Chng minh ton hc

Bch khoa ton th m Wikipedia

Trong ton hc, mt chng minh l mt cch trnh by thuyt phc (s dng nhng chun mc c chp nhn trong lnh vc ) rng mt pht biu ton hc l ng n[1]. Chng minh c c t lp lun suy din, ch khng phi l tranh lun kiu quy np hoc theo kinh nghim. C ngha l, mt chng minh phi biu din cho thy mt pht biu l ng vi mi trng hp, khng c ngoi l. Mt mnh cha c chng minh nhng c chp nhn ng c gi l mt phng on. Pht biu c chng minh thng c gi l nh l[1]. Mt khi nh l c chng minh, n c th c dng lm nn tng chng minh cc pht biu khc. Mt nh l cng c th c gi l b , c bit nu n c d nh dng lm bc m chng minh mt nh l khc.
Mc lc
[n]

1 Lch s 2 Cc phng php chng minh

o o o o o o o o o o o o o o

2.1 Chng minh trc tip 2.2 Chng minh bng quy np ton hc 2.3 Chng minh bng chuyn v 2.4 Chng minh bng phn chng 2.5 Chng minh bng dn chng 2.6 Chng minh vt cn 2.7 Chng minh xc sut 2.8 Chng minh t hp 2.9 Chng minh khng xy dng 2.10 Chng minh bng hnh nh 2.11 Chng minh c bn 2.12 Chng minh hai ct 2.13 Chng minh thng k trong ton hc thun ty 2.14 Chng minh vi s h tr ca my tnh

3 Tham kho 4 Lin kt ngoi

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Cc tranh lun v s hp l bng cch s dng cc vt dng c sn nh hnh nh hay vt tng t l tin cho cc chng minh ton hc chnh xc[2]. S pht trin ca chng minh ton hc ch yu l sn phm ca nn vn minh Hy Lp. Thales (624546 TCN) chng minh mt s nh l trong hnh hc. Eudoxus (408355 TCN) v Theaetetus (417369 TCN) cng thc ha cc nh l nhng khng chng minh. Aristoteles (384 322 TCN) ni rng cc nh ngha cn c m t bng nhng khi nim bit. Euclid (300 TCN) bt u t nhng thut ng cha c nh ngha l cc tin (cc mnh s dng nhng thut ng cha nh ngha c gi thit l hin nhin ng, nguyn t Hy Lp l axios c ngha l mt th gi tr) v dng nhng th ny chng minh cc nh l bng lun l suy din. L thuyt chng minh hin i xem cc chng minh l nhng cu trc d liu c nh ngha mt cch quy np. Ngi ta khng cn gi thit rng cc tin lc no cng "ng n"; iu ny cho php cc l thuyt ton hc c xy dng song song nhau da trn nhng tp tin khc nhau (L thuyt tp hp tin v Hnh hc phi Euclid l cc v d).

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phng php chng minh

minh trc tip

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Bi chi tit: Chng minh trc tip Trong chng minh trc tip[3], kt lun c c bng cch phi hp mt cch lgic cc tin , nh ngha, v cc nh l trc . V d, chng minh trc tip c th dng chng minh rng tng ca hai s nguyn chn lun lun l s chn: Vi hai s nguyn chn bt k x v y ta c th biu din thnh x = 2a v y = 2b qua hai s nguyn a v b no , v c x v y u l bi s ca 2. M tng x + y = 2a + 2b = 2(a + b) cng l bi ca 2, do theo nh ngha, n l s chn. Bi chng minh ny s dng nh ngha s nguyn chn, v lut phn phi.

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minh bng quy np ton hc

Bi chi tit: Quy np ton hc Trong cch chng minh bng quy np ton hc'[4], u tin "trng hp c s" s c chng minh, sau s dng mt "lut quy np" chng minh (thng l v tn) cc trng hp khc. V trng hp c s l ng, tt c cc trng hp khc cng phi ng, thm ch nu ta khng th chng minh trc tip tt c chng l ng v s lng v tn ca n. Mt dng con ca quy np lphng php xung thang. Phng php xung thang c dng chng minh s v t ca cn bc 2 ca 2. Nguyn tc quy np ton hc nh sau: Cho N = { 1, 2, 3, 4, ... } l tp cc s t nhin v P(n) l mt pht biu ton hc lin quan ti mt s t nhin n thuc N sao cho

(i) P(1) l ng, tc l, P(n) l ng khi n = 1

(ii) P(n + 1) l ng bt c khi no P(n) ng, tc l, P(n) ng th vi P(n + 1) cng ng.

Khi P(n) l ng vi mi s t nhin n. Cc nh ton hc thng dng cm t "chng minh bng quy np" ni tt cho chng minh bng quy np ton hc[5]. Tuy vy, thut ng "chng minh bng quy np" cng c dng trong logic ni n mt tranh lun s dng suy din quy np.

[sa]Chng

minh bng chuyn v

Chng minh bng chuyn v s hnh thnh kt lun "nu p th q" bng cch chng minh pht biu tng phn tng ng "nu khng q th khng p".

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minh bng phn chng

Bi chi tit: Chng minh bng phn chng Trong chng minh bng phn chng (cn c gi l reductio ad absurdum, ting La tinh c ngha l "thu gim n s v l"), ngi ta s chng minh nu mt pht biu no xy ra, th dn n mu thun v lgic, v vy pht biu khng c xy ra. Phng php ny c l l phng php ph bin nht trong chng minh ton hc. Mt v d ni ting v cch chng minh phn chng l chng minh l mt s v t:

Gi s

l s hu t, ta s biu din c

trong a v b l cc s nguyn khc . Bnh phng hai

khng c c chung ln nht l 1 (theo nh ngha s hu t). Do ,

v cho ra 2b2 = a2. V v tri chia ht cho 2, nn v phi cng phi chia ht cho 2 (v chng bng nhau v u l s nguyn). Do a2 l s chn, c ngha l a cng phi l s chn. Dn n ta c th vit a = 2c, trong c cng l s nguyn. Thay vo phng trnh ban u cho ra 2b2 = (2c)2 = 4c2. Chia hai v cho 2 ta c b2 = 2c2. Nhng khi , tng t nh trn, b2chia ht cho 2, nn b phi l s chn. Nhng nu a v b u l s chn, chng s c chung mt c s l 2. iu ny tri vi gi thuyt, do m chng ta buc phi kt lun rng l s v t.

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minh bng dn chng

Bi chi tit: Chng minh bng dn chng Chng minh bng dn chng, l a ra mt dn chng c th vi mt thuc tnh no chng minh rng c tn ti mt th c tnh cht nh vy. V d nh Joseph Liouville chng minh tn ti s siu vit bng cch a ra mt v d r rng.

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minh vt cn

Bi chi tit: Chng minh vt cn Trong chng minh vt cn, kt lun s c c bng cch chia nh n ra thnh mt s trng hp hu hn v chng minh mi trng hp mt cch ring r. S trng hp i khi rt ln. V d nh, cch chng minh nh l bn mu u tin l mt chng minh vt cn vi 1.936 trng hp. Cch chng minh ny cn gy tranh ci v a s cc trng hp c kim chng bng chng trnh my tnh, ch khng phi bng tay. Cch chng minh bit ti ngn nht ca nh l bn mu ngy nay vn c ti hn 600 trng hp.

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Bi chi tit: Phng php xc sut

minh xc sut

Chng minh xc sut l cch chng minh trong ngi ta a mt v d cho thy n c tn ti, vi mt tin cy no , bng cch dng cc phng php ca l thuyt xc sut. Ci ny khng nn nhm ln vi mt tranh lun v mt nh l 'c th' ng. Loi suy din sau c th gi l 'tranh lun c v ng' v khng phi l mt chng minh; trong trng hp phng on Collatz ta c th thy n cch xa mt chng minh ng ngha nh th no[6]. Chng minh xc sut, cng nh chng minh bng dn chng, l mt trong nhiu cch chng minh nh l s tn ti.

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Bi chi tit: Chng minh t hp

minh t hp

Mt chng minh t hp s chng minh s tng ng ca cc cch biu din khc nhau bng cch cho thy chng dn n cng mt i tng theo cc cch khc nhau. Mt song nh gia hai tp hp thng c dng chng minh rng s biu thc l bng nhau.

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Bi chi tit: Chng minh khng xy dng

minh khng xy dng

Mt chng minh khng xy dng (nonconstructive proof) s chng minh mt i tng ton hc no phi tn ti (v d "X no tha mn f(X)"), m

khng gii thch lm th no tm i tng . Thng thng, n c dng nh chng minh phn chng trong ngi ta chng minh vic khng tn ti mt i tng l khng xy ra. Ngc li, mt chng minh xy dng (chng minh bng dn chng) chng minh rng mt i tng no tn ti bng cch a ra phng php tm n. Mt v d ni ting v chng minh khng xy dng l chng minh tn ti hai s v t a v bsao cho ab l s hu t: Hoc hoc l mt s hu t v nh vy chng minh xong (vi l s v t v ta c th vit v . Cho ),

ra

, l dng hu t ca ab.

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minh bng hnh nh

Chng minh bng hnh nh cho tam gic (3, 4, 5) trong Chou Pei Suan Ching500200 TCN

Mc d khng phi l mt cch chng minh chnh quy, mt cch biu din hnh nh cho mt nh l ton hc i khi c gi l "chng minh khng cn li". Hnh nh bn phi l v d ca mt chng minh bng hnh nh c xa nh l Pythagoras trong trng hp tam gic (3, 4, 5).

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Bi chi tit: Chng minh c bn

minh c bn

Mt chng minh c bn l mt chng minh ch dng cc k thut c bn. C th hn, thut ng c dng trong l thuyt

s m ch cc chng minh khng s dng phn tch s phc. i khi ngi ta cho rng mt s nh l, nh nh l s nguyn t, ch c th chng minh bng ton hc "cao cp". Tuy nhin, qua thi gian, nhiu trong s cc kt qu ny c chng minh li ch bng cc k thut c bn.

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minh hai ct

Mt chng minh hai ct xut bn nm 1913

Mt dng c th ca chng minh s dng hai ct song song thng dng trong cc lp hnh hc c bn[7]. Chng minh c vit theo dng mt lot hng phn thnh hai ct. Ti mi dng, ct bn tri cha cc mnh (hai i khi gi l pht biu), cn ct bn phi l li gii thch ngn gn mnh l g, mt tin , gi thuyt, hay c c t dng trn (hoc i khi ch gi l "suy din").

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minh thng k trong ton hc thun ty

Bi chi tit: Chng minh thng k

Cm t "chng minh thng k" c th c dng nh thut ng hoc mt cch thng thng trong cc lnh vc ton hc thun ty, nh cc lnh vc lin quan n mt m ha, chui hn lon, v l thuyt s xc sut v phn tch[8][9][10]. N t c dng ch mt chng minh ton hc trong ngnh ton hc c tn thng k ton hc.

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minh vi s h tr ca my tnh
Bi chi tit: Chng minh vi s h tr ca my tnh Cho n th k th 20 ngi ta gi thit rng, trn nguyn tt, tt c cc chng minh u c th c mt nh ton hc gii xc nhn s ng n ca n[2]. Tuy nhin, ngy nay my tnh c dng c chng minh cc nh l ln thc hin cc php ton qu di m con ngi hoc mt nhm ngi c th kim tra ni; cch chng minh nh l bn mu u tin l mt v d v mt cch chng minh c s h tr t my tnh. Mt s nh ton hc lo ngi rng kh nng xy ra li trong mt chng trnh my tnh hoc li khi tnh ton c th khin cho s ng n ca cc cch chng minh bng my tnh b t du hi. Trn thc t, c

hi xy ra li bc b mt chng minh ca my tnh c th gim thiu bng cch a vo s trng lp v t kim tra khi tnh ton, v bng cch pht trin nhiu cch tip cn v chng trnh c lp nhau.

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kho

1.

^ a b Cupillari, Antonella. The Nuts and Bolts of Proofs. Academic Press, 2001. Page 3.

2.

^ a b The History and Concept of Mathematical Proof, Steven G. Krantz. 1. 5 thng 2 nm 2007

3. 4. 5.

^ Cupillari, page 20. ^ Cupillari, page 46. ^ Proof by induction, University of Warwick Glossary of Mathematical Terminology

6.

^ Tuy a s cc nh ton hc khng cho rng bng chng xc sut l mt chng minh ton hc ng ngha, mt s nh ton hc v trit hc tranh ci rng t nht th mt s loi bng

chng xc sut (nhgii thut xc sut ca Rabin kim tra tnh nguyn t) cng tt nh bt c chng minh ton hc ng ngha no. V d, xem Davis, Philip J. (1972), "Fidelity in Mathematical Discourse: Is One and One Really Two?" American Mathematical Monthly 79:252-63. Fallis, Don (1997), "The Epistemic Status of Probabilistic Proof." Journal of Philosophy 94:165-86. 7. ^ Patricio G. Herbst, Establishing a Custom of Proving in American School Geometry: Evolution of the TwoColumn Proof in the Early Twentieth Century, Educational Studies in Mathematics, Vol. 49, No. 3 (2002), pp. 283312, 8. ^ trong l thuyt s v i s giao hon... c th l chng minh

thng k ca mt b . [1] 9. ^ Hng s (hay, pi) c chun tc hay khng l mt vn rc ri khng c cch biu din l thuyt cht ch no tr mt vi chng minh thng k (Derogatory use.)[2] 10. ^ nhng quan st ny cho thy mt chng minh thng k cho suy on Goldbach vi xc sut tht bi gim i rt nhanh vi E ln [3]

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kt ngoi

What are mathematical proofs and why they are important?

2ix.com: Logic Part of a series of articles covering mathematics and logic.

How To Write Proofs by Larry W. Cusick

How to Write a Proof by Leslie Lamport, and the motivation of proposing such a hierarchical proof style.

Proofs in Mathematics: Simple, Charming and Fallacious

The Seventeen Provers of the World, ed. by Freek Wiedijk, foreword by Dana S. Scott, Lecture Notes in Computer Science 3600, Springer, 2006, ISBN 3540-30704-4. Contains formalized versions of the proof that is irrational

in several automated proof systems.

What is Proof? Thoughts on proofs and proving.

ProofWiki.org An online compendium of mathematical proofs.

planetmath.org A wiki style encyclopedia of proofs

A lesson about proofs, in a course from Wikiversity