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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION:
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Block Diagram:
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Astable Multivibrator:
In this block diagram Astable multivibrator which is used as a pulse generator circuit its high and low state are both unstable. It provides clock pulses for the working of the decade counter1. The output of the multivibrator toggles with the low and high continuously, infect generating a train of pulses.
Decade counter1:
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Decade Counter2:
It accept the output from the decade counter1 and counter start counting till there is an output from the decade counter1 and it act as a divide by 9 counter.
Relay:
This device simply acts as an electronic switch. When the output from the decade counter 2 reaches the relay terminal it will control the speed of the fan or cooler by switching of relays.
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LIST OF COMPONENTS:
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2.
Capacitor
220,16V 0.01
1 1
3. 4.
Transformer Transistor
1 5
5.
Relays
SPDT 6V,100
6. 7.
Diodes IC 555
13 1
8.
IC 4017B
Decade Counter
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3.2. TRANSFORMER:
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. Where the circuit (in Webers). Faraday performed the first experiments on induction between coils of wire, including winding a pair of coils around an iron ring, thus creating the first toroidal closed-core transformer. the magnitude of the EMF in volts and B is the magnetic flux through
An ideal transformer is shown in the adjacent figure. Current passing through the primary coil creates a magnetic field. The primary and secondary coils are wrapped around a core of very high magnetic permeability, such as iron, so that most of the magnetic flux passes through both the primary and secondary coils.
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VAC i.e.; it converts higher voltage at the input side to a lower voltage at the output.
Usually, DC voltages are required to operate various electronic equipment and these voltages are 5V, 9V or 12V. But these voltages cannot be obtained directly. Thus the a.c input available at the mains supply i.e., 230V is to be brought down to the required voltage level. This is done by a transformer. Thus, a step down transformer is employed to decrease the voltage to a required level.
Flux is proportional to the applied voltage; the iron loss can be represented by a resistance RC in parallel with the ideal transformer.
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Fig.3.2.4. Step down Transformer Step down transformers can step down incoming voltage, which enables you to have the correct voltage input for your electrical needs. For example, if your equipment has been specified for input voltage of 110 volts, and the main power supply is 220 volts, you will need a step down transformer, which decreases the incoming electrical voltage to be compatible with your 110 volt equipment. A transformer is a electrical device with one winding of wire placed close to one or more other windings, used to couple two or more alternating-current circuits together by employing the induction between the windings. A transformer in which the secondary voltage is higher than the primary is call a step-up transformer, if the secondary voltage is less than the primary, then its a step-down transformer. The product of current times voltage is constant in each set of windings, so that in a step-up transformer, the voltage increase in the secondary is accompanied by a corresponding decrease in the current.
3.3. RESISTOR:
Resistors (R) are the most fundamental and commonly used of all the electronic components, to the point where they are almost taken for granted. There are many different Types
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Fig.3.3.1. A Typical Resistor Resistors are "Passive Devices", that is they contain no source of power or amplification but only attenuate or reduce the voltage signal passing through them. of electrons through it. Then a potential difference is required between the two terminals of a resistor for current to flow. This potential difference balances out the energy lost. When used in DC circuits the potential difference, also known as a resistors voltage drop, is measured across the terminals as the circuit current flows through the resistor. Most resistors are linear devices that produce a voltage drop across themselves when an electrical current flow through them because they obey Ohm's Law and different values of resistance produces different values of current or voltage. This can be very useful in Electronic circuits by controlling or reducing either the current flow or voltage produced across them. This attenuation results in electrical energy being lost in the form of heat as the resistor resists the flow
There are many thousands of different Types of Resistors and are produced in a variety of forms because their particular characteristics and accuracy suit certain areas of application, such as High Stability, High Voltage, High Current etc, or are used as general purpose resistors where their characteristics are less of a problem. Some of the common characteristics associated with the humble resistor are; Temperature Coefficient, Voltage Coefficient, Noise, Frequency Response, Power as well as Temperature Rating, Physical Size and Reliability.
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The symbol used in schematic and electrical drawings for a Resistor can either be a "zigzag" type line or a rectangular box. There are a large variety of fixed and variable resistor types with different construction styles available for each group, with each one having its own particular characteristics, advantages and disadvantages compared to the others. To include all types would make this section very large so I shall limit it to the most commonly used, and readily available general purpose types of resistors.
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3.4.
CAPACITOR:
Just like the Resistor, the Capacitor, sometimes referred to as a Condenser, is a
passive device, and one which stores its energy in the form of an electrostatic field producing a
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Fig.3.4.1. Capacitor construction The parallel plate capacitor is the simplest form of capacitor and its capacitance value is fixed by the surface area of the conductive plates and the distance or separation between them. Altering any two of these values alters the value of its capacitance and this forms the basis of operation of the variable capacitors. Also, because capacitors store the energy of the electrons in the form of an electrical charge on the plates the larger the plates and/or smaller their separation. the greater will be the charge that the capacitor holds for any given voltage across its plates. In other words, larger plates, smaller distance, more capacitance. By applying a voltage to a capacitor and measuring the charge on the plates, the ratio of the charge Q to the voltage V will give the capacitance value of the capacitor and is therefore given as: C = Q/V this equation can also be re-arranged to give the more familiar formula for the quantity of charge on the plates as: Q = C x V. The property of a capacitor to store charge on its plates in the form of an electrostatic field is called the Capacitance of the capacitor. Not only that, but capacitance is also the property of a capacitor which resists the change of voltage across it.
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Fig.3.5.1 BC 548
SYMBOL
BC546
UNIT
P D
1.5 12
Watt mW/C
TJ , Tstg
55 to +150
3.5.3. Electrical Characteristics (TA = 25C unless otherwise noted): Off Characteristics:
V (BR)CEO
65
V (BR)CBO
80
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6.0
Collector Cutoff Current (VCE = 70 V, VBE = 0) VCE= 50 V, VBE = 0) (VCE = 35 V, VBE=0) (VCE= 30 V, TA= 125C)
I CES
0.2
15
Ma
CurrentGain Bandwidth Product (IC = 10 mA, VCE = 5.0 V, f = 100 MHz) BC 548 Output Capacitance (VCB = 10 V, I C= 0, f = 1.0 MHz)
fT
150
300
Mhz
Cobo
1.7
4.5
pF
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Cibo
10
pF
Table.5. Small signal characteristics BC 548 The BC548 is a general purpose silicon NPN BJT transistor found commonly in European electronic equipment; the part number is assigned by Proelectron, which allows many manufacturers to offer electrically and physically interchangeable parts under one identification. The BC548 is commonly available in European Union and Commonwealth Countries and is often the first type of bipolar transistor young hobbyists encounter. The BC548 is often featured in circuit diagrams and designs published in Electronics Magazines such as "Silicon Chip" and "Elektor". As a representative of the large family of bipolar transistors the BC548 provides a "stepping off point" to the use of more esoteric, higher voltage, current or frequency devices for beginners.
The "BC" part of the number designates a low power silicon NPN transistor. The BC548 is one of many such. Other part numbers have different characteristics and ratings. Its complementary, PNP transistor with similar characteristics is the BC558. A family of older "BC" transistors predates the TO-92 BC54x series, the BC107, BC108 and BC109, (with complements BC177, BC178 and BC179). These are generally housed in the TO-18 metal package, the same as what the North American 2N2222 uses. These older transistors have similar characteristics as the TO-92 BC5xx devices and are generally electrically interchangeable. The older devices possess a lower Vcebo voltage but similar collector current and frequency characteristics.
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3.6.
IC 555 TIMER:
The 555 timer IC was first introduced around 1971 by the Signe tics Corporation as the
SE555/NE555 and was called "The IC Time Machine" and was also the very first and only commercial timer is available. It provided circuit designers and hobby tinkerers with a relatively cheap, stable and user-friendly integrated circuit for both monostable and astable applications. The 555 come in two packages, either the round metal-can called the 'T' package or the more familiar 8-pin DIP 'V' package. About 20-years ago the metal-can type was pretty much the standard (SE/NE types). The 556 timer is a dual 555 version and comes in a 14-pin DIP package, the 558 is a quad version with four 555's also in a 14 pin DIP case .Inside the 555 timer, are the equivalent of over 20 transistors, 15 resistors, and 2 diodes, depending of the manufacturer. The equivalent circuit, in block diagram, providing the functions of control, triggering, level sensing or comparison, discharge, and power output. Some of the more attractive features of the 555 timer are: Supply voltage between 4.5 and 18 volt, supply current 3 to 6 m A, and a Rise/Fall time of 100 n Sec. It can also withstand quite a bit of abuse. The Threshold current determine the maximum value of Ra + Rb. For 15 volt operation the maximum total resistance for R (Ra + Rb) is 20 Mega-ohm. The supply current, when the output is 'high', is typically 1 milli -amp (m A) or less.
Features:
Direct replacement for SE555/NE555 Timing from microseconds through hours Operates in both astable and monostable modes Adjustable duty cycle Output can source or sink 200 m A Output and supply TTL compatible
Temperature stability better than 0.005% per C
Pin diagram:
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Pin 1 (Ground):The ground (or common) pin is the most-negative supply potential of the device, which is normally connected to circuit common (ground) when operated from positive supply voltages. Pin 2 (Trigger): This pin is the input to the lower comparator and is used to set the latch, which in turn causes the output to go high. This is the beginning of the timing sequence in mono stable operation. Triggering is accomplished by taking the pin from above to below a voltage level of 1/3V+ (or, in general, one-half the voltage appearing at pin 5). Pin 3 (Output): The output of the 555 comes from a high-current totem-pole stage made up of transistors Q20 - Q24. Transistors Q21 and Q22 provide drive for source-type loads, and their Darlington connection provides state volts used. The state of the pin reflect will the output always inverse state and a high1.7 than level output less
Since the latch itself is not directly accessible, this relationship may be best explained
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Volt less than V+ down to within 2 volts of ground (although this is not guaranteed). Voltages can be safely applied outside these limits, but they should be confined within the limits of V+ and ground for reliability. By applying a voltage to this pin, it is possible to vary the timing of the device independently of the RC network. The control voltage may be varied from 45 to 90% of the Vcc in the monostable mode, making it possible to control the width of the output pulse independently of RC. Pin 6 (Threshold):Pin 6 is one input to the upper comparator (the other being pin 5) and is used to reset the latch, which causes the output to go low. Resetting via this terminal is accomplished by taking the terminal from below to above a voltage level of 2/3 V+ (the normal voltage on pin 5). The action of the threshold pin is level sensitive, allowing slow rate-of-change waveforms. The voltage range that can safely be applied to the threshold pin is between V+ and ground. A dc current, termed the threshold current, must also flow into this terminal from the external circuit. This current is typically 0.1A, and will define the upper limit of total resistance allowable from pin 6 to V+. For either timing configuration operating at V+ = 5 volts, this resistance is 16 Mega- ohm. For 15 volt operation, the maximum value of resistance is 20 Mega Ohms.
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0.01uF capacitor to avoid noise problem. Pin 6 (threshold) is shorted to pin 7. A resistor RA is connected between pins 6 and 8. At pins 7 a discharge capacitor is connected while pin8 is connected to supply VCC.
3.6.3. 555 monostable multivibrator operations: (a) The operation of the circuit is explained below:
Initially, when the output at pin 3 is low i.e. the circuit is in a stable state, the transistor is on and capacitor- C is shorted to ground. When a negative pulse is applied to pin 2, the trigger input falls below +1/3 VCC, the output of comparator goes high which resets the flip-flop and
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(b) Mono stable Multi vibrator Design Using 555 timer IC:
The capacitor C has to charge through resistance R
A
RAC, the longer it takes for the capacitor voltage to reach +2/3VCC. In other words, the RC time constant controls the width of the output pulse. The time during which the timer output remains high is given as, tp =1.0986RAC Where RA is in ohms and C is in farads. The above relation is derived as below. Voltage across the capacitor at any instant during charging period is given as, Vc = VCC (1- e-t/RAC) Substituting Vc = 2/3 VCC in above equation we get the time taken by the capacitor to charge from 0 to +2/3VCC. So +2/3VCC. = VCC. (1 - e-t/RAC) or t - RAC loge 3 = 1.0986 RAC So pulse width, tP = 1.0986 RAC s 1.1 RAC .
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3.7. RELAYS:
A relay is an electrically controllable switch widely used in industrial controls, automobiles and appliances. The relay allows the isolation of two separate sections of a system with two different voltage sources i.e., a small amount of voltage/current on one side can handle a large amount of voltage/current on the other side but there is no chance that these two voltages mix up.
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3.7.1 Operation:
When current flows through the coil, a magnetic field are created around the coil i.e., the coil is energized. This causes the armature to be attracted to the coil. The armatures contact acts like a switch and closes or opens the circuit. When the coil is not energized, a spring pulls the armature to its normal state of open or closed. There are all types of relays for all kinds of applications.
Transistors and ICs must be protected from the brief high voltage 'spike' produced when the relay coil is switched off. The above diagram shows how a signal diode (eg 1N4148) is connected across the relay coil to provide this protection. The diode is connected 'backwards' so that it will normally not conduct. Conduction occurs only when the relay coil is switched off, at this moment the current tries to flow continuously through the coil and it is safely diverted through the diode. Without the diode no current could flow and the coil would produce a damaging high voltage 'spike' in its attempt to keep the current flowing.
Applications:
Process Industries Power Distribution Stations Agriculture Transformers
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3.8.
DIODE:
In electronics, a diode is a type of two-terminal electronic component with a
nonlinear currentvoltage characteristic. A semiconductor diode, the most common type today, is a crystalline piece of semiconductor material connected to two electrical terminals. A vacuum tube diode (now rarely used except in some high-power technologies) is a vacuum tube with two electrodes: a plate and a cathode. The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current to pass in one direction (called the diode's forward direction), while blocking current in the opposite direction (the reverse direction). Thus, the diode can be thought of as an electronic version of a check valve. This unidirectional behavior is called rectification, and is used to convert alternating current to direct current, and to extract modulation from radio signals in radio receivers. However, diodes can have more complicated behavior than this simple onoff action. Semiconductor diodes do not begin conducting electricity until a certain threshold voltage is present in the forward direction (a state in which the diode is said to be forward biased). The voltage drop across a forward biased diode varies only a little with the current, and is a function of temperature; this effect can be used as a temperature sensor or voltage reference.
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A modern semiconductor diode is made of a crystal of semiconductor like silicon that has impurities added to it to create a region on one side that contains negative charge carriers (electrons), called n-type semiconductor, and a region on the other side that contains positive charge carriers (holes), called p-type semiconductor. The diode's terminals are attached to each of these regions. The boundary within the crystal between these two regions, called a PN junction, is where the action of the diode takes place. The crystal conducts a current of electrons in a direction from the N-type side (called the cathode) to the P-type side (called the anode), but not in the opposite direction. However, conventional current flows from anode to cathode in the direction of the arrow (opposite to the electron flow, since electrons have negative charge).
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Diode
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Zener diode
Schottky diode
Tunnel diode
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Light-emitting diode
Photodiode
Varicap
Applications:
Radio demodulation Power conversion Over-voltage protection Logic gates Ionizing radiation detectors
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3.8.
silicon gate C2 MOS Technology. The M74HC 4017 is a five stage Johnson counter with 10 decoded outputs. Each of the decoded outputs is normally low and sequentially goes high on the low to high transition of the clocked input. Each output stays high for 1 clock period of the low to high after output 10 goes slow, and can be used in conjunction with the clock enable (CKEN) to cascade several stages. The clock enabled input disables counting when in the high stage. A clear (CLR) input is also provide which when taken high sets all the decoded outputs low. All inputs are equipped with protection circuit against static discharge and transient excess voltage.
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Pin Connection:
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Ordering Code:
Connection Diagram:
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Logic Diagram:
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Timing Diagrams:
Features:
Wide supply voltage range: 3V to 15V High noise immunity: 0.45V Medium speed operation: 5 MHz Low power: 10Micro W Fully static operation
Applications:
Automotive
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Working:
The circuit for the automatic speed controller for fans and coolers is shown in the figure. The supply voltage of 230V, 50Hz is given to the step down transformer and it is converted to 9V. The bridge rectifier converts AC to pulsating DC supply and is filtered with smoothing capacitor. In the circuit diagram IC1 (555 timer IC) act as an astable multivibrator. It is used to generate clock pulses. The pulses are fed to a decade divider counter, which is formed by IC2 and IC3. These ICs act as divide by 10 counters and divide by 9 counters respectively. The values of capacitors C1, resister R2 and R2 are so adjusted that the final output of IC3 goes high about 8hours. The first two outputs of IC3 (Q0 and Q1) are connected through diode D1 and D2 to the base of the transistor T1. Initially output Q0 is high and there for relay RL1 is energized. It remains energized when Q1 becomes high. The method of connecting the gadget of the fan or cooler is given in the figure. Initially the fan shall get A/C supply directly so it shall be run at high speed. When the output Q2 becomes high and Q1 becomes low, relay RL1 is turned off and relay RL2 is turned on.
The fan gets A/C through a resistance and its speed drops to medium. This continues until output Q4 is high. When Q4 goes low and Q5 goes high, relay RL2 is activated thus the fan run at low speed. Throughout the process, pin 11 of the IC is low, so T4 is cut off, thus keeping T5 in saturation and relay RL4 is on. At the end of the cycle, when pin 11(Q9) becomes high T4 get saturated and T5 is cut off. Relay RL4 is switched off, thus switching of the fan or cooler.
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Circuit Diagram:
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Fig. Speed control arrangement for cooler with different windings for various speeds
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CHAPTER 5 APPLICATIONS&CONCULSION
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Applications:
Used to control the speed of fans and coolers automatically. This device can be used in bed rooms during night hours.
This device can be used as a power saving system for hotels and houses.
Advantages:
No manual support is needed, it is fully automatic. Electrical energy can be saved to a greater extent. Only less power is needed for the operation.
Lifetime of fan or coolers can be increased.
CONCLUSION:
The automatic speed controller for fans or coolers is used to control the speed automatically. We can also assign different time periods for each speed by designing the circuit to the need. By using this circuit the electric power can be saved to a greater extent and increase lifespan of fans and coolers.
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