Ly Thuyet Ma Ma

Mc lc
1. C S TON HC.............................................................................................. 3
1.1. L thuyt s......................................................................................................3
1.1.1. Khi nim ng d Modulo ......................................................................3
1.1.2. nh l v ng d thc............................................................................3
1.1.3. Khi nim phn t nghch o ..................................................................4
1.1.4. Thut ton Euclide ....................................................................................4
1.1.5. Phn t nguyn thy v logarith ri rc....................................................4
1.1.6. Thng d bc hai v k hiu Legendre .....................................................5
1.1.7. Mt s thut ton kim tra tnh nguyn t ................................................6
1.2. L thuyt v phc tp tnh ton...................................................................6
1.2.1. phc tp tnh ton................................................................................6
1.2.2. Cc lp phc tp .......................................................................................7
1.3. Hm mt pha v hm ca sp mt pha ..........................................................8
2. GII THIU V M HA ................................................................................. 9
2.1. Cc thut ng ...................................................................................................9
2.2. nh ngha h mt m. .....................................................................................9
2.3. Nhng yu cu i vi h mt m .................................................................10
2.4. Cc phng php m ho...............................................................................10
2.4.1. M ho i xng kho b mt .................................................................10
2.4.1.1. Ni ng dng ...................................................................................11
2.4.1.2. Cc vn i vi phng php m ho i xng .........................11
2.4.2. M ho phi i xng kho cng khai......................................................12
2.4.2.1. Ni ng dng ...................................................................................12
2.4.2.2. iu kin h m ha kha cng khai ...............................................12
2.5. Cc h m ha n gin .................................................................................13
2.5.1. M dch vng...........................................................................................15
2.5.2. M thay th..............................................................................................17
2.5.3. M Apphin ..............................................................................................18
2.5.4. M Vigenre............................................................................................19
2.5.5. M HILL .................................................................................................21
2.5.6. M hon v...............................................................................................23
3. H M HA DES .............................................................................................. 24
3.1. M t DES......................................................................................................24
3.1.1. Thut ton DES .......................................................................................25
1
3.1.2. M t mt vng ca DES ........................................................................25

3.1.3. M t hm f .............................................................................................25
3.1.4. M t chi tit cc hm trong DES ...........................................................27
3.1.5. Tnh ton bng kha t kha K...............................................................30
3.2. V d...............................................................................................................34
3.3. Tranh lun v DES .........................................................................................37
3.4. DES trong thc t...........................................................................................38
3.5. ng dng ca DES.........................................................................................42
4. M HA KHA CNG KHAI ........................................................................ 43
4.1. Bi ton Logarit ri rc (DL) .........................................................................43
4.2. Cc thut ton cho bi ton Logarit ri rc....................................................43
4.3. H mt RSA ...................................................................................................45
4.3.1. nh ngha h mt RSA ..........................................................................46
4.3.2. an ton ca h RSA ...........................................................................48
4.3.3. Mt s tnh cht ca h RSA ..................................................................48
4.3.4. ng dng ca RSA .................................................................................50
4.4. H mt Elgamal..............................................................................................50
4.5. CC PHNG PHP KIM TRA S NGUYN T LN ......................51
4.5.1. Kim tra Miller-Rabin.............................................................................51
Kim tra Miller-Rabin lp.................................................................................53
4.5.2. Kim tra Fermat ......................................................................................54
4.5.3. Kim tra Solovay-Strassen......................................................................55
5. CH K IN T............................................................................................. 57
5.1. nh ngha ......................................................................................................57
5.2. Hm bm ........................................................................................................58
5.3. Phn loi cc s ch k in t.................................................................60
5.3.1. S ch k km thng ip .................................................................61
5.3.2. S ch k khi phc thng ip ........................................................62
5.4. S ch k RSA..........................................................................................63
5.5. S ch k ELGAMAL...............................................................................64
5.5.1. nh ngha ...............................................................................................65
5.5.2. an ton ca ch k Elgamal ..............................................................66
5.6. Chun ch k s DSS (Digital Signature Standard) ......................................69
5.6.1. Gii thiu.................................................................................................69
5.6.2. Cc gii thut c bn ca DSS ................................................................70
5.6.3. Tnh cht ca ch k ca DSS ................................................................72
2
5.6.4. La chn s k kh thi.......................................................................73

5.7. Tn cng ch k in t.................................................................................74
5.8. Kt lun ..........................................................................................................75
6. NG DNG......................................................................................................... 76
7. BI TP, CH THO LUN .................................................................... 77
8. TI LIU THAM KHO .................................................................................. 78
9. PH LC: M NGUN .................................................................................... 80
9.1. M ha dch chuyn .......................................................................................80
9.2. M ha thay th..............................................................................................83
9.3. M ha RSA ...................................................................................................88
9.4. Ch k s Elgamal .........................................................................................93
L thuyt mt m v an ton d liu
AN TON D LIU TRN MY TNH

Ngy nay, vi s pht trin mnh m ca cng ngh thng tin vic ng dng cc
cng ngh mng my tnh tr nn v cng ph cp v cn thit. Cng ngh mng my
tnh mang li nhng li ch to ln.
S xut hin mng Internet cho php mi ngi c th truy cp, chia s v khai thc
thng tin mt cch d dng v hiu qu. Cc cng ngh E-mail cho php mi ngi c
th gi th cho ngi khc cng nh nhn th ngay trn my tnh ca mnh. Gn y
c cng ngh E-business cho php thc hin cc hot ng thng mi trn mng my
tnh. Vic ng dng cc mng cc b trong cc t chc, cng ty hay trong mt quc
gia l rt phong ph. Cc h thng chuyn tin ca cc ngn hng hng ngy c th
chuyn hng t la qua h thng ca mnh. Cc thng tin v kinh t, chnh tr, khoa
hc x hi c trao i rng ri.
Tuy nhin li ny sinh vn v an ton thng tin. cng l mt qu trnh tin
trin hp logic: khi nhng vui thch ban u v mt siu xa l thng tin, bn nht nh
nhn thy rng khng ch cho php bn truy nhp vo nhiu ni trn th gii, Internet
cn cho php nhiu ngi khng mi m t gh thm my tnh ca bn.
Thc vy, Internet c nhng k thut tuyt vi cho php mi ngi truy nhp, khai
thc, chia s thng tin. Nhng n cng l nguy c chnh dn n thng tin ca bn b
h hng hoc ph hu hon ton.
C nhng thng tin v cng quan trng m vic b mt hay b lm sai lch c th
nh hng n cc t chc, cc cng ty hay c mt quc gia. Cc thng tin v an ninh
quc gia, b mt kinh doanh hay cc thng tin ti chnh l mc tiu ca cc t chc
tnh bo nc ngoi v chnh tr hay cng nghip hoc k cp ni chung. Bn chng
c th lm mi vic c th c c nhng thng tin qu gi ny. Th tng tng
nu c k xm nhp c vo h thng chuyn tin ca cc ngn hng th ngn hng
s chu nhng thit hi to ln nh mt tin c th dn ti b ph sn. Cha k nu
h thng thng tin an ninh quc gia b e do th hu qu khng th lng trc c.
Theo s liu ca CERT(Computer Emegency Response Team - i cp cu my
tnh), s lng cc v tn cng trn Internet c thng bo cho t chc ny l t
hn 200 vo nm 1989, khong 400 vo nm 1991, 1400 vo nm 1993, v 2241 vo
nm 1994. Nhng v tn cng ny nhm vo tt c cc my tnh c mt trn Internet,
cc my tnh ca tt c cc cng ty ln nh AT&T, IBM, cc trng i hc, cc c
quan nh nc, cc t chc qun s, nh bng... Mt s v tn cng c quy m khng
l (c ti 100.000 my tnh b tn cng). Hn na, nhng con s ny ch l phn ni
ca tng bng. Mt phn rt ln cc v tn cng khng c thng bo, v nhiu l do,
Trang 1
trong c th k n ni lo b mt uy tn, hoc n gin nhng ngi qun tr h

thng khng h hay bit nhng cuc tn cng nhm vo h thng ca h.
Khng ch s lng cc cuc tn cng tng ln nhanh chng, m cc phng php
tn cng cng lin tc c hon thin. iu mt phn do cc nhn vin qun tr h
thng c kt ni vi Internet ngy cng cao cnh gic. Cng theo CERT, nhng
cuc tn cng thi k 1988-1989 ch yu on tn ngi s dng-mt khu (UserIDpassword) hoc s dng mt s li ca cc chng trnh v h iu hnh (security
hole) lm v hiu h thng bo v, tuy nhin cc cuc tn cng vo thi gian gn y
bao gm c cc thao tc nh gi mo a ch IP, theo di thng tin truyn qua mng,
chim cc phin lm vic t xa (telnet hoc rlogin).
va bo m tnh bo mt ca thng tin li khng lm gim s pht trin ca
vic trao i thng tin qung b trn ton cu th mt gii php tt nht l m ho
thng tin. C th hiu s lc m ho thng tin l che i thng tin ca mnh lm cho
k tn cng nu chn c thng bo trn ng truyn th cng khng th c c
v phi c mt giao thc gia ngi gi v ngi nhn c th trao i thng tin,
l cc c ch m v gii m thng tin.
Ngy nay th vic m ho tr nn ph cp. Cc cng ty phn mm ln trn th
gii u c nghin cu v xy dng cc cng c, thut ton m ho p dng cho
thc t. Mi quc gia hay t chc u c nhng c ch m ho ring bo v h
thng thng tin ca mnh.
Mt s vn an ton i vi nhiu mng hin nay:
Mt ngi dng chuyn mt thng bo in t cho mt ngi s dng khc.
Mt bn th ba trn cng mng LAN ny s dng mt thit b nghe trm gi
ly thng bo v c cc thng tin trong .
Cng trong tnh hung trn bn th ba chn thng bo, thay i cc thnh phn
ca n v sau li gi cho ngi nhn. Ngi nhn khng h nghi ng g tr
khi nhn ra thng bo l v l, v c th thc hin vi hnh ng da trn
cc thnh phn sai ny em li li ch cho bn th ba.
Ngi dng log vo mt server m khng s dng mt khu c m ho. Mt
ngi khc ang nghe trm trn ng truyn v bt c mt khu logon ca
ngi dng, sau c th truy nhp thng tin trn server nh ngi s dng.
Mt ngi qun tr h thng khng hiu v kha cnh an ton v yu cu ca h
thng v v tnh cho php ngi dng khc truy nhp vo th mc cha cc
thng tin h thng. Ngi dng pht hin ra h c th c c cc thng tin h
thng v c th dng n phc v cho li ch ca mnh.
Trang 2
1. C S TON HC
Trong phn ny s trnh by v mt s c s ton hc ca m ha, iu ny s gip
ta nm c mt cch chi tit hn v cc phng php m ha.
1.1. L thuyt s
1.1.1. Khi nim ng d Modulo
nh ngha 1: Gi s a v b l cc s nguyn v m l mt s nguyn dng. Khi
ta vit a b(mod m) nu b-a chia ht cho m. Mnh a b(mod m) c gi l a
ng d vi b theo moun m.
Gi s chia a v b cho m v ta thu c thng nguyn v phn d, cc phn d
nm gia 0 v m-1, ngha l a = q1*m + r1 v b = q2*m + r2 trong 0 r1 m-1 v 0
r2 m-1. Khi c th d dng thy rng a b(mod m) khi v ch khi r1 = r2 .
Ta s dng k hiu a mod m xc nh phn d khi a c chia cho m (chnh l
gi tr r1 trn). Nh vy: ab(mod m) khi v ch khi (a mod m) = (b mod m). Php rt
gn, thay a bng a mod m th ta ni rng a c rt gn theo modulo m.
Nhn xt: Nhiu ngn ng lp trnh ca my tnh xc nh a mod m l phn d
trong di -m+1,,m-1 c cng du vi a. V d -18 mod 7 s l 4, gi tr ny khc
vi gi tr 3 l gi tr c xc nh theo cng thc trn. Tuy nhin, thun tin ta s
xc nh a mod m lun l mt s khng m.
By gi ta c th nh ngha s hc modulo m: Zm c coi l tp hp {0,1,,m-1}
c trang b hai php ton cng v nhn. Vic cng v nhn trong Zm c thc hin
ging nh cng v nhn cc s thc ngoi tr mt im l cc kt qu c rt gn
theo moun m.
1.1.2. nh l v ng d thc
nh l 1: ng d thc ax b (mod m) ch c mt nghim duy nht x Zm vi
mi b Zm khi v ch khi UCLN(a,m) = 1.
Ta gi s rng, UCLN(a,m) = d >1. Khi , vi b = 0 th ng d thc ax 0 (mod
m) s c t nht hai nghim phn bit trong Zm l x = 0 v x = m/d.
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1.1.3. Khi nim phn t nghch o

nh ngha 2: Gi s a Zm. Phn t nghch o (theo php nhn) ca a l phn
t a-1 Zm sao cho aa-1 a-1a 1 (mod m).
V d Z10, a=5, suy ra a-1=9.
Bng cc l lun tng t nh trn, c th chng t rng. a c nghch o theo
moun m khi v ch khi UCLN(a,m) = 1, v nu nghch o ny tn ti th n phi l
duy nht. Ta cng thy rng, nu b = a-1 th a = b-1. Nu m l s nguyn t th mi
phn t khc khng ca Zm u c nghch o.
1.1.4. Thut ton Euclide
Cho hai s t nhin a, n. K hiu (a,n) l c s chung ln nht ca a,n; (n) l s
cc s nguyn dng < n v nguyn t vi n, khng mt tnh tng qut gi s n > a.
Thut ton Euclide tm UCLN (a,n) c thc hin bng mt dy cc php chia lin
tip sau y:
t r0 = n, r1 = a,
r0 = q1r1 + r2 , 0 < r2 < r1
r1 = q2r2 + r3 , 0 < r3 < r2
rm-2 = qm-1rm-1 + rm , 0 < rm < rm-1

rm-1 = qmrm
Thut ton phi kt thc mt bc th m no . Ta c:
(n,a) = (r0,r1) = (r1,r2) = = (rm-1,rm) = rm
Vy ta tm c rm = (n,a). M rng thut ton Euclide bng cch xc nh thm
dy s t0, t1,,tm :
t0 = 0,
t1 = 1,
tj = tj-2 qj-1tj-1 mod r0 , nu j 2 ,
ta d chng minh bng qui np rng: rj tjr1 (mod r0)
Do , nu (n,a) = 1, th tm = a-1 mod n
1.1.5. Phn t nguyn thy v logarith ri rc
Cho s n nguyn dng. Ta bit rng tp cc thng d thu gn theo moun n (tc l
tp cc s nguyn dng < n v nguyn t vi n) lp thnh mt nhm vi php nhn
Trang 4
mod n, ta k hiu l Zn* . Nhm c cp (s phn t) l (n). Mt phn t g Zn* c

cp m, nu m l s nguyn dng b nht sao cho gm = 1 trong Zn*.
Theo mt nh l i s, ta c m |(n) (k hiu m l c s ca (n)) v vy vi mi
b Zn* ta lun c:
b(n) 1 (mod n)
Nu p l s nguyn t, th do (p) = p-1, nn ta c vi mi b nguyn t vi p

bp-1 1 (mod p)
(1)
Nu b c cp p-1, th p-1 l s m b nht sao cho c cng thc (1), do cc phn

t b, b2,, bp-1 u khc nhau, v lp thnh Zp*. Ni cch khc, b l mt phn t sinh,
hay nh thng gi l phn t nguyn thy ca Zp* ; v khi Zp* l mt nhm cyclic.
Trong l thuyt s, ngi ta chng minh c cc nh l sau y:
Vi mi s nguyn t p, Zp* l nhm cyclic, v s cc phn t nguyn thy ca
Zp* bng (p-1)
Nu g l phn t nguyn thy theo moun p, th = gi, vi mi i m (i,p-1) = 1,
cng l phn t nguyn thy theo moun p
1.1.6. Thng d bc hai v k hiu Legendre
Cho p l mt s nguyn t l, v x l mt s nguyn dng p-1. x c gi l mt
thng d bc hai theo moun p, nu phng trnh: y2 x (mod p) c nghim.
Ta c tiu chun Euler sau y: x l thng d bc hai theo moun p, nu v ch nu
x(p-1)/2 1 (mod p)
Tiu chun c chng minh nh sau: Gi s c x y2 (mod p). Khi c:
x(p-1)/2 (y2)(p-1)/2 yp-1 1 (mod p) ;
Ngc li, gi s rng x(p-1)/2 1 (mod p). Ly b l mt phn t nguyn thy (mod
p), ta c x bi (mod p) vi s i no .
Ta c:
x(p-1)/2 (bi)(p-1)/2 (mod p)
bi(p-1)/2 (mod p)
V b c cp p-1, do p-1 phi l c s ca i(p-1)/2, suy ra i phi l s chn, v
cn bc hai ca x l bi/2.
a
Gi s p l s nguyn t l. Vi mi a 0, ta nh ngha k hiu Legendre

p
nh sau:
a
asad =
p
0 nu a 0 (mod p)
1 nu a l thng d bc hai theo mod p
-1 nu a khng l thng d bc hai theo mod p
Trang 5
Ta c tnh cht quan trng sau y: nu p l s nguyn t l th vi mi s nguyn a

0, ta c:
a
a(p-1)/2 (mod p).
p
1.1.7. Mt s thut ton kim tra tnh nguyn t

Ta pht biu mt s tnh cht sau y, chng l c s cho vic pht trin mt s
thut ton xc sut th tnh nguyn t ca cc s nguyn.
Solovay_Strassen :
Nu n l s nguyn t, th vi mi 1 a n-1:
a a(n-1)/2 (mod n).

n
Nu n l hp s th:
|{a: 1 a n-1, a a(n-1)/2 (mod n)}| (n-1)/2
n
Solovay_Strassen (ci tin bi Lehmann):

Nu n l s nguyn t, th vi mi 1 a n-1:
a(n-1)/2 1 (mod n);
Nu n l hp s th:
|{a: 1 a n-1, a(n-1)/2 1(mod n)}| (n-1)/2
1.2. L thuyt v phc tp tnh ton

1.2.1. phc tp tnh ton
L thuyt thut ton v cc hm tnh ra i t nhng nm 30 t nn mng cho
cc nghin cu v cc vn tnh c, gii c, v thu c nhiu kt qu
rt quan trng. Nhng t ci tnh c mt cch tru tng, tim nng n vic tnh
c trong thc t ca khoa hc tnh ton bng my tnh in t l mt khong cch
rt ln. L thuyt v phc tp tnh ton c nghin cu bt u t nhng nm 60
b p cho khong trng , cho ta nhiu tri thc c bn, ng thi c nhiu ng
dng thc t rt phong ph.
Trang 6
phc tp (v khng gian hay thi gian) ca mt qu trnh tnh ton l s nh

hay s cc php ton c thc hin trong qu trnh tnh ton .
phc tp tnh ton ca mt thut ton c hiu l mt hm s f, sao cho vi
mi n, f(n) l l s nh hay s cc php ton ti a m thut ton thc hin qu trnh
tnh ton ca mnh trn cc d liu vo c ln n.
phc tp tnh ton ca mt bi ton (ca mt hm) c nh ngha l phc
tp ca mt thut ton tt nht c th tm c gii bi ton (hay tnh hm) .
Mt bi ton c cho bi:
Mt tp cc d liu vo Y
Mt cu hi dng R(I)? vi I Y, li gii bi ton l ng hay khng
V d:
Bi ton ng d bc hai
o D liu: Cc s nguyn dng a,b,c
o Cu hi: C hay khng s x < c sao cho x2 a mod b ?
Bi ton hp s
o D liu: S nguyn dng N
o Cu hi: C hay khng hai s m,n > 1 sao cho N = mn ?
1.2.2. Cc lp phc tp
Ta nh ngha P l lp cc bi ton c phc tp thi gian l a thc tc lp cc
bi ton m i vi chng c thut ton gii bi ton trong thi gian a thc.
Mt lp quan trng cc bi ton c nghin cu nhiu l lp NP, tc cc bi
ton m i vi chng c thut ton khng n nh gii trong thi gian a thc.
Thut ton khng n nh l mt m hnh tnh ton tru tng, c gi nh l sau
mi bc c th c mt s hu hn bc c la chn ng thi tip sau.
Nhiu bi ton c chng t l thuc lp NP, nhng cha ai chng minh c l
chng thuc lp P hay khng. V mt vn cho n nay vn cn m, cha c li gii
l: NP = P ?
Mt cch trc gic, lp NP bao gm cc bi ton kh hn phc tp hn cc bi ton
thuc lp P, nhng iu c v hin nhin trc gic vn cha c chng minh hay
bc b.
Trang 7
Gi s NP P, th trong NP c mt lp con cc bi ton c gi l NP_y ,

l nhng bi ton m bn thn thuc lp NP, v mi bi ton bt k thuc lp NP u
c th qui dn v bi ton bng mt hm tnh c trong thi gian a thc.
Cho n nay, ngi ta chng minh c hng trm bi ton thuc nhiu lnh vc
khc nhau l NP_y . Bi ton ng d bc hai k trn l NP_y , bi ton hp
s khng l NP_y , nhng cha tm c mt thut ton lm vic trong thi gian
a thc gii n.
1.3. Hm mt pha v hm ca sp mt pha

Hm f(x) c gi l hm mt pha, nu tnh y = f(x) l d, nhng vic tnh ngc
x=f-1(y) l rt kh. C th hiu d l tnh c trong thi gian a thc (vi a thc
bc thp), v kh l khng tnh c trong thi gian a thc.
V d: Hm f(x) = gx (mod p) (p l s nguyn t, g l phn t nguyn thy
theo moun p) l hm mt pha. V bit x tnh f(x) l kh n gin, nhng bit
f(x) tnh x th vi cc thut ton bit hin nay i hi mt khi lng tnh
ton c O(exp(lnp lnlnp)112) php tnh (nu p l s nguyn t c 200 ch s thp
phn, th khi lng tnh ton trn i hi mt my tnh 1 t php tnh/giy lm
vic khng ngh trong khong 3000 nm)
Hm f(x) c gi l hm ca sp mt pha, nu tnh y = f(x) l d, tnh x = f-1(y) l

rt kh, nhng c ca sp z tnh x = fz-1(y) l d
V d: Cho n = pq l tch ca hai s nguyn t ln,a l s nguyn, hm
f(x)=xa(mod n) l hm ca sp mt pha, nu ch bit n v a th tnh x = f-1(y) l
rt kh, nhng nu bit ca sp, chng hn hai tha s ca n, th s tnh c
f-1(y) kh d.
Trn y l hai th d in hnh, v cng l hai trng hp c s dng rng ri v

hm mt pha v hm ca sp mt pha. V y l nhng im then cht ca l thuyt
mt m kha cng khai, nn vic tm kim cc loi hm mt pha v ca sp mt pha
c nghin cu rt khn trng, v n nay tuy c t c mt s kt qu, nhng
vic tm kim vn tip tc, y hng th nhng cng y kh khn.
Trang 8
2. GII THIU V M HA
2.1. Cc thut ng
1. H mt m l tp hp cc thut ton v cc th tc kt hp che du thng tin
cng nh lm r n.
2. Mt m hc nghin cu mt m bi cc nh mt m hc, ngi vit mt m v cc
nh phn tch m.
3. M ho l qu trnh chuyn thng tin c th c gi l bn r thnh thng tin
khng th c gi l bn m.
4. Gii m l qu trnh chuyn ngc li thng tin c m ho thnh bn r.
5. Thut ton m ho l cc th tc tnh ton s dng che du v lm r thng tin.
Thut ton cng phc tp th bn m cng an ton.
6. Mt kho l mt gi tr lm cho thut ton m ho chy theo cch ring bit v
sinh ra bn r ring bit tu theo kho. Kho cng ln th bn m kt qu cng an
ton. Kch thc ca kho c o bng bit. Phm vi cc gi tr c th c ca kho
c gi l khng gian kho.
7. Phn tch m l qu trnh hay ngh thut phn tch h mt m hoc kim tra tnh
ton vn ca n hoc ph n v nhng l do b mt.
8. Mt k tn cng l mt ngi (hay h thng) thc hin phn tch m lm hi h
thng. Nhng k tn cng l nhng k thc mi vo chuyn ngi khc, cc tay
hacker, nhng k nghe trm hay nhng cc tn ng ng khc, v h lm nhng
vic thng gi l cracking
2.2. nh ngha h mt m.
H mt m: l mt h bao gm 5 thnh phn (P, C, K, E, D) tho mn cc tnh cht
sau
P ( Plaintext ) l tp hp hu hn cc bn r c th.
C ( Ciphertext ) l tp hp hu hn cc bn m c th.
K ( Key ) l tp hp cc bn kho c th.
E ( Encrytion ) l tp hp cc qui tc m ho c th.
D ( Decrytion ) l tp hp cc qui tc gii m c th.
Chng ta bit mt thng bo thng c t chc di dng bn r. Ngi gi
s lm nhim v m ho bn r, kt qu thu c gi l bn m. Bn m ny c gi
i trn mt ng truyn ti ngi nhn sau khi nhn c bn m ngi nhn gii m
Trang 9
n tm hiu ni dung. D dng thy c cng vic trn khi s dng nh ngha h
mt m :
EK( P) = C v DK( C ) = P
2.3. Nhng yu cu i vi h mt m
Cung cp mt mc cao v tin cy, tnh ton vn, s khng t chi v s xc
thc.
tin cy: cung cp s b mt cho cc thng bo v d liu c lu bng vic
che du thng tin s dng cc k thut m ha.
Tnh ton vn: cung cp s bo m vi tt c cc bn rng thng bo cn li
khng thay i t khi to ra cho n khi ngi nhn m n.
Tnh khng t chi: c th cung cp mt cch xc nhn rng ti liu n t ai
ngay c khi h c gng t chi n.
Tnh xc thc: cung cp hai dch v: u tin l nhn dng ngun gc ca mt
thng bo v cung cp mt vi s bo m rng n l ng s thc. Th hai l
kim tra c tnh ca ngi ang logon mt h thng v sau tip tc kim tra
c tnh ca h trong trng hp ai c gng t nhin kt ni v gi dng l
ngi s dng
2.4. Cc phng php m ho

2.4.1. M ho i xng kho b mt
Thut ton i xng hay cn gi thut ton m ho c in l thut ton m ti
kho m ho c th tnh ton ra c t kho gii m. Trong rt nhiu trng hp,
kho m ho v kho gii m l ging nhau. Thut ton ny cn c nhiu tn gi khc
nh thut ton kho b mt, thut ton kho n gin, thut ton mt kho. Thut ton
ny yu cu ngi gi v ngi nhn phi tho thun mt kho trc khi thng bo
c gi i, v kho ny phi c ct gi b mt. an ton ca thut ton ny vn
ph thuc vo kho, nu l ra kho ny ngha l bt k ngi no cng c th m
ho v gii m thng bo trong h thng m ho.
S m ho v gii m ca thut ton i xng biu th bi :
EK( P ) = C v DK( C ) = P
Trang 10
Bn r
M ho
Bn m
Gii m
Bn r
K2
K1
Kho
Hnh 2.1. M ho vi kho m v kho gii ging nhau
Trong hnh v trn th :

K1c th trng K2, hoc
K1 c th tnh ton t K2, hoc
K2 c th tnh ton t K1.
2.4.1.1. Ni ng dng
S dng trong mi trng m kho n d dng c chuyn nh l trong cng
mt vn phng. Cng dng m ho thng tin lu tr trn a.
2.4.1.2. Cc vn i vi phng php m ho i xng
Cc phng m ho c in i hi ngi m ho v ngi gii m phi cng
chung mt kho. Khi kho phi c gi b mt tuyt i, do vy ta d dng xc
nh mt kho nu bit kho kia.
H m ho i xng khng bo v c s an ton nu c xc sut cao kho ngi
gi b l. Trong h kho phi c gi i trn knh an ton nu k ch tn cng
trn knh ny c th pht hin ra kho.
Vn qun l v phn phi kho l kh khn v phc tp khi s dng h m ho
c in. Ngi gi v ngi nhn lun lun thng nht vi nhau v vn kho.
Vic thay i kho l rt kh v d b l.
Khuynh hng cung cp kho di m n phi c thay i thng xuyn cho mi
ngi trong khi vn duy tr c tnh an ton ln hiu qu chi ph s cn tr rt nhiu
ti vic pht trin h mt m c in.
Trang 11
2.4.2. M ho phi i xng kho cng khai

Vo nhng nm 1970 Diffie v Hellman pht minh ra mt h m ho mi c
gi l h m ho cng khai hay h m ho phi i xng.
Thut ton m ho cng khai khc bit so vi thut ton i xng. Chng c thit
k sao cho kho s dng vo vic m ho l khc so vi kho gii m. Hn na kho
gii m khng th tnh ton c t kho m ho. Chng c gi vi tn h thng m
ho cng khai bi v kho m ho c th cng khai, mt ngi bt k c th s
dng kho cng khai m ho thng bo, nhng ch mt vi ngi c ng kho gii
m th mi c kh nng gii m. Trong nhiu h thng, kho m ho gi l kho cng
khai (public key), kho gii m thng c gi l kho ring (private key).
Bn r
M ho
Bn m
Kho m ha k1
Gii m
Bn r
Kho gii m k2
Hnh 2.2. M ho vi kho m v kho gii khc nhau
Trong hnh v trn th :

K1 khng th trng K2, hoc
K2 khng th tnh ton t K1.
c trng ni bt ca h m ho cng khai l c kho cng khai (public key) v bn
tin m ho (ciphertext) u c th gi i trn mt knh thng tin khng an ton.
2.4.2.1. Ni ng dng
S dng ch yu trn cc mng cng khai nh Internet khi m kho chuyn tng
i kh khn.
2.4.2.2. iu kin h m ha kha cng khai
Diffie v Hellman xc inh r cc iu kin ca mt h m ho cng khai nh
sau:
Trang 12
1. Vic tnh ton ra cp kho cng khai KA v b mt KB da trn c s cc iu

kin ban u phi c thc hin mt cch d dng, ngha l thc hin trong
thi gian a thc.
2. Ngi gi A c c kho cng khai ca ngi nhn B v c bn tin P cn gi
i th c th d dng to ra c bn m C.
C = EKA (P)
Cng vic ny cng trong thi gian a thc.
3. Ngi nhn B khi nhn c bn tin m ha C vi kho b mt kB th c th
gii m bn tin trong thi gian a thc.
P = DkB (C) = DKB[EKA(P)]
4. Nu k ch bit kho cng khai KA c gng tnh ton kho b mt th khi
chng phi ng u vi trng hp nan gii, trng hp ny i hi nhiu
yu cu khng kh thi v thi gian.
5. Nu k ch bit c cp (KA,C) v c gng tnh ton ra bn r P th gii quyt
bi ton kh vi s php th l v cng ln, do khng kh thi.
2.5. Cc h m ha n gin
i tng c bn ca mt m l to ra kh nng lin lc trn mt knh khng mt
cho hai ngi s dng (tm gi l Alice v Bob) sao cho i phng (Oscar) khng
th hiu c thng tin c truyn i. Knh ny c th l mt ng dy in thoi
hoc mt mng my tnh. Thng tin m Alice mun gi cho Bob (bn r) c th l mt
vn bn ting Anh, cc d liu bng s hoc bt c ti liu no c cu trc tu . Alice
s m ho bn r bng mt kha c xc nh trc v gi bn m kt qu trn
knh. Oscar c bn m thu trm c trn knh song khng th xc nh ni dung ca
bn r, nhng Bob (ngi bit kho m) c th gii m v thu c bn r.
Ta s m t hnh thc ho ni dung bng cch dung khi nim ton hc nh sau:
nh ngha:
Mt h mt l mt b 5 (P,C,K,E,D) tho mn cc iu kin sau:
P l mt tp hu hn cc bn r c th.
C l mt tp hu hn cc bn m c th.
K (khng gian kho) l tp hu hn cc kho c th.
i vi mi k K c mt quy tc m ek: P C v mt quy tc gii m tng ng
dk D. Mi ek: P C v dk: C P l nhng hm m:
dk(ek (x)) = x vi mi bn r x P.
Trang 13
Trong tnh cht 4 l tnh cht ch yu nht. Ni dung ca n l nu mt bn r x

c m ho bng ek v bn m nhn c sau c gii m bng dk th ta phi thu
c bn r ban u x. Alice v Bob s p dng th tc sau dng h mt kho ring.
Trc tin h chn mt kho ngu nhin k K . iu ny c thc hin khi h
cng mt ch v khng b Oscar theo di hoc khi h c mt knh mt trong trng
hp h xa nhau. Sau gi s Alice mun gi mt thng bo cho Bob trn mt knh
khng mt v ta xem thng bo ny l mt chui:
x = x1,x2 ,. . .,xn
vi s nguyn n 1 no . y mi k hiu ca mi bn r xi P , 1 i n.
Mi xi s c m ho bng quy tc m ek vi kho k xc nh trc . Bi vy Alice
s tnh yi = ek(xi), 1 i n v chui bn m nhn c:
y = y1, y2 ,. . ., yn
s c gi trn knh. Khi Bob nhn c y1,y2 ,. . .,yn anh ta s gii m bng hm
gii m dk v thu c bn r gc x1,x2 ,. . .,xn. Hnh di l mt v d v mt knh
lin lc
Hnh 3.3. Knh lin lc
Oscar
Alice
B m ho
B gii m
Bob
Knh an ton
Ngun kho
R rng l trong trng hp ny hm m ho phi l hm n nh ( tc l nh x 11), nu khng vic gii m s khng thc hin c mt cch tng minh. V d
y = ek(x1) = ek(x2)
trong x1 x2 , th Bob s khng c cch no bit liu s phi gii m c x1 hay
x2 . Ch rng nu P = C th mi hm m ho l mt php hon v, tc l nu tp cc
bn m v tp cc bn r l ng nht th mi mt hm m s l mt s sp xp li
(hay hon v ) cc phn t ca tp ny.
Trang 14
Do cc v d ca chng ta xt trn tp d liu l bng ch ci nn chng ta coi bng

ch ci ting Anh l tp hp gm 26 gi tr nh sau.
A
10
11
12
13
14
15 16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
2.5.1. M dch vng

M dch vng c xc nh trn Z26 (do c 26 ch ci trn bng ch ci ting Anh)
mc d c th xc nh n trn Zm vi modulus m tu . D dng thy rng, MDV s
to nn mt h mt nh xc nh trn, tc l dk (ek(x)) = x vi mi x Z26 .
nh ngha: Mt h mt l mt b 5 (P,C,K,E,D)
Gi s P = C = K = Z26 vi 0 k 25 , nh ngha:
ek(x) = x +k mod 26
v
dk(y) = y + (-k) mod 26
(x,y Z26)
-k l phn t i vi k trong Z26, v d phn t i ca 3 l 23, phn t i ca

15 l 11 xt trong Z26.
Nhn xt: Trong trng hp k = 3, h mt thng c gi l m Caesar tng
c Julius Caesar s dng.
Ta s s dng MDV (vi modulo 26) m ho mt vn bn ting Anh thng
thng bng cch thit lp s tng nggia cc k t v cc thng d theo modulo 26
nh sau: A 0,B 1, . . ., Z 25.
V d 1:
Gi s kho cho MDV l K = 11 v bn r l: wewillmeetatmidnight
Trc tin bin i bn r thnh dy cc s nguyn nh dng php tng ng trn.
Ta c:
22 4
22 8
11 11 12 4
4
19
0
19 12 8
3
13 8
6
7
19
sau cng 11 vo mi gi tr ri rt gn tng theo modulo 26
7
15 7
19 22 22 23 15 15 4
11 4
23 19 14 24 19 17 18 4
Cui cng bin i dy s nguyn ny thnh cc k t thu c bn m sau:
HPHTWWXPPELEXTOYTRSE
gi m bn m ny, trc tin, Bob s bin i bn m thnh dy cc s nguyn
ri tr i gi tr cho 11 (rt gn theo modulo 26) v cui cng bin i li dy ny
thnh cc k t.
Trang 15
Nhn xt: Trong v d trn , ta dng cc ch in hoa cho bn m, cc ch thng

cho bn r tin phn bit. Quy tc ny cn tip tc s dng sau ny.
Nu mt h mt c th s dng c trong thc t th n pho tho mn mt s tnh
cht nht nh. Ngay sau y s nu ra hai trong s :
1. Mi hm m ho eK v mi hm gii m dK phi c kh nng tnh ton c
mt cch hiu qu.
2. i phng da trn xu bn m phi khng c kh nng xc nh kho K
dng hoc khng c kh nng xc nh c xu bn r x.
Tnh cht th hai xc nh (theo cch kh mp m) tng tng "bo mt". Qu
trnh th tnh kho K (khi bit bn m y) c gi l m thm (sau ny khi nim
ny s c lm chnh xc hn). Cn ch rng, nu Oscar c th xc nh c K th
anh ta c th gii m c y nh Bob bng cch dng dK. Bi vy, vic xc nh K
ch t cng kh nh vic xc nh bn r x.
Nhn xt: MDV (theo modulo 26) l khng an ton v n c th b thm theo
phng php vt cn. Do ch c 26 kho nn d dng th mi kho dK c th cho ti
khi nhn c bn r c ngha. iu ny c minh ho theo v d sau:
V du 2: Cho bn m
JBCRCLQRWCRVNBJENBWRWN
ta s th lin tip cc kho gii m d0 ,d1 .. . v y thu c:
jbcrclqrwcrvnbjenbwrwn
iabqbkpqvbqumaidmavqvm
hzapajopuaptlzhclzupul
gyzozinotzoskygbkytotk
jxynyhmnsynrjexfajxsnsj
ewxmxglmrxmqiweziwrmri
dvwlwfklqwlphvodyhvqlqh
cuvkvejkpvkogucxgupkpg
btujudijoujnftbwfojof
astitchintimesavesnine
Ti y ta xc nh c bn r v dng li. Kho tng ng K = 9.
Trung bnh c th tnh c bn r sau khi th 26/2 = 13 quy tc gii m. Nh
ch ra trong v d trn , iu kin mt h mt an ton l php tm kho vt cn phi
khng th thc hin c; tc khng gian kho phi rt ln. Tuy nhin, mt khng
gian kho ln vn cha m bo mt.
Trang 16
2.5.2. M thay th
Mt h mt ni ting khc l h m thay th. H mt ny c s dng hng
trm nm. Tr chi ch "cryptogram" trong cc bi bo l nhng v d v MTT.
Trn thc t MTT c th ly c P v C u l b ch ci ting anh, gm 26 ch ci.
Ta dng Z26 trong MDV v cc php m v gii m u l cc php ton i s. Tuy
nhin, trong MTT, thch hp hn l xem php m v gii m nh cc hon v ca cc
k t.
Cho P =C = Z26 . K cha mi hon v c th ca 26 k hiu 0,1, . . . ,25
Vi mi php hon v K , ta nh ngha:
e(x) = (x)
d(y) = -1(y)
trong -1 l hon v ngc ca .

Sau y l mt v d v php hon v ngu nhin to nn mt hm m ho (cng
nh trc, cc k hiu ca bn r c vit bng ch thng cn cc k hiu ca bn
m l ch in hoa).
a
Nh vy, e (a) = X, e (b) = N,. . . . Hm gii m l php hon v ngc. iu ny

c thc hin bng cch vit hng th hai ln trc ri sp xp theo th t ch ci.
Ta nhn c:
A
Bi vy d (A) = d, d(B) = 1, . . .
Bi tp: gii m bn m sau bng cch dng hm gii m n gin:
M G Z V Y Z L G H C M H J M Y X S S F M N H A H Y C D L M H A.
M kho ca MTT l mt php hon v ca 26 k t. S cc hon v ny l 26!, ln
hn 4 10 26 l mt s rt ln. Bi vy, php tm kho vt cn khng th thc hin
Trang 17
c, thm ch bng my tnh. Tuy nhin, sau ny s thy rng MTT c th d dng b
thm bng cc phng php khc.
2.5.3. M Apphin
MDV l mt trng hp c bit ca MTT ch gm 26 trong s 26! cc hon v c
th ca 26 phn t. Mt trng hp c bit khc ca MTT l m Affine c m t
di y. trong m Affine, ta gii hn ch xt cc hm m c dng:
e(x) = ax + b mod 26,
a,b Z26 . Cc hm ny c gi l cc hm Affine (ch rng khi a = 1, ta c
MDV).
vic gii m c th thc hin c, yu cu cn thit l hm Affine phi l n
nh. Ni cch khc, vi bt k y Z26, ta mun c ng nht thc sau:
ax + b y (mod 26)
phi c nghim x duy nht. ng d thc ny tng ng vi:
ax y+(-b) (mod 26)
Lu : -b l phn t i ca b trong Z26.
V y thay i trn Z26 nn y+(-b) cng thay i trn Z26 . Bi vy, ta ch cn nghin
cu phng trnh ng d:
ax y (mod 26)
(y Z26 ).
Ta bit rng, phng trnh ny c mt nghim duy nht i vi mi y khi v ch khi

UCLN(a,26) = 1 ( y hm UCLN l c chung ln nht ca cc bin ca n).
Trc tin ta gi s rng, UCLN(a,26) = d >1. Khi , ng d thc ax 0 (mod 26)
s c t nht hai nghim phn bit trong Z26 l x = 0 v x = 26/d. Trong trng hp
ny, e(x) = ax + b mod 26 khng phi l mt hm n nh v bi vy n khng th l
hm m ho hp l.
Gii thch theo mt cch khc nh sau:
Php lp m c cho bi mt hm apphin dng:
e(x) = ax + b mod 26
c c php gii m tng ng, tc l cho phng trnh sau c nghim:
ax + b = c mod 26
c li gii i vi x (vi bt k c cho trc), theo mt nh l s hc, iu kin cn
v l a nguyn t vi 26, tc l UCLN(a,26) = 1. Khi UCLN(a,26)=1 th c:
a-1 Z26 sao cho a.a-1=a-1.a=1 mod 26.
v do nu y=ax+b mod 26 th x=a-1(y-b) mod 26 v ngc li
Trang 18
Cho P = C = Z26 v K = { (a,b) Z26 Z26 : UCLN(a,26) =1 }
Vi k = (a,b) K , ta nh ngha:
ek(x) = ax +b mod 26
v
dk(y) = a-1(y-b) mod 26, x,y Z26
V d: Gi s k = (7,3). Nh nu trn, 7-1 mod 26 = 15. Hm m ho l

eK(x) = (7x+3) mod 26
V hm gii m tng ng l:
dK(x) = 15(y-3) mod 26 = (15y -19) mod 26=(15y +7) mod 26
7 l phn t i ca 19.
y, tt c cc php ton u thc hin trn Z26. Ta s kim tra liu dK(eK(x)) = x
vi mi x Z26 khng? Dng cc tnh ton trn Z26 , ta c :
dK(eK(x)) =dK(7x+3) =15(7x+3)-19 = x +45 - 19 = x.
minh ho, ta hy m ho bn r "hot". Trc tin bin i cc ch h, o, t thnh
cc thng du theo modulo 26. Ta c cc s tng ng l 7, 14 v 19. By gi s m
ho:
7x7 +3 mod 26 = 52 mod 26 = 0
7 x14 + 3 mod 26 = 101 mod 26 =23
7 x19 +3 mod 26 = 136 mod 26 = 6
Bi vy 3 k hiu ca bn m l 0, 23 v 6 tng ng vi xu k t AXG. Vic gii
m s do bn thc hin nh mt bi tp.
2.5.4. M Vigenre
Trong c hai h MDV v MTT (mt khi kho c chn) mi k t s c nh
x vo mt k t duy nht. V l do , cc h mt cn c gi h thay th n biu.
By gi ta s trnh by mt h mt khng phi l b ch n, l h m Vigenre ni
ting. Mt m ny ly tn ca Blaise de Vigenre sng vo th k XVI.
S dng php tng ng A 0, B 1, . . . , Z 25 m t trn, ta c th gn
cho mi kha K vi mt chui k t c di m c gi l t kho. Mt m Vigenre
s m ho ng thi m k t: Mi phn t ca bn r tng ng vi m k t.
Cho m l mt s nguyn dng c nh no . nh ngha P = C = K =
(Z26)m . Vi kho K = (k1, k2, . . . ,km) ta xc nh :
eK(x1, x2, . . . ,xm) = (x1+k1, x2+k2, . . . , xm+km)
Trang 19
v
dK(y1, y2, . . . ,ym) = (y1-k1, y2-k2, . . . , ym-km)
trong tt c cc php ton c thc hin trong Z26
V d: Gi s m =6 v t kho l CIPHER. T kho ny tng ng vi dy s K =
(2,8,15,7,4,17). Gi s bn r l xu: thiscryptosystemisnotsecure
Ta s bin i cc phn t ca bn r thnh cc thng d theo modulo 26, vit
chng thnh cc nhm 6 ri cng vi t kho theo modulo 26 nh sau:
19 7
2 8
21 15
8
15
23
18
7
25
2
4
6
17
17
8
24
2
0
15
8
23
19
15
8
14
7
21
18
4
22
24
17
15
18 19
2 8
20 1
4
15
19
12
7
19
8
4
12
18
17
9
13
2
15
14
8
22
19
15
8
18
7
15
4
4
8
2
17
19
20 17
2 8
22 25
4
15
19
Bi vy, dy k t tng ng ca xu bn m s l:
VPXZGIAXIVWPUBTTMJPWIZITWZT
gii m ta c th dng cng t kho nhng thay cho cng, ta tr cho n theo
modulo 26.
Ta thy rng cc t kho c th vi s di m trong mt m Vigenre l 26m, bi
vy, thm ch vi cc gi tr m kh nh, phng php tm kim vt cn cng yu cu
thi gian kh ln. V d, nu m = 5 th khng gian kho cng c kch thc ln hn
1,1 107 . Lng kho ny ln ngaen nga vic tm kho bng tay( ch
khng phi dng my tnh).
Trong h mt Vigenre c t kho di m,mi k t c th c nh x vo trong
m k t c th c (gi s rng t kho cha m k t phn bit). Mt h mt nh vy
c gi l h mt thay th a biu (polyalphabetic). Ni chung, vic thm m h thay
th a biu s kh khn hn so vic thm m h n biu.
Trang 20
2.5.5. M HILL
Trong phn ny s m t mt h mt thay th a biu khc c gi l mt m Hill.
Mt m ny do Lester S.Hill a ra nm 1929. Gi s m l mt s nguyn dng, t
P = C = (Z26)m . tng y l ly m t hp tuyn tnh ca m k t trong mt phn
t ca bn r to ra m k t mt phn t ca bn m.
V d nu m = 2 ta c th vit mt phn t ca bn r l x = (x1,x2) v mt phn t
ca bn m l y = (y1,y2). y, y1cng nh y2 u l mt t hp tuyn tnh ca x1v
x2. Chng hn, c th ly
y1 = 11x1+ 3x2
y2 = 8x1+ 7x2
Tt nhin c th vit gn hn theo k hiu ma trn nh sau
11 8
( y1 y 2 ) = ( x1 x2 )
3 7
Ni chung, c th ly mt ma trn K kch thc m m lm kho. Nu mt phn t

hng i v ct j ca K l ki,,j th c th vit K = (ki,,j), vi x = (x1, x2, . . . ,xm) P v
K K , ta tnh y = eK(x) = (y1, y2, . . . ,ym) nh sau:
k1,1 ... k1,1
( y1 , ..., y m ) = ( x1 ,..., xm ) ... ... ...

k
m ,1 ... km,m
Ni mt cch khc y = xK.

Chng ta ni rng bn m nhn c t bn r nh php bin i tuyn tnh. Ta s
xt xem phi thc hin gii m nh th no, tc l lm th no tnh x t y. Bn
lm quen vi i s tuyn tnh s thy rng phi dng ma trn nghch o K-1 gi
m. Bn m c gii m bng cng thc y K-1 .
Cho m l mt s nguyn dng c nh. Cho P = C = (Z26 )m v cho
K = { cc ma trn kh nghch cp m m trn Z26}
Vi mt kho K K ta xc nh
eK(x) = xK
v
dK(y) = yK -1
Tt c cc php ton c thc hin trong Z26
V d:
11 8
3 7
Gi s c kha K =
Trang 21
7 18
23 11
T cc tnh ton trn ta c: K 1 =
Gi s cn m ho bn r "July". Ta c hai phn t ca bn r m ho: (9,20)

(ng vi Ju) v (11,24) (ng vi ly). Ta tnh nh sau:
11 8
(9, 20)
= (99 + 60, 72 + 140) = (3, 4)
3 7
V
11 8
(11, 21)
= (121 + 72,88 + 168) = (11, 22)
3 7
Bi vy bn m ca July l DELW. gii m Bob s tnh:

7 18
7 18
(3, 4)
= (9, 20) v (11, 22)
= (11, 24)
23 11
23 11
Nh vy Bob nhn c bn ng.

Cho ti lc ny ta ch ra rng c th thc hin php gii m nu K c mt nghch
o. Trn thc t, php gii m l c th thc hin c, iu kin cn l K phi c
nghch o. ( iu ny d dng rt ra t i s tuyn tnh s cp, tuy nhin s khng
chng minh y). Bi vy, chng ta ch quan tm ti cc ma trn K kh nghich. Tnh
kh nghch ca mt ma trn vung ph thuc vo gi tr nh thc ca n. trnh s
tng qut ho khng cn thit, ta ch gii hn trong trng hp 22.
nh ngha : nh thc ca ma trn A = (a,i j ) cp 2 2 l gi tr
det A = a1,1 a2,2 - a1,2 a2,1
Mt ma trn thc K l c nghch o khi v ch khi nh thc ca n khc 0. Tuy
nhin, iu quan trng cn nh l ta ang lm vic trn Z26 . Kt qu tng ng l ma
trn K c nghch o theo modulo 26 khi v ch khi UCLN(det K,26) = 1.
nh l: Gi s A = (ai j) l mt ma trn cp 2 2 trn Z26 sao cho det A = a1,1a2,2 a2,2
a2,1
a1,2 a2,1 c nghch o. Khi A1 = (det A)1
a1,2
a1,1
Tr li v d xt trn . Trc ht ta c:
11 8
Det
=(11.7-8.3) mod 26 = 77 - 24 mod 26 = 53 mod 26 =1
3 7
V 1-1 mod 26 = 1 nn ma trn nghch o l

1
11 8
7 8 7 18
=
=
(do theo modulo 26)
3 7
3 11 23 11
y chnh l ma trn c trn.
Trang 22
2.5.6. M hon v
Tt c cc h mt tho lun trn t nhiu u xoay quanh php thay th: cc k t
ca bn r c thay th bng cc k t khc trongbn m. tng ca MHV l gi
cc k t ca bn r khng thay i nhng s thay i v tr ca chng bng cch sp
xp li cc k t ny. MHV (cn c gi l m chuyn v) c dng t hng
trm nm nay. Tht ra th s phn bit gia MHV v MTT c Giovani Porta ch
ra t 1563. nh ngha hnh thc cho MHV c nu ra bn di.
Khng ging nh MTT, y khng c cc php ton i s no cn thc hin khi
m ho v gii m nn thch hp hn c l dng cc k t m khng dng cc thng
d theo modulo 26. Di y l mt v d minh ho
Cho m l mt s nguyn dng xc nh no . Cho P = C = (Z26 )m v cho
K gm tt c cc hon v ca {1, . . ., m}. i vi mt kho ( tc l mt hon

v) ta xc nh
e(x1, . . . , xm ) = (x(1), . . . , x(m))
d(x1, . . . , xm ) = (y-1(1), . . . , y-1(m))
trong -1 l hon v ngc ca

V d: Gi s m = 6 v kho l php hon v ( ) sau:
1 2
3 5
3
1
4
6
5
4
6
2
1 2
3 6
Hon v
3
1
4
5
5
2
6
4
Hon v -1
Khi php hon v ngc -1 s tng ng nh trn:

By gi gi s c bn r
Shesellsseashellsbytheseashore
Trc tin ta nhm bn r thnh cc nhm 6 k t:
shesel | lsseas | hellsb | ythese | ashore
By gi mi nhm 6 ch ci c sp xp li theo php hon v , ta c:
EESLSH | SALSES | LSHBLE | HSYEET | HRAEOS
Nh vy bn m l
EESLSH SALSES LSHBLE HSYEET HRAEOS
Nh vy bn m c m theo cch tng t bng php hon v o -1.
Trang 23
Thc t m hon v l trng hp c bit ca mt m Hill. Khi cho php hon v

ca tp {1, . . . ,m}, ta c th xc nh mt ma trn hon v m m thch hp K = {
1 neu j= (i)
0 neu nguoc lai
ki,j} theo cng thc: ki , j =
(ma trn hon v l ma trn trong mi hng v mi ct ch c mt s "1", cn tt

c cc gi tr khc u l s "0". Ta c th thu c mt ma trn hon v t ma trn
n v bng cch hon v cc hng hoc ct).
D dng thy rng, php m Hill dng ma trn K trn thc t tng ng vi
php m hon v dng hon v . Hn na K-1= K -1 tc ma trn nghch o ca K l
ma trn hon v xc nh theo hon v -1. Nh vy, php gii m Hill tng ng
vi php gii m hon v.
i vi hon v c dung trong v d trn, cc ma trn hon v kt hp l:
0
0
1
K =0
0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 0
1 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0 0 0
v K-1 =0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 1 0 0
Bn c th kim tra thy rng, tch ca hai ma trn ny l mt ma trn n v.
3. H M HA DES
Ngy 15.5.1973. U ban tiu chun quc gia M cng b mt khuyn ngh cho
cc h mt trong H s qun l lin bang. iu ny cui cng dn n s pht trin
ca Chun m d liu (DES) v n tr thnh mt h mt c s dng rng ri nht
trn th gii. DES c IBM pht trin v c xem nh mt ci bin cu h mt
LUCIPHER. Ln u tin DES c cng b trong H s Lin bang vo ngy
17.3.1975. Sau nhiu cuc trnh lun cng khai, DES c chp nhn chn lm
chun cho cc ng dng khng c coi l mt vo 5.1.1977. K t c 5 nm mt
ln, DES li c U ban Tiu chun Quc gia xem xt li. Ln i mi gn y nht
ca DES l vo thng 1.1994 v tip ti s l 1998. Ngi ta on rng DES s khng
cn l chun sau 1998.
3.1. M t DES
Trang 24
M t y ca DES c nu trong Cng b s 46 v cc chun x l thng tin

Lin bang (M) vo 15.1.1977. DES m ho mt xu bt x ca bn r di 64 bng
mt kho 54 bt. Bn m nhn c cng l mt xu bt c di 48. Trc ht ta m
t mc cao ca h thng.
3.1.1. Thut ton DES
1. Vi bn r cho trc x vi di 64 bit, mt xu bt x0 s c xy dng bng
cch hon v cc bt ca x theo php hon v c nh ban u IP. Ta vit:x0=
IP(X)= L0R0, trong L0 gm 32 bt u v R0 l 32 bt cui.
2. Sau tnh ton 16 ln lp theo mt hm xc nh. Ta s tnh LiRi, 1i16 theo
quy tc sau:
Li = Ri-1
Ri = Li-1 f(Ri-1,Ki)
Trong k hiu php hoc loi tr ca hai xu bt (cng theo modulo 2). f l
mt hm m ta s m t sau, cn K1,K2, . . . ,K16 l cc xu bt di 48 c
tnh nh hm ca kho K. (trn thc t mi Ki l mt php chn hon v bt trong
K). K1, . . ., K16 s to thnh bng kho. Mt vng ca php m ho c m t
trn hnh di.
3. p dng php hon v ngc IP-1 cho xu bt R16L16, ta thu c bn m y. Tc l
y=IP-1(R16L16). Hy ch th t o ca L16 v R16.
3.1.2. M t mt vng ca DES
3.1.3. M t hm f
Hm f c hai bin vo: bin th nht A l xu bt di 32, bin th hai J l mt
xu bt di 48. u ra ca f l mt xu bt di 32. Cc bc sau c thc hin:
Trang 25
1. Bin th nht A c m rng thnh mt xu bt di 48 theo mt hm m

rng c nh E. E(A) gm 32 bt ca A (c hon v theo cch c nh) vi 16 bt
xut hin hai ln.
2. Tnh E(A) J v vit kt qu thnh mt chui 8 xu 6 bt = B1B2B3B4B5B6B7B8.
3. Bc tip theo dng 8 bng S1, S2, ... ,S8 ( c gi l cc hp S ). Vi mi Si l
mt bng 416 c nh c cc hng l cc s nguyn t 0 n 15. Vi xu bt c di
6 (K hiu Bi = b1b2b3b4b5b6), ta tnh Sj(Bj) nh sau: Hai bt b1b6 xc nh biu din nh
phn ca hng r ca Sj ( 0 r 3) v bn bt (b2b3b4b5) xc nh biu din nh phn
ca ct c ca Sj ( 0 c 15 ). Khi Sj(Bj) s xc nh phn t Sj(r,c); phn t ny
vit di dng nh phn l mt xu bt c di 4. ( Bi vy, mi Sj c th c coi l
mt hm m m u vo l mt xu bt c di 2 v mt xu bt c di 4, cn u
ra l mt xu bt c di 4). Bng cch tng t tnh cc Cj = Sj(Bj), 1 j 8.
4. Xu bt C = C1C2... C8 c di 32 c hon v theo php hon v c nh P.
Xu kt qu l P(C) c xc nh l f(A,J).
Hm f c m t trong hnh di. Ch yu n gm mt php th (s dng hp S),
tip sau l php hon v P. 16 php lp ca f s to nn mt h mt tch nu nh
phn trn.
Trang 26
3.1.4. M t chi tit cc hm trong DES

Php hon v ban u IP nh sau: bng ny c ngha l bt th 58 ca x l bt u
tin ca IP(x); bt th 50 ca x l bt th hai ca IP(x), .v.v . . .
IP
58 50 42 34 26 18 10 2
60 52 44 36 28 20 12 4
62 54 46 38 30 22 14 6
64 56 48 40 32 24 16 8
57 49 41 33 25 17 9 1
59 51 43 35 27 19 11 3
61 53 45 37 29 21 13 5
63 55 47 39 31 23 15 7
Php hon vi ngc IP -1

IP -1
Trang 27
40 8 48 16 56 24 64 32
39 7 47 15 55 23 63 31
38 6 46 14 54 22 62 30
37 5 45 13 53 21 61 29
36 4 44 12 52 20 60 28
35 3 43 11 51 19 59 27
34 2 42 10 50 18 58 26
33 1 41 9 49 17 57 25
Hm m rng E c xc nh theo bng

Bng chn E bt
32
4
8
12
16
20
24
28
1
5
9
13
17
21
25
29
2
6
10
14
18
22
26
30
3
7
11
15
19
23
27
31
4
8
12
16
20
24
28
32
5
9
13
17
21
25
29
1
Tm hp S ln lt nh sau
S1
14 4
1 15
4
1
15 12
13
7
14
8
1 2
4 14
8 13
2 4
15
2
6
9
11 8 3 10 3
13 1 10
6 12
2 11 15 12 9
1 7 5 11 3
12 5 9
11 9 5
7 3 10
14 10 0
1 7
3 8
5 0
6 13
S2
15 1 8
3 13 4
0 14 7
13 8 10
14 6
7 15
11 10
1 3
11 3 4 9
2 8 14 12
4 13 1 5
15 4 2 11
7 2 13 12
0 1 10 6
8 12 6 9
6 7 12 0
0
9
3
5
5 10
11 5
2 15
14 9
3 15 5 1 13 12 7 11 4
4 6 10 2
8 5 14 12 11
5 3 0 11 1 2 12 5 10
9 8 7 4 15 14 3 11 5
2 8
15 1
14 7
2 12
S3
10 0 9
13 7 0
13 6 4
1 10 13
14
9
9
0
6
3
8
6
Trang 28
S4
7 13 14
13 8 11
10 6 9
3 15 0
3 0 6 9 10 1
5 6 15 0 3 4
0 12 11 7 13 15
6 10 1 13 8 9
2
7
1
4
8 5 11 12 4 15
2 12 1 10 14 9
3 14 5 2 8 4
5 11 12 7 2 14
S5
2 12 4 1 7
14 11 2 12 4
4
2 1 11 10
11 8 12 7 1
10 11 6 8 5
7 13 1 5 0
13 7 8 15 9
14 2 13 6 15
3 15 13
15 10 3
12 5 6
0
9 10
0
9
3
4
14 9
8 6
0 14
5 3
S6
12 1 10 15
10 15 4 2
9 14 15 5
4
3 2 12
9
7
2
9
2 6 8
12 9 5
8 12 3
5 15 10
0 13 3 4 14 7 15 11
6
1 13 14 0 11 3 8
7
0 4 10 1 13 11 6
11 14 11 7 6 0
8 13
S7
4 11
13 0
1 4
6 11
12 14 15
11 7 4
11 13 12
13 8 1
0 8
9 1
3 7
4 10
13 3 12
10 14 3
14 10 15
7
9 5
9 7 5 10
5 12 2 15
6 8 0
5
0 15 14
2
6 1
8 6
9 2
3 12
S8
13
6 15 11
1 10
12
1 15 13
7 11 4
8 10 3 7
1 9 12 14
4 12
2 0
5
6
6 11 0 14
10 13 15 3
9
5
2
8
11
1 14
10
8 13 15 12
14
V php hon v P c dng

P
16
29
7
12
20
28
15
23
Trang 29
5
32
19
22
18
27
13
11
31
3
30
4
3.1.5. Tnh ton bng kha t kha K

Trn thc t, K l mt xu bt di 64, trong 56 bt l kho v 8 bt kim tra
tnh chn l nhm pht hin sai. Cc bt cc v tr 8,16, . . ., 64 c xc nh sao cho
mi byte cha mt s l cc s "1". Bi vy mt sai st n l c th pht hin c
trong mi nhm 8 bt. Cc bt kim tra b b qua trong qu trnh tnh ton bng kho.
1. Vi mt kho K 64 bt cho trc, ta loi b cc bt kim tra tnh chn l v hon
v cc bt cn li ca K theo php hon v c nh PC-1. Ta vit:
PC-1(K) = C0D0
2. Vi i thay i t 1 n 16:
Ci = LSi(Ci-1)
Di = LSi(Di-1)
Vic tnh bng kho c m t trong hnh sau:
Cc hon v PC-1 v PC-2 c dng trong bng kho l:

PC-1
Trang 30
57
1
10
19
63
7
14
21
49
58
2
11
55
62
6
13
41
50
59
3
47
54
61
5
33
42
51
60
39
46
53
28
25
34
43
52
31
38
45
20
17
26
35
44
23
30
37
12
By gi ta s a ra bng kho kt qu. Nh ni trn, mi vng s dng mt

kho 48 bt gm 48 bt nm trong K. Cc phn t trong cc bng di y biu th cc
bt trong K trong cc vng kho khc nhau.
Vng 1
10 51 34 60 49 17 35 57 2 9 19 42
3 35 26 25 44 58 59 1 36 27 18 41
22 28 39 54 37 4 47 30 5 53 23 29
61 21 38 63 15 20 45 14 13 62 55 31
Vng 2
2 43 26 52 41 9 25 49 59 1
60 27 18 17 36 50 51 58 57
14 20 31 46 29 63 39 22 28
53 13 30 55 7 12 37 6 5 54
11
19
45
47
34
10 33
15 21
23
Vng 3
51
44
61
37
27 10 36 25 58 9 33 43 50 60 18
11 2 1 49 34 35 42 41 3 59 17
4 15 30 13 47 23 6 12 29 62 5
28 14 39 54 63 21 53 20 38 31 7
Vng 4
35 11 59 49 9 42 58 17 27 34 44 2
57 60 51 50 33 18 19 26 25 52 43 1
45 55 62 14 28 31 7 53 63 13 46 20
21 12 61 23 38 47 5 37 4 22 15 54
Vng 5
19 60 43 33 58 26 42 1 11 18 57 51
Trang 31
41 44 35 34 17 2 3 10 9 36 27 50
29 39 46 61 12 15 54 37 47 28 30 4
.5 63 45 7 22 31 20 21 55 6 62 38
Vng 6
3 44 27 17 42 10 26 50 60 2 41 35
25 57 19 18 1 51 52 59 58 49 11 34
13 23 30 45 63 62 38 21 31 12 14 55
20 47 29 54 6 15 4 5 39 53 46 22
Vng 7
52 57 11 1 26 59 10 34 44 51 25 19
9 41 3 2 50 35 36 43 42 33 60 18
28 7 14 29 47 46 22 5 15 63 61 39
4 31 13 38 53 62 55 20 23 38 30 6
Vng 8
36 41 60 50 10 43 59 18 57 35 9 3
58 25 5251 34 19 49 27 26 17 44 2
12 54 61 13 31 30 6 20 62 47 45 23
55 15 28 22 37 46 39 4 721 14 53
Vng 9
57 33 52 42 2 35 51 10 49 27 1 60
50 17 44 43 26 11 41 19 18 9 36 59
4 46 53 5 23 22 61 12 54 39 37 15
47 7 20 14 29 38 31 63 62 13 6 45
Vng 10
41
34
55
31
17 36 26 51 19 35 59 33 11 50 44
1 57 27 10 60 25 3 2 58 49 43
30 37 20 7 6 45 63 38 23 21 62
54 4 61 13 22 15 47 46 28 53 29
Vng 11
25
18
39
15
1 49 10 35 3 19 43 17 60 34 57
50 41 11 59 44 9 52 51 42 33 27
14 21 4 54 53 29 47 22 7 5 46
38 55 45 28 6 62 31 30 12 37 13
Trang 32
Vng 12
9 50 33 59 19 52 3 27 1 44 18 41
2 34 25 60 43 57 58 36 35 26 17 11
23 61 5 55 38 37 13 31 6 54 20 30
62 22 39 29 12 53 46 15 14 63 21 28
Vng 13
58 34 17 43 3
51 18 9 44 27
7 45 20 39 22
46 6 23 13 63
36
41
21
37
52
42
28
30
11
49
15
62
50
19
53
61
57
10
38
47
2
1
4
5
25
60
14
12
Vng 14
42 18 1 27 52 49 36 60 34 41 51 9
35 2 58 57 11 25 26 33 3 59 50 44
54 29 4 23 6 5 12 62 37 22 55 61
30 53 7 28 47 21 14 46 45 31 20 63
Vng 15
26 2 50 11 36 33 49 44 18 25 35 58
19 51 42 41 60 9 10 17 52 43 34 57
38 13 55 7 53 20 63 46 21 6 39 45
14 37 54 12 31 5 61 30 29 15 4 47
Vng 16
18 59 42 3 57 25 41 36 10 17 27 50
11 43 34 33 52 1 2 9 44 35 26 49
30 5 47 62 45 12 55 58 13 61 31 37
6 27 46 4 23 28 53 22 21 7 62 39
Php gii m c thc hin nh dng cng thut ton nh php m nu u vo l

y nhng dng bng kho theo th t ngc li K16,...K1. u ra ca thut ton s l
bn r x.
Sau khi thay i, han v, , v dch vng, bn c th ngh rng thut ton gii m
hon ton khc v phc tp, kh hiu nh thut ton m ha. Tri li, DES s dng
cng thut ton lm vic cho c m ha v gii m.
Trang 33
Vi DES, c th s dng cng chc nng gii m hoc m ha mt khi. Ch c

s khc nhau l cc kha phi c s dng theo th t ngc li. Ngha l, nu
cc kha m ha cho mi vng l k1, k2, k3 , ... , k15, k16 th cc kha gii l k16, k15, ... ,
k3, k2, k1. Thut ton dng sinh kha c s dng cho mi vng theo kiu vng
quanh. Kha c dch phi, v s nhng v tr c dch c tnh t cui ca
bng ln, thay v t trn xung.
3.2. V d
Sau y l mt v d v php m DES. Gi s ta m bn r ( dng m hexa):
0123456789ABCDEF
Bng cch dng kho K m ha l:
123457799BBCDFF1
Kho dng nh phn (khng cha cc bt kim tra) l:
00010010011010010101101111001001101101111011011111111000
S dng IP, ta thu c L0 v R0 ( dng nh phn) nh sau:
L0 = 1100110000000000110010011111111
L1 =R0 = 11110000101010101111000010101010
Sau thc hin 16 vng ca php m nh sau:
E(R0) = 011110100001010101010101011110100001010101010101
K1 = 000110110000001011101111111111000111000001110010
E(R0) K1 = 011000010001011110111010100001100110010100100111
S-box outputs 01011100100000101011010110010111
f(R0,K1) = 00100011010010101010100110111011
L2 = R1 = 11101111010010100110010101000100
E(R1) = 011101011110101001010100001100001010101000001001
K2 = 011110011010111011011001110110111100100111100101
E(R1) K2 = 000011000100010010001101111010110110001111101100
S-box outputs 11111000110100000011101010101110
f(R1,K2) = 00111100101010111000011110100011
L3 = R2 = 11001100000000010111011100001001
E(R2) = 111001011000000000000010101110101110100001010011
K3 = 010101011111110010001010010000101100111110011001
E(R2) K3 = 101100000111110010001000111110000010011111001010
Trang 34

S-box outputs 00100111000100001110000101101111
f(R2,K3) = 01001101000101100110111010110000
L4 =R3 = 10100010010111000000101111110100
E(R3) =01010000010000101111100000000101011111111010100
K4 = 011100101010110111010110110110110011010100011101
E(R3) K4 = 001000101110111100101110110111100100101010110100
S-box outputs 00100001111011011001111100111010
f(R3,K4) = 10111011001000110111011101001100
L5 = R4 = 01110111001000100000000001000101
E(R4) = 101110101110100100000100000000000000001000001010
K5 = 011111001110110000000111111010110101001110101000
E(R4) K5 = 110001100000010100000011111010110101000110100010
S-box outputs 01010000110010000011000111101011
f(R4,K5) = 00101000000100111010110111000011
L6 = R5 = 10001010010011111010011000110111
E(R5) = 110001010100001001011111110100001100000110101111
K6 = 011000111010010100111110010100000111101100101111
E(R5) K6 =101001101110011101100001100000001011101010000000
S-box outputs 01000001111100110100110000111101
f(R5,K6) = 10011110010001011100110100101100
L7 = R6 = 11101001011001111100110101101001
E(R6) = 111101010010101100001111111001011010101101010011
K7 = 111011001000010010110111111101100001100010111100
E(R6) K7 = 000110011010111110111000000100111011001111101111
S- box outputs 00010000011101010100000010101101
f(R6,K7) = 10001100000001010001110000100111
L8 = R7 = 00000110010010101011101000010000
E(R7) = 000000001100001001010101010111110100000010100000
K8 = 111101111000101000111010110000010011101111111011
E(R7) K8 = 111101110100100001101111100111100111101101011011
S-box outputs 01101100000110000111110010101110
f(R7,K8) = 00111100000011101000011011111001
L9 = R8 = 11010101011010010100101110010000
E(R8) = 011010101010101101010010101001010111110010100001
Trang 35

K9 = 111000001101101111101011111011011110011110000001
E(R8) K9 = 100010100111000010111001010010001001101100100000
S-box outputs 00010001000011000101011101110111
f(R8,K9) = 00100010001101100111110001101010
L10 = R9 = 00100100011111001100011001111010
E(R9) = 000100001000001111111001011000001100001111110100
K10 = 101100011111001101000111101110100100011001001111
E(R9) K10 = 101000010111000010111110110110101000010110111011
S-box outputs 11011010000001000101001001110101
f(R9,K10) = 01100010101111001001110000100010
L11 = R10 = 10110111110101011101011110110010
E(R10) = 010110101111111010101011111010101111110110100101
K11 = 001000010101111111010011110111101101001110000110
E(R10) K11 = 011110111010000101111000001101000010111000100011
S-box outputs 01110011000001011101000100000001
f(R10,K11) = 11100001000001001111101000000010
L12 = R11 = 11000101011110000011110001111000
E(R11) = 011000001010101111110000000111111000001111110001
K12 = 011101010111000111110101100101000110011111101001
E(R11) K12 = 000101011101101000000101100010111110010000011000
S-box outputs 01110011000001011101000100000001
f(R11,K12) = 11000010011010001100111111101010
L13 = R12 = 01110101101111010001100001011000
E(R12) = 001110101011110111111010100011110000001011110000
K13 = 100101111100010111010001111110101011101001000001
E(R12) K13 = 101011010111100000101011011101011011100010110001
Sbox outputs 10011010110100011000101101001111
f(R12,K13) = 11011101101110110010100100100010
L14 = R13 = 00011000110000110001010101011010
E(R13) = 000011110001011000000110100010101010101011110100
K13 = 010111110100001110110111111100101110011100111010
E(R13) K14 = 010100000101010110110001011110000100110111001110
S-box outputs 01100100011110011001101011110001
f(R13,K14) = 10110111001100011000111001010101
L15 = R14 = 11000010100011001001011000001101
Trang 36
E(R14) = 111000000101010001011001010010101100000001011011
K15 = 101111111001000110001101001111010011111100001010
E(R14) K15 = 010111111100010111010100011101111111111101010001
S-box outputs 10110010111010001000110100111100
f(R14,K15) = 01011011100000010010011101101110
R15 = 01000011010000100011001000110100
E(R15) = 001000000110101000000100000110100100000110101000
K16 = 110010110011110110001011000011100001011111110101
E(R15) K16 = 111010110101011110001111000101000101011001011101
S-box outputs 10100111100000110010010000101001
f(R15,K16) = 11001000110000000100111110011000
R16 = 00001010010011001101100110010101
Cui cng p dng IP-1 vo L16,R16 ta nhn c bn m hexa l:

85E813540F0AB405
3.3. Tranh lun v DES

Khi DES c xut nh mt chun mt m, c rt nhiu kin ph phn. Mt
l do phn i DES c lin quan n cc hp S. Mi tnh ton lin quan n DES
ngoi tr cc hp S u tuyn tnh, tc vic tnh php hoc loi tr ca hai u ra cng
ging nh php hoc loi tr ca hai u vo ri tnh tan u ra. Cc hp S - cha
ng thnh phn phi tuyn ca h mt l yu t quan trong nht i vi mt ca h
thng( Ta thy trong chng 1 l cc h mt tuyn tnh - chng hn nh Hill - c
th d dng b m thm khi b tn cng bng bn r bit). Tuy nhin tiu chun xy
dng cc hp S khng c bit y . Mt s ngi gi l cc hp S phi cha
cc "ca sp" c du kn, cho php Cc An ninh Quc gia M (NSA) gii m c
cc thng bo nhng vn gi c mc an ton ca DES. D nhin ta khng th bc
b c khng nh ny, tuy nhin khng c mt chng c no c a ra chng
t rng trong thc t c cc ca sp nh vy.
Nm 1976 NSA khng nh rng, cc tnh cht sau ca hp S l tiu chun thit
k:
P0 Mi hng trong mi hp S l mt hon v ca cc s nguyn 0, 1, . . . , 15.
P1 Khng mt hp S no l mt hm Affine hoc tuyn tnh cc u vo ca n.
P2 Vic thay i mt bt vo ca S phi to nn s thay i t nht l hai bt ra.
Trang 37
P3 i vi hp S bt k v vi u vo x bt k S(x) v S(x 001100) phi

khc nhau ti thiu l hai bt ( trong x l xu bt di 6 ).
Hai tnh cht khc nhau sau y ca cc hp S c th coi l c rt ra t tiu chun
thit k ca NSA.
P4 Vi hp S bt k, u vo x bt k v vi e, f {0,1}: S(x) S(x 11ef00).
P5 Vi hp S bt k , nu c nh mt bt vo v xem xt gi tr ca mt bt u
ra c nh th cc mu vo bt ra ny bng 0 s xp x bng s mu ra bt
bng 1.
Ch rng, nu c nh gi tr bt vo th nht hoc bt vo th 6 th c 16 mu vo
lm cho mt bt ra c th bng 0 v c 16 mu vo lm cho bt ny bng 1. Vi cc bt
vo t bt th hai n bt th 5 th iu ny khng cn ng na. Tuy nhin phn b
kt qu vn gn vi phn b u. Chnh xc hn, vi mt hp S bt k, nu ta c nh
gi tr ca mt bt vo bt k th s mu vo lm cho mt bt ra c nh no c gi
tr 0 (hoc 1) lun nm trong khong t 13 n 19.
Ngi ta khng bit r l liu c cn mt chun thit k no y hn c dng
trong vic xy dng hp S hay khng. S phn i xc ng nht v DES chnh l kch
thc ca khng gian kho: 256 l qu nh m bo an ton thc s. Nhiu thit bi
chuyn dng c xut nhm phc v cho vic tn cng vi bn r bit. Php
tn cng ny ch yu thc hin tm kho theo phng php vt cn. Tc vi bn r x
64 bt v bn m y tng ng, mi kho u c th c kim tra cho ti khi tm c
mt kho K tho mn eK(x) = y. Cn ch l c th c nhiu hn mt kho K nh
vy).
Ngay t nm 1977, Diffie v Hellman gi rng c th xy dng mt chp VLSI
(mch tch hp mt ln) c kh nng kim tra c 106kho/giy. Mt my c th
tm ton b khng gian kho c 106 trong khong 1 ngy. H c tnh chi ph to
mt my nh vy khong 2.107$.
Trong cuc hi tho ti hi ngh CRYPTO'93, Michael Wiener a ra mt thit
k rt c th v my tm kho. My ny xy dng trn mt chp tm kho, c kh nng
thc hin ng thi 16 php m v tc ti 5107 kho/giy. Vi cng ngh hin
nay, chi ph ch to khong 10,5$/chp. Gi ca mt khung my cha 5760 chp vo
khong 100.000$ v nh vy n c kh nng tm ra mt kho ca DES trong khong
1,5 ngy. Mt thit b dng 10 khung my nh vy c gi chng 106 $ s gim thi
gian tm kim kho trng bnh xung cn 3,5 gi.
3.4. DES trong thc t
Trang 38
Mc d vic m t DES kh di dng song ngi ta c th thc hin DES rt ha

hiu bng c phn cng ln phn mn. Cc php ton duy nht cn c thc hin l
php hoc loi tr cc xu bt. Hm m rng E, cc hp S, cc hon v IP v P v vic
tnh ton cc gi tri K1,.. . ,K16 u c th thc hin c cng lc bng tra bng (
trong phn mn ) hoc bng cch ni cng chng thnh mt mch.
Cc ng dng phn cng hin thi c th t c tc m ho cc nhanh. Cng
ty Digital Equipment thng bo ti hi ngh CRUPTO'92 rng h s ch to mt
chp c 50 ngn tranzistor c th m ho vi tc 1 Gbt/s bng cch dng nhp c
tc 250MHz. Gi ca chp ny vo khong 300$. Ti nm 1991 c 45 ng dng
phn cng v chng trnh c s ca DES c U ban tiu Chun quc gia M
(NBS) chp thun.
Mt ng dng quan trng ca DES l trong giao dch ngn hng M - (ABA) DES
c dng m ho cc s nh danh c nhn (PIN) v vic chuyn ti khon bng
my th qu t ng (ATM). DES cng c H thng chi tr gia cc nh bng ca
Ngn hng hi oi (CHIPS) dng xc thc cc giao dch vo khon trn 1,51012
USA/tun. DES cn c s dng rng ri trong cc t chc chnh ph. Chng hn
nh b nng lng, B T php v H thng d tr lin bang.
Cc ch hot ng ca DES: C 4 ch lm vic c pht trin cho DES:
Ch chuyn m in t (ECB), ch phn hi m (CFB), ch lin kt khi m
(CBC) v ch phn hi u ra (OFB). Ch ECB tng ng vi cch dng thng
thng ca m khi: vi mt dy cc khi bn r cho trc x1,x2,. . .( mi khi c 64
bt), mi xi s c m ho bng cng mt kho K to thnh mt chui cc khi
bn m y1y2 ... theo quy tc yi = eK(yi-1xi) i 1. Vic s dng ch CBC c m
t trn hnh 3.4.
Trang 39
x1
x2
IV=y0
M ho
Encrypt
eK
eK
y1
y2
y1
y2
Gii m
Decrypt
dK
dK
IV=y0
x1
x2
Ch CBC.
...
...
Trong cc ch OFB v CFB dng kho c to ra s c cng mod 2 vi bn

r (tc l n hot ng nh mt h m dng, xem phn 1.1.7). OFB thc s l mt h
m dng ng b: dng kho c to bi vic m lp vc t khi to 64 bt (vc t
IV). Ta xc nh z0 =IV v ri tnh dng kho z1z2 . . . theo quy tc zi = eK(zi-1), i1.
Dy bn r x1x2 . . . sau s c m ho bng cch tnh yi = xi zi,i 1.
Trong ch CFB, ta bt u vi y0 = IV (l mt vc t khi to 64 bt) v to phn
t zi ca dng kho bng cch m ho khi bn m trc . Tc zi = eK(yi-1), i 1.
Cng nh trong ch OFB: yi = xi zi,i 1. Vic s dng CFB c m t trn hnh
3.5 (ch rng hm m DES eK c dng cho c php m v php gii m cc ch
CFB v OFB).
Trang 40
x1
Ch CFB
IV=y0
eK
M ho
Encrypt
IV=y0
Gii m
Decrypt
eK
x2
eK
y1
y2
y1
y2
x1
eK
...
...
x2
Cng cn mt s bin tu ca OFB v CFB c gi l cc ch phn hi K bt (1

< K < 64 ). y ta m t cc ch phn hi 64 bt. Cc ch phn hi 1 bt v
8 bt thng c dng trong thc t cho php m ho ng thi 1 bit (hoc byte) s
liu.
Bn ch cng tc c nhng u, nhc im khc nhau. ch ECB v OFB,
s thay i ca mt khi bn r xi 64 bt s lm thay i khi bn m yi tng ng,
nhng cc khi bn m khc khng b nh hng. Trong mt s tnh hung y l mt
tnh cht ng mong mun. V d, ch OFB thng c dng m khi truyn v
tinh.
Mt khc cc ch CBC v CFB, nu mt khi bn r xi b thay i th yi v tt
c cc khi bn m tip theo s bi nh hng. Nh vy cc ch CBC v CFB c th
c s dng rt hiu qu cho mc ch xc thc. c bit hn, cc ch ny c th
c dng to m xc thc bn tin ( MAC - message authentication code). MAC
c gn thm vo cc khi bn r thuyt phc Bob tin rng, dy bn r thc s
l ca Alice m khng b Oscar gi mo. Nh vy MAC m bo tnh ton vn (hay
tnh xc thc) ca mt bn tin ( nhng tt nhin l MAC khng m bo mt).
Ta s m t cch s dng ch BCB to ra mt MAC. Ta bt u bng vc t
khi t IV cha ton s 0. Sau dng ch CBC to cc khi bn m y1,. . . ,yn
theo kho K. Cui cng ta xc nh MAC l yn. Alice s pht i dy cc khi bn r
Trang 41
x1,x2,. . . ,xn cng vi MAC. Khi Bob thu c x1. . .xn anh ta s khi phc li y1. . .yn
bng kho K b mt v xc minh xem liu yn c ging vi MAC m mnh thu c
hay khng.
Nhn thy Oscar khng th to ra mt MAC hp l do anh ta khng bit kho K
m Alice v Bob ang dng. Hn na Oscar thu chn c dy khi bn r x1. . .xn v
thay i t nhiu ni dung th th chc chn l Oscar khng th thay i MAC c
Bob chp nhn.
Thng thng ta mun kt hp c tnh xc thc ln bo mt. iu c th thc
hin nh sau: Trc tin Alice dng kho K1 to MAC cho x1. . . xn . Sau Alice
xc nh xn+1 l MAC ri m ho dy x1. . .xn+1 bng kho th hai K2 to ra bn m
y1. . .yn+1 . Khi Bob thu c y1. . .yn+1 , trc tin Bob s gii m ( bng K2) v kim
tra xem xn+1 c phi l MAC i vi dy x1. . .xn dng K1 hay khng.
Ngc li, Alice c th dng K1 m ho x1. . .xn v to ra c y1...yn , sau
dng K2 to MAC yn+1 i vi dy y1. . .yn. Bob s dng K2 xc minh MAC v
dung K1 gii m y1. . .yn.
3.5. ng dng ca DES

Mc d vic m t DES kh di dng song ngi ta c th thc hin DES rt hu
hiu bng c phn cng ln phn mm. Cc php ton duy nht cn c thc hin l
php hoc loi tr cc xu bit. Hm m rng E, cc hp S, cc han v IP v P v vic
tnh ton cc gi tri K1,.. . ,K16 u c th thc hin c cng lc bng tra bng (
trong phn mm ) hoc bng cch ni cng chng thnh mt mch.
Cc ng dng phn cng hin thi c th t c tc m ha cc nhanh. Nm
1991 c 45 ng dng phn cng v chng trnh c s ca DES c U ban tiu
Chun quc gia M (NBS) chp thun.
Mt ng dng quan trng ca DES l trong giao dch ngn hng M - (ABA) DES
c dng m ha cc s nh danh c nhn (PIN) v vic chuyn ti khon bng
my th qu t ng (ATM). DES cng c H thng chi tr gia cc nh bng ca
Ngn hng hi oi (CHIPS) dng xc thc cc giao dch. DES cn c s dng
rng ri trong cc t chc chnh ph. Chng hn nh b nng lng, B T php v
H thng d tr lin bang.
Trang 42
4. M HA KHA CNG KHAI

Nh nhng tnh cht u vit ca m ha kha cng khai, dn n s pht trin
rt ln ca h m ha ny v c l chnh n to ra cuc cch mng trong ton b
lch s ca m ha. Trong thc t c rt nhiu loi m ha kha cng khai nhng trong
phm vi phn ny ta ch xt mt s thut ton rt ph bin l Elgamal v RSA
4.1. Bi ton Logarit ri rc (DL)

H m ha Elgamal c xut t nm 1985, da trn c s bi ton logarith ri
rc. Chng ta s bt u bng vic m t bi ton khi thit lp mi trng hu hn Zp,
p l s nguyn t (Nhm nhn Zp* l nhm cyclic v phn t sinh ca Zp* c gi l
phn t nguyn thy).
c trng ca bi ton: I = (p,,) trong p l s nguyn t, Zp
l phn t nguyn thy, Zp*
Mc tiu: Hy tm mt s nguyn duy nht a, 0 a p-2 sao cho:
a (mod p)
Ta s xc nh s nguyn a bng log
Bi ton logarith ri rc trong Zp
Bi ton logarith ri rc trong Zp l i tng trong nhiu cng trnh nghin cu v
c xem l bi ton kh nu p c chn cn thn. C th khng c mt thut ton
thi gian a thc no cho bi ton logarith ri rc. gy kh khn cho cc phng
php tn cng bit, p phi c t nht 150 ch s v (p-1) phi c t nht mt tha s
nguyn t ln. Li th ca bi ton logarith ri rc trong xy dng h m ha l kh
tm c cc logarith ri rc, song bi ton ngc ly ly tha li c th tnh ton hiu
qu theo thut ton bnh phng v nhn. Ni cch khc, ly tha theo moun p l
hm mt chiu vi cc s nguyn t p thch hp.
4.2. Cc thut ton cho bi ton Logarit ri rc

Trong phn ny ta xem rng p l s nguyn t, l phn t nguyn thu theo
moun p. Ta thy rng p v l cc s c nh. Khi bi ton logarith ri rc c th
c pht biu di dng sau: tm mt s m a duy nht, 0 a p-2 sao cho a
(mod p), vi Zp* cho trc.
Trang 43
R rng l bi ton logarith ri rc (Discrete Logarith-DL) c th gii bng mt

php tm kim vt cn vi thi gian c O(p) v khng gian c O(1) (b qua cc tha
s logarith). Bng cch tnh ton tt c cc gi tr a c th v sp xp cc cp c th
t (a, a mod p) c lu n cc to th hai ca chng, ta c th gii bi ton DL
vi thi gian c O(1) bng O(p) php tnh ton trc v O(p) b nh (vn b qua cc
tha s logarith). C mt s thut ton cho bi ton logarith ri rc nh: Shanks,
Pohlig-Hellman, phng php tnh ton ch s Chng ta s m t mt thut ton c
tn l Shanks, mt thut ton ti u ha thi gian - b nh ca Shanks.
1. t m = p-1
2. Tnh mj mod p, 0 j m-1
3. Sp xp m cp th t (j,mj mod p) c lu ti cc to th hai
ca cc cp ny, ta s thu c mt danh sch L1
4. Tnh -i mod p, 0 i m-1
5. Sp xp m cp th t (i, -i mod p) c lu ti cc ta th hai
ca cc cp c sp ny, ta s thu c mt danh sch L2
6. Tm mt cp (j,y) L1 v mt cp (i,y) L2 (tc l mt cp c to
th hai nh nhau)
Thut ton Shanks cho bi ton DL
Nu cn, cc bc 1 v 2 c th tnh ton trc (tuy nhin, iu ny khng nh
hng ti thi gian chy tim cn)
Tip theo cn l nu (j,y) L1 v (i,y) L2 th
mj = y = -i
Bi vy mj+i = nh mong mun.
Ngc li, i vi bt k ta c th vit: log = mj+i
trong 0 j,i m-1. V th php tm kim bc 5 chc chn thnh cng.
C th p dng thut ton ny chy vi thi gian O(m) v vi b nh c O(m) (b
qua cc tha s logarith). Ch l bc 5 c th thc hin mt cch (ng thi) qua
tng danh sch L1 v L2.
Sau y l mt v d nh minh ho:
Gi s p=809 v ta phi tm log3525. Ta c = 3, = 525 v m = 808 = 29.
Khi : 29 mod 809 = 99
Trc tin tnh cc cp c sp (j,99j mod 809) vi 0 j28. Ta nhn c danh
sch sau:
(0,1)
(1,99)
(2,93)
(3,308)
(4,559)
Trang 44
(5,329) (6,211)
(10,644) (11,654)
(7,664)
(12,26)
(8,207) (9,268)
(13,147) (14,800)
(15,727) (16,781)
(20,582) (21,496)
(17,464) (18,314) (19,275)

(22,564) (23,15) (24,676)
(25,586) (26,575)
(27,295) (28,81)
Danh sch ny s c sp xp to L1. Danh sch th hai cha cc cp c sp

(i,525(3i)-1 mod 809), vi 0 i 28. Danh sch ny gm:
(0,525)
(5,132)
(1,175)
(6,44)
(2,328)
(7,554)
(3,379)
(8,724)
(4,396)
(9,511)
(10,440) (11,686)
(15,388) (16,399)
(12,768) (13,256) (14,,355)

(17,133) (18,314) (19,644)
(20,754) (21,496)
(25,356) (26,658)
(22,564) (23,15) (24,676)

(27,489) (28,163)
Sau khi sp xp danh sch ny, ta c L2 . By gi nu x l ng thi qua c hai

danh sch, ta s tm c (10,644) trong L1 v (19,644) trong L2. By gi ta c th
tnh:
log3525 = 2910+19 = 309
C th kim tra thy rng qu thc 3309 525 (mod 809).
4.3. H mt RSA
Khi nim h mt m RSA c ra i nm 1976 bi cc tc gi R.Rivets,
A.Shamir, v L.Adleman. H m ha ny da trn c s ca hai bi ton :
Bi ton Logarith ri rc
Bi ton phn tch thnh tha s.
Trong h m ha RSA cc bn r, cc bn m v cc kha (public key v private
key) l thuc tp s nguyn ZN = {1, . . . , N-1}. Trong tp ZN vi N=pq l cc s
nguyn t khc nhau cng vi php cng v php nhn moun N to ra moun s hc
N. Kha m ha EKB l cp s nguyn (N,KB) v kha gii m DkB l cp s nguyn
(N,kB), cc s l rt ln, s N c th ln ti hng trm ch s. Cc phng php m
ha v gii m l rt d dng.
Cng vic m ha l s bin i bn r P (Plaintext) thnh bn m C (Ciphertext)
da trn cp kha cng khai KB v bn r P theo cng thc sau y :
C = EKB(P) = PKB (mod N)
(1)
Trang 45
Cng vic gii m l s bin i ngc li bn m C thnh bn r P da trn cp

kha b mt kB , moun N theo cng thc sau :
P = DkB(C) = CkB (mod N)
(2)
D thy rng, bn r ban u cn c bin i mt cch thch hp thnh bn m,

sau c th ti to li bn r ban u t chnh bn m :
P = DkB(EKB(P))
(3)
Thay th (1) vo (2) ta c :

(PKB)kB = P (mod N)
(4)
Ta thy N=pq vi p, q l s nguyn t. Trong ton hc chng minh c rng,

nu N l s nguyn t th cng thc (4) s c li gii khi v ch khi:
KB.kB 1 (mod (N))
(5)
trong (N) = LCM(p-1,q-1) .

LCM (Lest Common Multiple) l bi s chung nh nht.
4.3.1. nh ngha h mt RSA
Chun b
Cho n = p*q vi p,q l s nguyn t ln.
t P = C = Zn
t (n) = (p-1)*(q-1)
Chn b nguyn t vi (n)
nh ngha kha K = {(n,a,b): a*b 1 (mod (n))}
Mt cch k hiu khc: K = {(n,Kb,kb): Kb*kb 1 (mod (n))}
Xc nh h mt RSA
Hai gi tr n, b cng khai; cc gi tr a l b mt
Vi mi gi tr K=(n, a, b) v x P; y C ta xc nh hai hm sau
Hm m ha: y = ek(x) = xb mod n
Hm gii m: x = dk(y) = ya mod n
Trang 46
Ni mt cch khc, u tin ngi nhn B la chn mt kha cng khai KB mt

cch ngu nhin. Khi kha b mt kB c tnh ra bng cng thc (5). iu ny
hon ton tnh c v khi B bit c cp s nguyn t (p,q) th s tnh c (N).
Chn p v q
Tnh N=pq
Tnh (N)
Bn r P
KB
Chn kha KB
C = PKB (mod N)
Bn m C
kB
Chn kha kB
P = CkB ( mod N )
Bn r gc P
S cc bc thc hin m ha theo thut ton RSA
V d:
N=11413=101113, (N)=100112=11200=26527. KB phi chn sao cho khng
chia ht cho 2,5,7. Chn, chng hn KB=3533 khi kB = KB-1 = 6579 mod 11200. V
ta c kha cng khai l (N,KB) = (11413,3533), kha b mt l 6579. Php lp m v
gii m l:
EKB(P) = PKB (mod N) = P3533 (mod 11413)
DkB(C) = CkB (mod N) = C6579 (mod 11413)
Chng hn vi P = 9726, ta c C=5761.
Trang 47
4.3.2. an ton ca h RSA

Mt nhn nh chung l tt c cc cuc tn cng gii m u mang mc ch khng
tt. Tnh bo mt ca RSA ch yu da vo vic gi b mt kha gii m hay gi b
mt cc tha s p,q ca N. Ta th xt mt vi phng thc tn cng in hnh ca k
ch nhm gii m trong thut ton ny (nhm xm phm ti cc yu t b mt ).
Trng hp 1: Chng ta xt n trng hp khi k ch no bit c moun
N, kha cng khai KB v bn tin m ha C, khi k ch s tm ra bn tin gc
(Plaintext) nh th no. lm c iu k ch thng tn cng vo h thng
mt m bng hai phng thc sau y:
Phng thc th nht: Trc tin da vo phn tch tha s moun N. Tip
theo sau chng s tm cch tnh ton ra hai s nguyn t p v q, v c kh nng
thnh cng khi s tnh c (N) = (p-1)(q-1) v kha b mt kB. Ta thy N
cn phi l tch ca hai s nguyn t, v nu N l tch ca hai s nguyn t th
thut ton phn tch tha s n gin cn ti a N1/2 bc, bi v c mt s
nguyn t nh hn N1/2. Mt khc, nu N l tch ca n s nguyn t, th thut
ton phn tch tha s n gin cn ti a N1/n bc.
Phng thc th hai: Phng thc tn cng th hai vo h m ha RSA l c
th khi u bng cch gii quyt trng hp thch hp ca bi ton logarit ri
rc. Trng hp ny k ch c trong tay bn m C v kha cng khai KB
tc l c cp (KB, C)
Trng hp 2: Chng ta xt trng hp khi k ch no bit c moun N v
(N), khi k ch s tm ra bn tin gc (Plaintext) bng cch sau:

Bit (N) th c th tnh p,q theo h phng trnh:
pq = N, (p-1)(q-1) = (N)
do p v q l nghim ca phng trnh bc hai:
x2 - (n - (N) +1) + n = 0
V d: n=84773093, v bit (N) = 84754668. Gii phng trnh bc hai tng ng
ta s c hai nghim p=9539 v q=8887
4.3.3. Mt s tnh cht ca h RSA
Trong cc h mt m RSA, mt bn tin c th c m ha trong thi gian tuyn
tnh.
Trang 48
i vi cc bn tin di, di ca cc s c dng cho cc kha c th c

coi nh l hng. Tng t nh vy, nng mt s ln ly tha c thc hin
trong thi gian hng, cc s khng c php di hn mt di hng. Thc ra
tham s ny che du nhiu chi tit ci t c lin quan n vic tnh ton vi cc
con s di, chi ph ca cc php ton thc s l mt yu t ngn cn s ph bin
ng dng ca phng php ny. Phn quan trng nht ca vic tnh ton c lin
quan n vic m ha bn tin. Nhng chc chn l s khng c h m ha no
ht nu khng tnh ra c cc kha ca chng l cc s ln.
Cc kha cho h m ha RSA c th c to ra m khng phi tnh ton qu
nhiu.
Mt ln na, ta li ni n cc phng php kim tra s nguyn t. Mi s
nguyn t ln c th c pht sinh bng cch u tin to ra mt s ngu nhin
ln, sau kim tra cc s k tip cho ti khi tm c mt s nguyn t. Mt
phng php n gin thc hin mt php tnh trn mt con s ngu nhin, vi
xc sut 1/2 s chng minh rng s c kim tra khng phi nguyn t. Bc
cui cng l tnh p da vo thut ton Euclid.
Nh phn trn trnh by trong h m ha cng khai th kha gii m
(private key) kB v cc tha s p,q l c gi b mt v s thnh cng ca
phng php l tu thuc vo k ch c kh nng tm ra c gi tr ca kB hay
khng nu cho trc N v KB. Rt kh c th tm ra c kB t KB, cn bit v p
v q. Nh vy cn phn tch N ra thnh tha s tnh p v q. Nhng vic phn
tch ra tha s l mt vic lm tn rt nhiu thi gian, vi k thut hin i ngy
nay th cn ti hng triu nm phn tch mt s c 200 ch s ra tha s.
an ton ca thut ton RSA da trn c s nhng kh khn ca vic xc
nh cc tha s nguyn t ca mt s ln. Bng di y cho bit cc thi gian
d on, gi s rng mi php ton thc hin trong mt micro giy.
S cc ch s trong
s c phn tch
Thi gian phn tch
50
gi
75
104
gi
100
74
nm
200
4.000.000
nm
300
510
15
nm
500
41025
nm
Trang 49
4.3.4. ng dng ca RSA

H m ha RSA c ng dng rng ri ch yu cho Web v cc chng trnh
email. Ngy nay, RSA cn c s dng rng ri trong cc cng ngh bo mt s
dng cho thng mi in t (v d nh cng ngh bo mt SSL).
4.4. H mt Elgamal
Elgamal pht trin mt h mt kha cng khai da trn bi ton logarith ri rc.
H thng ny c trnh by di y
Cho p l s nguyn t sao cho bi ton logarith ri rc trong Zp l kh
gii. Cho Zp* l phn t nguyn thy. Gi s P = Zp*
C = Zp* Zp* . Ta nh ngha:
K= {(p, ,a,): a (mod p)}
Cc gi tr p, , c cng khai, cn a gi kn
Vi K = (p, ,a,) v mt s ngu nhin b mt k Zp-1 , ta xc nh:
ek (x,k) = (y1 ,y2 )
trong
y1 = k mod p
y2 = xk mod p
vi y1 ,y2 Zp* ta xc nh:
dk(y1 ,y2 ) = y2 (y1a )-1 mod p
H mt kha cng khai Elgamal trong Zp*
Trong h mt ny, bn m ph thuc vo c bn r x ln gi tr ngu nhin k. Bi
vy s c nhiu bn m c m t cng mt bn r. Sau y s m t s lc cch
lm vic ca h mt Elgamal. Bn r x c che du bng cch nhn n vi k
to ra y2 . Gi tr k cng c gi i nh mt phn ca bn m. Nu mt ngi bit s
m b mt a c th tnh c k t k . Sau anh ta s tho mt n bng cch chia
y2 cho k thu c x.
V d:
Cho p = 2579, = 2, a = 765. Khi
= 2765 mod 2579 = 949
Trang 50
By gi ta gi s Alice mun gi thng bo x = 1299 ti Bob. Gi s s ngu nhin

k m c chn l k = 853. Sau c ta tnh
y1 = 2853 mod 2579 = 435
y2 = 1299 949853 mod 2579 = 2396
Sau Bob thu c bn m y = (435,2396), anh ta tnh
x = 2396 (435765)-1 mod 2579 =1299
chnh l bn r m Alice m ha.
4.5. CC PHNG PHP KIM TRA S NGUYN T LN

4.5.1. Kim tra Miller-Rabin
Kim tra Miller-Rabin l mt thut ton xc sut kim tra tnh nguyn t cng
nh cc thut ton kim tra tnh nguyn t: Kim tra Fermat v Kim tra SolovayStrassen. N c xut u tin bi Gary L. Miller nh mt thut ton tt nh, da
trn gi thit Riemann tng qut; Michael O. Rabin sa cha n thnh mt thut
ton xc sut.
Khi s dng kim tra Miller-Rabin chng ta cn c vo mt mnh Q(p,a)ng
vi cc s nguyn t p v mi s t nhin
v kim tra xem chng c ng
vi s n mun kim tra v mt s
c chn ngu nhin hay khng? Nu mnh
Q(n,a) khng ng, tt yu n khng phi l s nguyn t, cn nu Q(n,a) ng, s n
c th l s nguyn t vi mt xc sut no . Khi tng s ln th, xc sut n l s
nguyn t tng ln.
Tiu chun kim tra Q(n,a)
Cn bc hai ca 1 trong
Trc ht l mt b v cn bc hai ca n v trong trng hu hn
, trong
p l s nguyn t. Chc chn rng 1 v -1 lun l cc cn bc hai ca 1 theo moun p.
Chng l hai cn bc hai duy nht ca 1. Tht vy, gi s rng x l mt cn bc hai ca
1 theo moun p. Khi :
T , x 1 hoc x + 1 l chia ht cho p.

Tiu chun Miler-Rabin
Trang 51
By gi gi s p l mt s nguyn t l, khi p - 1 l s chn v ta c th vit p

, trong s l mt s t nhin >=1 v m' l s l - iu ny ngha
1 di dng
l ta rt ht cc tha s 2 khi p 1. Ly s a bt k trong tp {1,2,..,p-1}. Xt dy s
vi k=0,1,2,...,s. Khi xk = (xk 1)2, vi k=1,2,...,s v xs = p &minus 1.
T nh l Fermat nh:
hay
hay
.
Do
hoc
,hoc
Nu
Sau mt s hu hn bc
ta dng li, cn nu ngc li ta tip tc vi xs 2.
hoc ta c mt ch s k,
hoc ti k=0 ta vn c
Ta c mnh Q(p,a) nh sau:
Nu p l s nguyn t l v p - 1 =
hoc
hoc tn tai k:
sao cho
.
th vi mi a: 0<a<p-1:
, vi mi k=0,1,2,...,s
sao cho
S gi nguyn t
Theo nh l Fermat nh, vi s nguyn t p ta c vi mi a {1,2,...,p-1}:
nh ngha. Hp s n tho mn
vi a no c gi
l s gi nguyn t Fermat c s a.
S Carmichael: Hp s n l s gi nguyn t Fermat vi mi c s a {1,..,n},
CLN(a,n)=1 c gi l s Carmichael.
nh ngha: Hp s n c gi l s gi nguyn t mnh Fermat c s a nu
n tho mn mnh Q(n,a).
Gii thut kim tra Miller-Rabin
INPUT S t nhin l n.
OUTUT NguyenTo: TRUE/FALSE
1. Phn tch
trong s 1 v m l s t nhin l
2. Chn ngu nhin s t nhin a {2,...,n-1}.
3. t b = am(mod n)
4. Nu
th tr v TRUE. Kt thc.
5. Cho k chy t 0 n s-1:
1. Nu
th tr v TRUE. Kt thc.
Trang 52
2. Thay b:=b2(mod n).

6. Tr li FALSE. Kt thc.
Xc sut tr li sai
nh l: nu n l hp s dng l th trong cc s a {2,..,n-1} tn ti khng
qu
c s a n l s gi nguyn t mnh Fermat.
Gi A l bin c "S n l hp s". B l bin c "Kim tra Miller-Rabin tr li n
l s nguyn t". Khi xc sut sai ca kim tra ny l xc sut s n l hp
s trong khi thut ton cho cu tr li TRUE, ngha l xc sut iu kin
P(A|B).
Theo nh l trn nu n l hp s th kh nng kim tra ny tr li TRUE xy ra vi
xc sut khng vt qu , ngha l P(B|A)
. Tuy nhin tnh xc sut sai ca
kim tra Miller-Rbin cn tnh xc sut diu kin P(A|B). Da trn nh l v c
lng s cc s nguyn t ta a ra c lng
Theo nh l Bayes trong l thuyt xc sut ta c cng thc tnh xc sut sai ca
kim tra Miller-Rabin l:
P(A|B) =
=
Trong cng thc ny P(A) bit trn, P(B|A)
, cn
= 1 v khi n l
s nguyn t th chc chn mnh Q(n,a) l ng v

T
P(A|B)=
(Tham kho: Douglas R. Stisnon. Cryptography Theory and Practice.)

Kim tra Miller-Rabin lp
Theo cng thc tnh xc sut sai trn y, vi n ln (c 130 ch s thp phn), nu
thc hin php th Miller-Rabin ch mt ln, xc sut sai l kh ln, ti trn 90%.
gim xc sut sai, ta lp li php th k ln vi k s ngu nhin a khc nhau, nu n vt
Trang 53
qua 50 ln th th P(B|A)
, khi thay vo cng thc vi 50 ln th nu c 50 ln,
php th u "dng tnh" th xc sut sai gim xng ch cn l mt s rt nh khng
vt qu
4.5.2. Kim tra Fermat

Kim tra Fermat l mt thut ton xc sut kim tra mt s t nhin l hp s hay
l s nguyn t xc sut.
Khi nim
nh l nh Fermat pht biu rng nu p l s nguyn t v
, th
.
Nu ta mun kim tra s n c l nguyn t khng, ta ly ngu nhin cc s a' v
kim tra xem ng thc trn c ng khng. Nu n khng ng vi mt gi tr a no
th n l hp s. Nu ng thc ng vi nhiu gi tr ca a, ta c th ni rng n l
s nguyn t vi xc sut no , hay l mt s gi nguyn t (pseudoprime).
C th php th s cho ta mt kt qu sai.
S a m
trong khi n l hp s c gi l mt gi Fermat.
Cn nu c s a m
th a c xem nh mt bng chng Fermat chng t n l hp s.
Thut ton v thi gian thi hnh
Thut ton c th vit nh sau:
Inputs: n: gi tr kim tra tnh nguyn t; k: tham s tham gia vo qu
trnh kim tra
Output: hp s nu n l hp s, nu khng nguyn t xc sut
repeat k times:
ly a ngu nhin trong [1, n 1]
if an 1 mod n 1 then
return composite
return probably prime
Khi dng thut ton tnh nhanh lu tha theo moun, thi gian thi hnh ca thut
ton l O(k log3n), k l s ln kim tra vi mi s a ngu nhin, v n l gi tr ta
mun kim tra.
Kh nng vn dng
Trang 54
C kh nhiu gi tr ca n l cc s Carmichael m vi tt c cc gi tr ca a sao

cho CLN(a,n)=1 l gi Fermat. Mc d cc s Carmichael l rt him, nhng php
th Fermat rt t c dng so vi cc phng php khc nh kim tra Miller-Rabin
hay kim tra Solovay-Strassen.
Ni chung, nu n khng l s Carmichael th t nht mt na cc s
l bng chng Fermat. chng minh iu ny, gi s a l mt bng chng Fermat
v a1, a2, ..., as l gi Fermat. Khi
v do tt c a ai for i = 1, 2, ..., s l bng chng Fermat.
4.5.3. Kim tra Solovay-Strassen
Kim tra Solovay-Strassen l mt trong cc phng php kim tra tnh nguyn t
theo xc sut do Robert M. Solovay v Volker Strassen pht trin.
K hiu Legendre v tiu chun Euler
K hiu Legendre
Legendre a ra k hiu mang tn ng cho s nguyn t l p v s nguyn a
l
0 nu p chia ht a;
1 nu a l mt bnh phng ng modulo p ngha l nu tn ti s nguyn k
sao cho k2 a (mod p);
1 nu a khng l bnh phng ng modulo p.
Tiu chun Euler
Euler chng minh rng vi mi s nguyn t p v s a,
K hiu Jacobi v s gi nguyn t Euler

K hiu Jacobi
K hiu Jacobi l m rng ca K hiu Legendre cho s t nhin l n. Gi s
l dng phn tch tiu chun ca n v s nguyn a bt k, k hiu Jacobi
S gi nguyn t Euler
Trang 55
Xem tiu chun Euler l mnh Q(p,a). Khi Q(p,a) ng vi mi s nguyn t

p v mi s t nhin a, 1 < a < p. Thay s nguyn t p bng s l n v k hiu
Legendre bng k hiu Jacobi, ta nh ngha:
inh ngha: Hp s n c gi l s gi nguyn t Euler c s a (1 < a < p)
nu:
trong
l k hiu Jacobi.
Kim tra Solovay-Strasen

INPUTS: n: l s t nhin l
OUTPUT: FALSE nu n l hp s, nu khng TRUE
1. Chn a ngu nhin trong khong[1,n-1]
2. Tnh k hiu Jacobi J=
3. Tnh x =a (n-1)/2 mod n
4. Nu J x th tr v FALSE
nu khc tr v TRUE.
Xc sut sai
nh l: Nu n l hp s l th tn ti khng qu
s t nhin dng a nh
hn n, nguyn t cng nhau vi n sao cho n l s gi nguyn t Euler c s a.
Gi A l bin c "S nguyn l n l hp s"; B l bin c: "Thut ton SolovaStrassen tr li TRUE".
Xc sut iu kin P(B|A)
.
Tng t php th Miller-Rabin tnh c xc sut sai ca php th SolovaStrasen l
P(A|B)=
Trang 56
5. CH K IN T
5.1. nh ngha
Vi ch k thng thng, n l mt phn vt l ca ti liu. Tuy nhin, mt ch k
s khng gn theo kiu vt l vo bc in nn thut ton c dng phi khng
nhn thy theo cch no trn bc in.
Th hai l vn v kim tra. Ch k thng thng c kim tra bng cch so
snh n vi cc ch k xc thc khc. v d, ai k mt tm sc mua hng, ngi
bn phi so snh ch k trn mnh giy vi ch k nm mt sau ca th tn dng
kim tra. D nhin, y khng phi l phng php an ton v n d dng gi mo. Mt
khc, cc ch k s c th c kim tra nh dng mt thut ton kim tra cng khai.
Nh vy, bt k ai cng c th kim tra dc ch k s. Vic dng mt s ch k an
ton c th s ngn chn dc kh nng gi mo.
S khc bit c bn khc gia ch k s v ch k thng thng bn copy ti liu
c k bng ch k s ng nht vi bn gc, cn copy ti liu c ch k trn giy
thng c th khc vi bn gc. iu ny c ngha l phi cn thn ngn chn mt bc
k s khi b dng li. V d, Bob k mt bc in xc nhn Alice c kh nng lm
iu mt ln. V th, bn thn bc in cn cha thng tin (chng hn nh ngy
thng) ngn n khi b dng li.
Mt s ch k s thng cha hai thnh phn: thut ton k v thut ton xc
minh. Bob c th k in x dng thut ton k an ton. Ch k sig(x) nhn c c th
kim tra bng thut ton xc minh cng khai ver. Khi cho trc cp (x,y), thut ton
xc minh c gi tr TRUE hay FALSE tu thuc vo ch k c thc nh th no.
Di y l nh ngha hnh thc ca ch k:
nh ngha : Mt s ch k s l b 5 (P,A, K,S,V) tho mn cc iu
kin di y:
P l tp hu hn cc bc in (thng ip) c th.
A l tp hu hn cc ch k c th.
K khng gian kho l tp hu hn cc kho c th.
Vi mi k thuc K tn ti mt thut ton k sigk S v mt thut ton xc
minh verk V. Mi sigk : P A v verk: Pa {true,false} l nhng hm sao

cho mi thng ip x P v mi ch k y a tho mn phng trnh:
Trang 57
verk =
True nu y=sig(x)
False nu ysig(x)
Vi mi k thuc K hm sigk v verk l cc hm c thi gian a thc. verk s l

hm cng khai, sigk l b mt. Khng th d dng tnh ton gi mo ch k ca Bob
trn thng ip x. Ngha l x cho trc, ch c Bob mi c th tnh c y verk =
True. Mt s ch k khng th an ton v iu kin v Oscar c th kim tra tt c
cc ch s y c th c trn thng ip x nh dng thut ton verk cng khai cho n
khi anh ta tm thy mt ch k ng. V th, nu c thi gian. Oscar lun lun c
th gi mo ch k ca Bob. Nh vy, ging nh trng hp h thng m kho cng
khai, mc ch ca chng ta l tm cc s ch k s an ton v mt tnh ton.
5.2. Hm bm
Chng ta c th thy rng cc s ch k ni chung ch cho php k cc bc in
nh. Thng thng khi s dng mt s ch k, ch k c sinh ra c di ln
hn so vi vn bn k, do vy kch thc vn bn sau khi k s tng ln rt nhiu. V
trn thc t ta cn k trn cc bc in rt di, chng hn, mt ti liu v php lut c
th di nhiu Megabyte.
Mt cch n gin gii bi ton ny l chia cc bc in di thnh nhiu on
sau k ln cc on c lp nhau. iu ny cng tng t nh m ha mt chui
di bn r bng cch m ha mi k t bn r c lp nhau s dng cng mt bn
kho. (V d: ch ECB trong M ha).
Bin php ny c mt s vn trong vic to ra cc ch k s. Trc ht, vi mt
bc in di, ta kt thc bng mt ch k rt ln. Nhc im khc l cc s ch k
an ton li chm v chng dng cc phng php s hc phc tp nh s m
modulo. Tuy nhin, vn nghim trng hn vi php ton ny l bc in k c
th b sp xp li cc on khc nhau,hoc mt s on trong chng c th b loi b
v bc in nhn c vn xc minh c. Ta cn bo v s nguyn vn ca ton b
bc in v iu ny khng th thc hin c bng cch k c lp tng mu nh ca
chng.
Gii php cho tt c cc vn ny l dng hm Hash m ha kho cng khai
nhanh. Hm ny ly mt bc in c di tu v to ra mt bn tm lc thng
bo c kch thc qui nh (VD: 160 bit vi DSS). Sau bn tm lc thng bo s
c k thay v k trc tip trn vn bn gc.
Trang 58
Khi Bob mun k bc in x, trc tin anh ta xy dng mt bn tm lc thng

bo z = h(x) v sau tnh y = sigK (z ). Bob truyn cp ( x, y) trn knh. Xt thy
c th thc hin xc minh (bi ai ) bng cch trc ht khi phc bn tm lc
thng bo z =h (x) bng hm h cng khai v sau kim tra xem verk (x,y) c = true,
hay khng.
K mt bn tm lc thng bo
Bn tm lc (gi tr ca hm bm) cn c gi l i din vn bn (message
digest). Mt message digest l c chiu di c nh vi cc c im nh sau:
Gi tr tr li ca hm bm duy nht i vi mi gi tr u vo. Bt k s thay
i no ca d liu vo cng u dn n mt kt qu sai.
T i din vn bn khng th suy ra c d liu gc l g, chnh v iu ny
m ngi ta gi l one-way.
Nh cp trong phn m ha kha kha cng khai, n c th s dng kha b
mt ca bn cho vic m ha v kha kha cng khai cho vic gii m. Cch s dng
cp kha nh vy khng c dng khi cn c s b mt thng tin, m ch yu n
dng k cho d liu. Thay vo vic i m ha d liu, cc phn mm k to ra
i din vn bn (message digest) ca d liu v s dng kha b mt m ha i
din . Hnh di a ra m hnh n gin ha vic ch k s c s dng nh th
no kim tra tnh ton vn ca d liu c k.
Trang 59
S dng ch k s kim tra tnh ton vn ca d liu

Trong hnh trn c hai phn c gi cho ngi nhn: d liu gc v ch k s.
kim tra tnh ton vn ca d liu, ngi nhn trc tin s dng kha kha cng khai
ca ngi k gii m i din vn bn (message disgest) c m ha v kha b
mt ca ngi k. Da vo thng tin v thut ton bm trong ch k s, ngi nhn s
to ra i din vn bn t d liu gc v mi. Nu cc i din ny ging nhau tc l
d liu khng b thay i t lc c k. Nu khng ging nhau c ngha l d liu
b gi mo, iu ny cng c th xy ra khi s dng hai kha kha kha cng khai v
kha b mt khng tng ng.
Nu nh hai i din vn bn ging nhau, ngi nhn c th chc chn rng kha
kha cng khai c s dng gii m ch k s l tng ng vi kha b mt c
s dng to ra ch k s. xc thc nh danh ca mt i tng cng cn phi
xc thc kha kha cng khai ca i tng .
Trong mt vi trng hp, ch k s c nh gi l c th thay th ch k bng
tay. Ch k s ch c th m bo khi kha b mt khng b l. Khi kha b mt b l
th ngi s hu ch k khng th ngn chn c vic b gi mo ch k.
5.3. Phn loi cc s ch k in t

Ch k c ch ch k in t c chia lm 2 lp, lp ch k km thng ip
(message appendix) v lp ch k khi phc thng ip (message recovery) nh sau:
Ch k km thng ip: i hi thng ip ban u l u vo gii thut kim tra.
Ch k khi phc thng ip: Thng ip ban u c sinh ra t bn thn ch
k.
Sau y l hnh biu din phn loi mc tng quan v ch k in t
Phn lp cc s ch k
Trang 60
5.3.1. S ch k km thng ip
S k km thng ip l s c s dng nhiu nht trong thc t. N da
trn cc hm bm m ho hn l da trn cc hm bm bt k v t b li khi b tn
cng theo kiu gi mo. Chng ta c th nh ngha chnh xc s ch k ny nh
sau:
nh ngha : Mt s k i hi thng ip u vo l mt tham s cho qu trnh
xc nhn ch k l s k km thng ip. V d : ElGamal, DSA, Schonor
a. Gii thut sinh kho :Mi mt thc th to mt kho ring cho thng ip
cn kho v mt kho cng khai tng ng cc thc th khc xc nhn ch k
Mi mt thc th A phi chn mt kho ring cng vi vic xc nh khng gian
kho SA,k : k thuc R ca dng chuyn i.
SA,k xc nh mt nh x 1-1 t khng gian Mh vo khng gian kho S gi l dng
chuyn i ch k hay cn l thut ton k s.
SA tng ng (corresponding mapping) VA t khng gian Mh S vo tp hp {false,
true} c ngha l :
VA(m, s*) = true nu SA,k(m) = s*
VA(m, s*) = false trong cc trng hp khc.
VA l kho cng khai ca A, SA l kho ring ca A.
b. Gii thut sinh v xc nhn ch k:
Thc th A to mt ch k s vo nh x M v c xc nhn bi thc th B.
Qu trnh sinh ch k
Chn mt kha k ring k thuc R.
Tnh hm bm m=h(m) v s* = SA,k (m)
Ch k ca A cho m l s*. Cp m v s* dng xc nhn ch k.
Qu trnh xc nhn ch k
Nhn kho cng khai nh danh cho A l VA
Tnh hm bm m'=h(m) v u = VA(m',s*)
Chp nhn ch k ca A cho m l s* nu u = TRUE
Trang 61
M
h
Mh
S A ,k
m'
a)Tin trnh k thng ip
Mh x S
VA
TRUE
F ALSE
b)Tin trnh xc nhn ch k
S ch k km thng ip.
5.3.2. S ch k khi phc thng ip
c trng cho s ny l thng ip c th c khi phc t chnh bn thn ch
k. Trong thc t s k kiu ny thng c k cho cc thng ip ngn.
nh ngha : Mt s k c gi l c khi phc thng ip khi v ch khi n l
s m vi n mc hiu bit v thng ip l khng i hi trong qu trnh xc
nhn ch k. V d v cc s ch k c khi phc thng ip trong thc t l :
RSA, Rabin, Nyber-Rueppel vi kha chung.
a. Thut ton sinh kho cho ch k khi phc thng ip
Mi mt thc th A phi chn mt tp hp SA = {SA, k : k thuc R } mi SA,k xc
nh mt nh x 1-1 t khng gian Mh vo khng gian kho S gi l dng chuyn i
ch k SA xc nh mt nh x tng ng VA sao cho VA * SA.k nh x xc nh MS
cho tt c k thuc R.
VA l kho cng khai ca A, SA l kho ring ca A.
b. Thut ton sinh ch k v xc nhn ch k cho ch k khi phc thng
ip
Tin trnh sinh ch k: Thc th A phi lm theo cc bc sau:
Chn mt s k R
Tnh m' = R(m) v s* = SA,k(m'). (R l hm redundancy)
Ch k ca A l s*;
Tin trnh xc nhn ch k : Thc th B phi lm nh sau::
Nhn kho cng khai ca ca A l VA
Tnh m' = VA(s*)
Trang 62
Xc nhn m' MR (Nu m' MR th t chi ch k)

Khi phc m t m' bng cch tnh R-1(m')
MR
text
m'
S A,k
m'
s* = S A,k ( m')
MS
S ch k khi phc thng ip
5.4. S ch k RSA
Sau y chng ta s nghin cu cc s ch k c bn nht v c ng dng rng
ri cng nh ng tin cy nht hin nay.
Chng ta s nghin cu n s ch k RSA v cc s tong t. c im ca
cc s ch k ny l mc tnh ton ph thuc hon ton vo ln ca gii
thut gii quyt cc bi ton nhn s nguyn bi ton ly tha. S ch k bao
gm c hai loi km thng ip v khi phc thng ip. S ch k RSA c pht
minh bi 3 nh nghin cu Rivest, Shamir v Adleman, y l s c ng dng thc
t rng ri nht da trn cng ngh s dng kha chung. Cc phng php tn cng
RSA u tin (multicative property) v cc vn khc lin quan ti ch k RSA
c a ra bi avia v Jonge v Chaum. Sau y l s ch k RSA.
a. Thut ton sinh kho:
Mt thc th A to mt kho cng khai RSA v kho ring tng ng theo phng
thc sau:
Sinh ra hai s nguyn t ln ngu nhin p v q cng kch thc bit
Tnh n = pq v = (p - 1)(q - 1 )
Chn mt s t nhin ngu nhin a tho mn iu kin sau:
1< a < v
USCLN(a, ) = 1 hay a Z*p .

S dng gii thut m rng Euclidean tnh ton s t nhin duy nht b sao
cho 1< b < v ab 1 (mod )
Kho cng khai ca A l K = (n,a) kho ring ca A l K = b
b. Thut ton sinh v xc nh ch k :
Trang 63
Mi phn t A k mt thng ip m M. Mi thc th B c th xc nh c ch

k ca A v khi phc li thng ip t ch k
Sinh ch k: thc th A lm theo cc bc sau:
Tnh m' = H(m), l mt s nguyn trong khong [0, n-1]
Tnh s = m'd mod n
Ch k ca A cho m l s
Xc nhn ch k : Thc th B lm theo cc bc sau:
Nhn kho cng khai ca A l (n, b)
Tnh m' = sb mod n
Kim tra m' MR nu khng s khng chp nhn ch k
Ly li thng ip m t m = H-1(m')
c. Tm tt lc k theo RSA :
Cho n = pq vi p v q l cc s nguyn t.Cho p = a = Zn
nh ngha: p = {(n, p, q, a, b) || n=pq, p v q l nguyn t, ab 1
mod (n)}. Cc gi tr n, b l cng khai. Ta nh ngha
Sigk(x) = xa mod n
Verk(x,y) = true x yb (mod n) vi x, y Zn

Nu di thng ip x ln, ta s dng hm bm nh trn
V d : s dng s k RSA, vi thng ip ln
Sinh kho :
Thc th A chn s nguyn t p = 7927 v q = 6997 v tnh n = pq = 5546521
v = 7926x6996 = 55450296. A chn a = 5 v gii ab = 5b 1 (mod 55450296)
c b = 44360237. Kho cng khai ca A l (n = 55465219, a = 5) v kho
ring ca A l b = 44360237
Sinh ch k :
k mt thng ip m = 31229978, A tnh m'1 = H(m) = 31229978 v tnh
ton ch k s = m1'b mod n = 312299784430237 mod 55465219 = 30729435
Xc nhn ch k :
B tnh m'2 = sa mod n = 307294355 mod 55465219 = 31229978. Cui cng B
chp nhn ch k v m2 = m1.
5.5. S ch k ELGAMAL
Trang 64
Sau y ta s m t s ch k Elgamal tng di thiu trong bi bo nm

1985. Bn c tin ca s ny c Vin Tiu chun v Cng Ngh Quc Gia
M (NIST) chp nhn lm ch k s. S Elgamal (E.) c thit k vi mc ch
dnh ring cho ch k s, khc s RSA dng cho c h thng m kho cng khai
ln ch k s.
S E, l khng tt nh ging nh h thng m kho cng khai Elgamal. iu
ny c ngha l c nhiu ch k hp l trn bc in cho trc bt k. Thut ton xc
minh phi c khi nng chp nhn bt k ch k hp l khi xc thc. S E. c
mt t di y:
Nu ch k c thit lp ng khi xc minh s thnh cng v :

a k(mod p) x(mod p)
l y ta dng h thc:
a + k x (mod p-1)
5.5.1. nh ngha
Cho p l s nguyn t sao cho bi ton log ri rc trn Zp l kh
*
Gi s Zn l phn t nguyn thu p = Zp , a = Zp
Zp-1
nh ngha :
a
K ={(p, ,a, ): (mod p)}.

Gi tr p, , l cng khai, cn a l mt.
Vi K = (p, ,a, ) v mt s ngu nhin (mt) k Zp-1.
nh ngha :
Sigk(x,y) =( ,),
trong
v
= mod p
=(x-a)
-1
k mod (p-1).
Vi x, Zp v Zp-1 , ta nh ngha :

Ver(x, , ) = true (mod p).
Bob tnh ch k bng cch dng c ga tr mt a (l mt phn ca kho) ln s ngu

nhin mt k (dng k ln bc in x ). Vic xc minh c thc hin duy nht bng
thng bo tin cng khai. Chng ta hy xt mt v d nh minh ho.
Trang 65
V d: Gi s cho p = 467, =2,a = 127; khi :

= a mod p = 2127 mod 467 = 132
Nu Bob mun k ln bc in x = 100 v chn s ngu nhin k =213 (ch l
UCLN(213,466) =1 v 213
=2
v
213
-1
mod 466 = 431. Khi
mod 467 = 29
=(100-127 29) 431 mod 466 = 51.
Bt k ai cng c th xc minh ch k bng cc kim tra :

13229 2951 189 (mod 467)
v
2100 189 (mod 467)
V th ch k l hp l.
5.5.2. an ton ca ch k Elgamal
Xt mt ca s ch k E. Gi s, Oscar th gi mo ch k trn bc in x
cho trc khng bit a. Nu Oscar chn v sau th tm gi tr tng ng, anh ta
.
phi tnh logarithm ri rc log x- Mt khc, nu u tin ta chn v sau th

tim v th gii phng trnh:
x(mod p).
tm . y l bi ton cha c li gii no: Tuy nhin, dng nh n cha c
gn vi n bi ton nghin cu k no nn vn c kh nng c cch no tnh
v ng thi (, )l mt ch k. Hin thi khng ai tm c cch gii song
cng ai khng khng nh c rng n khng th gii c.
Nu Oscar chn v v sau t gii tm x, anh ta s phI i mt vi bi ton
logarithm ri rc. V th Oscar khng th k mt bc in ngu nhin bng bin php
ny. Tuy nhin, c mt cch Oscar c th k ln bc in ngu nhin bng vic
chn , v x ng thi: gi thit i v j l cc s nguyn 0 i p-2, 0 j p-2 v
UCLN(j,p-2) = 1. Khi thc hin cc tnh ton sau:
= i j mod p
= - j-1 mod (p-1)
x = - i j-1 mod (p-1)
Trang 66
-1
trong j
c tnh theo modulo (p-1) ( y i hi j nguyn t cng nhau vi
p-1). Ta ni rng (, )l ch k hp l ca x. iu ny c chng minh qua vic

kim tra xc minh :

(mod p)
Ta s minh ho bng mt v d
V d: Ging nh v d trc cho p = 467, = 2, =132. Gi s Oscar chn i =
99,j = 179; khi j
-1
mod (p-1) = 151. Anh ta tnh ton nh sau:
= 299132197 mod 467 = 117

=-117 151 mod 466 = 51.
x = 99 41 mod 466 = 331
Khi (117, 41) l ch k hp l trn bc in 331 h th xc minh qua php
kim tra sau:
132117 11741 303 (mod 467)
2331 303 (mod 467)
V th ch k l hp l.
Sau y l kiu gi mo th hai trong Oscar bt u bng bc in c Bob k
trc y. Gi s (, ) l ch k hp l trn x. Khi Oscar c kh nng k ln nhiu
bc in khc nhau. Gi s i, j, h l cc s nguyn, 0 h, i, j p-2 v UCLN (h - j
, p-1) = 1. Ta thc hin tnh ton sau:
h
i j
mod p
= (h -j)
,
x = (hx+i )
trong (h -j)
-1
-1
-1
mod (p-1)
mod (p-1),
c tnh theo modulo (p-1). Khi d dng kim tra iu kin
xc minh :
(mod p)
v th (, )l ch k hp l ca x.
C hai phng php trn u to cc ch k gi mo hp l song khng xut hin
kh nng i phng gi mo ch k trn bc in c s lu chn ca chnh h m
khng phi gii bi ton logarithm ri rc, v th khng c g nguy him v an ton
ca s ch k Elgamal.
Trang 67
Cui cng, ta s nu vi cch c th ph c s ny nu khng p dng n mt

cch cn thn. Trc ht, gi tr k ngu nhin c dng tnh ch k phi gi kn
khng l. v nu k b l, kh n gin tnh :
A = (x-k )
-1
mod (p-1).
D nhin, mt khi a b l th h thng b ph v Oscar c th d dang gi mo ch

k.
Mt kiu dung sai s na l dng cng gi tr k k hai bc in khc nhau.
iu ny cng to thun li cho Oscar tinh a v ph h thng. Sau y l cch thc
hin. Gi s (, 1) l ch k trn x1 v (, 2) l ch k trn x2. Khi ta c:

x1
1
v
(mod p)
2(modp).
x1-x2
Nh vy
1-2
(mod p).
Nu vit = , ta nhn c phng trnh tm k cha bit sau.
x1-x2
k(1 -2)
(mod p)
tng ng vi phng trnh
x1- x2 k( 1- 2) (mod p-1).

By gi gi s d =UCLN(1- 2, p-1). V d | (p-1) v d | (1-2) nn suy ra d | (x1-
x2). Ta nh ngha:
x = (x1- x2)/d
= (1- 2)/d
p = ( p -1 )/d
Khi ng d thc tr thnh:
x k (mod p )
v UCLN(, p ) = 1,nn c th tnh:
-1
= () mod p
Khi gi tr k xc nh theo modulo p s l:
k = x mod p
Phng trnh ny cho d gi tr c th ca k
k = x +i p mod p
Trang 68
vi i no , 0 i d-1. Trong s d gi tr c c th ny, c th xc nh c mt

gi tr ng duy nht qua vic kim tra iu kin
k
(mod p)
5.6. Chun ch k s DSS (Digital Signature Standard)

Trong phn ny chng ta s nghin cu cc s ch k in t DSA v lp cc
ch k tng t, c im ca nhng gii thut ny l u s dng ch k theo kiu
chn la ngu nhin. Tt c cc s DSA km thng ip u c th ci bin thnh
cc s k khi phc thng ip. c bit chng ta s i su vo chun ch k in
t DSS (Digital Signature Standard) do kh nng ci t thc t ca n.
5.6.1. Gii thiu
S ch k DSS da trn gii thut k in t DSA (Digital Signature
Algorithm). Ch k dng DSS l mt dng ch k km thng ip, iu c ngha l
ch k phi c gi km vi thng ip m bn thn ch k khng cha (hoc khng
sinh ra) thng ip, thng thng nhng ch k dng ny u i hi phi c mt hm
bm trn thng ip (do ni dung thng ip c di khng xc nh). Hm bm ny
c s dng trong qu trnh sinh ch k xy dng mt dng nn ca d liu
(condensed version of data). D liu ny c gi l i din vn bn (message
digest). Phn i din vn bn ny l u vo ca gii thut sinh ch k. Ngi xc
nhn ch k cng s dng hm bm ny xy dng phng php xc nhn ch k.
i vi s ch k DSS hm bm l Security Hash Algorithm (SHA) c miu t
trong FIPS 186, hm bm ny to ra mt gi tr s nguyn 160 bit c trng cho mt
thng ip, iu ny lm hn ch mt trong cc gi tr tham s ca DSS phi l 160
bit. Ngoi ra, chun ny yu cu vic sinh ch k phi s dng mt kho ring cho
mi ngi k, ngc li xc nhn ch k, ngi xc nhn phi c mt kho cng
khai tng ng vi kho ring ca ngi gi.
Trang 69
Ch k DSA
5.6.2. Cc gii thut c bn ca DSS
a. Gii thut sinh kho
Mi mt thc th to mt kho cng khai v mt kho mt tng ng theo cch
sau:
Chn mt s nguyn t q sao cho 2159 < q < 2160
Chn mt s nguyn t p sao cho 2511+64t < p < 2512+64t t [0,8]
Chn s nh sau:
Chn g l mt s nguyn bt k nh hn p, = g(p-1)/q mod p
khc 1
Chn s nguyn a sao cho : 1 a q - 1
Tnh = a mod p
Kho ring ca thc th l a, kho cng khai l b (p,q, , )
b. Gii thut sinh ch k
Khi cn sinh ch k cho mt thng ip x thc th phi lm nhng vic nh sau:
Chn mt s nguyn mt k, 0 < k < q - 1
Tnh = (ak mod p) mod q.
Tnh k-1 mod q.
Tnh = k-1(h(x) + a) mod q
Ch k ca thc th cho x l cp (, )
c. Gii thut xc nhn ch k
Khi cn xc ch k cho mt thng ip m thc th phi lm nhng vic nh sau:
Dnh ly kho cng khai ca thc th k (p,q, , )
Nu iu kin : 0 < , < q khng tho mn th t chi ch k
Tinh w = -1 mod q v h(x)
Tnh e1 = w.h(x) mod q v e2 = w mod q
Tnh v = (e1 e2 mod p) mod q
Nu v = th chp nhn ch k ngoi ra th t chi
d. Tm tt lc ch k s DSS
Trang 70
Gi s p l s nguyn t 512 bt sao cho bi ton logarit ri rc trong Zp l

kh gii.
Cho q l s nguyn t 160 bt l c ca (p-1).
Gi thit Zp l cn bc q ca 1 modulo p
Cho p Zp v a = Zq Zp v nh ngha :
A= {(p, q, , a, ) : a (mod p)}
Cc s p, q, v l cng khai, c a mt.
Vi K = (p, q, , a, ) v vi mt s ngu nhin (mt) k ,1 k q-1, ta
nh ngha:
Qu trnh k s sigk (x, k) = (, ) trong
=(ak mod p) mod q
v
-1
= (x +a)k mod q vi x Zp v , Zq
Qu trnh xc minh s hon ton sau cc tnh ton :
e1= x-1 mod q
e2= -1 mod q
verk(x, g, ) = true (e1e2 mod p) mod q =
V d :
Gi s q =101, p = 78q + 1 =7879.
3 l phn t nguyn thu trong Z7879 nn ta c th ly: = 378 mod 7879 =170
Gi s a =75, khi = a mod 7879 = 4576
Mun k bc in x = 1234, ta chn s ngu nhin k =50, v th c k-1 mod 101 =
99
khi c :
= (17030 mod 7879) mod 101 = 2518 mod 101 = 94
V
= (1234 +75*94)*99 mod 101 = 96
Ch k (94, 97) trn bc in 1234 c xc minh bng cc tnh ton sau:
d-1 = 97-1 mod 101 =25
e1 = 1234 * 25mod 101 = 45
e2 = 94 * 25 mod 101 =27
C (17045 456727 mod 7879) mod 101 = 2518 mod 101 = 94 v th ch k hp l.
Trang 71
5.6.3. Tnh cht ca ch k ca DSS

a. an ton : an ton ca ch k ph thuc vo b mt ca kho ring.
Ngi s dng phi c bo v trc v kha ring ca mnh. Nu kho ring m
bo an ton tuyt i th ch k cng c mc an ton hu nh tuyt i. Mt khc,
vi kho cng khai l cng khai, ch k DSS l an ton khi t kho cng khai khng
th tm c kho ring, Tht vy, ta c:
Cho p l mt s nguyn t rt ln, phng trnh ton hc sau l khng th gii
c: y = ax mod p (1) vi y, a = g(p-1)/q v khc 1. xem xt iu ny trc ht
chng ta nhn xt phng trnh (1) c nghim x duy nht thuc khong [1,q]. Tht vy
gi s c hai nghim l x1 v x2 t (1) ta c:
v y = ax2 mod p.
y = ax1 mod p
Khng mt tnh tng qut gi s x1 < x2 t y suy ra :
ax1 chia ht cho p (khng tho mn do p nguyn t)
Tn ti k nh hn p sao cho ak 1 (mod p). Vi gi tr a c dng a = g(p-1)/q th iu
ny khng th xy ra khi g < p.
Trong nhiu trng hp, thng ip c th m v gii m ch mt ln nn n ph
hp cho vic dng vi h mt bt k (an ton ti thi im c m). Song trn thc t,
nhiu khi mt bc in c dng lm mt ti liu i chng, chng hn nh bn hp
ng hay mt chc th v v th cn xc minh ch k sau nhiu nm k t lc bc in
c k. Bi vy, iu quan trng l c phng n d phng lin quan n s an ton
ca s ch k khi i mt vi h thng m.
V s Elgamal khng an ton hn bi ton logarithm ri rc nn cn dng
modulo p ln chng hn t 512 bt tr ln. Tuy nhin di ch k theo s
Elgamal l gp i s bit ca p m vi nhiu ng dng dng th thng minh th cn
ch k ngn hn nn gii php sa i l: mt mt dng p vi di biu din t 512
bt n 1024 bt, mt khc trong ch k (, ), cc s , c di biu din ngn,
chng hn l 160 bt - khi di ch k l 320 bt. iu ny thc hin bng cch
dng nhm con Cyclic Zq* ca Zp* thay cho chnh bn thn Zp*, do mi tnh ton
vn c thc hin trong Zp* nhng d liu v thnh phn ch k li thuc Zq*.
b. Tnh hp l : tnh hp l ca ch k DSA da trn 2 nh l sau:
nh l: Cho p, q l 2 s nguyn t tho mn iu kin q \ (p-1). h l mt s
nguyn dng bt k tho mn h < p. Nu :
g h(p-1)/q mod p
th
gq 1 mod p.
Tht vy gq (h(p-1)/q)q h(p-1) mod p 1 mod p (theo nh l Ferma nh).
nh l: Vi g, p, q xc nh nh trn ta lun c :
Trang 72
Nu m n mod p th gm gn mod p. Tht vy khng mt tnh tng qut ta t

m=n+kq. Th gm g n + kq (gn mod p). (gkq mod p) gn mod p => iu phi
chng minh.
c. Nhc im: Khi DSS c xut nm 1991, c mt vi kin ch trch
c a ra. Mt kin cho rng, vic x l la chn ca NIST l khng cng khai.
Tiu chun c Cc An ninh Quc gia (NSA) pht trin m khng c s tham gia
ca khi cng nghip M. Cn nhng ch trch v mt k thut th ch yu l v kch
thc modulo p b c nh = 512 bt. Nhiu ngi mun kch thc ny c th thay
i c nu cn, c th dng kch c ln hn. p ng nhng i hi ny, NIST
chn tiu chun cho php c nhiu c modulo, ngha l c modulo bt k chia ht cho
64 trong phm vi t 512 n 1024 bt.
Mt phn nn khc v DSS l ch k c to ra nhanh hn vic xc minh n.
Trong khi , nu dng RSA lm s ch k vi s m xc minh cng khai nh hn
(chng hn = 3) th c th xc minh nhanh hn nhiu so vi vic lp ch k. iu ny
dn n hai vn lin quan n nhng ng dng ca s ch k:
Bc in ch c k mt ln, song nhiu khi li cn xc minh ch k nhiu ln
trong nhiu nm. iu ny li gi nhu cu c thut ton xc minh nhanh hn.
Nhng kiu my tnh no c th dng k v xc minh? Nhiu ng dng, chng
hn cc th thng minh c kh nng x l hn ch li lin lc vi my tnh mnh hn.
Vi th c nhu cu nhng thit k mt s c thc hin trn th mt vi tnh ton.
Tuy nhin, c nhng tnh hung cn h thng mnh to ch k, trong nhng tnh hung
khc li cn th thng minh xc minh ch k. V th c th a ra gii php xc nh
y.
S p ng ca NIST i vi yu cu v s ln to xc minh ch k thc ra khng
c vn g ngoi yu cu v tc , min l c hai th thc hin nhanh.
5.6.4. La chn s k kh thi
Trong cc s ch k in t chng ta quyt nh chn ci t 2 s ch k l
DSA v RSA bi v mt s nguyn nhn sau :
C hai s ny u c chnh ph M thng qua trong Chun ch k s (DSS).
C hai gii thut RSA v DSA u c cng b trong H S trong lin bang (FIPS)
vo ngy 19/5/94 v c a ra lm chun chnh thc ca ch k in t vo
1/12/94 mc d n c xut t 8/91.
Cc s ch k ny u l cc s ch k da trn cc phng php m ho
kha kha cng khai v u c bo mt rt cao.
Trang 73
Cc b s liu kim nghim s ng n trong vic ci t cc ch k ny u

c cng khai. Nu trong qu trnh th nghim cc ch k ny u m bo ng vi
b s liu th ch k c coi l an ton.
C hai s ch k u c th chuyn i t cc ch k km thng ip thnh ch
k khi phc thng ip khng my kh khn vi vic tch hp thm cc hm c
d R (Redundancy Function).
Trong thc t, khi a ra h thng CA server, pha i tc quyt nh la chn s
ch k DSA l ch k chnh thc cho ton b cc giao dch.
Thi gian xc nhn ch k ca hai ch k ny u ngn v chp nhn c trong
mi trng mng cng cng.
5.7. Tn cng ch k in t
Khi ni n ch k in t, chng ta lun mc tiu an ton ln hng u. Mt ch
k in t ch thc s c p dng trong thc t nu nh n c chng minh l
khng th gi mo. Mc tiu ln nht ca k tn cng cc s ch k chnh l gi
mo ch k; iu ny c ngha l k tn cng s sinh ra c ch k ca ngi k ln
thng ip m ch k ny s c chp nhn bi ngi xc nhn. Trong thc t cc
hnh vi tn cng ch k in t ht sc a dng, d dng phn tch mt s ch
k l an ton hay khng ngi ta tin hnh kim nghim an ton ca ch k trc
cc s tn cng sau:
Total break: Mt k gi mo khng nhng tnh c thng tin v kho ring
(private key) m cn c th s dng mt thut ton sinh ch k tng ng to
ra c ch k cho thng ip.
Selective forgert: K tn cng c kh nng to ra c mt tp hp cc ch k
cho mt lp cc thng ip nht nh, cc thng ip ny c k m khng
cn phi c kho mt ca ngi k.
Existential forgery: K tn cng c kh nng gi mo ch k cho mt thng
ip, k tn cng khng th hoc c rt t kh nng kim sot thng ip c
gi mo ny.
Ngoi ra, hu ht cc ch k in t u da vo c ch m ho kho cng khai,
cc ch k in t da trn c ch ny c th b tn cng theo cc phng thc sau:
Key-only attacks: K tn cng ch bit kha chung ca ngi k.
Message attacks: y k tn cng c kh nng kim tra cc ch k khc nhau
c ph hp vi mt thng ip c trc hay khng. y l kiu tn cng rt
thng dng trong thc t n thng c chia lm 3 lp:
Trang 74
o Known-message attack: K tn cng c ch k cho mt lp cc thng

ip.
o Chosen-message attack: K tn cng dnh c cc ch k ng cho
mt danh sch cc thng ip trc khi tin hnh hot ng ph hu ch
k, cch tn cng ny l non-adaptive (khng mang tnh ph hp) bi v
thng ip c chn trc khi bt k mt ch k no c gi i.
o Adaptive-chosen message attack: K tn cng c php s dng ngi
k nh l mt bn ng tin cy, k tn cng c th yu cu ch k cho
cc thng ip m cc thng ip ny ph thuc vo kho cng khai ca
ngi k, nh vy k tn cng c th yu cu ch k ca cc thng ip
ph thuc vo ch k v thng ip dnh c trc y v qua tnh
ton c ch k.
5.8. Kt lun
Vi s pht trin mang tnh ton cu ca mng Internet, con ngi c th giao tip
d dng trong mt cng ng rng ln. Tuy nhin i vi cc giao dch mang tnh
nhy cm, cn phi c c ch m bo an ton trong phin giao dch . Cn thit hn
c l mi bn cn xc nh chnh xc ngi mnh ang giao tip c ng l i tc
mong i hay khng. Chng ta cp n hai k thut chnh trong an ton thng
tin l m ha v k s. Hai k thut ny cng c p dng phn no trong vic xc
thc i tc trong mi phin giao dch.
V k thut m ha, c hai phng php: m ha i xng v m ha kha kha
cng khai. M ha m bo an ton v thng tin giao tip nhng khng m bo liu
thng tin c b gi mo hoc c b mo danh hay khng. Vn ch yu nm vic
qun l kha m ha v gii m c hai phng php m ha.
i vi phng php k s, da vo ch k cng cp kha ring v cng khai,
chng ta c th xc nh c chnh xc i tc trong giao dch. Chng ta cng tm
hiu hai loi ch k : ch k km thng ip v ch k sinh thng ip cng ba s
k c chp nhn v s dng rng ri: RSA, Elgamal v DSS.
C mt vn t ra i vi ch k s, liu chng ta c m bo chnh xc ch k
hoc kha kha cng khai l thuc i tc hay khng. C rt nhiu cch tn cng vo
ch k s, trong ph bin l phng php mo danh ch k. Gii php khc phc
a ra l s dng chng ch s cho kha kha cng khai nhm m xc thc tnh ng
n ca i tc trong giao dch. Cc vn lin quan chng ch kha kha cng khai
c cp trong phn khc.
Trang 75

Ly Thuyet Ma Ma

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Mc lc

3.1.2. M t mt vng ca DES ........................................................................25

5.6.4. La chn s k kh thi.......................................................................73

L thuyt mt m v an ton d liu

AN TON D LIU TRN MY TNH

L thuyt mt m v an ton d liu

trong c th k n ni lo b mt uy tn, hoc n gin nhng ngi qun tr h

L thuyt mt m v an ton d liu

L thuyt mt m v an ton d liu

1.1.3. Khi nim phn t nghch o

rm-2 = qm-1rm-1 + rm , 0 < rm < rm-1

L thuyt mt m v an ton d liu

mod n, ta k hiu l Zn* . Nhm c cp (s phn t) l (n). Mt phn t g Zn* c

Nu p l s nguyn t, th do (p) = p-1, nn ta c vi mi b nguyn t vi p

Nu b c cp p-1, th p-1 l s m b nht sao cho c cng thc (1), do cc phn

Gi s p l s nguyn t l. Vi mi a 0, ta nh ngha k hiu Legendre

L thuyt mt m v an ton d liu

Ta c tnh cht quan trng sau y: nu p l s nguyn t l th vi mi s nguyn a

1.1.7. Mt s thut ton kim tra tnh nguyn t

Solovay_Strassen (ci tin bi Lehmann):

1.2. L thuyt v phc tp tnh ton

L thuyt mt m v an ton d liu

phc tp (v khng gian hay thi gian) ca mt qu trnh tnh ton l s nh

L thuyt mt m v an ton d liu

Gi s NP P, th trong NP c mt lp con cc bi ton c gi l NP_y ,

1.3. Hm mt pha v hm ca sp mt pha

Hm f(x) c gi l hm ca sp mt pha, nu tnh y = f(x) l d, tnh x = f-1(y) l

Trn y l hai th d in hnh, v cng l hai trng hp c s dng rng ri v

L thuyt mt m v an ton d liu

L thuyt mt m v an ton d liu

2.4. Cc phng php m ho

L thuyt mt m v an ton d liu

Hnh 2.1. M ho vi kho m v kho gii ging nhau

Trong hnh v trn th :

L thuyt mt m v an ton d liu

2.4.2. M ho phi i xng kho cng khai

Hnh 2.2. M ho vi kho m v kho gii khc nhau

Trong hnh v trn th :

L thuyt mt m v an ton d liu

1. Vic tnh ton ra cp kho cng khai KA v b mt KB da trn c s cc iu

L thuyt mt m v an ton d liu

Trong tnh cht 4 l tnh cht ch yu nht. Ni dung ca n l nu mt bn r x

L thuyt mt m v an ton d liu

Do cc v d ca chng ta xt trn tp d liu l bng ch ci nn chng ta coi bng

2.5.1. M dch vng

dk(y) = y + (-k) mod 26

-k l phn t i vi k trong Z26, v d phn t i ca 3 l 23, phn t i ca

L thuyt mt m v an ton d liu

Nhn xt: Trong v d trn , ta dng cc ch in hoa cho bn m, cc ch thng

L thuyt mt m v an ton d liu

trong -1 l hon v ngc ca .

Nh vy, e (a) = X, e (b) = N,. . . . Hm gii m l php hon v ngc. iu ny

L thuyt mt m v an ton d liu

Ta bit rng, phng trnh ny c mt nghim duy nht i vi mi y khi v ch khi

L thuyt mt m v an ton d liu

dk(y) = a-1(y-b) mod 26, x,y Z26

V d: Gi s k = (7,3). Nh nu trn, 7-1 mod 26 = 15. Hm m ho l

L thuyt mt m v an ton d liu

L thuyt mt m v an ton d liu

Ni chung, c th ly mt ma trn K kch thc m m lm kho. Nu mt phn t

( y1 , ..., y m ) = ( x1 ,..., xm ) ... ... ...

Ni mt cch khc y = xK.

L thuyt mt m v an ton d liu