Chuong 2

Chng 2: Linh kin th ng
14
Chng 2
LINH KIN TH NG
2.1. in tr
2.1.1. Khi nim
in tr (resistor) l mt linh kin c tnh cn tr dng in v lm mt s chc nng
khc ty vo v tr ca in tr trong mch in.
2.1.2. K hiu - n v

Hnh 2.1. K hiu in tr.
n v : Ohm (O)
1 kO = 10
3
O
1 MO = 10
3
kO = 10
6
O
2.1.3. in tr ca dy dn
in tr ca dy dn l i lng c trng cho tnh cn tr dng in ca dy dn.
K hiu: R; n v: O (Ohm)
in dn l i lng c trng cho tnh dn in ca dy n. in dn l nghch
o ca in tr.
K hiu: G ; n v: S (siemens)

R
1
G = (2.1a)
T thc nghim ta rt ra kt lun: mt nhit nht nh, in tr ca mt dy dn
ty thuc vo cht ca dy, t l thun vi chiu di ca dy v t l nghch vi tit din
ca dy.

S
l
R = (2.1b)
R: in tr ca dy dn (O)
l : chiu di ca dy dn (m)
S: tit din ca dy dn (m
2
)
: in tr sut (Om)
in tr sut:
S o in tr ca dy dn lm bng mt cht no v c chiu di 1 m, tit din
thng 1 m
2
c gi l in tr sut ca cht .
R

R
15
Vi nhng cht khc nhau th in tr sut ca n cng khc nhau. in tr sut
bin i theo nhit v s bin i ny c xc nh theo cng thc sau:
=
0
(1+at) (2.1c)
0
: in tr sut o 0
0
C.
a: h s nhit
t: nhit (
0
C)
: in tr sut nhit t.
Bng 2.1 a ra tr s trung bnh ca in tr sut ca mt s cht dn in thng
gp:
Cht (.m) Cht (.m)
Bc 0,016.10
6
Km 0,06.10
6

ng 0,017.10
6
Thp 0,1. 10
6

Nhm 0,026.10
6
Photpho 0,11.10
6

Vonfarm

0,055.10
6
Ch 0,21.10
6

Bng 2.1. in tr sut ca mt s cht dn in thng gp.
2.1.4. nh lut Ohm
a. nh lut Ohm cho on mch thun in tr
Nm 1926, nh vt l ngi c George Simon Ohm thit lp bng thc nghim
nh lut sau: cng dng in trong mt on mch t l thun vi hiu in th
gia hai u on mch v t l nghch vi in tr ca on mch.
R
U
I = (2.2)
I: cng dng in (A)
U: hiu in th gia hai u on mch (V)
R: in tr (O)
b. nh lut Ohm tng qut i vi on mch

Hnh 2.2. on mch AB.
Dng in chy trong on mch c tnh bi cng thc:
A B
V
1
,r
1
V
2
,r
2

R
16

t
R
V
I
B A
+
=

(2.3)
A
: in th ti A.
B
: in th ti B.
R
t
: in tr ca on mch AB.
R
t
= R + r
1
+ r
2

Qui c ngun in ty theo chiu dng in:

Ngun pht (cp in), qui c V > 0
Ngun thu (tiu th in), qui c V < 0

c. nh lut Ohm tng qut cho mch kn
Dng in chy trong mt mch kn c tnh bi cng thc:

t
R
V
I

= (2.4a)
I: cng dng in chy trong mch kn.
V: tng in th c trong mch kn.
R
t
: in tr ca ton mch.
Thc ra, vi on mch AB (hnh 2.2) nu hai u A, B ca on mch trng nhau, ta
c mt mch kn. Khi
A
=
B
v cng thc tnh dng in tr thnh:

2 1
2 1
t
r r R
V V
R
V
I
+ +
+
= =
(2.4b)
V d khc:
Ta c:

2 1
2 1
t
R R
V V
R
V
I
+
+
= =
(2.4c)

Hnh 2.3. Mch in kn.
2.1.5. nh lut Kirchhoff
Thc t, ta thng gp cc mng in phn nhnh phc tp gm nhiu nt v vng
mng.
Mt nt in l ch ni cc nhnh in v phi c t nht ba nhnh in tr ln.
Vng mng l vng kn do cc on mch to thnh.
a. nh lut Kirchhoff th nht (nh lut nt)
V
1

R
1

R
2

V
2

I
17
Tng i s cc cng dng in ti mt nt bng khng.
0 ) I (
n
1 k
k
=
=
(2.5a)
Ti nt c n nhnh in. Qui c: cng dng in ti nt mng du +, cng
dng in i khi nt mng du -.
Hay ni cch khc: Tng cc cng dng in ti nt bng tng cc cng
dng in i khi nt .
I
vo
= I
ra
(2.5b)

V d:
Ti nt A ta c:
I
1
- I
2
- I
3
+ I
4
+ I
5
= 0 (2.5c)
Hay I
1
+ I
4
+ I
5
= I
2
+ I
3
(2.5d)

Hnh 2.4. Nt A c 5 nhnh in.
b. nh lut Kirchhoff th hai (nh lut vng mng)
Trong mt vng mng, tng ca tng i s cc sc in ng v tng i s cc
gim in th trn cc phn t khc bng khng.
0 )R I ( ) V (
n
1 k
n
1 k
k k
k
,
,
, ,
= +

= =
(2.6a)
Qui c:
Sc in ng mang du + nu chiu i chn trn vng mng xuyn vo cc
dng ca ngun in. Sc in ng mang du - nu chiu i chn trn vng mng
xuyn vo cc m ca ngun in.
Cng dng in mang du + nu n cng chiu vi chiu chn v mang du -
nu n ngc chiu vi chiu chn.
V d: Xt mch nh hnh 2.5 ta c:
Vng I:
- V
1
+ I
1
(r
1
+ R
1
) I
2
(r
2
+ R
2
) + V
2
= 0 (2.6b)
Vng II:
- V
2
+ I
2
(r
2
+ R
2
) I
3
(r
3
+ R
3
) + V
3
= 0 (2.6c)

2.1.6. Phn loi
in tr c th phn loi da vo cu to hay da vo mc ch s dng m n c
nhiu loi khc nhau.
2.1.6.1. Phn loi theo cu to
I
2

I
1

I
3

I
4
I
5
A
V
1
,r
1

I
I
1

R
1

R
2

R
3

II
V
2
,r
2

V
3
,r
3

I
2

I
3

Hnh 2.5. Mch in gm hai vng
mng.

18
a. in tr than (carbon resistor)
Ngi ta trn bt than v bt t st theo mt t l nht nh cho ra nhng tr s
khc nhau. Sau , ngi ta p li v cho vo mt ng bng Bakelite. Kim loi p st
hai u v hai dy ra c hn vo kim loi, bc kim loi bn ngoi gi cu trc bn
trong ng thi chng c xt v m. Ngoi cng ngi ta sn cc vng mu cho bit
tr s in tr. Loi in tr ny d ch to, tin cy kh tt nn n r tin v rt thng
dng. in tr than c tr s t vi n vi chc M. Cng sut danh nh t 0,125 W
n vi W.
b. in tr mng kim loi (metal film resistor)
Loi in tr ny c ch to theo qui trnh kt lng mng Ni Cr trn thn gm c
x rnh xon, sau ph bi mt lp sn. in tr mng kim loi c tr s in tr n
nh, khong in tr t 10 n 5 M. Loi ny thng dng trong cc mch dao
ng v n c chnh xc v tui th cao, t ph thuc vo nhit . Tuy nhin, trong
mt s ng dng khng th x l cng sut ln v n c cng sut danh nh t 0,05 W
n 0,5 W. Ngi ta ch to loi in tr c khong cng sut danh nh ln t 7 W n
1000 W vi khong in tr t 20 n 2 M. Nhm ny cn c tn khc l in tr
cng sut.
c. in tr oxit kim loi (metal oxide resistor)
in tr ny ch to theo qui trnh kt lng lp oxit thic trn thanh SiO
2
. Loi ny c
n nh nhit cao, chng m tt, cng sut danh nh t 0,25 W n 2 W.
d. in tr dy qun (wire wound resistor)
Lm bng hp kim Ni Cr qun trn mt li cch in snh, s. Bn ngoi c ph
bi lp nha cng v mt lp sn cch in. gim ti thiu h s t cm L ca dy
qun, ngi ta qun s vng theo chiu thun v s vng theo chiu nghch.
in tr chnh xc dng dy qun c tr s t 0,1 n 1,2 M, cng sut danh nh
thp t 0,125 W n 0,75 W.
in tr dy qun c cng sut danh nh cao cn c gi in tr cng sut. Loi
ny gm hai dng:
- ng c tr s 0,1 n 180 k, cng sut danh nh t 1 W n 210 W.
- khung c tr s 1 n 38 k, cng sut danh nh t 5 W n 30 W.
2.1.6.2. V mc ch s dng
a. in tr c nh
in tr c nh l loi in tr c tr s c nh khng thay i c. Tr s ny
c nh sn xut n nh c sai s trong phm vi cho php.
Nhm in tr c nh chia ra cc loi:
19
in tr chnh xc: c th l dng mng kim loi hoc dy qun, c thit k
dng trong cc mch i hi sai s trong phm vi hp, n nh ln, ting n thp v
h s nhit thp. Loi dy qun tng i ln v ch c mt khong in tr t 0,1
n 1,2 M nhng n c n nh cao nht. Cc hiu ng ca in cm L v in
dung C ca in tr dy qun khin n khng thch hp dng tn s ln hn 50 kHz
ngay c khi qun c bit gim in cm v in dung lin kt. in tr mng kim
loi khng bn nh in tr dy qun song c in cm nh hn. in tr mng kim loi
thng c v hoc hn kn hoc c nha phenol. N c khong in tr t 10 n
5M.
in tr bn chnh xc: c thit k cho cc mch i hi n nh nhit
lu di. in tr thng nh hn in tr chnh xc v r hn, ch yu lm chc nng
hn dng v gim p trong cc mch.

Loi in tr Khong in tr Khong cng sut danh nh
Oxit kim loi
Kim loi gm
Than kt ta
10 n 1,5 M
10 n 1,5 M.
10 n 5 M.
0,25 W n 2 W
0,05 W n 0,5 W
0,125 W n 1 W
in tr a dng: loi ny nh, r tin, thng hay dng trong mch in t m
dung sai ban u l khng quan trng (v d: 5% hoc ln hn), n nh di hn l
khng quan trng. Khng c dng nhng in tr ni cn h s nhit ca in
tr thp v mc n thp. Khong in tr t 2,7 n 100 M. Tr s in tr trn
0,3M bt u b gim tn s xp x 100 kHz, trn tn s 1 MHz tt c cc tr s u
b gim. Khong cng sut danh nh t 0,125 W n 2 W.
in tr cng sut: c dng dy qun hoc dng mng, l loi c khong cng
sut danh nh cao, c dng trong cc b ngun cng sut, cc b chia p...
b. in tr c tr s thay i c:
Bin tr (VR = Variable Resistor): l loi in tr c tr s thay i c
Bin tr dy qun: dng dy dn c in tr sut cao, ng knh nh, qun trn li
cch in bng s hay nha tng hp hnh vng cung 270
0
. Hai u hn hai cc dn in
A, B. Tt c c t trong mt v bc kim loi c np y. Trc trn vng cung c
qun dy l mt con chy c trc iu khin a ra ngoi np hp. Con chy c hn
vi cc dn in C.
Bin tr dy qun thng c tr s nh t vi n vi chc . Cng sut kh ln,
c th ti vi chc W.
Bin tr than: ngi ta trng mt lp than mng ln hnh vng cung bng bakelit. Hai
u lp than ni vi cc dn in A v B. gia l cc C ca bin tr v chnh l con
20
chy bng kim loi tip xc vi lp than. Trc xoay c gn lin vi con chy, khi xoay
trc (chnh bin tr) con chy di ng trn lp than lm cho tr s bin tr thay i. Bin
tr than cn chia lm hai loi: bin tr tuyn tnh, bin tr phi tuyn.
Bin tr than c tr s t vi trm n vi M nhng c cng sut nh.

Hnh 2.6. Hnh dng v k hiu ca bin tr.
Nhit in tr l loi in tr m tr s ca n thay i theo nhit (thermistor).
Nhit tr dng ( PTC = Positive Temperature Coefficient) l loi nhit tr c h s
nhit dng.
Nhit tr m ( NTC = Negative Temperature Coefficient) l loi nhit tr c h s
nhit m.
VDR (Voltage Dependent Resistor) l loi in tr m tr s ca n ph thuc in
p t vo n. Thng th VDR c tr s in tr gim khi in p tng.
in tr quang (photoresistor) l mt linh kin bn dn th ng khng c mi
ni P N. Vt liu dng ch to in tr quang l CdS (Cadmium Sulfid), CdSe
(Cadmium Selenid), ZnS (st Sulfid) hoc cc tinh th hn hp khc.

Hnh 2.7. Cu to ca in tr quang.
in tr quang cn gi l in tr ty thuc nh sng (LDR Light Dependent
Resistor) c tr s in tr thay i ty thuc cng nh sng chiu vo n.

Hnh 2.8. Hnh dng v k hiu ca in tr quang.
K hiu v hnh dng ca in tr quang nh hnh 2.8.
CdS
nh sng
LDR CdS
21
Khi b che ti th in tr quang c tr s rt ln, khi c chiu sng th dn in
ca cht bn dn tng do cc cp in t t do v l trng hnh thnh nhiu tc l in
tr gim nh. in tr quang c tr s in tr thay i khng tuyn tnh theo sng
chiu vo n. Khi trong bng ti in tr quang c tr s khong vi megaohm, tr s ca
in tr quang trong bng ti vi nhiu trng hp ng dng cn phi bit. N cho ta
dng in r ln nht vi mt in th trn in tr quang. Dng r qu ln s dn n
s sai lch khi thit k mch in. Khi c chiu sng in tr quang c tr s rt nh
khong vi chc n vi trm Ohm.
H s nhit ca in tr quang t l nghch vi cng chiu sng. Do gim
bt s thay i ca in tr quang theo nhit , in tr quang cn c cho hot ng
vi mc chiu sng ti a. mc chiu sng thp v tr s in tr quang cao cho ta s
sai bit kh ln so vi tr s chun.
in tr quang c ng dng lm b phn cm bin quang trong cc mch t ng
iu khin bi nh sng; mch o nh sng; mch chnh hi t ca mt s thit b; mch
tr chi in t,
c. Mt s in tr khc:
in tr cu ch.
in tr xi mng.
in tr chip.
in tr dn

Hnh 2.9. Hnh dng ca mt s loi in tr.
2.1.7. Cch mc in tr
a. Mc ni tip

Hnh 2.10. Mch in tr mc ni tip.
Xt mch nh hnh 2.10, vi:
I
1
: cng dng in chy qua R
1
I
2
2
U
1
: hiu in th gia hai u R
1
U
2
2

R
2

I
+
U
I
2

<=>
I
1

R
1
R
t

+
U
22
Ta c: I
1
= I
2
= I (2.7)
U = U
1
+ U
2
(2.8)
R
t
= R
1
+ R
2
(2.9a)
Nu c nhiu in tr mc ni tip th
R
t
= R
1
+ R
2
+ + R
n
(2.9b)

b. Mc song song

Hnh 2.11. Mch in tr mc song song.
Xt mch nh hnh 2.11, vi:
I
1
1
I
2
2
U
1
1
U
2
2

Ta c: U
1
= U
2
= U (2.10)
I = I
1
+ I
2
(2.11)

2 1 t
R
1
R
1
R
1
+ = hay
2 1
2 1
t
R R
R R
R
1
+
= (2.12a)
Nu c nhiu in tr mc song song vi nhau th:
n 2 1 t
R
1
...
R
1
R
1
R
1
+ + + = (2.12b)
2.1.8. Cch c tr s in tr
a. c tr s in tr theo qui c vng mu:
in tr 4 vng mu
- Vng A, B ch tr s tng ng vi mu.
- Vng C ch h s nhn.
- Vng D ch sai s.

Hnh 2.12. in tr 4 vng mu.
A B C D
R
1
R
2
R
t
I
1
R
1
I
2
I

I

23
V d:
tm bc = 2,7 kO 10%
tm vng nh = 2,7 kO 5%
vng nh = 2,2 kO 5%
Nu lc vng nh = 1,5 kO 5%
Cam cam vng nh vng nh = 3,3 O 5%

Mu Vng A, B Vng C Vng D
en
Nu

Cam
Vng
Lc
Lam
Tm
Xm
Trng
Vng nh
Bc
Mu thn
in tr
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
-------------
-------------
-------------
x10
0
= x1
x10
1
= x10
x10
2
= x100
x10
3
= x1000
x10
4
= x10000
x10
5
= x100000
x10
6
= x1000000
x10
7
= x10000000
x10
8
= x100000000
x10
9
= x1000000000
x10
-1
= x0,1
x10
-2
= x0,01
------------------------
----------
1%
2%
3%
-------------
-------------
-------------
-------------
-------------
-------------
5%
10%
20%

Bng 2.2. Bng qui c mu in tr.
in tr 3 vng mu:
Ln lt c k hiu A, B, C. ngha ca cc vng mu tng t loi in tr 4
vng mu: vng A, B ch tr s tng ng vi mu. Vng C ch h s nhn. Sai s xem
nh mu ca thn in tr.
V d:
tm = 2,7 kO 20%
in tr 5 vng mu:
Loi in tr 5 vng mu c k hiu l vng A, B, C, D, E: 3 vng A, B, C ch tr
s tng ng vi mu, vng D ch h s nhn, vng E ch sai s.
V d:
Nu en en en nu = 100 O 1%
b. c tr s in tr theo qui c chm mu
24
Trn thn in tr, mt u in tr c mu B khc vi mu ca thn in tr (A),
gia thn c chm mu (C). ngha cc mu v cch c tr s in tr nh trn.
V d:
Mt in tr c thn mu xanh l cy, mt u mu , gia thn c chm vng, tr
s ca n l 520 kO.
c. in tr c ghi s trn thn
i vi in tr c ghi s trn thn th hai s u l s c ngha, s th ba ch s
nhn.
V d:
Trn thn in tr c ghi 103 th tr s in tr l 10 kO.
Ngoi ra trn thn in tr c ghi con s v ch th con s ch tr s in tr, ch ch
bi s: R = x1; K = x10
3
; M = x10
6
.
V d: 5R = 5 O.
4K7 = 4,7 kO.
V l thuyt, linh kin in tr c th c gi tr bt k t thp nht n cao nht.
Trong thc t, cc linh kin in tr c khong in tr t 0,1 O n 100 MO.
Cc gi tr tiu chun: 1.0; 1.2; 1.5; 1.8; 2.2; 2.7; 3.3; 3.9; 4.3; 4.7; 5.1; 5.6; 6.8; 7.5;
8.2; 9.1. Cc linh kin in tr thng c ch to vi gi tr l cc gi tr tiu chun
nhn vi bi s ca 10.
V d: in tr: 10 O; 100 O; 1,5 kO; 2,7 kO; 5,6 kO.
2.1.9. Cng sut ca in tr
Cng sut ca in tr l tr s ch cng sut tiu tn ti a ca n. Cng sut chu
ng ny do nh sn xut cho bit di dng ghi sn trn thn hoc kch thc ca in
tr. Kch thc in tr ln th cng sut ca n ln. Cng sut ca in tr thay i
theo kch thc vi tr s gn ng nh bng 2.3.

Bng 2.3. Cng sut ca in tr thay i theo kch thc.
Nn chn cng sut chu ng ln hn hay bng 2 ln cng sut tnh ton.
Cng sut Chiu di ng knh
2 W 1,6 cm 10 mm
1 W 1,2 cm 6 mm
0,5 W 1 cm 4 mm
0.25 W 0,7 cm 3 mm
25
2.1.10. ng dng
in tr c nhiu ng dng trong lnh vc in v in t:
- Ta nhit: bp in, bn i.
- Thp sng: bng n dy tc.
- B cm bin nhit, cm bin quang.
- Hn dng, chia dng.
- Gim p, chia p,.

I
R R
R
I
2 1
2
1
+
= (2.13a)
I
R R
R
I
2 1
1
2
+
= (2.13b)

CC
2 1
1
1
V
R R
R
V
+
= (2.14)

Mch chia dng nh hnh 2.14 cn c gi l mch phn dng. Mch chia p nh
hnh 2.15 cn c gi l mch phn p hay cu phn p (mch chia th / mch phn th
/ cu phn th).

Hnh 2.14. Mch chia dng.
Hnh 2.15. Mch chia p.
+V
CC
R
1
R
2
V
1
Hnh 2.13. Mch dng R hn dng, gim p.
R

9V/3W
V
CC
12V
26
2.2. T in
2.2.1. Khi nim
T in (capacitor) l linh kin c tnh tch tr nng lng in di dng in trng.
2.2.2. Cu to k hiu
T in c cu to gm hai bn cc bng
cht dn in (kim loi) t song song gn nhau
nhng cch in bi lp in mi gia.
K hiu ca t in:

Hnh 2.17. K hiu ca t khng phn cc (a), t c phn cc (b), t bin i (c).
2.2.3. S dn in ca t
Xt mch nh hnh 2.14.
Khi kha K h th n tt.
ng kha K, ta thy n le
sng ln ri tt. Nu i ngun
V
DC
bng ngun V
AC
th khi K
h n tt, K ng ta thy
n sng lin tc.
2.2.4. in dung
in dung (capacitance) l i lng c trng kh nng tch in ca t.
K hiu: C, n v: Farad (F)
Thng dng cc c s ca Farad:
Microfarad: 1 F = 10
-6
F
Nanofarad: 1 nF = 10
-9
F
Picofarad: 1 pF = 10
-12
F
Femptofarad: 1 fF = 10
-15
F
in dung ph thuc cht in mi, t l thun vi tit din ca bn t v t l nghch
vi khong cch gia hai bn t (b dy ca lp in mi).

d
S
C = (2.15a)
(a) (b) (c)
Cht in mi
Bn cc
Dy ni ra
Hnh 2.16. Cu to ca t in.

+ +
+ +
+ +
-- -
- - -
- -

K
V
DC

Hnh 2.18. Mch th nghim s dn in ca t.

27
Vi:
C: in dung (F)
S: tit din ca bn t (m
2
)
d: khong cch gia hai bn t (m)
=
r
.
0
(2.15b)

r
: hng s in mi tng i.

0
: hng s in mi khng kh;
0
= 8,85.10
-12
F/m.
Mt s cht in mi thng dng lm t: Khng kh kh, giy tm du, gm, oxit
nhm, mica.
Cht in mi Hng s in mi
r

Khng kh kh
Giy
Gm
Mica
1
3,6
5,5
4 5

Bng 2.4. Hng s in mi ca mt s cht.
in dung c th o bng t s in tch ca t trn hiu in th gia hai bn t in.

U
Q
C = (2.16)
C: in dung ca t (F)
Q: in tch (C)
U: hiu in th gia 2 bn t (V)
Nng lng tch tr t in l:
2
CU
2
1
W = (2.17)
W: nng lng (J)
C: in dung (F)
U: hiu in th gia 2 bn t (V)
2.2.5. in th lm vic
i vi mi t in, ch c th t vo n mt in p ln nht no , ty theo kt
cu ca lp in mi. Nu in p t vo qu ln in mi s b nh thng v tr nn
dn in, lm t in b hng khng dng c na.
in th lm vic (Working Volt = WV) chnh l in th ln nht cho php p vo
hai u t m t chu ng c. Thng in th ny c ghi trn t.
2.2.6. Mch tng ng ca t in
28
Ngoi in dung, mt t in thc t cn c in tr v in cm nh trong mch
tng ng hnh 2.15.

Hnh 2.19. Mch tng ng ca t in.
Vi R
S
l in tr ni tip do cc dy dn, cc u tip xc v cc in cc.
R
P
: in tr sun do in tr sut ca cht in mi v vt liu lm v, do hao in
mi.
L: h s t cm (in cm) tp do dy dn v cc in cc.
in tr tng ng ni tip ESR (Equivalent Series Resistance) l in tr AC ca
t in phn nh c in tr ni tip R
S
v in tr song song R
P
ti tn s cho
hao ca cc phn t ny c th biu th bng hao ca mt in tr R trong mch tng
ng.
Dung khng: l i lng c trng cho sc cn in ca t.
K hiu: X
C
hoc Z
C
, n v: Ohm (O).
Biu thc:
fC 2
1
C
1
X
C
t
= = (2.18)
X
C
: dung khng (O)
: tn s gc (rad/s)
C: in dung (F)
f: tn s (Hz)
Tng tr ( tr khng): khi lm vic tn s cao th phi tnh thm in cm u ra:
( )
2
C L
2
X X R Z + + = (2.19a)
Z: tng tr (O)
R: ESR(O)
X
C
: dung khng (O)
X
L
: cm khng (O), X
L
= L = 2fL (2.19b)
L: h s t cm (H)
H s cng sut PF (Power Factor). Thut ng PF ch hao in trong t khi lm
vic vi in p AC. t in l tng, dng s sm pha hn in p gia hai u t l
90
0
. T thc t, do tn hao cht in mi, in cc v cc u tip xc nn gc pha nh
hn 90
0
. PF c nh ngha l t s in tr tng ng ni tip R v tng tr Z. PF c
n v: %.
R L
C
R
P
R
S
L
C
29
H s tiu tn DF (Dissipation Factor) l t s in tr tng ng ni tip R v
dung khng X
C
. DF c n v: %. DF xp x bng PF khi PF 10%.
H s phm cht Q (Quality Factor) l nghch o ca h s tiu tn. N thng p
dng cho t trong cc mch iu hng.
Dng in r (r) DC l dng chy qua t khi c t in p DC vo t.
in tr cch in: l t s ca in p t vo t trn dng in r (r) v thng
biu th bng MO.
2.2.7. Cch mc t in
a. Mc ni tip

Hnh 2.20. Mch t in mc ni tip.
in tch np vo t c tnh theo cng thc:
2 1
Q Q Q = = (2.20)
2
2
1
1 2 2 1 1
C
Q
U ;
C
Q
U U C U C Q = = = =
Mt khc:
t
t
C
Q
U .U C Q = =
m :
2 1
U U U + = (2.21)
2 1 t
C
1
C
1
C
1
= = (2.22a)
Nu c nhiu t ghp ni tip th:

(2.22b)

b. Mc song song

n 2 1 t
C
1
...
C
1
C
1
C
1
+ + + =

+
U
+
U
C
2

+
C
1

+
C
t

+
<=>
+
U
C
1

+
+
U
C
2

+
C
t

+
<=>
30
Hnh 2.21. Mch t in mc song song.
Hiu in th gia hai u t C
1
, C
2
: U = U
1
= U
2
(2.23)
in tch np vo t C
1
: Q
1
= C
1
U
in tch np vo t C
2
: Q
2
= C
2
.U
in tch np vo t C
t
: Q = C
t
.U
in tch np vo t C
1
, C
2
bng in tch np vo t C
t
nn:
Q = Q
1
+ Q
2
(2.24)
C
t
.U = C
1
U + C
2
U = (C
1
+ C
2
) U
C
t
= C
1
+ C
2
(2.25a)
Nu c nhiu t mc song song th:

(2.25b)

2.2.8. Hin tng np x ca t
Xt mch nh hnh 2.18,
gi s t cha tch in, ta
bt kha K sang v tr s 1
th t bt u np in, lng
in tch c tch trn hai
bn t tng dn n khi hiu
in th gia hai u t gn
bng ngun V
DC
(99%V
DC
)
th qu trnh np in ca t c chm dt, t c xem nh np y, nu khng c
tc ng khc th hin tng vn khng i.
Khi cha tch in th hiu in th gia hai u t bng khng. Trong qu trnh np
in th hiu in th gia hai u t thay
i theo dng hm s m:
) e (1 V (t) v

t
DC C
= (2.26a)
e = 2,71828
i = R.C (2.26b)
R: in tr (O)
C: in dung (F)
i: thi hng np x ca t (s)
t: thi gian t np in (s)
Trong qu trnh np in, t c dng
in np thay i theo dng hm s m:
C
t
= C
1
+ C
2
+ C
n

+ +
C
K
2
1
R
V
DC

Hnh 2.22. Mch kho st hin tng np - x ca t.

0 t 2t 3t 4t 5t

t
V
C
(t)/ I
C
(t)
63
86
95
98 99
37
14
5
2
1
Hnh 2.23. c tuyn np ca t.
31
t
DC
C
e
R
V
(t) i

= (2.27)
Theo l thuyt, thi gian t np y l v hn (v
c
(t) = V
DC
). Trn thc t, sau thi
gian 5i t np c 99%V
DC
, lc ngi ta xem nh t np y.
Khi t np y, ta bt K qua v tr s 2, t C x in qua R, hiu in th gia hai
u t thay i theo biu thc:

t
DC C
e V (t) v

= (2.28a)
e = 2,71828
i = R.C (2.28b)
R: in tr (O)
C: in dung (F)
i: thi hng np x ca t (s)
t: thi gian t x (s)
Dng x ca t thay i theo biu thc:

t
DC
C
e
R
V
(t) i

= (2.29)
tc np x nhanh trong thi gian lc u t 0 n i, sau chm li trong
thi gian sau.
2.2.9. Phn loi
a. Da theo mc ch s dng
T c nh: l t c tr s in dung c nh. Tr s ny c nh sn xut n nh
c sai s trong phm vi cho php. N c chia lm hai dng:
- T c cc (polar): t c phn cc tnh dng v m.
- T khng phn cc (nonpolar): t c hai cc nh nhau.
T bin i: l loi t c tr s in dung c iu chnh thay i theo yu cu s
dng.

Hnh 2.24. Hnh dng t bin i.
b. Da theo cht in mi
32
- T ha: l loi t c phn cc tnh. T ha c bn cc l nhng l nhm, in mi
l lp oxit nhm rt mng c to bng phng php in phn. in dung ca t ha
kh ln.
Khi dng phi rp ng cc tnh dng v m. in th lm vic thng nh hn
500V.
- T ha tantalum (Ta): l t c phn cc tnh, c cu to tng t t ha nhng dng
tantalum thay v dng nhm. T Tantalum c kch thc nh nhng in dung ln. in
th lm vic ch vi chc volt.
- T giy: l loi t khng phn cc tnh. T giy c hai bn cc l nhng l nhm
hoc thic, gia c lp cch in l giy tm du v cun li thnh ng.
- T mng: l t khng phn cc tnh.T mng c cht in mi l mng cht do
nh: polypropylene, polystyrene, polycarbonate, polyethelene. C hai loi t mng
chnh: loi foil v loi c kim loi ha.
Loi foil dng cc ming kim loi nhm hay thic to cc bn cc dn in. Loi
c kim loi ha c ch to bng cch phun mng mng kim loi nh nhm hay km
trn mng cht do, kim loi c phun ln ng vai tr bn cc. Vi cng gi tr in
dung v nh mc in p nh thng th t loi kim loi ha c kch thc nh hn loi
foil. u im th hai ca loi kim loi ha l n t phc hi c. iu ny c ngha l
nu in mi b nh thng do qu in p nh thng th t khng b h lun m n t
phc hi li. T foil khng c tnh nng ny.
- T gm (ceramic): l loi t khng phn cc tnh. T gm c ch to gm cht
in mi l gm, trng trn b mt n lp bc lm bn cc.
- T mica: l loi t khng phn cc tnh. T mica c ch to gm nhiu ming
mica mng, trng bc, t chng ln nhau hoc ming mica mng c xp xen k vi
cc ming thic. Cc ming thic l ni vi nhau to thnh mt bn cc, Cc ming thic
chn ni vi nhau to thnh mt bn cc. Sau bao ph bi lp chng m bng sp
hoc nha cng. Thng t mica c dng hnh khi ch nht.
Ngoi ra, cn c t dn b mt c ch to bng cch t vt liu in mi gm gia
hai mng dn in (kim loi), kch thc ca n rt nh. Mng t in (thanh t in) l
dng t c nh sn xut tch hp nhiu t in bn trong mt thanh (v) tit kim
din tch. Ngi ta k hu chn chung v gi tr ca cc t.

33
Hnh 2.25. Hnh dng ca mt s loi t.

2.2.10. Cch c tr s in dung
- T c ghi s trn thn: .1 c ngha l t c in dung C = 0,1 F; .01 c ngha l t
c in dung C = 0,01 F.
- T c ghi s trn thn:103K c ngha l t c in dung:
C = 10000 pF 10%.
Hai s u l s c ngha, s th ba ch s nhn. Ch ch sai s: J = 5%.
K = 10%, M = 20%.
- T c ghi hai ch s trn thn, v d: 47/50 th s u l in dung, n v l pF, s
th hai l tr s in p lm vic, n v l volt.
- T ha: cc tnh c ghi bng du + hoc du -. n v in dung l microfarad,
in p lm vic n v l volt.
V d: trn thn t ha ghi 2200F25V c ngha l t c: C = 2200 F, WV = 25 V
Qui c mu i vi t in tng t qui c mu i vi in tr.
T in gm dng hnh ng c 5 vng mu nh nhau nhng c vng th nm cch xa
hn. ngha cc vng mu: vng th nht, vng th hai ch s tng ng vi mu, vng
th ba ch s nhn, vng th t ch sai s, vng th nm ch c im ring ca n.
T in gm dng hnh ng c 4 vng mu nh nhau nhng c vng th nm rng
hn. ngha cc vng mu: vng th nht, vng th hai ch s tng ng vi mu, vng
th ba ch s nhn, vng th t ch sai s, vng th nm ch h s nhit .
c bit i vi t dn b mt c ba cch m ha thng dng, c ba u dng n v
pF.
- H 33 k hiu ch in hoa v thng: trn thn t ghi mt k hiu v theo sau l s
(0 9) ch s nhn.

K hiu S nhn
A 1.0
B 1.1
C 1.2
D 1.3
E 1.5
F 1.6
G 1.8
H 2.0
J 2.2
K 2.4
a 2.5
L 2.7
M 3.0
N 3.3
b 3.5
P 3.6
Q 3.9
d 4.0
R 4.3
e 4.5
S 4.7
f 5. 0
T 5.1
U 5.6
m 6.0
V 6.2
W 6.8
n 7.0
X 7.5
t 8.0
Y 8.2
y 9.0
Z 9.1
0 = x1
1 = x10
2 = x100
3 = x1000
4 = x10000
5 = x100000

34
V d:
J3 = 2.2 x 1000 = 2200 pF
P2 = 3.6 x 100 = 360 pF
S1 = 4.7 x 10 = 47 pF
- H 24 k hiu ch in hoa: trn thn t ghi mt k hiu v theo sau l s (1 9) ch
s nhn.
V d:
05 = 5 pF
82 = 82 pF
A1 = 10 x 10 = 100 pF
N3 = 33 x 1000 = 33000 pF

K hiu S nhn
A 10
B 11
C 12
D 13
E 15
F 16
G 18
H 20
J 22
K 24
L 27
M 30
N 33
P 36
Q 39
R 43
S 47
T 51
U 56
V 62
W 68
X 75
Y 82
y 90
Z 91
1 = x10
2 = x100
3 = x1000
4 = x10000
5 = x100000

Lu : vi h ny th cc gi tr nh hn 100 pF s c ghi trc tip, cc gi tr ln
hn 100 pF c ghi bng mt ch vi mt s.
- H 24 k hiu ch in hoa v s: trn thn t ghi mt k hiu v s nhn c qui
nh bi mu ca k hiu .

K hiu S nhn (mu)
A 1.0
B 1.1
C 1.2
D 1.3
E 1.5

H 1.6
I 1.8
J 2.0
K 2.2
L 2.4

N 2.7
O 3.0
R 3.3
S 3.6
T 3.9

V 4.3
W 4.7
X 5.1
Y 5.6
Z 6.2

3 6.8
4 7.5
7 8.2
9 9.1
cam = x1.0
en = x10
lc = x100
lam = x1000
tm = x10000
= x100000
35
V d:
W mu cam = 4.7 x 1.0 = 4.7 pF
2.11. ng dng
T thng c dng lm t lc trong cc mch lc ngun, lc chn tn s hay cho
qua tn s no . T c mt trong mch lc th ng, mch lc tch cc,.T lin lc
ni gia cc tng khuch i. T kt hp vi mt s linh kin khc tao nhng mch
dao ng,.Ngy nay cn c t nano tng dung lng b nh nhm p ng nhu cu
cng cao ca con ngi.
2.3. Cun cm
2.3.1. Cu to k hiu
Cun cm (inductor) / cun dy (coil) l dy dn qun nhiu vng lin tip trn 1 ci
li. Li ca cun cm c th l mt ng rng (li khng kh), st bi hay st l.
Ty theo loi li, cun cm c cc k hiu khc nhau:

li khng kh li st bi li st l
Hnh 2.26. K hiu ca cun cm.
2.3.2. H s t cm
H s t cm l i lng c trng cho kh nng tch tr nng lng t trng ca
cun cm.
K hiu: L
n v o: Henri (H)
Milihenri: 1 mH = 10
-3
H
Microhenri: 1 H = 10
-6
H
H s t cm ph thuc vo s vng dy, tit din, chiu di v vt liu lm li ca
cun cm.
L =
0
r

n
2
l
.S =
0
r

td
2
4
(2.30)
0
= 4t .10
-7
H/m
r
: h s t thm tng i ca vt liu lm li i vi chn khng.
n: s vng dy
S: tit din li (m
2
)
L: chiu di li (m)
d: ng knh ca li (m)
Mt khc , h s t cm cn tnh bi cng thc sau:
36

I
n L
|
= (2.31)
AI: bin thin dng in (A)
A|: bin thin t thng (Wb)
Nng lng np vo cun cm
Dng in chy qua cun cm to ra nng lng tr di dng t trng.
W
L
=
1
2
LI
2
(2.32)
2.3.3. Mch tng ng ca cun cm
Ngoi h s t cm L, mt cun cm thc t cn c in tr tn hao (in tr ni
tip) R
S
, c khi k n in dung k sinh C nh mch tng ng hnh 2.23.

Hnh 2.27. Mch tng ng cha k in dung k sinh (a), k n in dung k sinh (b).
H s phm cht Q (Quality Factor):
S
L
R
X
Q = (2.33)
R
S
: in tr ni tip ()
Cm khng l i lng c trng cho sc cn in ca cun cm.
X
L
: cm khng ()
X
L
= L = 2fL (2.34)
: tn s gc (rad/s)
L: h s t cm (H)
f: tn s (Hz)
2.3.4. Hin tng t cm
Nu dng in I chy trong mt cun cm thay i theo thi gian, th cun cm s t
cm ng v sinh ra mt sc in ng cm ng.
t
I
L
t
n e = =
|
(2.35)
AI: bin thin dng in (A)
A|: bin thin t thng (wb)
At: khong thi gian bin thin (s)
R
S
L
(a)
R
S
L
C
(b)
37
L: h s t cm (H)
e: sc in ng cm ng (V)
n: s vng dy qun ca cun cm.
Sc in ng cm ng sinh ra dng in gi l dng in cm ng.
2.3.5. H cm
Khi c hai hay nhiu cun cm th s thay i dng in trong mt cun cm s lm
t thng thay i, cc cun cm cn li phn ng bng cch sinh ra cc sc in ng
cm ng. Khi ngi ta gi l c hin tng h cm gia cc cun cm.
K hiu: M
n v o: Henri (H)
V d: c hai cun cm L
1
, L
2
t gn nhau. Khi dng qua L
1
thay i, t trng sinh
ra t cun L
1
lm nh hng n cun L
2
v ngc li. Nh vy c hin tng h
cm gia hai cun cm L
1
, L
2
. H s h cm:

2 1
L L K M = (2.36)
L
1
, L
2
: h s t cm (H)
M: h s h cm (H)
K: h s lin kt (h s ghp), 0 K 1
H s K ty thuc cch ghp. Nu hai cun dy cng qun trn mt li t th K = 1;
hai cun dy t xa nhau, khng nh hng ln nhau hay c chn t gia hay t thng
gc vi nhau th K = 0.
2.3.6. Cch mc cun cm
a. Mc ni tip

(2.37)

Hnh 2.28. Cun cm mc ni tip
b. Mc song song

(2.38)

L
2

L
t

<=>
L
1

L
t
= L
1
+ L
2

2 1 t
L
1
L
1
L
1
+ =
L
2

L
t

<=>
L
1

38
Hnh 2.29.Cun cm mc song song
2.3.7. Hin tng np x ca cun cm
Xt mch nh hnh 2.26, gi s cun cm cha tch tr nng lng in. Bt kha K
sang v tr s 1 cun cm pht sinh sc in ng cm ng bng ngun V
DC
nhng ngc
du chng li dng
in do ngun V
DC
cung
cp, do lc u dng
in chy qua cun cm
bng khng. Sau dng
in qua cun cm tng
ln theo biu thc sau:
) e - (1
R
V
(t) i

t
DC
L
= (2.39a)
R
L
= (2.39b)
i l thi hng np x ca cun cm.
Ngc vi dng in, hiu in th
gia hai u cun cm lc u bng
ngun V
DC
nhng sau gim dn theo
biu thc:
t
DC L
e V (t) v

= (2.40)
Sau thi gian 5i th cun cm xem
nh c np y, nu khng c tc
ng khc th hin tng vn khng thay
i.
Khi cun cm np y ta bt kha K
sang v tr s 2. Dng in x c thay
i theo hm s m:
t
DC
L
e
R
V
(t) i

= (2.41)
Trong qu trnh x nng lng in th hiu in th gia hai u cun cm thay i
theo biu thc:

t
DC L
e V (t) v

= (2.42)
Sau thi gian 5i th cun cm s x ht nng lng in tch tr ca n.
2.3.8. Phn loi ng dng
C nhiu cch phn loi cun cm:
1
K
L
2
VDC
+
R
Hnh 2.30. Mch kho st hin tng np - x ca cun cm.

0 t 2t 3t 4t 5t

t
V
L
(t)/ I
L
(t)
63
86
95
98 99
37
14
5
2
1
Hnh 2.31. c tuyn np ca cun cm.

39
Phn loi theo kt cu: cun cm 1 lp, cun cm nhiu lp, cun cm c li khng
kh, cun cm c li st bi, cun cm c li st l
Phn loi theo tn s lm vic: cun cm m tn, cun cm cao tn.
Cun cm 1 lp li khng kh: gm mt s vng dy qun vng n st vng kia hoc
cch nhau vi ln ng knh si dy. Dy c th cun trn khung bng vt liu cch
in cao tn (gm; thy tinh; nha) hay nu cun cm cng th c th khng cn
khung m ch cn hai np gi hai bn. Loi dy s dng: dy ng thng (f > 50
MHz) hay dy Litz (f < 2 MHz).
Cun cm nhiu lp li khng kh: khi tr s cun cm ln, cn c s vng dy nhiu,
nu qun mt lp th chiu di cun cm qu di v in dung k sinh qu ln. kch
thc hp l v gim c in dung k sinh, ngi ta qun cc vng ca cun cm thnh
nhiu lp chng ln nhau theo kiu t ong (kiu ton dng tin).
Cun cm c li st bi (bt st t): rt ngn kch thc ca hai loi trn bng
cch lng vo gia n mt li ferit. Thn li c rng xon c. Hai u c kha 2 rnh.
Ngi ta dng mt ci quay vt nha iu chnh li ln xung trong lng cun cm
tng hay gim tr s in cm ca cun cm.
Hnh dng li c dng hnh tr hay hnh xuyn. Tn s lm vic:100 kHz 100 MHz.
Cun cm c li st ming (st l): dng dy ng trng men cch in, c qun
thnh tng lp u n, vng n st vng kia, lp n st lp kia bng mt lt giy bng
cch in. Li t l cc l thp Si, thp Si ht nh hng. Hnh dng li: dng ch E, I,
U, T, .Mi l thp c cch in bi lp ph rt mng oxit st, thp Si hoc varnis.
Vt liu cch in lm tng in tr trong phn ct ngang ca li gim dng in xoy
nhng vn cho php mt t thng cao qua li.

Hnh 2.32. Mt s dng cun cm.
Hin nay, nh sn xut ch to nhiu loi cun cm c sn di dng linh kin d
tr ta c th dng ngay hoc p ng nhu cu ring ta thit k qun dy, chn li
cho cun cm. Sau y l ba cch qun dy tham kho, cch qun hnh (c) c in
dung k sinh nh hn hai cch kia.
Cun cm c ng dng lm micro in ng, loa in ng, rle, bin p, cun
dy trong u c a,.Trong mch in t, cun cm c th mch lc ngun, mch
lc tn s, mch dao ng cng hng, mch to (chnh sa) dng sng, dng xung,
40
Cuon so cap Cuon thu cap I 2 I 1
2.4. Bin th
2.4.1. Khi nim
Bin th (transformer) l dng c dng bin i in p hay dng in xoay chiu
nhng vn gi nguyn tn s.
2.4.2. Cu to k hiu
Cu to v hnh dng ca bin th nh hnh 2.29. Bin th gm 2 cun dy ng
trng men cch in qun trn mt li thp t khp kn: cun nhn in p vo gi l
cun s cp, cun cho ly in p ra l cun th cp. Li t khng phi l mt khi st
m gm nhiu l st mng ghp song song cch in nhau trnh dng in xoy
(Foucoult) lm nng bin th.
Ngoi ra, li ca bin th c th l st bi hay khng kh.

Hnh 2.33. Cu to ca bin th.
K hiu ca bin th nh hnh 2.30.

Hnh 2.34. K hiu bin th li khng kh (a), li st bi (b), li st l (c).
2.4.3. Nguyn l hot ng

Hnh 2.35. Cu to ca bin th.
Khi cho dng in xoay chiu c in th V
1
vo cun s cp, dng in I
1
s to ra
t trng bin thin chy trong mch t v sang cun dy th cp, cun th cp nhn
(a) (b) (c)
V
1
V
2
I
1
I
2
41
c t trng bin thin s lm t thng qua cun dy thay i, cun th cp cm ng
cho ra dng in xoay chiu c in th V
2
.
V
1
= - N
1

A|
At
(2.43)
V
2
= -N
2

A|
At
(2.44)
N
1
: s vng dy ca cun s cp.
N
2
: s vng dy ca cun th cp.
V
1
: in p vo hai u cun s cp.
V
2
: in p ly ra hai u cun th cp.
A|: bin thin t thng (wb)
At: khong thi gian bin thin (s)
2.4.4. Cc cng thc ca bin th
T l v in th
V
2
V
1
=
N
2
N
1
(2.45)
T l dng in:
I
2
I
1
=
N
1
N
2
(2.46)
T l v cng sut: P
1
= V
1
I
1
; P
2
= V
2
I
2

L tng ta c: P
1
= P
2
(2.47a)
<=> V
1
.I
1
= V
2
. I
2

Thc t: P
2
< P
1
(2.47b)
Hiu sut: q =
P
2
P
1
. 100% (2.47c)
T l v tng tr: R
2
=
V
2
I
2
; R
1
=
V
1
R
1

R
1
R
2
=
\
|
.
|
|
N
1
N
2
2
(2.48)
2.4.5. Phn loi - ng dng
Da theo tn s lm vic: bin th m tn, bin th trung tn, bin th cao tn.
Da theo cu to: bin th c li st l, bin th c li st bi, bin th c li khng
kh,
Da theo mc ch s dng: bin th ngun, bin th loa, bin th xut m, bin th
xung, bin th o pha,
ng dng ch yu ca bin th l lm thay i in th, dng in theo yu cu thc
t.
Bin th cng hng l bin th cao tn, cun s cp hoc cun th cp c mc
song song vi mt t in, hnh thnh mch cng hng. Nu c hai cun u c mc t
42
in th ta c bin th cng hng kp. Li ca bin th cng hng lm bng ferrite c
th iu chnh c. Mt s bin th cng hng dng tn s cao hn c li khng kh.

Hnh 2.36. Hnh dng ca bin th.

43
CU HI N TP
1. in tr l g? Hy k tn mt s loi in tr v ni vi ng dng ca n. Nu vi
cch c tr s in tr.
2. in tr ca dy dn l g? Nu cng thc tnh v cho bit tn, n v ca cc i
lng trong cng thc. in tr ca dy dn ph thuc vo nhng yu t no ca dy?
3. Tm hiu nh lut Ohm, nh lut Kirchhoff, ng dng ca n.
4. in tr c my cch mc c bn? Hy k tn v v on mch tng ng gm hai
in tr. Vit biu thc quan h gia cc i lng I, U, R trong on mch. Nu nhn
xt.
5. T in l g? Hy k tn mt s loi t in v ni vi ng dng ca n. Nu vi
cch c tr s in dung.
6. in dung l g? Nu cng thc tnh v cho bit tn, n v ca cc i lng trong
cng thc. in dung ph thuc vo nhng yu t no ca t in?
7. Dung khng l g? Nu cng thc tnh v cho bit tn, n v ca cc i lng
trong cng thc. Dung khng ph thuc vo nhng yu t no?
8. T in c my cch mc c bn? Hy k tn v v on mch tng ng gm hai
t in. Vit biu thc quan h gia cc i lng Q, U, C trong on mch. Nu nhn
xt.
9. Trnh by hin tng np x ca t. Vit biu thc tnh dng in, hiu in th
gia hai u t trong qu trnh np, x ca t in. Nu nhn xt.
10. Vit cng thc tnh nng lng tch tr vo t. cho bit tn, n v ca cc i
lng trong cng thc.
11. Cun cm l g? Hy k tn mt s loi Cun cm v ni vi ng dng ca n.
Nu vi cch c tr s in cm.
12. H s t cm l g? Nu cng thc tnh v cho bit tn, n v ca cc i lng
trong cng thc. H s t cm ph thuc vo nhng yu t no ca cun cm?
13. Cm khng l g? Nu cng thc tnh v cho bit tn, n v ca cc i lng
trong cng thc. Cm khng ph thuc vo nhng yu t no?
14. Trnh by hin tng np x ca cun cm. Vit biu thc tnh dng in, hiu
in th gia hai u cun cm trong qu trnh np, x ca cun cm. Nu nhn xt.
15. Vit cng thc tnh nng lng tch tr vo cun cm. cho bit tn, n v ca cc
i lng trong cng thc.
16. So snh qu trnh np x ca t vi qu trnh np x ca cun cm.
17. Bin th l g? Hy k tn mt s loi bin th v ni vi ng dng ca n.
18. Nu nguyn l hat ng ca bin th.
19. Cho bit cc cng thc ca bin th.
20. Hy k tn v v k hiu ca nhng linh kin hc.

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