Li gii thiu

Quan trc va phn tich mi trng (QT&PTMT) la mt hoat ng quan trong cua
cng tac quan ly nha nc v bao v mi trng. Tai cac iu 37 va 38 cua Lut Bao v
mi trng a quy inh rng, B Khoa hoc, Cng ngh va Mi trng (nay la B Tai
nguyn Mi trng) chiu trach nhim trc Chinh phu v hoat ng quan ly nha nc
v bao v mi trng va mt trong nhng ni dung c ban cua cng tac nay la: "T
chc, xy dng, quan ly h thng quan trc, inh ky anh gia hin trang mi trng, d
bao din bin mi trng."
thc hin cac quy inh trn cua Lut Bao v mi trng, t nm 1994, B
KHCN&MT ( nay la B Tai nguyn & Mi trng) a tng bc xy dng Mang li
cac tram QT&PTMT quc gia. Mang li nay c xy dng trn c s phi hp lin
b nhm tn dung c cac nng lc sn co v QT&PTMT tai mt s b, nganh, ia
phng va nhanh chong a c Mang li vao hoat ng phuc vu kip thi cac yu
cu cp bach v quan ly mi trng. Ngoai Mang li QT&PTMT quc gia thi vai nm
tr lai y, hang chuc ia phng trong nc cung bt u xy dng va bc u a
vao hoat ng cac tram QT&PTMT ia phng. Cung vi s phat trin cua hoat ng
QT&PTMT thi nhu cu v b tai liu phap quy hng dn vic bao am va kim soat
cht lng cua hoat ng nay ngay cang tr nn bc xuc.
Ban hng dn nay c soan thao nh la mt trong cac n lc cua Cuc Bao v
mi trng, B TN&MT, trong vic am bao va kim soat cht lng cua hoat ng
QT&PTMT nhm a ra c cac s liu quan trc co tin cy va chinh xac cao.
Ban hng dn y u se bao gm nhiu thanh phn mi trng khac nhau, ban
hng dn u tin nay soan thao cho quan trc mi trng nc luc ia bao gm 2
chng :
Chng 1 - Nhng vn chung, bao gm cac khai nim c ban v quan trc
mi trng va hoat ng am bao va kim soat cht lng trong quan trc mi trng
Chng 2 - Hng dn cu th v am bao va kim soat cht lng trong quan
trc mi trng nc luc ia.
i tng ap dung Ban hng dn nay la tt ca hoat ng QT&PTMT c tin
hanh trong Mang li quc gia va cac tram QT&PTMT ia phng. Ban hng dn
cung co th c s dung nh tai liu tham khao cho hoat ng QT&PTMT cua cac
B/nganh khac.
Tai liu nay do Cuc Bao v mi trng chu tri bin soan vi s tham gia cua cac
chuyn gia v quan trc va phn tich mi trng thuc cac n vi sau:
1. Trung tm ky thut mi trng thi va Khu cng nghip, ai hoc Xy dng
Ha Ni
2. Tng cuc Tiu chun - o lng - Cht lng, B KHCN
3. Vin Khoa hoc va Cng ngh mi trng, ai hoc Bach khoa Ha Ni;

Ban hng dn nay c coi nh c gng ban u nhng rt cn thit nhm nng
cao cht lng va a dn vao n np hoat ng QT&PTMT tai Vit Nam. B tai liu
hng dn v QT&PTMT se con c tip tuc hoan thin va b theo yu cu cua thc
t.
Do thi gian gp gap cng tac am bao va kim soat cht lng trong quan trc
mi trng tai Vit Nam con rt mi me nn Ban hng dn chc chn con nhiu thiu
sot. Cuc Bao v Mi trng mong nhn c nhiu y kin ong gop cua cac chuyn gia,
cac nha khoa hoc trong linh vc QT&PTMT cung nh cac linh vc lin quan tip tuc
trin khai va hoan thin b tai liu quan trong nay.

Chng 1

Nhng vn chung v bo m v kim sot cht lng

trong quan trc v phn tch mi trng
I.1. Mt s khai nim:

1. Quan trc mi trng (QTMT) la mt qua trinh o ac thng xuyn mt hoc

nhiu chi tiu v tinh cht vt ly, hoa hoc va sinh hoc cua cac thanh phn mi trng,
theo mt k hoach lp sn v thi gian, khng gian, phng phap va quy trinh o lng,
cung cp cac thng tin c ban co tin cy, chinh xac cao va co th anh gia c
din bin cht lng mi trng
2. Bao am cht lng (QA: Quality Assurance) trong quan trc mi trng la mt
h thng tich hp cac hoat ng quan ly va ky thut trong mt t chc nhm bao am
cho hoat ng quan trc mi trng at c cac tiu chun cht lng a quy inh.
3. Kim soat cht lng (QC: Quality Control) trong quan trc mi trng la vic
thc hin cac bin phap anh gia, theo doi va kip thi iu chinh at c
chinh xac va tp trung cua cac phep o theo yu cu cua cac tiu chun cht lng
nhm bao am cho hoat ng quan trc mi trng at cac tiu chun cht lng nay.
4. K hoach quan trc mi trng la mt chng trinh quan trc c lp ra nhm ap
ng mt s muc tiu nht inh, trong o bao gm nhng yu cu v thng tin, cac thng
s, cac ia im, tn sut va thi gian quan trc, cac yu cu v trang thit bi, phng
phap phn tich, o, th; yu cu v nhn lc va kinh phi thc hin.
Cac hoat ng QA/QC gn bo vi nhau, b sung cho nhau va mt s ni dung
ging nhau, cung din ra trong khun kh h thng quan ly cht lng cua t chc, vi
inh nghia h thng quan ly cht lng la c cu t chc, trach nhim, cac thu tuc, qua
trinh va ngun lc cn thit thc hin quan ly cht lng.
II.2. am bao cht lng va kim soat cht lng trong quan trc va phn tich mi
trng

1.2.1. QA/QC trong xac inh nhu cu thng tin

am bao cht lng chi co th thc hin tt khi cac yu cu v san phm c xac
inh ro rang, cu th. Cac yu cu v quan trc va anh gia la nhu cu co tinh cht thng
tin (nhu cu thng tin). Nhu cu thng tin la im khi u trong chu trinh quan trc va
phn tich mi trng.
Nhu cu thng tin chung chung la khng co y nghia. Nhng co nhng yu t lam
phc tap vic xac inh cac nhu cu thng tin, c bit la trong hp tac quc t v quan
trc va anh gia mi trng. Vi du: thiu cac thut ng, inh nghia cn thit; s go bo
do chuyn nganh cua cac chuyn gia; nhng thoa thun phai at c...
Nhu cu thng tin phai phan anh chinh sach hin hanh v quan ly mi trng va
phai bao ham c nhng cn nhc, xem xet co tinh cht lu dai. C s u tin xac
inh nhu cu thng tin la cac lut va cac vn ban thoa thun tm quc gia va quc t.
Ngoai ra, nhng yu cu phuc vu vic soat xet cac quy inh, vic xy dng mt chinh

sach mi, quan im cua cac nha quan ly hin hanh, cung la nhng c s xac inh
nhu cu thng tin.
Hinh 1. Cac bc chu yu trong quan trc va phn tich mi trng
Quan ly mi trng

S dung thng tin

Nhu cu thng tin

Chng trinh quan trc

Bao cao

Thit k mang li

Phn tich s liu

Ly mu va quan trc tai

hin trng

X ly s liu

Phn tich trong PTN

1.2.2. QA/QC trong xac inh chng trinh quan trc

T nhu cu thng tin, phai xac inh muc tiu va nhu cu quan trc cu th, tc la
phai xac inh mt chin lc cho vic quan trc.
Chin lc quan trc phai quyt inh ro loai quan trc cn thit: vt ly, sinh hoc,
hoa hoc, thuy vn, cht thai hoc canh bao sm ... Phai qui inh cac thng s cn quan
trc, chinh xac va tin cy cn thit v.v... Con vic thit k mang li se xac inh no
phai c quan trc nh th nao. Chin lc quan trc cung phai bao gm ca vic phn
tich s liu va bao cao, vi nhng cng vic nay co th co anh hng ti cac yu cu cua
vic thit k mang li quan trc. Chin lc quan trc phai c lam thanh tai liu va
cn c nhng ngi hay c quan co thm quyn ra quyt inh ph duyt
Cac thanh phn cua mt bao cao chin lc quan trc la:
1. Cac nhu cu thng tin bao gm trong chin lc quan trc va phn nhu cu
thng tin se khng bao gm trong chin lc quan trc.
2. Khai nim v h thng quan trc va i tng quan trc (vt ly, hoa hoc, sinh
hoc, thuy vn, cht thai...), cac thng s cn quan trc va cac iu kin ban u la

chon ia im va tn sut ly mu i vi tng bin s (nh khoang cach ln nht/ be

nht tinh t ng bin; tin cy...).
3. Khai nim v h thng anh gia, vi du nh cac phng phap tinh toan c s
dung ( tinh toan mc e doa hoc khuynh hng); cac tiu chun quc t phu hp
nht; vic s dung thi, cng cu thng k va cac cng cu khac trinh bay s liu.
4. Cac khia canh v mt t chc: t chc nao se chiu trach nhim v mt nao cua
h thng quan trc; nhng thay i cn thit trong t chc, nhng kho khn cho vic
thc hin h thng quan trc v.v... s hp tac gia cac b phn, c quan thc hin.
5. K hoach thit k va thc hin mang li quan trc; nhng iu kin ban
u la gi, k hoach cua nhng bc tip theo va k hoach tai chinh.
6. S phn tich v cac rui ro; nhng vn co th dn ti cac tht bai cua h
thng quan trc va nu ln bin phap khc phuc.
1.2.3. QA/QC trong thit k mang li
Thit k mang li phai c mt nhom chuyn gia co kin thc a nganh thc
hin. Thit k mang li cn xac inh thng s nao phai quan trc, quan trc ia im
nao va vi tn sut bao nhiu. Trong thit k mang li cung cn cp ti vic s
dung cac phng phap ly mu, cac phng phap phn tich trong phong thi nghim va
cac phng phap x ly s liu.
Cn c bit quan tm n vic ng dung thng k trong thit k mang li. Vic
s dung thng k hoc co th lam giam n mc ti thiu cac ia im thng qua mi
tng quan gia cac tram. Thng k hoc cung la c s chon la gia hai phng an:
nhiu ia im vi tn sut thp hoc it ia im vi tn sut cao.
Mt vn quan trong trong thit k mang li la xac inh tinh hiu qua cua
thng tin nhn c t mang li. Cn co s hiu bit chi tit v chi phi va hiu qua cua
mang li a thit k.
Thit k mang li phai c tai liu hoa bng mt vn ban. Vn ban nay phai
chuyn ti nhng ngi phu trach va quan ly chin lc quan trc quc gia. T vn ban
nay ho se rut ra kt lun la mang li quan trc co nm trong chin lc va muc tiu
quan trc chung hay khng.
Bao cao thit k mang li gm cac phn sau:
1. Giai thich phn chin lc quan trc c cp n trong thit k mang li
va phn cua thit k mang li khng co trong chin lc quan trc.
2. M ta mang li quan trc: cac bin s cn o; cac ia im ly mu va tn
sut; vic s dung cac tiu chun, vi du TCVN; ISO...
3. Cach thc trinh bay va th hin cac kt qua.
4. Cac khia canh v mt t chc. Vi du nh nhim vu cua cac t chc tham gia
i vi tng bc khac nhau trong chng trinh quan trc: thu thp, x ly va vn
chuyn mu, phn tich trong phong thi nghim; x ly s liu; phn tich s liu; bao
cao...
5. K hoach thc hin cua mang li quan trc.

6. Cac kt qua phn tich chi phi- hiu qua; m ta cac tranh lun ra quyt inh.
7. Phn tich cac rui ro. Cai gi se xy ra nu co sai sot va cac bin phap nao co th
thc hin tranh hoc giam thiu cac thit hai.
1.2.4. QA/QC trong hoat ng tai hin trng
Hoat ng tai hin trng bao gm ly mu va quan trc hin trng. Tuy thuc
vao thanh phn mi trng ma co cac phng phap tin hanh khac nhau.
1.2.5. QA/QC trong hoat ng phong thi nghim
QA/QC phong thi nghim chinh la vic xy dng va ap dung h thng quan ly
cht lng trong o co s an xen, kt hp cac hoat ng QC, theo yu cu cua ISO/IEC
Guide 25 TCVN 5958: 1995, Yu cu chung v nng lc cua phong th nghim/hiu
chun hin nay a c chuyn thanh mt tiu chun quc t mang tn ISO/IEC 17025:
1999, tng ng vi TCVN ISO/IEC 17025: 2001.
1.2.6. QA/QC trong x ly s liu
Trong mt chng trinh quan trc, s liu thu c s dung thng la rt ln.
thun li cho s dung, hu ht cac s liu ngay nay u c lu gi trong cac file
s liu cua may tinh. Co hai loai s liu c lu gi. Mt loai a c lu gi sn
trong may tinh va mt loai la nhng s liu o c cua chng trinh quan trc hin
hanh. Phai am bao cho cac loai s liu nay c phn bit ro rang, khng nhm ln vi
nhau va an toan.
Khi s dung phn mm cua may tinh, cn phai c bit quan tm n vic kim
tra, phat trin va duy tri h thng may tinh. Phn mm cua may tinh cung co th thc
hin cac chc nng kim soat khac nhau, nh cac phep phn tich tng quan va vic s
dung cac cp gii han.
1.2.7. QA/QC trong phn tich s liu
Phn tich s liu la giai oan chuyn s liu th thanh thng tin s dung c.
nhng thng tin nhn c t s liu th co th so sanh va truy nguyn ngun gc, phai
trin khai cac bin ban phn tich s liu.
Phai co phng phap t liu hoa chun mc nhm bin cac s liu a co thanh c
s d liu truy cp va x dung khi cn thit.
1.2.8. QA/QC trong lp bao cao
Muc tiu cui cung cua mt chng trinh quan trc la chuyn thng tin a thu thp
c ti ngi s dung thng tin. Co th thc hin cng vic nay bng nhiu cach khac
nhau: truyn toan b cac phep phn tich s liu hoc chi la nhng kt lun ngn gon
bng vn ban, li noi hoc bang s... Mt s ky thut trinh bay s liu c s dung
rng rai la:
1/ Cac bang s liu o
Cach lit k s liu o vao trong cac bang tao iu kin khng lam mt s liu.
Tuy nhin, t cac s liu trong bang, ngi oc s liu phai t tao thanh cac thng tin
cn thit cho minh.
2/ S liu o c x ly thng k

X ly thng k se chuyn i s liu ri rac thanh cac gia tri h thng thay i
theo thi gian va khng gian. Chung tao ra thng tin co th s dung ngay cho ngi oc.
3/ thi
thi giup cho ngi oc nhanh chong rut ra c nhng nhn inh tng quat.
Bng vic nu ra cac tiu chun hoc cac tai liu tham khao trn thi, tinh hinh mi
trng c phan anh ung thc trang cua no. Cac thi co th la dang ng, dang ct
hoc biu phn trm (% )...
4/ Thng tin c trinh bay co tinh cht ia ly
Cach trinh bay nay giup hiu bit tt hn tinh hinh cht lng cua mi trng qua
phn b khng gian cua cac thng s lin quan.
5/ Thng tin tng hp
Vic tng hp lai cac s liu la rt cn thit x ly nhanh mt lng ln s liu.
S dung cac phu luc la phng phap hay c dung ap ng yu cu nay.

Chng 2
7

Hng dn am bao cht lng/kim soat cht lng

(QA/QC) trong quan trc va phn tich mi trng nc luc
ia
II.1. Tng quan v bao am va kim soat cht lng trong quan trc nc luc ia

II.1.1. Muc tiu

Cac hoat ng quan trc va phn tich mi trng nc din ra ngoai hin trng
(ly mu, bao quan mu, o ac mt s thng s khng bn) va phn tich trong phong
thi nghim. thu thp c thng tin cn phai tin hanh mt loat hoat ng bao gm
t khu lp k hoach, thit k chng trinh, thit k mang li, ly mu, phn tich trong
phong thi nghim va x ly s liu.
Muc tiu cua chng trinh am bao cht lng/kim soat cht lng (QA/QC) trong
hoat ng quan trc va phn tich mi trng nc (bao gm nc luc ia va nc bin)
la cung cp nhng s liu tin cy va a c kim soat v hin trang mi trng nc
bao gm cac thng s chu yu nh: nhit , pH, DO, kim loai nng, cn l lng,
uc, COD, BOD5/TOC (vi nc bin), clorua, amoni, tng P, tng N, tng coliform,
trm tich, phu du, vi sinh vt... thoa man yu cu thng tin cn thu thp, theo muc tiu
cht lng t ra, :

anh gia hin trang cht lng nc khu vc/ia phng;

anh gia din bin cht lng mi trng nc theo thi gian;

Canh bao sm cac hin tng nhim ngun nc;

Theo cac yu cu khac cua cng tac quan ly mi trng va phat trin kinh t.

II.1.2. QA/QC trong lp k hoach/thit k chng trinh

Khi lp k hoach quan trc phai bao ham cac ni dung chinh nh sau:
Xac inh ni dung nhim vu t quan trc: ia im/tram vi, cac thng s cn o
ac, cac loai mu cn ly, thi gian thc hin.

Xac inh yu cu v nhn lc tham gia (s lng, linh vc chuyn mn).

Yu cu v trang thit bi.

Lp k hoach ly mu.

Phng phap ly mu va phn tich.

Kinh phi cho chng trinh quan trc va QA/QC

Cac vn am bao an toan con ngi, thit bi cho cac hoat ng quan trc nht
la quan trc trn sng, bao gm:
- Cac bin phap, phng tin bao am an toan (ngi va thit bi);
- Phng an cu h;

- Lit k nhng vung nc xoay, bai cat ngm trong vung quan trc tau thuyn ne
tranh;
- Nhng yu t thi tit bt thng co th xy ra trong thi gian quan trc.
II.1.3. QA/QC trong thit k mang li
Thit k mang li la s la chon ia im ly mu, la chon tn sut ly mu, thi
gian ly mu va loai mu cn phai ly. am bao cht lng/kim soat cht lng trong
thit k mang li la lp k hoach ly mu ap ng c yu cu muc tiu cua chng
trinh quan trc va phn tich mi trng.
- B tri can b theo k hoach;
- Din ly mu, ia im ly mu;
- Tn sut va thi gian;
- Cac dang ly mu; mu o tai hin trng, mu mang v PTN.
- am bao tinh kha thi va an toan;
La chon vung/im ly mu, la chon tn sut,thi gian ly mu va dang ly mu
cho tng loai nc a c trinh bay chi tit trong cac tiu chun TCVN 5994-1995
(Hng dn ly nc h ao nhn tao), TCVN 5996-1995 (Hng dn ly mu nc
sng va sui), TCVN 5998-1995 (Hng dn ly mu nc thai), TCVN 6000-1995
(Hng dn ly mu nc ngm), ISO 5667-13:1993 (Hng dn ly mu nc, nc
thai va bun) cac tram quan trc nn nghin cu trc khi lp k hoach thit k mang
li bao am tinh khoa hoc, phan anh c muc tiu cht lng, ap ng nhu cu thng
tin trong cng tac quan ly mi trng.
II.2. am bao cht lng va kim soat cht lng tai hin trng

II.2.1. QA/QC trong hoat ng ly mu

II.2.1.1. Muc tiu cua chng trinh kim soat cht lng ly mu
Muc tiu chng trinh kim soat cht lng ly mu la:
Cung cp c nhng phng phap giam sat va phat hin cac sai sot do ly mu
va do o co cac bin phap loai tr cac d liu khng hp l hoc sai lac.

Chng minh c rng cac sai s ly mu a c kim soat mt cach thich hp.

Chi ra c cac thay i cua vic ly mu va t o truy nguyn cac ngun gc

gy sai s.
Muc tiu cua vic ly mu la ly c mt th tich mu u vn chuyn va x ly
trong phong thi nghim nhm phn tich chinh xac cac thng s cn thit tai vi tri ly
mu.
Tuy thuc vao muc ich ly mu la phn tich cac chi tiu (thng s) ly hoc, hoa
hoc hay vi sinh ma la chon phng phap ly mu thich hp.
Mu c ly phai ai din cho khu vc quan trc v khng gian va thi gian va ap
ng c cac yu cu cua chng trinh quan trc va phn tich mi trng.
II.2.1.2. am bao cht lng ly mu

Mt k hoach am bao cht lng ly mu cn phai c thit lp, bao gm:

Cac nhn vin ly mu u a c ao tao va tp hun.

Chun bi cng tac thc ia chu ao: dung cu, thit bi, hoa cht thuc th bao
quan mu phai y u va phu hp.
am bao rng cac phng phap ly mu u c ph bin ti tt ca cac nhn
vin trong nhom quan trc.
am bao rng mi mt bc ly mu hin nay va qua trinh ly mu trc y
u tun theo mt vn ban.
am bao rng dung cu ly mu va may moc o ac hin trng phai c bao
tri va hiu chun inh ky, s sach bao tri cn phai c lu gi.
Quy inh thng nht v nhn dang mu c ly bao gm dan nhan ln tt ca cac
mu c ly, trn o ghi chep chinh xac ngay thang, ia im, thi gian ly mu va tn
ngi ly mu, s ma hiu cua mu bng mc khng thm nc.
Quy inh v ghi chep lai tt ca cac chi tit co lin quan n vic ly mu vao bin
ban/nht ky ly mu, nhng iu kin va cac bin ng bt thng t ky thut ly mu
thng thng n nhng yu cu c bit.

Quy inh v iu kin,

ni cac dung cu tranh lam nhim bn mu, lam sach dung cu ly mu, kim tra
sach va hiu qua cua dung cu (bng cach phn tich mu trng va mu so sanh thich hp).
Quy inh v tin hanh bao quan mu cho tng thng s cht lng nc, trm
tich, phu du, vi sinh vt ... theo cac chi dn trong cac tiu chun tng ng.

Bao am chinh xac cua cac phep o, phn tich ngoai hin
trng khi cac iu kin mi trng khng c am bao. Cac thng s hin trng
(nhit , m, ap sut...) cn phai ghi chep khi ly mu chuyn i cac gia tri o
c v iu kin tiu chun khi lp bao cao, thi du: s liu pH phai chuyn v iu
kin 250C.
Cn phai m ta chi tit:
Qua trinh trao i chi tit cho nhng ngi cha co nhiu kinh nghim vn co
u kha nng hoan thanh vic ly va x ly mu;
Qua trinh chun bi thuc th va bao quan;
Hng dn s dung dung cu ly mu, may o hin trng ... b xung cho cac tai
liu vn hanh cua nha san xut;
Phng phap chun bi mu QC;
Tiu chi kim soat cht lng ( nghia la gii han chp nhn);
Phng phap ly mu va cac tai liu cn phai xem xet thng xuyn va khng c
qua 1 nm/mt ln. Phng phap cn phai c ph duyt lai theo inh ky c bit co
s thay i v thit bi hoc con ngi.
Khi tai liu c lu gi trong cac file may tinh, nhng thay i v phng phap ly
mu cn phai c phan anh bng cach thay i cac ma s may tinh co lin quan.

10

Nguyn nhn gy ra sai s do ly mu:

Nhng nguyn nhn gy ra sai s do ly mu co th la:

Nhim bn:

Nhim bn do cac thit bi ly va cha mu gy ra; do dung cu cha mu bn; do s

ly nhim gia cac mu; do cach bao quan, lu kho va b tri vn chuyn mu khng
thich hp.

Tinh khng n inh cua mu:

- Ban cht cua mu

- Tng tac cua mu vi dung cu khac
- anh hng cua nhit , anh sang

Ly mu khng chinh xac:

- Quy trinh ly mu khng phu hp,

- Khng tun thu ung quy trinh ly mu.

Vn chuyn mu:

- Do thi gian vn chuyn mu qua gii han cho phep,

-

Do iu kin vn chuyn khng phu hp.

II.2.2. Kim soat cht lng hin trng

Kim soat cht lng hin trng yu cu phai tin hanh ly cac loai mu trng,
mu up nhm kim tra mc tinh khit cua hoa cht dung lam cht bao quan, kim
tra mc nhim bn cua dung cu ly, cha mu, giy loc hay cac thit bi khac co lin
quan n cng vic thu, bao quan va vn chuyn mu. Mu lp cung c thu nhm
kim tra mc tai lp cua vic ly mu. Thi gian va tn xut ly mu trng, mu up
va mu lp c xac inh khi thit k chng trinh. Noi chung khoang 10 ln thu mu,
tin hanh thu 1 ln cac loai mu trng, mu up, mu lp. Cach thc va y nghia thu cac
loai mu nh sau:
a, Mu trng dung cu cha mu
Ly mt dung cu cha mu mt cach ngu nhin, sau o nap dung cu bng nc ct
mang ra hin trng. Mu nay c bao quan, vn chuyn va phn tich cac thng s
trong phong thi nghim tng t nh cac mu thng thng. Mu trng loai nay nhm
kim soat s nhim bn do qua trinh ra, bao quan dung cu.
b, Mu trng dung cu ly mu
Dung nc ct trang hoc vao dung cu ly mu. Sau o nap vao chai cha mu.
Mu c bao quan, vn chuyn va phn tich cac thng s tng t nh mu cn ly.
Mu loai nay nhm kim soat mc nhim trong qua trinh bao quan, s dung dung
cu ly mu.
c, Mu trng thit bi loc mu

11

Nu mu nc cn loc ngoai hin trng xac inh cac hp phn hoa tan thi cac
b loc mu se c ra, bao quan va vn chuyn ngoai hin trng. Tin hanh ly mu
trng dung cu loc mu bng cach: cho nc ct hai ln loc qua dung cu loc mu. Phn
loc c nap vao dung cu cha mu va c bao quan vn chuyn v phong thi nghim
tng t nh cac mu a ly phn tich cac thng s mi trng.
d) Mu trng vn chuyn va mu trng hin trng
Mu trng vn chuyn: cho vao dung cu cha mu mt lng nc ct tinh khit
hoc nc a kh ion, y kin np, chuyn t phong thi nghim ra ngoai hin trng va
c vn chuyn cung vi mu tht. Mu trng vn chuyn dung xac inh s nhim
bn co th xy ra khi x ly, vn chuyn va bao quan mu.
Mu trng hin trng: cho vao dung cu cha mu mt lng nc ct tinh
khit/nc kh ion va chuyn t phong thi nghim ra ngoai hin trng. Tai hin trng
np dung cu cha mu c m ra va x ly ging nh cac mu tht. Mu trng hin
trng dung xac inh s nhim bn gy ra t cac dung cu ly mu, dung cu x ly
mu (cac loai mang loc) hoc do cac iu kin khac cua mi trng trong qua trinh ly
mu (do bui bc ln chng han).
Co th m ta cach thc chun bi mu trng theo s nh sau:
Nc ct tinh khit

Phn A(Gi lai trong phong TN)

Phn B (Chia lam hai

phn)

Mu trng hin trng

(X ly nh mu tht)

Mu trng vn chuyn
(Khng x ly)

Cac thng tin v mu trng hin trng, mu trng vn chuyn cn phai c th

hin trong bao cao cung vi mu tht. Khi cac cht gy nhiu a c nhn bit cn
phai iu tra tng nguyn nhn va kip thi khc phuc.
e) Mu up (mu chia i)
Mu up c thu bng cach chia mt mu thanh 2 hay nhiu mu ging nhau.
Mu nay s dung anh gia cac sai s ngu nhin va h thng do co s thay i trong
thi gian ly va vn chuyn mu v phong thi nghim.
f) Mu lp theo thi gian
Ly hai hoc nhiu mu tai mt ia im. Mu loai nay anh gia s bin ng
theo thi gian cua cac thng s mi trng trong khu vc.
g) Mu lp theo khng gian

12

Ly hai hoc nhiu mu cung mt luc trn mt lat ct ngang a c xac inh trc
trong thuy vc. Mu loai nay dung anh gia s bin ng theo khng gian cua cac
thng s mi trng.
h) Mu chun i chng hin trng:
Mu chun i chng vn chuyn la mt lng nc tinh khit co cha cht phn
tich (cht chun) bit trc nng c chuyn t phong thi nghim ra hin trng
sau o quay tr v cung vi mu tht. Tai hin trng khng m np y mu. Mu
chun i chng vn chuyn dung xac inh ca s nhim bn va s mt mat cht phn
tich co th xay ra khi x ly mu, vn chuyn va bao quan mu ng thi cung xac
inh sai s phn tich.
Mu chun i chng hin trng la lng nc tinh khit co cha cht phn
tich (cht chun) bit trc nng c mang t phong thi nghim ra ngoai hin
trng. Tai hin trng, np y c m ra va tin hanh x ly nh mu tht. Muc ich
cua vic tao mu chun i chng hin trng la xac inh s nhim bn hoc s mt
mat cht phn tich xay ra do dung cu ly mu, dung cu x ly mu va anh hng cua iu
kin mi trng trong sut qua trinh ly mu cho v n phong thi nghim.
Cac kt qua phn tich mu chun i chng hin trng cn phai c a vao bao
cao cung vi mu tht. Khi xy ra s sai lch vi gia tri thc khng c chinh sa s
liu ma cn phai tin hanh iu tra va khc phuc kip thi.
i) Mu lp hin trng
La hai (hoc nhiu hn) mu c ly tai cung mt vi tri, s dung cung mt thit bi ly
mu va c cung mt can b tin hanh, c x ly, bao quan, vn chuyn va phn tich
cac thng s trong phong thi nghim tng t nh mu tht. Mu QC loai nay c s
dung kim soat chum cua vic ly mu ngoai hin trng.
k) Mu thm
Vic thm cht phn tich (cht chun) a bit trc nng vao nc ct hay nc
kh ion cung thi im ly mu ngay tai hin trng xem xet s phn huy cac thng
s k t khi ly mu.
Mu thm c s dung khi bt u mt ky thut mi hoc thit bi mi bao am
rng phng phap hoc thit bi la thich hp cho cac mu ang c ly co tinh phc tap
nh vy. Vic thm cht chun vao mu phai do nhng can b phn tich co kinh nghim
thc hin.
II.2.3. QA/QC trong vn chuyn mu
II.2.3.1. am bao cht lng
Vn chuyn mu: cn phai co quy trinh vn chuyn mu phu hp nhm bao toan
mu v mt s lng va cht lng. Trong quy trinh cn nu ro mt s im chinh
nh sau:
-

Mu khi vn chuyn phai co nhan (ky hiu) tranh nhm ln.

Thu tuc sp xp mu nhm tranh v.

13

Yu cu trong qua trinh vn chuyn: thi gian vn chuyn va nhit cua mu, yu
cu nay da theo tiu chun (TCVN, ISO) i vi tng thng s quan trc va cach
bao quan mu (bang 2.1).

Bang 2.1. Yu cu khi vn chuyn mu

TT

Tn mu

Cac yu cu khi vn
chuyn

Ghi chu

Phng tin vn chuyn: c xac inh trn c s yu cu cua thng s quan trc
(Bang 2.2).

Bang 2.2. Phng tin vn chuyn va ngi chiu trach nhim

TT

Tn mu

Phng tin Ngi chiu

vn chuyn trach nhim

Thi gian Ghi chu

vn chuyn

Giao va nhn mu: co th c tin hanh hin trng (nhom hin trng ban giao
cho ngi vn chuyn, va phong thi nghim (nhom hin trng hay ngi vn
chuyn ban giao cho phong thi nghim)) theo quy trinh vi ni dung c th hin
trong bin ban ban giao:
- Ho va tn ngi ban giao:
- Ho va tn ngi nhn:
- Thi gian ban giao:
- S lng mu:
- Tinh trang mu khi ban giao:
- Ghi chu (nhng im bt thng cn quan tm):
Kim tra va loai bo cac mu khng at yu cu nh v, bt nut,... va tin hanh
khi phuc lai cac mu bi sai sot nu co th.
Khi tip nhn mu, phai ban giao y u v s lng, bao am cht lng, ghi chep
ro rang v tinh trang mu, nhng sai hong trong qua trinh vn chuyn
II.2.3.2. Kim soat cht lng
kim soat cht lng trong qua trinh vn chuyn mu, mu kim soat cht lng
thng c s dung:
Mu trng vn chuyn: mt mu nho vt liu sach cua i tng nghin cu c
vn chuyn cung vi mu tht trong cung mt mi trng, c bao quan, phn tich cac
thng s trong phong thi nghim nh mu tht. Mu QC loai nay c s dung kim
soat s nhim bn trong qua trinh vn chuyn mu.

14

II.2.4. QA/QC trong o, phn tich tai hin trng

Mt s thng s khng bn nh nhit , pH, DO, cht rn l lng, uc cn c
xac inh tai ch hoc ngay sau khi ly mu cang sm cang tt.
Khi o, phn tich tai ch cac thng s khng bn, cn phai chu y:
La chon phng phap phn tich phu hp khng hoc it bi anh hng cua
iu kin bn ngoai hoc tao cac iu kin mi trng thich hp (nh phong thi nghim
di ng, b tri bung lam vic trn tau ...) bao am kt qua phn tich.

Nhng thay i bt thng khi ly mu

Tinh trang hoat ng cua thit bi

Ngn nga nhim bn mu:

- o ac hin trng: Khi o ac cac thng s bng may moc ngoai hin trng (vi
du pH, to, mn,...) khng c nhung trc tip cac thit bi o vao may ly nc ma
phai ly cac mu phu o, sau khi o, mu o phai i.
- Chai lo cha mu phai c ra sach theo ung yu cu i vi tng thng s.
Khng c tn dung cac loai chai lo a dung cha hoa cht trong phong thi nghim
s dung cho vic cha mu.
- Dung cu cha mu phai c bao quan trong mi trng sach se, tranh bui, khoi va
cac ngun gy nhim khac.
- Cac loai giy loc, b dung cu loc phai c ong goi cn thn, boc bng cac cht
liu thich hp.
am bao cac thit bi hoat ng quan trc ngoai hin trng lam vic chinh xac n
inh, cn phai inh ky hiu chun cac thit bi nay theo cac quy inh cua nha san xut.
Tt ca h s hiu chun phai c lu gi.
Trong trng hp khng co iu kin hiu chun thi phai co cac bin phap nhn
bit tinh trang lam vic cua thit bi o. Thi du: so sanh thng xuyn gia cac thit bi
ging nhau hoc cung loai vi nhau theo mt chi tiu phu hp.
Trc mi t quan trc cn phai kim tra tinh trang hoat ng cua thit bi.
i vi nhng mu c phn tich tai hin trng (cht rn l lng, uc ...) cung
phai tin hanh phn tich mu QC kim soat c cht lng s liu.
II.2.5. Thuc th hoa cht bao quan mu
Toan b thuc th va hoa cht bao quan mu phai at tinh khit theo yu cu cua
mc phn tich va co nhan dan ro rang
Hoa cht va thuc th bao quan co th c ong o trc va cho vao cac lo nho
hoc ampul va han kin tranh phai pha ch ngoai hin trng.
II.2.6. Nc ct
Nc ct s dung ngoai hin trng cn phai chu y:

15

Phu hp vi tiu chun,

Khng s dung nc ct cha bit ngun gc,

Khng dung nc ct a qua han.

II.2.7. Dung cu cha mu

Dung cu cha mu phai c phong phn tich lam sach trc va y np. Nu co
iu kin phai boc giy trang paraphin mong chng bui.
Dung cu cha mu phai c kim tra inh ky phat hin nhim bn bng cach
ly mu trng hoc thm cht chun nng thp.

Khng c ng mu trong dung cu cha mu khng co np y.

Trong nhng trng hp khi phn tich nhay cao phai s dung dung cu cha
mu hoan toan mi.
II.2.8. Kim soat cht lng va khc phuc sai sot
Cac ky thut kim soat cht lng phai c ap dung cho tng mu c ly, cho
mt loat mu va cac o ac c thc hin tai hin trng.
Cn co s trao i thng tin gia ngi ly mu va ngi phn tich giai thich
s liu va co bin phap khc phuc sai sot.

S liu va kt qua QC phai c tp hp lai thanh bao cao.

Lp biu kim soat lp kim soat cht lng s liu (ISO 5667-14). Nu
kt qua phn tich mu QC vt ra ngoai gii han cho phep cn tin hanh cac bin phap
khc phuc.
II.3. am bao cht lng va kim soat cht lng trong phong thi nghim

II.3.1. Cac yu cu chung v nng lc phong thi nghim phn tich mi trng
co th cung cp c nhng s liu tin cy, duy tri cac hoat ng kim soat cht
lng thng xuyn, mt phong thi nghim phn tich mi trng (c inh hoc di ng)
phai ap ng c cac yu cu v nng lc quan ly va ky thut theo chun mc cua
ISO/IEC 17 025: 2002.
Cac yu t quyt inh mc chinh xac va tin cy cua phep th do phong thi
nghim thc hin, bao gm:
C cu t chc phu hp (ngi quan ly va ngi thc hin).
Yu t con ngi lam phn tich (cng tac tp hun, kim tra tay ngh),
Trang thit bi; quan ly, bao dng, kim chun va hiu chun thit bi,
iu kin, vt cht, tin nghi va mi trng,
Quan ly mu th,
Phng phap phn tich va hiu lc cua phng phap,
Cht chun, mu chun,

16
Pha
Lat cho
trin phng phap

Nh vy ngoai yu t quan ly, con ngi, phong thi nghim phai co u c s vt cht
tin hanh cac phep th co cht lng, thoa man muc tiu cht lng s liu.
Phong thi nghim phai tin hanh cac thu tuc kim soat cht lng, bao gm:
Thng xuyn s dung cht chun c chng nhn trong cac phep th,
Tham gia cac chng trinh so sanh lin phong hoc th nghim thanh thao,
T chc phn tich mu QC theo k hoach va duy tri thng xuyn .
II.3.2. Quan ly mu
Phong thi nghim phai t chc vn chuyn, tip nhn, bao quan, lu gi hoc thanh
ly mu theo cac quy inh cn thit va thng nht nhm bao am tinh tron ven cua mu
trc va sau khi phn tich theo:

Bao quan mu nc trong thi gian ngn: 40C

Bao quan mu nc trong thi gian dai: -200C
Vi cac mu sinh vt, tissue: -200C
Vi mu trm tich: Tuy vao i tng phn tich ma s dung mu t hay kh.
Nu s dung mu kh phai lam kh mu trong khng khi, nhit phong.
Co th bao quan mu bng cach thm hoa cht vi nhng lng thich hp. Nhng
hoa cht c chon phai khng anh hng n vic kim tra tip theo hoc anh hng
n kt qua.
Ghi chep lai tt ca cac bc bao quan trong bao cao kt qua.
II.3.3. La chon va cng nhn phng phap phn tich
Phong thi nghim phai s dung nhng tiu chun/phng phap phu hp vi thit bi
sn co nhng phai ap ng cac muc tiu cht lng va theo cac vn sau:
Thng s phn tich,
Yu cu gii han phat hin,
chinh xac cua phng phap ( chinh xac, chun xac),
Yu cu v kha nng so sanh s liu,
Su phu hp cua phng phap vi cac iu kin phong thi nghim.
Phong thi nghim phai tin hanh cac thu tuc chp nhn/ph duyt phng phap
II.3.4. Kim soat cht lng
Kim soat cht lng bng mu QC
Mu QC phong thi nghim dung anh gia hiu qua cua phng phap trong phong
thi nghim va mu QC hin trng anh gia cht lng tng hp cua qua trinh thu
mu ngoai hin trng va phng phap trong phong thi nghim.
Cac kt qua mu trng hin trng c so sanh vi cac kt qua mu trng phong
thi nghim phn bit s nhim bn ngoai hin trng va s nhim bn trong phong
thi nghim.

17

 Mu thm hin trng c so sanh vi mu thm phong thi nghim phn bit
cac vn bao quan va vn chuyn mu ngoai hin trng va cac vn bao quan mu
trong phong thi nghim.
Mu lp ngoai hin trng c so sanh vi mu lp trong phong thi nghim
phn bit chun xac cua vic thu mu ngoai hin trng vi chun xac cua phn
tich trong phong thi nghim.
kim soat cht lng s liu, phong thi nghim phai duy tri phn tich mu QC,
bao gm:
Mu trng thit bi (Blanks): s dung nc ct lam mu trng nhm anh gia
nhiu cua thit bi va xac inh gii han phat hin cua thit bi. Gii han phat hin cua thit
bi theo quy inh bng 3 ln nhiu ng nn.
Mu trng phng phap (Method Blanks): s dung nc ct + cac cht chun bi
mu (hoa cht tao mi trng, hoa cht che, thuc th hin mau ...) nhng khng co
cht inh phn tich. Mu trng phng phap anh gia gi han phat hin cua phng
phap, anh gia mc tinh khit cua hoa cht s dung.
Mu lp (Replcates/Duplicates): Do tinh phc tap cua cac phng phap phn tich
mu nc nn ta khng th lam c tt ca mu lp anh gia lch chun cung nh
khng am bao cua phep o. Nn nh a cp trn chung ta chi lam mt s mu
lp/mu up cho mt nhom mu (15U20 mu) anh gia tp trung cua phep th.
Chun thm tra (Control Standards)
Chun so sanh (Refrence Standards)
Mu chun i chng (CRMs): Vi mi trng nc, mu chun i chng thng
thng la cac mu ly tai hin trng hoc cac mu t tao co thanh phn phc tap nh
ngoai mi trng, c a n nhiu phong thi nghim co uy tin xac inh gia tri
trung binh va khoang tin cy. Mu chun i chng c lam song song vi mu thc.
Cn c vao khoang tin cy o cho phep ta anh gia kt qua phn tich mu thc. S liu
phn tich mu chun i chng cn phai lu trong h s di dang biu kim tra
anh gia hiu qua cung nh sai s h thng cua phng phap.
Mu ng hanh (Surrogate Compounds): mu ng hanh la cac mu co c im
nh mu tht, cac cht phn tich trong o cung co tinh cht vt ly hoa hoc tng t vi
cac cht trong mu tht nhng lai khng co trong t nhin, hoc s dung cac cht ng
vi phong xa trong thanh phn nguyn t cua cac cht phn tich (14C, 37Cl...). Mu ng
hanh thng s dung khi phn tich cac hp cht hu c nh PAHs, thuc tr su.
Kt qua thc hin phn tich mu QC c i kem vi s liu chng trinh quan trc
va phn tich mi trng va trinh bay nh bang sau:
Mu
Mu trng thit bi:
Mu trng phng phap:
Chun thm tra:
Mu No.1:
Mu No.2:
............

Kt qua

18

Mu No.n :
Mu lp No.2:
Mu lp No.m (m n)
Mu trng phng phap:
CRM/Mu ng hanh:
Chun so sanh:
II.4. QA/QC trong tinh toan kt qua, ghi chep s liu phn tich

Cac kt qua phn tich trc khi ghi chep vao s phai c kim tra i chiu vi cac s
sach gc nh: nht ky thc ia, s ghi kt qua phn tich. Vic kim tra c thc hin
bi it nht 1 ngi co trach nhim trong phong thi nghim. Kt qua phn tich c ghi
vao biu kt qua phai cha ng c mt s thng tin quan trong di y:
Ngay thang phn tich, phng phap phn tich.
Ky hiu mu phn tich.
Ky hiu va kt qua phn tich cua mu kim tra.
Cac gii han kim tra va canh bao.
Cac sc , thi (nu co).
Ho tn ngi phn tich, ngi tinh toan va ngi kim tra.
Sau khi s liu c i chiu, kim tra, luc o mi co gia tri va c s dung vao cac
muc ich khac nhau.
II.5. QA/QC trong bao cao kt qua

Ban bao cao kt qua phn tich am bao cht lng phai bao gm cac thng tin sau:
- Tiu
- Tn, ia chi phong thi nghim tin hanh phn tich
- Tn, ia chi khach hang
- Ngay, thang ly mu
- Ngay, gi phn tich
- Ky hiu mu.
- Tinh trang mu khi a vao phn tich
- Phng phap phn tich a s dung
- Sai s cho phep
- Kt qua phn tich mu trng thit bi, mu trng phong thi nghim, mu up va mu
lp
- Kt qua phn tich mu

19

Tai liu tham khao

1. APHA, Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 19th
Edition, 1995
1. Britsh Columbia Field Sampling Manual, 1996 Edition
2. Canadian Executive Agency, CPMS-II, Pollution Monitoring and Baseline
Studies- Environmental Monitoring Workbook 1997.
3. EPA Standard Methods, CD-ROM, Revision 1, July 1992
2. ISO 5667-14:1998, Water Quality- Sampling, Part 14: Guidance on Quality
Assurance of Enviromental Water Sampling and Handling
3. IUPAC, ISO, AOAC, Harmonised Guidlines for Internal Quality Control in
Analitycal Chemistry Laboratory, 1994
4. Jame P.Dux,Quality Assurance for the Anlytical Chemistry Laboratory, 2d
Edition, Van Nostrand Reihold, 1991
5. Lawrence H.K. et all, Principles of Environmental Analysis, Ana.Chem, 1983,
55, 2210-2218
6. TCVN 5993-1995, Cht lng nc-Hng dn bao quan va x ly mu
7. TCVN 5994-1995, Cht lng nc-Hng dn ly mu h ao t nhin nhn
tao
8. TCVN 5996-1995, Cht lng nc-Hng dn ly mu nc sng va sui
9. TCVN 5998-1995, Cht lng nc-Hng dn ly mu nc thai
4. UN/ECE Task Force on Monitoring & Assessment, Guidelines on Water-Quality
monitoring and Assessment of Tranboudary Rivers, May 1996
5. UN/ECE Task Force on Monitoring & Assessment, Volumn 4: Quality
Assurance, Jaunuary 1996
6. Villars M.T. Monitoring water quality in the future, Executive summary, Deft,
the netherlands, May 1995.

20

21

Phu luc 1:

H thng quan ly cht lng phong thi nghim

H thng quan ly cht lng cua phong th nghim/ hiu chun c quy inh
trong ISO/IEC 17025: 1999 gm hai nhom yu cu ln: cac yu cu v quan ly va cac
yu cu v ky thut.
Cac yu cu v quan ly bao gm:
1. T chc.
2. H thng cht lng.
3. Kim soat tai liu.
4. Xem xet cac yu cu, nghi va hp ng.
5. Hp ng phu v th nghim va hiu chun.
6. Cac dich vu mua sm va ngun cung cp.
7. Dich vu i vi khach hang.
8. Phan nan (hay kin nghi).
9. Kim soat vic th nghim va/hoc hiu chun khng phu hp.
10. Bin phap khc phuc.
11. Bin phap phong nga.
12. Kim soat h s.
13. anh gia ni b.
14. Xem xet cua lanh ao.
Cac yu cu v ky thut bao gm:
1. Yu cu chung.
2. Nhn s.
3. Tin nghi va iu kin mi trng.
4. Phng phap th nghim, hiu chun va ph duyt phng phap.
5. Thit bi.
6. Tinh lin kt chun o lng.
7. Ly mu.
8. Quan ly mu th nghim, hiu chun.
9. am bao cht lng kt qua th nghim va hiu chun
10. Bao cao kt qua.
Di y hng dn thc hin mt s vn then cht trong hoat ng QA/QC
cua phong thi nghim.
I. T chc va quan ly phong thi nghim

22

 t chc va quan ly tt phong thi nghim, cn thc hin mt s yu cu sau:

a/ Xac inh ro c cu t chc cua PTN trong t chc ma PTN trc thuc. Phn
inh ro nhim vu, trach nhim cua tng can b, nhn vin trong PTN. Xac inh cu th
ngi la "can b quan ly ky thut" chiu trach nhim v cac hoat ng ky thut va ngi
la "can b quan ly cht lng" chiu trach nhim am bao cho cac yu cu a c quy
inh trong h thng cht lng c tun thu va thc hin y u.
b/ Phong thi nghim phai thit lp mt h thng cht lng c th hin bng h
thng cac vn ban, tai liu, goi chung la "h thng tai liu cht lng". H thng tai liu
cht lng nay bao gm: S tay cht lng; cac quy inh, thu tuc iu hanh nhng hoat
ng, qua trinh co tinh cht chung cua phong thi nghim; cac quy inh, tai liu co tinh
cht chi dn cng vic cu th.
Co th hinh dung h thng tai liu cht lng trn bng s kim t thap di
y. trn cung la S tay cht lng, cang mc di, s lng vn ban, tai liu cang
yu cu nhiu hn.

S tay
cht lng

Cac thu
tuc iu hanh

Cac chi dn
cng vic cu th

c/ PTN phai inh ky tin hanh vic anh gia ni b theo cac thi han (thng la 1
nm) va thu tuc a inh kim tra xem hoat ng cua phong thi nghim co lin tuc
tun thu cac yu cu cua h thng cht lng hay khng. Can b quan ly cht lng co
trach nhim lp k hoach va t chc anh gia theo chng trinh a inh.
Khi vic anh gia phat hin ra nhng nghi ng v hiu qua cua cac hoat ng
hoc v s ung n cua cac kt qua phn tich, o, th, phong thi nghim phai tin hanh
cac hoat ng khc phuc kip thi, phai thng bao bng vn ban cho cac c s co lin
quan bit v nhng sai sot nay hiu chinh chung.
d/ Lanh ao phong thi nghim phai inh ky, thng la 1 nm, xem xet lai h
thng quan ly cht lng va cac hoat ng phn tich, o, th cua phong thi nghim
am bao s phu hp lin tuc va tinh hiu qua cua chung va a ra nhng thay i
hoc cai tin cn thit.

23

II. Cac phng phap phn tich, o th.

Yu cu chung la PTN phai s dung cac phng phap va thu tuc phu hp vi
nhng yu cu a c xac inh trong cac chng trinh quan trc va phu hp vi cac
phep phn tich, o, th thuc pham vi hoat ng cua PTN, bao gm ca vic ly mu, x
ly, vn chuyn, lu kho va chun bi mu.
a/ Chon la phng phap
Tt nht la s dung cac phng phap a tiu chun hoa, o la cac tiu chun quc
t, tiu chun vung, tiu chun quc gia. Phai s dung nhng n phm mi nht cua cac
tiu chun. Khi cn thit, PTN phai hiu chinh cac tiu chun nay bng nhng chi tit b
sung am bao s ap dung thich hp.
PTN cung co th chon cac phng phap thich hp a c cng b trong cac tap
chi, cac sach khoa hoc. Cac phng phap ni b (do PTN t xy dng) cung co th
c s dung nu phu hp vi yu cu quy inh va phai c th hin thanh vn ban,
c ph duyt theo thu tuc quy inh. i vi cac phng phap cha c tiu chun
hoa nay cn phai co s thoa thun cua c quan quan ly chng trinh quan trc. S thoa
thun nay c th hin bng mt vn ban quy inh ro rang v cac yu cu va muc ich
cua phep phn tich, o, th.
b/ Ph duyt phng phap
PTN phai kim tra lai cac phng phap tiu chun, khng tiu chun va cac
phng phap mi khng inh cac phng phap nay la phu hp vi muc ich s dung.

24

Muc tiu cht lng

Xy dng phng phap

La chon phng phap

Bin soan phng
phap
Chp nhn phng phap
- Kim tra hiu qua
- anh gia hiu qua

Tt

Khng tt

Kim soat cht lng

(bao gm bao tri thit bi)

Soat xet/chp nhn lai

- Kim tra hiu qua
- anh gia hiu qua

Tt

Khng tt

Hinh 1. Hoat ng QA/QC trong phong thi nghim

25

Phai ghi lai cac kt qua cua vic ph duyt va thu tuc thc hin vic ph duyt nay.
Vic ph duyt phai da trn cac thng s cua cac ky thut phn tich a c chon. Cac
thng s va kt qua ph duyt phai c th hin bng vn ban va phai c lu tr.
S phu hp cua phng phap co th kim tra bng cach so sanh vi cac yu cu
c trng cho vic s dung a inh nh khng am bao cua kt qua, gii han phat
hin, chon loc cua phng phap, tuyn tinh, gii han lp lai hoc tai lp,
kha nng chng lai cac anh hng bn ngoai ...
Cac ky thut c s dung ph duyt mt phng phap co th la mt hoc mt
s trong cac cach sau: s dung cac chun o lng hoc mu chun; so sanh kt qua vi
cac phng phap khac; so sanh lin phong; anh gia mt cach h thng nhng yu t
anh hng n kt qua; anh gia khng am bao cua kt qua da trn hiu bit khoa
hoc v cac nguyn tc ly thuyt cua phng phap va kinh nghim thc t.
c/ anh gia khng am bao
PTN phai co thu tuc anh gia khng am bao cua tt ca cac phep phn tich,
o, th.
Phai quan tm n tt ca cac yu t gop phn vao khng am bao. Cac yu t
o la:
- Cac chun chinh, mu chun va trang thit bi s dung;
- Phng phap phn tich, o th c la chon;
- iu kin mi trng;
- c tinh cua i tng phn tich, o, th;
- Ngi thao tac.
Tai liu c ban anh gia, trinh bay khng am bao o hin nay la
ISO/TAG4/WG3 "Guide to expression of uncertainty in measurement", 1993 va b tiu
chun ISO 5725: 1994: chinh xac ( chinh xac va chum) cua phng phap o va
kt qua o (ISO 5725: 1994 Accuracy (truness and precsion) of measurement methods
and results).
III. Trang thit bi
a/ Trang thit bi cua phong thi nghim phai ap ng cac yu cu cua tiu chun
hoc phng phap tng ng.
b/ Trang thit bi phai c anh du, dan nhan phn bit va nhn dang c
d dang, trong o phan anh c tinh trang hiu chun, kim inh va thi han hiu
chun, kim inh tip theo cua no.
Phai duy tri va lu gi h s cua tng loai trang thit bi.
c/ Phai thit lp cac thu tuc bao dng va thc hin vic bao dng trang thit bi
thng xuyn hay inh ky.

26

Trang thit bi sai hong phai c dan nhan phn bit vi cac trang thit bi
binh thng. Phai ngng s dung no cho n khi sa cha, hiu chinh xong va vic hiu
chun hoc kim inh sau o chng minh thit bi a hoat ng tt.
Khi vi ly do nao o, trang thit bi vt ra ngoai pham vi kim soat trc tip cua
PTN trong mt thi gian nht inh, PTN phai tin hanh kim tra am bao rng thit
bi vn u tt trc khi a vao hoat ng tr lai trong PTN.
d/ Phai am bao tinh lin kt chun o lng cua tt ca cac trang thit bi cua
phong thi nghim.
Thc cht cua yu cu am bao tinh lin kt chun chinh la vic thc hin mt
chui phep hiu chun k tip nhau i vi tt ca trang thit bi cua PTN, lam cho cac
trang thit bi nay u c so sanh (trc tip hay gian tip), va tip o la hiu chinh,
theo h thng chun o lng quc gia hay quc t, t o am bao cho trang thit bi o,
th, phn tich lun tin cy va chinh xac. Cu th phong thi nghim phai thc hin mt s
vic sau:
+ PTN phai xy dng va thc hin chng trinh hiu chun cho tt ca cac trang
thit bi co anh hng ro rt n gia tri va chinh xac cua cac kt qua phn tich, o, th
trc khi a chung vao s dung cung nh trong sut qua trinh s dung chung. Chng
trinh hiu chun phai bao gm ca cac phng tin o dung cho cac phep o phu tr, vi
du o cac iu kin mi trng.
+ i vi nhng trang thit bi khng th thc hin c vic hiu chun nu trn,
PTN co th ap dung cac bin phap sau:
- Tham gia mt chng trinh so sanh lin phong hoc thi nghim thanh thao
co bng chng v s phu hp cua cac trang thit bi lin quan.
- S dung cac mu chun ma cac gia tri v thanh phn va tinh cht cua no a
c chng nhn kim tra trang thit bi.
- S dung cac chun hoc cac phng phap a c cac bn lin quan thoa thun.
IV. Tin nghi va iu kin mi trng
a/ Yu cu chung la tin nghi cua PTN, bao gm ca cac iu kin v mi trng,
chiu sang va cac ngun nng lng, phai phu hp co th d dang thc hin mt cach
ung n cac phep phn tich, o, th theo yu cu. Cn co s quan tm c bit khi vic
ly mu, hoc vic phn tich, o, th c thc hin nhng ni ngoai ia im c
inh cua PTN. Phai quy inh thanh vn ban cac yu cu i vi cac tin nghi va iu
kin mi trng co th anh hng n kt qua phn tich, o, th.
b/ PTN phai co cac thu tuc va thc hin vic giam sat, kim tra chc chn rng
mi trng khng tac ng xu ti vic ly mu; vic tin hanh phn tich, o, th. Vic
thc hin cac phep phn tich phai c dng lai khi cac iu kin mi trng khng phu
hp. Cn c bit kim soat s phu hp vi cac yu cu cua cac yu t nh s v trung

27

v mt sinh hoc, bui bn, nhng tin hiu in t gy nhiu, cht phong xa, vic cung
ng in, nhit , m, rung ng, ting n v.v...
c/ Trng hp co nhng hoat ng anh hng ln nhau, PTN phai phn lp mt
cach co hiu qua nhng khu vc nay tranh nhng anh hng xu qua lai.
d/ PTN phai thc hin s kim soat i vi vic s dung va ra vao phong thi
nghim ma khng co nhim vu han ch nhng anh hng xu n kt qua phn tich,
c bit la nhng ni co anh hng trc tip n cht lng cac phep phn tich.
V. Nhn s
a/ Ban lanh ao PTN phai am bao rng tt ca ky thut vin vn hanh trang thit bi
co u trinh va nng lc cn thit. Trong PTN cac ky thut vin cn thng xuyn
c nng cao trinh ap ng yu cu thc t.
b/ Nhim vu cua can b lanh ao va ky thut vin phai c phn cng ro rang va
c th hin bng vn ban.
VI. Quan ly mu phn tich, o, th
a/ PTN phai co cac thu tuc thich hp cho vic quan ly mu i vi tng thng s.
b/ PTN phai co cac cach nhn dang va phn bit mu. Nhng ky hiu nhn
dang phai c duy tri trong sut thi gian tn tai cua mu trong PTN am bao
khng gy ra s nhm ln cac mu khi phn tich o, th khi lun chuyn, k ca khi a
vao h s, tai liu.
c/ Khi tip nhn mu, PTN phai ghi lai moi s khng binh thng hoc sai lch
so vi s m ta trong cac phng phap phn tich, o, th ma PTN s dung; phai tham
khao y kin cua cac b phn lin quan ho cho cac hng dn cu th khi co s nghi
ng v s phu hp cua mu.
d/ PTN phai co cac thu tuc va tin nghi phong tranh cac h hong i vi mu
trong qua trinh lu gi, x ly, chun bi va tin hanh phn tich, o, th. Phai tun thu cac
hng dn kem theo mu.
VII. am bao cht lng cac kt qua phn tich
PTN phai am bao cht lng kt qua phn tich bng cach theo doi lin tuc cac
kt qua. Vic theo doi phai c lp thanh k hoach va co th bao gm cac cach sau:
Cac s kim tra cht lng ni b bng cach s dung ky thut thng k.
Tham gia cac chng trinh so sanh lin phong hoc th nghim thanh thao.
S dung u n cac mu chun a c chng nhn.
Tai tao lai cac phep phn tich bng cac phng phap ging hoc khac nhau.
Phn tich nghim lai cac mu c lu gi.

28

 Xem xet s tng quan gia kt qua vi cac c trng khac nhau cua mu.
VIII. Kim soat cht lng trong phong thi nghim
QC phong thi nghim chinh la mt chng trinh anh gia an xen vao cac hoat
ng tai hin trng va trong phong thi nghim anh gia chinh xac va ung
n cua cac phep phn tich o th (goi vn tt la cac phep o).
Cac qua trinh QC c thc hin bng vic phn tich u n mu kim soat cht
lng (mu QC) sau khi mt phng phap a c chng minh la thich hp cho vic s
dung thng qua s ph duyt phng phap.
Cac mu QC c dung trong phn tich mi trng gm hai loai: mu QC phong
thi nghim va mu QC hin trng.
Mu QC

Mu QC hin trng

Mu QC phong thi nghim

Mu QC hin trng xem muc 1.4

1. Mu QC phong thi nghim
Mu QC phong thi nghim gm hai loai: mu QC phng phap va mu QC thit
bi.
Mu QC
phong thi nghim

Mu QC thit bi

Mu QC phng phap

Mu QC thit bi
Cac mu QC thit bi dung anh gia va kim tra cht lng cua kt qua do thit
bi mang lai. Mu QC thit bi bao gm: chun kim soat (control standard); chun thm
tra (verification standard); mu trng thit bi (instrument blank).

Mu QC thit bi

29

Mu trng thit bi

Chun kim soat

Chun thm tra

+ Mu trng thit bi: mt mu nho dung mi, thng la nc ct, c cho trc
tip vao thit bi o s nhim do thit bi gy ra. Mu nay thng dung anh gia
n inh va nhiu cua thit bi.
+ Chun kim soat: la chun dung kim tra chinh xac cua cac chun c
dung chun hoa thit bi.
+ Chun thm tra: la chun theo doi n inh cua thit bi theo thi gian.
Mu QC phng phap:
Mu QC phng phap dung anh gia cht lng tt ca tinh nng s dung cua
phng phap trong phong thi nghim. Mu QC phng phap phong thi nghim gm:
mu trng phng phap, mu lp phong thi nghim, mu thm phng phap, mu chun
c chng nhn.
Mu QC
phng phap

Mu trng
phng phap

Mu lp
phong thi ghim

Mu thm
phng phap

Mu chun c
chng nhn

Mu trng phng phap: La mu bng vt liu sach c trai qua cac bc x ly

ging nh vi mu phn tich, o, th. Mu nay c dung anh gia s nhim tao
ra trong toan b mt thu tuc phn tich, o, th.
Mu lp phong thi nghim: Hai hoc nhiu hn cac phn cua cung mt mu t
nhin c chun bi va phn tich ring re bng cung mt phng phap. Mu nay dung
anh gia tp trung cua kt qua phn tich , o, th trong phong thi nghim.
Mu thm phng phap: Mu, vt liu sach hoc thuc th c cho thm vao
mt lng a bit cua mt hay nhiu yu t phn tich va c x ly ging nh khi phn
tich, o, th. Mu thm anh gia mc sai lch gy ra do anh hng cua nn va sai
s cua phong thi nghim, cac sai s hiu chun, sai s chun bi muv.v...
Mu chun c chng nhn:

30

Vic phn tich mu chun trong phong thi nghim trc ht la anh gia sai s,
ung, sai s h thng cua phng phap c s dung.
2. Tiu chi chp nhn cua kim soat cht lng va bin phap khc phuc
Kim soat cht lng c thc hin thng qua vic phn tich, o hoc th
nghim mt s loai mu QC a nu trn nhn dang cac ngun sai s xac inh. Tuy
nhin kt qua phn tich, o, th cac mu QC se chi co y nghia khi a ra c cac gii
han so sanh vi chung. Vi du khi phn tich mu trng hin trng, mu trng vn
chuyn, mu trng thit bi... cn co cac gia tri inh mc thich hp bit mc
nhim gy ra trong qua trinh ly mu, vn chuyn mu, hoc do thit bi gy ra con chp
nhn c hay ti mc nguy him, cn truy tim nguyn nhn loai bo no. Hoc khi
hiu chun thit bi bng cach so sanh vi chun, se xac inh c sai s s chi cua thit
bi nay. Nhng cung vi no phai bit sai s cho phep ln nht cua thit bi la bao nhiu
quyt inh xem co cn hiu chinh a sai s v pham vi cho phep hay khng v.v...
Mt vi du in hinh la s dung cac "gii han canh bao" va "gii han kim soat".
Nh khi phn tich"mu lp phong thi nghim", ta xac inh c lch chun s c
trng cho s phn tan ( tp trung) cua phng phap (thu tuc) phn tich c s dung.
Gii han canh bao c ly la 2s va gii han kim soat c ly la 3s. Gia tri 2s va 3s
goi la gii han canh bao va gii han kim soat trn (ky hiu la UWL va UCL). Gia tri
-2s va -3s goi la gii han canh bao va gii han kim soat di (ky hiu la LWL va LCL).
Khi s thanh thao cua PTN tng ln, gia tri cua cac gii han nay se nho xung. Cac gii
han 2s va 3s ng vi mc tin cy 95,45% va 99,73%. iu nay co nghia la vi 100
phep phn tich ta hy vong nhiu nht la chi co 5 phep phn tich co gia tri vt qua gii
han canh bao va c 300 phep phn tich hy vong chi co 1 gia tri vt qua gii han kim
soat. Vi mt gia tri nn xac inh ta co biu kim soat sau y:
3s

UCL

2s

UWL

Nn

LWL

-2s

LCL
-3s Khi gia tri thu c vt ra khoi gii han canh bao, nghia la bt u co nh
ng
vn phai quan tm xem xet va khi gia tri thu c vt qua gii han kim soat, co
nghia la vn a tr nn nghim trong va nguy him. Cac bin phap khc phuc phai
c ra va thc hin. Bang di y cho mt vi du v cac hanh ng khc phuc trong
mt tinh hung cu th.

31

K hoach khc phuc cac sai sot cua QC

A. Cac gia thit:
1. Trung binh co 1 trong 20 im o vt qua gii han canh bao (WL) 2 lch
chun (2SD) va 1 trong 300 im o vt qua gii han kim soat (CL) 3 lch
chun (3SD).
2. ng trung tm la x ln gii han phat hin cua phng phap (MDL) vi x it
nht la 20 ln MDL.
3. Tiu chun va cac hanh ng x ly ap dung cho cac im o nm trn va di
gii han cua tham s va khng ap dung nu cac im o nm trn hai cn cua
tham s.
B. Bin phap khc phuc
Tham s thng k
Gii han kim soat
(CL) la 3SD (3s)
Gii han canh bao
(WL) la 2SD (2s)

Tiu chun
1. Mt im o vt qua CL
2.a. Cac phep phn tich lp lai < CL
2.b. Cac phep phn tich lp lai > CL
1. 2 hoc 3 im o > WL
2.a. im o tip theo < WL 2. b.
im o tip theo > WL

lch chun (SD) 1. 4 hoc 5 im o > 1 SD

2.a. im o tip theo < 1SD
2.b. im o tip theo > 1SD
ng trung tm
(CTL)

1. im o trn CTL
2.a. im o tip theo di CTL
2.b. im o tip theo trn CTL

Hanh ng
1. Lp lai phep phn tich
2.a. Tip tuc phn tich
2. b. Dng lai va hiu chinh
1. Phn tich mu khac
2. a. Tip tuc phn tich
2. b. Dng laiva hiu chinh
1. Phn tich mu khac
2. a. Tip tuc phn tich
2.b.Dng lai va hiu chinh
1. Phn tich mu khac
2. a. Tip tuc phn tich
2. b. Dng lai va hiu chinh

C. Sau khi tin hanh cac hoat ng khc phuc

Phn tich lai mt na s mu nm gia im cui cung trong gii han kim soat
va im ngoai cung ngoai gii han kim soat.
IX. So sanh lin phong thi nghim va th nghim thanh thao
Mt trong cac bin phap kim soat cht lng PTN co hiu qua la vic t chc va
tham gia so sanh lin PTN va th nghim thanh thao.
So sanh lin phong thi nghim (Interlaboratory compairison)
La vic t chc va thc hin anh gia cac phep phn tich i vi cac mu hoc vt
liu th hoan toan ging nhau hoc tng t nhau bi hai hay nhiu PTN theo s thoa
thun vi nhng iu kin c xac inh.

32

So sanh lin PTN nhm cac muc ich: xac inh nng lc cua PTN i vi cac phep
phn tich, o, th nghim; kim tra s tng thich va nht quan cua s liu i vi tng
ca nhn ky thut vin cua PTN; thit lp cac phng phap phn tich; o, th mi; giai
quyt s khac nhau gia cac PTN; xac inh gia tri cac mu chun c chng nhn
v.v...
Th nghim thanh thao (proficiency testing)
La vic xac inh cht lng thc hin vic phn tich bng cach so sanh lin PTN.
Muc ich cua vic th nghim thanh thao chinh la nhm xac inh nng lc cua
PTN i vi cac phep phn tich do cac PTN cng b.
Th nghim thanh thao c thc hin bng chng trinh th nghim lin PTN.
Chng trinh th nghim lin PTN (interlaboratory testing programmes)
La vic so sanh lin PTN trong o cac mu cua mt vt liu th ng nht c
phn phat thc hin cac phep phn tich thich hp tai cac PTN tham gia.

33

Phu luc 2.

X ly s liu theo phn b chun

(phn b Gauss)

1. lch chun cua phng phap a bit

Kt qua cua phep o 1 ln c trinh bay nh sau:
Q= X ts; vi P = 95%
Trong o: Q la gia tri thc cua ai lng;
X la gia tri thu c t phep o 1 ln, c coi la kt qua o (la gia tri
cua ai lng o);
P la xac sut (mc tin cy);
t la h s phu thuc P (bang 1 va bang 2 cua phu luc).
iu trn co nghia la vi xac sut tin cy P a chon, sai s cua kt qua o (X)
nm trong gii han ts, cung co nghia la gia tri thc Q cua ai lng se nm trong
khoang t X - ts n X + ts. Trng hp P c ly bng 95% (0,95), khi o h s t = 2,
co nghia la nu ta tin hanh 100 phep o theo phng phap y se hy vong chi co 5 ln
o co sai s vt ra ngoai gii han 2s. Chon P bng bao nhiu la tuy thuc vao yu
cu cu th.
Vi du: Sai s cua phep o mt ln co th bng bao nhiu nu phng phap o a
cho co s =0,01 n vi va c 100 ln o thi trung binh co 5 ln sai s vt qua gii han
quy inh. Bai toan nay cung co nghia la tim gii han sai s cua phep o vi s =0,01 v
va P = 95%.
Bang 2 Phu luc I phn b chun cho ng vi P=95%, ta co t=2. Sai s cua phep
o 1 ln trong trng hp nay la:
ts = 2 x 0.01v = 0,02 v
2. Trng hp cha bit lch chun s cua phng phap
Thc hin n ln o (th, phn tich) lin tip cung mt ai lng. Tinh gia tri
trung binh cng ( x ) va lch chun thc nghim nh sau:
n

x1 + x 2 + ...x
n

n =

x
i =1

trong o: x1, x2 ....xn la gia tri thu c tng ln o;

n la s ln o lp lai.
n

s=

( x x)
i =1

n 1
Gia tri trung binh x c ly lam kt qua o. lch chun s c trng cho s
phn tan cua cac gia tri o ring re xi xung quanh gia tri trung binh x . Gia tri s ln co
nghia la cac gia tri o ring re xi phn tan nhiu quanh x , tc phep o co tp trung
thp va ngc lai.
Kt qua cua phep o c trinh bay nh sau:

34

Q= x

ts
s Vi P = ....
n

Trong o: Q la gia tri thc cua ai lng;

x la gia tri trung binh;
ts la h s phu thuc s ln o lp n va xac sut tin cy P a chon c tra
theo bang 1 va bng 2 phn b Student (phu luc)
s la lch chun thc nghim;
P la xac sut tin cy.
iu trn co nghia la vi xac sut tin cy P a chon sai s cua kt qua o ( x )

nm trong gii han

ts
s , co nghia la gia tri thc cua ai lng se nm t
n

t
t

x s s n x + s s .
n
n

Vi du: xac inh chinh xac khi lng mt mu th, ta cn lin tip 6 ln mu
o, c cac kt qua sau (n vi g):
72,631
72,344
72,357
72,346
73,352
72,340
Khi lng thc cua mu bng bao nhiu vi xac xut tin cy la 99%.
Tinh: x =

= 72,350 g

(x
n

s=

i =1

72,350

8,06 x 10-3g

6 1
Tra bang 1 phu luc I, ng vi n = 6 va P = 99%, co ts = 4,03. Ta co:
ts
4,03
x 0,86 x10 3 g 13 x10 3 g
s=
6
n

Kt qua o cui cung c th hin la:

m =(72,350 0,013)g, vi P = 99%
3. Lam tron s
Khi lam tron tri s cua kt qua o, ngi ta cn c vao bc co nghia cua sai s. Tri
s cua kt qua o phai tn cung bng con s cung bc vi tri s cua sai s. Vi du, khi sai
s la 5, con s tn cung se la con s ng vi hang n vi, khi sai s la 0,02, con s
tn cung se la s le phn trm...
lam tron s, ap dung cac quy tc sau y:
a. Nu k tip con s cui cung cn lai khi quy tron la cac con s nho hn 5 thi
khi quy tron, con s cui cung se khng thay i (quy tron xung hay giam).
Vi du:
2,12 2,1
6,343 6,34

35

b. Nu k tip con s cui cung cn lai khi quy tron la cac con s ln hn 5 thi
khi quy tron, con s cui cung se tng thm 1 (quy tron ln hay quy tron tng).
Vi du: 3,14159 3,1416
8,248 8,25
c. Nu k tip con s cui cung cn lai khi quy tron la con s 5 va sau con s 5
co it nht mt con s khac khng thi khi quy tron con s cui cung o se tng thm 1
(quy tron tng).
Vi du:
4,3501 4,4
d. Nu k tip con s cui cung cn lai khi quy tron la con s 5 va bit ro con s
5 nay a c quy tron nh th nao thi con s 5 o se c quy tron xung theo quy tc
a nu nh no a c quy tron ln va se c quy tron ln theo quy tc b nu nh no a
c quy tron xung.
Vi du: 6,3149 a c quy tron thanh 6,315 nu tip tuc se c quy tron thanh
6,31.
4,1852 a quy tron thanh 4,185, nu tip tuc se quy thanh 4,19.
e. Nu k tip con s cui cung cn lai khi quy tron la con s ung 5 (sau no chi
toan la s 0) thi co th tuy y quy tron ln hay quy tron xung. Nhng nu cn s dung s
quy tron trong khi tinh toan thi nn quy tron nh th nao con s cui cung la con s
chn. Nh vy, con s cui cung o se khng thay i nu no a la con s chn va se
tng thm 1 nu no la con s le (quy tc s chn).
Vi du:
1
= 0,0625 0,062
16
3
= 0,75 0,8
4

f. Nu k tip con s cui cung cn lai khi quy tron la con s 5 nhng khng
bit no la con s ung 5 hay a c quy tron, thi xem con s 5 o la con s ung va
quy tron theo quy tc e.
4. Loai bo kt qua o bt thng
Kt qua cua mt ln o ring re trong day n phep o cung mt ai lng c coi
la bt thng nu no lch mt cach ang k so vi nhng gia tri con lai. Bang phn b
chun va phn b Student cho thy xac sut a = 1 - P mt kt qua o ring re lch so
vi gia tri trung binh 3s hoc 4s la rt nho ( a ng vi xi - x > 3s la 0,3% va ng vi
xi - x > 4s la 0,01% ). Vy co kt qua nao lch vi x qua gii han 3s hoc 4s (tuy
theo P c chon) co th coi la mc sai s th va loai bo chung trong qua trinh x ly kt
qua o.

36

Bang 1
Gia tri tich phn xac sut (t) =

2
2

t2
2

dt theo cac gia tri t cho trc

F(t)

F(t)

F(t)

F(t)

0,00
0,05
0,10
0,15
0,20
0,25
0,30
0,35
0,40
0,45
0,55
0,60
0,55
0,65
0,60
0,75
0,80
0,85
0,90

0,0000
0,0399
0,0797
0,1192
0,1585
0,1974
0,2358
0,2737
0,3108
0,3473
0,3829
0,4177
0,4515
0,4843
0,5161
0,5467
0,5763
0,6047
0,6319

0,95
1,00
1,05
1,10
1,15
1,20
1,25
1,30
1,35
1,40
1,45
1,50
1,55
1,60
1,65
1,70
1,75
1,80

0,6579
0,6827
0,7063
0,7287
0,7499
0,7699
0,7887
0,8064
0,8230
0,8385
0,8529
0,8664
0,8798
0,8904
0,9011
0,9109
0,9199
0.9281

1,85
1,90
1,95
2,00
2,05
2,10
2,15
2,20
2,25
2,30
2,35
2,40
2,45
2,50
2,55
2,60
2,65
2,70

0,9357
0,9426
0,9488
0,9545
0,9596
0,9643
0,9684
0,9722
0,9756
0,9786
0,9812
0,9836
0,9857
0,9876
0,9892
0,9907
0,9920
0,9931

2,75
2,80
2,85
2,90
2,95
3,0
3,1
3,2
3,3
3,4
3,5
3,6
3,7
3,8
3,9
4,0
4,,5
5,0

0,9940
0,9949
0,9956
0,9963
0,9968
0,99730
0,99806
0,99862
0,99904
0,99932
0,99954
0,99968
0,99978
0,99986
0,99990
0,999936
0,999994
0,9999994

37

Bang 2
Gia tri t theo gia tri tich phn xac sut cho trc
F(t)

1- F(t)

F(t)

1- F(t)

0,50
0,60
0,70
0,75
0,80
0,85
0,90
0,95
0,96
0,97
0,98
0,99
0,991

0,50
0,40
0,30
0,25
0,20
0,15
0,10
0,05
0,04
0,03
0,02
0,01
0,009

0,675
0,842
1,036
1,150
1,282
1,440
1,645
2,960
2,054
2,170
2,326
2,576
2,612

0,992
0,993
0,994
0,995
0,996
0,997
0,998
0,999
0,9995
0,9999
0,99999
0,999999
0,9999999

0,008
0,007
0,006
0,005
0,004
0,003
0,002
0,001
5.10-4
1.10-4
1.10-5
1.10-6
1.10-6

2,652
2,697
2,748
2,807
2,878
2,968
3,090
3,219
3,481
3,891
4,417
4,892
5,327

38

Bang 3.
Gia tri ts ng vi xac sut tin cy Ps va s ln o n khac nhau
Ps
0,5

0,6

0,7

0,8

0,9

0,95

0,98

0,99

0,999

1,000
0,816
0,765
0,741
0,727
0,718
0,711
0,706
0,703
0,700
0,697
0,665
0,694
0,692
0,691
0,690
0,689
0,688
0,688
0,674

1,376
1,061
0,978
0,941
0,920
0,906
0,896
0,889
0,883
0,879
0,976
0,873
0,870
0,868
0,866
0,865
0,863
0,862
0,861
0,842

1,963
1,336
1,250
1,190
1,156
1,134
1,119
1,108
1,110
1,093
1,088
1,083
1,079
1,076
1,074
1,071
1,069
1,067
1,066
1,036

3,08
1,886
1,638
1,533
1,476
1,440
1,415
1,397
1,383
1,372
1,363
1,356
1,350
1,345
1,341
1,337
1,333
1,330
1,328
2,282

6,31
2,92
2,35
2,13
2,02
1,943
1,895
1,860
1,833
1,812
1,796
1,782
1,771
1,761
1,753
1,746
1,740
1,734
1,729
1,645

12,71
4,30
3,18
2,77
2,57
2,45
2,36
2,31
2,26
2,23
2,20
2,18
2,16
2,14
2,13
2,12
2,11
2,10
2,09
1,960

31,8
6,96
4,54
3,75
3,36
3,14
3,00
2,90
2,82
2,76
2,72
2,68
2,65
2,62
2,60
2,58
2,57
2,55
2,54
2,33

63,7
6,92
5,84
4,60
4,03
3,71
3,50
3,36
3,25
3,17
3,11
3,05
3,01
2,98
2,95
2,92
2,90
2,88
2,86
2,58

636,6
31,6
12,9
8,61
6,86
5,96
5,40
5,04
4,78
4,59
4,49
4,32
4,22
4,14
4,07
4,02
3,96
3,92
3,88
3,29

n
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20

39

Bang 4
Gia tri xac sut tin cy Ps tng ng vi cac gia tri ts va n khac nhau
ts
n
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20

2,5

3,5

0,705
0,816
0,861
0,884
0,898
0,908
0,914
0,919
0,923
0,927
0,929
0,931
0,933
0,935
0,936
0,937
0,938
0,939
0,940
0,955

0,758
0,870
0,912
0,933
0,946
0,953
0,959
0,963
0,966
0,969
0,970
0,972
0,974
0,974
0,975
0,976
0,977
0,978
0,976
0,988

0,795
0,905
0,942
0,960
0,970
0,976
0,980
0,983
0,985
0,987
0,988
0,989
0,990
0,990
0,991
0,992
0,992
0,992
0,993
0,997

0,823
0,928
0,961
0,975
0,983
0,987
0,990
0,992
0,993
0,994
0,995
0,996
0,996
0,996
0,997
0,997
0,997
0,998
0,998
0,9995

40