Architectural Design

Edited AndreasC Papadakis by

OF E LEMEN T S A R CHITECTURE
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EDITOR Dr Andrcas C Pap.dakis Firs! publishcd in Crcat Brihin in 1983 by /rcl it.crural D.sign tn ifrDlina ol thc ACADEMY GROUP LTD, 42 LEINSTER GARDENS, LONDON W2 3AN Dktributed to rhc radc in ihe Unired Statcs of Amc.ic. by ST MARTIN'S PRESS,I?5 FIFTH AVENUE. NEW YORK. NY IOOIO ISBN: I 85490 17?X Sccond cnlargcd cdition, 1992 Copyrighr @ 1983, 1992 rhc Acrdcmy Croup Lrd All righrs rcsencd The entirc contcnts of this publicatiol r!! copyright.nd cannot bc r.goduccd in any mattltcr whsts@vcr wirhout wrincn pcamissionfrom lhc publishcrs AD Profilc 49 is published as pan of .Arcrrrl"ctwal DesiSnVol/untc 53 9/10"1983 Translstcd from the Gcrman by Romrna Schncidcr. Origin.l rcrt prcpat d for public.tion by Dcitrnar Srciner. Photogrrphs illusuating lh. Elmcnts of Architccturc by JohannKdiftncr unlcss othcrwis crcditcd. Front and ba.k coe.r: Typological slndics of rcctangular buildings lnd U-typcs snd towrc by Rob Krier. lnsidc front and back cov?r.' Studcnt drawings of rhe intc.ior of thc Post Offic. Savin$ Bu*, Vicnn! by Otto wagncr and thc staircasof thc An History Muscum, Vicnna by G Scmpc. and KV Hascnaucr. a

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EL EMENTS OF ARCHITE CTURE

BESCHAFFT AUS MITTELNDER

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THE WALL

The mostobvious, pethapsevn the nost archoic, buildinS techniquei to lor stoneand thusto lom an homogeneous constructed ||.,ass. long watt |.|.utteither be A thick eaouehto stondalone ot it needs be suppo ed by a systen of pillan, bs and tenacia|, outer cov ng or zet\|ork. to

THE COLUMN

In a niraculous liligrce natrre has l?ft us a mosnifc.nt .ac!.lop?.lia ol pnssihilities nhith tould be e\ploite.l ia btiUins. For thousan.ls \edN the basicloms of dtchit..lure hdv heen shen sisDricatt iueryrctdtion in stote. Thenodeltin! oJthe shdft. oJ the hasednd tlrc capital sith thei onplex isml and srnrcturclrcquir.nrcnts nto R.l to peiection oter the co .s? oJlime. hds

THEHOUSE

and erits, Theenclosing protectingwll, the difrercnti;tiot ol roons idside,r'indo"s os to"rces ol light. doors as entrunces and toda!. Folloeing the needno lonSer be questioned the rcoJto k.ep out the ruin and cokl . . . all this,thenatkalb. rcchni.alb ot in the archiectunl oesthetic \'e desttuction a de.p-.ootednadition in the twenties. muststaft again,IeaninS to build f.on t hef ndanenlols. of

THE CITY

TheBeonetrj of the single hotse de fts itsJofte lrom the.on|tust uith li|ing nature.TheBreaterthe dehsnyondth. nunber olhouses, the 8rcott the displacenentof naturc ond the eAvircnnentond thus the nore inportant the artificial spaces b..on.. Sne.t and squorcs are the ,ehicles of public life, r'hile qtiet cells in the fo.n oJ.ourtJards arc places ol rcfuge, intinacy and rctrcat.

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CONTENTS

A' LINDEI{UFETX.I I. BETIN SIA,iIDAC. I''9

ARCHITECTUML PROFILE 49 DESIGN No

EL EMENTS OF ARCHITECTURE
ROB KRIER
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Introductionby AndreasPapadakis KennethPowell I I and A Criticism of ModemArchitectur or About the Downfall of the An of Building 12 ELEMENTSOF ARCHITECTI.'RE 25 ELEMENTSI: INTERIORS 26 The Typology of Interior Spaces26 The Art of Composing Spaces36 210ColumnsandPiers 44 Doon z16 Cciling andFloon Windows 49 Staircases 55 ef.ff"feVfS tr: FACADES 60 ' Enrericcs andPoials 69 Arcades 70 GroundFIoors 7t ' Bay-Wfurdows, Balconiesandloggias 72 RoofsandAttic Storrys 74 ELEMENTS ltr: GROLTND-PLAN AND BUILDING F9 RM 76 SquarcBuitdings ?8 RccungularBuildings 8l T-shapcdGr,ound Pfans 82 LTypes 85 U-Typcs 85 Building Comcs 86 Interior Courtysrds 90 OutsidcStaircrscs 92 Prosoect94 TowersandMonumcnts 94

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Th.lttarkcl Placcin Karlsruhe lookin! lowardsthe Palacc

Tle Circus in Karlsruhe

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FOREWORD
To the Second Edition

It is with sreat pride that we are reissuing the Elemcnts of Ar..hitectr,z by Rob Krier. When this issue ol Architecnu'al Desig, was first published in 1983 it was an instanr successwith both studentsand academics and quickly became a set text for a number of architecturecoursesthroughout the world. This \\as the first part to be published of Rob K er's book.4 rchitectu..l Conpos ior. When $e whole $ork appeared few yearslater it was receivedequallyenthusiastically. the words of one a In reviewer.'lt is, in its way, a masterpiece . . [t is an immensely . rich resource book,not merelyfor use in architecturaleducationas Krier himself suggests, but as an inspiredseriesof lessonsin good architectural design'. It is a greatpleasure us to reprintthis issueand to takethe opportuniry includeeight ofKrier.s for to magnificent colour drawings including the Wall. the Colrnn, the Holr.t. and lhe CiA. Rob Krier is a theoristand an architectcommittedto seeking out iuilamenral architectural truths. His anal)sis oftraditionalarchitectural form is set in thecontextofpresent-day needs. cutsth6ugh He many of the simplisric fallaciesthat lie behind modern architectural criticism and revealshow the architecural agendaremainsconstant.By severingarchirecture's association with changingfashion he sho\\'show it respondsto the b{sic human requirements which are unfulfilled by designalone. while remaininga vital medium fo communicate most significantsocialand spiritualvalues. the Krier does not fit readilyinto any of the contemporary stylisticcategories. lhoughhis traditionalism is, in some ways, deepand sincere.He is a definiteeclectic,whoseview of'rrtrdition' is original and far from sfatic. He looks at tradition not as a static quantity, anchoring humanity to the past, but as a measureof the present.Krier's analysisof traditionalarchitectural form is set in the context of present-da) needs- he is not a simple reactionary - but looks beyond them. The essence Krier's work is to be soughtin his deepbelief in the powerof beautyand order_ not of an artificially imposed, authoritarian order but that order which is pafl of the power of nature in the world. He reflects the Modern Movement's anempt to redefine the image of a church, a house or a museum and restores the place of symbolism, a guiding force through history Krier is not just a theorist.His buildingsare at one with his theory.demonsrrations the power of of tradition in lhe face of what he sees as an anarchic and destructive sabotageof ancient values. His influence on architectural design in the years since rhis book first appearedhas been immense and does not look set lo diminish. In times of confusion and decay, as well as of rebinh and creativity, Krier reassens constant values. He is a true humanist who, Iike the artists and philosophers of the Renaissance,does not reject the past but looks to it to instruct and inspirc the future. Andreas Paoadakis

A Criticism of Modern Architecture or About the Downfall of the Art of Building

This essay,and the typological studiesof the elements architecof ture whichfollow, arc extracbd from Rob Krier's nngnum opus, ArchitecturalComposition,currentlybeingprepared publication for by AcademyEditions (seepage 88 for d.etaik), This 'critical and admonishing'essay, Kier's oumwords, 'shouldseme a logical in as link, connecting analyticondappliedtheory,ondit shoud be citical in orderto selectivelyfiber achievements architecture the in ofhalf whattheyrepresent.'The a century,to examine ttpologies ,he ond accomponying etamplesof studentwork were madeover a pefiod ofyeals duing coursework ot the TechnicalUnirersity in Vienna, where Rob Krier has been Professorof Architecturesince 1975. ArchitecturalDeriSnis pleased proud to be able to publishthese and ettracts from what it considerswill be one of the most imponant works of architecturol theory of the twentiethcentury. I do not intendto put cenainpersonalities trial, or to produce on a lexical review with the aim of analysing every architectural contribution the basis its theoretical on of stability. WhatI wantto do is to takea goodlook at architectural which,widely tendencies supponed, haveinfluenced wholedecades; furlher, I wish to sepamte theoretical substance from fashionable trends,and to formulate propositions according my own personal to conviction. These will allow me to makea critical statement, to give an outlookon and an architecture which outlasts present. the Modern architecture, a disastrous in way, has ruined cities throughout wholeworld. The lossof spatiality the modern the in city is mostespecially Someyearsago, I published deplorable. a book on this traumatic issuein whichI tried to fathomthe reason for thisdestruction,* Spatial urbansystems havcbeen radically and callously ignored, whilethe repertoire architectural of composition just hasbeendegraded as brutally,to become mostprimirive the formulae; andall this with poor economic technical and 'reasons'. took This development placewith fte euphoricsupponof theentire
a Ufian Spac., Acadrny Edirions,1979 PiazzaNavona.Rome

professional worldwhichiurally,duringthetimeofthe post-Second World War buildingboom,sawthe chance realise architecto the nrral revolution dreamtof in the Twenties. The principles tie of CIAM Athens Charter, whichconcemed separation the offunctions in the city (zoning),were incorporated into building law ar an international andcarried withtherigourandscrupulousness level out of bu.eaucratic machines. This deplorable stateof affairs was primarily helped the indescribable by miseryin Europeafter the World War. But oddly enough, Warsawfor instance, Second in where situation worst,areas ruinswhichwereimDortanl the was in were for thecity'sidenlity rebuilt wirha heroic cenainq. Ofcourse this operation criticised somepeople producing was by as merely people been stage-sets. thePolish Yet had disgraced wirhour being at fault. They therefore madeWarsawa symbolof rheir national strength. modem Our cities theirbuildings merely and are functional objects, withoutanyethicalmeaning. Theyare simplyproduction areas housilg or esurtes whichpeople occupy avidlybutleave withour sonow,because uglhess sooner lalercreates or coniempt disgust and in everyhuman being, andsometimes lgds ro delinquency. The masshousing shortage abuse? specularors order was by in for themto become in a shonperiod time.Theprofit-seeking rich of people attitude these of forcedthebuildingindustry intotheuseof prefabricated systems ceftain and othermaterials regardless oftheir durability.The planners, if struckby madness, as agreed this to profiteeringr building by extremely densely, made even they it easier for buildingcompanies makefastmoney-a viciouscircle,still to rotating,but now conscious its limits. Someplanners of even welcome consumer/disposable the ideology a substitute nonas for existent architectural concepts. The revolution modemorchitecture failed, Evenif it is of has journalists difficultfor professionalsadmitthisfact,for years to and lay-people havebeenheaping reproaches us andhavegivenus on themostappalling repons.Citizens'initiatives, morethanbefore, problems. press vehemently upurbandesign take The out spies and huntsdown, with moreandmoresuccess, dubious the operations
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of big buildingcompanies. Industrialisation not leadto the perfection reductionin has and priceof buildingcomponents it wasexpected Le Corbusier as by and his generation. thst has beenachieved that through All is mechani2ation, architectural the detailhasbensubmined the laws to of production terhnology.Ofcoursetheca.lculation the maximum of yield simplifics the consrructional solution. Also, reducing productiontime often offcnds sgainstall practicalreasoning. Decadence architecture the ruin of buildingcraftsmanship in and go together, canonly recovertogether. and Yet I have hopethat, despitcthe discrcditarchitects and the building industry have brought uponthemselves theirown faults by , theremight be a chance a 'renewal'. for Mankindin our century continues demonstrate apocalyptic to its power.Thebrutality destructive ofself-slaughrcr re0ectcd all is in pansof industrialised problem society. architectural The thatworriesme is no doubtoneof the mostobvious. cenainlvnot the bui mostthrearening problem twentieth tie ceniuryhasgivenbinh to. Thearchitectural problem neither will explode emitfatalradianor tion. But the illnesses which may be created chemicals by which newbuildings stuffcdwith, I hardlydareto foresee. wait arc We with distrust desperation theresults and for ofall these experiments which haveplunged into a meaningless us venturc. Of cqurse individual the case does manersomuch,but a host not ofbad architecturc bccomes tlreatening.A few ugiy ouildingswould not be thatserious threat,but if theyspread that in theendhardly a rc one per centof real qualityis leff in buildingactivities,then the
ComDutcr Ccntrc. Vicnna

time would havecome to sit up and take notice. Unfortunately this ugliness,this private kitsch, in millions of variations floodingcity boundaries countryside the form of and in singlefamily houscs, not viewedthat way by their inhabitants, is as it is the casewith their standard upholstered fumiture and wall decorations. Education, which at one time everyone enjoyed,has suffocated underempty acs&eticism.A society,wealthier andbetter schooled thanever before, is in dangerof wastingaway bcause wh-ich ofrenaccompanied ridiculous ofirs selfishress, is gestures. by In philosopbical terdS,thisdevelopment seems represenr logical ro a resuh.ln historical tc.ms it is certainlynot tle only example this of kind ofdevelopment. thedecadence culrureto which I refer Bui in is by no means confinedto theprivate sector;it is evenmore obvious in thesegigantic,hypenrophicbuilding complexes. Aristocratic powerwas successfully foughtagainst, andwhen it finally ccased left to exist, we were indeed with an immensely lavishbut tasteful heritage. Ifthe modern bureaucratic technocratic powerstrucand tures werc takenby storm what would then be left? Only a gigantic rubbish heap ofuseless equipment and,ofcourse,a scorched earth. Can we, with good conscience, cntcr into a heritageof such dubious value? Who would be willing to take over all this hideousncss; would further enjoy all theseshapeless who idylls? I think we will put the 'throw-away'ideologyinto pracriceand pull down all the rubbish.This would be necessary anywayfor economlcreasons, Suchis the sadstaning-point contemporary of architecture. He who has not yet realisedthis shouldopn his eyesand nameme
Bourgois dining room in rhe 'inlemlional modemg:sryle

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the modern buildings in his close vicinity which will go down in building history for having met high architectural demands. I live in rhe centre of a metropolis called Vienna. If I think about the banalities which for the last 30 years have emetged from a ground that is pregnant with tradition, I am on the verge of tears. The illustrations which accompany this essay have been deliberately picked from anonymous modem architecture to be found in all our cities. I am convinced that rnany lay-peopleconsider theseexamples as serious contempo.ary architecture. After all, similar crireria are applied when, from a holiday catalogue,somebodymakesa decision about his 'seaside hotel'. What then should one be guided by? In caseofdoubt, certainly by the buildings which are close to the hean of the ruling panies; in vienna these would be the UN-City, the (hospital),the FEnz-roseph railway station Allgemeine Krankenhaus or the Hilton Hotel, which is also frequentedby Willy Brandl. \ 'hat also gives certainty is the taste of big companies and banks which, by way oftrendy architects,try to pep up their image and, indirectly, their products and scrvices. So it is that lay-people are spell-bound and ter.orized by the taste of magnates,who abusearchitecture for their own publicity and to be celebratedpublicly as culhrral patrons. As an exampleofhow evidentthe opportunism ofpowerful clients and architectscan be nowadays,I would like to mention two building programmes in Vienna concerning the Ballhausplatz and which have becomepolitical issues.After tlteir Schwarzenbergplatz, first glass-facadedesigns had been successfully rejected by local initiatives, architectsand clients changedtheir anitude and architectural sytle, proposing for the iwo sites buildings with historicist facades. Nobody knows whether these games were an attempl to deceive the citizens, or wheiher they were meant to be an ironical affront. The architectsconcerned,being among the busiestin vienna, They are too clever are experiencedtradesmenand entrepaeneurs. not to have a precise strategy for these kinds of prestige objects. Anyway, different groups got very concemed about the aichitectural tradition of vienna and initiated meetings and panel discussions, certainly to the amusementoftbeir supposedenemies. These 'enemies' however, veered round to go the 'alternative \r'a) : the citizens were invited to discuss proposals, to reject or agree. (heir choices being manipulated according to the strategy of clienls and architects. These 'link' (left) tactics for the fooling of citizens are disgraceful. Architecture has been degraded to a masque, ' hich changes accoiding to a required role in a strategy. It was characteristic of the ensuing discussion that the plans were never were discussed. l-ater it bp{cme apparent dealt with. Only the facades lhat the former did not exist at all. The 'Mother of the Arts' must have gone asiray in a brothel. She has fallen to the marke! value of a car-body. If this is not capable of being changed abruptly we could end this chapter with some lascivious swear-words, and could better devote our time to a good game of golf. So much for the 'ahospherical'. Nou'we can begin our analysis with a relaxed and enlightened mind. At the beginning of this century, the revolt against traditional architecture took place in several stagesand with different shades of opinion. The garden city movement fought against the overgrowing of the city. Art Nouveau, Vienna Secessionor artists and architects like Antoni Gaudi, Tony Gamier, Otto Wagner, Josef Hoffman, Adolf loos, Henry van de Velde, and many others, attemptedsuccessfully to halt the industrialised historicism of the nineteenth century. At the moment I live in an apanment block typical of the last cenrury, and enjoy the room heights and the cross-section of the three front rooms. But everything which lies behind this front is not wonh mentioning,althoughthe flat is 27 metresdep. Twelve metres in front of my window is a facade which could be ours, decorated with rhis successfulindustrial ornamentationin Neo-Classicalstyle, exchangeable, more bearable but than an aluminium-profile facade.

Salzburg, accommo&tingNature' Ilodern alpinehorelarchirecrure.

v i c nnr .b!i l di nSbl Stl bc r '...fol l os i ngc l os el fF i s c her l onEr l ac h.O uoW agne r .nd Loos .. (quorilrion by rhe archncd lbou his building)

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Srcet in Vicnna,lar ninreenrh ccorury

ClasgowSch@lof An by C.R. M&kinrosh, 1697,t9O9

:asa Mili|, Barc.lona,by A. caudi, 1905-10

All this of course doesnot rcachthe levelof architecture. The youngartists architects the nineteenth and of centurydetested this kind of work for which the busyplasterers werein demand, and intended put an endto suchactivities. to Theywercseeking forms whichwouldbe goodenough takethe placeof the andthemes to classical stylessuchas$e Rornanesque, Cothic,theRenaissance, the the Baroque Neo-Classicism, and whichin the nineteenth cenftry wereemployed arbikarily. Mackintosh achieved libefation takirg refuge geometry. this by in He did withoutclassicat symbols rilied oi thea'estheiic and valuis in inherent well-proponioned forms.surfaces structures. and The way uaditional ofcomposing building the bodyandirsinteriorwere notquestioned him, His conception by became very influential for a.chitectural developmenr the twentieth in century. Wirh Gaudi,the tiberation from the classical linguagehappens almostlike a sensuous eruption.The sculptural quality of his a.chitecture besolely can anributed $e artist to Gaudi. individual His playwiih interpretationstoo irrational seta precedent. is to Where his architecture takenas an example, results was the were often awk'yard geometry alsoa good is faLt pos. Still, straight-forward protection mediocre for architects. realmof irregulardesign The canonly be mastered extremely by talented artists. This may be a warningto all those youngarchirects who think thatihe spontaneous individual line andliberation from geometry are the pre-conditions becoming artisticpersonality. for an TheCasa Mila, thisimmensely powerful just architectural event, cannot repeated everycorner.k is a uniquebuilding.The be at analysis theCasa of Mila, a sreel-srructured building a freeplan on witha sculpted sandstone facing,reveals very interesting a building tlpe whichwasonlypossible because newQechnology. this of But qualitywhichwascerrainly exploired is a specific nor superficially by Gaudi.Evenif he had hadto usea traditional solid structure. a similareffectwouldhaveresulted. passion constructional The for subtlelies deeply is rooted theCatalan in building rradition, Gaudi and certainly benefited from this background. Whoeverbuilds up and teaches architectural an theory must examine everytheorem te.msofits universality. means in This that the margin of possibleinterpretations principleshas ro be of anticipated, and all tangibleexpriences history have to be in reviewed practical for application. Thus, onlysolidprinciples remain a matter instruction orderto guarantec for in sound high qualityof \4ork.The truly greatanistshaveindeed command a ofthis alphabt, buttlreyarealsoaware its limils.with theirsecure of instincts. they only abandon approved rulesonce,aftera long search, theyhave founda yet unknown variant. The Art Nouveau movemcnt an international was revoltaeainst the historicalstyles being rrivialised.The classicaldecoiative werereplaced floral andotheromaments elements by borrowedfrom nature. although results But the werefresh,powerful andofteneffusive,as best seenin the works of Horta, van de Velde and Guimard,they were too individual in rheir inlerpretation and therefore could not last for long. Theartisb ofthe Viema Secssion by Ono Wsgner,Hofftnan, lcd Plecnik hadessentially moreclassical etc. a anitude abstained and gestures. fromexpressionist Wagner's Post OfficeSavings Bankin Viennaand Hoffmann'sPalaisStoclet Brussels wonderful in are highlighlsof thismovement, WhereHoffsun still formallycelebrates thedetail,Wagner exposes consttuctive technical the and qualities of the building's parts. Because the numerous of enginering buildings he executedfor the 'Sradtbahn'network and the Donaukanal, attention his was drawn on the designqualitiesof unmasked construcrive details. The banking of thePostOffice hall Savings Bankis designed with greattechnical precision glassas steelarchitecture, which until thenwasonly appliedto hallsand Sreennouses.

CasaBarlld.Barcelona, A. C.udi, by

Mdtro sration,Pafls. by H. cu'mard. 1899-

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Maisondu Peuplc,Brusscls.by V. Hona, 18 -99

Roadbridgcovcr thc rivcr Norderelb Mcycrs,Haue6 and Picp.r, IEE4-EE by

Watcr Tower, Hamburg, by von Lindlcy and dc ChaEauncuf.1854

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Buildingar llichaelerphtz. Vinna,by A. Loos, l9l0

Compcririon desiSn rhe Chicago for T.ibuneby A. Loos. t9:l

In retrospct, is amazed in the nineteenth one that cennrry architecwere kcpt at a distance ture and engineering from cachotherand that the latter,wherc it was found to be necessary, employed the classical ordersas if ashamed its nakedness. of Adolf Loos alwaysplaycda specialrole in the scene Vienna. in He did notjoin any group,andvehemently cririciscd romantic the air ofthe Viennese snrdios underHoffman.Horv hisbanleagaiost Ornament should understood evidentin his ownwork. He had be is passion panelling walls with precious for the mate als. He also -a used hollow piers and non-supporting beamswhn,in his terms, this was required by the composition of rhe room. Somc of his intedorsweredecoGted with classical friezesin plaster: Doric the r-columns which emphasise main cntranceof the Goldman lhc commercial building at Michaelerplatzin Vienna are me.e (to 'decorations' be naughty). accomplish architccture, To lhis long spanning concrele beams werc inse ed storeyby storey which, in r-the phoographs gavethe impression ofthe carcasse. ofbeingsuitabl for oblong window bands.Far from it! They were filled in with bricksand, after plastering, simpleperforated a facadc appeared. 'ruughthess' noteasyto tolerate. This Viennese is VeryoftenLoos ltook up contradictory themeswhich he then piecedtogetherlike collages.Different facades one building are oftnjoindtogether in as if they have nothing to do with each other. The interior of (room-ptan) composiiion spaces, according his 'Raumplan' to and in sconcept, is interlocked divcrsified,and surprising termsof -

their different heights.One of his projects,the administration buildingof the HeraldTribuncin Chicago, oneof the strangesr is aodmostmisleading statements recent in architectural history,not only because its gesture, becaus its anticipation many of but of of representationscontemporary andarchitecture. in an Loos was a biting critic of tlre International Style,and I canonly unde.stand his entryfor theHeraldTribunecompetition a grandiose as affront against modernism la Gropius,Hilberseimer, al. l et

'The Bi8 Screw. Designfor a monunenton Karlaplan. ClacsOldnburg. Stockholm.1966

I think thatif this buildinghadbenrcalised, ideaandrealitywould not haveaSrecd with eachother.This builCing, amongall the in

bcomes culrunl a objecl HansHotlein.vienna 1963i T.ansfomntion, a technical

Karlski.che,vienna. by J-8. Fischervon Erlach.l7l6-21

other kitsch. would have looked monstrous and ridiculous s Steinberg drawings picture similar American situations. of Consideringtie apparance the Herald Tribune Building, one this gigantic Doric column wilh the wondersof the might associate Antiqueworld. But lhis is not possibleif one reflectson its meaning. An office tower among many others in an American city with millions of inhabitantswould soon have lost its spirituality. vienna, benefiting from her topographicalsiruation. has always been a place where cultural controversieshave been fought out. its Here, the southGermanBaroqucelebrated splendidalliancewitl foreign sqles in the masterly collage of the Karlskirche by Fischer von Erlach. Hildebrandt was by no meansan orthodox classicist. His Upper Belvederefor Prince Eugenis a marvellcusarchitechrral It achievement. is a building which is not deepin plan, yet its clear geometricalfacadeand carved decoration Sivesthe impressionof a gigantic complex when viewed from the city. The enormous with is of$e bulldingson the Ringstrasse still experienced solenLnity the) cannotcompetewitl pleasure. alfiough asculruralachievemens the unique musical creations of Beethoven.Schuben or Brahms' crearionswhich have not been surpassedanlwhere in $e world. Gottfried Semper, who was commissioned to design the Burgtheatre.left Vienna headover heelsafter only three years. He of could not cope with the intrigues and the manoeuvres the viennese partner Hasenauer with whom he had to wolk. and who beslowed Semper's plans with an effusive local hue. So the depot,asoneofhis with the exception ofthe stage-set Burgtheater. late works has little in common wilh the strict discipline of his buildings in Zurich and Dresden. and ofBerg. Schdnberg Webern ccntury thr'nrusic In thet$enri!'th hr\ !Jin!'.1irn internati,)n!lrr'putrti(9. The ver) fL'$ modcrn buil,lin!. in vicnnx huve n,'t rcach.'dlhc.rrnrclcrcl. Like Ne,rcentur). lhe clear. Classicisnet the beginningof lhc ninctecnlh supported in rational Ilod.rn trlovenrcnl $'us onl) halt--hc'arledl) Vienna. Only in the romantic exp.essionism of the Viennese 'Cemeinde'(conununity)buildings ofthe T$enties and Thirties has a generationof architectsfound its identity. This tendency.which was paniall) rooled in rhe school of Ono Wagner, gained spontaneous public acknowledgement because many details employed xere known by the population as classical motifs.

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Firit Coun Thatre,Drcsdn.by G. Semper.lElS--4!

Ph' ofthe Bid turrenbr8' quaner. Berlin. by A. Klein. 1930

nrade fun ideology certainly who to Architects adhered theBauhaus colleagues. laner were The of of the playfulncss their Viennese and thcy werenot traditionalists, for thatreason as branded secret (courtyard for appreciated a long time. These'Hof-Siedlungen' quality, in ofurban especially terms have spatial estates) a panicular as linearhousing estates; whencompared the schematic to design in by the cstate Karlsruhe walter Gropius for example Dammer-stock has in and o. Onkel-Toms-Hiine SiemensstadtBerlin.(Thissubject
wiugnsEin's House.vienna. designed himsclfdown lo lhe lastdeBil by

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'Karl Seirz-Hol. vierna. b! F. and H. Gessncr.1926

l9

beendealtwith at lengthin my book lJtban Spoce,and therefore I can do better than to repeatmyself, but concentratemy thoughts I on thearchiteltuieof thebuildingsthemselves.) hopenobodyminds homecity, is alwaysthe focus my that Vienna,at preseot adopted In of my rcflections. a similar way in which I teachmy students ofarchitectural to learnexemplarilyfrom this city, my observations from this background. eventsreceivetheir orientatioin at despite lechrreship the Akademiefiir his HeinrichTessenow, for ofApplied Art) which lasted five Kunst(Academy Angwandte yers,neverbeaame 'echterWiener' (real Viennese).But bcause an language, cenainly he architectural restrained of his very honest, not ofcouncil cstates only the hadsome followersamong architects however,shouldbe pointedout in Tessenow's in Vienna.Oneaspect, at work. Shortlyafter the tum-of-the-century, a time when many with heroic designthemesof the ninearchitecs were still concerned teenthcenNry Tessenowconcentratedall his efforts on workers' his housing.In Rome,Tony Garder wasdesigning 'Cit6 lndustriellc' were ofthesedrawings andfreshness time. The beauty at thesame and in neverreached Gamier'sactualbuildings.Both Tessenow's for hereasbeingrepresentative catl Gamier'sprojects be compared future generations. the ln everyculturalera thereare two carnps, one of the tradi The and the other of the avant-gardists. two are mostly tionalists standardbearersof the sameage and educationalbackground but the to with differentattachments culturalheritage; one cautiously tradition.Anirudes tradition,theotherboldly questioning weighing can changeqrith the life of an artist. However, at the time of not for compting breadandrecognition, themostpolitecomments These,however,will be knowinglysmildat thirare Cxchanged. ty, forty yea$ later ... the One 'reactionary', other 'progressive'... Can art b the one or the other?After a short time ideological and hostilitiesdisappear what is left can be put in simplewords: he was proficient,but incaPable. An lives solelyon $e quality of meaningand lhe embodiment cautiously, b of it. All a/ r,acpublicityshouldtherefore handled ai leastuntil suoerficialeffecs havedied down. Even in times where culture is imposedby dictators, the socalled reactionaryand pieces ofan will only revealtheirtrue artisticquality opportunistic for recognisable everybodyafter the ideologicalaspcts andbecome The havebecome meadngless. altist is at liberty to frecly choose sloPhimselfthrough He his means ofcxpression. only disqualifies has piness in and incapability termsof skill and design.Cezanne and landscapes portraits; with his innocuous a <euvre created fantastic with their violins, bonles8nd cuttings:Morandi with the Cubists etc, And noneof them askedPermisof his arrangements vessels sion of the public to do this or that. Sometimesthe price for the artist's freedomin his choiceof themeandway ofexpression is lifeof undervaluation the artistic quality long isolationanda concomitant of his work. The anist's biggest enemy is t]le airogance of the and what is established familiar. 'cultured' public. It only appreciates judgementwhereno commoninterpretation If oneasksfor prsonal everything exists,lhen a spiiefulcriticismbreaksout condemning This hasalwaysbeenthe case,andthis touchtbat is not undeNtood. stone of every new artistic generationis at the same time its challenge. my In this sense criticism of the contemporaryarchitecturalscene should not be understood simply as being bitter about failed They help me to clarify my point, to strengoen my successes. positionevenat the risk ofjudging unfairly. RecendyI wasaccused of working beyondthe 'Zeitgeist' (spirit of the age). lndeed, for years this is what I have been doing with all my strength and this. to My devotion. congratulations thecritic who hasunderstood However, to be prc4ise,I have always tiought that I was working beyondconiemporaryneds,and that this was the reasonwhy my

(Dalcroze lnttitute),Hellrau.l9l0 Cymnasium

by HousingeslalenarSchwechat H. Tessenow

D.awing from Ct, /a/6r'islle by T. Gamier, l9O4

'tfr,f, .'.,.iqi.\,

ffi-;-**.
Dn\|ings frcm Cift ltdusri.

. "/

e by T. Gamier. l9O1

A b a |l o ' r d c l a Mo u ch e . L ],D . b y T . Car nr er . Iq09- tJ

MaisonCassaodre, Versailles. A. PeEer. by

wasnot in dernand. archibcrure That it wasall to do with prescribing a 'Zeirgeist'nevercameinto my tnind. The .Zeitgeist'is solely created artists by and not by the public.It is a very naturalthing thattheoldergeneration to copewith theirachievements has being questioned, therefore do nor mind their struggling and we against us. We for our paJtwill not be supercensitive either,but nevertheless askfor a fair battle.Despitc hindrances, all betterarguments and achievcments alwaysreceive merit they descrve. $e To re-capitulate aim of this essay, would likc to mention the I words have only the purposcof putting my rhat my extensive criticismon a solidbasis.I am not concerned aboutthe normal ofgenerations, thattheans worldwide beinemade change but are To bankrupr. positandproverhishasrequired long prJlogue. rhis However, dispute the 'reactionaries' .avant-gardisis' between and anothcr has aspect; former,building a safe dre on repenoire, benefit from immediate succcss; latter,seeking ways,are existenthe new tially threatened. Today,asthe 'Modernc'in all its banalityis enjoyingcultural acknowledgement, who everybody rriesto avoidthis cul-de-sac wa) of thorough by studies historyis brandedas a of reactionary. it is hewhois called bar pioneer's Nolr to the standard andto sufferthepriyations a renewer. bothcamps,only the of In besttalents will survivethe hardest test,while strugglingfor the realisation their ideas. fo Tony Garnier,who won the Prix de Romein 1899,renounced programmc devoted theraditional Baux-Ans and himselfto a theme ncglected thenineteenth in century: industrial the city. His architecoral concepts of ingenious are clarity andvoid of any decorative romanticism. Ifone looksat Carnier's design the prix de Rome for in theBeaux-Arrs publications, will niricerhatir is slill tully one in line with thebourgeois fashion-architectuCthe fin de sibcle. of All themoreastonishing his reversal is afterwards, which hadvery muchto do with his sojourn Rome.His projects disciplined in are by an almostantique attitude. wasusingthe qualitiesof reinHe forced concrete, newandrevolutionary thetime,andrefined srill at thisnewmaterial wayofan aesthetic by whichrespected design its inherent constructional rules and logical composition. Uae citl industrielleis abook whichbelongs the mostbeautifultheorerical to contributions ofthis century. Garnier a strong had influence the on 'Moderne'whichwasdeveloping the Twenties. persooally in But he rejected ideaof becoming promoterof this scene.His the a buildings, however, not fulfil the expectations his powerful did of early work. Unfortunately ended in a structuralism, la perret, he up I whichwaspopular Frarce.Yct hisOlympic in Sradium hisabatand toir of La Moucheremainoutstanding achievemnts . Thus an avantgardist became bourgeois a traditionalist. wassimilarwith perret. It Perret'searly work conhasts 0le same in way with his later buildings in l,e Havre.UnlikeGarnier,Tessenow developed from being a poetictraditionalist a classicist the Thirties. inro of This pre-Scond World War scene, colourful andrich asit was, so was abruptlyendedin the middleof the Thinics when, on the Continent, dictators politicalpower.Theofficial architccassumcd tural canonfor public buildingsin Germancities prescribeda primitive inflatcd and whichhadnothilg to do with Neo-Classicism the delicacy elegance the era of Schinkel, and of Weinbrenner or Klenze,Buildings rural areas in wereto represent 'Heimatstil' the (homeland rtyle). Only industrialbuilding wasspared regimentation andcouldrealise clearmodem construction withoutDroblems. The debate thearchitectural on historyofthe Third Reichis immensely burdened,despitethe fact that it is an issueof the past. The new rulersquicklyrealised neither aesthetics thetechnology that the nor of ModernArchitecture weresuitable serveas tbe Dretence to of theParty.The same applied ModemAn wirh its critical social to aspe.ts.The sobrbuilding bodieswereanythinS popular, their but not building technologies tully developed, therefore reliable and not enough.To impressthe masses, Nazis fell back upon the thc

Albn Spr's studio.Obersalzbrs, l916

by Factory in Wstphalia F. Schuppand M. Krcmm.r

approved monur|nt!.Iorderswhich, givenfie pressure time they of were undr,couldstill bemastered termsofcraftsmanship.Thcrc in was no time for new developments, thcy did not want to run and anyrisk. Thc modelfor a lateNeo-Classical monumental architecture wasfoundin *rc USA, andin colonialcities.Here, not only public buildiogsbut also banls, officc buildingsand business prcmises wercall alikein termsof thestyledescribed above.That the Nazis used the best materialsand craffsmanshipfor the few pompouscditices they were able to build, canhardly be criticised. They sought to disguise the brutality of their regime with 8n appropriate(in thcir terms) architecture.In the history of urban grandeur'. design, plansfor Bcrlinarcof'cxcessivc thc The urban geography would,bowever, havebnefited from them.If onexaminesthc diffcrcnt stagesof planning, it appearsthat the initial proposals were muchmoredifferentiated sympathetic the urand to ban structurein termsof scale.Only later did they becomecoarse in texture and lort in terms of space.A gigantic domed building of Boullde-like was dirnension to establish high point in tbis Brlin the apotheosis.Sometimes one is temptedto think to oneseli 'Thcy should have built all this stuff instcadof makirlg a war.' But this would probably have meantthat the fascistswould have been in power for an evenlonger period of time. Io the EsstemBlock this which could is kind of idiolic despotism prpehDted. Stalinallee The (development plan) wcll havesprungfrom Spcr'sBebauungsplan
DomedHall planncdfor Berlin by A. Sper.l9J8

by meansof an oppressivearchitecture,becametha symbol for th rise ofa young, comrnuniststatewhich did not wa to be one. Later ofsocialismwcrc fadingaway,thefeeble on, assoonasthe images archiiectural thcory of capitalism came back into fsvour. If today the Berlin Wall was pulled down, the difference betwenthe two wouldonly beeconomic.Otherwise andWestdo not Germanies East coDtradictcachother on the levcl of gcDeralcultural taste.The East simply did not succeedin finding an architectural languagefor its kind of society. It was oot possible*cause its social order is that of a policc state. I was very shocked to find the Wall being dealr with as an journal publishedin East arcbitecturalmonumentin an architechrral joke. Berlin. Wc do rot car for this kind of macabre A schizophrcniadrug scemsto exist in modern statcs, ihe effert of wbich is very unpleasartatrdpainful. That 8 majority of the world allows itself to be placedunder schizophrenictyranny cart only be explainedby an analysisof power mechanisms which have got out of the handsof society.Or are there indeedpleasant snsations about self{estructioo? Or are there any natural automatawhich, in caseof surfeit, order self{estruction? Literature, music and art anticipatedthc apocalyseof the Fonies long before it happencd.I fcar that the state of architecture, this mute imagery, has to b understoodas a waming of an imminent

EsstBrlin,by Paulicl. Hcnselmann. Hopp,t-cucht, f\arl-Marx-Allcc(formcrlySlalinallcc), lnd Hannlann, l95l-5? Souradny

22

No 6, Sandwingasse, Vienna,c 1860

_No

42. Linke wienzcile. vienna, b) Kmunke and Kohl. 1896-97

spiritualabyss.The last time thatthis abyss opened wasafrer up mankind had inflictedthe biggest self-destruction its existence. in I remember boomof thebombrs lhe very well. Buttodaytheywould soundlike light music in comparison with the vast amountof destructive material available now. How canbeauty evergrow on sucha brutalbackground? culhre is interconnected divided two parts: Architecnrral but into the wide basisof commonfunctional buildings dwellingand for working,and rising from that,the smallapexof buildings which accommodate special functions society. is legitimate design for k to the latter in distinctmanner,in orderrhatthey differ ftom functionalbuildings. During the nineteenth centurywhenthe bourgeoNte gettlng was rich, it embllished reside ial premises its wirh all the atuibutes which were usedby the dethroned aristocracy standour from the to got masses. The architecturallanguage so confused that it became wayof distinguishing publicbuildingsfrom necessary find another to privateones.The former, therefore, were isolated from adjacent buildings setinto a square, parkor sitedon thetop ofa hill. and a But this stcp soonfoundits followers. the Twenties frecln the standing objectassgchbcame desirable benerliving, working for and resting in general.Only one aspectwas not taken into giventhat everyMy hadthe same consideration; rights,this demandwouldhavemeant dcath the ofthe city. Todaythisno longer needs be proved.Moderncitiesarethe built evidence. mato The jority of Americans claim thattheydo not wantto haveanything elseotherthanolemodem'anti-city'; 0tatonly some'fanatics'would still preferNew York, Boston SanFrancisco. us wait and or [,et if, seewhat happens br4ause a newenergy of crisis,legshavelo be uscdfor walkingagain.MaybethenAmticans will remember the good old Europancity again! The confusionin architectural language becameeven more profound after the Second World War. As historical architectural had features beenabused much,architects so thought theyhad thar been left without any good examplesand thercfore anemptedao the significalc building wayof employing express special ofa by novel methodsof construction.For the last thirty yearsthe whole rangeof exotic structu.es beentried out, for example, has on churches. Flickingthroughpublications with this subject, dealing oneshudders somuchki6ch. In aerms ofground-plan at also design, conceivable berr put to the test.The underground has anything churchat lrurdes, or the oneby Nervi beside SaintPeter's,can garages. at best be calledwell-structured Thesebuildingshave nothhg to do with churches. Manymodemchurches b mistaken can for bingindustrial halls;some themare dcliberately of designed that way to supposdly reducethedistance the between churchand the faithful, To undermine the sacredin this way, given the significance churches thehistory of in ofarchitecture, for methe is worst aspct our present of culturaldecline. Temples churchcs and have been acknowledged valued all and at times,evenby unbelievers, themostnoblesymbolic as buildings. They received bestof artisticand anisanachievement. the They exemplifiedthearchitectural traditionofan epoch.After theantique, they also became most magniilcntinterior public spaces. the Are thereany other functionsavailablenow to compensate thc loss for of religiousfeeling? Thc reading roomsin publiclibraries,therestilg rooms in swimming pools or spon centles, stationhalls, concert hallsor theatres? Noneof these functionscancver reachthe mystic of andsymbolicsignificance a placeof worship.Everyhurnan bing is touched lhe enigma by oflife aoddeath. fatefulandinscrutable The of dimensions cxistence non-eistenceare asoverwhelming atld as theyarc frightening.Nature,in its monumcnblityandbquty, bcing thebackground every0ing thathappens, for ordycautiously reveals its secrets. soothe fearsandto calm his senses, To his manhas erectedsymbolic placeson earth for the spiritual interpretation of

Designby Archisram,London. l960s

his being.Thesebuildingsserved places mediation of as between him and the unnameable enigmas; addressee this fictitious the in dialogue: glorifiedhuman a being,a God:thebuilding: idealised an accoBrmodation the supernatural. do not klow whetherthis for I subjcctis definitelylost in architecNre. the time being,I am For pith the sacralbuildingswhich historyhaspassed to satisfied on us.We canlive with these another for whilelonger. anideacannot If genuinely be celebrated anymore,whatelsecanone do but stick worldpeople notvery to things is goodat?In thisconsumer one are interested spiritualvalues. in At the beginning the Fifties, the confusion of aboutformsgave a freshimpeNsto thedevelopmcnt newstructures. of Tchnology waslessloaded termthanform, andimmune a from idology. After a shon periodof time, theaftitudespread oncetheconstructional that requirements beenmet, one haddonejusticeto architecture. had ln a similarone-sided way, effons werealsoconcentrated lhe on solution of functionalproblemsand cost-effective construction processes. pcriod, Butdespite miseries thepost-war the are of there ofcourse examples an 'archite.tural' anitudetowards of design,and nowada;-s some buildings from that time gain symparhydespite their clumsiness. Onephenomenon, however,hit fie devastated middleEuropequite unexpectedly: exploding prosperity in connection an economic and

with that, an unrestrainedbuilding boom. In order to encourage building activities, governments offered special finance and depreciation schemes which could easilybe abused.It is maybeonly too naturallhat in this competitionbet$een 'more money' and 'more architecture', the Muse was the loser. Ir is a long time ago that a prson who commissioneda building demandedthe best skills of architectsand craftsmen, becausehis building was to demonstrate honourable his positionin society.Also, the house of the poor and tie house of the rich were easily comparablein terms of elegance.despiterhe difference in expenditure and embellishment. The idea of making a lot of money in a shon period of time has destroyedthe quality of a building as such. Even rhe majority of buildings that do not needto meet high architecturaldemandshave lost tle elegancewhich I have mentionedabove. That is also due to the fact that bcause ofquick indusrrialisation, building crafu rhe have been ruined. Responsiblefor all this are first and foremost the architectsand planners who, burdened by growing competition, scll their souls and professional credit with the empry phrase: 'If I don'r do it, anothercolleague will'. Can rhis faral lack of slf-respctstill be overcome?Who is the first one whose eyes must be opened, the one r,,ho buys or the one who produces?Both are cheatedat the momenl. The client who relies on cheaptechnologywill soon have to pay for its defectiveness.He will also be bored quite quickly with superficialarchitecturalcosmetics. The architecthas rricked himself out of the most elementary professionalfulfillment; and I cannot imagine that the easy rnoney he earns can make up for the shame of blunt opDortunism. There aii no less talented archikcrstday than in rhe pasi. But now, to a much greater extent, they are condemnedto inactivity or their crearivity isjust not askedfor. Very often they take refuge eitler in the arts scene where it is still possible to get fair acknowledgement, they lecture at schoolsofarchitecture which or guaranteeanistic freedom and survival But without practical challenge every theory is meaningless.I would very much like to prove my argumentswith my own work iosteadof letting others do this for me. But to build under today's conditions is a damned hurniliatingbusiness,not very sympathetic to the fulfillment of theoretical and anistic ambitions.

Iffusrrations this anicle are either from rhe archives Architectwal Jahrhunden, in of Propyhen-Verlag. Berlin; Herben Ric]rfn. Der Architekt, Dpri8n,Academy Editions, RobKrier, or fromthefollowingsources: Geschichte Berufes, and eines Henschelverlag; ProAlben SWet,Architektur, ActeU. Modeme Kunst,Berlini Archigram Croup,London; Paolo Faroce. plladn.Berlin:Sreinberg's Pdp"rrdck,Ro\rohlr: WaheFMuller-Wutkow, Piozza holia, Bra'x.anre d Editrice; Johann Kraftner(phorographer); Heinrich Architektw der Z+'anzigeiahrc in Deutschland, langewiescheKonigssein; lleltgeschichte Archrie*tu/e, Kulka,AdoALoos,Likker'Verlag; Bemhard des l,eitner,me Architecturc of lvienerFassaden 19 Belser/Elecrrai des LudwigWirgenstein.New York, 1976;C6sar Maninell,Cd!d/, Edilorial Jah undens,BOhlau-Verlag, Wien. 1976. Blume,Barcelonai ProplldenKunstg.schichte , Bandll, Die Kunstd.s 19

EL E M EN TS AR C H IT EC TU R E
Ro b K ri cr

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25

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ExplanationsRelatingto the Typology of Interior Spaces

The diagrarn shows in the horizonlal lhe geometlical ground-plan forms:square, triangle, ci.cle and the amorphousfigure; and in $e vertical thepossibilitiesof transfonnation these of basicelemenls way ofaddition, penetralion, by buckling, breaking, accentuationof the perspective, effect of depth and distortion. or Theseoprations put togetherside by side ar withoutany valuation.The examples presented bere,however, only a fraction thevariants are of created far by humaningenuiry. so At thispoinrI \rould like to suggest rhat,from $e historyof building, one shouldpicrurethe greatvarietyof forms for oneselfand refreshit againandagair by *ay of drawing exerciser. Addition Addition is rhe most elemenrary principle of order.Wilh $e mostsimpleway ofaddition,the elements only closelyjoined and form an are accumulation a group.Their relationto each or other ensues from the proximity, a so-called topological relation(Norberg-Schulz) .esuhing in an irregular,amoaphous shape. contrast In to thal,geometrical relation means relation which a is created a geometrical by principlof order, e.g. by axialityor parallelity. The basilica serves asanexample whichseveral in similarelements ofspace arranged parallel.ln thperspeare in tive of depth,a seriesof impressions closed of spaces ofnaveandside-aisles emerges, whereas in the transversedirection, becauseof rne transparencytheorderof columns, entire of the spacecan be perceived.By augmentingthe heighls ofside-aisles towards nave,lhe latler the is especiallyaccentuated and the orienlation towardsthe altar is emphasised. have here We the different heightsof spaces a meansof as design to express the hierarchy of spatial elements. Penetration l. Two or several spaces of different geometrical and into a new form overlap merge one or shape. this proccss space, evenboth, In will be deformed,i.e. their formal separation would be senseless, because would yield it fragments. 2. Two spaces beingoverlapped retain thelr independence, remainrecognisable, toSether and quality.The crossing create new spatial a of$e cathedral aclassical is lie example: longitudinal penetrate aisle and the lransept eachotherand which is emphasised form a commonspace by a domeor a tower, 3. Whentwo spaces overlapin a way rharone within includes other,thisgivesriseto space the space. the interior If space bordered rows is by from the enclosing of columnsand segregated space, entire the space rernains bexperienced lo Classical examples this kind of simuhaneously. penetrarion to be foundin Eglprian of spatial are Baldachin Temples. The closerthe two spaces nearlyequal movetogether, if theybecome i.c. wift in size,onegets impression or. space the of Louis Kahn. for example, a doubleenclosure. setscifcularspaces square into bounds lighl for penetration. Through diffe.entopenings the in walls, the light is filteredwhen required, and indirectlyled inlo the interior. bisic Funher possibiliries transforming of geometrical formsarctheprocesses ofbuckling, and bending.breaking,sparation fragmentation. This happensmosdy if severalelemenlsof shapeshouldbe joined different geometrical toge$er, and if onehasto adjustto the other. Ler us imaginean octaSonal spacewhich is surrounded a conidor. Because the given by of geometryof the octaton,il haslo b buckled severaltimes, in a srnseto submititself to the form. However,it can achieve an Seomtrical independent spatialquality if the bucklingpoin6 , by expansion, rnrdeintojoints. Or another are example, which very often can be found in in century, housingconstruclion the nineteenth work for instance: a given in in weinbrenner's
ground-plan form, which very often resuhed from the shape of the site-prhaps a triangle as rhe residual site benreen two streets-dle main spa.-e! were insened as independenl forms-as circle. square or oval, Between them and the exleror skin, spacesofdeformed shaperernained,*hich sometimes had lhe awksard effecr of being me.ely remnants. becausetbey originated from something which was of more importance- So they offered $e possibilir) of accommoddrrng technicalfacililies. Bul ofien lhey are independent locali(ies of the 'in between' and have enoush spadal charm to accofirmodate staircas-j. for The 'perspectivedistonion'. i.e. the aflificial fiunipulation of the effecl of depth.can b crered by simple geometrical tricks, as Scamozzi did w i t-hhi s stage set' i n l he Teatro O l i mpi c o i n V i cen7n: and B emi ni i n bothhi s desi gnfor S ai nr Peler's Square. and his famous staircasein tlte Valican, the Scala Regia. The 'dislorlion' of a geometrical form can ln most cases ha acibuted ro faleful. historical The examplesofinterior spaceslisted here do not in any way represenl a complete lypolog\ . The publishd drawings have emerged from exerciseswili my studenlscarried out in the first year of lheir course. I am of the opin ion thal rhe decisions which form the design of a space. or a building, can only be completely undersbod if they have been apprehendedrhrough dra$ing them. Il may be noted lhat my students draw xclusively in Vienna, so that they learn to recognize the city in which they sody with all its aualrtie\ and the characteristicfeaturesof rt. local architectural rradition- That modern architecture thcreby gets the shorter end of considration is not surprising. Th good examplesin modem archhectureaie anyway loo

Interior Spaces
As the saning point of architecnrral comgosition, lhe srnallest spatial uniry, tle interior room, shouldfirstly be srudied.Normally an interior has space for its bounds: walls,piers,ceilingand floor, beingthe traditionalelements. Windows anddoorsserve connections theexterior, as with By these,the technical elements a spaceare of determined.It becomescornprehensible and describableby the definition of irs size, proporlion (relationships between length,height

retbr and width) and shape. These componedts they directlyto the firnction theroombecause of of allow for the rsideoce peoplc,the accomof modation fumilurcandlhe execution cerof tain activities. Shapesand ainospheres spaces of can b the describd.At first we rEcognize geometryof a room, e.g. cube,cylinderor differentforms we mixed together. canalso spciry$e exact by sizesand identify $c proponions relarinS length, widrh and height. Although we still describe rooms accordingto rheir basic geometricalfoftls, clear and simple spaces

nowadays havean almostlitisl character. The so-called liberation of spacesby modern architecture given rise to the unfonunate term has 'flowiog space'. Spaceswere separated inlo areas, only able to function, but without contributing btter The to functioning. repressron a ofclear geometry not resulted.intruly free has and poetic solutronof room forms, but in which no loogerallo$ a deformedstructures, meaningful relationshipbtween wall and opning.The naNre of a room is very much which dernarcates determined its enclosure, by it from the exteriorand rurnsit into an intenor

space. usconsider geometry: sphere kt the a has a maxim!m nclosure. geometrical ln terms. ir cannot be connected!o another form. In accordance with lhat, the circutarroom is not directional and rests in itself. Symmerry emphasises independence, rectangular In a space. the enclosure createdby the uninterrupted is relalionship btwen fourwalls,especially |he the inteSrity of the comers. Rounded comers emphasise enclosinS lhe character fie \r'alls. of By differentlreatmcnt the surfaces rerms of n ofcolourandtexture. arrangentnl openings by o[ andincidnces lighr,theenclosure space of ofa can ei6er be emphasised b.oken. or More difficult is rhedscriprion oflhe quality of a space. Very oftertwhenwe describe their characrer, talk aboutsmall, spacious, we low. high, oppressive, friendly,comfonable. or cold warm rooms.Very oftenfor these appraisals of a space,not only ils geometrybut also irs attributes caucial. thissense are In everyinrcrior space offersa complete 'culturalimage'.gi\.en by proportion, light pnetration,strucure. furnitureand accessories, Already the accenruation the surfaces of confining roomadds i!5character: the ro dividing venical and horizontal elements, floor texlure. and on * omaments mouldings ceilingand walls. extensions. bays,colours materials The and etc. basic formsareequally changed piers by sranding free in theroom-Newspaces 'within thespace' are crealed.Accordingto rheir purpose, the! - aniculateand structurei they form transparent wallsdividingthe space. because move we and rn lhe room.newperspectives. vistas space and relationships emerge againand again. With thc kno*ledge of theseeffecrs. the archilect give to a roomthecharacter can which suitsils function signilicance, cancreate and He a sacred space which makes pople worship.a lecture-hall helpingpeopleto concenlrale on - listening, an office room which, bcause or of its functionalism, places work in theforeground. Finally.owingto E-adition, symbolic meanings canbe anributed certain !o forms.Archeoloeists and ethnologists have inrensively conceired - themselves rhe wirh significance ofcenainforms ofspace. Psychologists likeC.G.Jung,rnade too, imf,onam contributions tle exploration to of archetypes. Hanns Sieder. rhroughertensive ..- researchin his book U4onnen der abendldndischenBaukunst (ArchaicForms in Westem Architecrure), comesto lhe follo\r'inqmesls: 'Considering existingforms,excluding ... each olher in the circularor reclangular house, is ii - conceivable from what is krown about the differentstages change house in of construclion in ltaly and Creece,that we can lrace back prccisely genesis reclangular the ofa house born - out ofa circularhouse ovalandapse-shaped via preliminaryforms. Decisions tlat kind in of favourof the circularor the rectangular house are rootedin the entiteexistence $e human of beinS;lhey are not at all left to the free will. Culures not yetfon*d or no longersound,,nate that fotmlessbuildingt.' Siederalso mainGins cerlain geometricalforms of spacesgavc expressron a corresponding to physical ard - spiritual atritllde: 'A nondirectionalcircular spac allows for relaxation concenfation.An and oval-shapedspace encloseslwo points of encounter. form of theapse risenfrom The has

the feuerschism ('firescreen ) ro the s)mbolic place of spirirual promulgadon. A broad space becomes a place of prepararion. a longitudinal spacea route leading to some\rhere.Bo$ spatial directions meet in the square-L\e crossing-the place of ritually structured concenration. Of course $e mythically influenced a(itude conceming rhe effect of spacesdoes nor applv to such a degree to contemporary archilecture, e.g. housingconstrucrion.Bur it is cruciallo bear in mind thar cerlain rooms fumighed in a cenain

way can actually and significandy stimulare and i nfl uence the spi ri t and emori ons of rhe inhabitan6. This should also be undersrood as a waming to those who think lhat size and form ofa room are only ro be determined by lhe space rcquirementsof sondard furniture. and therefore forgel about o$er spatial qualiries. Only if we in succeed understanding relaiionshipbet*een the form, proponion, effect and usefulness can wc achi eve a meani ngful and w el l -bal anc ed composhion.

XEI: I CEOM ET RIC A L OU N DFIGLR E S GR II ADDITION III PENETRATION

IV V VI V II

B U C K LIN G S E GME N TA TION P E R S P E C TIV E D IS TOR TION

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SquareInterior Spaces
The square remains clea.lyrecognizable besl ar by means of an all-round symmetrical arrangement ofopenings. we -balanced A sDatial effectwithouldircctionis shownin illustration I, in whichtheope[ings placed lhe room are on axes. Going be)ond lhis. $e spacecan be strucoredby \r'ay of a subrle.squaregrid of pilasters, door lintelsandbeams. thegeometry As of the spaceis specially supported, square the achcvesan elen more po$etful expression (illuslration Also in illusrration we nave 2). 3, a square ground-plan,but a space with a completely differenl centre ofgravitybecause of lhe pier and cross-vault. Here.lhe tectonics of the vault are more important than lhe ground-plan. In illustralion to 7, examples srructures 4 of are shown which-ofren for technical or functional rcasons-in giveto thespace each case entirelydifferenlrelations directions. and They alterthescalc,andareconfusing whenil comes lo describing proponions. the Whendividedby meansof a row of piers (illustration4), two equallyrelevant recEngular spaces creareo. are By thedivisionofthe square into rhreepartsin one direction(illustralion5), the emphas$is laidon the mainsDace' rhemiddle. in Thisinlensification be reversed lhe middleparl can if whichoneenters narrower is lhanthetwo boroer areas. thiscaserhespace tlte middlegains In in lhecharactcrofa route,andsolheareas each on sidebcornc moresignihcant. Illustralion6 shows an enclosdspace with a skellal canopy construction inside. A sDace within a sDac emerges. that. the shape By ofthe entirespace is intensified;thecanopy defines almosrsacred an area and the edgesbecomea silent zone; a threshold which,although ara existing inside the spacc,doesnot fully belongto it. The fully skeleral inlcriorspace (illusrralion Z) is of course only co0ceivable a largerscale. ar Hereonerhinksof a space designed special for tunctlons: vasrhlposlylehall of the Creat fte Tcmple of Ammon in lGrnak wilh irs 134 sandstone columns: base theterrace lhe the of in ParkCiiell (Barcelona) Gaudi;or the Danreum by projectby Tenagni.Illustrations and 9 show 8 thecentnlisationof thesquare way of rounded by or bevelled edgcs. These'manipulations the of edges' however,needto be minor in proportion , to lhe sides, ordcrto avoidindistinct in spaces. Otherwise this superimposition may iasily provoke associations a circular octagonal wirh or spaca.

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ELEMENTS OF ARCHITECTURE t: INTERIORS

Distorted.Basicallv Square,Geometries
Suchspaces poss.ss notionof.ccntality, only the found in the originalbasicgeomericalform. Because ofbaysandfronral $resholdarcas, the followingexamplcs (illusrmlion to 3) havean I interm.diate position betwecn 'purespaccs' and a series spaces. of Windowsanddoorsin thebays form panicular architectonic rridr strong spaccs individuality. They almosr forcethe rniddleof the space to rcmain void bccausthe usr's attentioDis focusedon rhe bays.

{ illustmtions and 5) 4 Stations a rout4with a smallcntrance of arca which functionsas a'bordar-crossine'.Thc anteroom has a clear oricntation: rictangre a whichaccompanies oura andprepares for $a us themainspace. Thismainspace de form of has a square, only at its finalwindowfrontdos but lhe routcend,Thc roulcis mainlyrccognizable by ils sericsof spaces prspcctive. in Suchan effectis prohibited illusfarion4 wherefour in colunlns form an additional spatial fihe., wbich psychologically'stops' route. thc

Rhythmic Segies Spaces of

Rectangular Interior
Spaces
The simplc, rcctangular spacewitb an opcn pitched .oof (illustrarion is anarcherypal 6) form for the housc. is to be foundas seDulchre. lt as wcll asbam or gardenhouse This foim of space . is a Soodaramplcof the significancc used of natrials.From the rush-hut thc solid stone to shrine, lhc meaniagand charactcrof thc space can thcrebybe subjectcd a completetransforto mation.Thc sudacetexrure detrmincs whole the rangeof what is prccious $ hatis nErely rmketo shift. This is somerhing applies gcneral that in !o cvery spacc, herethis fact is panicularly but cvldent. ln rectantular (illustrations and 9), spaces 7 the location of the olanings is panicularly si8nifica . Ifrhey areposirioned lhe shortsides in (illustration7), tie roomtains ar airy aEpsphcrE with a cleir alignmnt alongits longitudinalaxls. By inscning rowsofpiers,d|istendency morc is manifcst. Thc dark side-zoncs be assigned can lo secondary purposcs and activities. A longitudinal barrel (illuslrarion cnphasises 9) cvcnmorethcclosed crossdirction,

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Octagonal Interior Spaces \-,---r''r The variants ocugonalspaces of prcsenred here (illustrations and2) have.according I toconrem_ pomryunde$tanding, quiteanexoticcharactr. Nevenlrless thcydo rcveal some advanrages. By wa) ot stretchtng. octagonal spaces develop a clearlydefinedmiddlezonand two narowine edgeareas. The roomlherebygainsan inrimati stability.
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The crucialproblemwith cross-shaDed intenor (illustrations to 7) is rhevaluation the spaces 3 of two directions. Illustration 3 shows me interpcnetration two rectangular of spaces tle of sam kind. lfone focoses only on rheinncrpan. tie equivalence oflhe spatial areas withoulany is doubt still existent. But this spacealso has opentngs-doors or windows-which because of different valuations,immediatelyestablisna hie.archy b the spatialareas.I would like in this contextto cite Palladio'sVilla Rotoitda an as erarnple. buildingwith a similar ground-plan a wher the cffecl of the different prospects is norieable,A spacc havinganirtrinsichiemG*ny of dir.tions will beachicvd, for examDle if Ine proportion ofone part is changed. Illusrr;don4 sho*s the effectthat can be gainedby suchan arangernent:onc port of thc space elevated is and threbydemotcsthe side pans to bays. A focus to the centml space(illuslrations and 6) is 5 reachcd a crcss-vauh, evenmote so, by by or elevating crossing $c arca.This space. whichis called 'crossing' centralised churches, in plan has a supreme symbolicand mythicalsignificance.

Circular Spaces
Illustration showsa rcundwall-shellwithura 8 squareroom, cstablishing panicular innerarea. a By the principlc 'spacewithin space'residual are3srcnain $hich have becn develoDed ro pcrfection, espcciallyby thc American architecf Iaris K!hn, with thc r.sult t|at iDtcrEsthg spatial enects were crcated. Thc circular sDacein illuslrEtion bclongs square crois to rhc 9 tike and

30

ELEIIENTS OF ARCHITECTURE l: INTERIORS

'archetypal forms' of architecture. axtreme The spatialconsequences rcquirea well{onside.ed discrerion as ro practical application. Psychological havealsoto bc takeninto aspects consideration; cvery humanbcingcancope not prmanently with sucha polre.fuI form. The overlayinS two basicforms-the square of and ihe circle-has bnatlempted illustration in 1. Comparedto the altitudeof the cube, the cyclinderis lower and lherefore four segments remain as bays. This is an exampleof the differentiationof heightsin a room and the resullingeffects.Nowadays, lhinkin8 io three dimensionsis very oftenneglecEdwhen it comes with the souare to desien.The circulaLsDacc canopyin the middle{tuiration 21 inteniifies the significanceof the centralspace.At thc sarnc time lhe roomgivestheimpression openness. of with rnrny side-rooms A hetcrogeneols space and bays(illustiation delermines centre way 3) its by of an insenedcilcular space formed by piels and which coveredby a dome.This is a technique can alsobe appliedto lalr adaptations ofexistinS whercone oftenachieves valid architecspaces Nral results.Circular spaces, dveloptheir to neda certain sparialiryand functionaluscfulness, minimum dimension which should not be underestirnaled. Espciallyheightandform of lhe ceiling are crucial. In illustration4 a hiShcircular spaceis cut throughby a bridgewhich,because ofits transparent strucNre, allowsprception of the olcrall space. This example alsohintsst the fact lhat circular rooms,beingnondirectional, are often used in a boundarypositionas the mediation of spaces with multidirectional structure. Illuslration describes cyclinders 5 two which interlock. The transparent tangenlialzooe offers a fascinatingarperienceof space. A famousexamplein architectuml history is the holse of lhc Russian conslructivist Constantin Melnilov. Illustrarions and 7 show circular 6 spaccsin eachcasebeinSrelatedto otber rooms. The laier are designed loggias anterooms as or which surround the central space. These place on the circular spacan anangements aftbiYalentrole. On the one hand,it is a space of tranquilliry, void of fumiture and other as equipment. theotherhand,it serves a kind On ofdlstributor, beingin thc bcstpositionto connect different routes and meanings.Illustotion 9 of actually belongsto thc them:composition spaces. plan, sqlarc, octaSon smi-circle In and form a rhylhmic scquenc spaces.It is of imporlant io note how cle3rly geomelricalfonns can be broucht into correlation.

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Addition and Penetration of Spaces Pracin

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The basicformsdealt wilh abovecan give rise !o innumerable combinations spaces; it is of so oul of thequestion that theemployment ofclear forms restrictscrcative irnagination.Considering the mightyheritage ofarchitecoral history,the aberrations modernarchitecnrre of haveproved one fact: spaces which canbe described, which are conceivablein real lerms, havethe advantage of multifarious waysof utilization; still-and this fact cannot be pointed out often enough-a buildingerists in gneral longerthanits initially assigned utilization. Illustralion shows square, I a tenrshaped spacc,fonned by an inner shell which spamtes from a cor.idor. The roule leadsfrom i( a represenlational staircase-inserted in an ellipse-lo an ante-space lllter into the main room. In illustration2 a directionalaectangular space leadsto a semi-circulaa which hasa one relieving effect, promising a pleasantvtsta. Narrownessof the two spacescreatcs an lmportant tension.In the space which is shown in illustralion 3, it is the vaulting of the reclangular spacewhich createsa relationship withthesemi-circular forecourts. Iltusrrations 4 and5 picture examples ofsimpleseries spaces: of through an entaanceafea one reaches a rectangular room whichis terminated a semiby circlewhichis ils culmination. Illustrations and 6 7 provethatit is alsopossible give reclangular io spaces centre by way of widening and the a superimposition cenrral ofa circularspace. The laslrwoexamples, illustrations and9, dealwith 8 a rectangular spacewith curvedends.It gains differnl spatial effects by way of irs inner configuration widening. or

ELEME:{TS ARCHITECTURE INTERIORS OF It

(illuslrationsI to 3) are not Oval-shapcd spaccs a mcdification ofcircular spaces, standasan but indepndent which, sincethe Renaissance, type hasalways becnsn a contrast the circle, as to ThcirclereprescnB moncaentric a view oflife, the oval shapea duo-centricone. Thc circle was favoured by the conservative,neo-classical lhaorisls(Albcni, Brasunte) in the RcDaissance, whcres the modehs (Penrzzi, Srlio) preferred the oval, vrhich reached its prime in the Baroqu.* cours Of from a formalpoint viw, of lheovalallowsfor similaroperations dosrhe as circle. However,similar to the rectangle,the oval is dircctional. Triangllar spaces(illusr.ations to 6) are 4 conceivable specialftrrns becausc thatr as of pointed eages, whicharc?ifficuhro tulty urilize. For praclical reasons,the triangl is oftcn deformed; edges cut off or rhethreesides the are are roundedoul. The T.inity churchcsof the Baroqu knownexanplcs are ofthis. For secular purposes, triangleis suitable mgdiation the as of threedistinctdircctions oftraffic routes,or if a tnrnk roadsplits into two less importantones. Spcial (illustrations7 io 9) $dch from shapcs all possible polygons the irregularlymodelled to space-urccave. To and this chronology, it may bc rernarked thatall spaces shouldhavein commondefining bordcrs.A spaceshouldalwaysallow itself to b defurd, describcdand understood wi$out one havinS takerefugein its airnospherical to values to besin with.

' Sccl.od. 'Dic ovalcnKirch.nrii.tmcdcs Cinqucnro', il R(,nisch.s Jahtuuch Jtu Ku^sts.schichte, 1tl volum., 1955.

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35

ELEIIENTS OF ARCHITECTURI Ir ItiTERtORS

cxplainingsparialrclatioNhips inrcrpr.tadonof Pailadio'sSround'plans Diagraounatic

The Art of Spaces Composing

I cuided by thc work of Palladio, would like to horv spaccsshouldbc brought itlo dernonslrate scqucnccin ordcr to crcatespatial andaesthctic relationships. It is not sufficicnt to be well acquaintcdwith $c quality of a single spaceas such. One must also be ablc to join spaccsiD a way that togcthar ihcy nukc an intercstinS composition. l T.atro Ollnplco, Vlcenza l5t0 The auditorium dcviatesfrom the semi_circular of vitruvian typc, conunonat lhat dme, bccausc lack of spacc. It is . half amphithcatrcin plan with .isint tiers of scats.At thc l.v.l of fte toP ticr, the spaca is terminated by a colonoadc columns consisting of blind and frec-standinS giving acccssto thc stairs which src siNatad in spacc thecomets.This sclf-co ainedgeomldaal appeaBasif ins.ned into an irrcgular larger onc. by The stageis linked with th. audiencc wry of a rcctilinca! scenaeJrons. a .ichly structured facadewidt fivc openiogsthrouShwhich scvan 'slrccts'are visiblcin exrggcratd Pc$pcctivc. a sc!lin8, reprasenlhg city in This pcnnancnt style, only allowed fo! tha pcrforRcnaissarrcc mancc of classicalplays. 2. Pdrzzo Porto. Vlcebz! 1549 The ccntrdl spaccof this complcx is an inner courtvad which is siuratrdbctwccntwo lic kal oalaccblock. onc for thc uscof thc matcr aid iis houschold,and thc other for Sucsls.The two ba*_ are tivinS arcis widr idcnticalfacadcs situatad ween two public strcats. Ona antcrsthe palacc through a vcstibulc with four colunut slrpPortinS a cross-vault.Frcm thcrc a narow corridor lcrds to cenral conilc which on clch sidc ha fivc axca. Thc $ace bctwcn thc i*o columns in thc ccntrc is biggcr than thlt bcNecn lhc othcrs:6,3/6,3/8/6,3/6,3 (frct). Thc colurn$ arc iwo srorryshigh lrd suppolta Sdlcry on lhc lcv.l of lhe upper floor which is also hcld by srnatlcr pilastcrsopposiElhe columns.Thc only clcltEnt that has no symnEtrical countcrysn is thc rnrn at which is situatad onc si& ofthccoutt' stairc8sc yard a{ually distant from thc two cntranccs. Pa.lladio's intentiol was !o focusattcntionoo lhc cortilc, bcint drc mo6t bcauritul pan of lhc Dalacc.Thc staircsscis rathaamodestin lcrms latSc-scale ncvcrcraatcd Palladio of spatiality. the betwccD difrarenlfloors. spaces connccting

36

ELEMENTS OF ARCHITECTTJRE I: INTERIORS

Ground'plans projctsby Palladio of

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It was only in thc Barcque that the st ircase becamea theatrical evcnt. h thc Venetian NDe of palaceit alwaysrenaineda secondarv element. Much more imponrnt wasthe rhyfhm of spaccs ro be experienced whcn walking throughthe roonE: the vicissiNdeofwide andnafiow, squaE and rectangularspacrssuggesting ei6er to llnSer of to continueone's way. 3. Palazzo V.lnrrara, Vlc||'o 1565 The scquence spaces this palace of in corrcsponds in a rnalvllousway to a cadenc ofdiffercni light intensity. One entersrhe building throlgh a dark narrow corridor which leads to a dim arcaded hall. the transparcncy which givesaccess of to rhe brighr squarcinnerSounyard.The spacc trerwenthe columnsdifinishes from the middle towardsthe sidesr2/4/4n W4/2 (fr,t\ . Th.reforc lhe light penetration morEintensein the middle is of th spacc where one actually walks. On the o6er sideof the counyardoneentersaSaina dim hall which mediales btween exteriorand Ihe interior,andwhichon bothsides narowedby is one verticalaxis. Thena dark corridor, which is shonerthanthe fi.st one, leadsinto a tarocn which has a proportionof 2:1. 4. Palezzo Thlene. Vtcenza 1542/,16 The ground-planof this palaccis one of lhe mosl intercsiingin Palladio'searly work, From a lripartite en!"nce hall, the ponal of which is cmphasisd a ponico,onearrives a square by in inner courtyard which is surroundcdby an arcade. The comers sccm to be denscr bause their hish rectangular openhgsareonly 4 feerwidc whe; lhe normal opcningsare 8 fert *ide. The same rhythn is applied to thc orSanisation the upof per floor. Of inte.rst is the varicty of differc spatial geomet.ic! which ar aftangedround the coulOfard within the wholc complcx forming a consistcntscrics of sluces. Squareaoorns alterDatewith oblongor tnnsverserctargularspaces. Comersare aniculatd way ofthe ocbgonal by room-width bays.The stalEscs atr oval in phn. 5. Pslrzzo Porto, Plsz?r Cartello, Vlcenza t57l Only two window axeshavebcenbuilt from this dcsiSn Oottom riSht). The facsdc's dominan! featurcis a tigantic order of colums. A spacpus tripanite cotftnce hall was rneqnt to lcad to a courtyard consdrutedby a rcc(angleand a scfircircle. Thc concaveback wall absorbs rnovcnEnl in the dilcction of ahelongitudinal axis. Spiral starrcases grcupcd around the courtyard for are acccss thc buildinc. to

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6. Villa Rotonds, Vicenzs 156tu7 The Villa Rotonda themostconsistent is e*unDle of a symmetricalplan. The idea for such a composttronwas cenainly also due lo the topographical characlerof lhe si!e, a gently slopinghill. Palladio's inrention,ro conslrurea relationshipbctween rhe laodscapeand tfie building. is manifesred way of the broad by extemalstairson all four sidesof rhe villa. As they rise rowards house,they form a buift the continualion thenahiralhill. The entrances of on all four sides emphasised porticoes the are by for enjoyment ofthe viewsall round.Inside,thetwo main axes nrn ihrough narrow halls, slightly wider on the entry axis, and meet h a rouncl cenlral space which is rwo-storeyshigh and covered a dome.In conlmst theplans by to which I havedescribed before,it is not theaxisofdeoth that is the rnainprinciple in this case,bur ihe hamoniousarrangement rectangulalrooms of with a circular rnainspacein lhe centre 7. Vlls Pisani, Bagnolo di Loniso lS42 The main entrance situared a iouitudinat is on sideof the spacious rectangular courtya;d*,hich rsmostlysuftounded an arcade. by Thecorunrns ofthe arcade interrupted theenlrance are in arca waytoa tliple flighrofslairsanda ponico. Srvulg The vestibule le3ds direcdyinrothe cross-shapd vauhedmain spac. The passage rhe garden ro rslhrougha lransverse recbngularloggiawhich hastwo semi-circular terminations the snon on sides. t. VUla Pisad, lltontagnana (psdur) l5S2 From th streetand an outsideshircasc. one arrivcsdirectlyin rhesquare main room wirich, by way offour free-standing columns supporting a transverse barrel vault, is divided into mree zones,A corridor givesaccess the loggia where to the positionof the columnscortesponds that to of the main space.From here on! has access eilher to the upperpart of rhe buitdingby way ol two oval staircases eachshon sideof the on loggia.or onecondnues axis into the garden on by way of an outsidesbircase. 9. Chies. dl Redentore,Venice 1576 The ground-plan consists three spadalaras of which correspond different funitions. The to church is enteredand a long rectangular nave providesrhe spatialframe for the Drocessional routeof$e faithful.Thedirectionof movemenr is emphasised lhe longitudinatbarrel vault and by the doublecolumnsof both sidesof the nave, which in achcaseconstiture niche.The nav a terminates rhe most imponant pan of $e al church, the slf-containcd chancel which is coveredby a dome and is accessible from all sides.The space er argedon rhreesidesby way is ofapss.The backofthe middleaDse a *all is of columns through which the cioir can be viewed. 10. Tempietto Barbaro, Mssr l5t0 A rectangulaa porticogivesaccess a circular to domedspac.To this spacechancels attrched are which arc situatd the prolongationof thernain on axes.They haveroundedback walls and therby conespond thc form of the main space. to The entire compositionis orientatedtowads the cenlre, as with the Villa Rotonda.

ll. ChicsadeueZlt.Is, Venic 1579 A recuotlc, whichis enclosed from theoutside, includes basicallysquarernain spaccin its a centralarla covercdby a dom.The edges dis of room arc bevelledin order to rndiate souatcand circle. A rctangular anteroomsupponinga ba.rel-shaped vault is extended front of lhc in mainspace. contrast thTempieno In lo Barbaro (10), the entrance axis is orientated towards a singlechancel *hich is anached theopposite ro sideof lhc rnainspacc. 12, Chlessdi S. Luci., Venice t564 Herc also,we havean cnclosed. nearlysqlare

plan,whichhasnoprojecrions oradditions. Fmm an anteroom arrivesin a rectangular one main spacewhich is covered a transverse by barrel vauk.Thechancel situa(ed rheprolonqarron is in of de longitudinal \ idr semi-ciicular axis n-iches added it; it is flantedlo the left andrherighr to by mjnorsquarechapels compound wirl column! in thecomers. emphasised The tr;nsverse direction ofthe mainspace creates calminq a counterbalance themovement ofentran; to alLr. to axis 13. Palazzo Capra, Vicenza1563-64 Similarto the Palazzo Pono (2). a rhythmical, syrnmetrical sequence spaces of develops along

DiaSramnuric inrerprrarion Palhdio s grcu'd,ptans of erptainhg composnio, spaces (conrinued) of

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to at angles eachother sPaces aiSht rectangular which, when taken wirh similar dimensions room The form a T-shape. lransverse together, added ils shon sides lo apses hassemi-circular main tle From tlere one reaches rectangular of|he four col roomwhichpicksup the motive is hall. This sPace enlargunmsfrom lhe entrance axis.A small ed to theleft andriShtby a second the loggiacreates transitionto thecounyardand, 14. Project for r Prlsce in Vnice 155f, inlo siaircase todreoYal a This projectdiscloses very evenlfulsequence on theleft, givesaccess axis.The square lhe house. of spaces alonga lonSitudinal by entrance is structured way of four free_ hall above. 15. Project for a Prlace ln venlce columns carryinga cross-vault standing lils with tbe formerexample room is folloeed by lwo basically when compard -This (contrnued) b) pllnsof projeds Palhdio Ground to the axisofdeplh. A narro\! corridorleads a widened anteroom futallylo a quietsquare and sup_ by inner counyardsurrounded an arcade Tmvers_ portedby four free-standing columns. narow ing the counyard,the roomsSradually inlo again,leading a lo88lafollo{ed by a seconcl and la.gercourtyard.

projectshowsa similar organisation; however, rhe situation is different. The transverse entrance hall is biggerand againis rectangular columns. A by constituted four free-standing shortnarrowcorridor leadsto a snuller oblong hatl which to the left receivesliSht from the and to the riShl givesaccess adjacen! courtyard, A short corridor to the main staircase, second hall leads throlgh an arcaded inlo thecourtyard which, on its opposi(eside, is conlined by a arcaded hall. scond 16. Pslazzo Angsrano, Ylcnza 1564 by of The ground-plan conslitulcd a sequence is lhree spatial unils, rrhere one preparcs for the oext. All arcashave in commonthe motiveof the positionofcolumns bul differcndyaPplied. by hall is slructured way of two The entrance direction andcor_ in rowsof columns transverse into lhe walls. rcsponding half columnsrecessed has with anarcadc, Theadjacen! courtyard, first hall, bu! is much thesamewidth asthe entrance depcr.The colunmssurroundthe counyardor y a support 8allery. on threesides and,asarcades, axis gives The openfounh sideof the entmnce accessto lhe main slaircaseso that lhe narrow into the passages both sidesof lhe staircase on arcaded courtyardappearaspolongations second of arcadesof the firs! courtyard- The larSer with by is courtyard againsurrounded an arcade area.By the spacofthe staircase theexception ing oftheiows ofcolunns, the width of thetwo is olher spaces takenllFJagain. 17. PalarzoTorre, Verom 156l hasan enclosed Thisbuildingis free-standinSand reclangularground-plan. The two main of axesdelermine organisation lhe intersecting axisleads The entrance differentspaces, shorter lhen into the space, first ofall into a reclangular square main ball, and from thereagainhto a reclh tangularspacewhich accornmodales man The staircase. threeroomshavthe samcwidth The of because thecolurnns. andarelransparent the longeraxis runs throuSh two sideentrances which, by way of narrow corridorsand snrall anterooms,lads againinto the centralhall.The principlehereis the gradualwideningof spaces towardsthe cenlre. 16, ViUr Mocenico, 1564 the lowards is Thc wholccomposilion orientated centml hall as is the casewith the Villa Rotonda here is that a definitemain axis The difference are exists,On two sidesexteriorspaces created which prepare arcadcs by way of quaner-circle for lhe interior. Here we also have locatedthe nrainentrances,whoseponicoes consistof eight on columns,whereasthe side<ntrances the other sidesonly consistof six colurnns.Oneof the main by is emphasised way ofsn cntrdnces especially and columns the hall entrance with free-standing adjacent main staircase.

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Ceilingsand Floors
Thesccxamplcsshouldonly scwe as a smali mdication of what wc havc lost in terms of trearmentofthe mostihportant surfaccs ofan intenor spacc-thc floor and thc cciling. Thc surfaceof a roomwhich wausee3chday, on which we walk all the time, cannottr dealt with only in terms ofuscfulncss case maintenaDcc. sam or of Tha applicsto rhe cciling, the tlrminatior of I space

aboveour hcads.A sprce's significanccand us, indcpcndnt from its sizc, car bc adaptedand structurcdby way ofan intentionaland pair|staking fcatment of thesd suafaccs. Centralised spaccscan be emphldsrd, lincs of movemcnts can bc represcnted.No carFt covcring the entire floor can have the effect which is so clearly achicvedby scparatcbetutiful nrgson a haads:urfacai the crcalion of sriall islandswithin a space, of infonnal borders which underlinethe crnployment and structure of thc room; 8nd vhich also,

whcn looked at, give rise to a little happiness snd relief. With one cxemple, I would also likc ro explain thc clonomic aspectof a soundtrftlent of surfaccs. Ai thc moment timber ceilings are vcry popular. But, riany pcople prfer to use chcap vcnecrcd pancls, or even foarn rubbr berns with an cmbossed wood pattcm. After somcyesrssuchjunk becomes dusty,sciatchcd and mean-lookin8, and has to bc raplacedby a ncw ceiling. Compalcdwirh this, wc still find in old housesunpaintedceilings rnadcof natural

Srudent worls on rhe thcm. of Ccilingsand Floors

40

Jmbr. Every few years they are cleanedwith soap and brush and thcteby develop ovcr time 1 silky lustre, a patina,which makesthe matetial, n the course of decades, more and more )e5uritul. Thesc thrc! clamples demonstrate pnnciple thc of floot and ceiling corresponding eacho0rcr. to lhey show how thc two surfaces broughtinto are nlo relationshipby way of fornul and consttuccompositions.Thc first eramplc (illustra-ional l) is the banting hlll of Otto wagner's Post tion

bricks TheSlass OmceSavings Bankin Vienna. to of the floor correspond the glassroof in ils The towardsdernaterialisation. pie6 teodency cmergefiom the floor pa(itions and Penetrate the roof into infinity. Also in thc nextexample (illuslration the companments thc vault 2) of to correspond thoseof thc floor. Thc transverse in lrches of the cciling are represented the floor, principle. lhe thc rilesofwhich repeat diagonal A classical,8omctricalordcr is applied in illustration 3. ,osef Plccnik createdan alrnost

whendesigning entmnce for sacral space lhe hall $e 'Zacherlhaus' Viennafillustratioo4). From in a shinyfloor riadc of naunl stone,black nudle columns rise and breakthroughan exquisitely positions the dctailed brightcciling.Theclose of marblecolufius,and their sitnificancc pan as of ihecomposition thespacc a whole,makc of as it necessary leave them wilhout base and to Whatis mostcrucialis the cnvelope capi(al. of the wholespace.

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|or orlhe DomedHall, PalaisRasumofsky, L. Monroyer. t806-07 by

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on |he ftcme of Columns and Picrs

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Columnsand Piers
Cennrriesof architecturalculture havecreated an inex.haustible variety of forms of columls ano piers.In Creekarchitecturc cpochs wrc named afte. their orders- Time and again the proponioning anddecoration column oier ofa or servedas an indication6nd characterisation of a cenain architecturalstyle. The students' dowings which accompany chapter this should merely remind us of this. h remained our for timesto giveup thecontinuous refinement ofthis archaicform. A columnhasa relationshiD wirh

thc groundand hasto carry a load; this alone should have beeosufficientenoughto tlestow higherconsiderarions rhese on lwo propnies. Concrete brick piersare problmatic to or due ItE vulnerabilityof their edges, whichup to a certainheightrcquire specialprotction.The reason for the cmployment banalconcrte, of steeior piersnowadays vry simpleandclear: timber is it i5 dueto high wages whichhavefar exceeded thcpricof nuterials. Experimenls concrere with picrsby Morandior Nervi, for cxample, no are longer possible because making the ofthem has bccome exF,nsive. too Exposed steelpiershad

lo disappear from the classic reDenoire arof chitecture to rigorousfire regulationsl due ano fte qualiry oflimber which generall! is available todayis sofeeble it hardlt allowsforanisan thal treatment. Doesall thismean endofthe colrhe umnandpierasanelement archilecural in creation?Of course. high wages fabricarion the for arejustified. it wouldbe imDonant maKe But to societyapprcciaE significarc; of archiccNral the design architecrutal and themes, lo thereby and gainpublicsupporl which$ould makeit meaningful againlo learnfrom lhe Ancienrs how to uscolumns a deviceof structure, as

Arcade ofa buildingfron rh. jttiddleAgcs,borcgna

Easc ofa picr in rh. coldcn Hall of rhcasdcHohcnsalrburg.c 1500

Basof a pier, BasilicaSan Viialc. Ravcnna. 545

Ponalof thc HciliSgeislkirchc, vinna,by J. Pl.Cnik, l9 l0 - t I

villa Salrcgno. Sanlasofia di pcdcmonrc,by pajladio, 1569

I: OF ELEMENTS ARCHITECTURE INTERIORS

Doors
of If one considers conception an inlerior thc whelber dooror window, space, everyopening, violadons, means violation thewall. These the of givc the roomits directionand i$ aphowever, role ln propriate Doorsplaya decisive meaninS. the they thiscontext because prepare visilor for of thespatial cventto come.The significance the from difbe door shouldthercfore considered feren!sandDoints. is forour rellection to A cnrcialirrc-condition recognize door asteing an ihporlant symbol. the snse ifone examines This baial statefiFntrnakes al the manyversions door formatsavailable of the present. areusedto a door havinS form We of an upright rcctangle. Here lhe most popular sizeslie in lhe proponionsl:2 to l:3 (illustraofa door can this, lhe meaning tion l). Beyond vary accordinS its purpose.A low door for to whichgivesaccess the parlourofan to instance, that the old farm house,clearlycodmunicates privatearcais to bepenetrated into. Doors ofde individually by way same kind canbe emphasised on of addidonal openinSs the sidesor above (illusrralion This kind of arlculation also 2). faciliratesorientation. It is not always the scale of rhe humanbody which detenninesthe size of thc in buildings, a door.Espccially monurnental dimensionsof the openings darivc from lhe proponions of thc raceptive space. Quile often a for everydaypurposes, door within a door {,as which could be usedeasily by peoPle conceived, just wantingto go thmugh. But when rnajor eventsoccurred,the cnlite over-dimensioned of door was opened. Descendants thesepalace doors arg still to be found in bourgeois houses of the nineteenthcentury. Thc norrnal foldinSdoor of a Vieoncscbourgeoishousehad a width of and of 1.25rnetres a heiSht 2.50 metrcs.But normally only onc half wasopened(about 60cm width)-seemingly nowadaysa hardly bearable (I standard. am always amusedto seesome 20O who students cameto my lecturesat theTchnical University in vicnna goinS in and out through sucha nanow slit withoutanyonehavi[g the ides to open the scondwinS of the door; a good e&mpl of the relativityof frrnction.) More delerminedby tunction is the position of a door. But even under complicated functional constraints,it is possiblein most cascsto find an appropriateposition which is in gc.metrical harmonywith thc room. Illustratiods 3 to 6 show lo attempts craatea pleciserelation bct\reenwall and opening. Of prime imponance are the pro-

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ponions of door heighr and door lintel !o fie residualsurfaccsat the sidesof thc door opening. As a mlc ir might bc approp.iateto apply the sysiem prolrcnionwhichdctcrmincs of the ground-plan thc clevatiolofa buildingalso and io the scondary elenrents suchas windows and doo$. lf i! is nol possiblc!o coordirlate door and wau in this way, thercarc otherdcvicesto neverthclessachievea harmoniousspace.Rclatively simpleis thecreadoo niches a wall or lhe of in concentmtion a groupof doorsandwindows. of A morcdifficult method,bu onc *hich helpsto cffich the spatial afiiosphcrc, is to insen bays which by way of piers are sparated from the actual room and would cushion irrcgular posttionsofdoors.This 'fiher' in frontofthe opening would c.eatea propet door spacewhich is symparhctic thc functionalstructureof the acto tual room (illustration O. The combination of (illustration7) is very door andwindowclemcnts appropriate, espcially thecas in ofbalconies, terraces loggias.It is cssntial, anil however,thal a distinctionin terms of proponionand sizc betweendoor and windo\, is retaincd. Befo.e I cnd this sction,I would like to mentionsome technical constructional and factors reladng doors.The violarionof thc wall causeo o by a door can bst be ovcrcome by fair-faced brickwork.The aftangement lintcl anddoor of lcaf is determined the logicof the brickwork by stttrcore,andtheframeis sqrredin thc rnasofy accordingly. Ifthe wallsareplastercd, door the fram in most cases si{ply surrounds the opening. And because the incessantctack of betwcntimber, plastcr and wallpapet, $e inhabitantrcalisesvery soonthat thesedifferent rnaterials difficulrtojoin properly. are With old doors. these weal areas wereresolved wayof by richly prof cd framcsand the employrnent of beautitul timbr. ln addition to that, tne decorators uscdmouldings achievc p.oper to a transidonfrom door frame to wall. (A fantastic example is Otto Wagncr's design for the managcment roorns in the Post Office Savings Bankin Vienna.The doorsare treatedas logical clcrncnts thc conposhionof the wall surfaces; of lhe *all panelsare thercforcof the ssmelimber as thc door and window fmmes.)Our contcmpomry standard door setsoffcr fela possibilities in terms of design. Today we can only conceotrateon the quality of proponions, the matcrial and colour. The stcl frame is mercly the rcpresntation a fmmc aroundlhe plain of doorleaf. I think thereis no longerany signof lheold typeofdoor. SeeminSly buildingmour dus!ryis or y interestcd incoshing nahtral productssuchastimbr into fibrcs only !o laler glue rhe stuff together agrin and to roll it imo big sheels.The tccluriqueof rnaking penelsoul of boards had led to astonishing results which bcamc rcal worksof an.

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FormerStadtbahn surionat Kadsplarz, Vinna. byO. wasner, 1898-9

PalmHousc thcBurggaflcn. vicnna.by F. OhFlann, in c 1900

HousKnips. Vienna. by J. Hoffmann, 1923-24

Kindrschutzstarion, Vicnoa,by J. Plc{ni}, 1907-08

ThSc.srion Buildirg,vi.nna. byJ.M. Olbnch.1898

Zachcrlhaus, Vienna.by J. Plcinik. 1903-05

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Slrdlbahnsiador ar rhc ciint, Vi.nna, by O. wagnr, I E96-97

ilindows
he theme ofthis sectionis the window ano ns rlationship interio. space.lts effecton the to the outside, facade.is deahwith in the seclon with the composition $e facade. dealiDg of Wilh respect to the relarionshipberween indow and interior space, first of all the - indow's functionas the sourceof lighr is of greatimponance. b more specific,we should To ralk aboutthe effectpnetrating light hason $e Lteiiorspace. the sameextentthat a room To by crcatd its wall surfaces, is enlivned by it Iighr.Onemaythinkofa sunbeam strikingupon a whitewall or producing reflections somewherc rthe room.The pl6yoflight andshadecreating aight our anddark zonesin a room, motivates *,varnessof the space-wherebynol only the source the light, the window, remains oui of in .onsciousnss, alsothe illuminated but surfaces f$e room:$e tertureofthe walls,a sparkling whichare given oor, fumitureor otherobjects -prominence thelight. Thercfor design by the of an interiorspace thechoiceofmaterialsand and tours, shouldalwaysuke into account effect the f pnetrating light. * one aspect that is quite often underestimated is the qualityof light and its dependence the on rimeofthe day, season, points weather, cardinal rd intensity.All this resultsin certainthough whichwe expcrience unsn8 light atmospheres ;s harsh, soft, suMued, dazzlinS,sparkling, obscure, misty etc. It is also imponantto find rt what quantityof light is app.op.iatefor a )ace. Too little light canonly be complemented artificial illumination; muchor too direcl too -y light should filteredwi$ the help of devices be .,rch as shutters,blinds, lintels, transparent inains and plants.Also forms of doubleskin 'all construction which allow indirecl (i.e. rts ;rcnsity weatened) are light to penetmte a good and appropriate solution. I do notallow my students design to horizontal bbonwindows.because want themfrom the I of rrrst momenton to tackle the Droblems the

windowand its sigDificance the room. In the for end,lighlcoming from a ribbonwindowonlyhas a very monotonous banaleffect on space, and Therefore for housing developments, the appropriateness ribbon windows is rather of lirnited.I am of the opinion that singlesources of light offer an opportuniryfor the space be to li( in a muchmoreexciting waywhilelheyalso allow the cradonof areasin shadewhich are very pleasant time of direci sunlighlpenetrain tion. Equallydoubttul in |ermsof benefiris tle wall or cunirn wall.The excessive fullyglazed amountof lighl is exiaustingfor lhe eyes,and oddlyenough, afterhavingtom up the wall, one hasto counteract implications excessive the of equipment. lighi by way ofspecialsunprolection The room itsclf is completelyopenonly on one andlhe tension side,its geometry dertroted. is btween insideandoutsideis diluted.But, iffor one functional designreasons \vall of a toom or hasro be left open,it is much bette.to applyan architecturally effectivemethod,suchas a row of piersor welfo.dered bars, which would not As destroy, butenrich,theinteriorspace. we are not in favourof the ribbon window, we haveto cometo termswith the positionof the window. ln general,we can slablishthat if a room ls penetratd light onlt from oneside,whichin by theextreme case couldbe directsunlighl,anuncomforlable dazzlewill easilyresult.Bu! if the main sourceof light is balanced a smaller by windowon another one side-the opposite would be bst- or fmm above.lhen the room will be betterlil. Even reflectivemasonrysurrounding btween the big windowscansoftent}tecontrast brigh! outsideand the dark inside. Nor only is rhe way in which lighl affectsihe \r'henlalkingaboutthe interiorspace significant is position a window, but the view presented of a The *indow f!_ames cenainpan of important. and makesit inlo a kind of our environment pictur, but one which is changingconslandy, painting to very muchin constrast themotionless oo the wall which canbe an artisticsubsdnrdon for what migh! be seenlhrougha window. The by of awareness theoutsideworld is inlensified

a crosswindow,or generally \rindowswith by struc$ring bars,andbecomes wealerthebigger the windowopening Thuswindowsor glass is. walls which are too big, which open up the interiorspacc tolally,maketheroomuncomforuble; the feelingof safetyand securilyis lost. If nevenheless generous a lransitionfrom the inside!o the oulsideis desired, one shouldnot think of achieving this in an abruptway. but gradually. way of loggias transparent by or ancl projeclions (verandas instance). lightweiBht for the whicharesi8nificant lf weconsiderall points when dealingwith the window-such as light penetration its effec!on the interior, Iight and quality,position the window, view from the of window-then it becomes obvious l})at,strictly speaking, windowdeserves muchcareas fie as doestle actualroom. BasicForms and Bars The square, triangleand lhe circle are lhe tle basicgeomelrical forms for the window. The latter two, however,have to be regardedas special forms.Traditionally theywereusedfor spaces eminent solemn of or significance. is It therefore recommendable trcat circular and to triangular windowswith greatcare,and to use them sparinglyso ihat their meaningis not Othe.wise theywoulddegene.ate trivialised. to graphic attribules quickly(illusrratoo negligible tio[ l). The classicwindow hasa rectangular upright format. For thousands yearsof arof chitecture, kindof li*lt source proved this has to be the most economic both in terms of conslruction in optimaltermsof functlon, and Relatedto constructional considerations, the simpleargument againsl broadwindowsis that lhey violateth wall considerably. termsof In function,lhe uprigh windowhasevolved meet to moslsimplyandefficiently requirements the for sufficient li8ht, air and view. The square window,although representing a precise form.is a veryabstract. and.in addirion. a very banalformat.It canbe appropriate in if the composidon a facadeit is used as a of harmonizing wi$ olherforms. element together

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ELEMEMS

OF ARCHITECTURE I: INTERIORS

In anonymousrural and urban architecture, squarc window formats are almost exclusively utility spaces. Vcry rurely arc lsed for scondary they applied to dorheslicbuildings. Scvcrd times when I thought I had discovercd a square window, it tumed out ir facl to be slightly reclan8llar. The exact squarc has also the of disadvantagc apFarhg disto(d whcnviwed from a cenain anglei face to facc it takes on a horizontal fonrut. The most common window proponions resuhfrom thedivisionof thecircle into 6rer parts( I : I . I 6); the division of th. circlc and irro four pans (l:1.4); lhe goldensection; the proportion l:2.5 (illustration2). I shouldmcntion that all my recortunendations although of conceming differen!aspects design, thcy rnay soundirrEfutable,alwaysallow for filstrate exccptions. refer only to k Corbusicr's I wirdow'. 'ribbon wirdow' or Aldo Rossi's'square windo\r divisions are firsdy related to the kind of oper ng one is dealingwith. They have to comply with basic function, such?rsopcnin8. ventilation and cleaning. In addition to these, window bars c6n be employed for the aesthetic structuring of thc window plane (illustrations 3 has to E). This Lttrr desiSnrcsponsibility been very much ncglectedin the rccent years. h was rhouShtto bc cnough to satisry the passionfor an unhindered view by way of panoramaglazing, which was rnadepossible by th producls of the Slazingindustry.Very oftenas a re$lt, the intimacy of a spaccwas destroyed:tastelcss 'cunain culturc' tr,astbc usr'saesponsa, Bccause of all thcse rcasonsonc shouldgo back again to sensibledivisions for the window and reconcile its desiSn with that of the facade. Th simple divisions, dependint on the kind of openinS, are horizontal or vcrtical, and the superimposition of these two. The colunon 'window-caoss' benquite successful. is has It economic in tcrms of timbcr consumPtionand handy in terms of ventilation and clcsniDg.One can ofthe top casarncnls oFn sepantely by way of a levcr rnecharism. Thc lowcr sftlc hung casemcnts allow for tbe uMvoidablecurtains also to be moved asidc when lhe willdow is io be opcncd. If peoplehave fcar of heighls, Ihey can le3non the closedcasment look out $rough and the other oFned one (illustration 6). The cxamples in illustration 4, which show differcnt arrangcments of bars, are rather decorativc. Thescwindows aaespcial in lrms of their strucure, lheir figurarion.the lension berweenlarSeaand srnaller divisions: they have an indcpendcntarchitectul siSnificance.The

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ELEME\TS OF ARCHITECTURE INTERIORS I:

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window surface itself becornes imDor.ant an elemen!of design. It would be precariousto replacethesekinds of windowsby synlheticor panorama glazing. They would destroy the texore of rhe facade. A successful patremin architecrumlhistory bar is the multipledivisiooof the window in fairly exactsquare (illustration5). For compartmen6 this rype, the differcnt thickness bars ls a of characteristic which resultsfrom the constructional functions frameand thinnerelcmenls. of Vertical sash-windows, common in Great Britain, allow for the greatestgraduarionof ventilalion.Both halvesof thc window can be moved upwardsand downwardsand they can remair in any F,osition-ir can come in either from tle top or the bonom. Specialforms of windowsdeak with hereare seenasderivarions of the re.langular window (itlustrations7 and 8). As regards rhe combrnationof differcnl *indow forrnats,J would like to suggest smpre a 'peasan! maxim' (illustration9): s l. Different window fomralsshouldnever line up witi eitherlheir lintelsor their sills. Otnrwise this would be a typical result of T-shape thinking . Cut the formrls out of dark cardboard and mo\e themaroundon the facade drawing: yo! *ill leam quickly how to avoid banal solutions.The tensionof the fomraE one ro anotheris teometricallymeasurcable. 2. One shouldb carcful with lhe additionof identical fo.rnalsboth in the horizontalandlhe verucar direction.Ifone triesto altmale siresstorcy lhe by storey,it will become evidenthow lively $e relationship betwen openingand nusonry can become(illustration9). Window Flgurs Windos figures are created when differcnt formats are brou3ht int6 "ar15",,a interdependence. They can even ba::t in an architecturalfaame and thciefoae b.ao6rc a paaticular element oithe facade. havesketched I someexamples explainwhatI mean:palladio to (illusrrarjons 2 top,3). Schintcl l. (illu.r:arion} 2 bonom.4. 5 top and middle.r,. 7). Gaudt (illustration and tr Corbusier E), (illustrarion 9). Window figurcs are always CividcJ into different elements. Openings with different functionsand m.anings are combined!o foi,-I an 'image'.The resuhis anexciting conducr light ot into the in@riorandan archirectura! aniculation on the outside.Window figurcsnrc alsoesFrially addressed cxt rior space.He.e the rclationship to to lhc overall facadeis crucial.

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Vienna.by J. Diirrhamner Markelhallin l-andstrasse,

BuildinSar Ilinorirenplatz, vienna. by E. Aichr

The Wlndow ss Room Dlvlder The cxamplesin this plate have treenmeasured up by sl.dent"J from old Vicnncscbuildings.They show dre refined treaunent,ahe richnessin dctail which wasappliedto th winlnd de significance dow. The bay window in illu$ration I is designed as a spccial room. A window is not rnercly with 'a hole in the *all', it defines real space a an arain faon!of thc witrdow, a bre3st-wallzone and an erterior space.This is best describcdby a thc cxpericnccwc havcwhcn approachinS wrndow: we are no longerinsideand not yet outside. Behind us Iics tlrc prot cting room and in front of us the exteaiorworld. The window has to be casyto reachto bc uscd. lr shouldalso tell us sonEthingaboutthe significanceand situation

l, of the roomsbehind.Illustrations 2 and4 also between exterior showwindows$ herelhe space and interior windowscan b used.By lhis, an is to oDtimalrcsDonse diffcrcnt climatic neds en' are sured-because severalcasements available to be openedor leff closed.This work much bermodem venler than even thc most sophisticated tilaiion systems(if they work at all!), Thesehints advocatethat the window should b understood andnot astnnsparntwall. asa spatialelement A spccialtheme is inroduced by lhe arched window (illustrations2,3 and 4). Although dividing the arch is an exremely risky task in to aestheticlerms, this w.s often undertaken emphasise certainwindowsover others.In the ninleenth cenrurythc archadwindo\t wasalao

usedin engineer-designed buildings. But the bars in the arch alrcadyusherin the dominationof the macbine(illustration3). Hcinrich Tessenophad slrong opinionsabout filling in panswhichcameinto conflictwith the when-as with lhe arched overall formi especially with an arch window-a rcctilineardivision meets so lhat unsightly residualare3sremain. As much as an archedwindow canbe very attractive,these not aside.Albeni difficultiesshould be brushed rstriction haspobably expEssed mostsevene the conceming this problemi '[n thesSons of Ap.rtures various desiSns have becn havenever commendedl lhe bestArchitects but and madeUseofany but Squares stmit Lines.'r

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H.HAL BRIT'I'E R Facsdelnd Window Axls Funhet reference a conEmporary grievance lo segmen6. windows The E is givenby ihcsfacsde let us irnaginethe wonderfully high rooms behind. It is rcally qucstionable whetherthe loweted ceiling heiShts in council housing represent proSrcss. suchstrikinS Ofcoursethey L ar cheaper than the old ones.Bathrooms and toiletsare cxpensive: would anyMy think but of ignorinS themin councilhousing becausc of cost facrors? just want to hinr at the priorities | govemus whenrnalinSbuildings. _ whichshould Unfonunatelyonc priority, the quality of the space, beennost ersily renounced. has And what alsobnlost in this contcxtis the high, reprEsentativewindow. Therefore, againan admonition H. R. schmrdt from Albeni aboutthc lreaiment *indo$s: of '...from whalever sidewe takcin theLight. we oughtto makc suchan Opening it, as may for alwaysSiveus a free Sighlof lhe Sky, and de Top ofthat Opening oughtneve.to be too low, because are to seethe Light with our Eyes, we and not with our Heels;besides lnconyethe nience, ifone Man gets $at between another and the Window,rheLiShtis intrceptcd, all lhc and rest of thc Room is darken'd, $hich never when the Light comesfrom above.' happens Withoutinlending anticipate section to tle on facades,I would like to show herc parts of facads which rclateto tbe vertical graduation of windows. The examples that in demonskate former times the valuationand meaningof paniculaf was storeys alsoapplied dledcsign ro of their windows. The a.rangemcnt these in buildings reprcsented social conditions, because differcnt storeyswere inhabitedby members of differentsocialclasses. Nverthcless todaywe are attractedby this differentiation not only for nostalgic rcasons. allowsfor sponEnous It orientation,the racognition ofpanicular storeys and a precise archilcctunldesignation. achicve To 6is, it is norabsolutelyneccssary usedifferot to windo* formats for special storys. Different rnat rials on the facade alsosuppona similar can effect, Albcni,1.r Eookt Archit.ctun, on 'L.onc Banish EnSlish publishcd AIccTinnt.London tnnslatior by | 965.chaDEr XIl.

Studcnlworks on $e them. ot SBkcascs

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is nesaon !op. Here the motivc of lhe staircase palaces linkedwi$ a socialfunclion.In Baroque bcomes representative a thc well ofthe staircase in itself is gorgeous detail, Hall. The staircase ofaccess in heslaircase lhe venicalelement is flights.lt is full oversized nrnsup in several and building, which enablesone to ascendand of lighr and sometimesends under a mighry lescend from one slorey to the next. The ts primitive forcrunnerof the staircase lhe ladder. cupola.The acrualpurposeof the staircase is The by : is theshones! connection belween places. dominated the nolion of representation. two in ot it is alsosteep hardlo use.In mostcass typical staircases relidential buildings in Vienand is not firmly insBlled in orde. to be used na reachedlheir prime in the nine|eenthcentury: - flexibly, and therefore lacksany properspatial curvedstairsof naturaistone,frce projeclionover .r architectonic one side, minimal lhicknessof rnaterial,generous quality.The otherextreme,the gaps bet*een flights. anistically designed rmp,allorrsforan almostimperceptible lranslbanisters and profiled handrails.The well was in on from storeyto storey.The differences leight are very easilyovercome. the space in mostcasesilluminated by a rooflight and quite But or water-taps, conlained sculpture which is requiredfor a ramp is considerably oftn,besides rrgerrhanfor a slaircase because the gentle stone benches.ln Orto wagner's residential of as buildings 6ese detaitshavebeenexecuted real iseof the former. masterPreces, its determines form - The functionofa staircase wascul down andat the same time shapes enclosing the space. In theyearsafterthe war, space we perceive either a straight flight or two for economic rcasonsand the large-scalestairwithouthesitation. This ppositediagonalfli8hls which cut throughthe has case beensacrificed in is why we havemerely functionalstaircases ,Jace.or a windinS movementwhich turns our modembuildings. They appearasan sddidon The way a skircaseruns: whetherit of disjoin@dsctionswith tiny landidgsand requires a-typically vertical-well; wherei( fi(s -pwards. lto the ground-plan:its construction rnaterial minimal flights. The Senerous8ap bctwecn and re all aspects flights, which allo,*ed the view from storeyto which contribute its form. to A shon glance historyshowsthe chanSing storey,has almos!completelygone. at which fomerly wasan imporemphasis which wasgivento the staircase. The The staircase, qomanesque had tan! area of humanconmrlnication.has to be spiral staircase, inslance, for given back hs approprialc significancein a o light and havingthe shape a tube filled a of building. solutions for stai$ on a more rcess the masonryor wasprcssedinto in _lecial approprialescale a.e still possible.It is not . circular (ower. lt fulfiUed the purposof which we find transporting people like difficult to crcatcthcm as spaces upstairs downstairs and pleasan!, which receiveenoughliSht and allow venicalconidor. Du.ingthecothic period,the views to the outside, and which arc enlivenedby uter skin of the suircasewas a(iculated by pcnetrating througha roofli8ht.The a sunbeam columns and tracery. Light could -rcades. penetraleand it could be looked l.l0 metres widthsdo not needio be enormous: lherefore intervene to l 20 metrcsis anough,if landings cnturywe havestair 'hrough. In the sixteenrh or vedcally beyond vJhichallow for conversation restingon a )wers which werc extended bench. a'crow'sbuildings thcybelonged havinS to, -rc

Staircases

- The mo$ imponant requLement staircase ofa is thatthedegrce ofrise is asgende possible, as in order to rcduce to a minimum lhe effort necessary for climbing. To determine a convenient angleofrise, firsl ofall thestrideof a hurnan beingmustbetakenintoconsidration, which on average a lengrhof 63 cm. lt is has assumed the movement vcnicaldirectlon lhat in requires a double effon in comparisonwilh the horizonul one. This means arithrnetical in terms. onc trcadandtwice the riser shouldmake63 cm. The most comfortable staircasaccoading to Vicnnese traditionhasriserswhich arc 14 cm high and treads 35 cm width. Unfortunately of most staircases steeperlpith risers of lE to are 19 cm because rcduction in floor spacecan be a If of is achieved. lhe heiSht steps lessthan 14 cm, the botlom line of convenierceis .eached in is because difference altitude onlyvery slowly mastered. The staircase its surroundingspacearean and pan of the architectonic essntial compositionof a building. Its function of giving accessto different storcyscan ooly be achicvcdin a meaningtulway if lhis quality is irnrnediately obvious; in olher words, if it is clear that the starrcase serves as a device of orientation in a buildinS. Todayone nukes do with lechnicaland guidinS systems insrcad organising of Sraphical rouGsand stairsin a way thatby their positioo, by wayof theirrelations theentrancc thcir to and particular form, the plan of the building can bc understood and visitoa can easily oricntate tbcmselves.If a building has !o acco[unodate sveralsiaircases,the hierarchy of significance and frequencyin termsofuse canbe rnanifested in desiSn, whileunmistakable areas crcated. arc Form directly fulfills function. Hre the whole richnessof typologicalvariationsis at our disDosal.

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VieDna, A l.oos, by BuildingstMichaclcrplatz, l 9l 0

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ELEMENTS OF ARCHITECTURE I: IMERIORS

Si!ircas Similar to the ladder put against a wall, the Illustmtion solution. straight stairis thesimplest I showsan examplewhich is fitted into a frame is of piers and bams.If a stmight staircase to situaiedin a bigger space,access the different storeyscan t'e given by way of a gallery (illustmtion 2). This type works very well in public buildings. The respectivestair lo the next storcy is easyto find, and lhe gallery allows all rooms on one level to bc enlrred widDut difficulty. and Mor conomicalin tennsof space, therforE better suited for housing developments,is the well ath straightflighrsof sbirs of the square samesize as lhe landings(illustration3). Onc common solution is the developrnent of two straiSht flighrs with an inErmediate landing by (illustralion If fte landinS bordered an is 4). exlerior wall it is possibleto arrangefor the well to ger nabiralligh!. Threflights of slairs(ilustrations5 to 7) havc !o be seenprirnarilyas being relaledto reprcsntation. They alnost direcdyask in for'dignified striding'.The crGmple illustration 5 is suitablefor repetitionover sevcral sbns with one fli8ht storeys. broadstaircase A at landingis reached, which until the intermediata point i! tums into two fliShtswhich arc narrower than the tirst one. However, the ctample in illustration wheretwo fli8htsrisein different 6, directions from the intermedialelanding, hasits besteffectifapplied only oncein a building.ln illustration 7 two flights of stairs from opposite onc stair. This iorm directions meetto become witr espaciallyfor passage-ways is recornmended equally two enttances, they canbe approached as 8, The type in illusttation from both directions. which is a flight of two stairswi$ preliminary integratio[ into a high stepsleadingto it, dernands space which allows lhc *hole staircase to be lookeda! from elsewherc.A very cosdy solution is shown in illustration9, wherestairschange their dkection on cvery level to Siva access altcmalely to oppositesides.This canbe suilable for sDecial solutions.

ELEIIENTS OF ARCHITECTURE I: INTERIORS

The geonEtricalriodification of stmiShtstaircase leadsto spi.al stairs. In difficult spatialsituations, for inslance comers,a two-fligh! staircasc a on triangularground-plan be applied(illustracan lion l). A variarion oflhis form is s slair risinc in lhrceIlightson thessme (illustra: ground-plan tion 2). but herc only a small landbg rcmams. Two fli8hts of stairs on a polygonalgroundplan-for examplca hexagon (iltustration 3)pmvide the well wilh a high spariatqualirr. Illustrarion is more rclatedto the cxDloitation 4 of a geometrical fo.m where thc sides of an octagonare consliotcd altemately by flighb and landings. Illustrations5 to 9 show eromplesof spiral sbircases,The verylnarrow newel slaircases (illustrations and dfarc difficutt for cldcrly 5 people and unsuilable fo. bigSer objecb to be transponed. This is not the cass/ith *inding staircases half<ircular(illustririon7) oroval on ground-plans (illustrations and 9). Here { $ E alsopossible find one'sown walking rhythm to by eitherclimbingon the inneror theouterside. Whal shouldbc avoided is thc alEmation of circular and straight stcps, becausethis makes it very difficult to find one's natural walking rhythm.

priod, vienna, c 1830 Staircasc a buildingfmm th Biedenneier in

vienna, Staircase a building from the Biedemeierpnod. Margarethenstrass, in c 1830

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Spiralstaircalc,second Bank. Vienna, building phascof the Post Office SavinSs by O. Wagncrwith O. Schonlal,l9l0-12

for in Bank,Vinna. Staircase the officials Beamreostige the PostOfllce Savings by O. w aS ncr,l 9l 0-1912

58

Entranc. hall of a r.sidential build in Lnndsrrass, if,8 vienna,by ,. Brychb. I 862

'Majolik h.us at dlcR.cht wicnzeil.,VicMa. by O. wrgnci, |898

59

Facades
architectural The facadeis still themostessential thc of capable communicating function element I ofa andsignificance building. say'still'. having rn proclaimed destruction in mindits theoretical ofthe *here the ideology century the lwentieth object, visible from all sides, free-slanding The prfectionof the became'body Dredominant. of had prioriryover the crealion building It lhe a specific'show-side'facing stre!. is only of in receotyears, after the rediscovery the offte publicrealmandthevalueof imponance urban life, that the facadc rcgained a new valuation. The facadenever only fulfills lhe'natural of by dctermined theorganisation requirements' behind.h talks aboutthe cultural the roonLs wasbuilt; siuationat thctimewhcn$e building it revels criteria of orderandordering,andgives of and an accolntof thc possibilities ingenuily alsotells A omamentatioo decoration. facade and gives them of usabout inhabitatts a building, the a collectivc identhy as a communily, and of ul(irnatrl) is the reprcsentalion the lalter in Dublic. from lhe The root ofthe word 'facade'slems with the btin 'facies' which is synonymous if 'face'and'appearance'. Therefore, we wonds talk aboutthe 'face' of a building,the facade, In all 1pe mean above thefroni facingthe strect. to to contrast that, the back is assiSned smlBoth these public or private exterior spaces. of Dhenomena front and back relate-roughly ipeaking-on lhe onehandto public rcsponsibility and on lhe other hand to the privat slfof reprcsentation the inhabitanls comparedwilh of character the sreet the more representative the facade, backof a buildingis moreopenand with cou(yard, Sarden and communicates landscape. The often-usedframed facadernadeof liSht and material glazingis too stlndardin tyPeand too abstracl in character for housing It develoDments. does nol allow for aesthetic differentiation and is too vulnerable and to has Sucha'skin facade' nothing transparent. do with the appropriatefacadefor a residential and be buildinq.whichshould moreclosed conthe cealinq-towards street.in order to protectthe orivarf sphercof lhc iniabihnts All these ;eouirenenlsarc sliil bestmetby the solid facade wh'osc massive,protecdngexterior wall N lo perforatcdby openinSs let air and liShl onerrate the intetiorof thebuilding Also' into the in termsofenergyconsumplion solidfacade bcause is *ithou! doubtmuchmoreapproPnarc' its exterior wall has a higherthermalstorage caused . capacity ln Austna,the energyProblcms haveal.eadybeentakeninto by glassfacades proponion In account. publicbuildugsa smaller surfaceis allowedas of windowsin a facade with previou5 compared )ears This Propodion has and opening Plane at leaststopped between walls,and of developmen! curtain theunhindercd to lhe hashelped solid facade Sainnewropicality. of The comPosition a facade,laking into (windows, requirements the accoudt functional roof area) is door opnings,sun proteclion. a todo essentially withthecreationol harmonlou! venicaland of e ity by means goodproPo(ions, horizolal structuring,materials,colour and SinceVilruvius architects decorative elements, have beenlrying to developmetricalrelations which would give an ideal order and strucnire to the facade-and alsoto floor plansand rooms This wasthoughtto be the way ofachievingab_ such solutebauty.Especiallyh the Renaissance, of anefipb were rcfened to systerns numtrs and was rulesof proportions.Plato'sphilosoPhy lalen asa basis,aswerc thethoughlsof Neo_Platon$m. app.oved-andso Renaissance SaintAugustine ftat convinced thewhole anistswerelhorouShly and harmonious universewas a rnatiemalical creation.By suchthitikinS, ruleswerc established as whichwittkowcr describes follows: '. .If fte prvade everything laws of harmonicnumbers life to sDheres themosthumble from thecelestial on canh, rhenoui tery soulsmust conform to t thisharmony...' beauty a But the aim of reaching harmonious only in this way Oneneeds be cannot achieved view Sivenfrom only to considerfiattheoblique the bottom of a buildinS, togetier with the and effects of constantlychangingconstrasts prcvenlusfrom by depthcaused light andshade, proponions ex' perceiving suchtruly calculatd very impo(antto me it acdy.Neveiheless seems with the helPof window proponions to examine andequallyto studytheprothegoldensection, baseand total ponionsof opningand parapt, will leadafter a while heightetc. This exercise harmonious to a 'narural'sense ofpleasanl, Proh portions,e.g. a well-balanced composition. is which, similar to the rhythm in architecture music, rousesemolionsin us. Thereforeit is of possibleto transferconceptions musicaltheory
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rccdy lo architectural composhion. The vent-interval, tnlarilies of tension-relaxation, accord-conlrasl; principleof repclition;the the ^.ocessof lhe themebeing carriedihrough in planes riations; crcat rhythm all the ofrnasss, d lines. -Let us. for examole. reflect on winoow openingswhich repeatthemselves again and ain. which in succession wilh the wall )ments.crealethe contrasts open-closed, of smoothand rough surfaces. th A! -rkli8ht, because priodical sametime repelitionthey of _.oducea quiet orderand vary the sametheme )m storeyto storeyby way of-for instance_yrhmical diminution towards the top (appropriale becaus light qualityincreases). the An importanlaspect ofstructuringthe facade to makea distinc(ion betwen horizontal the d thevenical elements, of whichcan,in each generaleffect. Ecmselves,createan adequaie Normauythe proportions theelemenG of should -'rrespond to thoseof the whole. AccordinSly low broad buildings,windows, bays, elc., would predominate, whereas *)ad proportions in high buildingsslender give a sens elements '.f th largebeingfoundin lhe srnalland the srnall ing found in th large, as it is similarly perienced naore. in principles facade, ofa -Following theordering $e constructional can conditions b madevisirre, e.g. by chanoelling bearingforcesinto the :rs. This articulation ofvenicality would ema panicular effect of the facade. -asis Howver, is notlo putconstniction much this too intotheforeground to showeverynailorjoint, or

and bu! to rcveal the narure of construclion craftsmanship. Besidesconslructionlhere are many other things necessary termsof functionor simply in narrative whichaddto theanimationof elements and the facade:\*indow surroundings lintelsto rainaniculat independence ofthe windorps, the pipes. shune15,roof projeclions which give the masses shade, materials that emphasise (rusdcalion) loosen matble), them(reflectinS or window boxes and Virginia creepe.give the building a summeror winler appearance. The horizontallayeringof the facade results from thediffercntareas offunction.Inprinciple, a facade should never be designedwithout horizonral differentiation. cleardifferntiation A is especiallyappropriatebetweenthe Sround floor, the ordinary storeysand the attic. The facade 'built border' actsin a similar way to as the portal: in Ge.rnanthe word for wall is 'wand' whichhasto do with 'uenden' (to tum) or with 'wandlung' (change); wall is therefore the the placewherelhe exlerior lums into the intrior zone has the and vice versa. This transitional becomingmore lively if functionof exchange, the surface has a certain plasticity and if movemenl evident. wayofwall Projections, is B) ledgesand pilastersthe plan of lhe surface develops threeiimensionality, bcominga relief, whereby light and shadow, foregrcund and background, becomeperceptible. of The facade a whole is composd single as thernslves with elements, lanerbeingentities the an exprcssivecapabiliry of their own. The of comDosition a facade.however.consists of

structuring lhe onehandandordering the on on olher. The elemenG base,window, roof etc., which by their narure differentthings,will are alsothereforebe differcnt in their forms, colours and rnaterials. All thesepans should remain recognisable individually, although common $e language bindingtbemlo the wholehasalsoto be found, However, not every means of connectinS matchin8 sensiblet instance or is for to locatetheupperedges ofwindowsanddoors in one line would contradict the different meanings they have.lf the heightsare slaggered, the common factor could relate to similar proportionsor shadinggradations a basic of lf we do not approach design a facade the of asanautonomous ofan. but incontexl work with adjacenthisloricalfacades, is necessary it lo employdiffercnt elements which sepamte new the from the old as well atones $/hichjoin and connect both.Thus$e choice ofelements should firsl of all be relaledto the language the of historicalfacades. Partsof them,or particular aspecls,will be taken across, a purponing conlinuity being achieved such a thenutic by approach. But gnuine continuity is only qualityof lhe conceivable oncethe indepndent nelr facade, its newconditions dernands add and are upheld.The relationship btwen and new old is in anycase adialogue, conversation a between lhe pastand the present. *RudolfWinlowr, ,irn!r..'/ ml Pnncipl.s thcA8e in of Hunanatn,Ac^deny Ednions, lrndon | 9?3,p 27.

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This plateshows possibilities tundamental for the designof a facade. First of all, vJitlrsrnall sketches,wouldlike to again I hintat thcde.isive role geometrical proponions play for thc harmoniousapparanceof (hefacade(illustmtion I ) . Considerations 0riskind are, of course,no! of ro be separatedfrom the whole building body. If, be.auseof a disadvantageous or restrictive site building regulations, unsatisfactory an solution of $e facade will transpire, can be at least this panially prevenred carcfulcomposition, by i.e. a deliberate zoningof rhefacade (illustrarion 2). Yet whenapplyingthis kind ofdcliberatc zoning, harmoniousgcometrical pmponions havc to be paid atention to (illustrarion 3). By the distribulion of windowsin drc facade, panicular a cffect can b emphasised suspcnded (illustraor tion 4). Herc thc possibilities rangefrom a regular distribution cqualwindows an irregular of to and figurative arrangemcnt. Windows can be combinedin snBll groups to form panicular figures,or thcy can divide the facade bing by (illustrarions and6). almostsepamtc elemen|s 5 While windows are thc most important means of composition, facade the itselfcan b trcared as a sculpturalpan of $e building. Specificpans (illustrated of the building can be cxposd ?), whereby the foregroundand lhe backgroundof (illustralion8). The Lhefacadcare determined superimposition diffe.entbuildingparrsis yet of anothcrsubjectof composition, which will be dealt with again in thc sectionon the threedimensional composition a building(illustraof rion 9).

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By means ofthepans ofelevadons, shownhere, the lheme of facadefigures running lhrcu8h venically can be explainedwith examples. llhsration l: The distriburion windowsrs of based 6eir axes.Similarwindowproportions on are reducedin sizestorey. This motive underlines the perspective lhe facade; it makes the of buildingappear higher than it is in reality, and symbolises needfor more lighl penetration the into the lower storeysof buildingsin narrow sareeis, Illustration2: Here rhe windowsincrease in sizewhich makes facade the appcarlighter and symbolises constructive its logic. Illustmtion An almost'rnathernatical' 3: order is achieved doublinE number by rhe ofwinoo$s in eachstorey andby. a-t same ik time, reducing their formats. Thus a very active facadeprovides nevertleless sameamountofopening space the In eachstorey. Illusuation 4: Similar in appearance the to example shown in illustation l, this figure, however,is not determined lhe axesof lhe by windows but by the grouping of windows togetlrer. Illuslration 5: A figurc in ar|almostlite.al sense developsfrom this arrangement windo*s, of which is based the coordination differenr on of fonnalson one verticalaxis. Here lhe emphasis Iieson rheenrance rheanicularion and ofthe anic by way of a regular sris of equally sized Illusuation 6: This somehowuneasyfigure has a mther casual effect composedof different window forma6. Il is probablyofimponancat this point lo againcall one'sanendon the spalial rc effects ofinterior roomswhich canleadto such figuralionon the facade. lllustration7: A projectedbasewith rcgular openings(instead pilastcrs),allows for the zone of above to employ a new, independent, organisalion ofwindows.This is a popular rnori\ e in 'big city architecNre, wherethegroundfloor hasa separate meaning. Adolf t os appliedlhis themein his buildinBal rhe Michaelerplatz in Vie.na and the HouseofTrisan Tzarain Paris. lllustrarionE: Onevenical elementaccumulates all necessary openings ofthe adjacen!.oorns.The lwo storeyhigh glazingfolds into the tefiaces, &e middle sectionaccornnodating sitlin8 the room andthe sidesof lhe bedroorns. Illustration9: The same figure as the only opening elemnt lhe facade; giganticfigure in a wnich runs tbrough all storeys.The scaleof the building must be able to cope with such a monumentat openlng.

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ELEMENTS OF ARCHITECTI,.RE II: FACADES

no These examples longershowonly pansofthe are high buildings demonstrated facade. Slendcr in their total composilionand srve for each theme. ljlustrationl: A regularwindow composition on based axes,From bottomto top increaslng top sizes windowsculminalein a large-scale of floor. into 2: llustration Clearscparation dlreezones: a oPenings: the ground floor with large-scale wilh windowsregularlydistributed; middlearea and a light skelelalattic storey. Illustration Here the sizesof the windows 3: in ared'mensioned a way that the wall surfaces to'Piers' and'beams" are largelyreduced vary in each because windowsizes the However, facade. call storey, cannot thistypa skeleton one 4: Illustration The old themeof the 'piano is nobile. the mainfloorofa hous, emphasised hereby a closedattic zone. Illustration Theextriorflightsofstairsgive 5: The larSe the groundfloor a public character. a studiowindowsofthe top floor indicate clear wilh the small compared difference valuation in slorey, windowsof the inlermediate hall IllustratioD A large-scale of columns, 6: a like almost a'stoa', constitutes po\rerfulolder whichcan alsoconceal irregularand lively lhe interiorof the building. windowslitsare 7: slender nlustration Elegant, arch.andform bound togeder a con$ructional by a fisure with the circular windowsof the attic an storiy. Thusa serialrnotivbecomes image. Illustration 8: The zoninS of this facade resembles the'buildingblock' principle.Nith rts and surfaces windowpanitions lt gives different storeys of theimp.ession relativelyindependent beingpiled up. nlustration Herewe havean i.regularfacade 9i to according lhe interiororganisation strucNred the One should not undereslimale of spaces. difficulry of distributinB*indows this freely, lo because requiresadherence quile prec$e it to proportions relating oPenings oneanother. the yel laste leadto a harmonious free can Excellent design,but a 'secret'principleof order is also Undsof composition. o[ the foundat'on these

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Complte composkions also shownin this are plate. Theycannot applied be arbirrarily. can bul reinforce whole rendenc)'of a buildin8. the Illustration Thebase clearl)distinguished l: is fromtherestof thebuilding ha\inga differenr by surface.Because the terraces of beingcut out from the anic srore\. lhe building has a battlemenr-like rermination. Illustration Thistacade 2t figureunfolds from thebotlomto the top like a lree-rop a goblet. or One may also find fiat rhe significance the of individualstoreys diminishes ro\\ardsthe topIllustralion Herea plastic 3: figure.a po(ico. projects from thbu;lding $hereb]$e enrrance is clearlyemphasised. Illunrarion In conlllisr illunrar'on (he 4: ro 2. facade figuretaper\offioqards thebp. Oddl) enough, although orderis reversed. do the we not perceive change meaning. a in Probably il is thehierarchical slructure ofthe facade such as which suggests hierarch)of significance. a Illustration A projeckd 5: arcade subdivided is by a loggiaon first floor level.A socially useful interspacecreated. is rhich almosr gi!esrheidea of $eatricalsraging. lllustration The galemotivein fronr of a 6: largelyglazedfacade clearl) demonstrales the problematic nature de figure,Sround of relationship.The layering of$e facade ranges from $e opening thegate. thelightbackground. of to unljl finally the surroundinS frameof rhebuildingrs feached.

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underyround park-with ahe car entranceinlo the building.For thepedestrian, a narrowpath only alongthe*all fulefi. Thus,by pessing rubbish lhe On the way from thc slreq ino a buildios onc containers, one hurries to the safe apanment passes through diffcrcntgraduarions whit can door, swlring at lhe dirty and devaststed of becalled'thepublic'. Immediatcly. posilion entrancc; rhe and whal else can be expected from and _ ol theentlancc thearchitEctonic sicnificancc sucha buih realiry? it is givendcrDooslratc role and dnction of thc olier badexamplesare lhe so-calledenrancc thebuilding.Thusfte nlaincnranccof a largc hallsofthe modemcenlrcsofpowcr; the ofiice publicbuildingwould norba tiny holelocated towcrsand insurancc palaces. find an oFn We sontewhere *herc nobodywould fud ir. Equally 8.ound floor, flattenedby the load of the ascendin8 storeys,and awkwardly structuredby wall - il would bc inapprop.iale for a modesthouseto bc approached a rcpresnrarional by drive or partitions, greencry, mural pictures and large-scale flightsof s(airs. orientation boards. Without all this crap, thc The ponal rnarkslhe transitionfrom thc public entnncehall would bejust an arra without rreanto lhc privateintcrior.It is an clemenr ing. Oneshouldask a visitor leavirg one of dles -exterior of self-reprcsnlation the inhabitanb. for The places whether or nol hc could rcmembr the routefrom the ponal to d|c venical means of space. H would not even undeKtand the access forms an individualspace scricsof or queslion.For this reasonthe following cxamples spaces: fact is muchtoo seldom this takeninlo havebeenchosenwhich clearly demonstrate thc -account. qualities cntmnccarcas. spatial of Ponals and entranceshave nowadaysben mostlydegradcd residualspaces. to They rDerely A notable exampleis $e solution for the enmnce suffi therequirements building cc of regularions. to the former 'L,Anderbank' Otlo Wagncr. The by in pcrvcrsity thccombination is oflhe roundvestibule,which is non{irectional. acs as -Uppennosr entrancafot vchicles-into a counyaador a distributor(illustEtion l). Threediffercnr areas

Entrances and Portals

(banking hall, enlrancc and main staircase)are lhusheld togcther.A richly decomted nouveau an portal is pictured in illustration 2. As the actual door into the buildingis recesscd, ante-space an is crcaEd which is madcinto a Dorch. (illustration showsan inThc nexl cxample 5; lerestinS sequance spaces. roundvestibule of A preparcs visitor lor thc follo*iac archrtccthe tural event.A small flight of srairsnirmws Oe space, v/hich thcn opcos into an irrcgular hexagon. After this landing,which is scparaleo fiom thc actual stairwell by wall projections, utc roulc terminatcs a sbircascwhich ascends in in threc flights. Thcrc wcre tincs whcn even ihe cntranceareasto blockl of council flals received Oe necessary dcsign anention.This is clcarly visible in ihe example of a Vicnncse 'Cerneirdchaus'from the yca$ bct$cn the wars (illustration4). Thc portal is emphasiscd a by fiamc of bricks. A spaciousporch o!,cns inlo a propcr vestibulc with iililing bonom stcpsof a staircase and two doors; onc giving acccssto the hous,thc other lcading inlo thc courtyard. Hcrc a simplc cntrance has been tumcd into an cnjoyable meering place.

:. -"r--grFti$,bt!-of Lieranda and srzircasc a buildins in Rcssctsass., \ icnM. by J. Kornhiiusct. carly cighreenrh ccntury

Entrancc hall of a bourgeois resid.ntial buildinS. vicnns. c 1900

Vcstibuleofa buildinS,vienoa, 1830

69

ELEMENTS OF ARCHITECTURE [: FACADF,S

Arcades
who owns thc arcadcs?Are they relaied to the strcet or thc building? Or do thcy cven belong to ihe pavement,craating its propcr spscc?The arcade is detarmined by lhis ambivalence of application, but it is also an intcrmcdiatc space which can bc usad and irtcrpraled in rnany differenl ways. It cln fulfill semi-publicfunctions by bcing projccled in frcnt of a building whercby the usc. is neithcroutsidenor insidethe building. But thc space of the arcade is also capable of assuming an indcpandent public role. It can almo$ grow into the buildinSbchind,and therby beconEan arcaded building. Finally lherarc exampleswhcrc in thc colrsc of tina, arcades Mvc bcn fillcd in or wallcd up in o.de. to gain additional spacc.(Whcn old buildings arc in the pmcessofbcing restord, arc hidden arcades ofren found bchindplastcrand brick walls.) The arcade a collcctive is urbanelement. For ils construction, is ncccssary only to gain it not thc agrecmentof the neighboun in lhe panicular streclaffccted,but alsoto gain thc pcrmission, and even the irstruction, of the building authorities. Once the arcadeis built it becomes an individual urban clemcnt which is larg.ly understoodto b indcFndent faom lhe building behind. The rcasonwhy therr arc so fcw arcadcs buih today is probably due to a lack of commot sensc whan it comes to thc dctcnnination of common uaban elements. However, the usfulncss effichrnent of thc arcadefor urban and life has benproved for ceo$ries.

ELEME\"TSOf ARCHITECTURE FACADES trr

Ground Floors
Thc baseof a building, its grourd floor zone, is withoul doubt the mostimportanturtan clenrent ofc facade.As it constitutes tratrsitionto the thc ground, or the pavenrent, it is cxposcd to considcrablcstrain, and thercforc the matcrial uscd for this zona is usually morc durablc than that uscd for thc rcsi of thc building. The grcund floor hasa panicular impodance in urb6n life. Because arca is most direcdy this pcrceived by people, it oftn servcs for the accommodation shopsand olhcr commcrical of enterpriscs. Givcnthe nature business, of such a ground floor zonis alsosubjectcd frcquent to chanre.csDecially tetr|s of its fittincs. It is in to trc rccommcndcdlhc-relorclhat $c round floor be given a robust, neutralsrrucurriwhich can copc lrith 'paBsitical architccnrrc' suchas shopfittings. The examples he.c showdiff.rcnt kinds of bascs.Thcy rangc from ncutral backgrounds largc openings buildingswilh for to I rcjeltin8, evcnclosd,charaoer,whosctroutd floors do nol, for some reason,havc a public function.

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Balconies Bay-windows, and Loggias

balconies and bay-windows, Similarto arcadcs, as loggias !o be sen indepadcntspdtialunils. arc ganuina cdrrgcnE s of thc Theysre i'l any ces apanmcnt,providing a scnscof steppingout of the building-out of thc faclde-althoughstill bin8 in thc private rcaLn. In addilion to that, lhcs elemcntsallow for a bcttcr vicw of uaban h lifei they opanup 'ncw prospocls' thc ruc of scnsc thc woad. To a grcater ext nt than the balcony, bay-

windowsandloggiasalsorlpfts.nt a[ cnrich[Ent of $c intcrior spacewhich lies bchind, because they divide it into spsccsof differcnt value Ano0rcrimportantargumentin favour of baywindows and loggias strcsses lheir clirnatic function.They form ! bufrer zoncto the cxterior, in which is of gtentadvantrge tennsof lhe crFrSy of consumption thc aprrtmcnt. Expcriric swith havc winter gardens projcctcdconservatories and rcvealed intrrcsting rcsults which, rlthough kaown long ago, wcrc largely igno.cd in lhc rccent period of cncrgy wastagc.After the lsst wcrc equiPFd war, whenonly a few houscholds with rcfrigcralors, thcscPansofa building werE

often used for lhe stogc of food dutinS the winter. Evcn the intcrmcdiate spsce belwccn doubL Slazed windows also served for thcse purposcs. r Two varianb ofbays atr sho*T in illustrations I and 2, Th. bay-window in Otto Wagnr's 'schiitzenhaus' in Vienna (illusmtio.r 1) is conceivcd as I little buildinS on its oll[; a Pulpit abov. thc river. Anothcr buildinS in VicDna revcals a bay elcrncnt which vcnically teachcs over the entire facadc crcating the motive of a srial building which is projectd ftom I largeone (illustration 2). Thc r*o balconicsshown in illustrations 3 and 4 are renarkable in ielms of

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3 their painstaking,constauctiona.l trcatrnentof the soffir. Bay-windows, balconiesand loggias arc also i very suieble for thc irnctional strucnrrcof the b facade. However, it goes without saying that thescelemcnts should not be distribucd on lhe surfacc at random. I would recornrnend a concenttationover svcfal storcys, !o allow for \- a firrther differentiation within theseclcmcnrs. This *ould also clearly increasethe legibility of the differcnt storcys. The loggiasshownin illustmtions and2 are I building projections. , exanplesof rcprcsentational nearlythree - The loggia in iltustration I measurcs squaremetrcsand tlErcby alrnostrcsembles thc sizeof s propcr room. This clca y invites possi ble useas a room. In contrastto lhat, the archcs dominatingthc loggiasin illustration 2 constiNte a rcprcsenhtional frame, and morc likely only invite the inhabitants hai. a brief glancear the ro street. Probablyhere, thc interior spaceis much more important, thc loggia rathcr seding as an additional filte. of the cxt.rior. Espcciallyat thc times whcn thc Frcnch windows arc openwould it sugSestan optical enlargementof the room bhhd. Thc degrecto which thcskinds ofelernentsarr also appropriatefor the articulationofan impor-

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4 tantpatt of thc buildinS shownin illuslrarions is 3 and 4. Thc contour of a streetconrcr is talen up again by the first two storeys of a comer building (illustation 3), But, asrheanglcdrcoms do not seemto bc vcry suitablefor apartmenrs, thc comer is inl,erruptedby a cyclinder which provides space for a terrace and, in addition, monumenlaliss comer of the building, the especiallywhen viewedfrom a distance. The big 'hole' in the facadeof the 'Gmeindehaus' (illustration 4) achievesa positive maning by way of curvedbalconies, whichhavethe effect of the buildingmassbeingmodulaled.

ELEMEMS OF ARCHITECTURE FACADES II:

Roof and Attic Storev

Nowadays apparendy onc only corDes acrosstwo typasof roofs: the llat roof (the developrnent ard asses$De of whbh doesnot need!o be dscribed herc in dctail), and the norrnal pitchcd roof, which by now has bccome wide-sprcadas the embodiment lhe 'alpinestyle'. Wc should of not engagc ourslves clichs,bul rathe. look at the in variety of possibilities and meanings that this imponant part of thc buildinS has, belring in mind that ir is a building'srerminarion rowards the sky. The meanings which languagc attaches to roofs are vry instnrctive. For instancc,if we rcflect on the term 'roof landscape':it risesfrom the buildings like a skin and, ovcrtoppcd by the higher silhouenesor public buildhgs, this artificial lhing becomes secondplanebtween a sky and canh. In Seneral, roof involvcsan the ambiguous, undefincd spac *hich nowadays is mostlysacrificed a mdicalexploitation ofthe to buildingvolume.But we shouldnot completely foBct this rcswoir of secrcb and mentoncs. Here the objcb of the past, th. hisrory of the inhabitanls, and therefore that of the building itselfareprcserved. For all this $ere is a simpleexplanation. The altic is a frce placc, a residual space,a storeroom,a play arcafo.children.It is oftenfull of comers, moslly dark and dusty, lhc oppositcof thc cxtcrior world. The roof is the caownof the building, the evidencc its meining showingthe of pride and dignity of the buildingirself. The crown is canicd by the building body. Visuallyit is lhe tcrmination thefacade, of oftEn with 8n attic storcy inscned,by which dcvicethe roof is withdmwn fmm people's eyes. Thercfore thc top floor zon,thc anic s|orcy, is muchmor important for the dcsign and compositionof the facadethan thc actual rooi The facade is prota.ted from the weather by a comicc. or by any othcrprojecting moulding. On toDof these couldbe a smallbalustaade-as if thire was a tcrrsce behind-to hide the mysterious roof. At imponant points the anic storcy is broken through by dornesand towers which simply havc the purposcof 'crowns' . Bu! let us rNm to the rttic storcy. The nccessityof it bcing taEatad a spccial *ay, in in terms of form and firnction, resuks from thc simplefact dtat a building hasa top ard a bonom. The touom is thebascwhich hasto communicate irs pqrticrrlar rclationshipwirh the eanh. At lhe lop cverybodyshouldknow dlat lhe building ends

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74

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Ground-Plan and Building Form

A Iong-standing error in cootemporaryarchitecnrre is the belief that therc is a logical connection between the ftrnction and the form of a buildinS;or eventhatthe laiter is a resultofthe former. Bul as this irrevocable cquationof a direct analogyof functionand space, form, or is non-xislent, anemptwas madeto creale an an auxiliarytheory which endedin a diftused, vaguedefinition andvindication architectu of re. Seemingly infinitepossibilities tbe which lie in lhe relationship of function and form were not understood a positive in way. No ground-plan or building can be lraced back direcdy to a function. Always in architecturc, certain .rypesof spaces' will be applied. They are ulrimately relarively indeFndent from the initially required function which existedat the beginningof rhe plannng prccess. Thereforelet us asslmethal the designof a building develops frorn the interdependence of the requirements thc users-the functionsof and the typesof spaces which are providedby architecture. Requirements alonedo no! makea buildinS. tf so, all doors would be openedto 'hypenrophic ferociry'and the disruprionof buildings. The rnajority of functionsandground-plans are easilycapable being rclatedto simple types of if the oles and prccedurcsof function arc understood. Wilhin itslf, every type provides enoughfteedomofdsign. Experience showsthat with lhe clarity and simplicity of rhe ground-pla.n, and the form of a building, the possibilities of differcnt usesincrcase, lhe is Qlite frequendy, argument put forward that conftnementto prccisebuilding iypes would restrictrheindividuality architectuml of desiSn. But it is exacLly excessive this individuality which leads to lhe nowadaysmuch lamenl,ed wildness irt architecture and its lack of conccption. In contrast, the cxampleswhich follow show the possibililies individualdifferenriarion of of buildhgs with similar ground-plans. An addidonal aid in thedesignof a building is drcarulysis of rh ropoS.aphical and typological situation of the surroundings,and lhe tradition of the respective area. In principle, one should always presume lhat every site hrs its own social a|ro historical rneaning. To discover, and to investigate,ils implicltions is a pre-conditionfor the cultuml undeNtanding of an architectural design.Every placehasirs sFcific conditionsand irs hislory. Peoplehavegiven meaningto cven fte rnost desolate prairie, lhe seemingly untouched desen, and the most inaccessible mounlainare{s. bgnds and mythsdo exist, and

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ELE\TENTS OF ARCHITECTL'RE lU: GROLTND-PL.$ AI\iD BUILDING FOR\I

cerlaio places evoke associations for many people.No placeis a virgin pieceof land. Thechoiccof rhebuildingtype andthe building form is deFndent on lhese general specific conditiods, whichmean motethanrnasrering the requiremenG a building'sfu$rc inhabitants of andits architectural possibilities. Withourtaking inloaccount complex the siluationofapanicular site, a buildingis merelya trivial th.ow-away p.oduct; and without the involvemen!of tne cuhural heritaSe,every solution remains individualistic idl arbilrariness. and The an of architecture, decisionon the the building rype rhedesign thebuildinS and of ilself, beginwith de deliberate superirnposition ofthe conditions $e_place#ith requiremenrs of rhe of the Inhabrtants. he la}'estheseore-condilions If seriously, everyhonest will therefore architec! quickly consider simple,undrstandable a and appropriate buildingtype. Dvelopment and Composition Every ground-plan should be conceivedand developed relation space. in to Here, very often from the clien!'s sidc, the first obstaclesto understanding occur,bccause is normallynot he experienced sparial in imaginarion. lhereis But a usetulrule of thumbwhich might help in this situation: thebeSinning a buildingprocess, at of thearchitect should nevrconfrrse overwhelm or theclient. Simplegcometrical basicforms also provide possibilities sparial sufficient for surpris. This kidd of discipline excludes much unnecessary eslmngement, trecause involves it concrele experience understanding, and fien the work on the form of the building can be sta ed. Onceits roughcontours lisible, are the rcquirernents refiningbcorne next step. of ihe Openings broughtinto a rhythm, and are are combined form a motive;exterior spaces, to such asterraces, balconies loggias added,not or are as missing pieces, asa kind ofsecondlayer but to lhe building. Thc mostimponant problemwhen designing a building is probablj the detcrmination of the line whichhasto bedrawobetween interiorand exteriorspace. thispoint,the wholerangeof At possibilities how to createan appropriate of transilion from the privatesphereto the public realmcomes question. change concepinto A in tion occurs wherebytheseiwo different spaces haveto be takeninlo considemtion. contrast In to a muchchrished ideologyof architectsadvocating the unlimitedtransitionof interior and exteriot, the user in genemlknows very well whereto draw the line between thes sDaces.

ELEITIENTS OF ARCHITECTLIRE III: GROUND-PLANAND BUILDI\G FOR,\T

SquareBuildings
geometrics For thesNdyof simple .elated the to conception ofresidential buildings, wouldlike t ftrstofall io talkabout squarc. following the The threeplateswill dealwith fiis basicform andwill showhow it allowsfor the manipulation lhe of within. Thc mostdecisive spacc question which whendcsigning adses square roomsis probably what to do wiih the centre;whelher!o fill ir in or to keepit void. Thc square house has Roman its fircplace whereas enexactly lhecenlre, in the trancewasoI minor imponance. therefore and siuated in a comer of the building. As a geometrical objecl,thecubemosr clearly communicates notionof enclosure also lhc and the symbol of stability. The cube therefore, among Platonic the solids,symbolizes earth. the The subdivisions and fragmeniations shown in lhe following plaes shouldfirs! of all be understood indcpendendy functionand use. of They simplystateprincipalfonnal possibilities whichgiveriseto definable rulesofhow to solve the conflict of enclosure division,and, by and wayofinterior structure, how spatial effecls are chanSed. we To cofrmence sequence canconsider the the whichis orienuted all-round enclosure, owards thecentrc, where similarity ofdivisionis emde phasised a pier (illuslralions and2). Spatral I by focus is mainly dclerminedby the positionof the staircase. This is thecase thebuildingshown in in illustration despite livrng areas 3 the running through. IUustialion demonstrates superrm4 the position circulation with a central ofa axis stalrcase, whichdeviccthecentre by ofthe building is clearlydetrmined. lilustration concems 5 a directional division, whichlhebuilding subby is dividedinto two, or several. zoncs representing valuatiolrs. common pactice differentspatial A is to sub{ividelhebuildint intoa mainzone and two subsidiary zones(illustration6), wherebythe main space can have its own Seometryto emphasise particularposition.The interior its fragmentation a solid appears illust.ation of in ?. The square rcmains way of its bordcring by lines.but in termsof irs iDterior.it allowsfor complete frecdom spatral of arrangcmant. Thus is only thesquare left recognisable whenviewed from the oulside. nlustrations and 9 showcxamples oneE of dircclional space.One side of the squarcis accennrated a large opening and &us by constitutes main side, thc facade,of the the building.

78

ELEMENTS OF ARCHTTECTTJR,EIII: GROTJND.PLAN A.I{D BUTLDTNG FORM

The centralized vcnical arraogementwirhin a cubc is dividcd into quarlerscgmenls, eachof whichsbns at a diffe.cnthcighr (illusrration l). The shapeof the squarcis repcatcdin the gap betwecn stairsin thecenE"a! well. This method thc is alsoappliedin principlein the nexrexample (illustration wherethe ccntreis constituted 2), by an atrium. As wih rll othersimplegeometrical forms,the squarccanalsobe superimposd otherf;ornls. on Dlustration3 sho*s 6 cubebeirg cut throughyet havinSa ccntralhall. The conu'ast ber\r'een solid andamorphous basicforms, lhat is betweeo hard (illustsation andsoft, rsult! in cxciting spaces 4). Differcnt forms within a compositionappcar to b punched (illuttralion5), whereby out rhe residual spaccs-wlA walls of differcnt thickness-disregard olerall shapeof the the enclosurc, The disintcgration ofthe square, lakingplace slepby stcp, is shownin illuslEtions6 and 9. Only pien rentainoflhc basicBeometrical form. \ Thusa sccond sparirllayerdevclops, hich is uscfulforlhc mediation ofinkrior andexterior. The squaEin general,binga ncutralandnondirecrionalbasic form, asks for dialectical contsasls, a fmmewhich surrounds lik changing inagcs. So thc inncr spaces lhemsclvcscan be createdasSconElricalforms, or lhey can follow the linesof movcment within a building.

'79

;
ELEMENTS ARCHITECTLJRE GROUND.PLAN OF trI: AtiD BUILDI\G FOR\r

A spcialform ofthe squarcis consdnrted the by loosening its sides of andby theaccenn8don of its four comers.Massivecomer towersdefine a U:nspatntinterior space (illustration l), or are reducedto bay-like projectionsfrom a solid cor (illustration Theco+xistence two differcnr 2). of building forms is achievedby rhe surrounding cubebeingfrrgrnen@d. whcrebythesolid form Iyingb.hindbecomes visible(illusrralions anq 3 4). A variation this type is shownin illusrraof tion 5. A central cylinder serves lhe matn as space at the sametime asa distribulor, giving and access llte comcr towers eachof which have to differenrspatialgeometries. k Corbusieralso concemed himslfwith m square,llluslmtion 6 showsa snrdiobuildine whichreveals poeticstructure. nextexarn: a The ple (illustration 7) suggests centEl core from a whichvery differentspadal divisionsare possible withoutdestroyirgthc overall form of tne building. The sketchesir| illustrations8 and 9 are anemptsat strucuring a square facade.As already mentioned thc section facades, in on me rcality of a facadc Seorretrical can, by way of v6ual manipulations. developinto one with a differnteffecr.

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Rectangular Buildings

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RectanSularground-plansare clearly directionar: the exlen.ion of le rectangle lherEforehascenain effects on ihe division of rhe ground-plan. Also. the building has a clear direclion of movemen! which influences thc way ir is usd, unless dis direction of movement is terminated by sub, divisions and-above all by the position ofthe Anolher aspect of recrangular ground-plans affects the design of the building irself. The different valuatioo Siven to the facades on rhe long and the short sides can hardly be changed by means ofcomposition- That means that here ti e possi bi l i ti esof del i qn are l i mi ted. O;e po\ibiliry olthitypological strucrurrng ot a rectangul .rr l di ng i s to si ruatethe { tai rbui case i n paral l el w i th a l ong si de (i l l usrrati ons t lo 3). By so doing, a longitudinal zone is created which separates main and subsidiaryspacesfrom each other, If the l ong si de\ havea cenl re. rhe bui l di ng i . autorralically divided into two halves (illustrations 4 to 6), Thus a slaircasein the centre makes possible the division ofthe whole into two spaces of equal value (illustration 4). These can be tunher sub-di vi ded(i l l ustrati on Wi th a c en5). rral hrl l runni ng through veni cal l y (i l l ustrati on 6), thi s ki nd of di vi si on i s even more di sti nc t.

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ELEMENTS ARCHITECTURI[I: GROUNDPL.$ AND BUILDINGFORM OF

The exarnples this plate shovr' of superimposilions of solid and skclebl building parts. Colunns arc never only constructional eleftents, as they always createan indcpnden!spatial layer or an additional ordcring factor to the structure of a Thereforethc rhyrhm of pieN has to be space. well-considercd. In illustrationI wc havean interiorstructure which is consriotcdby piers andpilasters. This sub{ivision almostdirecdy prcvokesa certain valuationand useof the spaces creatd:main add subsidiaryspaces becomeobvious. The examples illustrations and4 sho\sthe in 2 of fi-agnEntation rcchngllar solidsby way of projected loggias.In illustiation5 the middlepan of a building is loosned becomea centralhall, to the two rernaininScomer towers forming prominent terminations the building. to A lively combinationof solid and skeleton building pans eosucs they are superimposed if (illustration The rcsllr of this methodis that 6). two differen! rectangular struc$rcs seemto be inteSraled with one another. In illustrations aod8 thesetwo principles of 7 defining a space simply co-xist. The first (illustration showsa solidpanjuxtaexample 7) posed with a hall ofpiers, whereas thesecond in examplc (illustration t) the constructional possibilitiesof solid ad skeletonare deliberately opposd. Finally, the rectangularsolid can also be understoodas a container which accommodales a free form (illustration9).

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T-shapedGround-Plans
of This type offers manifoldpossibilities interpretation.It can be a centralised building with Ihree extnsions,a longirudinal building with an accenruated centre, or even the codbination of four centralised buildingsfoming a T-shape. One realisesthat it is the projecting part of the which constitutcs rcal challcnge buildiDg lhe for the designof thb buildhg typei is it a triumphant portico projecting fiom the facade; is it simply on an axtension the back; or are the two side lrings mercly cxtcnsions of a centralised building?Il is clear that the panicularbuilding partshaveto bc treated vcry carcfullyaccording to their valuation. Otherwise the intended meaning can easily tum into its opposite.

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The projecring pan of the building in illustration I serns rcsult ftom a needfor addidonalspace. to all The lonSsideacconunodates subsidiaryroorns and lhe entrance; and the staircasc pushesthe 'middle' part out towardsthe front. Thc next of exarnple(illustration2) consists four individual solids. wherebythe ccntraldark onc funclions to as the elenreniof access the building. Ii is also the centralpan ir illustration3 which givesaccess to lhe building-The sidewingsaredistinguished joinls. from it by way of transparcnt The building in illusrration4 is divided in of transverse dircction duc to thc arranSement the subsidiary rooms.The centnl pan is clearly the main space. This kind ofdivision is alsoapplied (illustrations and6). 5 in rhefollowingexamnbs HOWeVet. rutn so.gce llle nere ts even more anrculate. The simple methodof superimposing Tahe with a square polentially allowsoneto get shape rid of the dark zonesconstituted (he inner by comers(illustration The exteriorpiersofthe 7). loggiasdetermine form of the square;the thc walls the T-shape, the exte.ior spaceis filled If with pergolas(illustration 8), the whole complex is supplemenled become rectangle plan. on io a This showsthat througharchilecNral treatment to of residtlal spaces is possible gaincompletc it to buitding forms. In conrrast 6at. we see in illustration 9 one building part being almost as sepamted, the longitudinalPrincipalpan is of emphasised. Bcause thb entmncc especially pan, it receives by wayoflhe rower-likc building a cent.e.

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ELENIENTS OF ARCHITECTURX III: GROUND-PLAIi ,{\D BUILDING FORM

T-shapedGround-Plans
Within lhe main space,a row of picrs createsa hlter in front ofa bwer which is a kind ofannexe (illustration l). A ransvcrse main space is emphasiscd thedissolurion by ofrhe sidewings (illustration2). The massivecomers of the lonSitudinal partsof a building (illusrrarion 3), give the space rhe middle its direction.This in is brokcn by a light loggia p.ojecting from the building. This ryp hasbeenbuilt as a four room maisonene apartnent in my ploject for Riaerstrasse Berlin. The dircclion of the main sDace in of fie buitdingshownin illuslmtion4 is clearly visible. The cnclosedrectrangle have a projected can pcrgola. illustrations and6 we seethesolid In 5 partsof two buildings beingshrunkinto a corc. ln bo|hexamples T-shape only consti$ted the is by piers. A buildingwith an oppositedevelopment is shown in illustration7. The core is enlircly dissolved a transparent by staircas towea,and by isolation from the o(her thrce towers. If fte T-shape superimposed a circular is wirh or semi{ircular cylinder (illustrarions and9), I whichcanalsobdesigned monumental as lnain spaces, projecdonsrecedeto becomcmerely |he cmohasised entrances.

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ANDDUILDINGFOR\I trI: ELEMENTS ARCHITECTURE GROIhiI>PLAN OF

L-Types
ground-plans esperiallysuitablcfor L-shaped are arrangements buildings bccauseof the p.oof tectedfree space which is c.eatcdbtween them. The examples shownhcrearc geomet.icaltypes dvelopd ftom a square, quanerofwhichhas a beenleft void. Theydiffer from thc functionalist L-type, wherethc living areais sioatedin lhe shoner wing and the bedrooms arc joined together thelongerone.The disadvantage in of L-shaped building ryFs liesin lhe possibility of darkcomers $e junction. is advisable use at It to lhis space subsidiary for roomsor shircases. nlustrationI shows elamplewherethestair. an caseis locatedin thejof, the space the wings in havingloggias from. The superimposition io of givesriseto ftc erterior L-form andthesquare space beingfixed (illustrarions and 3). In the 2 nexlexample edge walls the consists ofmassive (iUustration 4), whereasthe oFn sides are relievedby piers. Illusration 5 represents an assernblage independenl of building elements. A tmnsparent tower accommodating siaircase the is flaoked rwo solidtowers. by Thc nextexample showsan L-form beingsuperimposd with the figure a cylindr, whichtrccomcs dominatinS of the building. The t\r'o wings are buih as verandas.

U-Types
Thcse building fonnr still incvitablyhavc a rnasterlycharacter.The distinct symlnery wilh its defincd centre is so dominantthat a mitigalion by way of fragmentadon similar technior qucsis difficuhto achiev. Illustration shows 7 this classic rype. ll5 retacted courtyardis closcdby a pcrgola. The opposite cffect is Sained if a pergola constitutes long sideof a building(illustrathe tion E). By this. the transverse ruin spaccis clcarly dcfin.d, thc two lrings bcing lcft to accommodale subsidiaryrooms. In ilhlslra&e tion 9 thelongsideof thebuildingis terminated by a buffer zonewitb subsidiary spaces. The ccntre is dominatedby a staircase,and thc side wings accdmmodate rwo nuin spaccs.

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Building Corners
The comer of a building is one of the most with the imponantzones is rnainlyconcemad and nEdiationof t',r'ofacadcs. During thepastdecades lhis subjectin architecorc has been largcly neglctd. Nowadays, a resuh simplylininS as of part of up buildings, comeras a particular rhe the building has not receivcdthe nccessary acknowledgement treatnent. and In comrastto this, the following sketches for should demonstmte possibililies special some comer lreatment.The first examplc shows (illustration ) thatthecomerhas alsobeendealt I TerraSni with in modem architcture. Guisepp achieved constructivist Golosov andtheRussian by the simiiar results emphasising comer of a solid buildingby way of a glasscylindet..This carics thearchitrave ofthe top storeylike a huge, deriatcflalisedroundcolumn. Thc tuming of the emphasised a projecting by corncris cspccially frame which markstheactual terminationof lhe 2). In illustralion3 lhe building (illusrration psychological shearing off tha corncr is counteracted way of an insenedpyramid,a by a snsitive perhaps Frowerful protection but too comer of the comer. Thc rounded,retracted

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ELEMENTS OF ARCHITECTURE III: GROU{D"PLAN AI\D BUILDING FORI1

show[ in illustration4 is emphasised a by similarly shaped row of colurns crearinga fiher and reducinglhe dark zoneofun associated with a deep comer. In illusrration the comer is 5 formedasa buildingin its own right-a tower. Thc problemof connecting towerwith lhe the steel facades solvedby lhc employment is of Ioggias. Illustrations and7 alsopresenl 6 comer towerswhich in termsof lheir proponions are to be regarded classical as solulions, Thecurve, circleandthe the umingofacomer are, in formalterms, logicalmeans ofprolecting a comer. Parls and elements the facade, of without beingbroken,can thereby 'wound be round' from one facade the next.The tower to allowsfor a proDer lermiradonof fie sidefacades and creates additionlh an accentuation. The emptying ofa comeror, in otherwords. a comer beingopened is shownin illustraup tion 8. The small monumenr $ith iG outward edges lakes thealignment up ofthe rwoadjacent presenhd illusrration facades. example The in 9 is a useful solutionborh in conslruclional and functional terms: the steppedform and the dissolutioninto perSolas allos for a positi!e rsponse the otherwise to larSedark zoneof a comer. By opening comer rowards top the the suchDaoblems removcdare

Student worts on th thcm. of Comcr BuildinSs

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3 Illustralion l: A rnasterlylchieve|trcnt in lerms of the most subtlc and yet accentuatcd developmenl of a comcr is rcaliscdin Otto Wagncr'sPost OIfice SavingsBank in Vicnna. The surfacesof thc last vertical window axis of tha sida facadcs are drawn forward and sland oul almost like a frame, terminated lhe bevcllcdcomarsabovc. by Tle setback also accommodltes a venical window axis and signalsthe developrFnt of a diagonal prospect from lhe building. Thrcc the elenEnts, two vcrtrcalpojlsoflhc 'frarne' and th. comcr ilself are held togelherby a projccrhe of ting comice,the consoles which constihrte point of transitionof the different parts.All this by prepars finally for thecomerto bc crowncd Illustlalion 2: A ground-plan levcl pavilion in front of a building comcr completesthe alignmen! of tha two facadcswhich approacheach otherat an acutaan8le.The actlal comer facadc, which is slighdyconcavc tcnacedtowatds and thc !op, reccdes, Thc serbacks thc storcyscnd of al lop floor levcl which is cmphasisedby a wtdow si&atedin thevenicalaxiJ,aDdis cro*n88

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3 -ed by tvo statues. tn addition,this comer is separatrd from thc sidc facades by way of ecessd comrs. Illustration 3t This building shows &e -lransparcncy of mediadonof diffcrcnt building levels. The entaaiccarca rcrches symmetrically ight roundthecomer and, by way of a eall band tlove, is connectadwith the side facades.The plasterjoints at the cnd of thc sidc tacadesrDark their termination, The logSia! finally allow dle bcv.lled comcr !o widcn towardsfic rop wherEby a planc is created. This is flankcd by two flagstaffs,which hclp cvincethc comcr as trcinga complete form. Illustration 4: This cxampleshowsthe penetration of a comer. One side penetntesthe othcr and davclop6inlo 8n cxprcssivcgatewaystructurc. The srnall tralconiesat the comcr do not representthc prolongationof the facadc,but the Denetation of the comcr.

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SNdentworks on lh thcmeof lnGrior Counyards

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Interior Courtyards
Intcrior counyardsarc not indeFndent elements, but thc outcomcof a certainkind of building. Wc should not concem ourslveshcre *ith originel historicsl and rural forms of lhis tyF, so thc 'atdum' and other similar types of counyard buildingswill not be at issue. wlat will be dealt witb in this context are e,(amplesof counyards as thcy are foundin cities.Courtyards semiare public spac6 which are for the us of thc

communityconcemed.Thcy canalsotrc pan of rn informal routc nctwork of passagesand to which give access variousparts thoroughfares of th. city (illustrations I lnd 3). A largeroofed courtyard, a hall so to spcak,is cspeciallyuscful in public buildings as a dcvice oforicntrtion. It also rcmovesthe tightnessofan officc complcx aid ald allowsfor additionrl venti.lalion illumina_ tion (illustration 2). As a rcsidentialcourtyard (illustration4), the wirhin sn urban developmcnt courtyard is a conlrDn spaceuscd by thc in' habitantsof thc adjacetl buildings. Especially

trcausc of cxcessive lraffic, the sucets and publiclife areofienrcstricted cities; therefore in lhe courtyardhasthusgaincda new significance. Today one should strive to locate apanments oricntaLd towardsa quict courtyard la$cr than which towardsthe street.This is a developmeot is only beginningbut which will rcsult in greater suppon for, and considcrationof, cdsting and new intcrior courtyards. Thc rcquired changes to traditional be buildingtypsmust,however, madesenscof.

90

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visu berween Lf,rchenfeldersrrarse and Neubaugassein vienna. ninctecnth cenluR

Palais Epstcinin vi!f,na by Th. vot Hansen.1870-75

Counyard in lhe Justizpalanir vienna. by A. wielemanns. lE75-81

ELEMENTS OF ARCHITECTURE

III: GROIIIiD-PLAN

A.\D BUILDING FORM

OutsideStaircases
As lhe termalready explains, outside sBircases form part of the exterior space.They are hlman strucoresof landscape. They alsoact asmarkeG in naful"al and urban environments, and cotrF rnnni;aedteir Fblic use.We cantbink for exanple of a larSe Baroqleoutside stairwhich,ahhough .elatedto an axis, also lcadsaway from i! and lhereforc cngendem moments contemplation, of Anothe. axatrple is a footpathin the coun!ryside. Ifsimply rude steps emerge hilly terrainthen in we know that this path is often used by people, and lhat it facilitates walking. Beyondlhis, outsidestaircases crcatetheir also own space, bccomepointsofcncounter, meeting places,oa simply points from which beautiftll viewscanbc enjoyed. think i! is not necessary I lo enlarSe ulron the fact thal thesecharacteristics havelargely benlost, and havebeensubstituted by thcsimplistic ideaofthe 'shortest connection between two points'. lllustratioo I showsa simple straightstaircas cu! into theupprlevelofa building.Alrdy ar the boBomlevel, one comes underthe influence of the upperlevel because the slair. Onecan then of slowlyascend However,the degree which it. to a slaircasc projecEdfiDm its upwardtrmination is (illustrations and 3) determines different 2 the possiblcrclationshipsbetweenthe two levels. If our sens spatiality of wasstill intact,we would realise the difference. What we nowadays cxperience instead is somebodyrushing up the stairs and getting confusedbecause, is shownin illustration one as 4, staircasc often tums st right anglesinto two. SlaLcaseswhich run parallel to one another (illustration Siveeverylevelan indcpenoem, 5) yet equal significancc. This arrangement resemblcs Ernces. Illustradon6 showsan almost semi<ircular staircase running up in three lights suggestinga slopc. Stairs which scpamte and come together again luve a special character because the way they are usd by the public of (illustration Peoplc 7). meetandseparate again: they can timc theia walking slrccd cither to cncounterothersor !o avoid them. Onecould aLnosr call thisanexample of'frcedomofuse'. Illustration 8 shows intrcsting an thoughspecial form. A slair rises like a spiml and a! the same time it narrows.From thebeginning,the usrbconEs awarethat the stair is going to end at a certain point. The crample presented illustration9 in again showsa cut-in staircase which is now cu cd and runs parallelto the upFErlevet.

FOR}I trI: ELEMENTS ARCHITECTI.RE GROUN}PLANAND BTJILDING OF

IllusEationI rcprcsents opposite thc cffcct ofthat gainedin illustration9 on thc former plata. Herc thecurved formofthe stairgivcstheimpression that theuppcrlevelhasa graaLr significarcethan in the examplebefore. The semi-circular statcasc sho\,nin illustralion 2 cmergesfrom a garticular lcvel to lead up to the next one. Inilially one movesaway from it to comcback to it againon arcther level. The nextexample considcrs staicasawhich is again 6 cut inlo thc ground (illusiration 3). Only after havingmovcdon to thebosomstcphasonc rcally left the area coocemed. A bold variation of opposite is staircass sho*n in illustration4. The division into main levels and inlararcdirte (i! landings striking.Thdollowing staircase is lusrrattn 5; alsJ poSsscs an- inrermedilc landing. From half way up ooe has al.eady enrcredthe sphere lhc uppcr lcvcl. This cffect of ofan 'extErior'and'interior' to a staircase cven is more explicii in thc simple, yct in anothcr way sophisticated, aarangemcnl shownin illustration 6. Onehalfof rheslair is 'hcaped up', theother half'cut iD'. Apan from the varietyof possible lincsof movcmcnt conncction, circular and thc intermediatelanding clearly manifestsa mcaningfulccntrc. Eramplcsof rcprcsentational front slaircascs prescntrdin illustration7. Herc the arE upFr level clerrly hrs the prominent me3rling. A rarc erample for an xterior slair is a spital staircase(illusu"ationt). As a 'functioral *inding' h is a pre-rulner---orrnaybe rcsult---of a the Towcr of Babel,evenmore rcminiscent in the lastcxampl. (illustrarion 9).

93

ELEMENTS OF ARCHITECTURE trI: GROTJNIIPLAN AND BTJILDING FORM

Prospect
Wirh the issueof the prospect, altboughir is closely related toarchitccturc, leave suowe lhe jefl 'building' asan independent subi:ct ofdesign and sl out to thint rbout public spacc. It has alr.ady bccnhintdat that lhe obligalionofevery building is ro be integratedinro its spccific urbantissuc.A spctialproblemin this contextis presented the 'prospecf. by kl us lake the cornmoncaselhat a sfeet oa a squarcis io be lerminatedby a building-our building. Thistermination not tb be treated is as anaccidcnt;tbc facade lhe buildinSconcmd of hasro reacrto this specific situation. Whilc thc strcctas suchis a symbolof innniry, its l,ermination communicstes fact that a dcstinationhas the bcanreachad. This destination, facade our thc of building,mustrcspond thisevent,mustcatch to thc eyc: only then will lhe building makesense andbe intagrated the urbancontext.If we inlo are committcd to our responsibility for urban we space, haveto respcct laws.Thatwehave its regardto thc affcct of prospectshas nolhing to do with a delibcratemonumcntalization of buildings,but with renderingrcsp.ctto $c llrtan texNre. A prospectat the end of a stleet makes the eye rcsl, givcs il a larSet, and lhcrcby symbolically shofiensthc way to the desdnation. By taking into considcration thc cffect our hcadehason adjacent streetali8nnents,we conF municatcour conccm for thc oles of thc placc wherewebuild. We shoulddot rt|akcpoople $ink abolt our buildingin rhesense a spacc that ship has landcdin their town by accident.What we should carcaboutis givinSevidence we arc that goingtocontinuetobuild moreforthis specific, for our. olace.

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Towersand Monuments
Buildint is always about thc occupationof a place.Architectureis aboutsettingnark. In the free cou rysidc we comc across a tower. It dirlc6 our *ay. Lighthouses, chirnneys, sleeples, ciry gates, defencc towe$ e!c. belongto thearcheqpa.l symbols uprighEEss. of Towers symtJolize the eristence hurnanachievernnt, lriumph of thc over eanhly Inatlers.Without doubtcvery tower hasa monumcnlal charactr it risesabove as the anvionment.Havingsaidthat I can seebfore

KECK HERBERT

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ELEMENTS OF ARCHITECTUR.EUl GROUNDPLAN AND BUILDING FORI\I

my inncr eye cenain modemarchitectsshaking lfone a wamingfingerat me. llonumenlality? daresto talk aboutthis lasttabooof theModeme, for oneis tooeasilyaccusd ofhavinga lonSing a totalitarian state ofaffairs. Whata stlpid and shon-sighted fallacy!A monument of course is first and forcmosla sign of power. Only the mighty potntatecould afford to rise abovehis manifestations. subjecls way of architectlaal by will 8ut he is mortal. whereas monument his outlasthim and will b celebrated funrre by generations a cuhrrEllestirnony. Witholt thes as 'signsof power' tlerc would be no suchthing as architecore:we would dwell in a desolale steppe. Monumenis alwaysVere. and still are. cult obiecb \r hich havcnF4ing andvaluefor a community. Because their symbolism, of theyexpress a commonwill or confession, Monurncnls not do ned btowers high-rise to or buildings. srnal A wayside shrineat theforkingofa routcsuffices asasignof humancxislence, let ustry agait Bul andfind out whattheterm 'monunEntality'really pieceofarchmeans. cenair y impliesa lasdng It itecutre;it alsoconveys beauty destnrction. the of On the l6rh of May lt7l, the Vend6me Column with the statue of Napolcon I was This destroyed fiShters by ofthe ParisCommune. act of overthro'*-in8po\rcr is documentedtn photographs. numcrous Many groupsof fiShters pose ill front of the dcstloycd monument.w]at do \re leam from such an cx@ple, to which many otherscould be addcd?We leam lhal lhe i5 desructionofa monurrFnt a symbol;a symbol preserve We, however, for thewill ofa socicty. and carc for the monumcnts of thc past. sometimesit appcarsthat thc rcscuadstatucof q pastsovcrcign for compnsarcs thadestluclion While our of entirehistoricalurbanquartcrs. of societydestmysvalt,abltestimonies the past, it clings !o nice linlc monumcnts is unablc but to crc{e ncw ons.Historical worshipof heroes with is ccrtainlynot in accordancc our undc$iandinSofdemocracy. is rherenorhing we But left canbelieve Arc wc no lonScr thcposidon in? in to sct signs which, olthough not uscful, can Democracyobviousd@urlEntcommon sns? ly does not stand in need of crectinS monumcnts-but it lcgitimiscs itsclf by tesdmonicsof monarchicandautocraticpowcr. From (hc rnonuments which havcnot bnbuilt, we canlcamabour self.valuation societhc ofa ty and *hat position archirccturehas in il. ,,1 societt A'hichdoet iot beli.v. in its sunirol i5 of incapable of the tynrbolic reprcsentation its aim, and thereforc incapabh of btiAinS.

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ROBKRIER

ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION
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Rob Krier is a unique voice in toddy's archil.ctural discourse illustrations. Krier also drarvson siudenr{orks.Lnd pholographic through his commitmentto developinga relevxntand pragmaric exrmplesto support his argument, manv of which rlere commis_ lheory of architecture basedon his own experience and observa_ sioned especiallyfor this book. The culminalion of years of tions of architectural practice, and opposed to lhe eas\.. abstracl terchingand practical experience one of Europe.sbestknown by theorising so common in contemporar! architecturalwritins. architecturaflheorists , Arc.hitettural Conposifio, is without doubt Together wilh his brorher Leon. he hts perfeired a form oi a major achievement, deslined to become a standard work of p.esentation which the potencyof his thinkingfinds its perfect referencefor both in studentsand practising archirects. counterpoinlin detaileddrawings and sketches !rhich arguerhis Rob Krier is an architect.educatorand influentialtheoriston visually throughthe power of example.Following the success of architecture and urbanism. He was born in Luxembourg and his widefy acclaimed Urban Spare, a work which looked at lhe sub\equentl]emigratedto Au.rria $hefe he has lired ever.since. problemsof our citiesfrom an historical. theoretical and Dractical Krier hasproduced urbanschemes forcitiesasdiverse Stutrsart. as sli|ndpoinr.Krier now applies his ptrticular. highl) jnfluenrirl V i e n n a a n d B e r l i n . H i s b u i l r *o r k . i n c l u d e e r t e n s i v e sJci a l mode of didactic criticism to contemporary architecture in a houJingschemes Berlin and more recentlyprojectsin Amiens in continuingsearch fundamental for architectural truths. and Vienna-Krier's sculpturalwork includessix bronzesfor the Architectural Composiaio,is both a theoreticalandvisual analvsis ponsideof Barcelona l986). ( five bronzes a castlein Luxem_ for clearly illustraling lhe crealive processwhich inform. Krier.s bourg(1987). a bronzeof the philosopher Reuchlinfor pforzheim vision and praxis. Separate chapters derail the i.undamentalsof in Germany (1987), and a pair of figures for rhe Camillo Sirre architectural composition, beginning with funcljon, construction Piazza in Vienna (1988) of uhich he is also the architect.His and architectural form; the elements of architecture, including pre\ iousbooksincludeUrba Spa(e,Academy EditionsI979,and typologies for plans, facades and interior spaces. proportional On At chitecuu.e, A,cademy Edirions( l9g:). He hasbeenprofessor studiesof Gothic cathedrals, human body,planrs, the animalsand at Ihe Technicrl Unjver\ily o[ Viennasince 1975. sculpture, demonstrating their rclianceon lhe GoldenSecrion; and a seriesof critical and discursive essays the plight of architec_ 25AeJqnn,3JJ paees on i,tdtding thrc?doilbte itt .tt!efottts cotour. oter 500 ture and architects practising today.In addirionto his own didactic IS R\ 08:070803x H ,l t,thdt^ tjg.S 0 i

ACADEMY EDITIONS
42 Leinster Gardens. LondonW2 3AN