LI TNG GIAO Hng Dng ---o0o--Ngun http://thuvienhoasen.

org Chuyn sang ebook 9-8-2009 Ngi thc hin : Nam Thin namthien@gmail.com Link Audio Ti Website http://www.phatphaponline.org Mc Lc
(I) - Mng li ngu duyn. (II) - S xut hin mng li sng (III) - Mng Ton Cu (IV) - Php gii tnh: chng chp, giao thoa, v vng mc

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(I) - Mng li ngu duyn.

Chc ai cng c ln chng kin mt em b ngi khc v l tho chi ra tng b phn ri sau khng th lp li nguyn vn nh c. Hin gi, cc nh khoa hc cng trong tnh trng ging ht. Vi tr sai bit, sut ba th k qua, tn hao v k tin ti v cng sc, h tip tay nhau phn x v tr thnh mnh, cui cng n nay lm vo ng ct, khng thy manh mi lm th no tin pht, ngoi tr tip tc m ln, phn tn nh thm cc mnh. Lc dn khi mi cng trnh nghin cu khoa hc trong th k 20 l nguyn l quy gim (Principle of reductionism). Theo nguyn l ny, mun thng hiu thin nhin thi phi khai ph cc thnh phn ca thin nhin. Mt khi thu t thnh phn, thi nm bt ton th s khng gp kh khn. Bi th nhiu thp nin qua quan im chung l mun hiu v tr thi phi hiu nguyn t v cc siu si (superstring); mun hiu s sng thi phi hiu cc phn t; mun hiu tp tnh con ngi thi phi hiu cc gen c nhn. Cc h thng phng trnh vi phn tuyn tnh ca vt l hc c in rt thch hp vi php phn tch v tng hp nh vy. C th phn chng ra tng phn, mi phn em gii ring bit, cui cng hp cc li gii ring

bit thi c li gii chung. Do , mt h tuyn tnh hon ton bng tng cc phn ca n.a Kinh nghim cho thy cng m ln, cng sai bit, thi mc phc hp (complexity) cng gia tng. Theo ngha ton hc, phc hp chng nhng c ngha l phi tuyn tnh m cn c ngha bao gm v lng phn t bin chuyn vi nhiu s t do (number of degrees of freedom). Ngha l, khng th s dng h tuyn tnh m phi dng h thng phng trnh vi phn phi tuyn tnh (cn gi l h ng lc; dynamical systems) m t s tng tc gia v lng phn t ca mt h phc hp. Ton hc tnh phc hp l ton hnh hc v cc mu hnh c phn tch trong khung tp do Poincar khi xng, nh qu o hp dn k d (strange attractors), hnh th bin lp (fractals), chn dung pha (phase portraits), ... Ngoi ra, phi p dng c hc thng k (statistical mechanics) tnh phn b xc sut trong chuyn ng ca v lng phn t v khng th m t y chi tit s vn chuyn ca tng c th phn t. C hc thng k cho php thnh lp nhng l thuyt thm su v trt t th gii v m, khm ph s hin hu nhng tnh cht thit yu ca cc h thng phc hp m khng cn tm hiu chi tit chnh xc ca nhng chuyn ng ngu nhin phc tp v bt quy tc mc vi m. Cng ngy cng ng khoa hc gia cng nhn khng c hin tng hay bin c no hin khi c lp ring bit. H khm ph ngun gc pht sinh tnh phc hp chnh l mng li gm cc giao lin ni kt v quan h nhn qu gia tt c mi s mi vt trong v tr. Do h tin rng mng li phc hp c mt cu trc rt chnh xc v t chnh cn c nghin cu tng tn v lin quan mt thit v nh hng su xa i sng con ngi. Con ngi cng vi mi s mi vt l nhng mt li va l thnh qu tc dng ca ht thy cc mt li khc, va l nhn hu lc d phn cu to, bi dng, pht trin, v vn chuyn ton th mng li. Trong nhng nm gn y, nh s dng ton hc biu tng nhng mng li tru xut t php gii trng trng duyn khi, nhiu nh lut ton hc v nhiu mu hnh c ngha c khm ph trong th gii hin tng v trong cc sinh hot x hi. Do ton hc, cc nh x hi hc, vt l hc, sinh hc, v nhiu khoa hc gia khc tm thy nhiu quan h bt ng gia nhng sinh hot x hi v tc dng ca nhiu hin tng tng nh khng lin can nhau: t t bo sng v h sinh thi ton cu (global ecosystems) n Internet v no b ngi. S nhn bit nhng quan h ny thun ty pht

xut t ton hc mng li, soi sng mt s vn by lu cha c gii quyt trong nhiu ngnh khoa hc k c tm l hc v x hi hc. Ton gia Leonhard Euler c xem nh l ngi khi xng ton hc mng li vo nm 1736, khi ng chng minh khng th c mt con ng chy qua by chic cu, mi cu ch mt ln, trn sng Pregel, thnh ph Konigsberg. Mt biu ng phc ha km theo phn lun chng lm pht khi c mt ngnh ton hc rng ln v rt quan trng. l thuyt biu (graph theory), ct li ca thuyt mng li hin nay. Lun chng ca Euler tuy n gin v u m, rt d hiu ngay i vi ngi khng chuyn ton, nhng chnh ci li nhn ca ng mi thc s lm nn lch s. i vi ng, vng by chic cu Konigsberg hin ra nh mt biu (graph), ngha l mt tp hp gm nt (nodes) ni li vi nhau bi nhng ng dy ni nt (links). Cc nt biu din bn vng t b sng chia cch, t tn l A, B, C, v D. Cc ng dy ni nt l nhng chic cu ni kt cc vng y vi nhau. L do khng c ng no i qua tt c by chic cu mi cu ch mt ln l v nt no c mt s l ng dy ni thi nt phi l im khi u hay im cui cng ca hnh trnh. Mt con ng lin tc i qua ht thy by chic cu ch c th c mt im khi u v mt im cui cng. Nh th, con ng ny khng th hin hu trong mt biu c nhiu hn hai nt vi mt s l ng dy ni. V biu Konigsberg c bn nt vi mt s l ng dy ni cho nn khng th tm ra con ng ni trn. Nn lu s hin hu ca con ng ni trn khng ty thuc tr thng minh suy l ca con ngi m tht ra l mt tnh cht ca biu . Vi cch b tr cc chic cu nh Konigsberg hi , du ti gii n u ta cng khng tm ra c con ng ni trn. Dn chng thnh ph Konigsberg ng vi Euler khng cn thc mc v s hin hu ca mt con ng nh vy na v n nm 1875 xy thm mt cu mi ni lin B v C, gia tng s ng dy ni B v C ln thnh bn. Do ch cn li hai nt, A v D, vi mt s l ng dy ni, tr thnh im khi u v im kt thc mt hnh trnh qua tm chic cu, mi cu ch i qua mt ln m thi. Tm li, cu chuyn trn ch cho thy trong cu trc ca cc biu hay mng li n khut nhng tnh cht m tc dng c th hn ch hay tng gia kh nng giao lin tc ng ca chng ta vi chng. Cu trc lun lun nh hng trn tc dng, chng hn a hnh cc mng li x hi nh hng s

loan truyn tin tc hay lan trn cc bnh truyn nhim. Mt trng hp a hnh mng li cc trm pht in nh hng n tnh bn vng ca s truyn dn in: Ngy 10 thng tm, 1996, mt li lm trn hai ng dn in Oregon, Hoa k, lm pht khi mt dy hng my in qua cc trm pht nh dng thc , tt in trong 11 tiu bang Hoa k v 2 tnh Gia n i, hn 7 triu nh khng in sut 16 ting ng h. Mt th d khc v nh hng ca cu trc mng li trn tc dng: Ngy 4 thng nm, 2000, con su Love Bug, mt chng trnh ph hoi my tnh ti t nht cha tng thy, b lan khp th gii qua Internet gy thit hi hng t M kim. Bi th nghin cu s hnh thnh cu trc ca mng li l then cht thng hiu th gii phc hp quanh ta. Ch cn mt vi thay i nh trn cc nt hay ng dy ni nt cng pht khi nhiu kh nng mi t sau nhng cnh ca n kn. Hin nay ht thy mi ngnh khoa hc nghin cu h thng phc hp bt u quan tm kho st s hnh thnh v bin chuyn cu trc v ng lc ca cc mng li tng giao. Ban u, cc nh ton hc ch ch tm khm ph v sp hng cc loi mng li. Th d: cc mng do nguyn t to thnh trong mt tinh th hay cc mng lc gic do ong thit lp lm t l nhng mng li c sp t (ordered graphs). Nhng v sau, vn t ra l cc mng hin khi nh th no? Nhng nh lut no qui nh a hnh, tng dng, v cu trc ca chng? Phi i n thp nin gia th k 20, cc vn y mi c gii quyt ln u tin do bi cng trnh xy dng thuyt mng li ngu duyn (random networks) ca hai nh ton hc Hungary, Paul Erdos v Alfrd Rnyi. Hy tng tng t chc mt bui tic gm khong mt trm thc khch. H c chn v mi l v h khng quen bit bt k ai trong danh sch nhng ngi c mi d tic. Khi ru tht dn ra thi bu khng kh xa l gia h i hn. H bt u tr chuyn, lm quen vi nhau. Khng bao lu, c chng t ba mi n bn mi nhm hp thnh, mi nhm gm hai hay ba ngi. By gi n k tai mt thc khch ni cho ngi ny hay rng ru cht ng trong nhng chai mu lc m khng dn nhn hiu l th ru rt qu v trm ln ngon hn ru ng trong nhng chai c dn nhn hiu mu . V yu cu v thc khch truyn tin ny n ch nhng ngi m v y mi lm quen m thi. Ch vi ngh rng lm nh th thi ch c thm hai hay ba ngi na bit tin ru qu ct u. Thc ra, khch thng chn ni chuyn vi mt ngi v hay di chuyn nhp vo nhm khc. C nhng ni kt x hi gia hai thc khch va gp nhau trc

nay trong hai nhm khc nhau. Kt qu l nhiu ng dy rt tinh t bt u ni kt nhng ngi ang cn xa l. Chng hn, t cha bao gi gp Gip tuy c Gip v t u quen Bnh, nh vy tc c ng dy ni kt t v Gip qua Bnh. Nu t bit ci tin v ru qu thi by gi Gip cng c c may bit n, v do Bnh nghe t ni ri thut li. Vi thi gian tri qua, cc thc khch cng lc cng vng mc nhau qua nhng ni kt khng th xc mc to thnh mt mng li quen bit tinh vi bao gm mt s kh ln thc khch. Gi thit mi thc khch chuyn tin ru qu cho tt c nhng ngi mnh mi quen, th hi trc khi tan tic tin y c lan truyn khp mi ngi d tic hay khng? Theo Erdos v Rnyi, ch cn ba mi pht l thi gi hnh thnh mt mng li ni kt x hi v hnh bao gm ht thy thc khch ca bui tic. Ngha l, nu mi thc khch lm quen vi t nht mt ngi, thi trong thong chc tt c u bit tin v tm n cn ht nhng chai ru qu. Thc khch trong bui tic l nt v mi gp g gia hai thc khch l mt ng dy ni nt x hi. Xut hin vi mt s nt kt nhau qua nhng ng dy ni nt, mng li quen bit l mt biu . tm hiu b n ca nhng mng li ln xen vo cuc sng hng ngy ca chng ta, cc khoa hc gia tm cch trin khai thuyt biu , thng gi l thuyt mng li (network theory), t trng tm nghin cu vo nhng mu hnh tng giao tc dng gia nhng c th. My tnh kt nhau qua dy in thoi, phn t trong c th kt nhau qua tc dng sinh ha, cng ty v ngi tiu th kt nhau qua giao dch, t bo thn kinh kt nhau qua si trc (axon), my pht in kt nhau qua ng dy cao th, o kt nhau qua chic cu, tt c l nhng th d biu . Mt nh chuyn kho mng li khi nhn vo bt c h thng thnh phn kt lin no s hnh dung n nh l mt mu hnh tru tng, mt biu , gm nt kt nhau qua nhng ng dy ni nt. H khng quan tm n gc tch v th tnh c bit ca cc nt m ch ch trng n mu hnh v cu trc ca mng li cc quan h, nhm tm cch khm ph tnh ng nht ca mt s nhiu mng li. Ni theo Pht gio, nhng mu hnh v cu trc h qun st l nhng mng tru xut t mng li bao la php gii trng trng duyn khi. Vn n gin ha cc mng li thnh nhng biu gp nhiu kh khn thch . Tuy x hi, Internet, t bo, hay no b tt c u c th tng hnh bng biu , nhng biu ca chng u c ging nhau! Kh m tng tng mt s dung hp gia mt bn l x hi con ngi, trong s lm quen v tm bn l do phi hp nhng cuc gp g ngu nhin vi nhng quyt nh c thc, v mt bn l t bo, trong cc nh lut nhn qu tt yu ha hc v vt l hc chi phi ht thy mi tng tc phn

ng gia cc phn t. Chc chn c s sai bit gia cc qui lut cai qun cch phi tr cc ng dy ni nt trong nhng mng li khc nhau. V mc ch ca mi kho st khoa hc l pht hin cch gii thch n gin nht ct ngha nhng hin tng v cng phc tp, cho nn cc khoa hc gia n lc pht minh mt m hnh chung miu t tt c nhng mng li phc hp khc nhau. Mt li gii ton hc u m miu t tt c mi biu phc hp cng trong mt khung nim c Erdos v Rnyi ngh. Nhn thy cc h thng khc nhau ty thun nhng lut tc d bit qui nh s hnh thnh cu trc ca chng, Erdos v Rnyi quyt nh gt b mi bt ng v chn mt gi thit ht sc n gin l cc nt ni kt nhau mt cch ngu nhin. Nh vy di mt ca hai nh ton hc Hungary, biu v th gii biu tng u c bn tnh ngu nhin, hon ton ngc li vi quan im ca Albert Einstein (bn thn ca Erdos) cho rng Thng khng chi sc sc vi v tr (God does not play dice with the universe). Ni cch khc, mi mng li tru xut t php gii duyn khi khng hnh thnh do ngu duyn, m thng do mt s nh lut c bn xc nh v iu khin. Hy tr li cu chuyn bui tic v tm hiu c tnh ca mng li ngu duyn. Ban u, biu gm mt s ln nt c lp. Sau cc nt c ni kt bi nhng ng dy ngu duyn phng theo s gp g tnh c gia cc thc khch. Khi mt s ng dy ni kt c k thm, cc nt s kt thnh nhiu cp. Tip tc thm na thi khng lm sao trnh khi ni kt cc cp nt y li vi nhau to thnh nhng qun t (cluster) tp trung nhiu nt. Nu k thm n chng mi nt c trung bnh mt ng dy ni, thi t nhin hin khi mt qun t khng l duy nht. Ngha l, hu ht mi nt tr nn thnh phn ca mt qun t n nht, t bt k nt no lm khi im ta c th di chuyn n mt nt khc thng qua nhng ng dy ni nt. l lc tin n v ru qu c th lt n tai ca bt c thc khch no trong bui tic. Hin tng l s xut khi (emergence) mt b phn khng l gm a s nt i vi cc ton gia, l mt s ngm lc (percolation) dn khi mt chuyn tip pha (phase transition) i vi cc nh vt l hc, l s hnh thnh mt cng ng i vi cc nh x hi hc. Mc du ngnh khc nhau t tn khc nhau, nhng tt c ng rng khi chn ngu nhin nt trong mt mng li ni kt thnh cp thi mt bin chuyn ln t khi khi s ng dy ni kt t tr ti hn. Trc , cc nt ni kt hp thnh qun t nh c lp, thc khch gp g quen bit trong vng nhm nh ri rc. Sau , xut hin mt qun t khng l vi s tham d ca hu ht thc khch.

Mi ngi trn qu t l thnh phn ca mt mng li rng ln, mng li x hi th gii hay mng li nhn loi. Khng mt ai b gt b ra ngoi. Gia hai ngi bt c u trn qu t du khng quen bit nhau vn c mt ng dy ni kt h li vi nhau. Cng vy, c mt ng dy ni kt bt c hai neuron (t bo thn kinh) no trong no b, bt c hai cng ty no trn th gii, bt c hai ha cht no trong thn th con ngi. Paul Erdos v Alfrd Rnyi gii thch iu kin ni kt vi bt c nt no khc trong mng l mi v mi nt ch cn c mt ng dy ni. C nhn lm quen t nht mt ngi, neuron c t nht mt ng dy ni vi mt neuron khc, ha cht c kh nng tham gia t nht mt phn ng trong thn th con ngi, cng ty giao dch vi t nht mt cng ty khc. Mt l ngng (threshold) ni kt. Ton mng s phn tn thnh nhiu qun t nh ri nhau nu cc nt c trung bnh t thua mt ng dy ni; nu c trung bnh nhiu hn mt ng dy ni thi c nguy mng li phn tn c th trnh c. Trong thc t, cc nt thng c nhiu hn mt ng dy ni. Cc nh x hi hc c lng mi chng ta quen bit tn h chng t 200 n 5 000 ngi. Trung bnh mt neuron ni kt vi hng t, c khi vi c ngn neuron khc. Mi cng ty ni kt vi hng trm hng cung cp v khch hng, nhiu cng ty ln ni kt vi hng triu. Trong thn th con ngi, hu ht cc phn t tham gia mt s rt nhiu phn ng, nh nc chng hn, tham gia n hng trm phn ng. Theo thuyt mng li ngu duyn khi s trung bnh ng dy ni ca mi nt tng qu tr ti hn, s nt b gt b ra ngoi qun t khng l s gim bt theo hm s m. Ngha l, thm cng nhiu ng dy ni thi cng kh tm ra nhng nt c lp. Nh th cc mng li quanh ta rt dy c, khng nt no thot khi, trong mi nt ni kt vi mi nt. Trc Erdos v Rnyi, tiu im ca thuyt biu khng phi l cc bui tic, cc mng x hi, hay cc mng li ngu duyn, m hon ton l cc biu tun quy (regular graphs; ordered graphs; biu c sp t) c cu trc xc nh. c tnh ca biu tun quy l nt no cng c mt s ng dy ni kt ging nhau. Th d trong mt mng li phng vung do cc ng trc giao to thnh, nt no cng c bn ng dy ni. Hoc trong mng li lc gic t ong, nt no cng c ba ng dy ni. Tnh tun quy khng tm thy trong nhng mng phc hp hin hu nh Internet hay t bo.

Erdos v Rnyi l nhng ngi u tin khm ph, t nhng mng li x hi n nhng mng dy in thoi, hu ht nhng biu trong thc t u khng c tnh tun quy v v cng phc tp. ng trc bc tng phc hp kh vt qua, hai ng thy ch c cch duy nht l gi thit mng li hnh thnh ngu nhin. Hai ng m rng ca ton hc cho thy mt th gii mi, mt th gii bnh ng. V cc ng dy c thit lp hon ton ngu nhin, nn mi nt c c hi ng u tip nhn mt ng ni. Tuy nhin, ch tng lm do ngu duyn m c nt tip nhn rt nhiu ng dy ni v c nt qu ri ro khng tip nhn c ng ni no c. Ci th gii ngu duyn hai ng xng tung nh c tnh cch va bt cng va lng. Tht ra khng phi vy. Nu l mt mng li rng ln thi mc du cc ng dy ni thit lp ngu nhin, nt no cng tip nhn mt s xp x nh nhau. thy c iu , hy phng vn cc thc khch sau bui tic, hi mi thc khch lm quen c bao nhiu ngi tt c. Ri v mt tuyn (histogram) biu din bao nhiu thc khch lm quen k (k=1, 2, ... ) ngi trong sut bui tic. M dng ca tuyn c chng minh l mt phn b Poisson [do Bla Bollobhs, mt mn sinh ca Erdos, gio s ti i hc Trinity College, Anh quc, 1982]. Ngha l c mt chp nh ni bt ch cho thy a s nt u tip nhn mt s ng ni gn bng s ng ni ca nt trung bnh. Hai bn chp nh, s phn b gim xung rt nhanh, cho thy khng c nhiu nt lch xa nt trung bnh. Nu p dng phn b Poisson vo mt x hi 6 t ngi thi kt qu l s bn b quen thuc ca mi ngi trong a s chng ta xp x bng nhau. Nh vy, nu ghp ngu nhin nhng ng dy ni kt x hi, thuyt mng li ngu duyn d on tin ti mt x hi dn ch trong tt c chng ta ai cng l trung bnh v rt t k lch xa chun (norm) tr thnh qu x giao hay v cng c lnh. Mng li ngu duyn, mt mng li tng ng vi trung bnh l chun, qu l mt mng tng giao l tng. Mi n gn y m t v tr cc tng giao, hu ht ton gia khng tm thy cch g khc hn l ng vi Erdos v Rnyi gi thit cc mng phc hp hnh thnh trn c s ngu duyn: cc mng phc hp l nhng mng li ngu duyn. Thuyt mng li ngu duyn c xem nh pht minh vo nm 1959 khi Paul Erdos ngh li gii bi ton rt ni ting ca

thuyt biu , bi ton tm s ng dy ni b nht ni kt cc nt ca mt biu bt k hai nt no cng c ni nhau. Tng cn nhc li y mt s nh ngha v kt qu quan trng ca ton mng li. Ton mng li s dng t s m/N tiu biu mt mng li gm N nt v m ng dy ni, mi ng ni hai nt. S ng dy ni dnh vo mt nt gi l ca nt y. tnh mi nt trung bnh c bao nhiu ng dy ni, hy cng ca tt c nt, ri em chia cho tng s nt k c nhng nt khng c ng dy ni. Gi k l s trung bnh ng dy ni ti mi nt, ta c k = 2m/N; k gi l trung bnh. Erdos v Rnyi chng minh mt nh l ni ting nay c gi l nh l Erdos-Rnyi: Xc sut xut hin ca mt b phn khng l n nht gm hu ht mi nt ca mng nhy vt t 0 n 1 khi tng t s tiu biu m/N qu tr ti hn 0.5. Ti im ny, k = 1. Theo Erdos v Rnyi, k = 1 l ngng ni kt, ngha l mi v mi nt ch cn c 1 ng dy ni thi s ni vi bt k nt no khc trong mng. Mt dng khc ca nh l Erdos-Rnyi: Khi s ng dy ni ngu nhin m ln hn hay bng (N/2)ln(N) vi ln(N) l logarit t nhin ca N, hay k ln(N), thi hu ht mi mng li ngu duyn u hon ton ni kt. Gi thit biu c 50 nt, mi nt l mt thnh ph chng hn. Nu khng tnh ton, nhm mt ni mi thnh ph vi 49 thnh ph kia thi phi xy 1 225 ng. Nhng theo Erdos, nu ni mt cch ngu nhin thi ch cn xy chng 98 ng, ngha l 8 phn trm s 1 225 ng, l ni kt hu ht cc thnh ph vi nhau. Erdos khm ph s nt du ln bao nhiu, ch cn mt t l phn trm nh cc ng dy ni ngu nhin cng tht ni kt hp mng li thnh mt ton th. T l phn trm y gim thiu rt nhanh khi mng li bnh trng rng ln thm. [Cng thc ton ca t l y l ln(N)/N]. Th d: vi 300 nt, trong s gn 50 000 ng c th ni chng, ch cn 2 phn trm l . Vi 1 000 nt, t l y b thua 1 phn trm. Vi 10 triu nt, t l l 0.0000016. Tr li vi mng li x hi 6 t ngi trn mt t, th hi s bn b quen thuc ca mi ngi trung bnh l bao nhiu hai ngi, bt k l ai, bt c u, mt lm ngh nh c Bc cc, mt lm th tng c chng hn, ni kt nhau? Theo Erdos v Rnyi, t l l 4 phn t. Ngha l, trung bnh mi ngi ch cn quen bit 24 ngi l bt k hai ngi no trn mt t ni kt nhau.

Sau y l mt th nghim m phng bi ton mng li ngu duyn ca Erdos v Rnyi. Tng tng vung vi mt s nt o trn nn nh. Chn mt cch ngu nhin hai nt v ni chng bng mt si dy. Li chn ngu nhin hai nt na v ni chng bng mt si dy khc. Lc u nhng nt c chn khng thuc cp no ni trc . Nhng v sau th no cng chn nhm mt nt kt cp ni vo mt nt khc, to thnh mt qun t ba nt. Nu tip tc ni cc cp nt ngu nhin nh th, thi mt lc sau, cc nt ni vi nhau bt u tr thnh mt qun t rng ln. Trong thi gian th nghim, lu lu th nhc ln mt nt bt k v m xem c bao nhiu nt khc cng nhc theo. Tt c nt cng nhc theo to thnh ci gi l mt b phn ca mng li ngu duyn. Cui cng, c nhng nt khng ni vi nt no, trong khi s ln ni thnh cp, thnh b ba, hay qun t ln. Khi t s tiu biu vt qu 0.5 thi mt chuyn tip pha pht khi, mt qun t khng l t nhin xut hin. Chng hn, nu s nt n=10 000, b phn khng l s t khi khi s ng dy ni t mc vo khong m=5 000. Lc b phn khng l pht hin, hu ht mi nt hoc trc tip hoc gin tip ni li vi nhau. Nu nhc ln mt nt, s c c may nhc theo mt lot chng 8 000 trong s 10 000 nt. S ng dy ni cng tng thi s nt l loi cn li v s qun t ring bit cng gim thiu v ni nhau sp nhp v bnh trng b phn khng l. Trn y l ng biu din chuyn tip pha ca mt mng li ngu duyn c 400 nt. ng c dng ch S. S nt trong qun t ln nht lc u tng chm, ri tng rt nhanh, ri tng chm li, tng ng vi s tng ca t s tiu biu m/n. S tng rt nhanh l du ch ca hin tng chuyn tip pha. ng biu din vt cao ln vi gic gn thng ng khi t s tiu biu vt qua tr 0.5. gic ng ti tr ti hn 0.5 ty thuc tng s nt ca mng li. Khi s nt b thi phn gic ng ca ng biu din cn, nhng khi s nt tng, chng hn t 400 n 100 triu, thi phn gic ng dng ng thng hn. V nh s nt tng n v cc, thi khi t s tiu biu vt qua tr ti hn 0.5, ln ca b phn ln nht ca mng li nhy vt mt cch gin on t b t n khng l. Hin tng t khi c xem nh l mt chuyn tip pha, ging trng hp v lng phn t nc t nhin ng bng thnh nc khi nhit va gim thp di 0 bch phn. nh l Erdos-Rnyi ht sc li ch trong s tm hiu v ch ng cc hin tng phc hp nh tnh bn vng ca h sinh thi, ng lc tnh ca th trng, v t chc phn ng ca h min dch. Kt qu quan trng ca nh

l l khi t s tiu biu m/n vt qu 0.5, rt nhiu nt bng nhin c ni vi nhau to thnh mt mng rng ln trong h thng. S t khi mt b phn khng l nh vy khng c g l huyn b m ch l mt tnh cht t nhin v tt yu ca mng li ngu duyn. Theo Stuart Kauffman, nh nghin cu ni ting v ngun gc ca s sng, mu hnh t chc ca ht thy mi h thng sng (living systems) thng gi l mng li sng cng t khi nh vy. Mng li sng l mt hin tng chuyn ha t xc tc (autocatalytic metabolism), mt mng phn ng t duy tr, mt xut hin tnh (emergent property), ng thi cu khi nh mt chuyn tip pha khi tnh phc hp ca mng cc ha cht trc thi sinh vt v tng giao phn ng gia chng t mc ti hn. Mng li sng xut hin phc hp v hon chnh, tip tc y nhin phc hp v hon chnh. ---o0o---

(II) - S xut hin mng li sng

t lu cc khoa hc gia chuyn v s sng nhn thy mu hnh t chc ca cc h thng sng lun lun l mt mu hnh mng li. Tuy nhin khng phi mng li no cng l h thng sng. Mng li l mt h thng phc hp, c cu thnh bi mt s ln thnh phn (nt) giao h tc dng mt cch khng n gin. Cc h phc hp khng nhng ch phc tp m thi. Hoa tuyt phc tp, nhng chng sinh xut t nhng lut tc n gin. Hn na, cu trc hoa tuyt khng thay i, v kt tinh, t khi hin n lc tan khng ging cc h phc hp thng xuyn bin i theo thi gian. Nhng s bin i ca h phc hp khc hn s bin i hn n ca mt dng nc chy cun cun trong mt lng sng cht hp y thc ghnh. Trt t ca h phc hp xut hin trong khong t hon ton trt t ca hoa tuyt kt tinh n v trt t ca dng nc lu chuyn hn n. l bin duyn ca hn n, xa v tr cn bng, thng gi l trn b hn n (at the edge of chaos). Trong h thng phc hp, ton th nhiu hn tng cc thnh phn. y khng ni theo ngha siu hnh hc m ni theo ngha thc dng, ngha l d bit nhng tnh cht ca cc thnh phn v nhng lut tc chi phi s giao h tc dng gia chng thi cng chng d g suy din tm ra nhng tnh cht ca ton th. Nhng khi bo ton th nhiu hn tng cc thnh phn, th hi ci g c thm nhiu ni ton th m khng c ni cc thnh phn? Xut hin tnh (emergence) l cu tr li. Thuyt h thng phc hp tm cch gii thch s xut hin mt s hin tng v m qua nhng giao h tc

dng phi tuyn tnh gia cc phn t vi m trong h phc hp m khng cn bit n ht thy mi chi tit ca cc tng giao tng tc. C hc thng k c s dng gii thch xut hin tnh tc s xut hin nhng hin thnh thng k tun qui tng ng vi s xut hin cc hin tng v m. Cc lut thng k pht biu rng trong nhng phm vi rng ln cc hin thnh thng k tun qui c th xut hin mc v m, hu nh hon ton khng lin h vi nhng chi tit chnh xc ca nhng chuyn ng ngu nhin phc tp v bt qui tc ang vn hnh mc vi m. Thuyt xut hin tnh (emergence theory) gii thch ngun gc pht sinh nhng tnh cht sinh hc thit yu ca cc h thng sng khng ty thuc cc chi tit giao h tc dng gia cc thnh phn ca h. n nay mi ch trng v ngun gc ca s sng khng nng vo thuyt xut hin tnh u gp nhiu kh khn khng gii quyt c. Th d, trong mt bi vit ng tp san Scientific American trong nm 1954, George Wald, gii Nobel Sinh l hc 1967, a ra thc mc khng hiu lm th no c th xy ra hin tng mt tp hp phn t t hi ng cch to thnh mt t bo sng. Theo Wald, sau v s ln th t hi theo cch ny hay cch khc, cui cng vi thi gian, cc phn t thnh tu hnh thnh mt t bo sng. Thi gian l yu t quyt nh s ci bin bt kh thnh kh nng, kh nng thnh hoc hu, hoc hu thnh thc t. phn bc kin yu t thi gian, Robert Shapiro trong tp sch Origins (Ngun gc) tm cch trc ht tnh trong lch s ca tri t c bao nhiu ln th to s sng mt cch ngu nhin v thy rng con s y v cng ln: 25 nhn 10 ly tha 50 ( 25 o theo 50 zero). Sau cn phi tnh mi ln th c bao nhiu c duyn thnh tu. ng cho bit hai nh thin vn hc, Fred Hoyle v N. C. Wickramasinghe, tnh xc sut thnh tu ca mi ln th l 1 phn ca 10 ly tha 40 000. thy 10 ly tha 40 000 ln nh th no, hy so snh vi s nguyn t Hydro hin c trong v tr l 10 ly tha 40 m thi. Nh th vi xc sut 1 phn ca 10 ly tha 40 000, s sng gn nh khng bao gi c c duyn sinh khi. Mt s khoa hc gia khc bo l mt s pht sinh t nhin (spontaneous generation). Nhng nu tnh xc sut mt bin c t pht nh vy xy ra thi c th so snh xc sut tnh c vi c duyn mt cn lc xon c thi qut mt bi ph thi gp nht cc th vt liu to thnh mt chic Boeing 747!

Theo Stuart Kauffman, s sng l mt xut hin tnh, xut hin theo cch thc mt chuyn tip pha t nhng h thng ha cht xa v tr cn bng bao gm nhng chu k xc tc (catalytic cycles). Cht xc tc thng thng l enzim, l bt k phn t no thi xc tc ca mt phn ng ha hc m khng bin i hay b tiu th trong qu trnh. Mt sinh vt l mt h thng ha cht c kh nng xc tc s t ti sn xut. Kauffmann m phng s xut hin mt h thng t xc tc bng cch thit lp mt biu phn ng gm nt l cc polymer [hp cht ha hc gm nhiu cht n phn (monomer); th d: protein, phn t RNA] v ng dy ni l nhng phn ng ha hc. Mi polymer c hai ngha: va l qu v l c cht hay sn phm ca mt phn ng ha hc, va l nhn v l cht xc tc trong mt phn ng khc. Trong thc t ht thy mi phn t hu c u c hai ngha nh vy. Trypsin chng hn, l mt enzim c chc nng phn ct cc protein ta n vo thnh mnh nh (nhn ca s phn ct) ng thi t phn ct n ra mnh nh (qu ca s phn ct). Cng th, cc protein v phn t RNA l polymer c cht (substrate; cht trn enzim tc dng) hay sn phm ca cc phn ng, nhng ng thi tc dng xc tc cc phn ng khc. Biu phn ng c gi thit gm ch hai loi phn ng, phn ng buc tht (ligation; kt lin nhau) v phn ng phn ct (cleavage; chia phn ra). Th d mt polymer gm bn cht n phn abbb. Nu xt trn phng din phn ng buc tht thi n c th l kt qu buc tht a vi bbb, hay ab vi bb, hay abb vi b, nh vy n hnh thnh ba cch khc nhau, do ba phn ng khc nhau. Nu tng di ca polymer thm mt cht n phn, abbba, s phn ng ca polymer s tng: abbba c th l kt qu buc tht a vi bbba, hay ab vi bba, hay abb vi ba, hay abbb vi a. V mt polymer c di L thng c L-1 lin kt cho nn n c th hnh thnh t nhng polymer b hn theo L-1 cch khc nhau. Nu xt trn phng din phn ng phn ct, thi abbb c th xem nh kt qu phn ct a ra khi pha bn phi ca polymer abbba. Ni tng qut, s phn ng c kh nng sn xut cc polymer nhiu hn s polymer. By gi gi thit thm rng cc phn ng trong biu u l phn ng c xc tc, ngha l khng xy ra t nhin m c s thi xc ca cc polymer trong h thng. Ta trn phng php ni ngu nhin cc nt ca Erdos v Rnyi, Stuart Kauffman ghp ngu nhin vi mi polymer mt s phn ng m polymer y c th xc tc. T s m/N (ng dy ni/nt) tc t s (phn ng c xc tc/polymer) tng theo vi s gia tng mc phc hp ca

cc polymer trong h thng. Khi t s y vt qu tr ti hn thi mt b phn khng l gm ton phn ng c xc tc t khi theo cch thc mt chuyn tip pha, to thnh ci gi l tp hp phn t t xc tc (autocatalytic set of molecules). Ngha l, mi phn t ca tp hp l sn phm ca t nht mt phn ng c xc tc bi t nht mt phn t khc ca tp hp. Do polymer ny c th xc tc phn ng pht sinh polymer kia, cc tp hp t xc tc sinh khi, tin ha vi thi gian, c kh nng xc tc tp th mng li phn ng ha hc v to nhiu loi phn t phc hp, ht thy u ni kt qua mt chui phn ng. Bng cch tiu tn vt cht v nng lng, hay ni vn tt l n v bi tit, chng t t chc v duy tr cu trc phc hp ca chng mc du c mt s b phn hin n v bin i vi thi gian. Ngoi ra, chng cn t ti sn xut na. Cc c tnh t xc tc, t t chc, t duy tr, v t ti sn xut l c tnh ca s sng. Kt qu m phng ni trn cho thy s xut hin ca mng li sng l mt tnh cht ca biu phn ng, mt mng li ngu nhin. Khi mc phc hp ca h thng cc ha cht c trc thi sinh vt tng gia vt qu ngng phc hp thi ton hc chng minh s t khi ca s sng. Trn quan im xut hin tnh, s sng xut hin ton th, vin dung, hon chnh. S sng khng trong cc phn t cu thnh m trong nhng tnh cht xut hin tp th ca ci ton th m chng to sinh. Khng c g huyn b v xut hin tnh (emergence) v ton th tnh (holism) mc du s xut hin ca s sng c tnh cch huyn diu. Khng mt sinh lc hay cht liu no c mt trong ci ton th ng thi cu khi v t ti sn xut. Tp th h sng c mt tnh cht k diu m cc thnh phn ca n khng c. l kh nng t ti sn xut v tin ha. Tp th h sng linh hot, cc thnh phn ch l ha cht. Nhiu nh sinh hc cho rng v DNA v RNA ct gi bn vng cc thng tin di truyn nn rt cn thit c tin ha. Nhng nu tin ha cn khun DNA ti bn v m di truyn sn xut protein thi y ng l bi ton vng vo g - trng ci no n trc. Bi v khng th c tin ha nu khng c nhng c ch ti bn hay sn xut v nhng c ch ny ch xut hin khi c tin ha. Nh vy cn t cu hi: Nu khi u s sng l mt tp th t xc tc, th hi lm th no s sng c th tin ha m khng cn n nhng bin ha phc tp ca mt b gen? Mng li nh phn.

 gii p thc mc trn, Kauffman khai trin thuyt mng li nh phn (binary networks) kho st s pht trin v tin ha ca hin tng chuyn ha tc ca ton th cc tin trnh vt l v ha hc trong mt c th (metabolism). Ta c th hnh dung mng li nh phn nh mt mng dy in ni kt nhiu bng in. Nt (bng in) c th l cc phn t enzim, c cht, hay sn phm ca cc phn ng ha hc. Gi thit giao h tc dng gia cc phn t ch c hai cch: km hm hay xc tc phn ng sn xut. Do mi bng in v nh ci cng tc ng-m, khng in hay c in. Nh vy, nt no trong mng li nh phn cng c hai kh nng, HU (ON) v KHNG (OFF). Cc nt c ni kt mt cch rt phc tp khng nh trong mt mng c sp t. Cc mng nh phn cn gi l mng li Boole, theo tn ca nh ton hc ngi Anh George Boole s dng cc php ton nh phn (yes-no, c-khng) vo gia th k 19 khai trin mt logic k hiu thng gi l i s Boole. Kt qu k l ca s tng giao ng m cc nt khng phi l mt trng thi hon ton hn n m ngc li, l kh nng mng li t t chc thnh nhng mu hnh hot ng bn vng. Lm th no nhng thao tc ng-m tung nh ngu nhin ca mi nt c bit iu ng c ton th mng li t phi tr thnh mt cu trc bn vng hu hiu? Nu y l mng li gen ca t bo, thi thuyt Darwin khng th gii p tha mn v thuyt ny ch trng nhng kiu c th mi ch c th sinh khi do nhng t bin ngu nhin v s chn lc t nhin m thi. Theo Kauffman, nguyn do l cc h thng phc hp c c tnh t ng t chc thnh nhng mu hnh bn vng hu hiu. ng bo: Darwin khng bit g v tnh t t chc. Sau y l th d mt mng li nh phn n gin gm 6 nt, hai en (ON; HU) v bn trng (OFF; KHNG). Mi nt ni kt vi ba nt k cn. Mu hnh HU-KHNG ca mng nh phn bin i gin on tng bc. Cc nt c mc ni theo th cch kh nng sp n ca mt nt do kh nng hin ti ca cc nt k cn xc nh theo mt qui lut ng-m (a switching rule). Th d, vi mng nh phn n gin trn, ta c th tng tng mt qui lut ng-m nh sau: Trong bc sp n mt nt s HU nu hin ti c t nht hai nt k cn HU, v s KHNG trong nhng trng hp khc. Nhn hnh sau y ta s c mt nim v trnh t bin thi ca mng li n gin theo s iu khin ca qui lut ng m.

Ba trnh t bin thi A, B, v C ty thuc trng thi u v tun theo qui lut ng-m. Trnh t A dn n mt trng thi bn vng vi tt c nt u HU sau hai bc bin i t trng thi A1 qua trng thi A2, ri qua trng thi bn vng A3. Trnh t B bc t trng thi B1 qua B2, ri dao ng gia hai trng thi b sung B2 v B3. Trnh t C, vi mt trng thi bn vng ngay t lc u, lp i lp li mt trng thi hay mu hnh khng thay i: n t ti sn xut trong mi bc. Vi h thng chuyn ha t xc tc, tng s loi phn t ca mng li nh phn c th ln n 1 000. Mi phn t c hai kh nng, HU (xc tc) v KHNG (km hm), do tng s trng thi kh hu ln n 2 ly tha 1 000. Mi mu hnh (pattern) hay trng thi (state) c xc nh bi 1 000 bin s nh phn (HU-KHNG). Tp hp ht thy trng thi kh hu to thnh ci gi l khng gian trng thi (state space), trong mi im biu tng mt trng thi. Khi mng li bin i tng bc k tip t trng thi trc sang trng thi sau, im trng thi v mt qu o trong khng gian trng thi. Qu o ca cc trnh t bin thi c phn hng theo loi vng hp dn (attractors). C th tng tng mt loi vng hp dn l mt ci h v lu vc vng hp dn l vng nc chy vo h. Ging nh mt vng ni c nhiu h, mt mng li nh phn c nhiu chu k bin thi, mi chu k lu chuyn trong lu vc vng hp dn ca n. Trong th d mng nh phn 6 nt ni trn, trnh t C ch c c nht mt trng thi bn vng khng c lu vc vng hp dn. Trng thi ny ch t c khi no mng li khi u t . V gm c nht mt trng thi, nn chu k bin thi c di 1. di ca mt chu k bin thi l tng s trng thi bao gm trong chu trnh. Trnh t B dao ng nn lit vo loi vng hp dn tun hon (periodic attractor). di chu k bin thi y l 2 v bao gm ch hai trng thi b sung B2 v B3. Trnh t A v tin n mt trng thi bn vng nn lit vo loi im hp dn (point attractor). Kauffman v nhm cng s Vin Santa Fe, New Mexico, dng mng li nh phn m phng nhng h thng ha cht v c th v cng phc hp m phng trnh vi phn khng th miu t c. Trnh t bin thi ca nhng h thng phc hp y c biu din bi nhng qu o trong khng gian trng thi. V tng s trng thi kh hu ca bt k mng li nh phn no cng hu hn mc du c th v cng ln, cho nn mng li bt buc phi quay tr li mt trng thi tri qua trc kia. Vo lc , h thng ti din trnh t bin thi trc kia v tp tnh ca h thng hon ton quyt nh. Do , h thng s lp li mi mi vn mt chu k bin thi, mng li nh phn v ra mt qu o trong lu vc vng hp dn tun

hon. Bt k mng li nh phn no cng c t nht mt lu vc vng hp dn tun hon. Nu t nhin thi cui cng h thng s vn hnh mi mi trong mt lu vc vng hp dn tun hon no . Theo kt qu ca nhiu cng trnh nghin cu, s ln h thng sng nh mng gen, mng min dch, mng t bo no, h thng cc c quan, v h sinh thi, u c th biu tng bi nhng mng li nh phn vi nhiu loi vng hp dn. Trong mt mng nh phn, di ca cc chu k bin thi c th khc nhau nhiu. C nhng chu k vi c nht mt trng thi bn vng, nhng cng c nhng chu k vi s trng thi v cng ln khng tng tng c. Trong nhiu mng, di chu k tng theo hm s m khi s nt tng. Kauffman t tn nhng vng hp dn c chu k v tn vi t t trng thi khc nhau l vng hp dn hn n (chaotic attractor). Nu chu k bin thi b, thi h thng vn hnh c trt t. Nhng nu chu k qu ln thi h thng vn hnh hn n, khng lng trc c. Hn n y c ngha l trt t bc v hn, i li vi hon ton trt t l trt t bc thp nht. [Xem bi Hu th v Thi gian] tm hiu quan h gia hon ton trt t v hn n trong cc mng nh phn, Kauffman kho st v s mng nh phn phc hp vi nhiu qui lut ng-m khc nhau, k c nhng mng trong ti cc nt khc nhau, s (ng dy) tn hiu vo khc nhau. Hai thng s, N, s nt, v k, s trung bnh (ng dy) tn hiu vo ti mi nt, c s dng tm lc s vn hnh ca cc mng y. Sau 30 nm gia cng tm kim iu kin thun li ng lc trt t xut hin t mng li nh phn, ng trnh by nhng kt qu gt hi c trong tp sch At home in the universe do ng vit vo nm 1995. Hy tng tng mt mng li nh phn gm N=80 000 bng in, mi bng (nt) trung bnh nhn vo k tn hiu (k ng dy ni) v c kt hp ngu nhin vi mt qui lut ng-m (mt hm s Boole kh hu). Khi k=1, mi bng in nhn mt tn hiu vo t mt bng khc. Trnh t bin thi ca mng bin i rt nhanh chuyn thnh nhiu qu o vi chu k rt ngn, c chu k gm duy nht mt trng thi. Trong mng xut hin mt b phn khng l ng bng gm nhng bng c nh trong kh nng HU hay KHNG v nhiu o nh gm nhng bng nhp nhy gia HU v KHNG. y l mt mng hon ton trt t, lp i lp li mt mu hnh ng c khng thay i, khng vng hp dn.

 u kia thang, k=N, mi bng in nhn tn hiu vo t khp tt c bng in, k c chnh n. Trong trng hp ny, di cc chu k bin thi tnh ra l 2 ly tha 40 000, bng cn s bc hai ca s trng thi kh hu 2 ly tha 80 000. Nh th qu di, khng th qun st hay on nh bt k chu k bin thi no. Tuy nhin nu tnh s vng hp dn (=N/e, e=2,71828... l c s ca logarit t nhin) thi mng s c 30 000 vng hp dn. So vi tng s 2 ly tha 80 000 trng thi kh hu thi s 30 000 qu b. Bi vy c th bo l du hiu ca trt t. ng tic l khi mng li b nhiu lon i cht, chng hn i kh nng mt bng in HU thnh KHNG hay ngc li, thi s tin ha ca mng s thay i i quy m khng th lng trc c. Nhng trng thi u tng t tr thnh mi lc mi d bit hn, do lu chuyn theo nhng qu o cng lc cng tch ra xa. Nhy cm i vi iu kin u mng k=N l mt mng li hn n. Hu ht cc mng nh phn u hn n. Ngay nhng mng trong k nh hn N nhiu, k=4 hay k=5, s vn hnh cng hn n, khng th d on c. Khi k=2, trt t tc thi kt tinh. Khng gian trng thi gm tt c 2 ly tha 80 000 trng thi kh hu, tc vo khong 1 o theo 24 000 zero, dn nn li trong mt s vng hp dn, trung bnh l N=283. Chu trnh trong cc lu vc vng hp dn thng gm mt s nh trng thi, nhng cng c khi thu gn thnh mt im bn vng. Chng khc no mng li rng ln b p vo trong mt phn nh xu ca khng gian trng thi. Nh vy trong mng li nh phn k=2, ng lc trt t t pht thi ng dn p h thng vo mt gc v cng b ca khng gian trng thi, v gi mi . Trong nhng mng nh phn k=2 trt t biu hin theo nhiu cch khc nhau. Nhng trng thi u tng t tr thnh cng tng t hn, do lu chuyn theo nhng qu o hi t gn nhau hn, v tp trung h thng v cng mt vng hp dn. Nhng h thng nh vy khng nhy cm i vi iu kin u nn khng hn n. H qu l mng li mt khi chuyn vo mt lu vc vng hp dn thi hu nh lun lun quay tr li lu vc y du b nhiu lon. gi l tnh ni cn bng (homeostasis), iu kin cn h thng l mt mng li c trt t. Mng li c trt t c th tri qua mt t bin (mutation) nh sa i cch t ng dy ni hay qui lut ng-m m khng tr thnh hn n. Vng hp dn v lu vc vng hp dn thay i rt t v h thng tin ha u n. Cui cng, tuy c trt t nhng khng hon ton trt t ng bng nh cc mng k=1, mng li k=2 kh nng hnh hot nh mt h phc hp.

Bernard Derrida v Gerard Weisbuch, gio s vt l trng thi rn ti cole Normale Suprieure, Paris, cho bit trong trng hp trung bnh k ln hn 2, c th dng mt thng s gi l P chuyn mt mng hn n thnh mng c trt t. Thng s thin p P (bias parameter) m t khuynh hng nhiu kh nng HU hay nhiu kh nng KHNG trong hm s Boole kt hp vi mi bng in (qui lut ng-m). Tm li, ch cn hai thng s, k v P, l iu khin mng li nh phn vn hnh trt t hay hn n. Nu b phn khng l ng bng xut hin, thi mng li trong ch trt t. Nu n khng xut hin thi mng li trong ch hn n. Ngay gia hai ch trt t v hn n, ngay gn lc chuyn tip pha, ngay trn b hn n, c th xut hin nhng mng phc hp nht, c trt t bo m tnh bn vng, nhu nhuyn, v lun lun i mi. Kauffman tin rng chnh lut tin ha l nguyn nhn h thng phc hp hin hu trn, hay trong ch trt t gn, b hn n. S chn lc t nhin thin v v chi tr cc h thng sng trn b hn n, bi v chng c u im l iu hp bn vng vi nhu nhuyn, c kh nng thch nghi v tin ha. M hnh mng li nh phn c Kauffman p dng kho cu cc h gen ca sinh vt. Mi gen l mt nt nh phn, c th HU hay KHNG. Kh nng HU hay KHNG ca mi gen ty thuc hot ng iu tit ca mt s gen khc. Phn ng ca mi gen khi nhn tn hiu vo c xc nh bi hm s Boole, qui lut ng-m kt hp ngu nhin vi n. Nh vy, h gen l mt mng li nh phn trn b hn n. C hai cch nhiu lon mng gen. Cch th nht, nhiu lon ti thiu l do mt nt nh phn tnh c chuyn t HU qua KHNG hay ngc li. Do tnh ni cn bng, c tnh ca mi h sng, cc chu k bin thi ca mng khng b lay chuyn bi nhiu lon ti thiu. Cch th hai, nhiu lon thay i vnh vin cu trc ca h thng. Chng hn, bin i mu hnh ni kt cc nt hay thay i qui lut ng-m. Nhiu lon nh vy xem nh mt t bin trong h gen. Thng t bin khng my nh hng tp tnh ca mng gen trn b hn n. Tuy nhin mt s t t bin c th x y qu o ca mng vo trong mt lu vc vng hp dn khc, to mt chu k bin thi mi v mt mu hnh tp tnh mi. Do , Kauffman ngh rng mng gen, mt mng li nh phn trn b hn n, c th dng lm m hnh ca s thch nghi tin ha.

M hnh mng li nh phn trn b hn n gii thch hin tng t bo bit ha (cell differentiation) trong qu trnh pht trin c th. Mc du hnh dng v chc nng sai khc, tt c kiu t bo (cell type) trong mt c th cha nhng lnh di truyn ging nhau. V vy cc nh sinh hc cho rng kiu t bo khc nhau khng phi v cha gen khc nhau, m tht ra v cc gen trong t bo c hot tnh khc nhau. Ni cch khc, trong tt c t bo cu trc mng li gen ging nhau, nhng trng thi (mu hnh) hot ng ca gen khc nhau. Cc trng thi hot ng ca gen tng ng vi cc chu k bin thi khc nhau trong mng nh phn cho nn theo Kauffman cc kiu t bo tng ng vi cc chu k bin thi khc nhau, v do , vi cc vng hp dn khc nhau. Kiu t bo trong c th v nh vng hp dn trong mng gen. Quan im xem t bo bit ha nh nhng vng hp dn cho php d on nhiu kt qu kh chnh xc. Mi t bo trong thn th con ngi cha mt mng gen chng 80 ngn gen. S trng thi hot ng kh hu ca gen v cng ln: 2 ly tha 80 000. Tuy nhin, s vng hp dn trong mt mng nh vy bng 80 000=283. Do , theo Kauffman, mt mng 80 000 gen biu hin 283 kiu t bo khc nhau. S 283 y rt gn s 256 t bo bit ha tm thy trong thn th con ngi. Mt trong nhng vn kh gii quyt nht trong sinh hc l gii thch chc nng ca gen trong qu trnh pht trin c th (ontogeny). Trong con ngi, qu trnh y bt u l mt gen n nht, trng th tinh hay zygote. Zygote tri qua chng 50 ln phn bo to ra vo khong 10 ly tha 15 (1 o theo 15 zero) t bo cu thnh a tr s sinh. Cng mt lc, zygote bit ha hnh thnh chng 260 kiu t bo trong thn th, nh t bo m mm ca gan, t bo thn kinh, t bo hng huyt cu, t bo bp tht, ... Nhng kiu t bo khc nhau ca phi v nhng qu o trong qu trnh pht trin c th biu th tp tnh ca mng gen phc hp. Mng gen trong mi t bo ca bt k c th no tuy l thnh qu ca t nht mt t nm tin ha, nhng trt t xut hin (emergent order) trong qu trnh pht trin c th khng do lut tin ha pht khi. Thuyt mng li nh phn thuyt minh trt t xut hin l trt t t pht, biu hin tnh t t chc v t iu chnh v cng phc hp ca mng li. Cc mu hnh bn vng t pht ging nh nhng vng hp dn ca mt h ng lc. V chnh do s giao h tc dng gia cc vng hp dn bn vng v khng bn vng, gia cc hot ng hp tc v cnh tranh, m cc mu hnh ca s bin i v cc thi k ca trng thi ngng nhin c th dn

dn tin ha. S hnh thnh nhng mu hnh bn vng, theo Kauffman, l iu khng th trnh c, du mng li lc khi u hn n n u. S giao h tc dng gia cc nt l ng lc x y mng li t t chc thnh mt cu trc c kh nng tn ti. M hnh ton hc mng li nh phn l mt cng trnh nghin cu li ch nhm gp phn chng minh chnh do s giao h tc dng phc tp gia s vt vi nhau v vi ton th tt c s vt trong v tr m mi s vt xut hin lun lun mi toanh v khng ngng chuyn bin. Trn quan im Pht gio, mng li nh phn ch l tng tru xut t mt ton th cu trc duyn khi tng do rng ln hn: Php gii trng trng duyn khi. y l Php gii duyn khi ca Nht tha tc s s v ngi php gii hay Nht chn php gii, bao gm v bin th gii, mi th huyn mn tng nhip v lng php mn, tc s tc l, tc tnh tc tng, tc tc tc chn, tc nhn tc qu, tc nng tc s, tc thnh tc phm, tc a tc nht, tc chnh bo tc y bo, nh li bu ca thch, trng trng biu hin, chng phi thn thng lm thnh, vn l php tnh nh th, k m gp u u chng ngi, k ng ngay ton hin by. (Hoa nghim nht tha gio ngha chng. Tu S dch) Php Tng dng th d Li bu ca thch (Nhn la vng) in hnh cho cch th hin ha ca vn php trong Php gii Hoa nghim. Ht thy mi php u va Khng va Hu bi v theo ngha ng th thi lm nhn sinh khi, theo ngha d th thi sinh khi do tng y tng i. Mt s vt duyn tt c s vt, tt c s vt duyn mt s vt, trong mt c tt c, trong tt c c mt, mt tc tt c, tt c tc mt. nh hng giao tip ca cc loi php i vi mi php khng ging nhau, ci thi trc tip, ci thi gin tip qua mt hay nhiu lp, do tc ng cng khng ging nhau. Ton th cc quan h phc hp gia cc duyn c th d bng mt tm nh li ca tri Indra, mi mt li l mt ht ngc. Ht ny ht n phn chiu nhau, chi sng nhau, lp lp khng cng tn. Trong mi php c nhiu php khc, trong nhiu php khc li trng trng ip ip v s php khc na. Cuc giao thoa ton din ca cc lung sng biu hin nhng quan h h tng cu thnh mng li Php gii c th v vi chuyn ng thu nhip ca nh sng laser dng trong php ghi nh ton k (holography). Ht thy lung sng laser di chuyn t mi phn ca vt th ta mun chp nh u thu nhip vo trong mi v mi vng nh ca tm knh nh. Do d nhn nh ton k trn bt c mnh phn nh no ca tm knh nh ta vn thy

hnh nh ton b ca vt th ging nh khi nhn n trn ton c tm knh nh. Gin Feynman (Richard P. Feynman, gii Nobel Vt l 1965 chung vi hai vt l gia khc v cng trnh khai trin lng t in ng lc hc) c th gip ta c mt nim v trt t thu nhip nm trong chuyn ng phc tp ca cc in t trng di dng sng nh sng. Sng nh sng chuyn ng truyn dn khp ni v trn nguyn tc, s chuyn ng truyn dn thu nhip ton th khng thi gian ca v tr vo trong mi mi vng. Khi nim nhn bit khi ln thi vi mt cp mt tt hay mt knh vin vng l c th thy mi s vt thu nhip phng khai tr li, tng dng hin ra nh nhng tng tru xut t ton th hon chnh ca v tr. Gin Feynman l mt cu trc gm nhng ng thng biu hin chuyn ng ca cc sng. Trc ht mt sng nh pht ra t mt im c nh P c v ra nh sau. Cc ng thng tun ra t P cho thy cch thc sng truyn t im y. Sau mt im bt k Q, ni gp sng nh t P lan n, tr thnh ngun pht khi mt sng nh khc, v c nh vy m c sng lan n im R, im ny tr thnh ngun pht khi mt sng nh khc, v..v... iu ng lu y l mi mi im thu nhip mi sng truyn n t khp ht thy cc im khc v ng thi l ngun pht khi mt sng vi cng ln hay b ty theo cng ca ln sng lan n. Nu nhn qu trnh truyn dn sng nh mt ton th, thi tt c sng xut pht t mt im A truyn dn n mt im B tri qua rt nhiu bc chuyn tip trung gian, to thnh mt sng tng hp ti B bao gm ht thy cc sng truyn dn theo ht thy mi qu o kh hu ni A vi B. Mt khc, khi nhn hnh cc ng thng tun ra t P din t trt t phng khai t mi mt im lan ra khp ton th, ng thi ta nhn thy cc sng t ton th dn vo trong mi mt im theo trt t thu nhip, nh hnh sau y. Nh vy chuyn ng sng l tng hp hai bin chuyn ng thi v nghch chiu, thu nhip v phng khai, cun li v m ra, co rt v gin n theo l ng nht duyn khi, khng nh nguyn tnh ca Hoa nghim. Php Tng gii thch chuyn ng y nh sau. Ht bi khng c t tnh. Khi bn cht ln trc v hon ton thm thu khp mi phng, thi l gin n. Mi phng khng c bn cht v hon ton hin thnh trong ht

bi do duyn khi, thi l co rt. ... ... ... Khi co rt, mi vt u hin thnh trong mt ht bi. Khi gin n, mt ht bi thm thu ph cp khp mi vt. Gin n l lun lun co rt, v mt ht bi lin can mi vt. Co rt l lun lun gin n, v mi vt lin can mt ht bi. l ct ngha th no l gin n v co rt mt cch t ti. (Hoa nghim ngha hi bch mn). ---o0o---

(III) - Mng Ton Cu

Gi th ht thy thng tin cha ng trong my tnh khp ni c ni kt ... Tt c nhng thng tin gi tr nht trong mi my tnh ca CERN (Trung tm u chu Nghin cu Ht nhn) v trn th gii sn sng ti v mi ngi s dng. Th l xut hin mt khng gian thng tin ton cu n nht. l mng c ca Tim Berners-Lee khi ng lm vic tho chng ti CERN, Geneva, Thy S. Chng trnh in ton ng lp vo nm 1980 ni kt my tnh hu chia s thng tin khng ng mi nm sau bin thnh Mng Ton Cu www (World Wide Web), mng li nhn to rng ln nht t trc n nay. Mng Ton Cu l din b ca Internet, Internet l hnh th ha thn ca Mng Ton Cu, l mt mng my tnh ni kt qua nhng ng truyn dn in. Hu gip tm kim d dng ti liu ct gi vi mt b my su cu (search engine) n gin, ni dung cc trang Mng (Webpage) c sp xp theo thng liu (information; ti liu thng tin) ch khng theo v tr (location). Ted Nelson, gio s i hc Brown, Hoa k, l ngi u tin c kin dng my tnh thit k mt h thng t chc thng liu mi m ng gi l siu bn (hypertext). ng c nhu cu vit mt quyn sch v trit l trn my tinh trong ng mun trnh by ton b t tng ca ng mt cch c h thng. Theo ng siu bn vi nhng ng dy ni (links) i khp mi hng mi c th truy dng tc thi trn my gim th (monitor) nhng li ng ch thch, k c bt k bn vn no khc m ng dn chng. Trong bn sch ch in, cu, on, chng, v trang ni nhau theo mt trt t c quyt nh khng nhng bi tc gi m cn bi cu trc vt l v th t theo chui ca chnh cun sch. Tuy c th ngu nhin lt n bt c trang no v tnh c t mt nhn vo bt k on no, cun sch ch in mi mi b gi cht trong khun kh c nh ba th nguyn. Khng gian thng tin khng b hn ch nh vy. Cu vn ph din mt nim hay mt chui t tng thng nh theo mt mng du hiu a th nguyn ch ni ct gi

nhng ch gii y hay nhng lun chng bin minh nu cn thi mc ngay ra trn my gim th. Cu trc ca bn vn c th v vi mt m hnh phn t phc hp trong mt khng gian nhiu th nguyn. Ch v cu c thm th nguyn thi ging nh thy tinh vi v s khc din. Chng c th hin ra di nhiu gc khc nhau, t k nhau hay chng chp ln nhau. Cc mu thng liu c th sp t li theo th t mi, cu vn c th vit li di hn, v danh t c nh ngha ngay ti ch. Nhng ng dy ni c th do chnh tc gi thm vo khi xut bn hay do c gi ghp thm sau ny. V c kh nng truy dng tc thi bt k bn vn no cho nn ng dy ni xem nh hm mt bc nhy. Vi bc nhy, tt c mi bn vn u xem nh ng thi cu khi v sn sng ng hin trn my gim th nu cn. Song song vi s pht trin dung lng cc b nh cha ng thng liu v vi s truyn dn d liu qua cc v tinh thng tin, nhm Berners-Lee v ng s CERN khai trin siu bn thnh mt mi trng thch ng vi ngn ng thnh th, bin siu bn thnh a mi trng (multimedia) [in th (video), thnh m (audio), v d liu (data)], v to ra mt kh siu bn t tn l HTML (hypertext markup language; ng php siu bn) rt thch dng. Ng php ring ca cc my tnh c th chnh hp thch nghi vi kh siu bn ca ton Mng. Ngoi ra, nhm y cn thit lp mt th tc truyn chuyn siu bn (hypertext transfer protocol) gi tt l HTTP vi mc ch hng dn s truyn thng gia nhng b my tm trin h s (browser) v cc trm ct gi ti liu trn mng (web servers). H cn t ra mt mu a ch tiu chun gi l URL (uniform resource locator; thit b nh v ti nguyn nht lut), mt loi ng dy ni phi hp thng tin trn th tc truyn chuyn vi thng tin trn a ch ca my tnh ang c yu cu truy dng. Th d trn Mng s dng th tc truyn chuyn HTTP mt ng dy ni URL c th l: http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2396.txt ng dy ni URL ny nu r ba iu: (1) http tc ng dng th tc truyn chuyn HTTP, (2) www.ietf.org tc a ch my tnh ang c yu cu truy dng, v (3) rfc/rfc2396.txt tc con ng dn n v tr ca bn vn rfc2396.txt trong my tnh y. Tm li, Mng Ton Cu l mt mng li o, nt l cc trang nh (Webpage) trng by hu ht mi th thng liu nh tin tc, ht bng, qung co, chuyn tm pho, a , hnh nh, tiu s, sch, v..v.... Bt c th g c th vit ra, v hnh, hay chp nh u c th tm thy c trong

mt nt ca Mng Ton Cu di mt hnh thc no . Cng nng ca Mng l do cc thit b URL cho php click trn con chut l c th di chuyn t trang ny sang trang khc. Nh cc ng dy ni URL m ta c th lt (surf), nh v v xu ni thng tin li vi nhau. Do cc ng dy ni ny m thu tp nhng ti liu c nhn bin chuyn v do nhng click trn con chut m mt mng li thng tin khng l c bn thnh. Nu ct b cc ng dy ni thi Mng Ton Cu b hy dit, v s c s d liu ha thnh v dng. Do siu bn hy b gii hn ca trang ch in, cuc sng trn mng tr nn c lp i vi mt v tr nht nh vo mt lc xc nh. Ngoi ra, v tr cn c th truyn chuyn na. Ngi ti mt ni m vn c th chng kin trn Mng cnh hot ng n o no nhit mt ni khc nh tung ang ng ti . C nhng vic ca s c th lm ngay ti nh ngi trc mt my tnh c nhn, khng khc g ngi trong vn phng ti s. Ngay nh ngha th no l a ch cng thay i v hin nay mang mt ngha mi c tnh cch nh mt s an sinh x hi (Social security number) ch khng cn l ta trn mt con ng. a ch ha thnh o. Hy v siu bn vi mt tp hp thng ip co dn, thun li hay trng ra ty theo tc ng ca ngi c. tng c th khai pht v phn tch nhiu mc chi tit khc nhau. Ta c cm gic ht thy biu tng khp mi phng v ni chn th u ha hp trong cng siu bn, th t thng xuyn thay i, v truyn t bt k lc no, bt c u, ty thun quyn li ca ngi gi v tnh kh ca ngi nhn. Ni cch khc, Mng Ton Cu to ra mt m phng thc ti trn my tnh, mt thc ti o (virtual reality). Thc ti o l thc ti ca chng ta v chnh ci khung nim v cc h thng biu tng phi khng gian, phi thi gian y l ni ta y c to lp cc phm tr v hon khi cc nh tng, chnh ci khung nim y hnh thnh tp tnh, nui dng vng tng, v gy phin no. Nu sng tr li thi i thng tin hin nay, n hong V Tc Thin chc chn s khng cn n th d S t vng hay cn phng y mt knh vi chnh gia mt ngn n t sng t bn cnh mt tng Pht ca ngi Php Tng. V l c nhin n hong tha thng minh bit cch tn dng Mng Ton Cu, nhn thy Mng c nhiu tnh cht ca li bu Thch, v do thng t ngha vin dung ca Hoa nghim tng. Nhng th no l li bu ca Thch? Hu gii thch ngha vin dung, Thun, khai t ca Hoa nghim tng, miu t li bu ca Thch trong Hoa nghim ng gio ch qun nh sau, Tu S dch:

[T45n1867_p0513b09] Mng li bng cc ht chu ca tri Thch c gi l li ca Nhn--la. Mng li ca Thch ny c lm thnh bng chu bu. Do nh sng ca cc ht chu ri sut, ln lt hin nh ln nhau, ln vo trong nhau, trng trng v tn. Trong mt ht chu m t nhin ng thi xut hin. C mi ht chu u nh vy, hon ton khng c n hay i. Nay hy nhm v pha ty nam, ly mt ht chu m nghim. Ngay ni mt ht chu m ng lot hin nh ca tt c ht chu. Ht chu ny nh vy, mi mt ht chu khc cng nh vy. Mi mt ht chu cng mt lc ng lot hin ht thy ht chu vy, mi mt ht chu khc cng vy. Nh vy trng trng v tn, khng c bin t. C bin t chnh l bng cc ht chu trng trng khng bin t, thy u hin trong mt ht chu, r rng xut hin trn cao. Nhng ci khc khng phng hi n ci ny. Khi ngi trong mt ht chu tc l ngi trong ht thy ht chu, trng trng v tn. V sao vy? Trong mt ht chu c tt c ton b ht chu. Khi trong tt c ton b ht chu c mt ht chu, chnh ci ton b y cng mang tt c ht chu. Chun theo y m t duy v ton b (nht thit). Tt c ton b ht chu ln vo trong mt ht chu m hon ton khng ra khi mt ht chu ny. Mt ht chu ln vo trong tt c ht chu m hon ton khng dy ln mt ht chu ny. Hi: ni tt c ton b ht chu ln vo trong mt ht chu m hon ton khng ra khi ht chu ny, lm sao li c th ln vo trong tt c ht chu? p: Ch do khng ra khi ht chu ny nn mi c th ln vo tt c ht chu. Nu ra khi mt ht chu m ln vo tt c ht chu, tc l khng th ln vo trong tt c ht chu vy. V tch ra ngoi ht chu ny bn trong khng c ht chu no khc na. Hi: Nu tch ra ngoi ht chu ny m bn trong khng c tt c ton b ht chu, vy th mng li ny c lm thnh ch do bi mt ht chu; vy s kin do nhiu ht chu m lm thnh l th no? p: Ch do c nht mt ht chu mi bt u tng ht mt kt nhiu ht thnh mng li. V sao vy? V do mt ht chu ny c nht lm thnh mng li. Nu b i ht chu ny, ton th khng c li. Hi: Nu duy c nht mt ht chu, lm sao c th bt u lm thnh li?

p: S kin kt nhiu ht chu lm thnh li, chnh l duy c nht mt ht chu. V sao vy? Mt chnh l tng tng, c sn ci nhiu lm thnh. Nu khng c ci mt, tt c ton b cng khng. Cho nn, bng mt ht chu m lm thnh mng li vy. Tt c (nht thit) ln vo mt, chun theo y m bit. Trong on vn trn, c cu: Do nh sng ca cc ht chu ri sut, ln lt hin nh ln nhau, ln vo trong nhau, trng trng v tn. Trong mt ht chu m t nhin ng thi xut hin. C mi ht chu u nh vy, hon ton khng c n hay i. Trn Mng Ton Cu cng vy. Khi lt Mng, tt c nhng trang hin trn my gim th (monitor) xut khi t cc trm ct gi ti liu (servers) khp ni trn th gii, c khi no mt ta ri khi trang nh trn mn nh ca my gim th, tc ht chu m ta chm ch quan st nh mt nh chim bc nhn vo qu cu thy tinh? Mi ln bt buc phi lt Mng, c phi ta tht s chng bao gi n hay i? c bit l Mng Ton cu phn chiu chng nhng tt c ht chu m cn cu trc cc ng dy ni gia cc ht chu, mt cu trc nht a tng dung hay tng tc. Cc gi thng liu tuy khc nhau nhng khng ri nhau, v chng h tng nhip nhp trong mt khng gian phi khng gian, trng rng v mi nt hay trang nh phn chiu ton Mng, ng nh li ca Thun: Tt c ton b ht chu ln vo trong mt ht chu m hon ton khng ra khi mt ht chu ny. Mt ht chu ln vo trong tt c ht chu m hon ton khng dy ln mt ht chu ny. Thun cn ni: S kin kt nhiu ht chu lm thnh li, chnh l duy c nht mt ht chu. V sao vy? Mt chnh l tng tng, c sn ci nhiu lm thnh. Nu khng c ci mt, tt c ton b cng khng. Cho nn, bng mt ht chu m lm thnh mng li vy. Mi ht chu l nhn ca ton th m ng thi cng l qu do ton th ht chu khc lm nhn. Trong ton th, nhn qu ng thi. Nh vy, khi lt Mng, bt c mn no mc ra trn my gim th khng phi ch trn Mng m tht ra l ton Mng. Mn l hin thn ca tm thm Mng. Trong mt mng li khng c trung tm, bt c nt no cng l trung tm. Mng hnh thnh l do s t do ng gp xy dng ca nhiu ti nng khp th gii v do tng giao tc dng rt t do vi hng triu ngi s dng n. V phn mm c phn pht rng ri v bt c ai cng c th ty tin ghp thm nt vo Mng rt d dng chng tn km bao nhiu cho nn nhng

ngi s dng ng thi gp phn sn xut k thut, un nn Mng thch nghi vi nhng nhu cu ring bit. Hn na, thi gian cch bit gia tin trnh hc hi bng cch s dng v tin trnh sn xut bng cch s dng, c bit thu ngn rt nhiu. Ngha l c mt s hi tip ci tin gia s truyn b v s hon chnh k ngh, nguyn nhn Mng Ton Cu pht trin vi mt tc khc thng. S ngi s dng tng vt t 20 triu trong nm 1996 ln 300 triu vo nm 2 000. T mt s t trang nm 1993 nhy vt ln hng triu trang nm 1998, v c su thng ln ca Mng gia tng gp i. S tng trng ca Mng vi mt tc khng ngng gia tng l do tn k ngh in t, my tnh, v vin thng pht trin nhanh chng, dn khi nhng vng hi tip khin Mng phc hp cng phc hp thm. Khi thng liu thay i, cc ng dy ni v tn s thm ving mt s dch trm (site) cng thay i theo. Mng bin thnh mt h sinh thi vi s thng liu nhiu n i khng my su cu ti tn u hng no c th sp hng s trang khng ngt tng gia trn Mng. Ngoi tc dng thng tin, Mng cn l ngun sanh li v cnh tranh i vi ht thy mi ngnh thng mi. Mng cho php thit lp nhng c s giao dch bun bn trc tuyn (online) thng gi chung l e-B, e tc electronic (in t) v B tc business (giao dch thng mi). Cc c s ny thc hin nhng dch v khng thc th, nh gii tr, du lch, thng tin, v ngn hng, ng thi bun bn nhng hng ha nng n ca kinh t tp truyn nh xe hi v my tnh. Mng bin i l li giao dch thng mi trong quan h vi ngi cung cp v ngi tiu th, trong phng php qun tr v iu hnh, trong tin trnh sn xut, trong s hp tc vi nhng hng khc, trong cch xut vn v lng nh gi c phn trong th trng chng khon. Mng xut hin nh l mt h thng thng tin phc hp c tc dng giao lin truyn chuyn nhng kinh nghim nhn thc v hnh ng ca con ngi, iu chnh v phi hp ht thy mi th kin thc b chia ch v phn tn trong khng gian v thi gian. Hin Mng cha c chng hng trm triu trang nh y p thng liu ni kt nhau mt cch rt hn tp v ty tin cng thm rt nhiu c cu truy nhp. Cc trang thng liu chuyn vn xoay vng, trang thng liu cung cp trang thng liu to thnh nhng vng t phn thn (self reflexive loops). Ngha l, Mng cung cp nhng trang thng liu, ri n phin cc trang thng liu tr li ti thit Mng, Mng tr li cung cp nhng trang thng liu, c xoay vn nh vy tng t mt h thng sng lin tc t to t sinh (autopoietic system). Cc vng t phn

thn khng khp kn m tri li m ng cho nhng trang thng liu giao lin vng mc vi h thng khc, mng li khc. Do tng tc v bin i, cc trang nh khng ngng ti xy dng Mng, ni pht sinh chng. Tm li, Mng Ton Cu l ton th h tng giao thip a th nguyn gia cc trang nh vi trang nh v gia cc trang nh vi Mng. Mng v cc trang nh h tng y tn, h tng nhip nhp. Mng Ton Cu ng c xem l mt th d c th biu dng ngha tng giao v nht th ca Hoa nghim. Bit: Khng hay Bt khng. S pht trin Mng Ton Cu bt ngun t cuc cch mng phng php kho st th gii hin tng, ngun gc pht sinh vn ha mng li (network culture). Th gii khng do nhng mi quan h tuyn tnh cu thnh m l mt h thng gm v s mng li phc hp tng tc tng nhp. Th gii khng phi l mt h thng my mc m l mt mng li rng ln bao gm v s h sinh thi (ecosystem) h tng nhip nhp. S xut hin vn ha mng li xy ra ng thi vi cuc cch mng thng tin (information revolution) pht xut t quan nim thng tin l bn cht ca thc ti. M u bn tuyn ngn (Manifesto) ca cuc hi tho v Tnh phc hp, Entropy, v Vt l Thng tin (Complexity, Entropy, and the Physics of Information) do Vin Santa Fe, New Mexico, Hoa k. bo tr vo Xun 1989, khoa hc gia Wojciech Zurek phng theo cu m u Bn tuyn ngn ca ng Cng sn (1848; A spectre is haunting Europe the spectre of communism) vit v cuc cch mng thng tin nh sau: Qu thng tin ang quy nhiu cc ngnh khoa hc. (The specter of information is haunting the sciences) Sau , ng nhn mnh s gia tng tm quan trng ca thng tin trong nhiu ngnh khoa hc: Nhit ng hc, phn ln cn bn ca c hc thng k, thuyt lng t v o lng, vt l hc v k ton, v rt nhiu vn v thuyt h ng lc, phn t sinh hc, di truyn hc, v khoa hc my tnh, tt c cng chia x mt chung l thng tin. Nhng th hi i vi cc nh vt l hc th no l thng tin? Mun hiu th no l thng tin, thi phi nh ngha, nhng mun nh ngha thi phi hiu th no l thng tin. Vy bt u t u? Cc nh vt l hc thng thi thit nhng khi nim mi mt cch rt thc tin. V ton l ngn ng ca vt l hc, v ton lin h s, cho nn mt thnh t ch yu ca mi l thuyt vt l l o lng, s ghp lng vo phm. Bi th cc khi nim mi u c nh ngha bng cch m t cch thc o lng chng. nh ngha nh vy gi l nh ngha kh dng

(operational definition), khng bt buc phi bit r vt em o lng l ci g. Th d: Vo khong nm 1600 khi nim nhit c nh ngha l i lng o bng mt nhit k. Sau mt phn t thin k tc l vo gia th k 19, nh s hiu bit thm v nhit bng th nghim, nhit c nh ngha l o tc trung bnh ca cc phn t. n v o lng thng tin trong th gii hin tng l bit (binary digit; ch s nh phn). Bit khng mu sc, kch thc, hay trng lng, v c th truyn dn vi tc nh sng. Bit l phn t b nht ca thng liu. Bit l mt trng thi ca hu: m hay tt, ng hay ct, ln hay xung, vo hay ra, en hay trng. V l do thc dng, ta xem bit biu tng s la chn gia hai ch s l 1 hay 0. ngha ca 1 hay 0 l mt vn khc. Mc du bit l mt khi nim tru tng, nhng v khng trnh khi dng vt liu nh giy mc, chip vi tnh, hay t bo no m ha, cho nn mt chui bit l mt ti nguyn vt l. C th hnh dung th gii cc bit nh mt th gii v tng chu bin hm dung trong th gii hin tng gm nguyn t (ht) v bc x (sng). Mt tp hp k hiu 0 v 1 c gi tr thng liu ch khi no t chc thnh nhng mu hnh c th ring bit. K hiu xy dng h tng c s, thng liu chuyn ch ngha. Trong bui ban s ca my tnh, mt chui bit thng biu tng mt thng liu s. Nhng trong vng ba chc nm nay, nhiu th thng liu khc nh thnh m (audio) v in th (video) cng c m ha nh phn, biu tng bng bit. c mt nim v cch thng liu trong thin nhin truyn qua mt dn n no b, hy ngh n mt my chp hnh s t (digital camera) c ch to m ha hnh nh thnh bit. Thin nhin bin i mi th thng liu ta ch thnh xung in sai bit trong khng gian v thi gian. Nhng xung in ny c chuyn ti n mt bi cc ht photon (quang t), thc ra cng l c cu m ha nh phn. Khi cc xung in truyn t n mt, tc thi b mt m ha nh do bi ci my chp hnh s t. Thng liu cng c m ha qua tai, mi, li, v thn ging nh qua mt ri truyn chuyn n no c x l v ghi thu. B no cng vy, bao gm ht thy cc giao lin trao i tn hiu gia cc t bo no, l mt tin trnh x l thng liu m ha rt cng hiu. Thng liu c x l khng duy nht trong b no m trong tt c mi cht sng. Tht vy, mn phn t sinh hc m t cc t bo nh ni cha ng thng liu di truyn, s sinh trng v tp tnh cc sinh vt nh do m di truyn kim nh.

Ging nh trng hp nng lng, thng tin c th m t bng ngn ng ton hc v xem nh mt sn vt c th o lng, mua bn, ch nh, v nh thu. Tuy nhin, khc vi nng lng, thng tin c tnh ch quan (subjectivity). Khng hon ton trong mt h thng vt l, nh nng lng chuyn ha trong ko bnh, in nng trong bnh cquy, ha nng trong thng xng, ng nng trong ln gi, thng tin cn c mt phn trong tm thc. Hy ly s 14159265 lm th d. i vi ai cha tng lm quen vi s pi thi s khng c ngha g c. Nhng i vi cc nh khoa hc thi l phn l ca mt thng liu khoa hc quan trng. Thng tin nh ch sch chng hn, khng nhng biu dng mt thng ip vit m cn ch th nhng k hiu t mu s, a, , c, h, dng vit ch y. V vy, thng tin xem nh c hai ngha. Mt, trong ngn ng hng ngy, thng tin mang ngha ca mt thng ip no , v hai, n l k hiu c cng dng truyn chuyn thng ip, k hiu c th l ch ci, s, hay chui 0 v 1. Theo ngha th hai, cng ngh thng tin (information technology) l ngnh k thut chuyn ct gi, truyn chuyn, ph by, v x l k hiu, khng cn bit n ngha ca chng. Cc thnh phn chnh yu ca khoa hc thng tin, theo vt l gia Benjamin W. Schumacher, c th lc gin thnh mt phng php ba giai on: 1.- Xc nh mt ti nguyn vt l. Th d mt chui la chn nh phn, mt chui cu hi ch c hai cch tr li: c hay khng? ng hay sai? sp hay nga? zero hay mt? Claude E. Shannon, nh khoa hc sng thit thuyt thng tin, tng hp mi la chn vi mt bit. 2.- Xc nh mt cng vic x l thng tin c th thc hin vi s s dng ti nguyn vt l xc nh trong giai on 1. Th d cng vic phn u l p nn (compression) xut liu (output) t mt ngun thng tin, nh bn vn trong mt quyn sch chng hn, vo trong mt chui bit, v phn sau l kh p (decompression) chui bit y, tc phc hi thng tin nguyn th p nn trong chui bit. 3.- Xc nh mt tiu chun v s thnh tu cng vic xc nh trong giai on 2. Th du: tiu chun bo rng xut liu sau khi kh p phi hon ton trng hp vi nhp liu trc khi p nn.

Nh vy cu hi cn bn ca thng tin hc l Ti thiu cn bao nhiu s lng ti nguyn vt l (giai on 1) thc hin cng vic x l thng tin (giai on 2) theo ng tiu chun thnh tu (giai on 3)? Cu hi ny tuy khng chuyn t ht tt c nhng g thuc khoa hc thng tin nhng c th gip ta nhn xt v phn tch nhng cng trnh nghin cu thuc lnh vc thng tin. V nh trong trng hp p nn d liu (data compression), cu hi l: Ti thiu cn bao nhiu bit cha ng thng tin do mt ngun no sn xut? gii quyt vn ny hu gip cc k s in thit lp nhng h thng vin thng cng hiu, Shannon pht minh mt cch o lng thng tin do mt ngun thng tin sn xut v ph bin kin ca ng trong bi bo ni ting Thuyt ton hc v truyn thng (The Mathematical Theory of Communication; 1948). p dng cch o lng Shannon o s lng thng tin trong mt thng ip thi khng cn nh ngha th no l thng tin, v ngay c ngha ca thng ip cng khng cn bit. Phng php o lng ca Shannon p dng d nht l vo cc thng ip gm nhng chui la chn gia hai tng phn: ng hay sai, sp hay nga, 0 hay 1. Mun o s lng thng tin ca mt thng ip do mt ngun sn xut, hy m ha nh phn thng ip thnh mt chui gm ton ch s 0 v 1, ri m c bao nhiu ch s trong chui y. S ch s m c ng nh ngha l s bit ti thiu cn cha ng xut liu t ngun. Biu thc ton hc v s lng thng tin nay c gi l Shannon entropy v k thut o thng tin bng cch m gi l php m bit (bit-counting). Theo Shannon, s d dng m nh phn trong php m bit v y l phng cch t tn km nht o s lng thng tin. Mc du rt cng hiu trong vic truyn dn, cha ng, v x l d liu nh phn, bit v php m bit hon ton khng gii p nhng cu hi lin quan n tnh ch quan ca thng tin, c bit l vn ngha, Cc k hiu chuyn t ngha ca thng ip ng n mc no?, v vn hiu nghim, Thng ip nhn c tc dng trn hnh vi hiu qu nh th no so vi mun? Shannon ch trng nhng g lin can ng ngha u khng thch hp vi vn k thut. Ch trng ny rt thch hp vi vt l hc lun lun gt ra ngoi nhng vn lin can tnh ch quan. Trong Ta Nhn thc v Tnh Khng, c on Thy Tu S t cu hi: Phc Hy pht hin khi nim nh phn bng hai ho. ng chng ba bit-ho

thnh mt qu; thu hoch c tm qu. Ri chng na, ng c b nh 6 bit-ho, nhn c 64 k t-qu, ni ghi tt c mi hin tng, t thin nhin, x hi, con ngi. Ghi bt c ci g m con ngi c th suy ngh v tng tng. Nhng pht hin ca Phc Hy c thy l hu ch cho vic bi ton hn l h tr b c ca con ngi, nh vi tnh ngy nay, ti sao? V tr li: Ngi hc Pht ch c th ni: cn, cnh, thc; ba s ha hip xc. Duyn xc pht sinh th. Xc d bit nn cm th d bit. Khng cng mi trng thc n th khng th nhn ging nhau c. Hai b sng Ngn c hai chm sao. T ng hay Ty, nhn ln u thy. bn ny Thi bnh dng nhn ln, l Ngu lang, ngi chn b, v Chc n, c gi dt la. V mt thin tnh s no lng. Cn bn kia i ty dng nhn ln, l con thin ng v cy n by giy. Khng c du hiu g chng t con chim ang c vt sng Ngn sang b bn kia nghe n, m c thy l ang i tm tri tim ca v thn n cp la. Cch nhn khc nhau vch ra nh hng lch s khc nhau, v to dng nhng nn vn minh khc nhau. ng vy. Nh khoa hc, trit hc, v ton hc Gottfried W. Leibniz (16461716), ngi pht minh ton vi tch phn (Calculus) ng thi v c lp vi Newton cng l ngi u tin t nm 1666 tm cch sng ch mt h thng k t ph qut (characteristica universalis) trong mt logic hnh thc (symbolic logic; calculus ratiocinator; lut t duy) chuyn dch mi pht biu bng li ni thng c tnh cch m h thnh nhng mnh ton hc chnh xc, qui gim ht thy mnh chn tht ca lun l v ngn ng ca ton vi tch phn. p dng php m nh phn, ng ch s dng hai ch s nh phn 0 v 1 lm k t thnh lp cc biu thc s hc. Leibniz tin tng trn nguyn tc mi vn u c th gii quyt. Trc ht, to mt mi trng ph qut trong cc tng tng phn c th ng thi cu khi v tng h. H thng k t ph qut ta trn mt logic nh phn l ng php c kh nng chuyn dch tt c khi nim v kin bt ng vo cng mt tp hp k hiu. im khc bit vi ngn ng thng thng l h thng k t ph qut khng pht m v khng b cht liu ni dung hn ch. Khng ni dung v im lng, ng php nh phn c th chuyn i mi mnh c ngha thnh nhng thut ng ca logic vi tch phn, mt h thng chng minh nhng mu hnh lun chng ng hay sai, hoc lin kt chng thnh mt ma trn (matrix). Do , cc tin trnh t duy tri nghch c th ng thi din bin cng trong mt mi trng. Mi s bt ng v thi hay nim tin, mt khi chuyn dch qua k t tng ng, c th dn khi nhng php din ton khng vp phi mu thun phi l. Kt

qu l logic vi tch phn ch ch ng sai ca bin lun, ra ngoi nhng pht biu m h, nhng li nhn thnh kin. Do y, Leibniz hay vit v nhng vn thn hc lin h n ngi Trung Hoa v thng trao i th t vi cc linh mc Dng Tn truyn o Trung Hoa ang nghin cu Kinh Dch tm im tng ng gia tn ngng ca ngi Trung Hoa v Thin cha gio. Leibniz c tin cho Joachim Bouvet, linh mc Dng Tn ngi Php Bc kinh bit cch ng m bng hai s 0 v 1. Chng bao lu sau khi nhn c th tr li km theo hnh 64 qu kp trong Kinh Dch ca Bouvet cho bit c s tng quan gia cc qu y v php m nh phn ca ng, ng trnh Vin Hn lm Hong gia Khoa hc (1703) bi Gii thch s hc nh phn ch dng k t 0 v 1, km theo on bnh v s li ch ca n v v s n gii thch ngha nhng hnh tng Trung Hoa thi c i i vua Phc Hy (Explication de larithmtique binaire, qui se sert des seuls caractres 0 et 1, avec des remarques sur son utilit, et sur ce quelle donne le sens des anciennes figures Chinoises de Fohy). C on ng vit: im bt ng trong php tnh ny l s hc ch dng 0 v 1 cha ng iu b n v cc vch ca vua v trit gia thi c tn Phc Hy ... ... ... Nhiu qu c cho l do ng vua y vch ra, tt c u c th suy ra t s hc ny. Nhng ch cn a ra y hnh ca tm qu n gi l Bt qui l nhng hnh c bn, v thm vo li gii thch, tht ra hin nhin, hiu ngay mt vch lin c ngha l n v hay 1 v mt vch t c ngha l zero hay 0. Ngi Trung Hoa nh mt i s hiu bit ngha ca Bt qui hay nhng vch ca Phc Hy, c th hn ngn nm nay, v h vit nhng li ch gii cc qu, tm kim ti khng bit ngha xa xa no, cho nn by gi tr nn cn thit i vi h l c li gii thch chn tht t pha ngi u chu. Ngoi ra, Leibniz gia cng ch to my tnh thch hp vi ngn ng nh phn c kh nng din ton trn cc chui s nh phn theo qui tc logic hnh thc nhng khng thnh cng. Mi hn hai th k sau nh nhng cng trnh tip tc nghin cu nhng kin ca Leibniz do nhng tn tui nh Boole, Venn, Russell, Whitehead, Shannon, v nhiu nhn vt khc na, logic hnh thc mi c th vn dng chng minh bng php din dch trong cc mch in t. Sau , John von Neumann p dng s hc nh phn ca Leibniz khai thit my in ton s t (digital computer).

---o0o---

(IV) - Php gii tnh: chng chp, giao thoa, v vng mc

Tng cn nhc li y mt s tnh cht c bit ca c hc lng t (quantum mechanics) trc khi bn v khoa thng tin lng t (quantum information). Lng t hay ht c hai loi phm tnh, tnh v ng. Cc phm tnh tnh c kch thc khng thay i khi o lng v dng phn bit cc loi ht. Ba phm tnh tnh quan trng nht l khi, in tch, v i lng ca spin. Trong s cc phm tnh ng biu trng tnh ng ca ht c th k v tr, xung lng, v nh hng ca spin. Nn tng ca c hc lng t l nguyn l bt nh Heisenberg c s dng xc nh mc chnh xc trong s o lng nhng phm tnh ng ca ht chuyn ng. Cc phm tnh ng lun lun pht hin thnh tng cp b sung, chng hn v tr v xung lng, nng lng v thi gian trong mt tin trnh vt l. Theo nguyn l bt nh, du dng c, phng php, v ngi o lng hon ho n mc no i na, ta khng bao gi c th ng thi bit c chnh xc c hai phm tnh b sung ca mt ht ang chuyn ng. Theo Bohr, nhng phm tnh biu trng tnh ng ca lng t khng thuc bn tnh t nhin ca lng t m pht hin t ton th trng hung trong cng vic o lng c thc hin. Ht t n khng c phm tnh v tr v xung lng. Nhng phm tnh y tht ra l quan h gia ht v dng c o lng. Dp b dng c o lng thi nhng phm tnh y cng bin mt. Phm tnh ng ca ht kh d nh ngha v quan st c ch khi no t ht trong quan h h tng tc dng vi nhng h thng khc. Nh vy, thay v c v tr v tc c quan st v nh ngha ring bit, cc ht c mt trng thi lng t (a quantum sate) tc mt t hp v tr v tc . C hc lng t thng khng d on mt kt qu duy nht ca mt th nghim. N trng dn nhiu kt qu khc nhau, nu r mi kt qu c bao nhiu c duyn thnh tu. Ngha l, nu p dng cng mt php o lng v khi s trong iu kin ban u ging nhau o mt s ln h thng tng t nhau [y mun ni l o mt h thng rt nhiu ln, h thng tt nhin khng bao gi yn trong cng mt trng thi] thi kt qu o c s l A trong mt s trng hp, B trong mt s trng hp khc, v..v... Ta c th d on gn ng bao nhiu ln kt qu l A hay B nhng khng th d on kt qu chnh xc sau mi ln o lng c. Nh vy c hc lng t

thm vo khoa hc yu t ngu duyn bt kh d tri. V th mt s khoa hc gia nh Einstein chng i c hc lng t, bo rng: Thng khng chi sc sc. Nhng a s chp nhn bi c hc lng t hon ton ph hp vi thc nghim. C hc lng t chi phi s vn hnh ca cc transistor v mch t hp l nhng thnh phn chnh yu ca cc thit b in t nh tivi v my tnh, ng thi l nn tng ca ha hc v sinh hc hin i. Lng t nh sng (photon) cng nh lng t vt cht (th d: electron) c hai hnh tng, ht v sng. Tri vi quan im ca Niels Bohr cho rng khng bao gi c th thy photon tc dng nh ht v sng cng mt lc, nm 1992, cc vt l gia Nht bn hon thnh mt th nghim do mt nhm vt l gia n thit k v quan st c hin tng photon tc dng ng thi nh ht v sng. Nh vy, hnh tng pht hin l ty theo trng hung trong th nghim c thc hin. Ni theo ngn ng Pht gio, lng t l mt php hu vi siu vit v hm dung hai hnh tng sng v ht tng i i nghch. y l c tnh mu thun m nht thng ca tnh Khng ca lng t. Sng chuyn ng tun hon v c xc nh bi hai phm tnh: bin din t cao ca sng v pha din t sng vo thi k no ca chu k chuyn ng. Pha ca sng iu tit hin tng hai sng gp nhau. Nu hai sng ng tn s tip xc nhau vi pha ng nht thi ta bo chng trng pha (in phase), vi pha khc nhau na chu k thi ta bo chng phn pha (out of phase). Khi hai sng gp nhau thi tng hp thnh mt sng c bin bng bin ca hai sng cng li. S kin bin cc sng gp nhau bt k u cng thnh bin ca sng tng hp c gi l nguyn l chng chp (superposition principle). Nguyn l ny ch p dng trong trng hp bin khng ln v khi khng p dng c thi gi l trng hp phi tuyn tnh (non linearity). Khng c g thm hay mt i mi khi sng gp nhau. c bit l khi mt sng truyn dn ra khi sng tng hp, bin ca n vn nh trc khi gp cc sng khc. Sng tng hp ch l mt s chng chp sng tm thi. Nguyn l chng chp quyt nh rng khi cc sng dao ng cng li thi bin ca sng tng hp ty thuc s tng quan lin h gia cc pha. Khi hai sng trng pha, nh sng ging hng vi nh sng, y sng ging hng vi y sng to thnh mt sng mnh hn vi bin ln. Nu bin ca chng bng nhau (chn lm 1 n v) thi sng tng hp c bin

bng 2 n v. y l trng hp giao thoa xy dng. Khi chng phn pha, nh ca sng ny ging hng vi y ca sng kia v nu bin ca chng bng nhau thi hai sng h giao tng trit, tng hp thnh mt sng c bin trit tiu. Trng hp ny gi l giao thoa ph hy. Nu pha u trong khong gia trng v phn pha thi bin tng hp nm trong khong 0 v 2. Ngu duyn v giao thoa, hai nt c th ca c hc lng t c din t ton hc bng mt hm sng do Schrodinger sng thit vi mc ch minh gii s giao thoa ca cc ht vt cht. Hm sng khng m t ht m thng tin v c duyn c th tm thy ht u ti nhiu v tr khc nhau. Bnh phng bin ca sng ti bt k ch no cho bit xc sut tm thy phm tnh v tr ca ht ch v dng sng thng tin cho bit v tt c phm tnh khc. Hm sng chnh l trng thi lng t biu tng va hin tng giao thoa ca cc ht va tp tnh ngu duyn ca chng. Quan h gia tnh kh d tri ca hm sng v tnh bt kh d tri ca ht tng t quan h gia hai mnh c v mu thun nhau: Xc sut ng tin ri nga l 50%, mt i lng hon ton kh d tri v ng tin ri xung sau mi ln gieo khng bit l sp hay nga, chnh l mt iu bt kh d tri. Hm sng c th biu trng hai mnh tng phn nh th, qu l mt s kin khc thng! Tm li, hm sng khng vn ti nng lng nh sng nc hay sng m, m vn ti nhng kh nng, hay tim nng chng chp tuyn tnh ln nhau. Ni theo Duy thc, hm sng l nhng ln sng chng t to nn thc a li da, thc ny hng chuyn, tng tc bt on. Von Neumann l ngi u tin t thnh vn nhng khng gii quyt s o lng phm tnh lng t. ng cng l ngi u tin ch cho thy thuyt lng t dn khi vai tr tm thc ca ngi quan st th nghim. ng cho rng vt th t n khng c phm tnh nu quan st vin khng ch tm quan st n. Khi nim then cht trong s o lng lng t l s sp ca hm sng pht hin trong th nghim vi mn chn c hai khe: Mt ht n nht nh mt photon hay mt nguyn t natri khi truyn dn thi c dng sng, nhng khi n ni thi c dng ht. Theo nhm Copenhagen do Bohr lnh o, chnh tc dng quan st, hay o lng, sng lm n sp thnh ht. Ht n nht khi i qua mt khe tung nh ng thi bit c khe kia b che kn hay h, do cui cng chn la kiu hnh v ra trn mn ln

quang, mt vng im trng hay kiu hnh sng giao thoa. Ngha l, n thc c iu kin chng nhng ti mt khe m khp ni trong ton th th nghim [Nn nh so vi kch thc ca ht khong cch hai khe v cng ln]. Tnh ni kt phi cc b (non-local connection) ny l nt c th trng yu ca c hc lng t. Bo rng A ni kt phi cc b vi B c ngha l (1) ni kt khng qua trung gian mi cht no gia A v B; (2) nh hng ca s ni kt khng b khong cch gim thiu; nh hng vn ging nhau du cch xa hng vn dm hay ch mt phn rt nh ca mt ly; v (3) c tnh tc thi, khng b tc nh sng hn nh. Trong c hc lng t, tnh ni kt phi cc b c tn gi l pha vng mc (phase entanglement). Mi khi h lng t A gp h lng t B, pha ca chng hn hp: sng ca A sao mt phn pha ca n vo trong sng ca B v ngc li. S trao i pha nh th ni kt vnh vin hai h thng A v B. Tnh pha vng mc ni kt ht thy mi h thng tng gp nhau mt ln trong qu kh thnh mt sc sng duy nht, s ni kt khng qua trung gian mi cht no, khng b khong cch gim thiu nh hng, v c tnh tc thi. Nhm tm hiu ngha ton th (holism) ca trng thi chng chp v vng mc, hy ly spin lm th d. Spin l mt tnh cht vt l ch c cp trong c hc lng t. C nhng h thng nh electron c spin 1/2 vi hai trng thi m thi, hoc trng thi spin ch ln spin up) hoc trng thi spin ch xung (spin down). Gi thit hai h thng c spin 1/2 cng pht ra t mt ngun, ri sau la nhau theo hai ng ng ngc hng. Du ly cch bao nhiu i na, trng thi spin ca ton th, ngha l trng thi spin ni ca hai h thng y hp nhau, l trng thi chng chp ca h thng u c spin ch ln v h thng th hai c spin ch xung vi h thng u c spin ch xung v h thng th hai c spin ch ln. Trong trng thi chng chp, ring mi h thng, khng c h thng no trong trng thi c spin ch ln hay spin ch xung. Nh vy c ngha l, tuy spin cc b (local spin) tc spin ca ring mi h thng l mt phm tnh kh quan trc (local observable), nhng trong cch th chng chp n khng c mt o chnh xc m ch vi mt xc sut bao nhiu phn trm ng. Spin ton th (total spin) ca trng thi chng chp mi c mt o xc nh. Khi o spin ca mt trong hai h thng v bit kt qu thi xc sut o spin ca h thng kia bin i thnh 1, ngha l ta c th bit chc spin ca n l ch ln hay ch xung.

Tnh chng chp v pha vng mc l mt th d khoa hc v php gii tnh l tnh bn nhin ca tt c s vt, ngha l ca tt c cc chuyn ng v cc hin tng trong v tr. Tnh bn nhin y l tnh trng trng duyn khi, ngha l tnh nh hng dy chuyn ca mt s vt i vi tt c s vt, ca tt c s vt i vi mt s vt. V nh mt con c nh vy ui, tuy rung ng rt t, nhng nu c kh nng o lng chnh xc, th cng c th thy nh hng cng khp bn b. (Kinh Th Lng Nghim. Li ni u. Tm Minh L nh Thm) Vt l gia John Stewart Bell chng minh mt nh l ton hc xc nhn rng thc ti lng t phi phi cc b. Kt qu ca nh l Bell khng ty thuc thuyt lng t, nh vy c ngha l mt ngy kia nu thuyt lng t c nhn thy khng cn gi tr, khng li ch na, v b dp b, thi nh l Bell vn ng vng v lun lun ng. Nn nh rng nh l Bell buc thc ti ch khng phi hin tng phi phi cc b. o lng lng t l phng tin vt l gia s dng tip xc vi thc ti. Tt c mi o lng lng t u cu thnh bi nhng nhy lng t, chng hn nh nhng chp sng le trn mn ln tinh. Cc nhy lng t ln xung t thc ti lng t to thnh nhng mu hnh tn ti v ti din c tnh cc b, ngha l tng giao tc dng qua trung gian nhng mi cht trong khng gian v thi gian. Do tnh pha vng mc m hin thnh mt ton th hon chnh trong cc lng t ni kt phi cc b vn hnh theo quy lut ca hm sng. Qubit: Khng v Bt khng. tm hiu thng tin lng t, hy t cu hi theo phng php ba giai on ca Schumacher. Trong c hc lng t, ti nguyn vt l mi no thay th chui cc bit? Cng vic x l thng tin no c th thc hin? Nhng tiu chun thch hp no v s thnh tu cng vic x l thng tin? V ti nguyn vt l thi phi k n cc trng thi chng chp, ging nh trng hp con mo ca Schrodinger l s chng chp hai kh nng sng v cht. Cng vic x l thng tin c th lin can n s vn dng tnh ni kt phi cc b tc pha vng mc. So vi trng hp thng tin c in, tiu chun v s thnh tu tinh t hn nhiu bi v mun gom thu kt qu ca mt cng vic x l thng tin thi phi quan st, hay o lng, h thng. Nhng trong c hc lng t, hnh ng nh vy s bin i h thng, hy dit nhng trng thi chng chp c bit ch hin hu trong vt l lng t m thi.

Ti nguyn cn bn ca thng tin lng t gi l bit lng t, quantum bit, hay qubit (c l kiubit), danh t do Schumacher ngh v c cng ng vt l gia chp nhn vo thu 1992. Ging nh bit l tng tru xut t nhng nguyn l ca vt l hc c in, qubit l tng tru xut t nhng nguyn l ca c hc lng t. Bit, n v ca thng tin c in, c miu t bi trng thi ca n, 0 hay 1. Cng vy, qubit, n v ca thng tin lng t, c miu t bi trng thi lng t ca mt h thng lng t hai th nguyn. C hai trng thi lng t ca qubit gi l trng thi c bn tng ng vi hai trng thi 0 v 1 ca mt bit c in. Hai trng thi c bn ny thng c k hiu l |0> (c l ket 0) v |1> (c l ket 1). Tuy nhin, trong c hc lng t, ht no c hai trng thi lng t khc nhau tt c mt tp hp gm v s trng thi chng chp ca hai trng thi . V th qubit c th c miu t bi v s trng thi chng chp ca hai trng thi c bn |0> v |1>. Biu thc ca qubit c dng: a|0> + b|1> a v b l phc s, mt trong hai phc s ny phi khc khng. (Xem Bi ton A li da duyn khi. Sch Tnh khi v Duyn khi. Hng Dng). C th ni vn tt, qubit l chng chp 0 v 1, cng nh ni bit l tr s 0 hay 1. Bt c h thng lng t no c hai trng thi nh spin ca electron hay phn cc ca photon u l ha thn ca mt qubit. Trong mt qubit c nhiu hn mt bit thng tin. Tuy nhin khi o qubit thu lm thng tin thi ch t c ch mt bit m thi. Xin m du ngoc gii thch s lc phn cc ca photon lin h nh th no vi qubit. nh sng l nhng sng ngang, thng gc (90 ) vi chiu sng truyn dn (chiu dc), kt hp dao ng di chuyn ca in trng v t trng. Mt b lc sng phn cc nh kin mt Polaroid chng hn, c cng dng phn cc nh sng, ngha l nh sng truyn xuyn qua kin theo mt chiu ring bit, chiu ca trc truyn dn ca b lc. Nu chiu ca trc b lc thng ng thi ch c nh sng phn cc thng ng truyn qua nguyn vn, cn nh sng phn cc nm ngang thi hon ton b chn li. nh sng ca mt tri hay ca n in v l hn hp nh sng phn cc khp mi hng khc nhau cho nn gi l nh sng thng, khng c chiu phn cc no c bit. Mi photon ca nh sng phn cc c th hnh dung nh c gn mt mi tn ch hng phn cc ca n, thng gc vi chiu truyn dn nh sng. C hc lng t thng ni n nhng photon phn cc theo hai chiu thng gc vi nhau v vi chiu truyn dn ca nh sng.

Nh vy, photon l trng thi chng chp ca hai sng phn cc, sng phn cc chiu ng v sng phn cc chiu ngang, cho nn c xem nh ha thn ca mt qubit. Th nghim no c th to ra mt qubit? Cch n gin nht to qubit l dng mt b tch chm tia (beam splitter). B tch chm tia khng g khc l nhng a thy tinh dy hn na phn, ng knh ln trong khong t mt n hai phn, mt mt c ph mt lp mng kim loi, kim loi mu vng, mu bc, mi mu, hu phn chiu nh sng mu sc khc nhau. B tch chm tia c mt hu nh khp ni, trong nh, trn xe, n gip kim sot cc tia chp laser vi t trong cc my chi CD. Chc nng ca n l tch ra hai chiu mt chm tia sng chiu xin trn mt n: mt tia truyn thng xuyn qua thy tinh v tia th hai phn chiu trn n nh trn mt mt gng. c im l n bo ton nng lng ca chm tia, khng bin chuyn phn no ra nhit. N c tnh i xng, ngha l tch chm tia thnh hai phn bng nhau: tia truyn thng v tia phn chiu, sng ca mi tia bng na sng ca chm tia chiu ti n. By gi t mt b tch chm tia nm ngang song song vi nn nh. Chiu xin mt photon ti mt bn trn ca n, mi photon gi thit chuyn ti mt bit thng tin. Kt qu l s c hai tn hiu, mt pha trn, mt pha di b tch. Tuy nhin khng mt photon th hai hay mt bit thng tin th hai no c to. Theo quy lut lng t, thng tin hin ang nm trong trng thi chng chp ca 1 v 0. Nu t hai my d, ci trn, ci di b tch, thi mt trong hai my d s pht hin thng tin nhng khng bit trc my no. Theo quy c, nu photon hin ni my d pha trn thi c ngha l 1, hin ni my pha di thi c ngha l 0. l u mi quan trng nhn ra mt qubit 1 v 0 c tc thnh. N c chuyn ti bi hai chm tia vi t, c hai cng li va nng lng ca mt photon n nht. hp hai chm vi t y li thnh mt photon hy dng hai tm gng G1 v G2 phn chiu hai tia ca b tch th nht, tia truyn thng v tia phn chiu, n gp nhau trn mt b tch th hai. Ta c mt giao thoa k vi hai my d A v B nh hnh sau y. Cng dng ca giao thoa k l trin chuyn 1 thnh 0 hay ngc li, ng nh cng dng ca mt cng NOT (BT). [Cc phn t ca mch logic gi l cng (gate) v chng kim sot dng thng tin ging nh cng p nc kim sot dng nc]. V bit ch c hai kh nng, nn BT kh nng ny

tc l chn kh nng kia. Nh vy, b tch chm tia th nht c th xem nh cn s bc hai ca BT, bi v p dng hai ln lin tip qua hai b tch, cn bc hai ca BT nhn cn bc hai ca BT, ha thnh BT li. Cn bc hai ca BT, mt khi nim ch c hc lng t mi c, l i phn logic ca khi nim ton hc cn bc hai ca 1, cn gi l s o i. iu ny chng t trong tng mc su thm c mt s lin h gia vt l (b tch chm tia) v ton hc (o s). Theo quan im Duy thc, s lin h y chnh l thc, a li da thc. S o i tng ng vi gc quay 90 , do s so snh vi s o cho ta hiu ti sao mt hnh cu c th dng biu tng mt qubit trong khng gian ba th nguyn. Hnh A: Mt bit ch c th c mt trong hai trng thi l 0 hay 1. C th biu din bit bi mt mi tn ch xung hay ch ln. Hnh B: Mt qubit c rt nhiu trng thi kh nng. Mi trng thi c th biu din bi mt mi tn ch vo mt v tr trn mt hnh cu. Bc cc tng ng vi 1, Nam cc vi 0. Tt c nhng v tr khc l s chng chp hai trng thi 0 v 1. Hnh C: Mt qubit khc vi bit ch l c th ct cha nhng tr s khong gia 0 v 1, v th c th ct cha v hn s lng thng tin. Nhng phi o lng mi trch dn c thng tin ct cha trong qubit. Tuy nhin, theo quy lut lng t, o lng xa b ht thy mi thng tin trong qubit ngoi tr c nht mt trong hai trng thi, 0 hay 1, c pht hin. Kt qu o qubit lun lun l mt bit, 0 hay 1. Xc sut ca mi kt qu ty thuc v ca qubit. Kinh ca qubit biu tng pha, sai bit tng i gia chu k ca hai sng. Ti kinh tuyn Greenwich vi kinh zero, hai sng trng pha, bn kia na vng quanh hnh cu, kinh l 180 , hai sng phn pha. Tm li, qubit c xc nh bi hai s: v chia thnh phn tng i v kinh miu t s sai bit pha tng i gia hai trng thi 0 v 1. S khc bit c ch u tin gia bit v qubit l kh nng ct cha thng tin. Mt b ghi vi hai bit (2-bit register) c th ct cha mi ln ch mt trong 2 ly tha 2 tc 4 s: 00, 01, 10, 11 tc theo php biu din nh phn, mt trong bn s thp phn: 0, 1, 2, v 3. Hai qubit cng ct cha nhng s t 0 n 3 nh bit. Tuy nhin, v hai qubit l trng thi chng chp nhng trng thi k trn cho nn mt b ghi vi hai qubit c th ct cha cc

s 0, 1, 2, v 3 cng mt lc. Nu gm tm qubit b ghi c th ct cha 2 ly tha 8 tc 256 s cng mt lc. Khi s qubit trong b ghi tng ln 100, thi s ct cha tng ln 2 ly tha 100 tc chng 10 ly tha 30 (s 1 o 30 zero) s cng mt lc. Hin ti hay trong tng lai gn y khng th c siu my tnh no c th x l s lng thng tin ln nh vy. Trn y trnh by cc th d v thng tin lng t theo ng phng php ba giai on ca Schumacher: Cn bao nhiu qubit (ti nguyn vt l) ct cha mt s lng thng tin c in (cng vic x l thng tin) hu c th trch dn thng tin ct cha mt cch xc thc (tiu chun thnh tu). Kh nng ct cha v lng thng tin pht xut t trng thi chng chp l nguyn nhn thc gic cc khoa hc gia tm cch sng ch my tnh lng t (quantum computer), mt loi my tnh c kh nng ct cha cng mt lc mt s lng thng tin v hn trong mt s qubit tng i b. Ngoi ra, hin tng chng chp lin h tnh pha vng mc. Vng mc l kh nng cc h thng lng t hin by nhng tng giao gia nhng trng thi trong mt chng chp. Vng mc cho php hai ht chuyn vn nh mt, du chng cch xa bao nhiu i na. Nu c hai qubit vng mc, o trng thi ca qubit ny lp tc xc nh c trng thi ca qubit kia. Cc vt l gia p dng kh nng tnh ny tm cch chuyn thng tin i xa v tc thi (teleportation) m khng b c ln. Trc ht, h dng mt dng c nh b tch chm tia to s vng mc gia hai ht, hai photon A v B chng hn, nhm mi khi bin i trng thi ht A thi trng thi ht B bt k u cng tc thi bin i theo. Sau to trng thi lng t cn truyn chuyn i xa v tc thi ni mt photon th ba, C, ri to s vng mc gia ht A v ht C. Tc thi trng thi ca B b i thnh trng thi to ni C, v trng thi nguyn th ni C b hy dit. Mt trng thi bin mt ti mt ch tc thi hin ra ti mt ch khc! Nhm vt l gia i hc Innsbruck, Austria, l nhng khoa hc gia u tin thnh cng dng nguyn t chuyn thng tin tc thi xuyn qua si quang hc (optical fiber) di 800 mt t trong mt cng nc di y sng Danube ni lin hai phng th nghim hai bn sng. Tin ny c tng thut y trong tp ch Nature, ngy 16 thng 6 nm 2004, lm phn khi cc khoa hc gia ang tm cch sng ch nhng siu my tnh vn chuyn tn hiu tc thi trong tnh vng mc c s dng nh nhng mch dy lng t.

John Archibald Wheeler, gio s i hc Princeton, quan tm n vai tr quan trng ca tm thc trong vt l hc, nu ln nhng thc mc m ng gi l Nhng cu hi thc s rng ln (Really Big Questions). Nm cu trong s l ngun cm hng ca nhiu cng trnh nghin cu vt l hc v trit hc hin i: Ti sao lng t? (Why the quantum?), S hu n nh th no? (How come existence?), Hin tng pht xut t bit? (It from bit?), Mt v tr tham gia? (A participatory universe?), v Ci g lm thnh ngha? (What makes meaning?) V cu hi Hin tng pht xut t bit? vt l gia David Deutsch, Vin K ton lng t, i hc Oxford, khng chp nhn quan im thng tin to ra th gii hin tng. Tri li, ng cho rng ci th gii trong c ci gi l thng tin (information) v nhng tin trnh gi l k ton (computation) hin cha hay t nht sn sng cha nhng my tnh ph qut (universal computers). Trong bi It from Qubit ng gii thch: Th gii l do qubit cu thnh. Mi li gii p cu hi trong thin nhin mt vt g c quan st l c hay khng, tht ra l mt vt kh quan trc nh phn (Boolean observable). Mi vt kh quan trc nh phn l thnh phn ca mt qubit, h thng c bn i vi thc ti vt l nhng xa l i vi kinh nghim hng ngy ca chng ta. ... ... Ci m ta tng chng nh mt th gii gm cc bin s ch c duy nht mt tr s tht ra l thnh phn ca mt thc ti rng ln hn trong cu tr li y cu hi c-khng khng th no ch l c hay khng, khng th no l c hai, c v khng, i song i, m l mt lng t kh quan trc, mt vt th c th biu tng ton hc bng mt ma trn Hermite ln. David Deutsch lu chng ta rng mc du theo thuyt thng tin c in dung lng ca qubit ch chuyn ti c nht mt bit, nhng trong thin nhin khng c h thng c bn no tng ng vi mt bit. Ch c qubit mi hin thnh trong thin nhin. Theo ng, bit, bin s nh phn, v k ton c in ht thy u l nhng phm tnh xut hin (emergent) hay gn ng (approximate) ca qubit. Nhn qu ng thi. V electron v photon u xem nh ha thn ca qubit cho nn thay v ni theo ngn ng ca thuyt thng tin lng t, th gii l do qubit cu thnh ta c th ni theo ngn ng ca thuyt lng t in ng lc (quantum electrodynamics; thuyt v nh sng v vt cht, sau ny s gi tt l QED), mi s vt u xc nh bi s tng tc gia cc electron (vt cht) vi

nhau v vi cc photon (nng lng). Th gii v c chng ta tt c u do nguyn t cu thnh, v nguyn t gm mt ht nhn c st gia bao quanh bi mt m my electron. Electron l tng mo ca nguyn t, v tng tc gia nguyn t v phn t tht ra l tng tc gia cc m my electron. Theo QED, electron tng tc bng cch trao i photon. Mt electron pht ra mt photon v chuyn ng git li, hay mt electron hp thu mt photon v tip nhn mt ci . Mi bin c do tng tc gia cc electron u c th din t nh vy. i vi cc thuyt lng t vn nan gii l phi gii thch hin tng vng mc, ci m Einstein gi l tc ng ma qu qua khong cch (spooky action at a distance). Kh khn y l phi ct ngha lm th no c s ni kt tc thi v hai chiu gia hai lng t vng mc pha. QED gii thch nh th no? Trc ht tng cn nhc n thuyt in t ng lc hc ca James Clerk Maxwell (1864) c tm tt trong bn phng trnh, c th dng gii bt c bi ton in v t no khng lin can n hiu qu lng t. c bit l cc phng trnh ny cha mt hng s k hiu l c tuy xut pht t kt qu o lng in tnh v t tnh ca cc in tch di chuyn hay ng yn l nhng s kin khng lin quan sng v tc ln, th m tr s o c ng l tc ca nh sng. Do , nh sng c quan nim l sng in t truyn dn vi tc c bng ba trm ngn cy s mi giy. Phng trnh Maxwell c hai li gii, li gii sng tr (retarded wave) m t sng truyn dn i ti trong thi gian t qu kh ti v lai, v li gii sng sm (advanced wave) m t sng truyn dn i li trong thi gian t v lai li vo qu kh. Hai sng ny truyn dn ngc chiu thi gian nhng cng mt tc , tc nh sng trong khng. Gi l sng tr v n n ni sau khi c pht ra, cn sng sm thi n ni trc khi c pht ra. Sng tr phn no c th v vi cc ln sng lan rng u khp mi hng trong khng trung t mt anten rai hay cc sng nc lan rng t im mt vin si ri xung mt h; sng sm phn no c th v vi cc ln sng truyn ti anten rai t khp mi phng hay cc sng nc bt u t b h truyn dn cng v mt im l trung tm mt h. T trc n nay khng c th nghim no pht hin sng sm v tt c sng nh sng bit c u l sng tr cho nn li gii sng sm b gt b mt bn xem nh khng li ch mc du sng sm l mt phn ca cu hi

rng ln hn: ti sao mi tn thi gian trong khi ht thy mi nh lut c bn ca vt l hc khng pht hin mt chiu thi gian no c bit? Vo u nm 1941, trc mt c ta gm sinh vin v gio s i hc Princeton, trong c Einstein v Pauli, sinh vin cao hc Richard Feynman (c gio s hng dn l John Wheeler v sau ny l mt trong ba khoa hc gia c Gii Nobel Vt l 1965 v c cng khai ph QED) trnh by v c tn ng kt qu nghin cu u tay l s dng sng sm gii thch v sao khi sng pht ra va la khi electron thi electron git li theo chiu ngc li. Li nhn khng phn bit sng tr v sng sm ca Feynman l nhn quan cn bn ca thuyt thit b hp thu bc x Wheeler-Feynman (The Wheeler-Feynman absorber theory of radiation). Theo Wheeler v Feynman, s pht sng khng lm electron git li nh cch gii thch tc ng v phn ng ca vt l hc c in. Electron khng tng tc vi sng do n pht ra. N git li l do tc ng ca mt sng sm pht ra t mt electron khc khi electron ny hp thu sng tr do n pht. Thuyt Wheeler-Feynman m t hin tng trao i photon gia hai electron nh sau. Electron A pht ra nhng khng git li mt na sng (sng tr) truyn ti trong thi gian vi tc nh sng. Sng ny khi c hp thu, ng lng ca n lm git li thit b hp thu n, mt electron khc gi l B. Kch ng bi chuyn ng git li, electron B pht ra mt na sng (sng sm) truyn li trong thi gian n electron A vi tc nh sng. ng lng ca sng ny lm electron A git li khi hp thu n. Theo thuyt tng i hp, thi gian khng hin hu i vi mt photon. Thi gian trao i photon l zero. Photon khng phn bit s truyn dn sng ti hay li trong thi gian. Thuyt Wheeler-Feynman ch cp cc sng in t. Vt l gia John G. Cramer, i hc Washington, p dng thuyt y vo cc sng lng t m t s tng tc gia cc h thng lng t. Phng trnh sng Schrodinger sau khi c bin ci chp nhn nhng hiu qu ca thuyt tng i cng c hai li gii ging nh trng hp phng trnh Maxwell. Cramer dng n m t s tng tc m ng gi l s giao dch (transaction) gia hai h thng lng t. ng v giao dch nh ci bt tay (handshaking) gia hai h thng u trong khng gian v thi gian. l cch ng dng ngn ng thng thng (khng ton hc) ni n s tng tc tc thi, ngha l xy ra theo hai chiu ngc nhau m ng thi. Tic rng ng khng hc Duy thc v s tng tc tc thi vi

Tam php trin chuyn, Nhn qu ng thi, tng hp hai chuyn bin ng thi v nghch chiu, krana <= => krya. Hnh sau y tm lc cch Cramer gii thch s giao dch trong c hc lng t. Trn ht: Mt electron E dao ng pht ra mt hn hp hai sng ngc chiu, gi l sng ngh: mt sng tr v mt sng sm. Sng tr truyn ti v lai cho n khi gp electron A hp thu nng lng n chuyn ti. S hp thu lm A dao ng v pht ra mt sng tr mi h giao tng trit vi sng tr trc. Trong v lai ca A, tng hiu qu l khng c trng sng tr. gia: Electron A cng c pht ra mt sng sm gi l sng xc nhn, truyn li trong thi gian n ngun pht x E. Sng xc nhn b E hp thu, lm E git li v pht ra mt sng sm mi truyn vo qu kh. Sng mi ny h giao tng trit vi sng sm trc. Nh th, khng c bc x no truyn li vo qu kh trc lc E pht ra sng tr nguyn th. Di ht: Ch cn li mt cp sng ni kt ngun pht x E v h thng hp thu A, cu thnh bi na sng tr chuyn ti nng lng dng truyn ti v lai v na sng sm chuyn ti nng lng m truyn li vo qu kh. Hai sng ny h tng nhip nhp to thnh sng giao dch, truyn dn t ngun n h thng hp thu theo mi tn thi gian. Trn y din t qu trnh cc bin c theo th t trc sau. Nhng trong thc t, qu trnh bin c l phi thi gian, tt c ng thi cu khi. L do: Tn hiu vn chuyn vi tc nh sng hon tt tc thi bt k l trnh truyn dn no, thi gian truyn dn lun lun l zero. Qu vy, i vi tn hiu nh sng mi im trong V tr st ngay bn mi im khc trong V tr. Trong khung quy chiu ca chng thi gian truyn dn l zero, v +0 = -0, cho nn khng c s phn bit sng truyn dn ti hay li. Trong V tr (tc trong khng gian v thi gian), khi mt electron dao ng n ng thi pht ra mt sng (tr) truyn ti v lai v mt sng (sm) li vo qu kh. Bt k u trong V tr cc sng y khi gp mt electron khc s lm electron ny dao ng v ng thi bc x trong c hai chiu, truyn ti v lai v li vo qu kh. Kt qu l hin thnh mt mng li sng in t h tng nhip nhp v h giao tng tc, ph kn ton th V tr, tt c do s dao ng ca duy ch mt electron. p dng php tnh xc sut s thy hu ht cc sng tng hy, cn li mt s truyn tr v

electron nguyn th. Nhng g quan st c gm ton sng tr lan truyn theo mi tn thi gian, cn sng sm bt kh quan trc thi xc nh v tr tng i ca electron trong ton th mng li v biu hin qua phn ng git li. im c sc y l electron git li ng thi vi khi bc x. Hiu qu r rng nht ca cc sng sm l nhip nhp mi mi electron vo trong ton th mng li in t ph kn V tr. Nu mt electron trong mt phng th nghim trn qu t tri qua mt s bin, phn ng git li ca n l bng chng cc sng lin h ngc (feedback waves) c hp thu, bo tin mi ht tch in trong V tr cch xa qu t bao nhiu i na cng bit tc khc s bin y, mc du khng tn hiu no truyn chuyn qua li gia cc ht tch in trong V tr nhanh hn tc nh sng. Git li l ni theo ngn ng thng thng din t mt i lng gi l tnh cn tr bc x ca electron (radiation resistance). Electron bc x mi khi tng tc v b y, tuy nhin nng lng bc x khng nhiu nh nng lng dng y n. Cn nng lng y n v phi ch phc tnh cn tr bc x ca n. Gi l tnh cn tr bc x bi v tnh ny lin hp vi gia tc pht sinh bc x. Theo cch gii thch lng t tng tc trn y, thi tnh cn tr bc x ca electron l mt xut hin tnh (duyn khi), kt qu tc dng ca tt c sng sm pht ra t ht thy mi ht tch in trong V tru hp thu sng tr n pht. Nh vy mi electron u l va nhn va qu ca ton mng li sng in t, hay ni theo Php Tng, va Khng va Hu, va hu lc va v lc. Th gii ca electron v photon trong thuyt thit b hp thu bc x c th xem nh mt m hnh ton hc ca Php gii Hoa nghim. Sng truyn ti v lai hay li vo qu kh din t khi nim thi gian qu kh v v lai nh cun trn trong giy pht tc thi hin ti, mt ci hin ti vn hnh bt tuyt. Trong th gii phi thi gian , tng tc gia cc bin tng c bit xy ra tc thi, ngha l theo hai chiu ngc nhau v ng thi. Trong Hoa nghim ngha hi bch mn ca Php Tng c nhng on ng ngha vi khi nim vn hnh ca sng v ht nh trnh by trn: Ht bi gn v th gii mi phng xa. Nhng ht bi khng c th cht nn nhip nhp khp mi phng. Ni cch khc, mi phng l tt c phng ca ht bi. Do xa lun lun l gn ... Mi phng nhip thu trong mt ht bi cho nn lun lun gn mc du xa, v ht bi ph cp khp mi phng cho nn lun lun xa mc du gn.

Ht bi khng c t tnh. Khi th cht hin tin v thm nhp ton mi phng thi l dui ra. Mi phng khng c th cht v ton hin trong ht bi do duyn khi thi l co rt. Kinh (Hoa nghim) ni: Mt quc lm y c mi phng, Mi phng nhp vo mt (quc ) cng khng d tha. Khi co li, ht thy s vt hin thnh trong mt ht bi. Khi dui ra, ht bi thu nhip mi mi s vt. Dui ra lun lun l co rt, v ht bi bao trm mi vt. Co rt lun lun l dui ra v mi vt bao trm ht bi. Hng Dng ---o0o--Ht