TS.

NGUYN HU CNG

K THUT O LNG

NH XUT BN I HC QUC GIA H NI

LI GII THIU
Quyn sch ny nhm mc ch cung cp kin thc c bn v thit b v phng php o lng cc i lng in. Ni dung gio trnh phc v cho sinh vin cc ngnh in - in t - My tnh ca cc trng i hc. ng thi cng gip ch cho sinh vin cc chuyn ngnh khc v cc cn b k thut c quan tm n lnh vc o in. Khi vit gio trnh ny chng ti c tham kho kinh nghim ca cc nh gio ging dy nhiu nm cc trng i hc, ng thi cp nht nhng ni dung mi, va p ng yu cu nng cao cht lng o to phc v s nghip cng nghip ho - hin i ho, va m bo tnh st thc ca cc thit b o cng nh phng php o m cc cn b k thut ang vn hnh trong thc t. Tuy cc tc gi c nhiu c gng khi bin son, nhng gio trnh s khng trnh khi nhng khim khuyt. Chng ti mong nhn c s ng gp kin ca qu ng nghip v cc bn sinh vin gio trnh ny c hon thin. Sau ht chng ti xin chn thnh cm n s ng gp ng k ca Thc s Nguyn Vn Ch, cm n Khoa in t, Trng i hc K thut Cng nghip, i hc Thi Nguyn gip v to iu kin cho chng ti hon thnh quyn sch ny. Tc gi

Chng 1 KHI NIM CHUNG V O LNG

1.1. nh ngha v phn loi thit b 1.1.1. nh ngha o lng l mt qu trnh nh gi nh lng i tng cn o c kt qu bng s so vi n v. Vi nh ngha trn th o lng l qu trnh thc hin ba thao tc chnh: Bin i tn hiu v tin tc. - So snh vi n v o hoc so snh vi mu trong qu trnh o lng. - Chuyn n v, m ho c kt qu bng s so vi n v. Cn c vo vic thc hin cc thao tc ny ta c cc phng php v h thng o khc nhau. Thit b o v thit b mu Thit b o l mt h thng m i lng o gi l lng vo, lng ra l i lng ch trn thit b (l thit b o tc ng lin tc) hoc l con s km theo n v o (thit b o hin s). i khi lng ra khng hin th trn thit b m a ti trung tm tnh ton thc hin cc Algorithm k thut nht nh. - Thit b mu dng kim tra v hiu chnh thit b o v n v o. Theo quy nh hin hnh thit b mu phi c chnh xc ln hn t nht hai cp so vi thit b kim tra. V d: Mun kim nh cng t cp chnh xc 2 th bn kim nh cng t phi c cp chnh xc t nht l 0,5. 1.1.2. Phn loi 1.1.2.1. Thit b o lng C nhiu cch phn loi song c th chia thit b o lng thnh hai loi chnh l thit b o chuyn i thng v thit b o kiu so snh.
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Thit b o chuyn i thng i lng cn o a vo thit b di bt k dng no cng c bin thnh gc quay ca kim ch th. Ngi o c kt qu nh thang chia v nhng quy c trn mt thit b, loi thit b ny gi l thit b o c in. Ngoi ra lng ra cn c th bin i thnh s, ngi o c kt qu ri nhn vi h s ghi trn mt my hoc my t ng lm vic , ta c thit b o hin s. Thit b o kiu so snh Thit b so snh cng c th l ch th c in hoc l ch th s. Tu theo cch so snh v cch lp i lng b (b m ho s tng t) ta c cc thit b so snh khc nhan nh: thit b so snh kiu tu ng (i lng o x v i lng b x lun bin i theo nhau); thit b so snh kiu qut (i lng b x bin thin theo mt quy lut thi gian nht nh v s cn bng ch xy ra ti mt thi im trong chu k). Ngoi ra cng cn c vo vic lp i lng b ngi ta chia thnh dng c m ho s xung, tn s xung, thi gian xung. Cn c vo iu kin cn bng ngi ta chia thnh dng c b khng lch (zero) v dng c b c lch (vi sai). Cn c vo quan h gia lng ra v lng vo, ngi ta chia thnh: thit b o trc tip (i lng ra biu th trc tip i lng vo), thit b o gin tip (i lng ra lin quan ti nhiu i lng vo thng qua nhng biu thc ton hc xc nh), thit b o kiu hp b (nhiu i lng ra lin quan ti nhiu i lng vo thng qua cc phng trnh tuyn tnh). 1.1.2.2. Chuyn i o lng C hai khi nim: - Chuyn i chun ho: C nhim v bin i mt tn hiu in phi tiu chun thnh tn hiu in tiu chun (thng thng U = 0 10V; I = 4 20mA). Vi loi chuyn i ny ch yu l cc b phn p, phn dng, bin in p, bin dng in, cc mch khuch i... c nghin cu k cc gio trnh khc nn ta khng xt.
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- Chuyn i s cp (S: Sensor): C nhim v bin mt tn hiu khng in sang tn hiu in, ghi nhn thng tin gi tr cn o. C rt nhiu loi chuyn i s cp khc nhau nh: chuyn i in tr, in cm, in dung, nhit in, quang in... 1.1.2.3. T hp thit b o Vi mt thit b c th (mt knh):

Hnh 1.1. Cu trc h thng o mt knh

+ Chuyn i o lng: bin tn hin cn o thnh tn hiu in. + Mch o: thu nhn, x l, khuch i thng tin.... bao gm: ngun, cc mch khuch i, cc b bin thin A/D, D/A, cc mch ph... + Ch th: thng bo kt qu cho ngi quan st, thng gm ch th s v ch th c in, ch th t ghi, v.v... 1.1.2.4. Vi h thng o lng nhiu knh Trng hp cn o nhiu i lng, mi i lng o mt knh, nh vy tn hiu o c ly t cc sensor qua b chuyn i chun ho ti mch iu ch tn hiu mi knh, sau s a qua phn knh (multiplexer) c sp xp tun t truyn i trn cng mt h thng dn truyn. c s phn bit, cc i lng o trc khi a vo mch phn knh cn phi m ho hoc iu ch (Modulation - MOD) theo tn s khc nhau (th d nh f10, f20...) cho mi tn hiu ca i lng o. Ti ni nhn tn hiu li phi gii m hoc gii iu ch (Demodulation - DEMOD) ly li tng tn hiu o. y chnh l hnh thc o lng t xa (TE1emety) cho nhiu i lng o.

Hnh 1.2. H thng o lng nhiu knh

1.2. S cu trc thit b o lng 1.2.1. H thng o hin i thng Trong h thng o bin i thng, i lng vo x qua nhiu khu bin i trung gian c bin thnh i lng ra z. Quan h gia z v x c th vit: z = f(x) trong f() l mt ton t th hin cu trc ca thit b o.
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Trong trng hp quan h lng vo v lng ra l tuyn tnh ta c th vit: z = S.x y S gi l nhy tnh ca thit b. - Nu mt thit b gm nhiu khu ni tip th quan h gia lng vc v lng ra c th vit: (1.1)

trong Si l nhy ca khu th i trong thit b. 1.2.2. H thng o kiu so snh Trong thit b o kiu so snh i lng vo x thng c bin i thnh i lng trung gian yX qua mt php bin i T: yX = T.x.

Hnh 1.3. H thng o kiu so snh

Sau yX c so snh vi i lng b yk Ta c: y = yX - yk C th cn c vo thao tc so snh phn loi cc phng php o khc nhau. 1.2.2.1. Phn loi phng php o cn c vo iu kin cn bng a) Phng php so snh kiu cn bng (Hnh 1.4) Trong phng php ny, i lng vo so snh: yX = const; i lng b yk = const. Ti im cn bng:

b) Phng php so snh khng cn bng (Hnh 1.5)

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Cng ging nh trng hp trn song y 0

1.2.2.2. Phn loi phng php o cn c vo cch to in p b a) Phng php m ho thi gian Trong phng php ny i lng vo yX = const cn i lng b yk cho tng t l vi thi gian t: yk = y0.t (y0 = const)

Hnh 1.6. Phng php m ha thi gian

Ti thi im cn bng yX = yk = y0.tX

i lng cn o yX c bin thnh khong thi gian tX y php so snh phi thc hin mt b ngng
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b) Phng php m ho tn s xung Trong phng php ny i lng vo yX cho tng t l vi i lng cn o x v khong thi gian t: yX = t.x, cn i lng b yk c gi khng i.

Hnh 1.7. Phng php m ho tn s xung

Ti im cn bng c:

i lng cn o x c bin thnh tn s fX. y php so snh cng phi thc hin mt b ngng.

c) Phng php m ho s xung Trong phng php ny i lng vo yX = const, cn i lng b yk cho tng t l vi thi gian t theo quy lut bc thang vi nhng bc nhy khng i vo gi l bc lng t. T = const cn gi l xung nhp. Ta c:

Ti im cn bng i lng vo yx c bin thnh con s NX yX NX.y0 (1-6) xc nh c im cn bng, php so snh cng phi thc hin mt b ngng:

Ngoi ra cn phng php m ho s xung ngc, phng php m xung, phng php trng phng. 1.3. Cc c tnh ca thit b o 1.3.1. nhy, chnh xc v cc sai s ca thit b o 1.3.1.1. nhy v ngng nhy Ta bit phng trnh c bn ca thit b o l z = f(x). c mt s nh gi v quan h gia lng vo v lng ra ca thit b o, ta dng khi nim v nhy ca thit b:

trong : z l bin thin ca lng ra v x l bin thin ca lng vo. Ni chung S l mt hm ph thuc x nhng trong phm vi x nh th S l mt hng s. Vi thit b c quan h gia lng vo v lng ra l tuyn tnh, ta c th vit: z = S.x, lc S gi l nhy tnh ca thit
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b o. Trong trng hp thit b o gm nhiu khu bin i ni tip th nhy c tnh S = Si , vi Si l nhy ca khu th i trong thit b.
i =1 n

Theo l thuyt khi xt ti quan h gia z v x th x c th nh bao nhiu cng c, song trn thc t khi x < no th z khng th thy c. V d 1.1: Khi ph ti tiu th qua mt cng t mt pha 10A nh hn 10W (chng hn) th cng t khng quay na. Nguyn nhn ca hin tng ny rt phc tp, c th do ma st, do hin tng tr... c gi l ngng nhy ca thit b o. C th quan nim ngng nhy ca thit b o l gi tr nh nht m thit b o c th phn bit c. Tuy nhin ngng nhy ca cc thit b o khc nhau rt khc nhau n cha c trng cho tnh nhy ca thit b. V vy so snh chng vi nhau ngi ta phi xt ti quan h gia ngng nhy v thang o ca thit b. Thang o (D) l khong t gi tr nh nht ti gi tr ln nht tun theo phng php o lng ca thit b T a ra khi nim v kh nng phn ly ca thit b o:

v so snh cc R vi nhau. 1.3.1.2. chnh xc v cc sai s ca thit b o - chnh xc l tiu chun quan trng nht ca thit b o.. Bt k mt php o no u c sai lch so vi i lng ng trong
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xi l kt qu ca ln o th x l gi tr ng ca i lng o

i l sai lch ca ln o th i - Sai s tuyt i ca mt thit b o c nh ngha l gi tr ln nht ca cc sai lch gy nn bi thit b trong khi o: - Sai s tuyt i chn nh gi c tnh chnh xc v yu cu cng ngh ca thit b o. Thng thng chnh xc ca mt php o hoc mt thit b o c nh gi bng sai s tng i: + Vi mt php o, sai s tng i c tnh

+ Vi mt thit b o, sai s tng i c tnh

Gi tr, % gi l sai s tng i quy i dng sp xp cc thit b o thnh cc cp chnh xc. Theo quy nh hin hnh ca nh nc, cc dng c o c in c cp chnh xc: 0,05; 0,1; 0,2; 0,5; 1; 1,5; 2; 2,5; v 4. Thit b o s c cp chnh xc: 0,005; 0,01; 0,02; 0,05; 0,1; 0,2; 0,5; 1. Khi bit cp chnh xc ca mt thit b o ta c th xc nh c sai s tng i quy i v suy ra sai s tng i ca thit b trong cc php o c th. Ta c:

trong l sai s tng i ca thit b o, ph thuc cp chnh xc v khng i nn sai s tng i ca php o cng nh nu D/x dn n 1. V vy khi o mt i lng no c gng chn D sao cho: D x. 1.3.2. in tr vo v tiu th cng sut ca thit b o Thit b o phi thu nng lng t i tng o di bt k hnh thc
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no bin thnh i lng u ra ca thit b. Tiu th nng lng ny th hin phn tc dng ca thit b o ln i tng o gy ra nhng sai s m ta thng bit c nguyn nhn gi l sai s ph v phng php. Trong khi o ta c gng phn u sao cho sai s ny khng ln hn sai s c bn ca thit b. - Vi cc thit b o c hc sai s ch yu l phn tc dng ca chuyn i. Vi cc thit b o dng p, sai s ny ch yu l do nh hng ca tng tr vo v tiu th cng sut ca thit b. Tn hao nng lng vi mch o dng p l:

Vy ta tm tnh sai s ph do nh hng ca tng tr vo l: vi RA l in tr ca ampemet hoc phn t phn ng vi dng; RV l in tr ca volmet hoc phn t phn ng vi p; Rt l in tr ti. V d 1.2: Phn tch sai s ph khi o p trn Hnh 1.9.

+ Gi s cn kim tra in p UA0. Theo l lch [ UA0] = 50 2 (V). UA0 = 50 V. + Xt khi o (k ng).
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+ Xt khi cha o (k m), ta c ngay:

Gi s RV = 100 k. Vy in p o c: Uv = UA0 = 33,3 V. Sai s t 33 V tr ln 50 V chnh l sai s ph v phng php do nh hng in tr ca V sinh ra. 1.3.3. Cc c tnh ng ca thit b o Khi o cc i lng bin thin ta phi xt n c tnh ng ca dng c o c tnh ng ca dng c o th hin cc c trng sau: - Hm truyn t ca thit b o hay nhy ng ca thit b o K(p) tc l quan h gia i lng ra v i lng vo trng thi ng

c tnh ny th hin di cc dng sau: + c tnh qu ng vi tn hiu vo c dng bc nhy: + c tnh xung hay tn hiu vo l xung hp: + c tnh tn lc tn hiu vo c dng hnh sin: + c tnh tn th hin hai dng: c tnh bin tn A() v c tnh pha tn (). c tnh cn th hin di dng sai s tn s, sai s ny th hin sai s bin tn A v sai s pha tn :

trong : A() l bin u ra ph thuc tn s; A0 l bin ca khu l tng khng ph thuc tn s; () l gc pha u ra ph thuc tn s; 0 l gc pha l tng khng ph thuc tn s. Trong dng c o cc sai s ny phi nh hn mt gi tr cho php
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quy nh bi nh nc. Gii tn ca dng c o l khong tn s ca i lng vo cho sai s khng vt qu gi tr cho php. Thi gian n nh hay thi gian o ca thit b l thi gian k t khi t tn hiu vo ca thit b cho ti khi thit b n nh c th bit c kt qu. Chnh da vo thi gian o ca thit b ny cho php ta t ng ri rc ho i lng cn o o gi tr tc thi, sau dng cc php gia cng ton hc hoc dng phng tin phc hi li hon ton hin tng xy ra. 1.4. Gia cng kt qu o lng Gia cng kt qu o lng l da vo kt qu ca nhng php o c th ta xc nh gi tr ng ca php o v sai s ca php o y. Dng c o no cng c sai s v nguyn nhn sai s rt khc nhau, v vy cch xc nh sai s phi ty theo tng trng hp m xc nh. Hin nay dng nhiu phng php khc nhau php o m bo yu cu k thut ra. 1.4.1. Tnh ton sai s ngu nhin - xc nh sai s ngu nhin ta da vo phng php thng k nhiu kt qu o lng. Sai s ngu nhin ca ln o th i c tnh

trong : xi l kt qu ln o th i; M[x] l k vng ton hc ca v s ln o i lng x.

Hnh 1.10. Lut phn b chun

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- Theo ton hc thng k th s phn b ca sai s ngu nhin xung quanh gi tr k vng ton hc theo mt quy lut nht nh gi l lut phn b xc sut. Trong cc thit b o lng v iu khin thng theo quy lut phn b chun:

trong l lch qun phng hay phng sai ca sai s ngu nhin. Ta c cng thc:

vi D l tn x. Trong k thut ta thng dng khi nim phng sai = D v n c cng th nguyn vi i lng cn o.

Hnh 1.11. K vng v tn x ca lut phn b chun

Qu trnh gia cng kt qu nh sau: a) Khi s ln o l rt ln (n > 30) Sai s ngu nhin c tnh: x = k. (l-14) trong k l h s, c tra trong s tay k thut (bng hoc ng cong). b) Khi s ln o c hn (n 30) Qu trnh gia cng c tin hnh nh sau:
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+ K vng ton hc c ly l trung bnh cng ca n ln o

+ Phng sai ca sai s ngu nhin c tnh theo cng thc BessE1

Nu ta ly kt qu l gi tr trung bnh ca n ln o th phng sai s gim i

n ln

+ Sai s ngu nhin c tnh: trong kst l h s Student, n ph thuc vo s ln thu thp n v xc xut yu cu p. H s kst c tra trong cc s tay k thut: kst = f(n,p). + Kt qu o c tnh:
1 n xi n xi i =1 i =1 n (n 1)
n 2

x = x x =

x
n

k st

(1-18)

Ch : Trong thc t c nhng ln thu thp s liu cho kt qu khng ng tin cy (v ta thng gi l nhiu ca tp s liu), ta phi loi b ln o ny nh thut ton sau: Sau khi tnh ta so snh cc |i| vi 3 vi i = 1 n n, nu ln o no c |i| 3 th phi loi b ln o v tnh li t u vi (n - 1) php o cn li. C th chng minh rng vic loi b m bo tin cy 99,7%. V d 1.3: Tnh kt qu o v sai s ngu nhin vi mt xc sut
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ng tin p = 0,98 ca mt php o in tr bng cu kp vi kt qu nh sau (n v tnh = m): 140,25; 140,5; 141,75; 139,25; 139,5; 140,25; 140; 126,75; 141,15; 142,25; 140,75; 144,15; 140,15; 142,75. Bit sai s ngu nhin c phn b chun. Bi lm:

So snh cc i = Ri - R vi 3. Ta thy ln o th 8 phm phi sai lm ln (8 = R8 - R 3) nn ta b qua ln o ny v tnh li t u vi 13 ln o cn li. Ta lp bng sau:
Bng 1.1. V d v tnh ton sai s ngu nhin

STT 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

Ri 140,25 140,5 141,75 139,25 139,5 140,25 1 40 141,15 142,25 140,75 144,15 140,15 142,75

i -0,73 -0,48 0,77 -1,73 1,48 -0,73 -0,98 0,17 1,27 -0,23 3,71 -0,8t3 1,77 Tng: 0

i2 0,5329 0,2304 0,5929 2,9929 2,1904 0,5329 0,9624 0,0289 1,6129 0,0529 13,7641 0,6889 3,1329 Tng: 23,64

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1.4.2. Tnh ton sai s gin tip Trong thc t c nhiu phng php o m kt qu c tnh t php o trc tip khc ngi ta gi php o l php o gin tip. Gi s c mt php o gin tip i lng y thng qua cc php o trc tip x1, x2, xn: y =f(x1, x2, xn) Ta c:

Sai s tuyt i ca php o gin tip c nh gi

x1,x2,xn: sai s tuyt i ca php o cc i lng trc tip x1, x2, xn Sai s tng i ca php o gin tip c tnh l:
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trong : xl, x2,.xn l sai s tng i ca cc php o trc tip x1, x2, xn.
Bng 1.2. Bng tnh sai s tuyt i v sai s tng i ca mt s hm y thng gp

V d 1.4: Ngi ta s dng ampemet v volmet o in tr bng phng php gin tip. Ampemet c thang o l lA, cp chnh xc l 1. Volmet c thang o l 150V, cp chnh xc 1,5. Khi o ta c s ch ca hai ng h l: I = lA, U =100V. Hy tnh sai s tuyt i v tng i ca php o in tr trn.

Hnh 1.12. V d v tnh ton sai s gin tip

Bi lm:
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+ Sai s tuyt i ca ampemet l:

+ Sai s tuyt i ca volmet l: + Gi tr in tr theo php o l: + Sai s tuyt i ca php o in tr l:

+ Sai s tng i ca php o in tr

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Chng 2 CC C CU CH TH
2.1. C cu ch th c in 2.1.1. C s chung 2.1.1.1. Khi nim C cu ch th l dng c o m s ch ca n l i lng t l vi i lng o lin tc. Ch th c in l c cu ch th c tn hiu vo l dng in v tn hiu ra l gc quay ca kim ch th. i lng cn o s trc tip bin i thnh gc quay ca kim ch th, tc l thc hin vic chuyn i nng lng in t thnh nng lng c hc lm quay kin ch th i mt gc : = f(x), x l i lng vo. C cu ch th c in bao gm hai phn: phn tnh v phn quay. Ty theo phng php bin i nng lng in t ngi ta chia thnh c cu ch th kiu t in, in t, in ng, cm ng v tnh in. 2.1.1.2. Cc chi tit c kh chung ca ch th c in a) Trc v tr Trc v tr l b phn quan trng trong cc chi tit c kh ca cc c cu ch th c in, m bo cho phn ng quay trn trc c gn cc chi tit ca phn ng nh kim ch th, l so phn, khung dy. b) B phn phn khng B phn phn khng bao gm l so phn khng hoc dy cng hoc dy treo. Mc ch to ra mmen phn khng. c) Kim ch th gc quay Kim ch th gc quay c gn vi trc quay. di chuyn ca kim trn thang chia t l vi gc quay . Ngoi ra c th ch th gc quay bng nh sng.

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d) Thang chia

Thang chia l mt khc thang o, xc nh gi tr o e) B phn cn du B phn cn du c tc dng rt ngn qu trnh dao ng ca phn ng, xc lp v tr nhanh chng trong c cu ch th. Thng thng c hai loi cn du c s dng, l cn du kiu khng kh v cn du kiu cm ng.

2.1.2. Phng trnh c tnh ca c cu c in

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2.1.2.1. Cc mmen tc ng ln phn c cu a) Mmen quay Khi c dng in chy trong c cu ch th, th trong n s tch lu mt nng lng in t, nng lng ny c bin thnh c nng lm quay phn ng i mt gc no , c ngha l thc hin mt cng c hc: dA = Mqd trong : dA l lng vi phn ca cng c hc; Mq l mmen quay; d l lng vi phn ca gc quay. Theo nh lut bo ton nng lng: dWe = dA dWe l lng vi phn ca nng lng in t Vy M q =
dWe d

b) Mmen phn Di tc dng ca mmen quay, nu khng c g cn li th phn ng ca c cu s quay i mt gc ln nht c th c c. V vy ngi ta to ra cc mmen phn t l vi gc quay nh cc b phn phn khng l l so xon, dy cng hoc dy treo. Ta c: Mp = D; vi D l h s ph thuc vo kch thc vt liu ch to l so, dy cng hoc dy treo. Khi mmen quay cn bng vi mmen phn th phn ng ng yn Mq = Mp = D. c) Mmen ma st i vi cc dng c dng trc quay ta phi xt n nh hng ca lc ma st gia trc v , mmen ma st c tnh theo cng thc kinh nghim Mms = K.Gn
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trong K l h s t l, G l trng lng phn ng, n = (1,3 l,5) d) Mmen cn du Khi trc quay dn n kim ch th quay theo cho ti v tr cn bng ri mi dng li, do phn ng c qun tnh v l so b ko nn kim s dao ng ri mi ng yn cho nn phi c b phn n nh dao ng kim hay b phn cn du. Mmen cn du c ch to sao cho c tr s t l vi tc quay ca phn ng

vi p l h s t l ph thuc vo c im cu to ca b phn cn du. T biu thc trn ta thy khi phn ng v tr cn bng th
d = 0 , nh vy mmen cn du khng dt

lm nh hng n kt qu o. 2.1.2.2. Phng trnh cn bng phn ng ca c cu o Theo nh lut c hc i vi mt chuyn ng quay, o hm bc nht ca mmen ng lng theo thi gian bng tng cc mmen tc ng ln vt quay y.

trong :

J l mmen qun tnh phn ng; Mi l tng cc mmen tc ng ln phn ng ca c cu, bao gm:

Thay cc i lng trn vo phng trnh, ta c:

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Phng trnh ny chnh l phng trnh mmen chuyn ng ca c cu Gii phng trnh ny ta tm c (t). Tu theo quan h gia J, P, D m c cu dao ng hay khng dao ng v quyt nh tnh n nh v thi gian o ca c cu. 2.1.3. C cu o t in 2.1.3.1. Loi c mt khung dy ng 1. Cu to Phn tnh gm: nam chm vnh cu, cc t, li st non, trong khe h khng kh gia cc t v li st l u nhau. Phn ng gm: khung dy, l so phn, kin ch th.

2. Nguyn l lm vic - Khi ta cho dng in mt chiu I chy vo khung dy, di tc dng ca t trng nam chm vnh cu trong khe h khng kh, cc cnh
25

ca khung dy s chu tc dng mt lc: F = BlWI trong : B l tr s cm ng t trong khe h khng kh; l l chiu di tc dng ca khung dy; W l s vng dy; I l tr s dng in. Ta thy hai cnh ca khung dy cng chu tc dng ca lc F nhng ngc chiu nhau nn s to ra mmen quay:

trong : d l kch thc ngang ca khung dy; S = dl l thit din b mt khung dy. Mmen phn ca l so: MP = D.. Vy phn ng s cn bng khi:

y SI =

B.S.W = const l nhy ca c cu theo dng in. D

Ta thy t l bc nht vi I. 3. c im v ng dng c im: - u im: + Dng c c nhy cao v khng i trong ton thang o; + chnh xc cao, t chu nh hng ca t trng ngoi, tiu th nng lng t; + V t l bc nht vi I nn thang chia ca c cu u. - Nhc im: + Ch to kh khn, gi thnh t; + Do khung dy phn ng nn phi qun bng dy c kch thc nh nn kh nng qu ti km; + Ch o c dng mt chiu. Tht vy, khi ta cho dng xoay chiu i = Imsint vo khung dy, ta c mmen quay tc thi theo thi gian:
26

mq(t) = B.S.W.i

Vy mun o cc i lng xoay chiu ta phi kt hp vi b chnh lu. ng dng: Dng ch to ampemet, volmet, ommet, in k c nhy cao, dng lm c cu ch khng trong cc ng h vn nng, trong cc cu o... 2.1.3.2. Loi c hai khung dy ng (Logomet t in) 1. Cu to Phn tnh ging nh c cu mt khung dy nhng khe h khng kh gia cc t v li st non l khng u nhau. - Phn ng ta t hai cun dy cho nhau 60o, gn cng trn trc quay v ln lt cho dng in I1 v I2 chy qua sao cho chng sinh ra hai mmen quay ngc chiu nhau. Phn ng khng c l so phn.

2. Nguyn l lm vic
27

Khi ta cho cc dng mt chiu I1, I2 chy vo cc cun dy ng, di tc dng ca t trng nam chm vnh cu s to ra cc mmen quay M1, M2 vi: M1 = B1.S1.W1.I1 M2 = B2.S2.W2.I2 V khe h khng kh l khng u nn cm ng t B ph thuc v tr ca khung dy ng.

V khng c l so phn nn phn ng s cn bng khi M1 = M2. Ta c:

Vy

Gii phng trnh ny ta tm c quan h: = f 3. c im v ng dng c im:

I1 I2

Tng t nh c cu mt khung dy trn khng c chnh xc cao hn, cng sut tn tht thp, nhy rt cao, t b nh hng ca t trng ngoi. Gc lch t l vi t s hai dng in i qua cc khung y, iu ny thun li khi o cc i lng vt l th ng phi cho thm ngun ngoi. Nu ngun cung cp thay i nhng t s hai dng in vn c gi nguyn do vy m trnh c sai s. ng dng: c dng ch to cc ommet, megommet. 2.1.4. C cu o in t
28

2.1.4.1. Cu to C cu gm hai loi chnh: kiu cun y dt (c cu ch th in t loi ht) v kiu cun dy trn (c cu ch th in t loi y). C cu cun dy dt c phn tnh l cun dy dt cho dng in cn o i qua, cn phn ng l mt l thp t lch tm c th quay trong khe h cun dy tnh. Kiu cun dy trn c phn tnh l cun dy trn bn trong gn mt l thp. Phn ng cng l mt l thp gn trn trc. Ngoi ra cn c b phn cn du, l so phn, kim ch th

29

2.1.4.2. Nguyn l lm vic Khi c dng in chy vo cun dy tnh, trong lng cun dy s c mt t trng. i vi cun dy dt t trng ny ht l thp vo trong lng cun dy tnh, cn i vi cun dy trn th t trng s t ho hai l thp, khi hai l thp c cng cc tnh nn y nhau. C hai trng hp trn s lm cho phn ng quay i mt gc .
30

- Khi cho dng in mt chiu chy vo cun dy: Ta c mmen quay:

vi We l nng lng in t trng tch lu cun dy

trong L ph thuc . Vy mmen quay:

- Khi cho dng in xoay chiu vo cun dy: Gi s i = ImaXsint. Lc mmen quay Mq theo t s l:

Mmen quay trung bnh:

vi I l tr hiu dng ca dng hnh sin. Ti v tr cn bng Mq = MP;

Vy c cu ch th in t c th o c c dng mt chiu v dng xoay chiu. 2.1.4.3. c im v ng dng c im: - u im:

31

+ C cun dy phn tnh nn c th qun bng dy kch thc ln nn kh nng qu ti tt. + D ch to, gi thnh h. + C th o c c i lng mt chiu v xoay chiu. - Nhc im: + Gc quay t l vi bnh phng ca dng in v thang o chia khng u (hnh dng l thp c ch to sao cho quay thang chia c th tng i u). + chnh xc thp do c tn hao trong li thp. ng dng: Ch yu o dng, p xoay chiu tn s cng nghip. 2.1.5. C cu o in ng 2.1.5.1. Loi c mt khung dy ng a) Cu to C cu gm hai cun y. Cun dy tnh c tit din ln, t vng dy v thng chia lm hai phn on. Phn ng l mt khung dy c nhiu vng dy v tit din nh. Ngoi ra cn c kim ch th, b phn cn du, l so phn.
dL gim theo gc d

b) Nguyn l lm vic
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- Xt khi cho cc dng in mt chiu I1 v I2 vo cc cun dy phn tnh v ng, trong lng cun dy tnh s tn ti mt t trng. T trng ny s tc ng ln dng in chy trong cun dy ng v to ra mmen quay:

Nng lng t trng tch lu trong lng cun dy l:

trong L1, L2 l din cm ca cc cun dy v chng khng ph thuc vo gc quay ; M12 l h cm ca hai cun dy, thay i khi phn ng quay. Mmen quay

- Xt khi hai dng in a vo cc cun dy l dng in xoay chiu th:

Do phn ng c qun tnh m khng kp thay i theo gi tr tc thi cho nn thc t ly theo gi tr trung bnh trong mt chu k:

Vi l gc lch pha gia hai dng in; I1, I2 l cc gi tr hiu dng ca dng in ln lt chy trong cc cun dy tnh v ng. Tm li, trong mi trng hp ta u c:
33

c) c im v ng dng c im: - u im: + chnh xc cao v khng c tn hao trong li thp. + C th o c c i lng mt chiu v xoay chiu. - Nhc im: + D chu nh hng ca t trng ngoi. + Kh nng qu ti km v khung dy phn ng kch thc nh. + Cu to phc tp, t tin. + Thang chia khng u (tr khi ch to wattmet). ng dng: + Ch to cc ng h o dng, p xoay chiu c tn s cao hoc yu cu chnh xc cao. + Ch yu ch to ng h o cng sut tc dng v phn khng. 2.1.5.2. Loi c hai khung dy ng (logomet in ng) a) Cu to Phn tnh gm mt cun dy c chia lm hai na. Trong lng cun dy tnh c hai cun dy ng gn trn trc quay cng vi kim ch th, khng c l so phn. b) Nguyn l lm vic Khi cho hai dng in xoay chiu i, i1, i2 ln lt chy vo cun dy tnh v cc cun dy ng, trong lng cun dy tnh s c mt t trng. T trng ny s tc ng ln dng in chy trong cc cun dy ng
34

sinh ra cc mmen Mq1, Mq2

vi M1, M2 l h s h cm gia cun dy tnh v ln lt cc cun dy ng.

Ngi ta b tr sao cho cc mmen ny ngc chiu nhau, vy khi cn bng phn ng, ta c Mq1 = Mq2

vi I1, I2 l cc gi tr hiu dng ca cc dng in i1, i2; 1 2 l gc lch pha gia dng in i, i1 v i, i2
35

c) c im v ng dng Ging nh c cu mt khung dy ng nhng ch yu ch to ng h o cos 1 pha, 3 pha cho li in xoay chiu. 2.1.5.3. C cu st in ng v logomet st in ng a) C cu st in ng Gm cun dy tnh, mch t nhm to ra t trng trong khe h khng kh. Khung dy ng c gn vi trc quay cng kim ch th, l so phn v b phn cn du. Gc quay c tnh:

b) Logomet st in ng Gm mch t c cu to sao cho to nn khe h khng kh khng u, phn ng gm hai khung dy t cho nhau 60o v gn trn trc quay cng vi kim ch th. Gc quay c tnh:

c) c im ng dng - C th o dng mt chiu hoc xoay chiu. T trng qua khung dy ln nn t chu nh hng ca t trng ngoi. - Tn hao st t ln, chnh xc khng cao. - Thng dng ch to cc dng c o dng, o p, cng sut v gc lch pha.
36

2.1.6. C cu o cm ng 2.1.6.1. Cu to C cu cm ng c cu to nh hnh 2.1 1.

Hnh 2.11. C cu ch th cm ng
1. Cun dy 1 ; 2. Cun dy 2; 3. C cu cn du ; 4. a nhm v trc quay

2.1.6.2. Nguyn l lm vic Khi cho dng in i1 vo cun dy 1 th cun dy 1 to ra t thng 1 xuyn qua a nhm, dng in i2 vo trong cun dy 2 to ra t thng 2 cng xuyn qua a nhm. T thng 1 cm ng trn a nhm sc in ng e1 chm pha hn 1 mt gc /2. T thng 2 cm ng trn a nhm sc in ng e2 chm pha hn 2 mt gc /2. V a nhm c coi nh rt nhiu vng dy t st nhau, cho nn E1, E2 s to ra trn a nhm cc dng in xoy iX1 v iX2 chm pha hn so vi e1 v e2 cc gc 1 v 2 v ngoi in tr thun cn c thnh phn cm ng, tuy nhin do cc thnh phn cm ng rt nh nn ta gi thit cc gc 1 v
37

2 0. Do c s tng h gia t thng 1, 2 vi cc dng in iX1 v iX2 m sinh ra cc lc F1 v F2 v cc mmen tng ng lm quay a nhm. Ta xt cc mmen thnh phn nh sau: M11 l mmen sinh ra do 1 tc ng ln iX1 M12 l mmen sinh ra do 1 tc ng ln iX2 M21 l mmen sinh ra do 2 tc ng ln iX1 M22 l mmen sinh ra do 2 tc ng ln iX2 Gi tr tc thi ca mmen quay M1t do s tc ng tng h gia 1 v dng tc thi iX1 l: M1t = C1iX1 vi C l h s t l.

vi l gc lch pha gia 1 v iX1, ta c: V phn ng c qun tnh cho nn ta c mmen l i lng trung bnh trong mt chu k T:

Nh vy mmen quay s l tng cc mmen thnh phn: Mq = M12 + M21

38

M12 v M21 c du ngc nhau do vy mmen tng s ko a nhm v mt pha duy nht: Nu dng in to ra 1 v 2 l hnh sin v a nhm l ng nht (ch c in tr thun) th cc dng in xoy IX1 v IX2 s t l vi tn s v t thng sinh ra n, tc l:

vi C = C12C4 + C21C3 l hng s ca c cu ch th cm ng. 2.1.6.3. c im v ng dng iu kin c mmen quay l phi c hai t trng, mmen quay cc i khi sin = 1, c ngha l gc lch pha gia hai t thng 1 v 2 l /2. C cu ph thuc tn s, chnh xc thp v khi lm vic dng in xoy trong a nhm gy tn hao cng sut. C cu c ng dng ch yu ch to cng t o nng lng tc dng v phn khng trong li in xoay chiu. 2.2. C cu ch th s 2.2.1. Khi nim v nguyn l c bn ca c cu ch th s Trong nhng nm gn y xut hin v s dng rng ri cc ch th s, u vit ca c cu ch th s l thun li cho vic c ra kt qu, ph hp vi cc qu trnh o lng xa, qu trnh t ng ho sn. xut, thun li cho nhng i thoi gia my v ngi S khi ca c cu ch th s c th tm tt nh sau:

Hnh 2.13. S khi ca c cu ch th s

39

i lng o xin qua b bin i thnh xung (BX), s xung N t l vi ln x(t) c a vo b m ho (MH), b gii m (GM) v b hin s. Cc khu m ho, gii m, b hin s to thnh b ch th s. 2.2.2. Ch th s C nhiu loi ch th s khc nhau nhng ph bin hin nay vn dng ch th s n phng in nhiu cc v ch th s ghp 7 thanh bng mt pht quang hoc tinh th lng. 2.2.2.1. Ch th n phng in nhiu cc Ch th l mt n n ng c mt qut v 10 katot. Anot thng t in p 220V - 250V. Katot c ch to bng dy Cr-Ni un thnh hnh cc ch s t 0 - 9. Mi katot l mt con s. Khi c in p gia qut v mt katot no n s phng in, katot s sng ln v con s xut hin. - u im ca ch th ny l hnh dng cc con s p. - Nhc im: Kch thc cng knh, ngun in p cung cp cao, ch ph hp trong cng nghip. 2.2.2.2. Ch th s ghp 7 thanh

Ch th ny c ghp bng 7 thanh dng mt pht quang (LED: Light Emitting Diode) hoc tinh th lng (LCD: Liqui Crystal Display).
40

it pht quang l nhng cht bn dn m pht ra nh sng di tc dng ca dng in mt chiu. Tinh th lng l nhng mng mng lm bng cht tinh th lng. l nhng cht di tc dng ca in p mt chiu chuyn pha t dng lng sang dng tinh th v ngc li. Khi dng tinh th thanh ny tr nn trong sut, ta c th nhn thy mu sc nn ng sau. Mt u im c bn tinh th lng tiu th dng in rt nh: 0,1A/thanh, trong khi mt pht quang c: 10mA/thanh. Trong thc t cn ch th s 16 thanh, ma trn im... 2.2.3. M v cc mch bin i m 2.2.3.1. M M s l nhng k hiu v mt tp hp s, t t hp ca cc k hiu ta c th m t c cc con s khc nhau. C cc loi m s sau: - M c s 10, l h m thp phn c 10 k t t 0, 1, 2,..., 9. - M c s 2 l loi m c hai trng thi c k hiu t 0 v 1 (cn gi l m nh phn). - M 2 - 10 (cn gi l m BCD) l s lin h gia m c s 2 v m c s 10 d quan st v d c. i vi c cu ch th s th hin nay ch yu ngi ta s dng m c s 2. 2.2.3.2. Cc mch bin i m

Hnh 2.15. Mch gii m t m nh phn sang ch th 7 thanh

41

Mch bin i m l thit b dng bin i t m c s 2 hoc m 2 - 10 thnh m c s 10, ngha l th hin di dng s thp phn. Ngy nay cc b gii m c ch to di dng vi mch. V d nh vi mch SN74247 c cc u ra h cc gp dng iu khin LED c chung ant 5V. Cc in tr R1, R2,, R7 hn ch dng. Phn sau y s trnh by nguyn l mt s mch bin i t m. Da vo nguyn l ca cc mch bin i m ny m ngi ta ch to thnh cc vi mch chuyn dng. a) Mch bin i t m thp phn sang nh phn Tng qut c m u vo tng ng vi m s thp phn t 0, 1, 2... m-1 v n u ra tng ng vi n bt ca m s nh phn. Ngi ta thng tng hp b bin i m vi s u vo m = 10 tc l gm x0, x1,... x9 ng vi cc s thp phn t 0, 1, 2,... 9. Nh vy b bin i m s c bn u ra tng ng y8, y4, y2, y1 ng vi bn bt ca m nh phn c trng s 8, 4, 2, 1. Ta c bng trng thi nh sau:
Bng 2.1. Bng trng thi bin i t s thp phn sang nh phn

S thp phn X0 (0) X1 (1) X2 (2) X3 (3) X4 (4) X5 (5) X6 (6) X7 (7) X8 (8) X9 (9)

M nh phn Y8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 Y4 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 Y2 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 Y1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1

T bng trng thi ta c:

42

Vy ta c th thnh lp mch bin i m t thp phn sang nh phn nh sau:

Hnh 2.16. Mch tun i m t thp phn sang nhi phn

b) Mch bin i m t nh phn sang thp phn Nhim v ca mch ny ngc vi mch trn. Vi bng trng thi 2.1 ta c X0 X9 l cc bin ph thuc cn Y1 Y8 l cc bin c lp. V vy ta c cc phng trnh logic v s mch logic tng ng:

43

c) Mch bin i t s thp phn sang ch th 7 thanh u vo l cc s t nhin t 0 9, u ra l trng thi cc thanh sng ca ch th 7 thanh bng mt pht quang hoc tinh th lng. Xut pht t thc t ta c bng trng thi nh sau:
Bng 2.2. Bng trng thi bin i t s nhi phn sang thp phn

S thp phn X0 (0) X1 (1) X2 (2) X3 (3) X4 (4) X5 (5) X6 (6)

44

Trng thi cc phn t Y1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 Y2 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 Y3 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 Y4 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 Y5 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 Y6 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 Y7 0 0 1 1 1 1 1

X7 (7) X8 (8) X9 (9)

1 1 1

1 1 1

1 1 1

0 1 1

0 1 0

0 1 1

0 1 1

T bng trng thi ta c th vit c phng trnh nh sau (vi s th t cc thanh nh phn trc)

T y ta c th thit lp mch logic sau:

45

d) Mch bin i m t m nh phn sang ch th 7 thanh u vo l m s nh phn (8 4 2 1) ta gn cc tn bin l X8, X4, X2, X1. u ra l trng thi cc thanh sng ca ch th 7 thanh. Ta c bng trng thi sau:

46

Bng 2.3. Bng trng thi bin i t s nhi phn sang ch th 7 thanh

S thp phn 0 1 2 3 5 5 6 7 8 9

S nh phn X8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1

Trng thi cc thanh sng 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1

X4 X2 X1 Y1 Y2 Y3 Y4 Y5 Y6 Y7

T bng trng thi ta vit c cc phng trnh logic quan h gia u ra Y1,, Y7 vi cc u vo X8, X4, X2, X1. Tuy nhin cc phng trnh ny phc tp v i hi phi ti gin bng ba cc n (ti gin hm). V d:

47

Chng 3 O DNG IN V IN P
3.1. Nhng yu cu c bn ca vic o dng in v in p 3.1.1. Yu cu v in tr 3.1.1.1. Khi o dng in Ampemet l mt phn t c trng cho nhm cc phn t phn ng vi dng in nh: cun dng ca cng t, wattmet; cc rle dng in... nn khi xt ti yu cu i vi ampemet l xt chung cho c nhm. Khi o dng, ampemet c mc ni tip vi ti (nh Hnh 3.1) nn in tr ampemet s nh hng n kt qu o nh sau: Gi s ph ti c in tr l Rt, trc khi mc A vo mch th dng din c tnh: I =
U . Rt U . Rt + RA

Khi mc A ni tip vo mch, do nh hng ca in tr A, dng in c tnh: I A =

Vi IA l dng in ch bi ampemet, RA l in tr ca ampemet, Rt l in tr ti. Sai s ph trong qu trnh o lng s c tnh:

Ta thy sai s do A gy ra i vi mch ti cng nh nu in tr ca ampemet cng nh so vi in tr ti. V th yu cu i vi ampemet o dng in l in tr ca ampemet cng nh cng tt. Vi mt ph ti c in tr l Rt cp chnh xc ca ampemet s dng l y (hoc chnh xc yu cu ca mch ly tn hiu dng l l th in tr ca ampemet phi m bo iu kin sao cho:
48

Nu khng m bo iu kin trn, sai s ph gy ra s ln hn sai s yu cu lc ta phi s dng cng thc hiu chnh:

Trong trng hp in tr trong ca ngun cung cp ng k so vi in tr ti, th Rt c tnh l in tr ti cng thm vi in tr ngun. V d 3.1: Tnh in tr ca (A) khi th nghim o in tr mt chiu cun dy th cp ca MBA 560KVA, 10/0,4 KV nh Hnh 3.2, bit chnh xc yu cu % = 0,5%. Theo l lch, in tr mt chiu ca cun dy th cp l Rt=50 (m).

Nh vy iu kin cn ca vic ly tn hiu dng qua ti m bo sai s nh hn 0,5% l RA 0,25 (m). Trong thc t khng c (A) no tho mn nn s th nghim ny khng c ngha. 3.1.1.2. Khi o in p Volmet l mt phn t c trng cho nhm cc phn t phn ng vi in p nh: cun p ca cng t, wattmet; cc rle in p, cc mch khuch i in p... nn khi xt ti yu cu i vi volmet l xt chung cho c nhm. Khi o in p, volmet c mc song song vi ti nh Hnh 3.3. Nh vy ta thy in tr ca ti c mc song song thm vi in tr ca volmet v lm thay i in p trn ti v gy ra sai s ph trong qu trnh o lng. Xt khi cha mc volmet vo mch, in p trn ti c tnh:
49

trong : E l sc in ng ca ngun, Rt l in tr ti, Rn l ni tr ca ngun. Xt khi mc volmet vo mch, in p Uv do volmet o c s l:

Sai s ph P do volmet gy ra c tnh:

Ta thy sai s ph do volmet gy ra cng nh nu in tr ca n cng ln so vi in tr ti. V th yu cu i vi volmet l in tr cng ln cng tt. Thc t trn cc thit b o hin i hoc trn ng h vn nng ngi ta ghi tng tr vo ca n. Vi mt ph ti c in tr Rt t trong mch c in tr ngun Rn nu dng volmet cp chnh xc (hoc chnh xc yu cu ca mch ly tn hiu p l ) th in tr ca volmet phi m bo iu kin sao cho P < hay ta c:

Nu khng m bo iu kin trn, sai s ph do vomet gy ra ln hn sai s ca bn thn c cu ch th v ta phi dng cng thc hiu chnh. V d 3.2: Tnh tng tr vo yu cu ca mch khuch i ca mt my in tim nh Hnh 3.4. Bit u1 = 7mv, Rd = 100k. (in tr trung bnh da ngi), chnh xc yu cu % = 1%.

50

Bi lm: Ta c % = 1% nn = 0,01.

3.1.2. Yu cu v c tnh tn Ngoi yu cu v in tr cc ampemet v volmet xoay chiu phi c c tnh tn thch hp vi di tn s cn o. Lm vic ngoi di tn s s gy sai s ph do tn s. Sai s ny phi tnh n nh hng ca cc mch o lng i theo ch th nh Shunt, bin dng, bin p, chnh lu, khuch i v.v. Cng v vy trong nhiu ampemet v volmet, lc cn m bo sai s do tn s nh hn gi tr quy nh (thng l b hn cp chnh xc quy nh cho dng c) ta phi s dng trong mch o c nhng nhng khu b tn s. C trng hp ngi ta phi s dng nhng linh kin c bit m bo tn s lm vic ca dng c. Trn cc dng c o dng v p xoay chiu c ghi tn s hay gii tn s lm vic. 3.2. o dng in trung bnh v ln bng cc loi ampemet 3.2.1. Phng php s dng Ngi ta s dng mt s c cu ch th c in ch to ampemet o trong mch mt chiu v xoay chiu. Ampemet t in: Ch to da trn c cu ch th t in, c c im l rt nhy, tiu th t nng lng nn thng dng ch to ampemet c cp chnh xc t (0,5 2). i vi ampemet t in, khi nhit thay s lm cho in tr ca cun dy thay i dn ti sai s. gim sai s ngi ta thng dng phng php b nhit, tc l dng mt nhit in tr c h s nhit in tr m mc ni tip trong mch ca
51

ampemet, v vy s lm cho in tr ca ampemet gn nh khng thay i theo nhit . Ampemet t in ch c th o dng in mt chiu. Ampemet in t. c ch to da trn c cu ch th in t. Loi ny c chnh xc thp hn nhng n bn chc, d s dng v r tin nn c s dng rng ri hn trong cng nghip. Ampemet in t c th o c c dng mt chiu v dng xoay chiu nhng ch yu l o dng xoay chiu. C nhiu loi ampemet in t, chng ging nhau v nguyn l lm vic song ch khc nhau v hnh thc, s vng dy v kch thc cun dy t phn tnh. Ampemet in ng: C cu to phc tp v t tin nn ch dng trong nhng trng hp cn chnh xc cao, hoc tn hiu o c tn s cao hn. Sai s tn s trong di t mt chiu ti 3000Hz c xem nh khng ng k. Vi cc ampemet in ng khi dng nh mc I 0,5A th cun dy ng v cun dy tnh ni tip nhau, cn khi dng nh mc ln hn th cun dy ng v cun dy tnh mc song song vi nhau nh hnh v:

Ampemet chnh lu: Khi o dng c tn s cao hng kHz hoc mch o dng trong cc ng h vn nng ngi ta thng dng cc ampemet t in chnh lu. Cc ampemet chnh lu c th s dng chnh lu mt na hay hai na chu k. Tuy nhin s ch ca ampemet chnh lu l gi tr trung bnh ca dng xoay chiu, nhng thng thng cc dng c o in t hoc in ng li ch gi tr hiu dng ca ng
52

xoay chiu. V th thng nht s dng ngi ta quy c khc vch cc dng c chnh lu theo cc gi tr hiu dng, vi iu kin dng in l hnh sin. Vy nu em dng c chnh lu o dng khng sin s phm thm sai s v hnh dng, ta phi xc nh hiu chnh. Nu chnh lu mt na chu k th gi tr dng in trung bnh qua c cu l:

vi I l gi tr hiu dng ca dng in xoay chiu. Nu chnh lu hai na chu k th

3.2.2. Cc phng php m rng thang o 3.2.2.1. i vi ampemet mt chiu Ta bit c cu ch th t in dng ch to cc ampemet cho mch mt chiu. Khung dy c qun bng dy ng c kch thc nh t 0,02 0,04 mm. V vy dng in chy qua khung dy thng thng nh hn hoc bng 20mA. V vy khi cn o dng in ln hn ta phi dng Rs (in tr Shunt) l in tr c ch to bng hp kim ca magan c n nh cao so vi nhit . in tr Shunt c mc song song vi c cu o nh Hnh 3.7 (Shunt = r nhnh).

Ta gi I l dng in cn o, I0 l dng in chy qua c cu, Is l dng chy qua in tr Shunt Rs, R0 in tr ca c cu o. Ta c:
53

Khi bit R0 dng in nh mc lch ton thang o I0 dng cn o I, ta c th tnh c:

Mt ampemet mt chiu c th c nhiu gii hn o, thay i gii hn o bng cch thay i gi tr Rs Cn ch rng trn Shunt c cp chnh xc, c ghi gi tr dng nh mc, gi tr in tr v thng phn thnh cc cc dng v cc p ring nh Hnh 3.8. V d 3.3: Tnh in tr Shunt cho mt b in phn c dng cn o l I = 10kA. Bit dng nh mc qua c cu l I0 = 20mA, in tr c cu l R0 = 1. Bi lm:

54

3.2.2.2. i vi ampemet xoay chiu a) Phng php chia nh cun dy Vi anlpemet xoay chiu m rng thang o ngi ta khng dng Rs, v nh th s cng knh, t tin, gy tn tht nng lng, mt an ton. Thng thng cun dy tnh c cu to thnh nhiu phn on c s vng nh nhau, thay i gii hn o bng cch i ni cc phn on y theo kiu song song hoc ni tip, tuy nhin phi m bo iu kin sc t ng tng trong thit b bng hng s.

b) Phng php dng bin dng in Bin dng in (BI) l mt my bin p c bit c cun s cp rt t vng cho dng ph ti trc tip chy qua. Cun th cp qun rt nhiu vng, dy nh v c ni kn mch vi mt ampemet (hoc cun dng ca cng t, wattmet...). V in tr ca ampemet rt nh cho nn c th coi my bin dng lun lm vic ch ngn mch. Ta c:
55

KI gi l h s my bin dng. Thng thng, d dng cho vic ch to v s dng, W1 ch c mt vng, ng vi dng in I1 ch nh mc theo mt dy s u tin no ; W2 nhiu vng hn ng vi dng I2 ch nh mc l: I2m = 1A hoc I2m = 5A. V d: my bin dng: 100/5 ; 200/5; 300/5... Trong trng hp ampemet ni hp b vi bin dng in th s ch ca ampemet c khc theo gi tr dng in I1 pha s cp. Cn ch rng bin dng in l phn t c cc tnh, c cp chnh xc, v phi c kim nh trc khi lp t. 3.3. o dng in nh o dng in nh c t ra khi dng in cn o nh hn dng nh mc ca c cu. Cho ti nay vic nng cao nhy ca dng c v h thp ngng nhy ca dng c v cc mch khuch i l rt kh khn, sau y l mt s phng php. Ngi ta s dng phng php c kh tng nhy ca cc in k, ng ch nht l in k t in. in k t in s dng c cu ch th t in c nhy cao. Bin php nng cao nhy l tng t cm trong khe h khng kh v gim h s phn khng ca dy treo. Tng t cm trong khe h khng kh bng cch dng nam chm vnh cu c kch thc ln, tuy nhin ti nay t cm trong khe h khng kh ca c cu ch th t in vn cha vt qu 0,1T. Gim hng s phn khng ca dy treo, tuy nhin nu gim qu dn
56

n ko di thi gian dao ng ca c cu gy kh khn cho vic o ngi ta tm cch dung ho gia hai yu t trn. Bin php quang hc: L s dng khong cch t thang chia n gng quay ca in k tng nhy, gng gn trn trc ca phn ng, c mt ngun sng chiu vo gng, lia phn x ca gng chiu ln thang o nh hnh v a l khong di chuyn ca vt sng trn khong chia , l l khong cch t gng ti thang chia . S dng gng quay s tng quay ca tia phn chiu khi gng quay i mt gc so vi tia ti, lc tia phn x quay i mt gc 2. Nh vy nhy c tng ln gp hai ln. 3.4. o in p trung bnh v ln bng cc loi volmet 3.4.1. Phng php s dng Ngi ta s dng cc ch th c in ch to cc loi volmet o in p nh volmet t in, volmet in t, volmet in ng. Volmet t in: Volmet t in c cu to t c cu ch th t in, loi ny thng dng o cc in p mt chiu, c nhy cao, cho php dng nh i qua, cng c th s dng km vi b chnh lu o in p trong mch xoay chiu (trong trng hp cn nng cao chnh xc hoc nng cao di tn s ca tn hiu o). Tuy nhin ging nh ampemet ta phi ch ti h s hnh dng ca dng hnh sin. Volmet in t: Volmet in t c cun dy b tr phn tnh nn c th qun nhiu vng dy to nn in tr ln kh d dng, tuy nhin nu qun nhiu vng dy qu m khi o mch xoay chiu th xut hin dng in cm ng sinh ra bi tn s ca dng in, do s nh hng n tr s trn thang o ca volmet. Khc phc iu ny bng cch mc song song vi cun dy mt t in b. Volmet in ng: Khi o in p tn s cao hn tn s cng nghip hoc khi cn nng cao chnh xc ca php o ta dng volmet in ng, trong volmet in ng bao gi cun dy tnh v cun dy
57

ng cng c mc ni tip nhau.

Khi o in p c tn s qu cao, s c nhng sai s ph do tn s, v vy phi b tr thm t b cho cc cun dy tnh v ng. 3.4.2. Phng php m rng gii hn o 3.4.2.1. Phng php dng in tr ph Yu cu c bn ca volmet l in tr ca n cng ln cng tt v th m rng thang o trong cc volmet cch n gin nht l ni thm in tr ph vo c cu o nh Hnh 3.13.

Hnh 3.13. M rng thang o cho volmet

vi:

R0 in tr ca c cu o RP l in tr ph U0 in p t ln c cu UX in p cn o.

Ta c:

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Cc in tr ph thng c ch to bng hp kim ca ma ngan c chnh xc cao v t thay i theo nhit . ch to volmet nhiu thang o th ngi ta dng nhiu in tr ph mc ni tip vi c cu cn o. V d: S in ca mt volmet c ba gii hn o

3.4.2.2. Phng php dng bin in p Khi cn o in p c ln hng KV tr ln, nu dng in tr ph s cng knh v t tin, tn hao cng sut v mt an ton, do ta phi dng bin in p o lng BU. Bin in p o lng l mt my bin p c bit m cun s cp qun rt nhiu vng c ni vi in p cn o, cun th cp qun t vng hn c ni vi volmet in t hoc in ng (hoc cun p ca cng t, wattmet...). V volmet c in tr ln nn c th coi bin in p lun lm vic ch khng ti. Ta c:
59

 tin trong qu trnh s dng v ch to ngi ta quy c in p nh mc ca bin in p pha th cp bao gi cng l 100V. Cn pha s cp c ch to tng ng vi cc cp ca in p li Khi lp hp b gia bin in p v volmet ngi ta khc volmet theo gi tr in p pha s cp. Ging nh bin dng in, bin in p l phn t c cc tnh, c cp chnh xc, v phi c kim nh trc khi lp t. 3.5. o dng in v in p bng phng php so snh 3.5.1. Khi nim Cc bin php o dng v p k trn s dng ch th cui cng l nhng c cu c in lm quay kim ch trn thang chia , nh vy sai s khng th nh hn sai s ca cc ch th dng vo dng c v cha k n sai s gy ra do cc mch o s dng. Cp chnh xc cao nht ca cc dng c o c in hin nay cha vt qu 0,01 nn php o trc tip trn cng khng vt qua cp chnh xc y. nng cao chnh xc v php o in p, tng tng tr vo, ngi ta dng phng php so snh hay cn gi l phng php b tc l so snh in p cn o vi in p mu. y l nguyn l ca tt c cc in th k, cc volmet s c chnh xc cao nht hin nay. Nguyn tc c bn ca phng php so snh c tm tt nh sau:
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in p cn o UX c so snh vi in p b Uk l in p ri trn in tr Rk. Rk l in tr mu c chnh xc rt cao v rt t thay i theo nhit . Trong qu trnh so snh nu U = 0 ta c so snh cn bng, nu U 0 ta c so snh khng cn bng hay l so snh kiu vi sai. U c xc nh bng dng c c nhy cao hay dng c t ng pht hin s chnh lch hay cn gi l c quan zero. Cc loi phng php so snh khc nhau ch khc nhau cch to i lng b Uk. chnh xc ca in p b v cc yu cu khc cng vi nhy, ngng nhy ca dng c cn bng hay c quan zero u do sai s yu cu ca php o quyt nh. Sau y ta xe tm hiu mt s dng c o dng phng php so snh. 3.5.2. in th k mt chiu 3.5.2.1. in th k mt chiu in tr ln S ca in th k mt chiu in tr ln nh Hnh 3.17. Rk, Rc l cc bin tr, EN l ngun pin mu, Ucc l in p cung cp cho mch, UX l in p cn o, G in k ch khng.

in th k mt chiu in tr ln gm hai mch chnh l mch to dng cng tc v mch o. Khi o ta tin hnh hai thao tc: + iu chnh dng cng tc Khi iu chnh dng cng tc ta ng kho K sang v tr 1,1 ni
61

in k vo mch to dng cng tc, ta iu chnh Rc in k G ch khng, khi xy ra quan h: EN = URN = IP.Rc Gi tr dng cng tc:

+ Tin hnh o in p cn o UX Ta ng kho K sang v tr 2,2 ni in p cn o UX vo mch o, sau ta iu chnh con trt trn in tr Rk cho n kh in k G ch khng. Lc ta c quan h sau:

Vy in p UX c xc nh theo quan h trn. Trn s ngun pin mu EN c ch to vi chnh xc cc 0,001% 0,01% v c h s nht nh (EN = 101863V). Tuy nhin gi t ca pin mu b nh hng bi nhit ca mi trng xung quanh. Quan h gia gi tr ca phi mu vi nhit ca mi trng nh sau: trong EN20oC l gi tr ca pin mu nhit chun 20oC, thng EN20oC = 1,0186V, t l nhit ti ni s dng in th k. Ch : Thng thng ngi ta iu chnh sao cho RN = 10186 dng cng tc IP = 0,1A, thun li cho qu trnh tnh in p cn o UX. S in th k mt chiu loi ny gi tr in tr Rk tng i ln, in p cn o UX c V cho nn nh hng ca in tr tip xc v sc in ng tip xc khng ng k, ngc li nu o in p c rt nh ta phi dng in th k mt chiu in tr nh. 3.5.2.2. in th k mt chiu in tr nh
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in th k mt chiu in tr nh c ch to da trn nguyn tc gi nguyn gi tr in tr mu Rk thay i dng cng tc IP qua Rk thay i in p Uk = IPRk b li vi in p UX. S nguyn l ca in th k mt chiu in tr nh nh hnh v:

Hnh 3.18. S in thkmt chiu in tr nh

Ngi ta to ngun dng mu IP qua in tr mu Rk bng khuch i thut ton. t u vo khuch i thut ton mt gn mu EN b vi in p ri trn cc in tr mc song song u vo khuch i. Nu EN v in p ri trn cc in tr mc song song Ug b hon ton nhau: Mt khc t u ra ca khuch i thut ton ta c:

vi gg = g i , gi l cc in dn mc song song u vo khuch i.

i =1

Vy:

Ta iu chnh cng tc K thay i cc gi tr dng cng tc IP cho n khi kim in k ch khng, ta c:

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Trong mch to in p b khng c u tip xc cho nn loi tr c sai s do sc in ng tip xc v in tr tip xc. Sai s ch yu l do ngng vo v h s khuch i ca b khuch i quyt nh. 3.5.3. in th k xoay chiu V nguyn l th in th k xoay chiu cng so snh in p cn o vi in p ri trn in tr mu khi c dng in cng tc chy qua. Song i vi tn hiu xoay chiu th vic to mu v iu chnh cn bng kh khn v phc tp.

hiu chnh dng cng tc trong mch xoay chiu ngi ta khng dng gn mu (v khng c pin xoay chiu) m phi chnh nh nh ampemet c chnh xc cao. Do cp chnh xc ca in th k xoay chiu khng th vt qu cp chnh xc ca ampemet, mt khc mun cho UX v Uk Cn bng th phi iu chnh cn bng c v modun v v gc pha, tc l tho mn ba iu kin l in p UX v in p Uk phi cng tn s, cng bng nhau v tr s v UX v Uk phi ngc pha nhau. thc hin iu kin th nht ngi ta mc in p UX v Uk vo ngun cng tn s. Dng b ch th khng thc hin iu kin th hai v phi tch Uk thnh hai thnh phn lch nhau 90o to UX ngc Uk C hai loi in th k xoay chiu l: - in th k xoay chiu to cc; - in th k xoay chiu to vung gc ( cc). 3.5.3.1. in th k xoay chiu to cc
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Trong in th k xoay chiu loi ny, in p cn o UX c cn bng vi in p ri trn in tr R (xc nh bi cc con trt D1 v D2) Mun UX = IPR. Dng cng tc IP c xc nh nh ampemet chnh xc cao v in tr R iu chnh (Rc). B iu chnh pha dng cn bng v pha, ng thi cng lm ngun cung cp cho mch to dng cng tc Ip, b iu chnh pha ny chnh l nhc im ca in th k xoay chiu v kh xc nh chnh xc v tr n nh ca phn quay ng vi gc quay khi iu chnh pha v dng IP thay i lm cho vic iu chnh cn bng kh khn. 3.5.3.2. in th k xoay chiu to vung gc Trong in k s dng hai cun dy t gn nhau v dng h cm M ca chng to Uk thnh hai thnh phn lch nhau 90o v UX s cn bng vi tng hai vc t thnh phn.

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S gm hai mch cng tc v mt mch o. Mch cng tc th nht gm bin tr dy qun c chun ho AB c im gia l O, cun s cp w1 ca bin p khng li thp, ampemet A v in tr (Rc). Dng in I1 t ngun cung cp xoay chiu (c xc nh nh ampemet) to trn bin tr AB mt in p UAB. in p Uk1 c xc nh bi dng I1 v v tr con trt D1 trn bin tr AB. V dng I1 khng thay i trong qu trnh o nn thang chia c khc theo gi tr in p trn bin tr AB. Mch cng tc th hai gm bin tr dy qun c chun ho A'B' c im gia O' ni vi im O gia ca bin tr AB, cun th cp w2 ca bin p khng li v hp in tr Rf b tn s. Dng in I2 trong mch cng tc lch pha vi I1 gc 90o (v in cm L2 khng ln lm nn c th coi nh I2 trung pha vi E2 m E2 lch pha vi E1 mt gc 90o). Trong mch th nht I1 c gi tr xc nh nn I2 cng c gi tr xc nh:

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M l h cm ca w1 v w2 Ta xc nh Uk2 = I2R2 (R2 l mt phn in tr ca AB c xc nh nh v tr ca con trt D2 trn A'B'). V Ukl = I1R1 v Uk2 = I2R2 m I1 v I2 lch nhau mt gc 90o nn Ukl v Uk2 cng lch pha nhau 90o. Ch rng khi tn s f thay i = 2f, nh vy khi thay i dn ti I2 thay i v gi tr khc trn AB cng thay i. khc phc ngi ta dng hp in tr ph Rf b cho tn s khng i (tc l Rf thay i ph thuc vo s thay i ca tn s ngun cung cp). Mch o l mch ch yu ca in th k bao gm ngun tn hiu cn o UX, in th k ch khng G, cc phn ca bin tr dy qun chun D1O, D2O'. th biu din cc gi tr Uk nh Hnh 3.19. iu chnh cc con trt Uk1 v Uk2 trn cc bin tr dy qun AB v AB thng qua tnh ton ta s c tr hiu dng v gc pha ca in p UX cn o

Sai s ch yu ca in th k xoay chiu l sai s ca ampemet (nh nht l 0,1) 3.5.3.3. in th k t ng t ghi Loi ny thng dng o nhit l ti, ram, nhit luyn, dng nhn
67

dng cc i tng l l gia nhit. - S tm tt nguyn l nh Hnh 3.23.

S gm cc khi nh sau: + Cp nhit in c nhim v bin i t nhit tx sang sut in ng mt chiu Ex. Vi h thng thc thng c thm mch b nhit u t do. + Cu so snh gm EP, RP v cc in p mu khc nh: R0, R1, R2, R3, R4. Nhim v l to ra cc in p mu mt chiu vi chnh xc cao (Trong thit b thc t EP c ly t ngun in p xoay chiu 220V qua b chnh lu, qua n p mt chiu vi cht lng cao). + B bin i mt chiu, xoay chiu c nhim v bin i in p mt chiu U thnh in p xoay chiu tn s 50Hz. Mch ny c th l con rung c hc hoc rung in t. + Mch khuch i c nhim v khuch i tn hiu xoay chiu vi cng sut ln cung cp cho cun dy iu khin ng c KB. Tng cui ca mch khuch i s l khuch i cng sut nhy pha + Hai ng c gm mt ng c khng ng b c nhim v ko con trt trn cc bin tr RP, R0 v mt ng c ng b c nhim v
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ko bng giy chuyn ng trong ch t ghi. Qu trnh o c chia lm hai bc: Kim tra chnh xc ca cc in p mu Lc ny kho K v tr H trc hp gim tc ca ng c KB c a vo n khp vi u bin tr RP. Khi ngun sut in ng chun Ec c so snh vi in p U4 l in p ri trn in tr R4 Ta c: U= Ec - U4 trong Ec l mt ngun chun vi chnh xc rt cao c sn trong thit b. U c a vo mch bin i mt chiu, xoay chiu sau c a ti mch khuch i v tn hiu c khuch i ln vi cng sut ln cung cp cho cun dy iu khin ca ng c KB. V tng cui ca mch khuch i l khuch i cng sut nhy pha nn pha ca in p trn cun dy iu khin s ph thuc vo du ca U. Tm li, khi U 0, ng c KB s quay ko con trt trn u bin tr RP thay i in p Uk theo chiu hng sao cho U 0. Lc mt tn hiu iu khin v dng li. Cc in p mu trn cc nhnh ca cu coi nh t yu cu v chnh xc. Qu trnh o nhit Lc ny kho K v tr X, trc hp gim tc ca ng c KB c a v n khp vi u bin tr R0 Nh cp nhit in, nhit cn o bin thnh sut in ng mt chiu Ex. Khi o Ex ta so snh vi U12 l in p ri trn cc in tr mu R1, R2 v mt phn R0. Ta c: U= Ex - U12 Khi U 0 th theo nguyn l phn trn, ng c KB s quay, ko con trt trn u bin tr R0 thay i U12 c xu hng sao cho U 0 th mt tn hiu iu khin v dng li. Lc ta xc nh c Ex = U12. Vy cn c vo v tr ca con trt trn bin tr R0 ta xc nh c U12 ri ta suy ra Ex. Thc t trn R0 ngi ta c sn cc vch chia theo n v nhit nn ta c c kt qu.
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Qu trnh t ghi Lc ny trn u bin tr R0 ta gn sn mt ngi ghi, ngi ghi t ln bng giy (mt cch lin tc hoc gin on hoc bng nhit). Trong ch t ghi bng giy c ng c ng b ko chuyn ng vi tc khng i. Nh vy s to ra trc thi gian t. Ta thy khi to thay i, ngi ghi s chuyn ng t tri sang phi nh ng c KB, cn bng giy th chuyn ng vi tc khng i t di ln trn nh ng c ng b nn ngi ghi s v trn bng giy biu nhit theo thi gian.

3.6. o in p bng cc volmet ch th s Ngy nay volmet s c s dng rng ri trong o lng v kh nng chnh xc kh cao, gn nh, thun tin cho ngi s dng. Tu theo cch bin i in p thnh cc i lng ch th s m ngi ta chia ra thnh ba loi volmet s nh sau: - Volmet s chuyn i thi gian; - Volmet s chuyn i tn s; - Volmet s chuyn i trc tip (chuyn i b). 3.6.1. Volmet s chuyn i thi gian Nguyn l chung l bin i in p cn o thnh khong thi gian, sau lp y khong thi gian bng cc xung c tn s chun (f0) sau dng b m m s lng xung (N) t l vi Ux suy ra Ux S cu trc chung ca volmet s nh sau:
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Hnh 3.25. S cu trc volmet s chuyn i thi gian mt nhp

Biu thi gian:

Nguyn l lm vic: Khi m my ti thi im t1, my pht xung chun qua b chia tn khi ng my pht xung rng ca, u ra my pht xung rng ca c Urc (Uk) i tin b so snh so snh vi in p Ux cn o u vo. ng thi cng t u ra ca b pht in p rng ca c xung th nht n trig v t trig trng thi kch hot m kho K cho php cc xung mang tn s chun (f0) t pht xung qua kho K n b m v ch th s. Ti thi im t2 khi Ux = Urc thit b so snh pht xung th 2 tc ng vo trig v kho kho K, thi gian t t1 n t2 tng ng vi tx. T y ta c mi quan h:
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Vi mt my pht in p rng cn c nh th t v tr l hng s, v vy Ux t l vi tx s lng xung n b m trong khong thi gian tx s l:

S lng xung i qua kho K trong mt chu k ca in p rng ca t l vi in p cn o. Sai s ch yu l do my pht in p rng ca gy ra, tc l t v tr khc hng s, tip theo l sai s lng t. Ch : Khi Ux bin thin vi mt tc no th khng th o c v ng cong in p rng ca khng ct Ux. Do vy s bin thin ca in p Ux Phi m bo iu kin sau:

3.6.2. Volmet s chuyn i tn s Nguyn l lm vic ca volmet s chuyn i tn s da trn nguyn tc bin in p thnh tn s ri dng cc my o tn s ch th theo in p. S cu trc ca volmet s chuyn i tn s nh sau

72

in p cn o Ux c a n u vo, qua khu tch phn s c in p U1. U1 c so snh vi in p U2 (in p U2 c n nh cao Khi U1 = U2 thit b so snh pht xung qua khuch i 2 (ti thi im t thng kho K1 v K n b m, ch th s. Khi K1 thng, in p U0 (ngc du vi U1) qua K1 n b vi in p U1 (y l mch phng in ca t C) trong khong thi gian Tk (t t1 n t2) ti t2 in p U0 b hon ton U1

73

Vy tn s fx t l vi in p cn o Ux ch th s ta dng phn to gc thi gian v cc kho, b m v ch th s ging nh mt my o tn s nhng hin th theo in p. C th b to gc thi gian l my pht xung chun T0 to thi gian Tc = kT0 iu khin kho cho cc xung mang tn s fx qua n. S lng xung mang tn s fx qua kho K trong khong thi gian Tc n ch th s c xc nh nh sau:

m bo chnh xc th ngun to in p U0 phi n nh, sai s ca volmet loi ny c hai loi l sai s do chuyn t in p sang tn s khong 0,2% v sai s lng t khong 0,01%. 3.6.3. Volmet s chuyn i trc tip
74

Ta so snh in p cn o Ux vi in p chun Uk ph thuc vo vic gia cng i lng b Uk v quy trnh so snh vi Ux m ngi ta phn ra thnh volmet s chuyn i trc tip kiu b qut v volmet s bin i trc tip kiu tu ng. 3.6.3.1. Volmet s chuyn i trc tip kiu b qut in p b Uk thay i lp li theo chu k, trong mi chu k bin thin ca Uk ta ly s do mt ln tc l ti thi im Ux, Uk ta c kt qu ca php o. in p b Uk c th thay i tuyn tnh hoc thay i theo bc thang. Nu thay i theo bc thang th c bc thang bng nhau v bc thang khng bng nhau. S cu trc gm hai phn: phn chuyn i in p Ux thnh khong thi gian Tx v phn o khong thi gian. Thc cht gm hai phn l phn bin i in p cn o thnh s lng xung N1 v phn tip theo lm nhim v bin i s lng xung N1 thnh m thp phn N10 iu khin cc phn t hin s.

75

Nguyn l lm vic: Khi m my, b pht xng chun bt u lm vic, cc xung f0 n b m 1 v kho K; sau mt tp xung f0 tng ng vi thi im t0 th b m 1 pht xung n thng kho K, trong thi gian K thng cc xung mang f0 qua K n b m 2 v ch th s. ng thi c mi xung f0 n D/A s tng in p ra ca n Uk ln mt mc U (cc mc U bng nhau). Qu trnh tip tc cho n khi Uk Ux (ti thi im tr b so snh tc ng vo b khuch i to tn hiu kho kho K. Qu trnh o kt thc v b phn ch th hin kt qu. Nu tt c cc mc in p U to nn Uk liu bng nhau th s lng xung N1 s t l vi in p cn o Ux tc l Ux Uk = N1U. y l gi tr tc thi ca in p cn o ti thi im t1. Nu mun o Ux ti thi im khc th qu trnh o s lp li t u. i vi volmet ch th b qut vi i lng Uk thay i theo cc bc thang khng bng nhau. Trong cc volmet ny cc mc bc thang U khng nh nhau, c th to cc U theo tng hng m ca con s h m nht nh. Do c th da vo h m nh phn, nh thp phn v thp phn gia cng in p b Uk. V d 3.4: Qu trnh gia cng in p b Uk theo h m thp phn.

76

Hnh 3.31. Qu trnh gia cng in p b

Qu trnh so snh t hng ln nht, vi Ux = 43V. Con s thp phn c hai hng m l hng chc v hng n v. Nguyn l ca qu trnh so snh nh sau: + Nu Uk > Ux th m s ghi l 0. + Nu Uk Ux th m s ghi l mt s tng ng vi hng m ca Uk v khi hiu |Uk - Ux| < U (mc ca hng m) th qu trnh so snh s chuyn sang hng m nh hn). C th y ta bt u so snh Ux vi Uk = 90 ta s c m ra l 0, Uk = 80 ta s c m ra l 0,... cho n khi Uk = 40 tc l:

Lc ny m ra s l 4 ( hng chc nn ghi l 40) tip tc qu trnh so snh s din ra hng n v vi gi tr ln nht ca hng l 9 v mi mc U = 1

Qu trnh gia cng Uk kt thc ta s c tng gi tr

y Uk10 l m hng chc, Uk1 l m hng n v. 3.6.3.2. Volmet s chuyn i trc tip kiu tu ng Trong cc volmet ny i lng b Uk thay i lun bm theo s bin thin ca i lng cn o Ux. V vy trong cu trc ca n c b chuyn i A/D, D/A tc ng theo hai chiu thun nghch. c im c bn ca dng c o l kh nng cho kt qu lin tc ti thi im bt k. Volmet s chuyn i trc tip kiu tu ng c hai loi bao gm loi gia cng i lng b Uk thay i theo bc thang bng nhau v loi gia
77

cng i lng b Uk thay i theo bc thang khng bng nhau. a) Volmet s chuyn i trc tip kiu tu ng c Uk thay i theo bc thang bng nhau. Nguyn l c bn

in p Ux c so snh vi in p b Uk bt u t thi im t1 in p Uk tng lin tc, mi mc tng l Uk (l nhng bc thang bng nhau) cho n thi im t2 khi Ux Uk. Xut hin bt phng trnh Ux - Uk < Uk s kt thc qu trnh o v cho ra kt qu ch th s. Thi gian gia cng c xc nh bi s mc lng t ln nht (Ndm) v thi gian t ca mt mc lng t. t0 = Ndmt Da vo sai s lng t yu cu xc nh Ndm.

+ Volmet s chuyn i trc tip kiu tu ng vi b m thun nghch c cu trc nh sau:

78

Khi bt u lm vic b pht xung chun pht lin tc n ch kho (K). Ti thi im Ux = 0 hoc Ux = Uk th kho (K) kho, cc xung mang tn s f0 khng th n b m thun nghch. Khi Ux > Uk tc l Ux - Uk = U > 0, tn hiu U qua khuch i c lch n thng kho K v iu khin b m lm vic ch cng. M ra ca b m iu khin b chuyn i D/A tng dn Uk cho n khi Ux Uk th kho K s kho, kt thc qu trnh o, b phn ch th s cho kt qu o. Khi Ux < Uk tc l Ux - Uk = U < 0 th khuch i c lch to xung thng kho K, iu khin b m lm vic ch tr. M ra ca b m iu khin chuyn i A/D gim Uk cho n khi Ux Uk th kho K s kho, b phn ch th s cho kt qu o. + Volmet s chuyn i trc tip kiu tu ng vi ng c thun nghch. S khi nh sau:

Ta m ho gc quay ca ng c (tc l U c bin thnh

79

gc ca ng c). Dng c thng c hai u ra, mt u l m s, mt u khc l tn hiu tng t (sau ng c) c th ghi hoc ch th bng kim trn thang chia . Khu A/D ca dng c l chuyn i khng gian dng mt n hoc thc m ho bin i gc quay thnh m Gray ri t m Gray thnh m nh phn, gii m, ch th s. b) Volmet s chuyn i trc tip kiu tu ng c Uk thay i theo bc thang khng bng nhau. Volmet gm hai loi vi hai php gia cng Uk nh sau: + Gia cng Uk t hng m ln nht Trng thi ban u, tt c cc hng m ( cc) u bng 0 tc l Uk = 0. Trong mi hng bt u t s nh nht ca hng m tng dn Uk cho n khi hiu Ux - Uk < Uk ca hng th chuyn sang hng m nh hn v qu trnh lp li nh trn. Qu trnh o (gia cng) kt thc khi:

hng nh nht, thit b so snh s thng bo iu ny. Nu Ux = const th Uk s tng lin tc hoc gim lin tc, s mc lng t khng ln lm. Nu Ux bin thin, Uk s thay i cho ph hp vi s bin thin ca Ux s iu khin s phc tp hn, s lng nhp thc hin gia cng Uk c xc nh: trong : n l s lng nhp; a1, a2 a3, l s mc ca cc cc to thnh gi tr s ca i lng cn o. Thi gian cc i gia cng theo phng php ny: t0 = k.9.t k l s cc, 9 l ch s trong mt cc. + Gia cng Uk t hng nh nht Trng thi ban u Uk = 0 v bt u t gi tr nh nht ca hng nh nht. V d hng n v: Uk = 0, 1, 2, 3,..., 9. Nu gia cng ht hng nh
80

m hiu Ux - Uk > Uk1 (Uk1 l mc gi tr ca hng nh nht) th tip tc gia cng n hng ln hn khi xut hin Uk > Ux tc l hiu Ux - Uk i du th quay tr v hng m nh nht v gim dn tng mc Uk1 gim Uk cho n khi Uk Ux. Qu trnh o kt thc v kt qu hin ra ch th s. u im ca phng php ny l s iu khin tng i n gin, nhc im l thi gian gia cng di, nht l trng hp dng bn cc m s 9090 phi thc hin 90 nhp. Thi gian gia cng s c bn ch s: t0 = 90.t.

81

Chng 4 O CNG SUT V NNG LNG

4.1. o cng sut v nng lng trong mch mt pha 4.1.1. o cng sut tc dng bng wattmet in ng 4.1.1.1. o cng sut trong mch mt chiu o cng sut ngi ta thng dng wattmet in ng, wattmet in ng c ch to da trn c cu ch th in ng, gc quay ca c cu ch th in ng c tnh nh sau: vi l gc lch pha gia cc dng I1 v I2 S mc wattmet in ng nh Hnh 4.1. Wattmet in ng c hai cun dy, cun dy tnh cn gi l cun dng c cun bng dy c kch thc ln, t vng, cho dng ph ti trc tip chy qua hoc ni vi th cp ca bin dng in, n ng vai tr nh mt ampemet. Cun dy ng hay cn gi l cun p thng c ni tip vi RP, c ot trc tip ln in p ca ph ti hoc ni vi th cp ca bin in p o lng, n ng vai tr nh mt volmet.

Xt vi mch mt chiu ta c: cos = 1, I1 I

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vi Ru l in tr mt chiu ca cun dy ng. Thay gi tr I2 vo (4-1) ta c:

vi P l cng sut tc dng m ph ti tiu th qua W v K 1 =

K Rp + Ru

Kt lun: Gc quay t l bc nht vi cng sut tiu th trn ti, vy c th dng wattmet in ng o cng sut trong mch mt chiu. 4.1.1.2. o cng sut trong mch xoay chiu Gi s mch xoay chiu c in p u = Umsint v dng ph ti i = Imsin(t - ) = i1 y l gc ti. V c cu khng c mch t nn dng i2 ch chm pha hn so vi in p u mt gc kh nh no . Ta c th vc t nh Hnh 4.2.

Vn t cng thc (4-1) ta c:

vi u l gc lch pha gia in p v dng in trong cun dy ng. Cui cng ta tnh c:
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Ta xt hai trng hp: - Coi gc u rt nh: u 0 (Xu << Ru) Khi gc quay = K1Scos = K1P Thc t gc u tuy kh nh nhng khc 0 v vy dn n nhng sai s trong qu trnh o lng

Sau khi bin i biu thc v thay: sin u u, sin2u 0, ta c kt qu: Kt lun: Sai s khi dng wattmet in ng ph thuc vo cu trc ca wattmet (u) v tnh cht ca ph ti (tg). Ch : - Gc quay = K1Scos, nu ta i u 1 trong 2 cun dy dng hoc p th gc lch pha

Wattmet s quay theo chiu ngc li, v vy ta ni rng wattmet c cc tnh, cc u dy cng cc tnh thng c nh du (*) ni chng vi nhau. Gc quay ca wattmet t l vi cng sut tc dng trn ph ti song thang chia ca wattmet khng chia theo n v cng sut m chia thnh mt s vch nht nh. Gi tr ca mi vch chia c c trng bi h s ca wattmet Cw:
84

trong Unk, Ink l in p v dng in nh mc ng vi thang o th k no . an l s vch trn chia trn ton thang o. Wattmet in ng c th c nhiu gii hn o (Ti sao?) mi gii hn c mt h s Cw tng ng. Cng sut o c tnh bng tch ca h s Cw trn thang o tng ng vi s vch chia m kim ch th th hin.

4.1.1.3. o cng sut phn khng Ta s dng wattmet in ng cng vi in tr, cun cm. S mc nh sau: Cun dy dng in c mc ni tip vi ph ti. Cun dy in p c mc song song vi mt in tr R1, sau c mc ni tip vi mt cun cm L v in tr R, ta iu chnh tr s R1, L, R sao cho U v I vung gc vi nhau. Khi o gc quay ca wattmet l:

4.1.2. Wattmet s dng nhng phn t phi tuyn 4.1.2.1. Wattmet nhit in a) C s l lun chung Wanmet in ng ch o cng sut trong mch in tn s thp v mt di tn nht nh. Khi cn o cng sut tn s cao hoc c trong mt di tn rng no ngi ta dng wattmet nhit in. Phn t c bn c s dng trong wattmtt nhit din l hai cp nhit in ging
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nhau A, B c mc nh Hnh 4.4. Gi cng sut sinh ra trn cc in tr nhit r l: pa, pb. R rng sut in ng trn cc cp nhit ngu s t l vi pa, pb Ea = K.pa; vi K l h s t l. Eb= K.pb

Gi thit ngi ta b tr sao cho dng in qua in tr r1 bng tng ca hai ng i1, i2 cn dng in qua ra bng hiu i1, i2 ia = i1+i2, ib =i1 - i2 Khi c th tnh c cng sut nhn c tin cc in tr r nh sau:

Vi cch ni cc cp nhit ngu nh hnh v s ch ca m s bng:

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1 R rng s ch ca mV t l vi i1i 2 dt . Vn y ta cn phi T0

o cng sut tiu th trn ti. M ta bit cng sut tiu th trn ti s bng
1 u.idt . T 0
T

V vy ta phi xy dng s sao cho cc dng in ia, ib l tng v hiu ca cc dng i1, i2 Mt khc cc dng i1, i2 li phi t l vi dng in v in p trn ti tc l

S ch ca m s l:

vi C = 4abKr. Tc s ch ca m t l vi cc cng sut tc dng trn ph ti b b) Wattmet nhit in Trn c s l thuyt nu trn, ta xy dng s nguyn l nh hnh v

87

Trn s A, B l cc cp nhit in, r1 l in tr c gi tr rt nh, l dng in ph ti, ta c: iu i. Vi cch b tr mch nh trn ta c:

Tng t

Trn s thng chn ra = rb = r. Kt hp vi c s l lun ban u s ch ca m trong s ny s t l vi cng sut tc dng P ln ph ti. 4.1.2.2. Wattmet s dng phn t bnh phng a) C s l lun chung Ta bit trong thit b in c nhng phn t m u ra (dng, p) t l vi bnh phng u vo v nh vy gi t trung bnh u ra cng t l vi bnh phng gi tr trung bnh u vo. Nhng phn t nh vy c th s dng o cng sut tc dng P trong mch. Loi thng dng l dit bn dn. Gi thit i lng u ra A t l bnh phng vi in p vo u A = n.u2.
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S cu trc tng hp s dng hai phn t phi tuyn B1, B2 nh hnh v:

Ngi ta tng hp sao cho vi U, I l in p v dng in cn s dng o cng sut P. Lc ta c:

vi l gc lch pha gia in p v dng in trn ph ti. T c th vit:

vi C l h s t l, P l cng sut cn o. Vy c th o A ri suy ra cng sut cn o. b) Warttmet s dng phn t bnh phng - it bn dn S c th o cng sut s dng B1, B2 nh sau:

89

Trn s r1 l in tr Shunt. Ta bit vi mt bn dn dng in t l vi bnh phng in p tc l

T ta c:

Lc gi tr trung bnh ca in p ri trn in tr ra l:

Tng t, nu trn phn t B2 xut hin in p Ub vi gi tr hiu dng Ub lc ta cng c: T hnh v ta c:

90

Trn thc t thng chn ra = rb = r, lc in p trn mV s bng Ch : Wattmet ny s dng trong di tn rt rng, ti hng nghn Hz c sai s t 1 3 % v tiu th mt cng sut rt nh. 4.3.1. o nng tng tc dng bng cng t cm ng mt pha C rt nhiu cch o nng lng, song cng t cm ng mt pha c ng dng rng ri nht trong k thut v mmen quay ln, lm vic tin cy, sai s nm trong phm vi cho php. 4.1.3.1. Cu to Cu to ca cng t mt pha nh Hnh 4.8 gm hai nam chm in A v B.

- Nam chm in A gi l cun dng, thng c cun bng dy c kch thc ln, t vng v cho dng ph ti trc tip chy qua hoc ni vi th cp ca my bin dng in. - Nam chm in B c gi l cun p, thng c cun bng y c kch thc nh, rt nhiu vng, t trc tip ln in p li hoc ni
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vi th cp ca bin in p o lng. - a nhm c kp cng trn trc quay, ngoi ra cn nam chm vnh cu M, thanh dn t G v h thng c cu m. 4.1.3.2. Nguyn l lm vic Xt khi cun dng c dng in xoay chiu i chy qua s xut hin t thng i xuyn qua a nhm hai ln, khi t in p xoay chiu u ln cun p s to ra dng in iu chm pha hn so vi in p mt gc 90o. Dng iu sinh ra t thng u. T thng u gm hai thnh phn: + up ch khp mch qua mch t cun p gi l t thng ph; + uc xuyn qua a nhm gi l t thng lm vic. i v uc s cm ng trn a nhm nhng dng in xoy. Theo nguyn l ca c cu ch th cm ng, a nhm s chu tc dng ca mmen quay c xc nh:

vi l gc lch pha gia hai t thng i v uc Ta coi mch t cha bo ho, nn t thng i t l vi I: i = c1.I vi c1 = const. Ta coi tn s l khng i nn uc t l vi U: uc = c2.U vi c2 = const. vy mmen quay c tnh: Mq = Kfc1c2UIsin = K1UIsin vi K1 = Kfc=1c2 Ta xt hai trng hp: * Trng hp l tng Coi cc t thng trng pha vi dng in kch thch tng ng, ta c th vc t nh Hnh 4.9.

92

T th vc t ta thy:

vi l gc lch pha gia dng in v in p trn ti. Vy:

* Trng hp thc t Cc t thng ny u chm pha hn so vi dng in kch thch tng ng mt gc no (tuy kh nh). Ta c th vc t nh Hnh 4.10

Ta xt gc:
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vi 1 l gc lch pha gia dng in v 1 v I. Vy

Do vy ta phi iu chnh gc ai sao cho tho mn iu kin trn. Khi c mmen quay a nhm s gia tc ti tc rt ln nu khng c g cn li, v vy ngi ta t nam chm vnh cu M to ra mmen hm. Khi a nhm quay ct ngang t trng ca nam chm vnh cu, trn a nhm xut hin nhng dng in xoy, nhng dng in ny li tc dng vi chnh t trng ca nam chm vnh cu to ra mmen hm:

a nhm quay tc n nh khi cn bng hai mmen, do ta c:

Tch phn hai v ta c:

V tri ca phng trnh t l vi nng lng m ph ti tiu th qua cng t trong khong thi gian t t1 n t2 cn v phi t l vi lng gc quay ca a nhm cng trong khong thi gian . Ta c:

94

(N: s vng quay ca a nhm) Vy W' = CmN vi Cm l h s nh mc ca cng t. Kt lun: Nh vy ta chng minh c rng s vng quay ca a nhm t l bc nht vi nng lng in m ph ti tiu th qua cng t. 4.1.3.3. C cu m v cc thng s c bn ca cng t - C cu m: Gm h thng bnh vt, trc vt, cc con ln v cc bnh rng ch th s. - Thng s c bn ca cng t: + H s truyn ti ca cng t (4-24)

l lng in nng truyn ti qua cng t khi a nhm quay ht mt vng. + H s nh mc ca cng t

l s vng quay ca a nhm khi truyn ti qua cng t 1 kWh in. 4.1.3.4. Sai s v cch khc phc Do tn ti ca ma st, do nh hng ca t thng ph, do sai lch hng s ca cng t (mmen cn ln hoc nh) do cng t sai s t nhiu. Trc khi s dng bt buc phi hiu chnh li tc l tin cch khc phc sai s. a) B ma st - Khi ph ti nh, mmen ma st s ng k so vi mmen quay. V vy ngi ta phi ch to b phn b ma st trn c s nguyn l chung l phn chia t thng cun p thnh cc t thng ph bng cc vt
95

chia t thng hoc vng ngn mch khng i xng (cha th hin trn hnh v). - Khi iu chnh v tr vng ngn mch khng i xng hoc vt chia t thng ta s b c ma st (tuy nhin nu iu chnh qu sang tri hoc sang phi th cng t s t quay thun hoc quay ngc khi khng c ti). b) Chng hin tng t quay ca cng t Khc phc hin tng t quay khi mmen b ln hn mmen ma st ngi ta ch to b phn chng t quay bng cch trn mch t ca cun p v trn trc quay ngi ta gn hai l thp non T1 v T2. Khi a nhm quay ti thi im hai l thp i din nhau th chng s tc ng tng h v to ra mmen hm (tuy nhin ch vi mmen kh nh). c) iu chnh gc lch pha 1 gia 1 v I Ta c: Mong mun rng

coi nh khng i i vi mi loi cng t sau khi ch to. V vy ta phi iu chnh gc ai bng cch trn mch t ca cun dng ngi ta cun vi vng dy ni qua mt in tr R c th iu chnh c. Khi iu chnh gi tr R s lm thay i tn hao t trong mch t cun dng, tc l ai thay i. d) Kim tra hng s ca cng t Ta iu chnh sao cho cos = 1, cho dng in I = In, U = Un lc ta c P = UnIn; o thi gian quay ca cng t bng ng h bm giy, m s vng quay N ca cng t quay trong khong thi gian t. Ta tnh c hng s ca cng t nh sau:
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Ta so snh Cp vi gi tr nh mc ghi trn cng t, nu khc nhau ta phi iu chnh v tr ca nam chm vnh cu tng hay gim mmen cn cho n khi Cp bng gi t nh mc ca cng t. Thc t hin nay, vic hiu chnh cng t thng da vo cng t mu. 4.2. o cng sut v nng lng trong mch ba pha 4.2.1. o cng sut tc dng trong mch ba pha i xng i vi mch ba pha i xng ta c cng sut tng ca c mch l: - Theo i lng pha: PA, PB, PC l cng sut tng pha A, B, C. - Theo i lng dy:

Ud, Id l in p v dng in dy. 4.2.1.1. Mch ba pha bn dy - Phng php mt wattmet Theo (4-28) ta ch cn o cng sut mt pha bng mt wattmet ri ly ch s ca wattmet nhn 3 ta s c cng sut ca c ba pha: Gi s wattmet mc vo pha A nh sau:

S ch ca wattmet l:
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Do vy cng sut ca ba pha l: Tng t c th mc wattmet vo pha B hoc pha C. 4.2.1.2. Mch ba pha ba dy - Phng php dng kho chuyn i S mc wattmet nh sau:

Cun dng c dng in khi kho K v tr 1 cun p c in p UAC; khi kho K v tr 2 cun p c in p UAB. Vy khi ng kho K v pha 1, s ch ca wattmet l:

Khi ng kho K v pha 2, s ch ca wattmet l:

Hnh 4.12. th vc t ca phng php o cng sut dng kho chuyn i

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Theo th vc t ta c:

Tng t ta cng c th mc wattmet pha B hoc C o cng sut theo cch trn. 4.2.2. o cng sut tc dng trong mch ba pha khng i xng 4.2.2.1. Mch ba pha bn dy - phng php ba wattmet Vi mch ba pha khng i xng, ta c

Do vy ta dng ba wattmet mt pha hoc mt wattmet ba pha ba phn t o cng sut cc pha A, B, C. Sau cng i s cc s ch ca ba wattmet (hoc ba phn t) ta c cng sut ca mch ba pha.

Ta c:

99

Trong thc t ngi ta ch to wattmet ba pha ba phn t. N gm ba cp cun dy tnh tng ng c ba phn ng gn trn cng mt trc quay. Mmen lm quay phn ng l tng mmen ca ba phn t

4.2.2.2. Mch ba pha ba dy Phng php dng hai wattmet Xt cng sut tc thi trong mch ba pha l: i vi mch ba pha ba dy, v khng c dy trung tnh nn dng in trung tnh bng khng ngha l:

Vy cng sut tc dng ca ba pha l: Nh vy ta c th dng hai wattmet mt pha c s nh Hnh 4.14 o cng sut trong mch ba pha. Thc t cng da trn nguyn tc ny ngi ta ch to wattmet ba pha hai phn t. Cch mc nh sau:

4.2.3. o nng lng tc dng trong mch ba pha

100

- i vi mch ba pha bn dy c th dng cng t ba pha ba phn t hoc ba cng t mt pha. S mc ging nh mc wattmet o cng sut tc dng. - i vi mch ba pha ba dy c th dng cng t ba pha hai phn t hoc hai cng t mt pha. S mc ging nh mc wattmet o cng sut tc dng. - Vi mch h p cng sut ln ta kt hp gia bin dng in v cng t ba pha o nng lng tc dng. V d 4.1: S kt hp gia BI v cng t o nng lng tc dng pha h th.

- Vi mch cao p, ta kt hp gia BU, BI v cng t ba pha o nng lng tc dng 4.2.4. o nng lng phn khng trong mch ba pha 4.2.4.1. Dng cng t phn khng ba pha ba phn t S mc cng t nh sau:

101

Hnh 4.16. S u dy v th vc t ca cng t phn khng ba pha ba phn t

im o m thng l u ngun nn ta coi mch ba pha c ngun i xng, ph ti mang tnh cht cm. Ta c mmen quay tng ca cng t l:

Ta thy mmen quay t l vi cng sut phn khng trong mch ba pha cho nn s ch ca cng t s t l vi nng lng phn khng tiu th trong mch ba pha. 4.2.4.2. Dng cng t phn khng ba pha hai phn t c cun dy ni tip ph S mc nh Hnh 4.17. im o m l u ngun nn ta coi mch ba pha c ngun i xng, ph ti mang tnh cht cm. Xt tng phn t, ta tnh c mo men quay nh sau:

102

Mmen quay t l vi cng sut phn khng trong mch ba pha vy s ch ca cng t t l vi nng lng phn khng trong mch ba pha. 4.2.4.3. Dng cng t phn khng ba pha hai phn t c R0 to gc lch pha 60o

103

Trong s cng t ny, cc cun p c mc ni tip vi in tr mu R0. in tr ny c tnh ton sao cho dng in trong cun p ch chm pha so vi in p tng ng mt gc 60o. Ta c th vc t nh hnh v Ta c m men quay ca cc phn t l:

Hn na ta c:

Thay vo ta c:

Tng t

Vy m men quay tng l:

104

Vy: M men quay tng t l vi cng sut phn khng trong mch ba pha nn s ny thng c dng o nng lng phn khng trong mch ba pha. Nu vi mch ba pha khng i xng th c sai s nht nh. 4.2.5. V d s o m cao th Thc t c rt nhiu s o m cao th: Tc l s kt hp BU, BI v cng t ba pha o nng lng tc dng v phn khng cho mch ba pha cao th.

+ Cng t tc dng ba pha hai phn t c cun dng cc pha A, B. + Cng t phn khng ba pha ba phn t. + Cc cun dng ca cng t tc dng v phn khng u ni pha th cp ca my bin dng, vy dng nh mc qua cc cun dng l 5A. + Cc cun p ca cng t tc dng v phn khng u ni pha th cp ca bin in p, vy in p nh mc trn cc cun p l 100V

105

Chng 5 O GC PHA V TN S
5.1. o gc pha v h s cng sut cos 5.1.1. Phng php o cos gin tip 5.1.1.1. Phng php V - A - W H s cng sut cos quan h vi dng in v in p trong mch qua cng thc: Do :

Vy dng cc ng h V, A, W o U, I, P trn ti ta tnh c cos. Sai s:

5.1.1.2. Phng php xc nh cosTB Ta c:

Vi Wpk l in nng phn khng ch bi cng t phn khng trong khong thi gian xt; Wtd l in nng tc dng ch bi cng t tc dng trong khong thi gian xt. Dng cng t o nng lng tc dng v phn khng trong mt khong thi gian no (thng l mt thng) ta xc nh c cosTB ca ph ti theo cng thc (5.2). 5.1.2. Phng php o cos trc tip Thng dng cos met in ng v st in ng.
106

5.1.2.1. Cos met in ng mt pha Ngi ta s dng c cu ch th logomet in ng ch to dng c o cos trong mch mt pha. Cun tnh ca cos in ng c mc ni tip vi mch cn o cos (hoc ni vi th cp ca my bin dng), hai cun dy ng c mc ni tip vi R, L v c t ln in p trn ti (hoc ni vi th cp ca bin in p o lng). V c cu khng c mch t nn vic ni cc cun dy ng nh vy s to nn cc dng i1 v i2 l vung pha vi nhau. Ta c s u dy v th vc t nh Hnh 5.1.

Theo cng thc ca c cu logomet in ng ta c:

vi gc:

Vy

Ch : Trn thc t khi tn s thay i dn ti L thay i vy I2

107

thay i do t s

I2 khc hng s nn s c sai s. khc phc, nh I1

sn xut ci tin s nh sau (xem Hnh 5.2): Cun dy ng c chia lm hai nhnh 2 v 2. Hai nhnh ny mc ngc cc tnh nhau, mt nhnh ni vi L, mt nhnh ni vi C. Ta thy cc dng i2' v i2" ngc pha nhau, mt khc hai cun dy li mc ngc cc tnh nn s to ra m men ca cun dy ng th hai l tng ca hai m men cng du: M2 = M2" + M2". V vy khi tn s thay i lm XL, XC thay i ngc nhau hay I2' v I2" thay i ngc nhau. Vy M2 = const. Tc l nhnh ny khng ph thuc tn s 5.1.2.2. Cos met in ng ba pha S mc nh Hnh 5.3. Cun tnh c mc ni tip vo pha A, hai cun dy ng c mc vi hai in tr R v c t vo cc in p UAB v UAC.

Gc quay ca c cu l:

108

Ch : + Trong s ny, cc cun p u ni tip vi in tr R nn khng ph thuc tn s, hay

I2 = const. I1

+ Cun dng c th mc vo cc pha B, C ty . 5.1.3. Phazomet in t 5.1.3.1. C s l thuyt Xt hai in p cng bin , tn s nhng lch pha nhau mt gc :

Vy

Ta xt tr hiu dng ca u:

V vy bit U, o U ta xc nh c gc . 5.1.3.2. Phazomet in t Ta a ra s n gin ca phazomet in t nh sau:

109

Hai tn hiu in p cn so snh gc pha c a vo hai u ca hai mch khuch i qua hai bin tr Rl v R2. Khi o, ta iu chnh cc v tr con trt trn cc bin tr R1 v R2 sao cho in p u ra ca hai mch khuch i l bng nhau, v c kim tra bng cc volmet V1 V2. Sau khi kim tra UV1 = UV2 = U, ta o U bng volmet V ri suy ra gc theo (5.5). trnh phi so snh hai in p u1 v u2 ngi ta thng bin chng thnh nhng xung vung sau a vo b cng i s in p hay dng in nh Hnh 5.5. Gin thi gian nh Hnh 5.6.

Tu theo gc lch pha gia hai tn hiu, in p hay dng in ra t mch cng thay i. in p ny c o bng dng c o chnh lu

110

Da trn nguyn tc ny nhiu hng trn th gii ch to dng c o gc lch pha trong khong t (0 180o) vi sai lch nh hn 1%. 5.1.4. Phazomet ch th s Da trn nguyn tc bin i gc lch pha thnh m, c ngha l gc lch pha cn o gia hai tn hiu c bin thnh khong thi gian, sau lp y khong thi gian bng cc xung vi tn s bit trc. Cu trc bao gm: b bin i gc pha thnh khong thi gian, b to xung TX1, TX2, TX3, b m, ch th s, my pht xung chun, kho K 1, K 2 S cu trc nh sau:

111

112

Cc tn hiu u1, u2 c dng hnh sin cng bin , tn s c a vo b to xung TX1, TX2. Cc xung xut hin khi tn hiu i qua mc "0", cc xung ny s c a n cc u vo ca trig to ra u ra mt xung m di ca n t l vi gc lch pha cn o x.Kho K c m trong khong thi gian tx. T my pht xung chun f0 c tn s n nh (hay T0 = 1/f0) c a qua K1 khi K1 m trong khong thi gian tx. Mt khc b to xung TX3 pht ra xung c di c nh l Tn v kho K2 c m trong khong thi gian . Vy cc xung t cc khong thi gian Tn s i qua K2 vo b m v ch th s. S xung m c l:

113

vi Tn =KT0. Vy s xung N t l vi gc lch pha x Nhc im : - Nu tn s nh, v Tx cha trong khong Tn nh, do vy ta phi m rng Tn. - Nu tn s ln, dn n sai s lng t ho trong khong Tx tng ln, dn n sai s tng. Thng thng lm vic trong khong mt vi Hz n vi MHz, c sai s = 0,1 0,2%. 5.2. o tn s 5.2.1. Phng php gin tip Dng volmet, ampemet, wattmet kt hp vi in cm mu, ta c th xc nh c tn s:

Bit L0, cn c vo s ch ca cc ng h o, ta xc nh c tn s.

5.2.2. Tn s met cng hng

114

Nguyn l hot ng: Tn s met cng hng gm mt nam chm in, to ra bi cun dy in qun trn li st t hnh ch U, mt ming thp nm trong t trng ca nam chm in, gn cht vo thanh l cc l thp rung c tn s dao ng ring khc nhau. Tn s dao ng ring ca hai l thp k nhau hn km nhau l 0,25 hoc 0,5Hz. in p ca tn hiu cn o tn s s c a vo cun dy ca nam chm in s to ra s dao ng ca tt c cc l thp. Tuy nhin l thp no c tn s dao ng ring bng tn s f th s dao ng cc i do cng hng ring, cn cc thanh khc khng cng hng th khng dao ng cc i. Nh vy chng ta s c kt qu ti tr s tng ng vi thanh rung cc i.

115

5.2.3. Tn s met in t 5.2.3.1. Nguyn tc chung Tn s met loi ny da trn nguyn tc chung l s dng phng php m xung n gin bng cch phng np mt t in C t mt ngun in p khng i U0 no . Tn hiu cn o c tn s fx c a vo khng ch mt kho in t K, kho ny c thit k sao cho trong mt chu k ca in p uk, kho K ng t 1 sang 2 mt ln. Xt khi kho K v tr 1, in tch np vo t tnh nh sau: q = C.U0 in tch np vo t trong thi gian mt giy l: Q = q.fx = C.U0.fx. in tch ny chy qua ch th khi kho K v tr 2 to ra dng in trung bnh (K1 = const) ITB c ch bng c cu t in G. Thang chia c khc trc tip theo n v tn s v ta c th c ngay tn s trn ch th G. Mun m rng gii hn o, ta thay i gi tr ca t C. 5.2.3.2. Tn s met in t Tn s met in t c thit k nh Hnh 5.12. Kho i ni K thc hin bng mt n bn dn T. in p ux cn o tn s c a vo cc gc ca T. na chu k m ca in p Ux (so vi cc gc ca T), n T kho, t C c np t ngun U0 qua D1, qua ch th g cho ti khi Uc = U0. na chu k dng ca in p Ux n T m, t C phng qua n, qua D2 cho ti khi UC = UB.
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in tch m t in np trong mt ln ng m ca T l: Lng in tch phng np trong thi gian mt giy chnh l dng in i qua ch th

Vy dng in trung bnh chy qua ch th t l bc nht vi fx. Ta c th khc vch thang chia theo n v tn s.

5.2.4. Tn s k ch th s Nguyn l: m s xung N tng ng vi s chu k ca tn s cn o fx trong khong thi gian gi l thi gian o T0. Trong khong T0 ta m c N xung t l vi tn s o fx. S khi ca mt tn s k ch th s nh sau: Mch to xung c nhim v bin tn hiu hnh sin hoc tn hiu xung c chu k thnh mt dy xung c bin khng i (khng ph thuc vo bin ca tn hiu vo) nhng tn s bng tn s ca tn hiu vo. My pht xung chun f0 = 1MHz. B chia tn s vi cc nc c h s chia l 10n. Tn s chun f0 = 1MHz c chia n 0,01 Hz. Ngha l u ra ca mch iu khin theo 10n (n = l,2,,8) ta c th nhn c khong thi gian T0 = 10-6, 10-5, 10-4, 10-3, 10-2, 10-1, 1, 10, 100s.
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Khong thi gian ny s iu khin m kho K (kho c hai u vo). Tn hiu fx theo u vo th hai s i vo b m ra c cu ch th. S xung m my m m c s l:

Nu thi gian o c gi tr l 1s th s xung N (tc l s cc chu k) s chnh l tn s cn o fx ngha l: fx = N. Mch iu khin ph trch vic iu khin qu trnh o: Bo m thi gian biu th kt qu o c t 0,3 5s trn ch th s, xo kt qu o
118

a v trng thi 0 ban u trc mi ln o; iu khin ch lm vic; t ng, bng tay, hay khi ng bn ngoi; chn di o tn s (cho ra xung m kho K) v cho ra xung iu khin my v s. Sai s ca php o tn s:

vi

fx l tn s cn o (Hz) Ta thy rng sai s ca php o tn s t l nghch vi ln ca tn s o. 5.3. ng dng my hin sng in t trong o lng 5.3.1. M u My hin sng in t hay cn gi l dao ng k in t (electronic oscilloscope) l mt dng c hin th dng sng rt thng ng. N ch yu c s dng v dng ca tn hiu in thay i theo thi gian. Bng cch s dng my hin sng ta xc nh c: + Gi tr in p v thi gian tng ng ca tn hiu; + Tn s dao ng ca tn hiu; + Gc lch pha gia hai tn hiu; + Dng sng ti mi im khc nhau trn mch in t; + Thnh phn ca tn hiu gm thnh phn mt chiu v xoay chiu nh th no; + Trong tn hiu c bao nhiu thnh phn nhiu v nhiu c thay i theo thi gian hay khng.

119

Mt my hin sng ging nh mt my thu hnh nh nhng c mn hnh c k v c nhiu phn iu khin hn TV. Di y l panel ca mt my hin sng thng dng vi phn hin th sng; phn iu khin theo trc X, trc Y, ng b v ch mn hnh; phn kt ni u o...

Mn hnh ca my hin sng c chia , 10 theo chiu ngang v 8 theo chiu ng. ch hin th thng thng, my hin sng hin dng sng bin i theo thi gian: trc ng Y l trc in p, trc ngang X l trc thi gian. chi hay sng ca mn hnh i khi cn gi l trc Z. My hin sng c th c dng rt nhiu lnh vc khc nhau ch khng n thun ch trong lnh vc in t. Vi mt b chuyn i hp l ta c th o c thng s ca hu ht tt c cc hin tng vt l. B
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chuyn i y c nhim v to ra tn hiu in tng ng vi i lng cn o, v d nh cc b cm bin m thanh, nh sng, cng, rung, p sut hay nhit Cc thit b in t thng c chia thnh hai nhm c bn l thit b tng t v thit b s, my hin sng cng vy. My hin sng tng t (Analog oscilloscope) s chuyn trc tip tn hiu in cn o thnh dng electron bn ln mn hnh. in p lm lch chm electron mt cch t l v to ra tc thi dng sng tng ng trn mn hnh. Trong khi , my hin sng s (Digital osciloscope) s ly mu dng sng, a qua b chuyn i tng t/s (ADC). Sau n s dng cc thng tin di dng s ti to li dng sng trn mn hnh.

Tu vo ng dng m ngi ta s dng my hin sng loi no cho ph hp. Thng thng, nu cn hin th dng tn hiu di dng thi gian thc (khi chng xy ra) th s dng my hin sng tng t. Khi cn lu gi thng tin cng nh hnh nh c th x l sau hay in ra dng sng th ngi ta s dng my hin sng s c kh nng kt ni vi my tnh v cc b vi x l.
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Phn tip theo ca ti liu chng ta s ni ti my hin sng tng t, loi dng ph bin trong k thut o lng in t. 5.3.2. S khi ca mt my hin sng thng dng

Tn hiu vo c a qua b chuyn mch AC/DC (kho K ng khi cn xc nh thnh phn DC ca tn hiu cn khi ch quan tm n thnh phn AC th m K). Tn hiu ny s qua b phn p (hay cn gi l b suy gim u vo) c iu khin bi chuyn mch nm xoay VOLTS/DIV, ngha l xoay nm ny cho php ta iu chnh t l ca sng theo chiu ng. Chuyn mch Y-POS xc nh v tr theo chiu ng ca sng, ngha l c th di chuyn sng theo chiu ln hoc xung tu bng cch xoay nm vn ny. Sau khi qua phn p, tn hiu vo s c b khuch i Y khuch i lm lch a ti iu khin cp lm lch ng. Tn hiu ca b K Y cng c a ti trigo (khi ng b), trng hp ny gi l ng b trong, kch thch mch to sng rng ca (cn gi l mch pht qut) v a ti iu khin cp lm lch ngang ( tng hiu qu iu khin, mt s mch cn s dng thm cc b khuch i X sau khi to in p rng ca). i khi ngi ta cng cho mch lm vic ch ng b ngoi bng cch ct ng tn hiu t K Y, thay vo l cho tn hiu ngoi kch thch khi to sng rng ca.
122

i vo khi to sng rng ca cn c hai tn hiu iu khin t nm vn TIME/DIV v X-POS. TIME/DIV (c nhiu my k hiu l SEC/DIV) cho php thay i tc qut theo chiu ngang, khi dng sng s dng trn mn hnh vi n chu k nu tn s ca sng ln gp n ln tn s qut). X-POS l nm iu chnh vic di chuyn sng theo chiu ngang cho tin quan st ng phng tia in t CRT c m t phn trc. Sau y ta s xem xt phn iu khin, vn hnh v cc ng dng thng dng nht ca mt my hin sng. 5.3.3. Thit lp ch hot ng v cch iu khin mt my hin sng 5.3.3.1. Thit lp ch hot ng cho my hin sng Sau khi ni t cho my hin sng ta s iu chnh cc nm vn hay cng tc thit lp ch hot ng cho my. Panel trc ca my hin sng gm ba phn chnh l VERTIAL (phn iu khin ng), HORIZONTAL (phn iu khin ngang) v TRIGGER (phn iu khin ng b). Mt s phn cn li (FOCUS - nt, INTENSITY - sng...) c th khc nhau tu thuc vo hng sn xut, loi my, v model. Ni cc u o vo ng v tr (thng c k hiu CH1, CH2 vi kiu u ni BNC (xem hnh bn). Cc my hin sng thng thng s c hai que o ng vi hai knh v mn hnh s hin dng sng tng ng vi mi knh. Mt s my hin sng c ch AUTOSET hoc PRESET thit lp li ton b phn iu khin, nu khng ta phi tin hnh bng tay trc khi s dng my. Cc bc chun ho nh sau: 1. + a tt c cc nt bm v v tr OUT + a tt c cc thanh trt v v tr UP + a tt c cc nm xoay v v tr CENTRED
123

+ a nt gia ca VOLTS/DIV, TIME/DIV, HOLD OFF v v tr CAL (cn chnh) 2. Vn VOLTS/DIV v TIME/DIV v v tr 1V/DIV v 2s/DIV.

3. Bt ngun. 4. Xoay Y-POS iu chnh im sng theo chiu ng (im sng s chy ngang qua mn hnh vi tc chm). Nu vn TIME/DIV ngc chiu kim ng h (theo chiu gim) th im sng s di chuyn nhanh hn v khi v tr c s trn mn hnh s l mt vch sng thay cho im sng. 5. iu chnh INTENS thay i chi v FOCUS thay i nt ca vch sng trn mn hnh. 6. a tn hiu chun kim tra chnh xc ca my. a u o ti v tr ly chun (hoc l t my pht chun hoc ngay trn my hin sng v tr CAL 1Vpp, lkHz). Vi gi tr chun nh trn nu VOLTS/DIV v tr 1V/DIV v TIME/DIV v tr 1ms/DIV th trn mn hnh s xut hin mt sng vung c bin nh mt trn mn hnh v rng xung cng l mt trn mn hnh (xoay Y-POS v XPOS m mt cch chnh xc). Sau khi ly li cc gi tr chun trn, tu thuc ch lm vic m ta s dng cc nt iu khin tng ng nh s ni phn tip theo. 5.3.3.2. Cc phn iu khin chnh a) iu khin mn hnh
124

Phn ny bao gm: + iu chnh sng - INTENSITY - ca dng sng. Thng thng khi tng tn s qut cn tng thm sng tin quan st hn. Thc cht y l iu chnh in p li. + iu chnh nt - FOCUS - ca dng sng. Thc cht l iu chnh in p cc anot A1, A2 v A3. + iu chnh lch ca trc ngang - TRACE - (khi v tr ca my nhng im khc nhau th tc dng ca t trng tri t cng khc nhau nn i khi phi iu chnh c v tr cn bng). b) iu khin theo trc ng Phn ny s iu khin v tr v t l ca dng sng theo chiu ng. Khi tn hiu a vo cng ln th VOLTS/DIV cng phi v tr ln v ngc li.

Ngoi ra cn mt s phn nh: INVERT: o dng sng; DC/AC/GD: hin th phn mt chiu/xoay chiu/t ca dng sng; CH I/II: chn knh 1 hoc knh 2; DUAL: chn c hai knh; ADD: cng tn hiu ca c hai knh.
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Khi bm nt INVERT dng sng ca tn hiu s b o ngc li (o pha 180o). Khi gt cng tc v v tr GD trn mn hnh s xut hin mt ng ngang, dch chuyn v tr ca ng ny xc nh v tr t ca tn hiu.

Gt cng tc v v tr DC ngha l trong tn hiu bao gm c thnh phn mt chiu v xoay chiu, gt v v tr AC l hin dng sng tch thnh phn mt chiu. Xem hnh di y: (bn tri l ch DC v bn phi ch AC).

Khi n nt DUAL chn c hai knh th trn mn hnh s xut hin hai th ca hai dng sng ng vi 2 u o. ADD cng cc sng vi nhau. Ni chung v tr ca ba nt CH I/II, DUAI v ADD s cho cc ch hin th khc nhau tu thuc vo tng loi my. c) iu khin theo trc ngang Phn ny iu khin v tr v t l ca dng sng theo chiu ngang. Khi tn hiu a vo c tn s cng cao th TIME/DIV phi cng nh v ngc li. Ngoi ra cn mt s phn sau: X-Y: ch ny knh th 2 s
126

lm trc X thay cho thi gian nh ch thng. Ch : khi my hot ng ch nhiu knh th cng ch c mt phn iu khin theo trc ngang nn tn s qut khi s l tn s qut chung cho c hai dng sng. 5.3.4. ng dng ca my hin sng trong k thut o lng My hin sng hin nay c gi l my hin sng vn nng v khng n thun l hin th dng sng m n cn thc hin c nhiu k thut khc nh thc hin hm ton hc, thu thp v x l s liu v thm ch cn phn tch c ph tn hiu... Trong phn ny chng ta ch ni ti nhng ng dng c bn nht ca mt my hin sng. 5.3.4.1. Quan st tn hiu quan st c tn hiu ch cn thit lp my ch ng b trong v iu chnh tn s qut v trigo dng sng ng yn trn mn hnh. Khi ny c th xc nh c s bin thin ca tn hiu theo thi gian nh th no. Cc my hin sng hin i c th cho php cng mt lc hai, bn hoc tm tn hiu dng bt k cng mt lc v tn s quan st c th ln ti 400MHZ.

5.3.4.2. o in p Vic tnh gi tr in p ca tn hiu c thc hin bng cch m s trn mn hnh v nhn vi gi tr VOLTS/DIV. V d: VOLTS/DIV ch 1V th tn hiu cho hnh trn c: Vp = 2,7 x 1V = 2,8V Vpp = 5,4 x 1V = 5,4V Vrms = 0,707Vp = l,98V.
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Ngoi ra, vi tn hiu xung ngi ta cn s dng my hin sng xc nh thi gian tng sn xung (rise time), gim sn xung (fall time) v rng xung (pulse width) vi cch tnh nh hnh bn. 5.3.4.3. o tn s v khong thi gian Khong thi gian gia hai im ca tn hiu cng c tnh bng cch m s theo chiu ngang gia hai im v nhn vi gi tr ca TIME/DIV. Vic xc nh tn s ca tn hiu c thc hin bng cch tnh chu k theo cch nh trn. Sau nghch o gi tr ca chu k ta tnh c tn s.

V d: hnh di s/div l 1ms. Chu k ca tn hiu di 16 , do vy chu k l 16ms => f = 1/16ms = 62,5Hz.

5.3.4.4. o tn s v lch pha bng phng php so snh Ngoi cch o tn s thng qua vic o chu k nh trn, c th o tn s bng my hin sng nh sau: so snh tn s ca tn hiu cn o fx
128

vi tn s chun f0. Tn hiu cn o a vo cc Y, tn hiu tn s chun a vo cc X. Ch lm vic ny ca my hin sng gi l ch XY mode v cc sng u c dng hnh sin. Khi trn mn hnh s hin ra mt ng cong phc tp gi l ng cong Lissajou. iu chnh tn s chun ti khi tn s cn o l bi hoc c nguyn ca tn s chun th trn mn hnh s c mt ng Lissajou ng yn. Hnh dng ca ng Lissajou rt khc nhau tu thuc vo t s tn s gia hai tn hiu v lch pha gia chng (xem hnh di).

Ta c:

vi n l s mi theo chiu ngang v m l s mi theo chiu dc (hoc c th ly s im ct ln nht theo mi trc hoc s im tip tuyn vi hnh Lissajou ca mi trc). Phng php hnh Lissajou cho php o tn s trong khong t 10Hz ti tn s gii hn ca my. Nu mun o lch pha ta cho hai tn s ca hai tn hiu bng nhau, khi ng Lissajou c dng elip. iu chnh Y-POS v X-POS sao cho tm ca elip trng vi tm mn hnh (gc to ). Khi gc lch pha c tnh bng:

129

vi A, B l ng knh trc di v ng knh trc ngn ca elip. Nhc im ca phng php ny l khng xc nh c du ca gc pha v sai s ca php o kh ln (5 - 10%).

130

Chng 6 O CC THNG S CA MCH IN

6.1. o in tr 6.1.1. ngha v yu cu ca vic o in tr a) ngha in tr l mt thng s rt quan trng ca mch in v cc h thng cung cp in, tuy nhin phn ln cc gi tr ca chng thay i theo nhit theo iu kin mi trng. V vy khi lp rp, vn hnh cc mch in, khi th nghim, nghim thu cc mch in, cc h thng cung cp in, cc h thng t ng ho... ta phi tin hnh o v kim tra cc gi tr in tr. b) Phn loi in tr thng thng c phn ra thnh ba nhm: + in tr nh l cc in tr c gi tr R < 1; + in tr trung bnh l cc in tr c gi tr l 1 R < 0,1 M + in tr ln cc in tr c gi tr R 0,lM c) Yu cu khi o in tr + Khi o cc gi in tr nh cn tm mi bin php loi tr nh hng ca in tr dy ni, in tr tip xc, sc in ng tip xc. khc phc mt phn, trn cc in tr mu ngi ta phn thnh cc cc dng v cc p ring. + Khi o cc gi tr in tr ln cn trnh s nh hng ca in tr khi v in tr b mt. + Khi o in tr ca cc vt c m cao ngi ta thng dng ngun xoay chiu trnh hin tng in phn. + Khi o in tr ca cc vt liu rn ta nn dng ngun mt chiu trnh s nh hng ca in dung k sinh. 6.1.2. o in tr bng phng php gin tip 6.1.2.1. Phng php dng ngun mt chiu
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Nguyn tc Dng ampemet v volmet o dng v p trn in tr ri suy ra Rx' =

UV thng qua hai s : IA

Phn tch sai s ph - Xt Hnh 6.1a

Vy sai s ph trong qu trnh o:

Nhn xt: Nu RA cng nh th p cng nh cho nn phng php ny dng o in tr ln. - Xt Hnh 6.1b

Vy sai s ph trong qu trnh o l:

V d 6.1: Tnh sai s ph khi tin hnh o in tr mt chiu ca

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cun dy th cp MBA 100KVA 10/0,4KV, bit theo l lch:[R2A ] = [R2B] = [R2C] = [RX] = 120(m). Cho: RA = 0,1,l; Rv = 100k Bi lm Theo s Hnh 6.1a

Theo s Hnh 6.1b

Kt lun: Dng Hnh 6.1a o cc in tr ln; Dng Hnh 6.1b o cc in tr nh. 6.1.2.2. Dng ngun xoay chiu

Yu cu : + Ngun in p th nghim phi tht hnh sin; + Cc ng h V, A, W phi m bo iu kin v sai s ph v sai s gin tip. in tr Rx c xc nh nh sau:

vi Pw v IA ln lt l s ch ca wattmet v ampemet.
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Trong trng hp cn xc nh tng tr th mc thm volmet v tng tr c xc nh nh sau:

6.1.2.3. o in tr bng phng php so snh vi in tr mu

Gi s c s mch nh trn, khi c th xc nh in tr Rx theo cng thc tng ng vi hai s nh sau: S a : in tr o v in tr mu R0 mc ni tip in p ri trn in tr mu l U0, in p ri trn in tr o l Ux. Khi nu dng qua cc in tr khng i ta c:

S b : in tr o v in tr mu mc song song Dng in qua in tr mu l I0, dng qua in tr o l IX. Vi in p cung cp n nh ta c:

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6.1.3. o in tr bng phng php trc tip Thng dng ommet t in, c hai loi nh sau: 6.1.3.1. C cu mt khung dy ch s ph thuc in p Loi ny thng c hai s mc: - Mc ni tip o R ln; - Mc song song o R nh.

+ S mc ni tip nh Hnh 6.4. Khi o ta m kho K, ta c:

vi Rx l in tr cn o, R0 l in tr trong ca c cu. Vy = f(Rx) nu U.CI = const; + S mc song song nh Hnh 6.5. Khi o ta ng kho K. Ta c gc quay

135

Ch : Thc t th UCI c th b thay i. V vy ta phi iu chnh CI hoc Rp trc khi o. T cc biu thc trn ta thy mun iu chnh v tr '0' ca kim ta phi ng kho K trong s ni tip v m kho K trong trng hp s song song. Sau ta iu chnh Shunt t v Rp sao cho kin ch '0'. 6.1.3.2. C cu hai khung dy ch s khng ph thuc in p C cu ch th l logomet t in, ngun in p mt chiu c gi tr l 500V; 1000V; 1500V; 2500V; 6000V c pht ra t my pht quay tay hoc ngun nhn in p.

Khi o, ta c:

vi Rl v R2 l in tr hai cun dy ng; R0 l in tr mu lp sn trong thit b; Rx l in tr cn o. i vi c t in c hai khung dy ng th gc quay l: vi R0; Rl ; R2 = const v

6.1.4. o in tr bng phng php so snh 6.1.4.1. o in tr trung bnh bng cu n

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Cu n v d nh cu P333 ca Nga theo s hai dy, cu QJ ca Trung Quc... thng dng o nhng in tr ln hn hoc bng 1 (Nhng trng hp in tr nh hn cng c th o c nhng s tng sai s). S nguyn l ca cu n nh Hnh 6.7, trong : Rl l in tr cc c th thay i t 0 n 9999, bc 1. R2, R3 l cc in tr c nh. Cc in tr Rl, R2, R3 l cc in tr mu lm bng hp kim ca mangan c chnh xc cao, Rx l in tr cn o. Ch th G l c cu t in c nhy cao, ngng nhy rt nh. Khi o ta iu chnh cho cu cn bng, lc ta c quan h sau:

Vy:

Thng thng 1; 10; 100)

R1 l bi s ca 10 v thng bng (0,001; 0,01; 0,1; R3

Cn c vo v tr ca con trt trn R4 ta xc nh c Rx. Nhn xt: Cu n c mt nhc im l khng loi tr c in tr dy ni nhng c u im l d cn bng. 6.1.4.2. o in tr nh bng cu kp Cu kp v d nh cu P333 ca Nga theo s bn dy thng dng o cc in tr ln hn hoc bng 5m. Cc in tr nh hn cng c th o c nhng s tng sai s.
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S cu kp nh Hnh 6.8. Khi o ta iu chnh cho cu cu cn bng, tc kim in k ch 0, dng qua ch th bng 0, ta c: + Dng qua Rl, R2 l dng I1, dng qua R3, R4 l dng I2.

+ Theo vng 1 ta c:

+ Theo vng 2 ta c:

Vy:

Vi iu kin:

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Th

Nh vy nu trong qu trnh o lun gi c t s R1/R2 = R3/R4 th ta s tnh c Rx thng qua t s trn. Ch : - Cc in tr Rl, R2, R3, R4, R0 l cc in tr mu lm bng hp kim ca mangan c chnh xc cao; R0 l in tr cc c th thay i t 0 9999,9 bc 0,1; Rx l in tr cn o. - Cc in tr Rl, R2, R3, R4 c gi tr 10. T s Rl/R2 c th thay i v thng bng: 10-4, 10-3, 10-2, 10-1, 1, 10. Cn t t s R1/R2 sao cho ph hp nht vi Rx cn o. - Cu kp c mt u im ni bt l c th loi tr c in tr dy ni, nhng c nhc im l kh cn bng nu Rx l cc cun dy my in. 6.1.5. o in tr cch in ca li v thit b in 6.1.5.1. Nhn xt v in tr cch in in tr cch in l cc gi tr in tr ln (vo khong vi M tr ln v d nh in tr cch in ca vt liu cch in), do vy phng php o in tr cch in l cc phng php o c th in tr ln. in tr cch in cng ln tng ng vi cp in p lm vic ca thit b in cng ln. Khi o in tr c tr s ln thng thng s c hai thnh phn in tr: + in tr khi Rv (Volume Resistance), y l thnh phn in tr cn o. + in tr r b mt Rs (Surface Leakage Resistance). Hai thnh phn in tr ny xem nh song song vi nhau, nh vy hai in tr ny c th so snh c th s nh hng ng k n in tr khi cn o. 6.1.5.2. Phng php o in tr cch in dng volmet v
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microampemet

Gi s cn o in tr cch in gia lp v bc dy dn v dy dn ca dy dn kim loi ng trc c v bc bn ngoi. Dng in i qua microampemet bao gm hai dng in l dng IV v dng Is. Dng in IV l dng in i qua lp cch in, cn dng Is l dng r i qua b mt ca dy dn v lp cch in. Do vy in tr xc nh c thng qua volmet v ampemet Rd l in tr ca khi ca lp cch in v in tr r b mt mc song song:

Nh vy do nh hng ca dng Is cho nn in tr o c bao gi cng nh hn in tr khi cn o. Nh vy kt qu o chnh xc ngi ta cn phi loi b dng in Is qua microampemet th khi in tr o c s chnh l in tr khi cn o. S o loi b dng in d nh sau:

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 trnh nh hng ca Rs bng cch loi b dng in Is qua microampemet, ngi ta dng dy dn in (khng c v bc cch in) qun quanh lp v cch in v ni trc microampemet. Nh vy dng in Is i qua Rs lc trc s i qua dy dn ny o nh hng ca Rs vo Rv b loi b. Vng dy ny gi l dy bo v. Ch : Tuy nhin khng phi trng hp no khi o in tr cch in chng ta cng s dng vng dy bo v, khi o in tr cch in no chng ta phi xc nh xem in tr cch in c b nh hng bi in tr b mt hay khng, nu c mi s dng vng dy bo v. 6.1.5.3. Phng php o in tr cch in dng megommet chuyn dng Megommet l thit b chuyn dng o in tr cch in, c cu to bi c cu ch th logomet t in. S megommet nh sau:

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Trong megommet ngun c to ra t my pht quay tay (i vi cc megommet loi c) hoc t mch in t dng pin (i vi cc megommet mi sau ny). Dng in I1 qua cun dy kim sot:

Dng in qua cun dy lch:

trong : R1, R2 l cc bin tr mu; r1, r2 ln lt l in tr ca cc cun dy kim sot v cun dy lch; E l ngun. Theo nguyn l ca c cu ch th logomet t in ta c gc quay ca megommet l:

Khi Rx s 0) Khi Rx s )
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0 gc quay t cc i, kim ch th lch v pha phi (tr gc quay t cc tiu, kim ch th lch v pha tri (tr

Thay i thang o bng cch thay i tr s R2. Trong megommet c u G dng ni dy bo v loi b in tr r b mt. 6.1.5.4. o in tr cch in ca li in v thit b in a) Nhn xt Mi li in c th xem nh hng lot on dy c chiu di mt n v mc ni tip vi nhau. Cc thng s ca chng l cc thng s di mc song song vi nhau nh Hnh 6.12.

Trong tnh ton ngi ta thng coi chng nh nhng thng s tp trung. in tr cch in ca ng dy thng b thay i hoc c th ng dy b s c. V vy khi vn hnh, hoc khi th nghim, nghim thu cc ng dy v cc thit b cch in th bt buc phi o in tr cch in. Gi tr in tr ny khng c nh hn mt gi tr no theo quy trnh, quy phm hin hnh (v d in tr cch in c o vi megommet k c E = 1000V hoc 2000V v in tr cch in ti thiu c quy nh l 1M). in tr cch in ca li trn on c xt thng c o gia hai u dy dn in vi nhau hoc tng dy dn in vi dy trung tnh. b) o in tr cch in ca li v thit b in khi tt ngun in

143

 o in tr cch in thng dng ngun mt chiu tng cao hoc dng megommet. Megommet c mc nh hnh v. Gi s ta cn o in tr cch in ca pha A, kt qu o c l s l in tr ca hai nhnh: mt nhnh l RA v mt nhnh l cc in tr tng ng song song, thng thng nh hn RA. Ta thy kt qu o c ca pha A s nh hn in tr cch in tht ca pha A so vi t do nh hng ca cc in tr mc song song. Tng t nh vy ta o c: RB; RC; RAB; RBC; RCA. Sau ta xc nh c gi tr nh nht trong s { RA; RB; RC; RAB; RBC; RCA } l gi tr cch in ca ng dy. Khi ng dy c ti, ba pha s c ni vi nhau bng mt tng tr rt nh so vi in tr cch in do in tr cch in ca c h thng so vi t c tnh:

c) o in tr cch in ca li v thit b in khi c in p lm vic (kim tra nng) Xut pht t s Hnh 6.14: dng volmet o UA, UB, UAB = U, ta xc nh c in tr cch in nh sau: + Xt khi kho K v tr A. Dng in qua RB c tnh
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+ Xt khi kho K v tr B. Dng in qua RA c tnh:

T (6-12) v (6-13) ta c:

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Gii h phng trnh trn ta c kt qu:

Thng thng RA, RB >> Rv lc dng qua volmet chnh l I1, I2. V vy:

d) Kim tra cch in ca li hai dy bng hai volmet S kim tra cch in c m t trn Hnh 6.16. Khi cch in bnh thng s ch th hai volmet nh nhau, khi cch in mt pha no gim th s ch ca cc volmet thay i (6-14) c ngha l bt k s gim in tr cch in ca mt trong hai dy dn s lm gim in p ca volmet ny v tng ch s ca volmet kia.

e) Kim tra cch in ca li ba pha in p thp theo nguyn tc trn

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dng ba volmet Khi cch in bnh thng s ch ba volmet l nh nhau. Khi cch in mt pha no gim th s ch ca cc volmet thay i theo h thc (6-14) trn

f) kim tra cch in ca li cao p trung tnh khng ni t Ngi ta thng dng my bin p ba pha nm tr

Khi cch in bnh thng, u ra ca cun tam gic h c mt ngng in p nh no , khi c mt pha chm t, in p u ra ca cun tam gic h s vt qu ngng, tc l c tn hin bo chm t mt pha. 6.1.5.5. o in tr cch in ca my bin p (MBA) in lc v phn phi
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o in tr cch in cho MBA nhm nh gi cch in dy qun v cht lng cch in trong MBA. o in tr cch in ca dy qun cho bit thng tin v hm lng m v ccbon. Trong gio trnh ny ch trnh by cch o gi tr cch in ca dy qun, cn phn o gi tr cch in ca du cch in sinh vin c th tm hiu thm cc ti liu khc. o in tr cch in c tin hnh trc hoc sau khi sa cha hoc bo dng MBA. Kt qu o c ghi li dng cho mc ch so snh v sau. Quy tc chung c s dng i vi cc gi tr nghim thu dng cho ng in an ton l tr s cch in 1M/1KV ca gi tr nh mc ghi trn nhn my v cng thm 1M. Trnh t o in tr cch in dy qun MBA nh sau: + Khng ct ni t v v li MBA v m bo v v li c tip t tt. + Tho tt c cc u ni cao p, h p v trung tnh, chng st, h thng qut, dng c o hoc h thng iu khin ni vi dy qun MBA. + Trc khi bt u o ni tt c cc s xuyn cao p, m bo cu ni cc b phn kim loi v dy t sch. i vi dy qun h p tin hnh tng t. + S dng megommet c thang o nh nht 20M. a) o cch in ca MBA mt pha

148

c) o cch in ring r tng dy qun stator

6.1.6. Phng php xc nh v tr chp cp (chm mass) Khi cp b s c, ta cn xc nh v tr xy ra s c loi tr s c thng gp nht l chp cp ra v. Phng php xc nh v tr chp cp
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da trn cn cn bng hay cn gi l vng muray o in tr chm mass.

Hai u b, b ca li cp nguyn v cp hng c ni vi nhau, cn hai u a, a c ni qua 1 b in tr in k, khi o ta iu chnh cho cu cn bng. Khi ta c: Rl.Rx = R2(R + Ry) R1.Rx = R2(2R - Rx) v R = Rx + Ry Vy

Sau khi bit Rx t tit din S ca li cp, in tr xut ca vt liu lm li tnh theo cng thc:

Vy

Trong cc biu thc trn: l l chiu di on cp; S l thit din cp; l in tr sut ca vt liu ch to cp. kim tra kt qu o ta tin hnh o li ln hai bng cch i hai u aa cho nhau, lc ta xc nh c ly
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Nu php o chnh xc ta c: lx + ly = l. 6.1.7. o in tr tip t 6.1.7.1. Cc khi nim Thut ng "tip t" hay "ni t" y c hiu ng ngha vi vic ni mt mch in hoc thit b in xung t. Cch ni nh vy c s dng cho vic bo dng thit b in khi in th ca chng bng in th t, v i vi nhng hin tng t nhin nh st, t c tc dng lm ng phng in nhm trnh hin tng b in git v trnh h hng thit b ti sn. in tr tip t bao gm tng in tr ca dy dn ni t, b u ni, cc ni t v phn t tip xc vi cc cc ni t. V in th cm ng do s c h thng in vi mch vng qua t, in tr tip t nh s lm gim in th ny v trnh nguy him cho ngi cng nh trnh cho h thng in b h hng. Trn l thuyt, duy tr in th chun cho thit b an ton, bo v an ton in tr tip t phi bng 0. Trong thc t iu ny khng th t c. Tuy nhin tu theo mc quan trng ca cng trnh v thit b in th in tr tip t tun theo cc yu cu ca TCVN, NEC, OSHA v ca nhng tiu chun an ton in khc. 6.1.7.2. in tr cc tip t Hnh 6.25 m t cc tip t. in tr tip t ny bao gm nhng thnh phn sau: + in tr ca bn thn cc v in tr tip xc ca phn u ni; + in tr tip xc ca t xung quanh cc; + in tr ca t bao st xung quanh cc tip t hoc in tr sut ca t. y l thnh phn quan
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trng nht. Cc cc tip t thng lm bng kim loi (ng hoc m ng) vi tit din thch hp in tr l khng ng k. Nh vy thnh phn cn li chnh l in tr ca t xung quanh. C th coi cc c bao quanh bi nhng lp t ng tm. Tt c nhng lp ny c dy nh nhau. Cc lp gn cc c din tch nh hn cho nn c in tr ln hn, cn cc lp xa th din tch ln cho nn in tr s nh hn. Cc lp xa cc qu s khng nh hng n in tr t xung quanh cc. in tr cc t n c tnh theo cng thc do H.R.Dwight ca Vin k thut Massachusetts a ra nh sau:

trong : Rd l in tr cc t tnh bng ca cc ni t; L l chiu di ca cc (m); R l bn knh ca cc (m); l in tr sut trung bnh, tnh bng /cm. T cng thc ny cho thy rng in tr ca cc t ph thuc vo kch thc, su ca cc v in tr sut ca t. Khi tng ng knh ca cc ln gp i thng s lm gim 10% in tr t ca cc, cn khi tng gp i chiu di ca cc s lm gim 40% in tr ca cc tip t. i vi in tr sut ca t thay i theo vng v theo ma. in tr t c xc nh theo cht in phn ca n, bao gm m, khong cht v mui ho tan. 6.1.7.3. o in tr ni t bng phng php volmet, ampemet Khi cn o in tr ni t ca mt cc A bt k ngi ta dng thm mt cc ph B ng cch cc A chng (50 60)m v mt cc ph C. Cc volmet v ampemet mc nh hnh v. Khi cho dng in chy t cc n t, dng in s chy theo hng tm ca cc lp hnh cu, thng c gi l hiu ng hnh tr ca t xung quanh cc. Sau khi dng cc d C cho thay i t A B, cn c vo kt qu ca volmet ta v c ng phn b th nng trn mt t t A B, m phng trng dng trong t nh Hnh 6.26. Ta c nhn xt sau. Ta
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c: AD = DE = EB ( 20m) trong vng DE in th hu nh khng i: E = D = 0.

Ti on AD: BE:

UAD = A D = A ; UBE = B E = B.

V vy ta xc nh c in tr ni t ca cc A:

v in tr ni t ca cc B:

Tm li: Khi cn o RA ca cc A ta dng thm mt cc B cch cc A t (50 60)m v 1 cc ph C. Cc cc ph ny phi c in tr xp x

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hoc nh hn in tr ca cc cn o. Cc ng h (V) v (A) mc nh hnh v; thay i C ti vng DE th dng li v ta xc nh c

vi U, I l ch s ca volmet v ampemet. Ch : V mt l thuyt, in tr t ca h thng ni t phi c o khong cch v hn k t cc ni t. Tuy nhin i vi mc ch thc hnh, hiu ng hnh tr ca t th khong cch gia cc cc gn nhau bng hai ln di.ca cc cn o in tr l . Ngun cung cp cho mch o l ngun tn hiu xoay chiu dng sin hoc xung vung. Chng ta trnh dng ngun mt chiu do nh hng ca in phn s lm tng sai s do in th in cc. Nu dng in li ca in lc th phi dng bin p cch ly trnh nh hng ca dng trung tnh (nu c do in th li mt i xng) v cc t ca dy trung tnh. 6.1.7.4. o in tr ni t bng dng c chuyn dng teromet S cu to teromet chuyn dng loi M1103 ca Lin X c nh Hnh 6.27. Ngun cung cp nh my in xoay chiu tay quay. My bin dng TT, cun th cp ni vi Rns; c cu o l c cu t in ni vi cun th cp my bin p UT qua b chnh lu.

154

Qu trnh o: Khi dng cho my pht lm vic cc cc A, B, C ni nh hnh v. Lc ny c dng I1, qua s cp bin dng in qua cc A, qua t v cc B tr v my pht to nn mt st p trn Rx cn o l: Mt khc st p trn Ru do dng I2 ca my bin dng in TT sinh ra:

Khi hai in p cha cn bng U1 U2 s c tn hiu vo cun s cp my bin p v c cu ch th quay i mt gc no . Trong qu trnh o ngi ta dch chuyn con trt trn R2 sao cho kim ch 0 ch dng li U1 = U2. Vy:

Vy cn c vo v tr con trt trn bin tr R2 ta xc nh c Rx cn o (thc t c ngay kt qu). Qu trnh kim tra: kim tra chnh xc ca dng c trc khi o, ngi ta ng K2 ln H, cc cc A, B, C cha ni, lc ny gi tr o c chnh l Rk, nu dng c chnh xc gi tr bng 10 v Rk l in tr mu c gi tr l 10. M rng thang o, t 10 50 nh R3 thng qua vic ng K1. Ngy nay nhiu hng ch to dng c o to ra cc loi teromet gn nh da trn nguyn l ca phng php volmet - ampemet, s dng ngun l phi, cc ch th s. u ra a ra ba u ni ni vi cc cn o in tr t, v hai cc ph. 6.1.7.5. o in tr ni t bng teromet - Phng php hai im Phng php ny c th s dng o in tr ca cc ni t n bng s dng cc ni t ph c in tr bit hoc c th o c.
155

in tr ca cc ni t ph ny c gi tr rt nh so vi gi tr in tr ca cc ni t cn o v gi tr o c coi nh in tr ni t. V d nh ngi ta tin hnh o in tr ca cc ni t n cho to nh khi vic ng thm hai cc ph l kh khn, th ng ng nc c th s dng nh cc ni t ph c gi tr in tr nh c 1. Gi tr ny tng i nh so vi in tr ca cc tip t n. Gi tr o c l tr s ca hai cc ni tip nhau. in tr ca cc dy dn ni s c tr vo kt qu o c. S phng php ny cho trn Hnh 6.28.

6.2. o in cm 6.2.1. o in cm v h s phm cht cun dy (Q) dng cu xoay chiu 6.2.1.1. iu kin cn bng cu xoay chiu Cu xoay chiu l dng c da trn cu n o in cm, in dung, gc tn hao v h s phm cht Q. Ngun cung cp l ngun xoay chiu tn s cng nghip (50 60Hz), m tn hoc cao tn t my pht tn. Ch th zero l dng c xoay chiu nh in k in t, my hin sng... Gi thit tng tr phc cc nhnh c vit nh sau:
156

trong Z1, Z2, Z3, Z4 tng ng l modul ca ln lt cc nhnh v 1, 2, 3, 4 ln lt l cc gc pha ca cc nhnh cu. Khi cu cn bng ta c: hay: Do ta c iu kin cn bng cu xoay chiu sau:

Nhn xt: T iu kin cn bng cu xoay chiu ta thy cu cn bng nu hai nhnh i nhau l thun tr th hai nhnh cn li phi ngc tnh cht (mt nhnh c tnh cht cm v mt nhnh c tnh cht dung), cn nu hai nhnh k nhau l thun tr th hai nhnh cn li phi c cng tnh cht. Da trn nhn xt ny ngi ta a ra cc s o in cm, in dung bng cu xoay chiu. 6.2.1.2. o in cm v h s phm cht cun dy (Q) bng cu xoay chiu Cun cm l tng l cun dy ch c thnh phn in khng XL =L hoc ch thun khit l in cm L, nhng trong thc t cc cun dy bao gi cng c mt in tr nht nh. in tr cng ln phm cht ca cun dy cng km. Q l thng s c trng cho phm cht ca cun dy, n c tnh bng:

a) o in cm bng cu xoay chiu dng in cm mu Mch cu so snh cc i lng cn xc nh Lx, Rx vi i lng mu Lm v Rm. Hai nhnh R1, R2 l cc bin tr thun tr c chnh xc cao.
157

Khi o ngi ta iu chnh Rm, Lm (v c th c R1, R2) cu t gi tr cn bng.

Khi cu cn bng ta c:

vi:

T tnh c h s phm cht ca cun dy:

b) o in cm bng cu in cm Maxwell Trn thc t vic ch to t in chun d hn nhiu so vi vic to cun dy chun, do vy ngi ta s dng t in trong cu Maxwell o in cm
158

Khi cu t cn bng ta c: trong :

T tnh c

Cu Maxwell ch thch hp o cc cun cm c h s Q thp. c) o in cm bng cu in cm Hay Mch cu ny c s dng cho vic o cc cun cm c h s phm
159

cht cao.

Ta c:

Khi :

Ngoi ra, ngi ta cn dng cc bin th khc ca mch cu nh mch cu Owen, Shering... in cm. 6.2.2. o in cm bng phng php gin tip C th dng cc volmet, ampemet, wattmet o in cm v in tr ca cun dy theo s sau, tuy nhin phng php ny mc phi sai s ln.

160

Ta c:

Ngun cung cp cho mch o l ngun xoay chiu hnh sin. Nu nh bit trc Rx ta ch cn volmet v ampemet nn khng phi s dng wattmet. 6.3. o in dung v tn tht in mi ca t in bng cu xoay chiu T in l tng l t khng tiu th cng sut (dng in mt chiu khng qua t) nhng trong thc t vn c thnh phn dng r i qua lp in mi v vy trong t c s tn hao cng sut. c trng cho s tn hao ny ngi ta s dng thng s gc tn hao tg. C hai s thay th tng ng ca t: Vi t c tn hao nh tg = RC Vi t c tn hao ln tg =
1 jC

trong R, C l hai thnh phn i din cho phn thun tr v phn thun dung ca t in. 6.3.1. Cu o in dung ca t in tn hao t T in c tn hao nh c biu din bi mt t in l tng mc
161

ni tip vi mt in tr. Khi ngi ta mc cu nh Hnh 6.34.

Cx, Rx l nhnh t in cn o; Cm, Rm l nhnh t mu iu chnh c; R1, R2 l cc bin tr thun tr. Khi cu cn bng ta c mi quan h: vi:

Vy:

Gc tn tht in mi l:
162

6.3.2. Cu o in dung ca t in tn hao nhiu Khi t c tn hao nhiu, ngi ta biu din n di dng mt t in l tng mc song song vi mt in tr.

Cu cn bng ta c iu kin: ZxZ2 = Z1.Zm vi:

Do vy ta c:

163

Gc tn tht in mi l:

6.4. o h s h cm ca hai cun dy 6.4.1. Phng php dng volmet v ampemet (phng php vol ampe)

Sc in ng E2 l: Do vy ta c:

trong UV v IA l s ch o bi volmet v ampemet. Nhn xt: Phng php ny n gin tuy nhin nhc im l mc phi sai s ln. 6.4.2. Phng php mc ni tip cc cun dy Phng php ny dng cch mc ni tip thun nghch cc cun dy xc nh h s h cm ca chng. S mc thun v nghch nh Hnh 6.37a v 6.37b.
164

Gi L1, L2 l in cm ca cun dy 1 v cun dy 2; M l h cm gia chng. Xt Hnh 6.37a, ta c in cm tng ca nhnh l: Xt Hnh 6.37b, ta c in cm tng ca nhnh l:

Xt hiu ca hai trng hp:

Cho nn:

Cc gi tr La, Lb c xc nh theo cc s ch ca volmet v ampemet trong tng trng hp nh sau:

trong : UVa, IAa l s ch ca volmet v ampemet trong s (a), UVb, IAb l s ch ca volmet v ampemet trong s (b), R1, R2 l in tr cc cun dy 1 v 2.
165

Ph lc 1 H n v o lng hp php
(cc n v thng dng trong k thut in)
S th t n v trong h hp php Tn i lng Tn K hiu Ghi ch

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Chiu di Khi lng Thi gian Cng dng in Lc Tn s Cng, nng lng Cng sut in tch

Mt Kilogam khi Giy Ampe Niutn Hec Jun Ot Culng

M Kg S A N Hz J W C V V/m S F H A/m T Wb Avg

in th, in p, sc in Vn 10 ng Vn trn mt 11 Cng in trng m 12 in tr Simen 13 in dn Fara 14 in dung Henri 15 in cm Ampe trn mt 16 Cng t trng Tesla 17 T cm Vebe 18 T thng Ampe vng 19 Sc t ng

166

Bi s v c s theo n v tnh
Tn Pico Nano Mili Micro Xenti K hiu p n m c H s chuyn n v 10-12 10
-9

Tn Deci Hecto Kilo Mega

K hiu d h k xM

H s chuyn n v 10-1 100 1.000 1.000.000

10-3 10-6 10-2

167

Ph lc 2 K hiu quy c dng c o lng in v cc b phn b sung

K hiu quy c trn thang chia ca Dng c o lng in v cc b phn b sung dng c K hiu theo nguyn l tc ng ca dng c

Dng c kiu in t vi khung dy ng

Logomet in t vi hai khung dy ng Dng c t in vi nam chm ng Logomet t in vi nam chm ng Dng c in t Logomet in t

Dng c in t phn cc

Dng c in ng Logomet in ng Dng c st ng

168

Logomet st ng
K hiu quy c trn thang chia ca Dng c o lng in v cc b phn b sung dng c

Logomet cm ng Logomet cm ng Dng c cm ng t Dng c tnh in Dng c c h thng rung (li rung) Dng c nhit (c si nung) Dng c c thanh kim loi kp
K hiu b sung theo hnh thc bin i

B bin i nhit c cch ly B bin i nhit khng cch ly B chnh lu bn dn B chnh lu c in B bin i in t My bin i rung kiu xung B bin i kiu b
K hiu b sung v bo v t trng v in trng

169

Bo v t trng bn ngoi (cp bo v loi 1) Bo v in trng ngoi (cp bo v loi 1)

K hiu quy c trn thang chia ca Dng c o lng in v cc b phn b sung dng c

600 Hz

Tr s tn s fk khi cng t trng th nghim bng 400 A/M, v d fk = 600Hz Dng c in t (cp bo v loi 1 v nh hng ca t trng) Dng c tnh in
K hiu v dng in

Mt chiu xoay chiu (1 pha) Mt chiu v xoay chiu Dng in ba pha (k hiu chung) Dng in ba pha vi ti trng khng u cc pha Dng c vi c cu o mt phn t

Dng c vi c cu o hai phn t Dng c vi c cu o ba phn t i vi li in 4 dy K hiu cp chnh xc, cch b tr thit b bn cch in, v.v... 1,5
170 Cp chnh xc vi sai s nh mc theo phn

trm ca gii hn o, v d 1,5

Cp chnh xc vi sai s nh mc theo phn trm chiu di ca thang chia , v d 1,5 t mt chia nm ngang
K hiu quy c trn thang chia ca Dng c o lng in v cc b phn b sung dng c

t mt chia nm ng nghing ca mt thang chia t nghing mt gc xc nh so vi mt phng nm ngang, v d 60o Hng ca dng c theo t trng ca Tri t 500 Hz 400 - 500 Hz 20 - 50 - (120) Tr s tn s nh mc Vng tn s nh mc Tr s tn s nh mc v vng m rng tn s

171

Ph lc 3 H phn b Student theo gi tr xc sut

N 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 14 16 18 20 25 31 41 61 121 H s phn b Student (kst) theo cc gi tr xc sut P 0,500 1,000 0,816 0,765 0,741 0,727 0,718 0,711 0,706 0,703 0,697 0,694 0,691 0,689 0,688 0,684 0,683 0,681 0,679 0,677 0,674 0,900 6,310 2,920 2,350 2,130 2,020 1,940 1,900 1,860 1,830 1,800 1,770 1,750 1,740 1,730 1,710 1,700 1,680 1,670 1,650 1,640 0,950 12,700 4,300 2,350 2,780 2,570 2,490 2,360 2,310 2,260 2,200 2,160 2,130 2,110 2,090 2,060 2,040 2,020 2,000 1,980 1,960 0,980 31,800 6,960 4,540 3,750 3,360 3,140 3,000 2,900 2,820 2,720 2,650 2,600 2,570 2,540 2,490 2,460 2,420 2,390 2,360 2,330 0,990 63,700 9,920 5,840 4,600 4,030 3,710 3,500 3,360 3,250 3,100 3,010 2,990 2,900 2,860 2,800 2,750 2,700 2,660 2,620 2,580 0,999 637,000 31,600 13,000 8,610 6,860 5,960 5,400 5,040 4,780 4,490 4,220 4,070 3,960 3,880 3,740 3,650 3,550 3,460 3,370 3,290

172

MC LC
Trang
Chng 1 KHI NIM CHUNG V O LNG........................................... 2 1.1. nh ngha v phn loi thit b............................................................... 2 1.2. S cu trc thit b o lng............................................................... 5 1.3. Cc c tnh ca thit b o...................................................................... 9 1.4. Gia cng kt qu o lng..................................................................... 14 Chng 2 CC C CU CH TH.................................................................. 21 2.1. C cu ch th c in ............................................................................ 21 2.2. C cu ch th s .................................................................................... 39 Chng 3 O DNG IN V IN P ..................................................... 48 3.1. Nhng yu cu c bn ca vic o dng in v in p...................... 48 3.2. o dng in trung bnh v ln bng cc loi ampemet ....................... 51 3.3. o dng in nh................................................................................... 56 3.4. o in p trung bnh v ln bng cc loi volmet ............................... 57 3.5. o dng in v in p bng phng php so snh ............................ 60 3.6. o in p bng cc volmet ch th s................................................... 70 Chng 4 O CNG SUT V NNG LNG ......................................... 82 4.1. o cng sut v nng lng trong mch mt pha ................................. 82 4.2. o cng sut v nng lng trong mch ba pha.................................... 97 Chng 5 O GC PHA V TN S ......................................................... 106 5.1. o gc pha v h s cng sut cos .................................................... 106 5.2. o tn s .............................................................................................. 114 5.3. ng dng my hin sng in t trong o lng................................ 119 Chng 6 O CC THNG S CA MCH IN .................................. 131 6.1. o in tr ........................................................................................... 131 6.2. o in cm......................................................................................... 156 6.3. o in dung v tn tht in mi ca t in bng cu xoay chiu .. 161 6.4. o h s h cm ca hai cun dy ...................................................... 164 Ph lc 1 H n v o lng hp php ......................................................... 166 Ph lc 2 K hiu quy c dng c o lng in v cc b phn b sung.. 168 Ph lc 3 H phn b Student theo gi tr xc sut ........................................ 172 173