Aerodynamic Design of Transport Aircraft

08/12/11 16:25 Aerodynamic Design of Transport Aircraft
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AERODYNAMICDESIGNOFTRANSPORTAIRCRAFT
vi

PREFACE
Preace
Theimpetusorthisbookstemsromthetimewhentheauthorwasappointed
parttimeproessorintheAerospaceFacultyoDeltUniversityoTechnology.
At the time his main activities were those o leading the departments o
Aerodynamics, Perormance and Preliminary Design at Fokker Aircrat
Company.
The book has had a long period o gestation. It started in 1987 as a series o
lecturenotesconsistingmainlyopictorialmaterialwithaminimumoEnglish
explanatory text. The course was titled Aerodynamic Design and Aircrat
Operation.AterthedemiseoFokkerin1996itwasearedattheacultythat
interest in aeronautical engineering would strongly diminish and the course
was discontinued and the relationship between the author and the aculty
cametoanend.
Twoyearslaterthesituationwasreappraised,andtheinterestinaeronautical
engineeringremained,sothecoursewasreinstated.Thecoursewasrenamed
Aerodynamic Design o Transport Aircrat with a ormer Fokker colleague
RonaldSlingerlandaslecturer.Ronaldlargelyusedtheauthorslecturenotesbut
tooktheinitiativetomakevideorecordingsohisownlectures.Threestudent
assistants,DebbieLeusink,TobievandenBergandJustinKoningtookonthe
difcult task o transcribing the recorded Englishspoken lectures on which
theydidanexcellentjob.IntheSummero2007thisworkhadproceededar
enoughtowarranttheproductionoapreliminaryversionothenewlecture
notesintimeorthenewstudyyearintheAutumn.
In October 2007 Ronald Slingerland died tragically in a midair collision in a
lightplane.Asastopgapsolutiontheauthorwasrequestedtocompletethe
lecturecourseandtoreviewthenewlecturenotes.
Independent o these sad developments it had been decided at the aculty
that the lecture notes should be published as a textbook. This required a re
consideration onthecontentsothebook.Firstithadtobeupdatedasitwas
basicallytwentyyearsold.Secondthelanguageusedhadtobeormalisedi
itwasmadeaccessibletolargercirclesthantheAerospaceFaculty.Theauthor
vii
itwasmadeaccessibletolargercirclesthantheAerospaceFaculty.Theauthor
tookonthistaskwiththepresentresult.Butitwouldnothavehadtheexcellent

layoutandgeneralappearancewithouttheunremittingenergyanddedication
otheauthorsthreeassistantsnamedabove.
Thisbookismainlydescriptive.Fordetailedaerodynamicdesignproceduresand
theassociatedcomputerprogrammesorordetailedquantitativeperormance
analyses the reader should consult other sources. However, the reader is
assumed to be amiliar with the basic elements o theoretical aerodynamics,
aircrat stability and control and perormance analysis. The illustrations and
examplespresentedweretakenromalargenumberosourcesmentionedin
thecaptionsandattheendothebook.Someotheinormationpresented
maybeconsideredoutdatedbuthasbeenretainedoritshistoricalvalue.
Someguresdonotmentionanysource.Inatimewhensomeaircrattypes
areoperatedinthousandsbyhundredsooperators spreadallovertheworld
itisunrealistictoassumethatmanuacturersdataremainwithintheintended
small circles. Perormance engineers manuals, ight simulator handbooks,
salespresentations,etc.aredistributedtovariousparties.Modernproduction
programmes depend on close contacts between partners, subcontractors,
vendors,etc.withextensivedataexchange.Manuacturerssalesrepresentatives
andrepresentativesooperatorseetacquisitiondepartmentshavebothormal
andinormalcontacts.Justasinmilitaryandpoliticalintelligencecommunities
sensitiveinormationremains inclosecirclesunknowntotheoutsideworldbut
itisotenknowntothepartywhohasthegreatestinterestinit,thecompetition.
Althoughorsomeinormationinthisbooknosourceismentionedthereader
mayrestassuredthatithasasound basis.
Prooreadinghasbeendonebytheauthorsgoodriendandormercolleague
Carl P. Stocks, latterly with BAe Systems Warton. In order to expedite the
presentationothisbookonlyhiscommentswhichsavedtheauthorromthe
biggest linguistic blunders have been incorporated. Any urther lack in the
properuseotheEnglishlanguageandanyinaccurateinormationprovidedis
entirelytheresponsibilityotheauthor.
FinallytheauthorthanksBramElsenaar(ret.)oNLRorderivingtherelation
betweenlocalstaticpressureandlocalMachnumberaspresentedinchapter
10 and Nico Voogt (ormerly with the Fokker Aircrat Company, now with the
Boeing Company) checking and correcting the authors view on the use o
viii
Boeing Company) checking and correcting the authors view on the use o
modernCFDmethodsasdescribedinchapter24.
EdObert

TABLEOFCONTENTS
Tableocontents
Notations
P
ART
1-I
NTRODUCTION
Introduction
Classicationoxedwingaircrat
Designrequirementsandobjectivesotransportaircrat
Theaircratdesignprocess
Geometry
Designotheexternalgeometry
Computingvelocityandpressuredistributionsonxedbodies
inattachedowconditions
Thelimitationsoboundarylayertheories
Computationswithseparatedow
PART 2-PRESSURE DISTRIBUTIONS
Therelationbetweensupervelocityandpressurecoefcient
Therelationbetweengeometryandpressuredistribution
Pressuredistributionsoncomponentswhicharenotrequired
togenerateaerodynamicorces
Pressuredistributionsoncomponentswhicharerequiredto
generateaerodynamicorces
Pressuredistributionsonwings
PART 3-AIRFOILS
Thepressuredistributiononairoilsections
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
xiii
3
7
11
13
29
31
35
37
39
43
47
49
69
71
75
Thepressuredistributiononairoilsections
Theadvantagesosupercriticalairoilsectionsincomparison
tosonicrootopsections
Thebuetonsetboundaryandbeyond
Reynolds number eects on section characteristics at high
Machnumbers
Lowspeedstallingcharacteristicsoairoilsections
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
ix
75
105
107
113
119

PART 4-SWEPT WINGS
Thedevelopmentothesweptwingconcept
Therstgenerationosweptwingaircrat
Rootandtipeectsonsweptwings
Designconsiderationsregardingthepressuredistributionon
nitewings
Examples o actual wing designs or highspeed transport
aircrat
PART 5-LOW-SPEED AERODYNAMIC LIMITS
Themaximumlitcoefcientoairoilsectionsequippedwith
highlitdevices
The maximum lit coefcient and the stalling characteristics
oullscaleaircrat
Thelitdragratiointakeoandlanding
PART 6-HIGH-SPEED AERODYNAMIC LIMITS
Thebuetonsetboundary
FlightcharacteristicsbetweenM
MO
andM
D
PART 7-STABILITYAND CONTROL
Tailsuracedesign
Thehorizontaltailsurace
Theverticaltailsurace
Controlsuracedesign
Litspoilingcontrolsuraces(spoilerpanels)
Controlsuraceactuation
Propellerslipstreameects
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
135
167
177
193
197
277
315
343
369
377
389
393
413
423
433
441
453
Propellerslipstreameects
PART 8-ENGINE INTEGRATION
Engineintakes
Engineexhausts
Thrustreversers
36.
37.
38.
39.
x
453
479
499
509

TABLEOFCONTENTS
P
ART
9-A
IRCRAFT
P
ERFORMANCE
Subsoniccruisedrag
Breguetsrangeequation
Aircratweight
PART 10-SAFETYAND REGULATIONS
Certicationregulationsanddesignrules
Takeoperormanceregulations
Flightsaetyincivilaviation
Sources
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
521
551
557
587
595
609
621
xi

Figure15.22-Comparisonoexperimentalchordwise
pressure distributions or the base and modifed
leadingedgeW
35
.Source:AIAAPaperNo79-0066
Figure 15.24 - Test drag rise or the base wing, W
12C
and
modifedwing,W
36
Figure15.23-Testdragriseorthebasewing,W
12C
,and
modifedwing,W
35
Based on the German experience with the NACA Modied FourDigit series
oairoilsections,developmentolowdragsectionswithtransonicowwas
continuedinEnglandbyPearceyetal.Theirgeneralconclusionswere:
Asharpsuctionpeakhadtobepresentattheleadingedgeinsubsonicow 1.
conditionsattheparticularangleoattack.
Behindthesuctionpeakrapiddecelerationhadtooccurinsubsonicow. 2.
Behindtheleadingedgethecurvaturedistributionhadtobesuchthatthe 3.
88
expansionwavesinthesupersonicregion,thesoniclineandthereected
compressionoccurredbehindthesuctionpeak.Thiswouldthencauseavery
weakornoshockwaveatallattheendothesupersonicregionintheow
aroundtheairoil.
Thisisvisuallyexplainedingures15.25to15.27.

THERESSUREDlSTRl8UTlONONAlRFOlLSECTlONS-15
Ashockreeairoil
VariationodragwithMachnumber
In this paper the development [rst at the National Physical Laboratory (NPL) rom 1965 to
1970,thenatRAE]isdescribedoaseriesoaerooils,intendedtoexploitthepotentialbenets
ousingrelativelylargeregionsocontrolledsupersonicowovertheuppersuraceoawing
athighsubsonicreestreamMachnumbers.
TheexcitingpossibilitiesothisconcepthadalreadybeendemonstratedbyPearceyattheNPL
intheearly1960s.Hehadshowninanumberoexperimentshow,bycareuldesignotheshape
otheuppersuraceoanaerooil,theowcouldbeconstrainedtodecelerateisentropically
romamaximumlocalMachnumberashighas1.4withoutbreakingdownintotheshockwave
thatusuallyterminatessuchasupersonicowregion,andhencewithoutincurringanywave
drag penalty. Such an ideal situation could admittedly occur, or any particular aerooil, only
atoneisolateddesignpoint,correspondingtoaparticularpairovalues(M,)otheree
streamMachnumberandangleoincidence;butortunatelyitwasoundthattherateogrowth
oshockwavesinanydepartureromthedesignconditionwasusuallyslow,sothatpractical
benetscouldundoubtedlybeobtained.
89
Figure 15.25 - Illustration o eects o airoil with large region o supersonic ow.
Source:AeronauticalQuarterly,november1974,page245,246.
Change in the distribution o loading on an airoil rom
subsonictosupersonicow
Curvaturedistributiononewairoil

Figure 15.26 - Sketch o Mach-wave pattern, (a), in a region o supersonic ow on an
airoilandthelocalMach-numberdistribution,(b),resultingromthesupersonicposition
othefrstsimplewave,
1
,andthecompressiveeect,
2
90
Figure15.27-Peakywingowdevelopment.Source:AircratEngineering,June1962

Figure15.28illustratesthatiCPmin occursurtherat,attainingCP
*
immediately
causesadversetransonicowconditionsascanbeseenbytherapiddragrise
aroundM=0.6.
Analysingorperormingcomputationsontransonicowsisarmoreintricate
than the analysis o subsonic ow. But with the use o numerical analysis
methodsthishasbecomepossible.Acomparisonbetweencomputationsand
testdataisshowningure15.29.
With these techniques designing transonic airoils has become possible. The
gureshowshoweverthatcontrarytothesituationinsubsonicowintransonic
owincorporationoboundarylayereectsisabsolutelymandatorytoobtain
meaningulresults.
91
Figure15.28-DevelopmentodragandpressuredistributionwithincreasingMachnumber
onairoilsectionNACA64
4
-421(mod)(C
l
=0.55).Source:FokkerReportL-27-204
Numericalmethodsalloweddetailedanalysisotherelationbetweengeometry,
transonicdesignpressuredistributionandsectioncharacteristics.Examplesare
giveningures15.30to15.32.
Figure 15.32 shows a study perormed at LockheedGeorgia illustrating the
varietyopossibletransonicairoilsectionsandthechangesmadetoimprove
thecharacteristics.
Note that this study started with an analysis o the basic section o the C5
wingwhichagainhadaamilyresemblancewiththeNACAModiedFourDigit
sections.

Figure15.29-ComparisonocalculatedandmeasuredpressuredistributionsorsupercriticalairoilDSMA671
92
Figure15.30-TypicalC
P
-distributionsotransonicairoils

Figure15.31-Signifcantdesignpressuredistributionparametersoro-designcharacteristics
93
Figure15.32-Lockheed-Georgiadesignconceptevaluationairoilseries.Source:AIAApaper73-792
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05 / 08 / 2010
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08/12/11 16:25 Aerodynamic Design of Transport Aircraft

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