang) (Mat non) (Paraboloid) (Mat yen nga)
= 1 (Hyperboloid =0
2z = 0 2z = 0
Trong cac phng trnh tren a, b, c la cac so thc dng. 8. Phac hoa mat bac 2 (quadric) cho bi phng trnh sau trong R3 : a) x2 + 2y2 + 2z 2 + 2yz = 1. b) x2 + y2 + 2z 2 2xy + 4xz + 4yz = 16. c) x2 + y2 z 2 2x 4y 4z + 1 = 0. d) 8x2 8y2 + 10z 2 + 32xy 4xz 4yz = 24.
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AI SO VA HNH HOC GIAI TCH 1-2

Giao trnh ai hoc ai cng Nganh Toan-Tin hoc

- ai Hoc alat - 2005 -

ai so va Hnh hoc giai tch 1-2

Chng 0. Kien thc chuan b

Chng I. Khong gian vector hnh hoc

Chng II. Ma tran - Phng phap kh Gauss

Chng III. Khong gian vector

Chng IV. Anh xa tuyen tnh

Chng VI. Cheo hoa

Chng VII. Khong gian vector Euclid

Chng VIII. Dang song tuyen tnh - Dang toan phng

Chng IX. Ap dung vao hnh hoc

0. Kien thc chuan b

1.1 nh ngha. Cho

la mot tap hp. Mot phep toan hai ngoi tren

Khi o anh cua cap (x, y) A A bi anh xa se c ky hieu la x

1.3 Trng. Mot trng la mot vanh giao hoan co n v

ac so cua mot trng

ky hieu char(K), la so t nhien dng be nhat sao

Chng 0. Kien thc chuan b

cho 1 + + 1 = 0. Neu khong co so t nhien nh vay, th K goi la co ac so 0. V du.

Menh e. Vi cac phep toan tren C la trng so.

S ton tai va viec tm nghch ao c thc hien bi phep chia

4 khi giai phng trnh

ong nhat phan thc, phan ao ta co

Phep lien hp. Tnh chat.

goi la so phc lien hp cua z = a + ib. z = z , z 1 + z2 = z1 + z2 , z 1 z2 = z1 z2 .

Dang ai so. Dang hnh hoc.

z = a + ib, a, b R, i2 = 1. z = (a, b), a, b R.

Dang lng giac.

r = |z| = a2 + b2 , goi la modul cua z = Arg z, goi la argument cua z b

Chng 0. Kien thc chuan b

Suy ra cong thc de Moivre

|z1 z2 | = |z1 ||z2 |

Arg(z1 z2 ) = Argz1 + Argz2

(r(cos + i sin ))n = rn (cos n + i sin n), n N

Chng minh: Neu z1 = r1 (cos 1 + i sin 1 ), z2 = r2 (cos 2 + i sin 2 ), th

|z1 z2 | = r1 r2 = |z1 ||z2 |,

va Arg(z1 z2 ) = 1 + 2 + 2k = Argz1 + Argz2 .

2.5 Can bac

theo ngha thc)

Vay khi z = 0, phng trnh co ung n nghiem phan biet:

Nhan r(cos + i sin ) vi z

la vi hai phep toan tren la mot vanh giao hoan.

Bai tap: Chng minh menh e tren.

Chng 0. Kien thc chuan b

7 vi moi P (X), Q(X) K[X].

deg P (X)Q(X) = deg P (X) + deg Q(X),

P0 (X) = Q(X)P1 (X) + R(X), deg R(X) < deg P1 (X)

Thuat toan chia Euclid.

Input: P0 , P1 K[X], P1 = 0 Output: Q, R K[X], thoa P0 = QP1 + R, deg R < deg P1 .

Bai tap: Thc hien phep chia P (X) = a0 + a1 X + + an X n cho X c.

3.4 c chung ln nhat. a thc

C(X)|P0 (X), C(X)|P1 (X)

Thuat toan tm GCD.

Input : P0 , P1 K[X], P0 , P1 = 0 Output : GCD(P0 , P1 ) va U, V K[X], thoa U P0 + V P1 = GCD(P0 , P1 )

vi Pk la phan d cua phep

Pk2 = Qk1 Pk1 + Pk (k = 2, , m 1) Pm2 = Qm1 Pm1 + Pm Pm1 = Qm Pm

Trc het, khi k = 0, 1, ta phai co U0 = 1, V0 = 0 va U1 = 0, V1 = 1. Sau o e qui

Vk = Vk2 Qk1 Vk1

ta co U P0 + V P1 = Pm = GCD(P0 , P1 ). Vay ta co:

U0 = 1, U1 = 0, U2 = 1, U3 = X + 3, U4 = 1 X 2 4 , U5 = X + 3 5 5 1 3 3 V0 = 0, V1 = 1, V2 = X+3, V3 = X 2 6X+10, V4 = X 3 + X 2 + X3, V5 = X 2 6X+10 5 5 5