You are on page 1of 90

PHN I Chng I I CNG V LOGIC

I- I TNG CA LOGIC HC. 1- Thut ng logic.

Thut ng Logic c phin m t ting nc ngoi (Logic : Ting Anh ; Logique : Ting Php) thut ng ny c ngun gc t ting Hilp l Logos, c ngha l li ni, t tng, l tnh, qui lut v.v Ngy nay, ngi ta thng s dng thut ng Logic vi nhng ngha sau :
- Tnh qui lut trong s vn ng v pht trin ca th gii khch quan. y chnh l Logic ca s vt, Logic khch quan. - Tnh qui lut trong t tng, trong lp lun. y chnh l Logic ca t duy, Logic ch quan. - Khoa hc nghin cu v t duy tip cn chn l. y chnh l Logic hc.

2- T duy v cc c im ca n. Nhn thc l qu trnh phn nh th gii khch quan vo trong b no ngi, qu trnh din ra t trc quan sinh ng n t duy tru tng (L-nin). Trc quan sinh ng (tc nhn thc cm tnh) l giai on xut pht ca qu trnh nhn thc. Nhn thc cm tnh din ra di 3 hnh thc c bn : cm gic, tri gic, biu tng. Nhng hnh nh do nhn thc cm tnh em li l ngun gc duy nht ca s hiu bit ca chng ta v th gii bn ngoi. Tuy nhin, nhn thc cm tnh mi ch cung cp cho ta tri thc v nhng biu hin b ngoi ca s vt. c th pht hin ra nhng mi lin h ni ti c tnh qui lut ca chng, cn phi tin n t duy tru tng (khi 1 nim, phn on, suy lun, gii thuyt, v.v). Vi t duy tru tng, con ngi chuyn t nhn thc hin tng n nhn thc bn cht, t nhn thc ci ring n nhn thc ci chung, t nhn thc cc i tng ring n nhn thc mi lin h v cc qui lut pht trin ca chng. T duy tru tng hay gi tt l t duy chnh l giai on cao ca qu trnh nhn thc.

T duy l s phn nh thc ti mt cch gin tip. Kh nng phn nh thc ti mt cch gin tip ca t duy c biu hin kh nng suy l, kt lun logic, chng minh ca con ngi. Xut pht t ch phn tch nhng s kin c th tri gic c mt cch trc tip, n cho php nhn thc c nhng g khng th tri gic c bng cc gic quan. T duy l s phn nh khi qut cc thuc tnh, cc mi lin h c bn, ph bin khng ch c mt s vt ring l, m mt lp s vt nht nh. Kh nng phn nh thc ti mt cch khi qut ca t duy c biu hin kh nng con ngi c th xy dng nhng khi nim khoa hc gn lin vi s trnh by nhng qui lut tng ng. T duy l mt sn phm c tnh x hi. T duy ch tn ti trong mi lin h khng th tch ri khi hot ng lao ng v ngn ng, l hot ng tiu biu cho x hi loi ngi. V th t duy lun gn lin vi ngn ng v kt qu ca t duy c ghi nhn trong ngn ng.
3- Logic hc nghin cu l g ?

T duy ca con ngi l 2 tng nghin cu ca nhiu ngnh khoa hc nh: Sinh l hc thn kinh cp cao, iu khin hc, Tm l i hc, Trit hc, Logic hc v.v Mi ngnh khoa hc u chn cho mnh mt gc , mt kha cnh ring trong khi nghin cu t duy. Bn v i tng nghin cu ca Logic hc, cc nh logic hc t trc ti nay c gng a ra mt nh ngha bao qut, y v ngn gn v vn ny. Theo quan nim truyn thng, Logic hc l khoa hc v nhng qui lut v hnh thc cu to ca t duy chnh xc. Trong nhng thp nin gn y, logic hc pht trin ht sc mnh m, do vy c nhng quan nim khc nhau v i tng ca logic hc.
- Logic hc l khoa hc v s suy lun (Le petit Larousse illustr, 1993). - Logic hc l khoa hc v cch thc suy lun ng n (Bansaia Xovietscaia Encyclopedia, 1976).

- v.v D c s bin i, Logic hc vn l khoa hc v t duy, nghin cu nhng qui lut v hnh thc ca t duy, bo m cho t duy t n chn l.
I- CC C IM CA LOGIC HC.

1- Tm thi tch hnh thc ca t tng ra khi ni dung ca n v ch tp trung nghin cu hnh thc ca t tng. Mi t tng phn nh hin thc u bao gm hai phn : Ni dung v hnh thc. Ni dung ca t tng l s phn nh s vt, hin tng ca th gii khch quan. Hnh thc ca t tng chnh l cu trc logic ca n.
2
3

V d : - Mi kim loi u dn in. - Tt c nhng tn a ch u l k bc lt. - Ton th sinh vin lp Trit u l on vin. Ba t tng trn y c ni dung hon ton khc nhau nhng li ging nhau v hnh thc. Chng u c chung cu trc logic : Tt c S l P. Logic hc tm thi khng quan tm n ni dung ca t tng, ch tp trung nghin cu hnh thc ca t tng m thi. Chnh v vy m ta gi l logic hnh thc.
2- Cc qui tc, qui lut ca logic hnh thc l s phn nh nhng mi lin h gia cc s vt, hin tng ca th gii khch quan,

chng khng ph thuc vo thnh phn giai cp, dn tc. V d : - Mi kim loi u l cht dn in (). - Mi cht dn in u l kim loi (S). - Mt s cht dn in l kim loi (). Nhng qui tc, qui lut ca logic hnh thc c tnh ph bin, chng l nhng yu cu cn thit cho mi nhn thc khoa hc t 4 n chn l. Chnh v vy, logic t nhin ca nhn loi l thng nht v nh nhau.
3- Mi s vt, hin tng u vn ng, bin i v pht trin khng ngng, cc khi nim, t tng phn nh chng cng khng

ng im mt ch. y, Logic hnh thc ch nghin cu nhng t tng, khi nim phn nh s vt trong trng thi tnh, trong s n nh tng i ca n, b qua s hnh thnh, bin i pht trin ca cc khi nim, t tng .
II- S HNH THNH V PHT TRIN CA LOGIC HC. 1- Aristote (384-322 T.CN) nh trit hc Hilp c i c coi l ngi sng lp ra Logic hc. Vi nhng hiu bit su rng c

tp hp li trong b sch Organon (cng c) s bao gm 6 tp, Aristote l ngi u tin trnh by mt cch c h thng nhng vn ca Logic hc. ng l ngi u tin nghin cu t m khi nim v phn on, l thuyt suy lun v chng minh. ng cng l ngi xy dng php Tam on lun v nu ln Cc qui lut c bn ca t duy : Lut ng nht, Lut mu thun, Lut loi tr ci th ba v.v Sau Aristote, cc nh logic hc ca trng phi khc k quan tm phn tch cc mnh . cng
3
5

nh php Tam on lun ca Aristote. Logic cc mnh ca nhng ngi khc k c trnh by di dng l thuyt suy din. H ng gp cho logic hc 5 qui tc suy din c bn c coi nh nhng tin sau : 1. Nu c A th c B, m c A vy c B. 2. Nu c A th c B, m khng c B vy khng c A. 3. Khng c ng thi A v B, m c A vy khng c B.
4. Hoc A hoc B, m c A vy khng c B.

5. Hoc A hoc B, m khng c B vy c A. Logic hc ca Aristote c tn vinh trong sut thi Trung c. u ngi ta cng ch ch yu ph bin v bnh lun Logic hc ca Aristote coi nh nhng chn l cui cng, tuyt ch. C th ni, trong sut thi trung c, Logic hc mang tnh kinh vin v hu nh khng c b sung thm iu g ng k. Thi Phc hng, Logic ca Aristote ch yu cp n php suy din, tr nn cht hp, khng p ng c nhng yu cu mi ca s pht trin khoa hc, c bit l cc khoa hc thc nghim. F.Bacon (1561-1626) vi tc phm Novum Organum, ng ch ra mt cng c mi : Php qui np. Bacon cho rng cn phi tun th cc qui tc ca php qui np trong qu trnh quan st v th nghim tm ra cc qui lut ca t nhin. R.Descartes (1596-1659) lm sng t thm nhng khm ph ca Bacon bng tc phm Discours de la mthode (Lun v phng php). J.S. Mill (1806-1873) nh Logic hc Anh vi tham vng tm ra nhng qui tc v s ca php qui np tng t nh cc qui tc tam on lun, chnh Mill a ra cc phng php qui np ni ting (Phng php ph hp, phng php sai bit, phng php cng bin v phng php phn d). Logic hc Aristote cng vi nhng b sung ng gp ca Bacon, Descartes v Mill tr thnh Logic hnh thc c in hay Logic hc truyn thng.
2- Trc , nh ton hc ngi c Leibniz (1646-1716) li c tham vng pht trin Logic hc ca Aristote thnh Logic k hiu.

Tuy vy, phi n gia 6 k 19, khi nh ton hc G.Boole (1815-1864) a ra cng trnh i s hc ca Logic th tng th ca Leibniz mi tr thnh hin thc. Logic hc c ton hc ha. Logic k hiu (cn gi l logic ton hc) pht trin mnh m t . Sau Boole, mt loi cc nh ton hc ni ting c cng trong vic pht trin Logic ton nh Frege (1848-1925), Russell (1872-1970), Whitehead v.v lm cho logic ton c c b mt nh ngy nay.
4

Logic ton hc l giai on hin i trong s pht trin ca logic hnh thc. V i tng ca n, Logic ton hc l logic hc, cn v phng php th n l ton hc. Logic ton hc c nh hng to ln n chnh ton hc hin i, ngy nay n ang pht trin theo nhiu hng v c ng dng trong nhiu lnh vc khc nhau nh ton hc, ngn ng hc, my tnh v.v
3- Vo th k 19, Hgel (1770-1831) nh trit hc c nghin cu v em li cho logic hc mt b mt mi : Logic bin chng.

Tuy nhin, nhng yu t ca Logic bin chng c t thi c i, trong cc hc thuyt ca Hraclite, Platon, Aristote v.v Cng lao ca Hgel i vi Logic bin chng l ch ng em li cho n mt h thng u tin, c nghin cu mt cch ton din, nhng h thng y li c trnh by bi mt th gii quan duy tm. Chnh K.Marx (1818-1883), F.Engels (1820-1895) v V.I Lnine (1870-1924) ci to v pht trin Logic hc bin chng trn c s duy vt, bin n thnh khoa hc v nhng qui lut v hnh phn nh trong t duy s pht trin v bin i ca th gii khch quan, v nhng qui lut nhn thc chn l. Logic bin chng khng bc b logic hnh thc, m ch vch r ranh gii ca n, coi n nh mt hnh thc cn thit nhng khng y ca t duy logic. Trong logic bin chng, hc thuyt v tn ti v hc thuyt v s phn nh tn ti trong thc lin quan cht ch vi nhau. 7 8 Nu nh Logic hnh thc nghin cu nhng hnh thc v qui lut ca t duy phn nh s vt trong trng thi tnh, trong s n nh tng i ca chng th Logic bin chng li nghin cu nhng hnh thc v qui lut ca t duy phn nh s vn ng v pht trin ca th gii khch quan.
4- Ngy nay, cng vi khoa hc k thut, Logic hc ang c nhng bc pht trin mnh, ngy cng c s phn ngnh v lin ngnh

rng ri. Nhiu chuyn ngnh mi ca Logic hc ra i : Logic kin thit, Logic a tri, Logic m, Logic tnh thi v.v S pht trin ang lm cho Logic hc ngy cng thm phong ph, m ra nhng kh nng mi trong vic ng dng Logic hc vo cc ngnh khoa hc v i sng.
III- NGHA CA LOGIC HC.

Sng trong x hi, mi ngi khng tn ti mt cch c lp m lun c mi quan h vi nhau v quan h vi t nhin. Cng vi ngn ng, Logic gip cn ngi hiu bit nhau mt cch chnh xc v nhn thc t nhin ng n hn. Tri qua qu trnh lao ng, t duy logic ca con ngi c hnh thnh trc khi c khoa hc v logic. Tuy nhin t duy logic c hnh thnh bng cch nh vy l t duy logic t pht. T duy logic t pht gy tr ngi cho vic nhn thc khoa hc, n d mc phi sai lm trong qu trnh trao i t tng vi nhau, nht l nhng vn phc tp. Logic hc gip chng ta chuyn li t duy logic t pht thnh t duy logic t gic. T duy logic t gic em li nhng li ch sau :
5

- Lp lun cht ch, c cn c; trnh by cc quan im, t tng mt cch r rng, chnh xc, mch lc hn.
- Pht hin c nhng li logic trong qu trnh lp lun, trnh by quan im, t tng ca ngi khc.

- Vch ra cc th thut ngy bin ca i phng. Logic hc cn trang b cho chng ta cc phng php nghin cu khoa hc : Suy din, Qui np, Phn tch, Tng hp, Gi thuyt, Chng minh v.v nh lm tng kh nng nhn thc, khm ph ca con ngi i vi th gii. Ngoi ra, logic hc cn c ngha c bit i vi mt s lnh vc, mt s ngnh khoa hc khc nhau nh : Ton hc, iu khin hc, Ngn ng hc, Lut hc v.v

PHN II
9

Chng II KHI NIM I- C IM CHUNG CA KHI NIM. 1- nh ngha. Khi nim l hnh thc c bn ca t duy tru tng, phn nh nhng thuc tnh bn cht ca s vt, hin tng. Mi s vt, hin tng u bao gm nhiu thuc tnh, khi nim ch phn nh nhng thuc tnh bn cht, b qua nhng thuc tnh ring bit, n l, khng bn cht ca s vt, hin tng. V d : khi nim Gh : Vt c lm ra, dng ngi.

Mi s vt c gi l Gh u c nhng thuc tnh v mu sc, v cht liu, v hnh dng, v kch thc v.v Song l nhng thuc tnh ring bit, khng bn cht. Khi nim Gh ch phn nh nhng thuc tnh bn cht ca tt c nhng ci Gh trong hin thc, l : Vt c lm ra dng ngi. 2- S hnh thnh khi nim. Khi nim l hnh thc u tin ca t duy tru tng. hnh thnh khi nim, t duy cn s dng cc phng php so snh, phn tch, tng hp, tru tng ha, khi qut ha, trong so snh bao gi cng gn lin vi cc thao tc phn tch, tng hp, tru tng ha, khi qut ha. Bng s phn tch, ta tch c s vt, hin tng thnh nhng b phn khc nhau, vi nhng thuc tnh khc nhau. T nhng ti liu phn tch ny m tng hp li, t duy vch r u l nhng thuc tnh ring l (ni ln s khc nhau gia cc s vt) v u l thuc 10 tnh chung, ging nhau gia cc s vt c tp hp thnh mt lp s vt. Trn c s phn tch v tng hp, t duy tin n tru tng ha, khi qut ha. Bng tru tng ha, t duy b qua nhng thuc tnh ring l, l nhng biu hin bn ngoi, nhng ci ngu nhin, thong qua, khng n nh i vo bn trong, nm ly nhng thuc tnh chung, bn cht, qui lut ca s vt. Sau tru tng ha l khi qut ha, t duy nm ly ci chung, tt yu, ci bn cht ca s vt. ni dung trong t duy c biu hin c th bng ngn ng, c ngha l phi t cho n mt tn gi chnh l khi nim. Nh vy, v hnh thc, khi nim l mt tn gi, mt danh t, nhng v ni dung, n phn nh bn cht ca s vt. 3- Khi nim v t. Khi nim lun gn b cht ch vi t. T l ci v vt cht ca khi nim, nu khng c t, khi nim khng hnh thnh v tn ti c. C th ni, quan h t v khi nim cng nh quan h gia ngn ng v t tng. Mc ni : Ngn ng l hin thc ca t tng. Khi nim thng c biu th bng t hay cm t. V d : Ru, hng ha, h thng mt tri v.v. Khi nim v cng mt i tng l c tnh ph bin, n c gi tr chung cho ton nhn loi, khng phn bit dn tc, quc gia. Tuy vy, khi nim li biu th bng nhng t khc nhau nhng ngn ng khc nhau. V d : Khi nim C : ng vt c xng sng, sng di nc, bi bng vy, th bng mang, c din ta bng t trong ting Nga, t FISH trong ting Anh v.v.
7
11

Cng mt th ngn ng, mi khi nim cng c th c din t bng nhiu t khc nhau (t ng ngha). V d : Khi nim : Loi th d n tht, cng h vi mo, lng mu vng c vn en, c din t bng cc t ; CP, HM, H. Cng mt th ngn ng, mi t c th din t nhiu khi nim khc nhau (t ng m, t nhiu ngha). V d : T NG biu th cc khi nim : NG RUNG, NG KIM LOI. Khi nim l s phn nh hin thc khch quan, cn t l s qui c c hnh thnh trong qu trnh giao tip ca tng cng ng ngi. II- NI HM V NGOI DIN CA KHI NIM. 1- nh ngha. - Ni hm ca khi nim l tng hp nhng thuc tnh bn cht ca lp cc i tng c phn nh trong khi nim. V d : Khi nim C c ni hm l : ng vt c xng sng, sng di nc, bi bng vy, th bng mang. Ni hm ca khi nim, C l tng hp cc thuc tnh bn cht ca mi con c. Nh vy, ngha ca khi nim do chnh ni hm ca khi nim qui nh. Ni hm ca khi nim biu th mt CHT ca khi nim, n tr li cho cu hi : i tng m khi nim 12 phn nh l ci g ? - Ngoi din ca khi nim l ton th nhng i tng c thuc tnh bn cht c phn nh trong khi nim. Mi i tng l mt phn t to nn ngoi din, cn ngoi din ca khi nim l tp hp tt c cc phn t ca lp cc i tng . Ngoi din ca khi nim biu th mt LNG ca khi nim, n tr li cho cu hi : Lp cc i tng m khi nim phn nh c bao nhiu? Ngoi din ca khi nim c th l mt tp hp v hn, gm v s cc i tng. V d : khi nim NGI SAO. Cng c th l mt tp hp hu hn, c th lit k ht c cc i tng : V d : khi nim CON NGI. Cng c khi nim m ngoi din ch bao gm mt i tng : V d : khi nim : SNG HNG. 2- Quan h gia ni hm v ngoi din ca khi nim. Trong mi khi nim, ni hm v ngoi din lun thng nht v gn b mt thit vi nhau. Mi ni hm tng ng vi mt ngoi din xc nh. Tuy vy, s tng quan gia ni hm v ngoi din ca khi nim c tnh cht t l nghch. Nu ngoi din ca mt khi nim cng nhiu i tng bao nhiu th ni hm ca n cng ngho nn by nhiu v ngc li.
8

C th pht biu v s tng quan gia ni hm v ngoi din ca cc khi nim nh sau : Nu ngoi din ca mt khi nim bao hm trong n ngoi din ca khi nim khc th ni hm ca khi nim th nht l mt b phn ca ni hm khi nim th hai.
13

III-QUAN H GIA CC KHI NIM. Quan h gia cc khi nim chnh l quan h gia ngoi din ca cc khi nim. Gia cc khi nim, c th c cc quan h sau y : 1- Quan h ng nht. Hai khi nim ng nht l hai khi nim c cng ngoi din. V d : Paris (A) v th nc Php (B).

y l hai khi nim ng nht v Paris chnh l th nc Php v th nc Php cng chnh l Paris. Ngha l ngoi din ca hai khi nim ny cng phn nh mt i tng. Tng t ta c : Tam gic cn v Tam gic c hai gc bng nhau, Nguyn Du v tc gi Truyn Kiu l nhng khi nim ng nht. Nh vy, hai khi nim ng nht l hai khi nim m ngoi din ca chng c chung s i tng. 2- Quan h bao hm. Quan h gia mt khi nim rng hn vi mt khi nim hp hn. Quan h bao hm l quan h gia hai khi nim m ngoi din ca khi nim ny cha trong n ngoi din ca khi nim khc. V d : Hc sinh (A) v Hc sinh trung hc (B).
A
14

Mt b phn ca Hc sinh l Hc sinh trung hc, ngoi din ca khi nim Hc sinh bao hm ngoi din khi nim Hc sinh trung hc.
9

Tng t ta c cc khi nim Ngi lao ng v Cng nhn hoc Thc vt v Cy trm bu l nhng khi nim c quan h bao hm. Lu : Khng nn ln ln Quan h bao hm gia cc khi nim vi Quan h gia ton th v b phn trong cu trc ca i tng. V d : quan h gia : Qun Tn Bnh v Thnh ph H Ch Minh, Phng Gio dc v S Gio dc, Tri t v H mt tri v.v l quan h gia b phn v ton th. R rng Qun Tn Bnh l mt n v hnh chnh nm trong Thnh ph H Ch Minh, nhng khi nim Thnh ph H Ch Minh li khng bao hm khi nim Qun Tn Bnh v khi nim Thnh ph H Ch Minh l khi nim n nht, ngha l ngoi din ca n hp nht, ch c mt i tng duy nht, do n khng th bao hm mt i tng no khc. 3- Quan h giao nhau. Hai khi nim giao nhau l hai khi nim m ngoi din ca chng c mt s i tng chung. V d : Sinh vin (A) v Vn ng vin (B) l hai khi nim giao nhau v c mt s Sinh vin (A) l Vn ng vin (B) v ngc li, c mt s Vn ng vin (B) l Sinh vin (A). 15 B A Tng t ta c cc khi nim Thy gio v Nh th, Ph n v Ngi anh hng v.v l nhng khi nim giao nhau. Nh vy, hai khi nim giao nhau l hai khi nim m mt b phn ngoi din ca chng trng nhau. Ngha l mt b phn ca ngoi din khi nim ny ng thi l mt b phn ca ngoi din khi nim kia. 4- Quan h cng nhau ph thuc. L quan h gia cc hng trong cng mt loi. Quan h cng ph thuc l quan h gia cc khi nim m ngoi din ca chng khng c i tng chung, ngoi din ca chng ch l nhng b phn ca ngoi din mt khi nim khc. V d : H ni (1), thnh ph H Ch Minh (2), Lun n (3) v thnh ph (A). H ni (1), thnh ph H Ch Minh (2), Lun n (3) l nhng khi nim ngang hng (khi nim hng) cng ph thuc khi nim thnh ph (A) (khi nim loi).
1

5- Quan h mu thun.

A 3

Hai khi nim mu thun l hai khi nim c ni hm ph nh ln nhau, ngoi din ca chng hon ton tch ri (khng c i tng chung) v tng ngoi din ca chng ng bng ngoi din ca mt khi nim khc. V d : Nam on vin (A) v N on vin (B).
16

10

Hai khi nim ny tch ri nhau nhng nu gp ngoi din ca chng li th ng bng ngoi din ca khi nim on vin (C). Tng t ta c cc khi nim : Hc gii v Hc khng gii l nhng khi nim mu thun. V ni hm ca chng ph nh nhau v ngoi din ca chng ng bng ngoi din ca khi nim : Hc lc. 6- Quan h i chi. Hai khi nim i chi l hai khi nim m ni hm ca chng c nhng thuc tnh tri ngc nhau, cn ngoi din ca chng ch l hai b phn ca ngoi din mt khi nim khc.
B A V d : Hc gii (A) v Hc km (B) ; Trng (A) v en (B) ; Tt (A) v Xu (B).

l nhng khi nim i chi nhau v ni hm caC cp khi nim c nhng thuc tnh tri ngc nhau, cn ngoi din ca chng ch l cc nhng b phn ca ngoi din cc khi nim : Hc lc (C), Mu sc (C), Phm cht (C). IV-CC LOI KHI NIM.

1- Khi nim c th v khi nim tru tng. - Khi nim c th l khi nim phn nh nhng i tng xc nh trong hin thc. V d : Bng hoa, Khu sng, Mt tri v.v - Khi nim tru tng l khi nim phn nh cc thuc tnh, cc quan h ca i tng. V d : Tnh yu, Lng cm th, Tt, p v.v 2Khi nim ring, khi nim chung, khi nim tp hp.
- Khi nim ring (hay khi nim n nht) l khi nim m ngoi din ca n ch cha mt i tng c th duy nht.

17

V d : H Hon Kim, Nh th Nguyn nh Chiu, Sng Si gn v.v - Khi nim chung l khi nim m ngoi din ca n cha mt lp t hai i tng tr ln.
11

V d : Nh, Thnh ph, Phn t v.v - Khi nim tp hp l khi nim m ngoi din ca n cha lp i tng ng nht nh l mt chnh th, khng th tch ri. V d : Chm sao, Nhn dn, S on 3- Khi nim loi v khi nim hng. - Khi nim c ngoi din phn chia c thnh cc lp con gi l khi nim LOI. - Khi nim c ngoi din l lp con c phn chia t khi nim loi gi l khi nim HNG. V d : ng vt : khi nim LOI.
18 ng vt c v : khi nim HNG.

- Vic phn bit gia khi nim LOI v khi nim HNG ch l tng i, ty thuc vo tng mi quan h xc nh. V d : ng vt c v l khi nim HNG nu so vi khi nim : ng vt, nhng n li l khi nim LOI nu so vi khi nim : C voi.

V- M RNG V THU HP KHI NIM. 1- M rng khi nim. Quan h LOI HNG l c s ca thao tc m rng v thu hp khi nim. M rng khi nim l thao tc logic nh ngoi din ca khi nim t ch hp tr nn rng hn bng cch bt mt s thuc tnh ca ni hm, lm cho ni hm ngho nn hn. V d : M rng khi nim : Gio vin ph thng trung hc (1). - Gio vin ph thng (2). - Gio vin (3).
3 2 1

Bng cch b bt ln lt mt s thuc tnh ca ni hm lm cho ngoi din ca khi nim ngy cng rng hn.
12

Nh vy m rng khi nim l thao tc logic nhm chuyn t khi nim hng thnh khi nim loi. 2- Thu hp khi nim.
19 Thu hp khi nim l thao tc logic nh ngoi din ca khi nim t ch rng tr nn hp hn bng cch thm vo ni hm mt s thuc tnh mi, lm cho ni hm phong ph hn.

Thu hp khi nim l thao tc logic ngc vi m rng khi nim nhm chuyn t khi nim loi thnh khi nim hng. V d : - Gio vin (A). - Gio vin ph thng (B). - Gio vin ph thng trung hc (C). M rng v thu hp khi nim c ngha quan trng trong vic nh ngha v phn chia khi nim. VI-NH NGHA KHI NIM. 1- nh ngha khi nim l g ? nh ngha khi nim l thao tc logic nhm xc lp ni hm v ngoi din ca khi nim . nh ngha khi nim, phi thc hin 2 vic : - Xc nh ni hm. - Loi bit ngoi din. V d : Gh l vt c lm ra dng ngi. nh ngha ny khng ch vch ra thuc tnh bn cht (ni hm) ca gh m cn phn bit n vi cc vt khc (ngoi din). Trong i sng cng nh trong khoa hc, nh ngha khi nim l rt cn thit, n gip mi ngi hiu y , chnh xc v thng nht i vi mi khi nim. 2- Cu trc ca nh ngha :
13
20

A B C

Mi nh ngha thng c hai phn, mt phn l KHI NIM C NH NGHA, phn kia l KHI NIM DNG NH NGHA. Gia hai phn c kt ni vi nhau bi lin t L. KHI NIM C NH NGHA (Definiendum) V d : Hnh ch nht (khi nim c nh ngha) L Hnh bnh hnh c mt gc vung (khi nim dng nh ngha) L KHI NIM DNG NH NGHA (Definiens)

Khi KHI NIM DNG NH NGHA t trc KHI NIM C NH NGHA th t L c thay bng C GI L. V d : Hai khi nim c cng ngoi din C GI L hai khi nim ng nht. 3- Cc kiu nh ngha. 3.1nh ngha qua cc loi v hng. Kiu ny dng nh ngha cc khi nim c quan h LOI HNG. Bn cht ca kiu nh ngha ny l : Xc nh khi nim loi gn nht ca khi nim c nh ngha v ch ra nhng thuc tnh bn cht, khc bit gia khi nim c nh ngha (hng) vi cc hng khc trong loi . V d : - nh ngha khi nim HNH CH NHT. - Khi nim LOI gn nht ca hnh cha nht l HNH BNH HNH. 21 - Thuc tnh bn cht, khc bit gia HNG ny (hnh ch nht) vi cc HNG khc (hnh thoi) trong LOI l c MT GC VUNG. Vy HNH CH NHT L HNH BNH HNH C MT GC VUNG. 3.2nh ngha theo ngun gc pht sinh.
14

c im ca kiu nh ngha ny l : khi nim dng nh ngha, ngi ta nu ln phng thc hnh thnh, pht sinh ra i tng ca khi nim c nh ngha. V d : Hnh cu l hnh c to ra bng cch quay na hnh trn xung quanh ng knh ca n. 3.3nh ngha qua quan h. Kiu ny dng nh ngha cc khi nim c ngoi din cc k rng cc phm tr trit hc. c im ca kiu nh ngha ny l ch ra quan h ca i tng c nh ngha vi mt i lp ca n, bng cch c th ch ra c ni hm ca khi nim cn nh ngha. V d : - Bn cht l c s bn trong ca hin tng. - Hin tng l s biu hiu ra bn ngoi ca bn cht. 3.4Mt s kiu nh ngha khc.
- nh ngha t : S dng t ng ngha, t c ngha tng ng nh ngha.

V d : T gic l hnh c 4 gc. Bt kh tri l khng th bit.


- nh ngha miu t : Ch ra cc c im ca i tng c nh ngha. 22

V d : Cp l loi th d n tht, cng h vi mo, lng mu vng c vn en. VII- CC QUI TC NH NGHA KHI NIM. 1- nh ngha phi tng xng. Yu cu ca qui tc ny l khi nim c nh ngha v khi nim dng nh ngha phi c cng ngoi din. Ngha l ngoi din ca khi nim c nh ngha ng bng ngoi din ca khi nim dng nh ngha : Dfd = Dfn. V d : Hnh vung l hnh ch nht c hai cnh lin tip bng nhau. - Vi phm cc qui tc ny c th mc cc li : nh ngha qu rng : khi ngoi din ca khi nim dng nh ngha rng hn ngoi din ca khi nim c nh ngha (Dfd<Dfn). V d : Hnh bnh hnh l t gic c hai cnh song song vi nhau.
15

y l nh ngha qu rng v t gic c hai cnh song song vi nhau khng ch l hnh bnh hnh m cn c hnh thang. nh ngha qu hp : Khi ngoi din ca khi nim dng nh ngha hp hn ngoi din ca khi nim c nh ngha (Dfd>Dfn). V d : Gio vin l ngi lm ngh dy hc bc ph thng. y l nh ngha qu hp v gio vin khng ch l ngi dy hc bc ph thng m cn cc bc, cc ngnh khc na.
2- nh ngha phi r rng, chnh xc.

Yu cu ca qui tc ny l ch c s dng nhng khi nim c nh ngha nhn ngha. Ngha l khi nim dng nh ngha phi l khi nim bit, c nh ngha t trc. Nu dng mt khi nim cha c nh ngha nh ngha mt khi nim khc th khng th vch ra c ni hm ca khi nim cn nh ngha, tc l khng nh ngha g c. - Vi phm qui tc ny c th mc cc li : nh ngha vng quanh : Dng khi nim B nh ngha khi nim A, ri li dng khi nim A nh ngha khi nim B. V d : - Gc vung l gc bng 90o. - l s o ca gc bng 1/90 ca gc vung. nh ngha ny khng vch ra ni hm ca khi nim c nh ngha. nh ngha lun qun : Dng chnh khi nim c nh ngha nh ngha n. V d : Ngi in l ngi mc bnh in. Ti phm l k phm ti. nh ngha khng r rng, khng chnh xc : S dng cc hnh tng ngh thut nh ngha. V d : Ngi l hoa ca t. Pho binh l thn ca chin tranh. 24
16

23

3- nh ngha phi ngn gn. Yu cu ca qui tc ny l nh ngha khng cha nhng thuc tnh c th suy ra t nhng thuc tnh khc c ch ra trong nh ngha. Vi phm qui tc ny s mc li : nh ngha di dng : V d : Nc l mt cht lng khng mu, khng mi, khng v v trong sut. y l nh ngha di dng v thuc tnh trong sut c suy ra t thuc tnh khng mu. Do ch cn nh ngha : Nc l cht lng khng mu, khng mi, khng v. 4- nh ngha khng th l ph nh. nh ngha ph nh khng ch ra c ni hm ca khi nim c nh ngha. V vy, n khng gip cho chng ta hiu c ngha ca khi nim . V d : - Tt khng phi l xu. - Ch ngha X hi khng phi l Ch ngha T bn. VIII- PHN CHIA KHI NIM. 1- Phn chia khi nim l g ? Phn chia khi nim l thao tc logic nhm ch ra cc khi nim hp hn (hng) ca khi nim (loi). - Khi nim em phn chia (loi) gi l khi nim b phn chia. - Khi nim c ch ra (hng) gi l khi nim phn chia hay thnh phn phn chia. - Thuc tnh dng phn25 khi nim gi l c s phn chia. chia V d : Phn chia khi nim NGI thnh NGI DA TRNG, NGI DA EN, NGI DA , NGI DA VNG da vo c s phn chia l MU DA. Lu : Phn chia khi nim khc vi phn chia i tng thnh cc b phn. V d : NGI bao gm : U, MNH, TAY, CHN 2- Cc hnh thc phn chia khi nim. - Phn i khi nim.
17

Phn i khi nim l thao tc logic nhm chia mt khi nim thnh hai khi nim mu thun vi nhau. V d : Gii - Hc lc Khng gii Tt - Phm cht Khng tt Phn i khi nim c ng dng kh rng ri trong i sng. y l cch phn chia gin tin v d dng, gip ta nm c thng tin c bn nhng ngn gn nht , nhanh nht v i tng.
- Phn chia khi nim theo hng (phn loi).

Phn chia khi nim theo hng l thao tc logic cn c vo c s phn chia nht nh chia khi nim loi thnh cc hng sao cho mi hng vn gi c thuc tnh no ca loi, nhng thuc tnh li c cht lng mi trong mi hng. 26 V d : Phn chia khi nim Hnh thi kinh t x hi da trn c s phn chia l kiu quan h sn xut nht nh, ta c 5 hnh thi kinh t x hi, nhng mi hnh thi kinh t x hi li c cht lng mi so vi hnh thi kinh t x hi khc. 3- Cc qui tc phn chia khi nim. - Qui tc 1 : Phn chia phi nht qun. Ngha l vic phn chia phi c tin hnh vi cng mt thuc tnh, cng mt c s phn chia xc nh. ng nhin, cng mt khi nim, nu da vo nhng c s phn chia khc nhau th s c cc thnh phn phn chia khc nhau. V d : Phn chia khi nim NGI. Ngi da vng Ngi da Ngi da trng Cn c vo MU DA Ngi da en Ngi chu
18

NGI

NGI

Ngi chu u Ngi chu M Cn c vo CHU LC Ngi chu phi NI H SINH SNG. Ngi chu c
27

Ngi Lo Ngi Nht NGI Ngi c Cn c vo QUC TCH Ngi Vit Nam v.v Nh vy, qui tc ny yu cu khi phn chia khi nim khng c cng mt lc da vo nhng c s khc nhau phn chia. V d : Chia khi nim Ngi thnh Ngi da en, Ngi da trng v ngi chu l vi phm qui tc trn. - Qui tc 2 : Phn chia phi lin lc. Ngha l vic phn chia phi theo tun t, khng c vt cp, thnh phn chia phi l khi nim hng gn nht ca khi nim b phn chia (loi). V d : Phn chia : CU CU N CU GHP

Cu n

Cu n

Cu

Cu
19

bnh thng

c bit

ghp ng lp

ghp chinh ph

(Theo Ng php ting Vit, NXB Khoa hc x hi, H ni 1983) - Qui tc 3 : Phn chia phi cn i. Ngha l ngoi din ca khi nim b phn chia phi ng bng tng ngoi din ca cc khi nim phn chia, khng c trng lp hoc b st. V d : Hnh thang thng (1) Phn chia HNH THANG (A) Hnh thang vung (2) Hnh thang cn (3)
28

Cch phn chia trn y l cn i v tng ngoi din ca ba khi nim 1 + 2 + 3 ng bng ngoi din ca khi nim A. V d : Sau y cho thy phn chia khng cn i : Kim loi kim Kim loi Kim loi kim th V ngoi kim loi kim, kim loi kim th cn c cc kim loi khc. - Qui tc 4 : Phn chia phi trnh trng lp. Ngha l cc thnh phn phn chia l nhng khi nim tch ri, ngoi din ca chng khng c trng lp. V d : ng vt bao gm ng vt c xng sng, ng vt khng xng sng v ng vt c v.
20

S phn chia ny trng lp v ng vt c xng sng bao hm ng vt c v, ngoi din ca ng vt c v nm trong ngoi din ca ng vt c xng sng. Chng III
29

PHN ON IX-C IM CHUNG CA PHN ON. 1- nh ngha phn on. Phn on l hnh thc c bn ca t duy tru tng. Phn on l cch thc lin h gia cc khi nim, phn nh mi lin h gia cc s vt, hin tng trong thc ca con ngi. Phn on l s phn nh nhng thuc tnh, nhng mi lin h ca s vt, hin tng ca th gii khch quan, s phn nh c th hp hoc khng ph hp vi bn thn th gii khch quan. V vy, mi phn on c th l ng hoc sai, khng c phn on no khng ng cng khng sai v khng c phn on va ng li va sai. V d : - Tri t quay xung quanh mt tri. - Mi kim loi u dn in. l nhng phn on ng, v n ph hp vi thc t khch quan. - Mo ra trng. - Nguyn Tri l tc gi ca Truyn Kiu. l nhng phn on sai, v n khng ph hp vi thc t khch quan. Khc vi khi nim phn nh nhng thuc tnh chung, bn cht ca s vt, hin tng, phn on phn nh nhng mi lin h gia cc s vt, hin tng v gia cc mt ca chng. Cho nn, phn on l hnh thc biu t cc qui lut khch quan. 2- Cu trc ca phn on. Mi phn on bao gm hai thnh phn c bn : Ch t v V t. - Ch t ca phn on ch i tng ca t tng. 30 K hiu : S. - V t ca phn on l nhng thuc tnh m ta gn cho i tng. K hiu : P.
21

Ch t v v t ca phn on c gi l cc thut ng ca phn on. Gia ch t v v t l mt lin t lm nhim v lin kt hai thnh phn ca phn on. Cc lin t thng gp trong cc phn on : - L, - KHNG PHI L, - KHNG MT NO L v.v V d : Trng in t l mt dng ca vt cht (S l P) (ch t) (lin t) (v t) - Mt s tr thc khng phi l gio vin (S khng phi l P) (ch t) (lin t) (v t) 3- Phn on v cu. Hnh thc ngn ng biu th phn on l cu, phn on khng th xut hin v tn ti nu khng c cu. Mi phn on bao gi cng c din t bng mt cu nht nh. V d : - Gn mc th en. - Mi l thuyt u mu xm. Tuy vy, phn on l hnh thc ca t duy phn nh s c (khng nh) hay khng c (ph nh) thuc tnh no ca i tng trong mi lin h vi i tng khc. Mt khc, phn on ch c gi tr ng hoc sai khi n phn nh ph hp hoc khng ph hp vi i tng. Do , khng phi cu no cng din t mt phn on. V d : - p v cng t quc ta i !
31 - Khng c lm vic ring trong gi hc !

- Em l ai, c gi hay nng tin ? Nhng cu trn khng phi l phn on, v n khng khng nh hay ph nh thuc tnh no ca i tng, cng khng th ni rng chng phn nh ng hay sai i tng. X- PHN LOI PHN ON. 1Phn loi phn on theo cht. Cht ca phn on biu hin lin t logic. Lin t logic phn nh mi lin h gia ch t (S) v v t (P), hoc qui S vo cng lp vi P (lin t khng nh), hoc tch S ra khi lp P (lin t ph nh). - Phn on khng nh :
22

L phn on xc nhn S cng lp vi P. V d : - St l kim loi. - Mt trng l v tinh ca tri t. Thng thng phn on khng nh c lin t logic L, tuy vy, nhiu trng hp khng c lin t L m vn l phn on khng nh. V d : - Ra ra trng. - Tri t quay xung quanh mt tri. - Phn on ph nh. L phn on xc nhn S khng cng lp vi P. 32 V d : - Thy ngn khng phi l cht rn. - L nin khng phi l ngi Vit Nam. Cng thc : S khng l P. Phn on ph nh thng c lin t logic KHNG L, KHNG PHI L. 2Phn loi phn on theo lng. Lng ca phn on biu hin ch t (S), n cho bit c bao nhiu i tng ca S thuc hay khng thuc v P. - Phn on chung (phn on ton th). L phn on cho bit mi i tng ca S u thuc hoc khng thuc v P. Cng thc : - Mi S l P. - Mi S khng l P. V d : Mi kim loi u l cht dn in. Mi con so u khng d di nc. Phn on chung thng c bt u cc lng t ph bin, Mi, Tt c, Ton th v.v - Phn on ring (phn on b phn). L phn on cho bit ch c mt s i tng ca S thuc hoc khng thuc v P.
23

Cng thc : - Mt s S l P. - Mt s S khng l P. V d : - Mt s thanh nin l nhng nh qun l gii. - Mt s sinh vin khng phi l on vin. 33 Phn on ring thng c bt u bng cc lng t b phn : Mt s, Hu ht, Nhiu, a s, Mt vi, v.v - Phn on n nht : L phn on cho bit mt i tng c th, duy nht trong hin thc thuc hoc khng thuc v P. Cng thc : - S l P. - S khng l P. V d : - Paris l th ca nc Php. - Lo khng phi l mt cng quc. Ghi ch : C th coi phn on n nht cng l mt loi phn on chung, bi v cho d phn on ch phn nh mt i tng, nhng i tng l ci duy nht, trong hin thc khng c ci th hai. V th, ni mt ci duy nht cng l ni n ton th ci duy nht , do vy m ngoi din ca ch t trong phn on ny lun lun y . 3Phn loi phn on theo cht v lng. - Phn on khng nh chung (phn on A). Cng thc : Mi S l P. V d : Mi ngi Vit Nam u yu nc. Trong nhiu trng hp, phn on khng c dng : Mi S l P m vn l phn on khng nh chung : V d : - Nc l cht dn in. - t no l t chng cay. - Phn on khng nh ring (phn on I). Cng thc : - Mt s S l P. 34 V d : Mt s sinh vin thng tho tin hc. - Phn on ph nh chung (phn on E). Cng thc : - Mi S khng l P.
24

V d : Mi ngi u khng mun chin tranh. Trong ngn ng t nhin, phn on ph nh chung nhiu lc khng bt u bng lng t ph bin : MI, TT C, TON TH, thm ch cn khng c lin t ph nh. V d : - My i bnh c c xng, My i a ch m thng dn cy. - Ru no ru li say ngi, B ngi say ru ch ci ru say. - Phn on ph nh ring (phn on O). Cng thc : - Mt s S khng l P. V d : Mt s iu lut khng cn ph hp vi yu cu pht trin kinh t hin nay.
- Ngi ta dng cc ch A v I, hai nguyn m u trong t Latinh : Affirmo (khng nh) ch hai phn on khng nh chung

v khng nh ring. Cc ch E v O l hai nguyn m trong t Latinh : Nego (ph nh) ch hai phn on ph nh chung v ph nh ring. XI-NGOI DIN CA CH T V V T TRONG PHN ON. Nu phn on bao qut ht mi i tng ca S (ch t) hoc mi i tng ca P (v t) th ta ni S hoc P c ngoi din y (chu din). Nu phn on khng bao qut ht mi i tng ca S (ch t) hoc khng bao qut ht mi i tng ca P (v t) th ta ni S hoc P c ngoi din khng y (khng chu din).
35

1- Phn on khng nh chung (phn on A).

Cng thc : Mi S l P (SaP). V d : Mi kim loi u dn in.


S

P (A )

Trong phn on ny ch t (kim loi) c ngoi din y (chu din), v t (dn in) c ngoi din khng y (khng chu din) v ngoi kim loi, nc v mt s vt khc cng c kh nng dn in.
25

2- Phn on khng nh ring (phn on I).

Cng thc : Mt s S l P (SiP). V d : Mt s cng nhn l cu th bng .

P (I)

Trong php on ny c ch t ln v t u c ngoi din khng y (khng chu din).


3- Phn on ph nh chung (phn on E).

Cng thc : Mi S khng l P (SeP).

V d : Mi con so u khng di nc.

P (E)

Trong php on ny c ch t ln v t u c ngoi din y (chu din).


4- Phn on ph nh ring (phn on O).
36

Cng thc : Mt s S khng l P (SoP).

V d : Mt s vn ha phm khng c ni dung lnh mnh. (O

) Trong php on ny ch t c ngoi din khng y (khng chu din), v t c ngoi din y (chu din).

Tm li : Ch t ca phn on chung c ngoi din y (chu din). V t ca phn on ph nh c ngoi din y (chu din). d nh, ta lp bng sau, t c ngoi din y c biu th bng du (+), t c ngoi din khng y c biu th bng du (). Tn phn on A E Ch t : S + + V t : P +
26

I O

Lu : Nu xt ht nhng trng hp c th c th :

- Phn on A c 2 trng hp : S Tt c S l P

37

S+, P

S+, P+

- Phn on I c 2 trng hp : S Mt s S l P

S, P

S, P+

XII- QUAN H GIA CC PHN ON. HNH VUNG LOGIC.

Gia cc phn on A, E, I, O c cng ch t v v t c th thit lp nhng quan h sau :


A
M a u

c h o
n

i E t r e n

ua

T h b a c

T h b a c

th th ua n

a u

c h o

i O d

i 27

1- Quan h i chi trn (A v E).

Hai phn on A v E khng th ng thi ng, nhng c th ng thi sai. V d : - Tt c cc dng sng u chy (A) : ng. - Tt c cc dng sng u khng chy (E) : sai. 38 Hai phn on trn khng ng thi ng. - Mi sinh vin u gii ting Nga (A) : sai. - Mi sinh vin u khng gii ting Nga (E) : sai. Hai phn on trn ng thi sai. Do :- Nu A ng th E sai v ngc li nu E ng th A sai. - Nu A sai th E khng xc nh (c th ng hoc sai) v ngc li nu E sai th A khng xc nh (c th ng hoc sai).
2- Quan h i chi di (I v O).

Hai phn on I v O khng th ng thi sai nhng c th ng thi ng. V d : - Mt s nh bc hc c nhn gii thng Nobel (I) : ng. - Mt s nh bc hc khng c nhn gii thng Nobel (O) : ng. Hai phn on trn ng thi ng. Nhng : - Mt s kim loi khng dn din (O) : sai. - Mt s kim loi dn in (I) : ng. Hai phn on trn khng ng thi sai. Do :- Nu I sai th O ng v ngc li nu O sai th I ng. - Nu I ng th O khng xc nh (c th ng hoc sai) v ngc li nu O ng th I khng xc nh (c th ng hoc sai).
39 3- Quan h mu thun (A v O, E v I).

Hai phn on c quan h mu thun (A v O, E v I) nu phn on ny ng th phn on kia sai v ngc li.
28

V d : - Mi ngi u c c (A) : ng. - Mt s ngi khng c c (O) : sai - Mt s ngi thch ci lng (I) : ng. - Mi ngi u khng thch ci lng (E) : sai. 4- Quan h th bc (A v I, E v O). - Hai phn on c quan h th bc (A v I, E v O) nu phn on ton th (khng nh hoc ph nh) ng th phn on b phn (khng nh hoc ph nh tng ng) cng ng : A ng I ng, E ng O ng. V d : - Mi ngi u ln n bn tham nhng (A) : ng. - Nhiu ngi ln n bn tham nhng (I) : ng. - Khng mt ai trnh c ci cht (E) : ng. - Mt s ngi khng trnh c ci cht (O) : ng. - Nu phn on b phn (khng nh hoc ph nh) sai th phn on ton th (khng nh hoc ph nh tng tng) cng sai. I sai A sai, O sai E sai. V d : - Nhiu con mo ra trng (I) : sai. - Mi con mo u ra trng (A) : sai. - Mt s ngi sng khng cn th (O) : sai. 40 - Mi ngi sng u khng cn th (E) : sai. Tm li, nhn vo hnh vung logic ta c th thy :
- Nu A ng O sai, O sai E sai, E sai I ng.

Do : A () O (s), E (s) I (). nh.


- Nu A sai O ng, O ng E khng xc nh, E khng xc nh I khng xc nh. Do : A (s) O (), E v I khng xc

29

XIII- CC PHP LOGIC TRN PHN ON.

1- Php ph nh. Php ph nh l thao tc logic nh to ra phn on mi c gi tr logic ngc vi gi tr logic ca phn on ban u. V d : Ph nh phn on : Tri ma, ta c phn on : Tri khng ma. Vi mi phn on P, ta c th thit lp phn on KHNG PHI P gi l PH NH PHN ON P, k hiu l : P, c l : khng P.
Nu P ng th P sai Nu P sai th P ng

P S

P S

Thay cc k hiu () v (S) bng cc k hiu (1) v (0) ta c th vit bng chn l php ph nh nh sau : P
41

P 0 1

1 0

i khi cho tin trnh by, dy gi tr ca mi phn on c trnh by thnh mt hng ngang. Lc bng chn l trn y c th c vit thnh : P P V d : - ng dn in (P) : ng - ng khng dn in ( P) : sai
30

1 0

0 1

Ph nh phn on P ta c phn on P, c l : khng phi khng P. Phn on P c gi tr logic ngc vi phn on P v tng ng logic vi phn on P. P= P V d : - ng dn in (P) : ng. - ng khng dn in ( P) : sai - Khng phi ng khng dn din 2- Php hi. Hai phn on P, Q c th lin kt vi nhau bng lin t logic V lp thnh mt phn on phc. Phn on ny c gi l hi ca hai phn on P, Q. K hiu : P Q. c l : P v Q; hi ca P v Q.
42 V d : Hoa chm ch v Hoa hc gii.

P : ng

- Phn on P Q ch ng khi c P ln Q cng ng, (sai trong cc trng hp khc). - C th : khi P (), Q () th P Q ().

P (), Q (s) th P Q (s) P (), Q () th P Q (s) P (s), Q (s) th P Q (s) - Sau y l bng chn l ca php hi : P Q P Q 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
31

V d : - Phn on : Nhm dn in v ng dn in l phn on ng v c hai phn on thnh phn ca n : Nhm dn in v ng dn in u ng. - Phn on : G ra trng v g l ng vt c v l phn on sai, v mt phn on thnh phn ca n : G l ng vt c v l sai. Trong php hi, thng thng trnh trng lp, ngi ta b bt mt s t m vn gi nguyn gi tr ca phn on. V d : - Nc l mt cht lng v (nc) c tnh n hi. - 3 (l s l) v 5 l s l. - Trong nhiu phn on, php hi cn c din t bi nhng lin t khc: M, Vn, ng thi, Cng, Nhng m, v.v i khi 43 cn c biu din ch bng dy phy (,). V d : - Hm nay tri nng M lnh. - Tri t quay quanh mt tri NG THI t quay quanh mnh n. - Vit Nam, Cu Ba l nc XHCN. - Khng phi lin t V no cng u mang ngha ca php hi. V d : - ng ha v d ha l hai mt i lp. 3- Php tuyn. Hai phn on n P, Q, c th lin kt vi nhau bng lin t logic HOC lp thnh mt nhm phn on phc. Phn on ny c gi l tuyn ca hai phn on P, Q. Do lin t HOC trong ngn ng t nhin c hai ngha : HOC c ngha HAY L, VA L, HOC cn c ngha HOC L, HOC L. ngha ny lin t HOC c tnh cht la chn dt khot. Chnh v vy m php tuyn cng c hai mc : Php tuyn thng v php tuyn cht. PHP TUYN THNG K hiu : P Q, c l : P hoc Q; P hay Q.
32

V d : ng h ht pin hoc l ng h b hng.


- Phn on P Q ch sai khi c P ln Q cng sai (ng trong mi trng hp khc).
44

- C th : - Khi

P (), Q () th P Q () P (), Q (s) th P Q () P (s), Q () th P Q () P (s), Q (s) th P Q (s)

Bng chn l ca php tuyn. P Q P Q 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0

Nh vy phn on : ng h ht pin hoc l (ng h) b hng, ch sai khi ng h khng b ht pin (P sai) v ng h cng khng b hng (Q sai). Cc trng hp sau y phn on u ng.
ng h ht pin (P ng), ng h b hng (Q ng) ng h khng ht pin (P sai), ng h b hng (Q ng) ng h ht pin (P ng), ng h khng b hng (Q sai)

cho gn, trong php tuyn ngi ta cng b bt mt s t m phn on vn cn nguyn gi tr. V d : ng h ht pin hoc b hng. PHP TUYN CHT

K hiu : P Q, c l : Hoc P hoc Q.


33

45

V d : Con vt kia l con mo hoc con chut. - Phn on P Q ch ng khi mt trong hai phn on thnh phn ng cn phn on kia sai (sai trong mi trng hp khc).
- C th : - Khi

P (), Q () th P Q (s) P (), Q (s) th P Q () P (s), Q () th P Q () P (s), Q (s) th P Q (s)

Bng chn l ca php tuyn cht. P Q P Q 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0

V d : Phn on : Con vt kia l con mo hoc con chut ng trong nhng trng hp sau : - Con vt kia l con mo (P ng), khng phi con chut (Q sai). - Con vt kia khng phi l con mo (P sai), m l con chut (Q ng). Sai trong cc trng hp : - Con vt kia va l con mo (P ng), va l con chut (Q ng). - Con vt kia khng phi l con mo (P sai), cng khng phi con chut (Q sai). 4- Php ko theo. 46 Hai phn on n P, Q c th lin kt vi nhau bng lin t logic NU TH lp thnh mt phn on phc. K hiu : P Q, c l : Nu P th Q; P ko theo Q. V d : Nu chun chun bay thp th ma. - Phn on P Q ch sai khi P ng m Q sai, ng trong mi trng hp khc nhau.
- C th : - Khi

P (), Q () th P Q ()
34

P (), Q (s) th P Q (s) P (s), Q () th P Q () P (s), Q (s) th P Q () Bng chn l ca php ko theo. P Q P Q 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1

- Nh vy phn on : Nu chun chun bay thp th ma, ch sai khi : Chun chun bay thp (P ng) m tri khng ma (Q

sai). Cc trng hp khc, phn on trn u ng. Chun chun bay thp (P ng), tri ma(Q ng) Chun chun khng bay thp (P sai), tri ma(Q ng)
47 Chun chun khng bay thp (P sai), tri khng ma(Q sai)

- Trong ngn ng t nhin, nhiu phn on khng c lin t logic NU TH m vn thuc dng phn on P Q.

V d : - hin gp lnh. - Tc nc, v b. - Quyt ch t lm nn. - Trong logic hin i, i vi phn on P Q, gia P v Q khng nht thit phi c lin h nhn qu (ngha l P l nguyn nhn ca Q v Q l kt qu ca P). Gia P v Q c th c cc lin h sau : - Lin h nhn qu : V d : C cng mi st c ngy nn kim. - Lin h iu kin :
35

V d : Bao gi chch ngn a. So di nc th ta ly mnh. - Lin h logic : V d : Nu g gy th tri sng. - Lin h nh ngha : V d : Nu t gic cho l hnh vung th cc cnh phi bng nhau v cc gc phi vung. IU KIN , IU KIN CN, IU KIN CN V IU KIN .
48

Xt phn on P Q, khi P ng th Q cng ng, khi P c gi l iu kin ca Q. Thng thng phn on ny c din t di dng : - C P l c Q. - Mun c Q th cn c P l . - Mun c Q ch cn c P. Tm li, P c gi l iu kin ca Q khi c P th c Q. V d : Nu t nng thanh st th chiu di ca n tng ln. - t nng thanh st l iu kin chiu di ca n tng ln. - Mun chiu di ca thanh st tng ln th ch cn t nng n. IU KIN CN. Xt phn on P Q, khi ng P th Q cng ng, khi P c gi l iu kin cn ca Q. Thng thng phn on ny c din t di dng : - C P l cn c Q. - Mun c Q cn (phi) c P.
36

- Ch c Q khi c P. V d : Bit ngoi ng l iu kin cn c lm vic trong cc cng ty nc ngoi. 49 - Mun c lm vic trong cc cng ty nc ngoi th cn phi bit ngoi ng. Tm li : P c gi l iu kin cn ca Q khi khng c P th khng c Q. Lu rng : P Q = P Q Cho nn : khi P l iu kin ca Q (P Q) th Q l iu kin cn ca P ( P Q) Mt khc : P Q P Q P Q P Q Cho nn : P l iu kin nhng khng cn c Q. Q l iu kin cn nhng khng c P. V vy : - t nng l iu kin nhng khng cn chiu di ca thanh st tng ln. - Bit ngoi ng l iu kin cn nhng khng c lm vic trong cc cng ty nc ngoi. IU KIN CN V . Xt phn on P Q th hin iu kin cn v . Phn on ny cn c din t : - P l iu kin cn v ca Q. - Nu c P th c Q v nu c Q th c P. - C P khi ch khi c Q. V d : Nu mt s c tng50 ch s chia ht cho 3 th s chia ht cho 3 v Nu mt s chia ht cho 3 th tng cc ch s ca n cc chia ht cho 3. Do : Tng cc ch s chia ht cho 3 l iu kin cn v mt s chia ht cho 3. 5- Php tng ng.
37

T cc phn on n P, Q c th lin kt vi nhau nh ln t logic KHI v CH KHI to thnh mt phn on phc. K hiu : P Q, c l : C P khi v ch khi c Q. C Q khi v ch khi c P.
- Phn on P Q ng khi c P ln Q cng ng hoc cng sai, sai trong cc trng hp khc. - C th : - Khi

P (), Q () th P Q () P (), Q (s) th P Q (s) P (s), Q () th P Q (s) P (s), Q (s) th P Q ()

Bng chn l ca php tng ng. P Q PQ 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1

V d : Mt s chia ht cho 2 khi v ch khi s l s chn. 6- Tnh ng tr ca phn on Mt s h thc tng ng. 51 Nhiu phn on c quan h vi nhau khng ch ging nhau v i tng, c chung ch t v v t ca phn on m cn ging nhau v gi tr logic ca chng. S ging nhau v gi tr logic gi l tnh ng tr ca cc phn on, ngha l cc phn on tng ng logic vi nhau. K hiu A = B, c l : A tng ng logic vi B. V d : Phn on : B i hc v Khng phi B khng i hc l hai phn on c cng gi tr logic hay l tng ng logic vi nhau. - Mt s h thc tng ng :
38

P =P P P = P P P = P P P = 0 P P = 1 P Q = Q P P Q = P Q P Q = (P Q) P Q = (P Q) P Q = (Q P) P Q = ( P Q) P Q = P Q P Q = Q P P Q = ( P Q)
52

Chng IV SUY LUN

XIV- C IM CHUNG CA SUY LUN. 1- Suy lun l g ? Suy lun l hnh thc ca t duy nhm rt ra phn on mi t mt hay nhiu phn on c. Nu nh phn on l s lin h gia cc khi nim, th suy lun l s lin h gia cc phn on. Suy lun l qu trnh i n mt phn on mi t nhng phn on cho trc. V d : T hai phn on c : - Mi kim loi u dn in.
39

- Nhm l kim loi. Ta rt ra mt phn on mi : - Nhm dn in. 2- Cu trc ca suy lun. Thng thng mi suy lun gm c hai phn :
- Phn u gm nhng phn on sn c, gi l Tin . - Phn sau l phn on mi (c rt ra t tin ), gi l Kt lun. Tin c th l mt hoc nhiu phn on. Chng hn, theo v d trn, tin bao gm hai phn on : - Mi kim loi u dn

in Nhm l kim loi.


Kt lun l mt phn on c rt ra t nhng tin . Theo v d trn, kt lun l phn on : - Nhm dn in.

- Gia cc tin v kt lun c lin h v mt ni dung. Tnh ng n ca kt lun ph thuc vo tnh ng n ca cc tin v 53 tnh chnh xc ca lp lun. Mt suy lun c coi l ng n khi n bo m 2 iu kin sau : - Tin phi ng. - Qu trnh lp lun phi tun theo cc qui tc, qui lut logic. 3- Cc loi suy lun. Tuy theo c im ca suy lun, thng thng ngi ta chia suy lun thnh hai loi : Suy lun din dch v suy lun qui np, gi tt l suy din v qui np. Ngoi ra, cn c suy lun tng t. C th coi suy lun tng t l mt trng hp ca suy lun din dch, song khc vi cc suy lun din dch thng thng, kt lun ca cc suy lun tng t, khng tt yu ng. XV- SUY LUN DIN DCH. 1- nh ngha. Trong logic hc truyn thng, suy lun din dch c nh ngha l suy lun nhm rt ra nhng tri thc ring bit t nhng tri thc ph bin. Trong suy lun din dch, thng thng tin l nhng phn on chung, cn kt lun l nhng phn on ring. V d : - Mi ngi u phi cht. - Socrate l ngi.
40

- Socrate cng phi cht. Trong logic hc hin i, suy lun din dch c coi l suy lun theo nhng qui tc nht nh, do tnh ng n ca kt lun c 54 rt ra mt cch tt yu t tnh ng n ca tin . Ni cch khc, suy lun din dch l suy lun theo qui tc logic, v th bo m rng : Nu xut pht t nhng tin ng th kt lun nht thit cng phi ng. Nh vy, trong logic hc hin i, cc tin ca php suy din khng nht thit phi l nhng phn on chung. V d : - in b ct hoc n bn hng. - in khng b ct. - n bn khng b hng. 2- Suy din trc tip. Suy din trc tip l suy din t mt tin , ngha l c th rt ra kt lun m ch cn c vo mt tin duy nht.
A S suy din : A B hoc : B

c l : T A suy ra B; C A vy c B. (A c gi l tin , B l kt lun ca A). SUY LUN NG N (hp logic) khi php suy din : A B l mt hng ng, ngha l khi A ng th B ng. Khi B kt lun logic ca A v s A B l mt qui tc suy din. V d : - Mi hnh vi phm php cn phi c nghim tr (A). Suy ra : - Mt s hnh vi phm php cn phi c nghim tr (B). Tin A c dng SaP, kt lun B c dng SiP (SaP SiP) khi tin A ng (SaP ng) th kt lun B (SiP) cng hon ton ng. (Quan h th bc gia phn on A v I trong hnh vung logic). Do vy, B (SiP) l kt lun 55 ca A (SaP) v s SaP SiP l mt qui tc suy din. logic 3- Mt s qui tc suy din trc tip.
41

3.1 Php o ngc. 3.1.1 T mt phn on khng nh chung suy ra mt phn on khng inh ring bng cch i ch ch t (S) v v t (P) ca phn on (o ngc S v P). SaP SiP V d : - Mi ngi Vit Nam u phn i chin tranh. Suy ra : - Mt s ngi phn i chin tranh l ngi Vit Nam. 3.1.2 T mt phn ph nh chung suy ra mt phn on ph nh chung khc bng cch i ch ch t (S) v v t (P) ca phn on (o ngc S v P). SeP PeS V d : - Khng mt s l no l s chia ht cho 2. Suy ra : - Khng mt s chia ht cho hai no l s l. 3.1.3 T mt phn khng nh ring suy ra mt phn on khng nh ring khc bng cch i ch ch t (S) v v t (P) ca phn on (o ngc S v P). SiP PiS V d : - Mt s sinh vin l vn ng vin. Suy ra : - Mt s vn ng vin l sinh vin. 56 3.2 Suy lun t phn on chung ra phn on ring. 3.2.1 T phn on khng nh chung suy ra phn on khng nh ring. SaP SiP V d : - Mi lut s u am hiu logic hc. Suy ra : - Mt s lut s am hiu logic hc. SeP PoP V d : - Khng mt ngi no sng n 150 tui.
42

3.2.2 T phn on ph nh chung suy ra phn on ph nh ring.

Suy ra :

- Nhiu ngi khng sng n 150tuo.

3.3 Suy lun t cc h thc tng ng. 3.3.1 T h thc De Morgan :


(P Q) = P Q. (P Q) = P Q. (P Q) P Q. P Q (P Q).

Ta c cc qui tc suy din trc tip sau :

V d : - Khng c ht thuc l v ni chuyn n o trong rp ht. Suy ra : - Khng c ht thuc l hoc khng c ni chuyn n o trong rp ht.

(P Q) P Q. (P Q) (P Q).
57

V d : - Khng phi ch hay mo lm v l hoa. Suy ra : - Khng phi ch v cng khng phi mo lm v l hoa.
P Q =

3.3.2 T h thc : Q P. Q P). Ta c cc qui tc suy din trc tip sau :


(P Q) ( (

Q P) (P Q).

V d : Nu ng l ha s th ng phi bit v. Suy ra : Nu ng ta khng bit v th ng ta khng phi l ha s.


P Q =

3.3.3 T h thc : P Q.
43

Ta c cc qui tc suy din trc tip sau :


(P Q) P Q. P Q) (P Q).

V d : - Mun n th ln vo bp. Suy ra : - Khng n hoc l ln vo bp.


P Q = P Q = P Q =

3.3.4 Kt hp cc h thc trn ta c : Q P = P Q = P Q = Q P = (P Q) =


58

(P Q) ( P Q)

( P Q)

(Q P) =

T cc h thc ny, ta c th tm cc phn on tng ng vi phn on cho : V d : - Nu anh hc gii th anh c thng. Suy ra : - Nu anh khng c thng th (chng t) anh khng hc gii. - Anh khng hc gii hoc l anh (phi) c thng. - Khng th c chuyn anh hc gii m anh khng c thng. 4- Mt s qui tc suy din trc tip. 4.1 Tam on lun. 4.1.1 Cu trc ca tam on lun. Tam on lun l h thng suy din tin c xa nht do Aristote xy dng. Trong tam on lun c hai tin v mt kt lun, tin v kt lun u l nhng phn on n, thuc cc dng : A, E, I, O. V d : - Mi kim loi u dn in. - ng l kim loi. - ng dn in
44

Trong mi tam on lun ch c ba khi nim, gi l ba thut ng, k hiu : S, P, M. Thut ng c mt trong c hai tin nhng li khng c mt trong kt lun gi l thut ng gia, k hiu l : M. Ch t ca kt lun c gi l thut ng nh, k hiu l : S. V t ca kt lun c gi l thut ng ln, k hiu l : P. Tin 59 cha thut ng ln gi l tin ln. Tin cha thut ng nh gi l tin nh. Tam on lun theo v d trn y c 3 thut ng l : Kim loi (M), ng (S), Dn in (P). tin ln l : Mi kim loi u dn in. Tin nh : ng l kim loi. Ta c th vit tam on lun trn di dng : MP SM SP C th vit y hn : MaP SaM SaP 4.1.2 Cc qui tc chung ca tam on lun. Qui tc 1 : Trong mt tam on lun ch c 3 thut ng. S sai lm nu trong mi tam on lun c t hn hoc nhiu hn 3 thut ng. Nu thn 3 thut ng s khng thnh mt tam on lun, nu c n 4 thut ng th tam on lun s mc li, gi l li 4 thut ng. V d : Lao ng l c s ca i sng. Hc logic hc l lao ng. Hc logic hc l c s ca i sng. Tam on lun trn, thut ng lao ng hai tin c ngha khc nhau. tin ln, thut ng lao ng dng ch hot ng c bn ca x hi hot ng sn xut vt cht. tin nh, thut ng lao ng li dng ch mt dng hot ng c th hot 60 ng nhn thc ca con ngi. Do , tam on lun trn y vi phm qui tc 1, n khng ch c 3 m c n 4 thut ng. Qui tc 2 : Thut ng khng chu din trong tin th cng khng c chu din trong kt lun. V d : - Hc sinh cn phi tp th dc rn luyn sc khe. - B i khng phi l hc sinh.
45

B i khng cn phi tp th dc rn luyn sc khe. Tam on lun ny sai v vi phm qui tc 2, thut ng tp th dc rn luyn sc khe chu din trong tin nhng li chu din trong kt lun. Qui tc 3 : Thut ng gia phi chu din t nht mt ln. V d : - Mi kim loi u dn in. - Nc dn in. Nc l kim loi. Kt lun sai lm, v thut ng gia dn in khng chu din trong c hai tin (dn in l v t ca phn on khng nh trong c 2 tin ). Qui tc 4: T hai tin ph nh khng th rt ra kt lun. V d : - Ngi khng phi l sc vt. - Sc vt khng phi l si . Hai thut ng ngi v si khng c lin h tt yu v mt logic, v th khng th rt ra kt lun. 61 Qui tc 5: T hai tin ring khng th rt ra kt lun. V d : Mt s thanh nin l nhng k h hng Mt s ngh s l thanh nin. Tng t nh trn, hai thut ng ngh s v k h hng khng c lin h tt yu v logic, v th khng th rt ra kt lun. Qui tc 6 : Nu hai tin khng nh th kt lun cng khng nh. V d : - Mi cng dn u phi chp hnh lut php. - ng vin cng l cng dn. ng vin cng phi chp hnh lut php. Qui tc 7 : Nu c mt tin l ph nh th kt lun phi l ph nh. V d : - Mi khoa hc u nghin cu cc qui lut ca hin thc khch quan. - Khng mt tn gio no nghin cu cc qui lut ca hin thc khch quan. Khng mt tn gio no l khoa hc
46

Qui tc 8 : Nu c mt tin ring th kt lun phi l phn on ring. V d : - Mi sinh vin u phi hc ngoi ng. - Mt s on vin l sinh vin. Mt s on vin phi hc ngoi ng. 4.1.3 Cc loi hnh v cc kiu ca tam on lun. - Cc loi hnh : C hai cch sp xp th t cc thut ng P v M trong tin ln v hai cch sp xp th t cc thut ng S v M trong tin nh. T hp li, c 4 cch sp xp th62 cc thut ng trong c hai tin . Do , c 4 loi hnh tam on lun. t Loi hnh 1 : MP SM SP Loi hnh 2 : MP SM SP Loi hnh 3 : MP SM SP Loi hnh 4 : MP SM SP P M S M S P
47

M S S S P S M M S

P M P M M P P S P

- Cc qui tc ca cc loi hnh : Loi hnh 1 : - Tin phi l phn on chung. - Tin nh phi l phn on khng nh. Loi hnh 2 : 63 - Tin ln phi l phn on chung. - Mt trong hai tin phi l phn on ph nh. Loi hnh 3 : - Tin nh phi l phn on chung. - Kt lun phi l phn on ring. - Cc kiu : Trong mt loi hnh, mi phn on (2 tin v 1 kt lun) c th nhn mt trong 4 dng : A, E, I, O. Nh vy, mi loi hnh c th 3 c 4 = 64 kiu, c 4 loi hnh c 4 x 64 = 256 kiu. Trn thc t, c 4 loi hnh ch c 19 kiu ng, l nhng kiu p ng c cc qui tc chung v cc qui tc v loi hnh. Ngi ta gi 19 kiu l 19 qui tc ca tam on lun. 19 qui tc c phn chia theo 4 loi hnh nh sau : MP SM SP MP SM SP MP SM SP MP SM

Loi hnh 1 :

AAA, EAE, AII, EIO

Loi hnh 2 :

EAE, AEE, AII, EIO, AOO

Loi hnh 3 :

AAI, IAI, AII, EAO, OAO, EIO AAI, AEE, IAI, EAO, EIO
48
64

Loi hnh 4 :

SP cho d nh ngi ta t cho cc kiu tam on lun nhng tn gi sau y : Loi hnh 1 : Barbara, Celarent, Darii, Ferio. Loi hnh 2 : Cesare, Camestres, Festino, Baroco. Loi hnh 3 : Darapti, Disamis, Datisi, Felapton, Bocardo, Ferison. Loi hnh 4 : Balamip, Calemes, Dimatis, Fesapo, Fresison. Cc tn gi trn y do Peter ngi Ty Ban Nha t cho. Mi tn gm c 3 nguyn m ch cc dng phn on. Cc nguyn m ln lt ch cc tin ln, tin nh v kt lun. V d : Tn Barbara ngha l c 3 phn on tin v kt u l nhng phn on khng nh : A, A, A. 4.2 Suy din t hai tin . 4.2.1 Suy din t hai tin cng l mt kiu tam on lun. Khc vi tam on lun truyn thng, cc tin ca kiu suy din ny khng c dng : A, E, I, O, m l cc phn on phc. A1 S suy din : A1 A2 B hoc : B c l : Nu c A1 v c A2 th c B. (A1, A2 l cc tin , B l kt lun, tin thng l nhng phn on phc). V d : - Nu hc gii th lm bi tt (A1) - Anh khng lm bi tt (A2) Anh hc khng gii (B) SUY LUN NG N (hp logic) khi php suy din : A1 A2 B l mt hng ng, ngha l khi A1 ng, A2 ng th B cng 65 ng. Khi B l kt lun logic ca hai tin A1, A2 v s A1 A2 B l mt qui tc suy din. Tr li v d trn : - Nu hc gii th lm bi tt - Anh khng lm bi tt Anh hc khng gii (A1) (A2) (B)
49

A2

Tin A1 c dng: P Q Tin A2 c dng: Q Kt lun B c dng: P Nh vy, suy lun trn c dng (s ) : [(P Q) Q] P. C th vit cch khc : P Q Q P bit suy lun trn c ng n (hp logic) hay khng, ta xt trng hp c hai tin A1 v A2 cng ng : - A2 ng, tc Q ng, vy Q sai. - A1 ng, tc (P Q) ng, m Q sai, do theo nh ngha ca php ko theo, P phi sai. Vy P phi ng (tc B ng). Vy, suy lun trn y ng n (hp logic) v khi c hai tin P Q v Q u ng th kt lun P cng ng. Ta ni : P l kt lun logic ca hai tin P Q v Q, v s : P Q Q P l mt qui tc suy din. 4.2.2 Mt s qui tc suy din quan trng : - Qui tc kt lun (Modus ponens). Qui tc ny c pht biu66 dng : di P Q P Q y l mt qui tc suy din, v khi P Q ng v P ng th Q cng ng. Do Q l kt lun logic ca hai tin trn. V d : Nu n mn th kht nc.
50

Con n mn Con s kht nc. Suy lun trn y theo qui tc kt lun, nu l mt suy lun ng. Con s kht nc l kt lun logic ca tin trn. Quy tc kt lun l qui tc suy din m chng ta thng gp hng ngy, trong sinh hot cng nh trong nghin cu khoa hc. V d : Nu xut pht t cc tin ng v tun th cc qui tc logic th kt qu suy lun phi ng. Ti xut pht t cc tin ng v tun th cc qui tc logic. Kt qu suy lun ca ti phi ng Trong th nghim ha hc, nhn bit cht va iu ch c phi l a-xt hay khng, nhiu hc sinh suy lun theo qui tc ny nh sau : Nu mt dung dch lm cho giy qu tm bin thnh mu hng th dung dch l axt. Dung dch va iu ch lm cho qu tm bin thnh mu hng Dung dch va iu67 l axt ch Ch : C th thay i th t cc tin m vn bo m gi tr ca qui tc suy din. V d : Con n mn. n mn th kht nc. Con s kht nc.
- Qui tc kt lun phn o (Modus tollens).

Qui tc ny c pht biu di dng : P Q Q P y l mt qui tc suy din. V khi P Q ng v Q ng th P cng ng. Vy P l kt lun logic ca hai tin trn. V d : - Nu khe th anh phi nng c qu t ny. - Anh khng nng c qu t ny.
51

Anh khng khe. Mt v d khc : - Nu gc ni tip l gc vung th n chn na ng trn. - Gc ni tip ny khng chn na ng trn. Gc ni tip ny khng phi l gc vung. Cc v d trn u theo qui tc suy din tollens. - Qui tc bc cu ca php ko theo : Qui tc ny c pht biu di dng : P Q Q R P R y l mt qui tc suy din. V khi c 2 tin P Q v Q R u ng. C 2 trng hp c th xy ra : P ng : P ng nn Q ng (v P Q ng), Q ng nn R cng ng (v Q R ng). Do P R ng. P sai : P sai th theo nh ngha php ko theo, P R lun lun ng, bt k Q, R c gi tr g. Nh vy, trong mi trng hp, khi c hai tin ng th kt lun P R ng. Vy P R l kt lun logic ca hai tin trn. V d : - Nu chm tp th dc th c th khe mnh. - Nu c th khe mnh th cuc sng s vui ti. Nu chm tp th dc th cuc sng s vui ti. - Qui tc la chn : Qui tc ny c pht biu di dng : P Q P Q y l mt qui tc suy din. V khi c 2 tin P Q v P u ng, ta c :
68

52

P ng nn P sai, P sai m P Q ng nn Q phi ng (theo nh ngha ca php tuyn). Nh vy, khi c 2 tin P Q v P u ng th kt lun Q cng ng, tc Q l kt lun logic ca 2 tin trn. V d : Em hoc anh phi a con n trng. Em khng a con n trng. 69 Anh phi a. 4.3 Suy din t nhiu tin . S suy din : A1 A2 An B
- A1, A2, An l cc tin . - B l kt lun logic ca cc tin A1, A2, An.

Suy din t nhiu tin cng c xt tng t nh suy din t hai tin . A1, A2, An v ta c qui tc suy din : A2 An B V d : - Nu sinh nhiu th lm khng n.
- SUY LUN NG N (hp logic) khi php suy din A1, A2, An B l mt hng ng, ngha l khi tt c cc tin :

A1

- Nu lm khng n th khng c tch ly ti sn xut m rng. - Nu khng c tch ly ti sn xut m rng th sn xut khng pht trin. - Nu sn xut khng pht trin th s ngho nn lc hu.
70 Nu sinh nhiu th s ngho nn lc hu,

53

P Q Q R R S S T P T S suy lun trn l mt qui tc suy din, n tng t nh qui tc bc cu trong php suy din hai tin . Ta c th chng minh d dng qui tc suy din trn : S suy lun c dng : Gi s tt c cc tin u ng. Xt hai trng hp c th xy ra : 1) P ng : Khi P ng th nh ngha ca php ko theo Q, R, S, T u phi ng, do P T ng. 2) P Sai : Khi P sai th theo nh ngha ca php ko theo, P T lun lun ng, bt k Q, R, S ly gi tr g. Nh vy, trong mi trng hp khi tt c cc tin u ng th kt lun cng ng, tc P T l kt lun logic ca cc tin . 4.4 Suy din rt gn. Trong suy lun, nhiu khi cho ngn gn hoc v l do no , ngi ta thng b bt tin ny hoc tin khc, thm ch c kt lun cng c b bt m vn gi nguyn gi tr ca suy lun. l nhng suy lun rt gn. Sau y l nhng kiu suy lun rt gn thng gp : 71 4.4.1 Suy lun khng c tin th nht (bt tin ln). Trong kiu suy lun ny, tin ln khng vit (ni) ra m c hiu ngm, coi nh mi ngi u bit v phi t hiu ly. V d : - N hay i m. S c ngy n gp ma. Tin ln b bt l : i m s c ngy gp ma. Hng ngy, kiu suy lun rt gn ny rt thng dng.
54

V d : - N hay chy. N s b ng (t). Hoc : - N n nhanh N s b hc. Trong cc v d trn y, tin ln b lc b nhng ai cng hiu, l : Hay chy th s b ng (t), n nhanh th s b hc. 4.4.2 Suy lun khng c tin th hai (bt tin nh). Trong kiu suy lun ny, tin nh khng xut hin nhng kt lun vn c rt ra. Thng thng , suy lun kiu ny ch dnh cho nhng ngi hiu c c tnh ca i tng c cp ti trong kt lun. V d : Ngi c cng vi cch mng th c khen thng. Phi cng Nguyn Thnh Trung c khen thng Tin ln b bt l : Phi cng Nguyn Thnh Trung c cng vi cch mng. Kiu suy lun ny nu i vi nhng ngi khng 72 bit phi cng Nguyn Thnh Trung l ai th h s khng th c kt lun g c. Do vy, tnh ph qut ca kiu suy lun ny ht sc hn ch. 4.4.3 Suy lun khng kt lun. Kiu suy lun ny, kt lun dng nh c sn trong tin . V vy, tuy kt lun c b ng, nhng ai cng hiu c. V d : - Bo lt th mt ma. - Vy m my nm nay bo lt xy ra lin min. hoc : - Ngi ta ai cng phi cht. ng y cng l ngi. 4.4.4 Nhiu trng hp suy lun ch c mt tin , c kt lun v mt tin khc b lc b, ngi nghe phi t hiu ly. V d : Con m n cp th tri nh thnh vt con. a b th rng : con khng n cp, nhng li ch nu ln mt tin trn. Cc bc cha m phi hiu.
55

- Con m n cp th tri nh thnh vt con. - Tri khng nh, thnh khng vt con. Con khng n cp. Mt v d khc : Mt ngi ni vi ngi bn mnh rng : My m lm c vic th tao i bng u. Buc ngi bn phi hiu li ni ca bn mnh bng cch thit lp mt suy lun y nh sau : My m lm c vic th tao i bng u. 73 Tao khng i bng u. My khng th lm c vic . Ch : Suy lun rt gn gin tin v thng dng. Tuy vy, suy lun d mc phi sai lm v kh nhn ra sai lm . Nguyn nhn c th l do suy lun qu ngn gn hoc nhng phn on b lc b khng bo m tnh chn thc. V d : Mt ngi th rng mnh khng ni lo, bng li khng nh : Con m ni lo th ng To i ni cm. Suy lun ny vit ra y phi l : - Con m ni lo th ng To i ni cm. ng to i ni cm T hai tin trn khng th rt ra kt lun g c, ni cch khc anh ta c th khng ni lo m cng c th ni lo. Vic rt ra kt lun : Anh ta khng ni lo t cc tin trn l sai lm. Bng li khng nh , anh ta th nhng thc ra chng th g c. 5- Mt s kiu suy lun sai lm. 5.1Suy lun theo s : P Q P Q y l suy lun sai lm, v khi P Q ng v P ng th Q c th sai, c th ng ( Q khng lun lun ng), ngha l Q khng phi l kt lun logic ca hai tin P Q v P.
74

56

V d : Hc thm th gii. Anh khng i hc thm. Vy th anh khng th gii c. S c tn cng bng 5 th chia ht cho 5. S 10 khng phi l s c tn cng bng 5. Vy s 10 khng chia ht cho 5. ng vin th phi gng mu thc hin chnh sch k hoch ha gia nh. Ti khng phi l ng vin. Vy ti khng cn phi gng mu thc hin chnh sch k hoch ha gia nh. 5.2Suy lun theo s : P Q Q P y l suy lun sai lm, v khi P Q ng v Q ng th P c th sai. Do P khng phi l kt lun logic ca hai tin trn. V d : n mn th ung nhiu nc. Thng b ung nhiu nc. Vy l n mn. Chuyn vui : Mt anh chng ngc c ln tn mn hi v : - Ny mnh, c lc ti thy mt mnh l. Ti sao vy ? Ch v qua qut : - Ti xu h.
75 Ri ngy kia, trong ba gi cha, anh ta thy v bng mm cm cng t bp ln m mt my l, lin mng v :

- Ba nay gi cha ti, b xu h ci g m mt ? * * * Nh bc hc Anh xtanh c ln vo qun n. ng qun khng mang theo knh nn phi nh ngi hu bn c h thc n. Ngi hu bn gh vo tai Anh-xtanh v ni thm : Xin ngi th li, ti rt tic l cng khng bit ch nh ngi. Vy l chng ngc v anh hu bn kia suy lun mt cch sai lm theo kiu trn. 5.3Suy lun theo s : P Q P
57

Q Xt khi P Q ng v P ng th Q c th sai, do Q c th sai hoc ng. Q khng lun ng, chng t suy lun trn l sai lm (khng hp logic). V d : Thng b i hc v, khng chu ngi vo bn n cm, n nhy ln ging nm. Hi th n c nm im. Thy th m lo lng, d dnh : - Con khng n cm v au bng hay v n qu vt trng ?. Hi mi, thng b mi chu tr li l nh : - Con au bng! - Th m m tng l con n qu nhiu qu vt trng. on hi thoi trn cho thy ngi m suy lun nh sau : 76 - Con khng n cm v au bng hoc v n qu trng. - Con khng n cm v au bng. Vy khng phi con n qu trng. Tht sai lm ! 6- Xc nh tnh ng n ca mt suy lun. bit tnh ng n ca nhng suy lun phc tp hoc suy lun khng ging vi nhng qui tc suy din thng gp, ta phi tin hnh cc vic theo th t sau y : 6.1Vit cc phn on tin v kt lun di dng k hiu. lm c vic , cn phi chuyn t ngn ng thng thng (phn on bng li) thnh cc phn on k hiu. Chu cc lin t logic, lm sao phn on vit di dng k hiu phn nh mt cch chnh xc cu trc ca phn on c din t bng li. 6.2Vit s ca suy lun. S ca suy lun phn nh cu trc ca suy lun theo th t t tin n kt lun. 6.3 Kim tra tnh ng n (hp logic) ca suy lun. Cn c vo cc qui tc, quy lut logic kim tra. Thng thng c 2 cch kim tra : - Cch 1 : Xt trng hp tt c cc tin u ng :
58

Nu kt lun cng lun lun ng th suy lun l ng n. Nu kt lun khng lun ng, ngha l cc tin u ng m kt lun c th sai th suy lun khng ng n (khng hp logic). - Cch 2 : 77 Lp bng chn l : Nu kt qu cui cng trong bng chn l ng lot ng th suy lun l ng n (hp logic). Nu kt qu cui cng trong bng chn l c gi tr sai th suy lun khng ng n (khng hp logic). V d 1 : Nu ng t anh lm c bi ny th anh s hiu cch gii hoc s lm c bi tng t. Nhng anh khng hiu cch gii m cng khng lm c bi tng t. Vy anh chp bi ca bn. Bc 1 : Gi P = Anh t lm c bi ny (= Anh khng chp bi ca bn). Q = Anh hiu cch gii (bi ny). R = Anh lm c bi tng t. Nh vy, tin (phn on) th nht c th c vit : P (Q R) Tin th hai : Q R Kt lun (phn on th ba) : P Bc 2 : S ca suy lun trn c dng : P (Q R) Q R P Bc 3 : Kim tra tnh ng n ca s suy lun trn. 78 Cch 1 :
- Gi s c hai tin u ng, tc P (Q R) ng v

c :

Q R ng. Theo h thc Morgan : Q R = (Q R), ta

59

Q R ng tc (Q R) ng, do (Q R) sai. V (Q R) sai nn P phi sai (theo nh ngha php ko theo). P sai nn P ng. Vy P l kt lun logic ca hai tin trn. Ni cch khc, suy lun trn l hon ton ng n (hp logic). Cch 2 : Lp bng chn l. P Q R P Q R Q R (1) P (Q R) (2) Q R (1) (2) (1) (2) P 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1

Kt qu cui cng (dng di) trong bng chn l ng lot ng, chng t suy lun trn l ng. V d 2 : Nu gii ngoi ng th c nhiu c may tm kim vic lm. Mun gii ngoi ng th cn phi c gng hc ngoi ng mi ngy. Anh khng c gng hc ngoi ng mi ngy. v vy, anh khng c nhiu c may tm kim vic lm. 79 Bc 1 : Gi G = Gii ngoi ng. K = C may tm kim vic lm.
60

C = C gng hc ngoi ng mi ngy. Nh vy cc phn on trong suy lun trn c dng : G K C G C K Bc 2 : S ca suy lun trn c dng : G K C G C K Bc 3 : Kim tra tnh ng n ca suy lun. Cch 1 : Gi s c 3 tin u ng, tc G K ng, C G ng v C ng; C ng nn G ng (v C G ng), G ng nn G sai, G sai th theo nh ngha php ko theo K c th sai hoc ng. Do K c th ng hoc sai. Vy, K khng phi l kt lun logic ca cc tin trn, ni cch khc, suy lun trn khng ng (khng hp logic). Cch 2 :
80

Lp bng chn l G K C C G K 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0
61

1 0 1 0 0 1

1 0 0 1 0 1

0 1 1 0 1 0

0 1 0 1 1 0

0 0 1 0 1 1

0 0 0 1 1 1

1 0 0 1 1 1 1 (1) G K 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 (2) C G 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 (1) (2) C 0 [(1) (2) C] 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 K Kt qu cui cng (dng di) trong bng chn l khng hon ton ng, chng t suy lun trn khng ng. - Thc ra, suy lun trn c th c vit gn hn : G K G K y l kiu suy lun sai lm (theo II.5.1) Lu : - kim tra tnh ng n ca suy lun, ta ch cn thc hin theo cch no gin tin v d lm nht.

XVI- SUY LUN QUI NP. 1- nh ngha. Suy lun qui np l suy lun nhm rt ra tri thc chung, khi qut t nhng tri thc ring bit, c th. Trong suy lun qui np, thng thng tin l nhng phn on ring, cn kt lun li l nhng phn on chung, phn on ph bin. V d : Mt s hc sinh sau khi quan st thy. - St l mt cht rn. - Km l mt cht rn. - ng l mt cht rn. 2- Phn loi.
62
81

- Ch l mt cht rn. - Vng l mt cht rn. - Bc l mt cht rn.

M st, km, ng, ch, vng, bc v.v l kim loi. T lm mt php qui np l : Vy th mi kim loi u l cht rn

2.1 Qui np hon ton. S ca php qui np hon ton : a c P b c P c c P n c P a, b, c, n s Mi S c tnh P Qui np hon ton l qui np trong khng nh tt c i tng ca lp ang xt c tnh P, trn c s bit mi i tng ca lp ny c tnh P. V d : Vo u nm hc, mt t hc tp tin hnh bu chn t trng bng hnh thc b phiu. Kt qu kim phiu tht bt ng. Tt c cc bn trong t u chn bn An lm t trng. Trong qui np hon ton, kt lun ch khi qut c nhng trng hp bit, ch khng cp n nhng trng hp cha bit. V th, qui np hon ton tuy y , chc chn nhng n khng em li iu g mi m so vi nhng iu c nu ra trong tin . Mc d c rt t tc dng i vi vic nghin cu, pht minh khoa hc, nhng n cng gip chng ta trong vic tm tt, trnh by cc s 82 kin. 2.2 Qui np khng hon ton. Qui np khng hon ton l qui np trong khng nh rng : Tt c cc i tng ca lp ang xt c tnh P trn c s bit mt s i tng ca lp ny c tnh P. Qui np khng hon ton c hai loi, qui np thng thng v qui np khoa hc. 2.2.1 Qui np thng thng. Qui np thng thng l kiu qui np khng hon ton. Qui np thng thng l qui np bng cch lit k mt s trng hp bt k v nu thy chng c thuc tnh P th ta kt lun rng : Tt c cc i tng ca lp ang nghin cu cng c thuc tnh P. V d : Khi quan st thy mt s kim loi nh : St, ng, Ch, Vng, Bc, v.v u c th rn. Nhiu ngi qui np v rt ra kt lun : Mi kim loi u l cht rn. Qui np thng thng qui np bng lit k n gin l khng ng tin cy, kt lun ca n rt c th sai lm. Kt lun rt ra t php qui np trn l mt v d, ai cng bit rng : Thy ngn l mt kim loi nhng khng phi l cht rn.
63

Nhng kinh nghim v thi tit, v trng trt ca nhn dn ta c c rt t trong cuc sng hng ngn nm nh : - Nng tt da, ma tt la. - Chun chun bay thp th ma. Bay cao th nng, bay va th rm. v.v Nhng kinh nghim l kt qu ca php qui np thng thng. 2.2.2 Qui np khoa hc. Qui np khoa hc khc vi qui np thng thng ch, qui np thng thng l qui np bng lit k n gin. Qui np thng thng ch da vo s quan st b ngoi, quan st nhng thuc tnh thng thy ca i tng. Qui np khoa hc cn c trn s phn tch, tnghp cc thuc tnh bn cht, cn c trn s nghin cu nguyn nhn sinh ra hin tng no i n kt lun chung i vi cc hin tng cng loi. Qui np khoa hc v th ng tin cy hn qui np thng thng. Tuy vy, qui np khoa hc khng phi l hon ton chc chn. Gi tr ca qui np khoa hc ty thuc vo s lng cc trng hp c xem xt nhiu hay t; cc trng hp c xem xt c mang tnh cht ngu nhin hay khng, v mc ph hp ca kt lun vi thc tin. - Cc phng php qui np da trn c s mi lin h nhn qu ca cc hin tng. a) Phng php ph hp : Phng php ph hp c din t nh sau : Nu hai hay nhiu trng hp ca hin tng nghin cu ch c mt s kin chung th s kin chung , c th l nguyn nhn ca hin tng y. S : - Vi iu kin A, B, C c mt hin tng a. 84 - Vi iu kin A, D, E c mt hin tng a. - Vi iu kin A, F, G c mt hin tng a. C th : A l nguyn nhn ca hin tng a. V d : Tm hiu nguyn nhn dn n h hng mt s hc sinh, mt c gio nhn thy :
64
83

- Hc sinh A : Nh giu, cha m lm n xa, khng quan tm gio dc con ci. - Hc sinh B : Nh ngho, ng con, cha m mi lm n, khng quan tm n con ci. - Hc sinh C : Nh kh khn, cha m li d, khng quan tm n con ci. Sau khi so snh, c gio rt ra kt lun : nguyn nhn dn n hin tng hc sinh h chnh l nhng hc sinh ny khng c s quan tm gio dc ca cha m. b) Phng php khc bit : Phng php khc bit c din t nh sau : Nu hin tng xut hin v khng xut hin trong nhng trng hp khc nhau c nhng iu kin nh nhau, tr mt iu kin, th iu kin b loi tr c th l nguyn nhn (hay mt phn nguyn nhn) ca hin tng y. S : - Vi iu kin A, B, C th xut hin tng a. - Vi iu kin B, C th khng xut hin tng a. C th : A l nguyn nhn (hay mt phn nguyn nhn) ca a. V d : Cc nh nghin cu chn nui lm th nghim i chng nh sau : Chn mt s con heo c th trng nh nhau c chia lm hai nhm, c hai nhm ny c ch n ung v chm sc nh nhau. im khc nhau l ch : ngi ta cho vo thc n ca nhm 85 th nht mt lng nh thuc c cha vi nguyn t vi lng v vitamin, cn nhm th hai th khng. Kt qu l nhm heo th nht, trng lng ca chng tng vt, cn nhm heo th hai, trng lng ca chng tng mt cch bnh thng. Cc nh nghin cu i n kt lun, chnh loi thuc c cha vi nguyn t vi lng v vitamin kia l nguyn nhn tng trng nhanh mt nhm heo . c) Phng php cng bin : Phng php cng bin c din t nh sau : Nu mt hin tng no xut hin hay bin i th mt hin tng khc cng xut hin hay bin i tng ng th hin tng th nht l nguyn nhn ca hin tng th hai. S : - Vi iu kin ABC th xut hin hin tng a. - Vi iu kin A1BC th xut hin hin tng a1. - Vi iu kin A2BC th xut hin hin tng a2.
65

C th : A l nguyn nhn ca a. V d : iu kin bnh thng (nhit v p sut xc nh), ct mc thy ngn trong ng nghim mt im xc nh. Khi nhit tng th ct mc thy ngn trong ng nghim cng dng ln (do th tch tng). Nhit cng tng th ct mc thy ngn cng dng cao. Do , s cung cp nhit l nguyn nhn lm cho ct mc thy ngn trong ng nghim dng cao. Chnh php qui np ny l c s cho s ra i ca chic nhit k thy ngn.
86 d) Phng php phn d :

Phng php phn c din t nh sau : Trong mt hin tng, ngoi cc phn m nh nhng qui np trc ngi ta bit l do nhng s kin no sinh ra, th phn cn li ca hin tng l do s kin cn li sinh ra. S : - Vi iu kin ABC th xut hin hin tng abc. - Vi iu kin BC th xut hin hin tng bc. - Vi iu kin C th xut hin hin tng c. C th : A l nguyn nhn ca hin tng a. V d : Khi phn tch quang ph, ngi ta thy rng, mi vch quang ph ng vi mt nguyn t ha hc nht nh. Trong dy quang ph ca mt tri, ngi ta thy c mt vch vng ti khng ng vi mt nguyn t ha hc no bit. Qua nghin cu cc cht kh, ngi ta nhn thy vch quang ph ca mt cht kh cng c mu vng ti ging nh mt vch ca quang ph mt tri. T , tn ca cht kh gi l H-li (kh mt tri). tng tin cy ca php qui np, cn phi s dng kt hp phng php trn. Cc phng php ny cng c v b sung cho nhau, gp phn to ln trong vic nghin cu, khm ph bn cht ca hin thc khch quan. XVII-SUY LUN TNG T. 1- nh ngha. Suy lun tng t l suy lun cn c vo mt s thuc tnh ging nhau ca hai i tng rt ra kt lun v nhng thuc tnh ging nhau khc ca hai i tng . S : - Hai i tng A v B c cc thuc tnh chung (ging nhau) a,b,c,d,e.
87

66

- i tng A c thuc tnh f. C th : B cng c thuc tnh f. V d : - Tri t v sao Ha c mt s thuc tnh chung : - L hnh tinh ca mt tri, - u c khng kh, - u c nc, - u c kh hu tng i n ha. - Trn tri t c s sng. C th, trn sao Ha cng c s sng. 2- Nhng iu kin m bo tin cy ca suy lun tng t. 2.1 Cc i tng so snh c cng nhiu thuc tnh ging nhau th mc chnh xc ca kt lun cng cao. 2.2 Cc thuc tnh ging nhau cng phong ph, nhiu mt th mc chnh xc ca kt lun cng cao. 2.3 S lng cc thuc tnh bn cht ging nhau cng nhiu th mc chnh xc ca kt lun cng cao. V d 1 : A v B u c sinh ra t gia nh c b m lm ngnh Y, u c hc i hc Y khoa ti Php, A tr thnh bc s gii. Vy B cng c th tr thnh bc s gii. Suy lun sau y ng tin cy hn : V d 2 : M v N u xut thn t gia nh c truyn thng m nhc. B ca M v b ca N u l nhng tay n Vi--lng c phch. C M v N u t ho v truyn thng gia nh v say m m nhc. V th c hai u vo hc nhc vin, khoa Vi--lng v cng c s hng dn du dt ca mt gio s Vi--lng ni ting. Cng nh M, N va mi ot gii Vi--lng ton quc. Hin nay, M tr thnh mt tay n Vi--lng gii. Chc chn, N cng s tr thnh mt tay n Vi--lng gii nh M. Suy lun tng t c ng dng rng ri trong i sng cng nh trong khoa hc. Suy lun tng t l bc u hnh thnh cc gi 88 thuyt khoa hc. Nhng cng ging nh gi thuyt, kt lun ca suy lun tng t khng c tnh tt yu, n c th ng, cng c th sai. Chnh v vy, suy lun tng t khng chng minh c iu g c, n ch gip ta m rng s hiu bit, xy dng cc gi thuyt; cc kt lun ca n phi nh n thc tin mi khng nh c ng hay sai.

67

89

Chng V CHNG MINH, BC B V NGY BIN

XVIIICHNG MINH. 1- nh ngha. Chng minh l mt hnh thc suy lun khng nh tnh chn l ca mt lun im no , bng cch da vo nhng lun im m tnh chn l c thc tin xc nhn. V d : Chng minh : Sinh vin Ha hc gii. Da vo cc phn on m tnh chn thc c xc nhn sau y lm tin : (1) Sinh vin Ha c khen thng v thnh tch hc tp. (2) Ai khng hc gii th khng c khen thng v thnh tch hc tp. Sp xp cc tin theo mt cch nht nh ta s rt ra lun im cn chng minh : - Ai khng hc gii th khng c khen thng v thnh tch hc tp. - Sinh vin Ha c khen thng v thnh tch hc tp
68

Chng t : Sinh vin Ha hc gii. 2- Cu trc ca chng minh. Chng minh gm ba phn lin quan cht ch vi nhau : lun , lun c v lun chng. 2.1Lun . Lun l phn on m tnh chn thc ca n phi chng minh. Lun l thnh phn ch yu ca chng minh v tr li cho cu 90 hi : Chng minh ci g ? Lun c th l mt lun im khoa hc, c th l mt phn on v thuc tnh, v quan h, v nguyn nhn ca s vt, hin tng ca th gii khch quan v.v 2.2Lun c. Lun c l nhng phn on c dng lm cn c chng minh cho lun . Lun c chnh l nhng tin logic ca chng minh v tr li cho cu hi : Dng ci g chng minh ? Lun c c th l nhng lun im, nhng t liu c thc tin xc nhn, c th l nhng tin , nh l, nhng lun im khoa hc c chng minh. 2.3Lun chng. Lun chng l cch thc t chc sp xp cc lun c theo nhng qui tc v qui lut logic nhm xc lp mi lin h tt yu gia lun c v lun . Lun chng l cch thc chng minh, nhm vch ra tnh ng n ca lun da vo nhng lun c ng n, chn thc. Lun chng tr li cho cu hi : Chng minh nh th no ? 3- Cc qui tc ca chng minh. 3.1Cc qui tc i vi lun . Qui tc 1 : Lun phi chn thc. Chng minh l nhm vch ra tnh ng n, chn thc ca lun , ch khng phi l lm cho lun tr nn ng n, chn thc. V th, nu lun khng chn thc th khng th no chng minh c. V d : Hy chng minh rng : Loi ngi c nn ra t t st. Lun khng th chng minh c, v n khng chn thc. Qui tc 2 : Lun phi phi r rng, chnh xc. 91 S khng th chng minh c, nu lun khng c xc nh r rng. V d : Hy chng minh rng : Giai cp cng nhn l giai cp b bc lt.
69

Lun ny khng th chng minh c, v n kh m h : Giai cp cng nhn di ch no ? Qui tc 3 : Lun phi c gi nguyn trong sut qu trnh chng minh. Gi nguyn lun nhm thc hin nhim v ca chng minh. Nu lun b thay i th nhim v chng minh khng hon thnh, tc l lun c xc nh ban u th khng chng minh mt lun khc. 3.2Cc qui tc i vi lun c. Qui tc 1 : Lun c phi l nhng phn on chn thc. Tnh chn thc ca lun c l yu t bo m cho tnh chn thc ca lun . V vy, khng th khng nh tnh chn thc ca lun da trn c s nhng lun c gi di. Qui tc 2 : Lun c phi l nhng phn on c tnh chn thc c chng minh c lp vi lun . Lun ch c chng minh khi ly tnh chn thc ca lun c lm c s. Nu tnh chn thc ca lun c li c rt ra t lun th nh th l chng chng minh c g c. Li logic ny gi l li chng minh vng quanh.

V d : Trong Chng uy rinh, ng ghen ch cho chng ta thy ng uy rinh chng minh vng quanh : ng mun chng minh rng : Thi gian l c bc khi u bng lun c : V chui thi gian va qua l m c. Nhng lun c ny ca ng uy rinh li c rt ra t lun : Chun thi gian va qua l m c v Thi gian l c bc khi u. R lun qun ! Qui tc 3 : Lun c phi l l do y ca lun . Gia cc lun c phi c mi lin h trc tip v tt yu i vi lun . Cc lun c khng ch chn thc m cn phi khng thiu, khng tha, bo m cho lun c rt ra mt cch tt yu khch quan nh vo cc lp lun logic. 3.3Cc qui tc i vi lun chng. Qui tc 1 : Lun chng phi tun theo cc qui tc, qui lut logic. Vi phm cc qui tc, qui lut logic th kt lun khng c rt ra mt cch tt yu t tin , tc l khng chng minh c lun . Qui tc 2 : Lun chng phi bo m tnh h thng. Cc lun c phi c sp xp, t chc cht ch, bo m cho php chng minh c sc thuyt phc cao. Qui tc 3 : Lun chng phi bo m tnh nht qun phi mu thun.
70

92

Nu trong php chng minh c cha nhng lun c mu thun vi nhau trc tip hoc gin tip, th php chng minh y cha mu thun logic, khng thuyt phc. 4- Phn loi chng minh. 4.1Chng minh trc tip. Chng minh trc tip l chng minh trong tnh chn thc ca cc lun c trc tip dn ti tnh chn thc ca lun . 93 V d : T cc lun c : - T gic ABCD l mt hnh thoi. - Hai ng cho ca n : AC = BD. Ta khng nh (chng minh) c rng t gic ABCD l hnh vung. 4.2Chng minh gin tip. Chng minh gin tip l chng minh trong tnh chn thc ca lun rt ra t tnh khng chn thc ca phn lun . C 2 loi chng minh gin tip l : Chng minh phn chng v chng minh loi tr (la chn). - Chng minh phn chng : Chng minh phn chng l kiu chng minh trong ta xc lp tnh khng chn thc ca phn v theo lut bi trung, ta rt ra tnh chn thc ca lun . V d : Chng minh nh l : Nu hai ng thng cng vung gc vi ng thng th ba th chng song song vi nhau. - Gi s hai ng thng AB v CD khng song song vi nhau. Khi AB v CD s ct nhau ti O. Nh vy, t im O ta c 2 ng thng vung gc vi ng thng d. iu ny tri vi tin Euclide. Do , iu gi s trn l sai. Ta suy ra Hai ng thng song song cng vung gc vi ng thng th ba th chng song song vi nhau l ng.
D B O D

A C d - Chng minh loi tr : 94 Chng minh loi tr l kiu chng minh gin tip trong tnh chn thc ca lun c rt ra bng cch xc lp tnh khng chn thc ca tt c cc thnh phn trong phn on la chn. S ca chng minh loi tr :

P Q R S
71

Q R S P V d : Mt t bo v gm c 3 ngi c nhim v thay nhau canh gc c quan vo ban m. Mt m n, c quan b mt trm. Nguyn nhn l ai trong ba ngi b gc. tm ra ngi b nhim v canh gc, cc nh iu tra xem xt v xc nhn : - Khng phi A b gc. - Cng khng phi B b gc. Vy chnh C l ngi b gc. Chuyn vui : Ai l vua. Nghe n hm nay c vua i chi, anh nng dn ra ng i ven ng. Ch mt hi lu, thy c ngi ci nga i n, anh nng dn hi ngi ci nga : - Sao khng thy vua i, h anh ? Ngi ci nga ghm nga li ni vi anh nng dn : - C mun thy vua th leo ln nga, ngi sau lng ta y. Ngi nng dn nghe theo li. i mt i, ngi ch nga ni vi anh nng dn : - y c ba a minh. C mt a l vua. Anh on coi ai. Anh nng dn p tnh kh : - Con nga, con ng th khng phi l vua ri. Cn ti, ti bit, cng khng phi l vua. Vy vua th l anh. M nu qu tht anh l vua th con nga v ti l ti v con nga. (Dn theo [10] tr.197). XIX- BC B. 1- nh ngha. Bc b l thao tc logic da vo cc lun c chn thc v cc qui tc, qui lut logic vch ra tnh cht gi di ca mt lun no . Bc b l mt kiu chng minh, nhng khng phi chng minh cho tnh ng n, chn thc ca lun m vch trn tnh gi di, sai lm ca lun .
2- Cc kiu (hnh thc) ngy bin. 72
95

Nu nh chng minh c 3 b phn : Lun , lun c v lun chng th bc b cng c 3 hnh thc : Bc b lun , bc b lun c v bc b lun chng. 2.1Bc b lun . Bc b lun c hai cch : Cch 1 : - Bc b lun thng qua vic vch ra tnh gi di ca h qu rt ra t lun . V d : i vi lun : Bn cht v hin tng l hon ton tch ri nhau, ta c th bc b bng cch trn :
- Nu bn cht v hin tng l hon ton tch ri nhau, c ngha l hin tng khng phn nh bn cht, th ngi ta khng th

hiu c bn cht ca s vt. Thc t cho thy, con ngi hon ton c th hiu c bn cht ca s vt. iu chng t khng phi bn cht v hin tng l hon ton tch ri nhau. Ni cch khc, lun im : Bn cht v hin tng l hon ton tch ri nhau l mt lun im sai lm. Cch 2 : Bc b lun thng qua chng minh phn lun . Mun bc b lun , ta ch cn chng minh cho tnh ng n ca phn lun , do theo lut mu thun, lun phi sai. V d : Bc b lun : Thy ngn khng c kh nng dn in. Ta phi chng minh phn lun ca n l ng n : - Thy ngn l kim loi. - M kim loi th dn in. Vy thy ngn th dn in. Phn lun ny ng, chng t lun l sai. 2.2Bc b lun c. Bc b lun c l ch ra tnh khng chn thc, khng y ca lun c, lun c khng chn thc khng y th lun khng th ng vng, lun cng b bc b. V d : C anh chng gii thch : Ci kn n ku l ti v n c ci ta loa. Ngi kia bc b lin : Anh ni ci kn n ku, v n c ci ta loa ? Ti hi anh ti sao ci ng nh, n cng c ci ta loa m n hng ku ?. (Dn theo [10], tr.262) Chuyn vui : Thnh thong, m nh con gi nh tc su. Mt hm, b th th : M i, sao tc m bc nhiu th ?
73
97 96

M u ym trch : - Tc m bc nhiu chng t con ca m h lm ! c b ngy th hi li : - a, vy chc m h lm h m. Con thy tc b ngoi bc gn ht ri !? (Theo bo Ph n Vit Nam). 2.3Bc b lun chng. Bc b lun chng l vch ra nhng sai lm, vi phm cc qui tc, qui lut logic trong qu trnh chng minh. V d : C ngi chng minh lun : ng Vn B, sinh vin ca nhc vin thnh ph H Ch Minh s l tay n gii nh sau : - ng ng vn A tng hc nhc vin thnh ph H Ph Minh v l mt tay n gii. - ng vn B l con ca ng ng vn A v cng ang hc ti nhc vin thnh ph H Ch Minh. Suy ra : ng vn B cng s l tay n gii. Chng thy lun chng trn khng c sc thuyt phc, mc d xut pht t cc lun c chn thc, nhng lun khng c rt ra mt cch tt yu t cc lun c. thy r hn, ta chia lun chng trn thnh 2 tam on lun : - ng ng vn A l mt tay n gii. - ng vn B l con ca ng ng vn A. ng vn B l mt tay n gii. - ng ng vn A hc ti Nhc vin thnh ph H Ch Minh tr thnh tay n gii. - ng vn B hc ti Nhc vin thnh ph H Ch Minh. 98 - ng vn B l mt tay n gii. Ta thy c 2 tam on lun trn u sai lm , u vi phm qui tc logic, c hai u mc li bn thut ng. Nn cch lun chng trn l khng th tin cy. IV-NGY BIN.
74

1- nh ngha. Ngy bin l li lp lun quanh co, vi phm lut logic nhm lm cho ngi khc hiu sai s tht. Nhng ngi ngy bin thng dng mi th thut nh la ngi khc bng cch da vo nhng ch ging nhau b ngoi nh tro khi nim, nh tro i tng, nh tro t tng v.v i vi nh ngy bin th mc ch ca h khng phi l vch ra chn l, m l che giu s tht. H lun lun mun thay th s chng minh ng n bng lng tin cht phc ca ngi khc vo l l gi di ca h. V d : Ch c bn chn. D cng c bn chn. Vy, D l Ch. Trong php ngy bin trn by, ngi ta c tnh vi phm qui tc ca tam on lun. Thut ng gia c bn chn ca tam on lun trn c ngoi din khng y c hai tin : Li ngy bin sau y d dm hn : V d : 99 Mt anh hc tr n hng cm mn mt ci vc ri em bn mt. B ngi ch i, anh ta bn i kim hai con c a n kht, xin cho vi ba na. Nhng ri mi mi vn chng thy anh ta tr, nh hng nh phi kin ln quan. Quan cho i ngi hc tr n hi. Anh ta tha rng : - Ti mn bc c mt vc m tr n hai c ri. Bc y cn i g na? Nh hng ci : - Nguyn vc ca ti l vc ng kia m. Ngi hc tr lin p : - Th c ca ti u phi l c trong nh ! (Dn theo [9], tr.172). Anh hc tr ngy bin bng cch nh tro khi nim ci vc (ci cho ln) vi con vc (mt th chim chn cao thuc loi c) v ng (rung) vi ng (kim loi), lm cho ch nh hng lng tng. Anh hc tr kia qu tht lu lnh! 2- Cc hnh thc ngy bin. 2.1Ngy bin i vi lun .
75

Trng hp thng gp nht trong hnh thc ngy bin i vi lun l t thay i lun (nh tro lun ) trong qu trnh trao i, lp lun. V d : Mt ngi t kim im v nhng sai phm ca mnh, nhng sut t u n cui ca bn t kim im, anh ta ch trnh by hon cnh khch quan v nhng kh khn mi mt ca bn thn, ca gia nh. Vy l tn lun th t kim im v sai phm ca bn thn nhng thc t lun li c i thnh kim im hon cnh khch quan v kim im kh khn v mi mt ca gia nh, ca bn thn. Thnh thong, chng ta vn thy kiu ngy bin nh tro lun nh : bn kim im tnh hnh sn xut kinh doanh ca mt n v 100 li tr thnh bn bo co thnh tch; Lun chng cho tnh khoa hc ca mt ch trng th li ra sc ca ngi ngi ra ch trng v.v Ngy bin bng cch nh tro lun d b pht hin, nhng nhng k ngy bin vn khng ngn ngi s dng hnh thc ny. 2.2Ngy bin i vi lun c. Ngy bin i vi lun c thng c biu hin cc dng sau : a) S dng lun c khng chn thc : Lun c do ba t : K ngy bin ba t ra lun c che lp s tht, bin h cho hnh vi sai tri ca mnh. V d : Nhn vin kim tra cht vn k b tnh nghi l th phm ca v n (thc ra hn chnh l th phm) nh sau : - m qua khi xy ra v n, lc 10 gi, anh u ? Tn th phm c tnh chy ti bng cch ba ra chng c gi nh la c quan iu tra : - Lc ti ang nh mt ngi bn gi. Lun c sai s tht : K ngy bin s dng nhng lun c hon ton khng ng hoc ch ng mt phn ca s tht. V d : qua mt c quan thanh tra, mt c s kinh doanh n a ra nhng ha n, chng t khng hon ton ng vi s tht. Ngy bin do s dng lun c khng chn thc m chng ta thng thy hng ngy l nhng hnh vi ni di, la bp, v.v b) S dng nhng lun c cha c chng minh :
76
101

S dng d lun, tin n lm lun c : Trng hp ny, k ngy bin khng s dng cc lun c l nhng lun im, nhng s kin c chng minh, m li cn c vo d lun, vo tin n bin h, qui kt. D lun tin n khng th c s dng lm lun c, bi v tnh chn tht ca chng khng xc nh, cha c chng minh. V d : Theo d lun th anh ta l mt con ngi khng trung thc, khng trong sng, c nhiu ng c m m. V vy khng th anh ta tip tc cng vic ny. y l li ngy bin ta thng thy khi l l khng sc thuyt phc, k ngy bin tm cch ly d lun lm lun c. Th v kh ny khng my ti tn nhng li t ra rt li hi. Trc cc cuc bu c phng Ty, cc ng c vin thng m cc chin dch bi nh, to d lun khng tt, nhm h gc i phng. Dng kin ca s ng (a s) lm lun c : S tht khng phi bao gi cng thuc v s ng. K ngy bin li ly kin ca a s thay th cho s tht. V d : Ti mt k thi ngi ta pht hin c thi sai, mt ngi bin h : - thi khng c g phi bn ci, n hon ton ng v c thng qua mt tp th hi ng. y l li gii thch ngy bin, v khng phi bao gi thi c s xem xt ca mt tp th hi ng cng hon ton ng. Hoc v d : C 85% kin ca tp th khng nh rng bin php k thut ny em li hiu qu cao. Li ngy bin trn y l102 : ly kin ca a s khng nh hiu qu ca mt bin php k thut, m ng ra phi ly cc ch tiu chun kinh t k thut xc nh hiu qu ca bin php k thut . c) S dng kin, li ni ca ngi c uy tn lm lun c : kin, li ni ca ngi c uy tn khng phi bao gi cng chn tht, ng n. K ngy bin li dng s tin yu, mn m, khm phc ca cng chng i vi ngi c uy tn, lm cho cng chng tin vo kin, li ni ca ngi thay cho s tht. V d : ng A, ng X, b Y ni, tt ng (v ng A, ng X, b Y ln c uy tn). Li ngy bin ny th hin ch ngi ta da vo gi tr ca ngi pht biu thay cho nhng chng c khch quan, xc ng. 2.3Ngy bin i vi lun chng. L th thut vi phm cc qui tc, qui lut logic mt cch tinh vi trong qu trnh lp lun, lm cho ngi khc tin rng kt lun ca nh ngy bin a ra l ng s tht. Trong hnh thc ngy bin i vi lun chng, nh ngy bin xut pht t nhng lun c chn thc, kt lun rt ra cng c th l chn thc. Tuy vy, tnh chn thc ca kt lun khng phi c rt ra mt cch tt yu t cc lp lun v t cc
77
103

lun c (tin ) chn thc ca n. V vy, y l hnh thc ngy bin tinh vi, kh pht hin nht, lm cho i phng lng tng trong qu trnh tranh lun. Chng hn, Gio s Hong Chng trong cun : Nhng yu t logic trong mn ton trng ph thng cp II, NXB Gio dc, H Ni 1975, nu ra mt lot cc bi ton ngy bin. Sau y l mt v d : Vi nhng gi tr no ca a, b ta c bt ng thc :
a b + > 2? b a

Li gii : a2 + b2 > 2ab; a2 ab > ab b2; a (a b) > b (a b); a > b. Vy bt ng thc cho ng vi a > b. (Dn theo [3], tr.49). Ngy bin i vi lun chng thng c biu hin cc dng sau : nh tro khi nim : Nh ngy bin nh tro khi nim bng cch li dng ngn ng, li dng t ng m, t nhiu ngha nh tro ngha ca t; li dng hin tng chuyn loi t trong ngn ng tro t loi ca t v.v V d : Lao ng l c s ca s tn ti v pht trin ca x hi, bt lun thi i no. Hc tm l hc cng l lao ng. Vy suy ra rng : hc tm l l c s ca s tn ti v pht trin ca x hi, bt lun thi i no. S ngy bin trn y xut pht t khi nim lao ng, khi nim ny c dng vi hai ngha khc nhau. tin u tin, khi nim lao ng c hiu l hot ng sn xut ra ca ci vt cht ca x hi. tin th hai, khi nim lao ng li c hiu l mt dng lao ng c th ca con ngi : hot ng nhn thc. nh tro hin tng vi bn cht, nguyn nhn vi kt qu : V d : nh lut 3 Niu-tn ni rng hai vt tc ng vo nhau u gy ra nhng lc c cng cng nhng ngc chiu nhau. Nhng khi xe p m vo t th xe p cong vnh, vy lc xe p tc ng vo t b hn lc t tc ng vo xe p. (Dn theo [2], tr.58). 104 Trong ton hc, nh ngy bin c khng tun th cc iu kin khi trin khai cc cng thc, bin i cc biu thc v.v V d : T biu thc : (a Suy ra : a b = bb) = (b a) a Suy ra : 2a = 2b
2 2

78

a=b Vy l con kin c trng lng a cng nng bng con voi c trng lng b ! (Dn theo [2], tr.58) nh tro vt qui chiu : Th thut nh tro vt qui chiu lm cho ngi khc nhn nhn s vt theo mt qui chiu khc v do khng phn bit c phi tri, ng sai. V d : Php ngy bin : Ngi che mt ca Evbulid din ra nh sau : Ngi ta dn n Elchtra mt ngi b trm kn mt, v hi : - Anh c bit ngi b che mt ny khng ? - Khng bit. - Orch y. Th l anh khng bit Orch l ngi anh ca anh m anh bit. (Dn theo [3], tr.59)
105 Lun chng khng ng :

- Vi phm cc qui tc ca tam on lun : V d : V ti l mt ph n xinh p, hoa hu th gii cng l mt ph n xinh p. Vy hoa hu th gii chnh l v ti. Ngy bin trn y vi phm qui tc : thut ng gia ph n xinh p c ngoi din khng y trong c hai tin . - Lun chng vng quanh : Lun chng vng quanh l li lun chng m kt lun c rt ra t tin nhng bn thn tin li c suy ra t kt lun (tnh chn tht ca lun c khng c chng minh c lp vi lun ). V d : Mt du khch n thm mt thy ph thy Congo, thy trong phng ng ta c mt ci hp giy ng rt nhiu ong. Thy ph thy cho bit : Nu ng l th th l ong t ng ri. Tun trc c mt k xu vo y, lin b ong t cho phi b chy. - Hn ta ni g vi ng Du khch hi. - Cha kp ni g c. - Vy lm sao ng bit hn l k xu ? - V ong t hn.
79

(Dn theo [9], tr.178) ng l lp lun vng quanh : Ong th t k xu v k xu th b ong t. PHN III
106

Chng VI CC QUI LUT C BN CA T DUY LOGIC HNH THC XX- NH NGHA. Qui lut logic l nhng mi lin h bn cht, tt nhin, ph bin, n nh gia cc hnh thc logic ca t tng c hnh thnh trong qu trnh phn nh th gii khch quan. Cc qui lut logic c c kt t thc tin hng ngn nm ca nhn loi, chng l s phn nh nhng qui lut ca th gii khch quan vo trong thc ch quan ca con ngi. Mi s vt hin tng ca th gii khch quan lun vn ng, bin i v pht trin song vn bao hm trong n s n nh tng i. Cc qui lut c bn ca logic phn nh trng thi n nh tng i trong s pht trin ca s vt. Cc qui lut bao gm : Lut ng nht, Lut phi mu thun, Lut bi trung v Lut l do y . y l nhng qui lut c bn v chng ni ln tnh cht chung nht ca mi t duy chnh xc : tnh xc nh, tnh khng mu thun, tnh nht qun, tnh c cn c ca t duy. Chng lm c s cho cc thao tc t duy, bo m cho t duy c chnh xc, trnh sai lm. XXI- CC QUI LUT. 1- Lut ng nht.
107

Mi t tng phn nh cng mt i tng trong cng mt quan h phi c ng nht.

80

S vt, hin tng bin i khng ngng, trong qu trnh bin i , khi cht ca s vt cha thay i th s vt vn cn l n, ng nht vi n. V vy, trong t duy, trong trao i t tng, mi t tng (khi nim, phn on) phn nh cng mt i tng phi c ng nht, phi c gi tr logic nh nhau. Lut ng nht c din t di hnh thc sau : A = A, c l A l A, hoc A ng nht vi A. Cng c th c din t : A A, c l : Nu () a th (c) A. Lut ng nht yu cu khng c thay i ni dung c xc nh ca t tng, khng c thay i ni hm v ngoi din ca khi nim mt cch ty tin. Lut ng nht khng mu thun vi php bin chng. S vt, hin tng lun lun vn ng, bin i v pht trin, do t tng phn nh chng cng phi vn ng v pht trin theo. V bin chng ca nim (t tng) chng qua ch l s phn nh bin chng ca s vt. Cho nn t tng v s vt c th v cn c bin i khi s vt bin i. y, lut ng nht khng ngn cm s bin i ca t tng, m ch ngn cm s thay i mt cch ty tin, v cn c ca t tng trong qu trnh t duy khi s vt m t tng phn nh vn ang cn l n. Lut ng nht cng t ra yu cu trong trao i t tng trong tho lun : khng c ng nht ha nhng t tng khc bit. ng thi ha nhng t tng khc bit l th thut ca nhng k ngy bin hng vi phm lut ng nht, lm cho ngi khc hiu sai lc vn . Nhng biu hin ca vic vi phm lut ng nht kha cnh ny l :
- S dng t ng m, t nhiu ngha (nh tro khi nim).

V d : Vt cht tn ti vnh vin (1). Bnh m l vt cht


108

(2).

Bnh m tn ti vnh vin. Khi nim Vt cht hai tin c ni hm khc nhau, cho nn y l hai khi nim khc nhau.
- ng nht ha cc t tng khc nhau (nh tro ngha ca t tng).

V d : Ci anh khng mt tc l ci anh c (1).


81

Anh khng mt sng (2). Vy l anh c sng. phn on (1), ci khng mt c hiu l ci ta c v ta khng nh mt. Nhng phn on (2) ci khng mt li l ci m ta khng h c v do khng th nh mt c. y, ngi ta c tnh ng nht ha hai t tng khc nhau. Lut ng nht cn t ra mt yu cu khc trong trao i t tng : khng c lm khc bit ha mt t tng ng nht. Khc bit ha mt t tng ng nht cng l vi phm lut ng nht. Vi phm lut ng nht kha cnh ny thng c biu hin :
- Trong dch thut, chuyn cc vn bn t ngn ng ny sang ngn ng khc (cc bn dch khng cn nguyn ngha ca bn gc).

- Trong trnh by chuyn 109vn bn, ngh quyt, cc iu lut, cc qui nh, v.v ngi ta ct xn hoc thm vo vn bn nhng t t tng khc vi bn gc. - C tnh hoc v tnh thay i lun trong qu trnh lp lun, chng minh. Lut ng nht hiu th tnh cht c bn ca t duy logic : tnh xc nh. Nu t duy khng c tnh xc nh th ngi ta khng hiu ng s tht v khng th hiu nhau c. Lut ng nht loi b tnh cht m h, ln ln, thiu xc nh, nc i trong t duy. Trong cuc sng, nhng ngi vi phm lut ng nht thng l nhng k ngy bin, h c tnh nh tro khi nim, nh tro i tng phc v cho sai tri ca mnh, hoc l nhng ngi do thiu hiu bit, nm khng y ni hm v ngoi din ca cc khi nim, cc thut ng, k hiu chuyn mn, v.v Chnh v vy, trong khoa hc, trnh vi phm lut ng nht, ngnh khoa hc no cng cn phi nh ngha, ch thch r rng tt c cc khi nim, cc thut ng, cc k hiu ca ngnh mnh. 2- Lut phi mu thun. Vi cng mt i tng, trong cng mt quan h, nu c hai t tng tri ngc nhau th khng th ng thi cng ng. Khi s vt vn ang l n v nu n c xem xt trong cng mt thi gian, cng mt quan h, th khng th ni rng n va c va khng c cng mt thuc tnh no . Do , theo lut mu thun, khi hai phn on ni v cng mt i tng, trong cng mt thi gian, cng mi quan h m phn on ny khng nh, phn on kia li ph nh th khng th ng thi cng ng. Lut phi mu thun c din t di hnh thc sau : 110 (A A), c l : Khng phi A v khng A V d : - H ni l th ca nc Vit Nam. - Khng phi H Ni l th ca nc Vit Nam. Lut phi mu thun ch ra rng hai phn on tri ngc nhau trn y khng th ng thi cng ng.
82

Thc cht ca lut phi mu thun l cm mu thun, ngha l trong t duy khng c mu thun. Lut phi mu thun khng h ph nhn nhng mu thun tn ti trong thc t khch quan. Mu thun trong thc t l nhng mu thun vn c ca s vt, hin tng, n nm ngoi phm vi nghin cu ca logic hnh thc. Logic hnh thc ch bn n mu thun logic, l mu thun xy ra trong t duy. T duy c mu thun l t duy sai lm, khng chnh xc, thiu nht qun. Mu thun trong t duy cn tr vic nhn thc ng n bn cht s vt. chnh v vy, lut phi mu thun ch trng gt b mu thun trong t duy, bo m cho t duy lnh mnh, chnh xc. Thng thng, vic vi phm lut phi mu thun biu hin cc qu trnh t duy m tin hu bt nht. Va khng nh mt thuc tnh no li va ph nh chnh thuc tnh ca i tng, khi i tng vn ang l n, cha thay i. V d : Trong tiu thuyt Rudin ca Tucghenip, hai nhn vt tranh lun vi nhau v chuyn c lng tin hay khng nh sau: Thi c, vy theo ng c tn ti lng tin hay khng ? - Khng, khng h c. - ng tin chc nh vy ch ? 111 - Nht nh ri ! - ng va ni l con ngi ta khng c lng tin, nhng chnh ng tin chc rng khng c lng tin, vy l chnh ng cho mt th d u tin v s tn ti lng tin. C phng u ci (Trch theo [2], tr.43). Mt v d khc : C anh chng tr ln u tin say ru, khi tnh dy, anh ta rt hi hn v cu xin v tha th. Ngi v ni rng c ta s qun v tha th cho anh. Sau mt thng, c cch vi ngy, c v li nhc n chuyn say ru hm trc ca anh chng. Anh ta khng chu c na bn ni : - Em ni l s qun v tha th cho anh, vy m sao em c nhc i nhc li mi th ? - Vng ng th ! Em ch mun nhc cho anh nh l em qun chuyn v tha th cho anh. (Bo Tin phong ch nht s 13/1995).
83

Trong lp lun, ngi ta thng s dng lut phi mu thun chng minh, bc b mt lun no . Chng hn, bc b mt lun no , ta phi chng minh phn ca n l ng n. Phn ng th theo lut phi mu thun lun phi sai (V khng th c hai t tng tri ngc nhau li cng ng). Tn trng lut phi mu thun l iu kin cn trnh mu thun trong t duy. Lnin ch ra rng tnh mu thun logic- tt nhin, trong iu kin t duy logic ng n khng c tn ti c trong vic phn tch kinh t v trong vic phn tch chnh tr.
3- Lut bi trung (Lut 112tr ci th ba). loi

Vi cng mt i tng, trong cng mt quan h m c hai phn on ph nh nhau, th chng khng th cng ng hoc cng sai, mt trong hai phn on phi ng, phn on kia sai, khng c ci th ba. Lut bi trung c din t di hnh thc sau : (A A), c l : A hoc khng A V d : Ha l ngi c vc dng cao ln v khng phi Ha l ngi c vc dng cao ln Hai phn on trn y khng th cng ng hoc cng sai, mt trong hai phn on phi ng, phn on kia phi sai. Lut bi trung yu cu mi ngi khng c n trnh s tha nhn tnh chn thc ca mt trong hai phn on c quan h ph nh nhau, khng c tm kim mt phn on th ba no khc. T cho thy, i vi mt vn c th, mt t tng c th th ch c th ng hoc sai ch khng th va ng va sai hoc khng ng cng khng sai. Chng hn : C thng th ni l thng, Khng thng th cng mt ng cho xong. Ch ng na c na trong, L nc hn cho lng tng t. Trong cu ca dao trn c gi t ra tn trng lut bi trung khi tuyn b dt khot vi bn trai. 113 Lut bi trung l lut c trung ca logic lng tr. N c ngha to ln i vi t duy chnh xc, v l c s cho chng minh bng phn chng (chng minh gin tip). Chng hn, cn chng minh lun , nhng thiu cn c chng minh. Trong khi cn c bc b phn . Phn sai , theo lut bi trung, ta rt ra tnh ng n ca lun .
84

4- Lut l do y . Lut l do y cho rng : Mt tri thc, mt t tng ch c coi l ng n, chn thc khi chng c chng minh, ngha l xc nh c y l do ca n. Lut l do y ni ln tnh c cn c, tnh c chng minh ca t duy. Lut ny i hi mi t tng, mi ngh chn thc, ng n cn phi c chng minh, phi c cn c. Nhng cn c c th l nhng s kin thc t, c th l iu c khoa hc chng minh v thc tin xc nhn. Song cng c th bng con ng logic, tc l da vo nhng chn l nhng l do logic, m nhng chn l, nhng l do logic c thc tin xc nhn l ng n. C s ca lut l do y l mi lin h ph bin, c tnh qui lut cc s vt, hin tng trong hin thc. Mi mt s vt, hin tng (kt qu) bao gi cng c sinh ra t nhng s vt, hin tng khc (nguyn nhn). Chnh v vy, lut l do i hi bt k mt tri thc chn thc no cng cn phi c cn c ca n. Tnh c cn l thuc tnh quan trng ca t duy logic, l c im c bn phn bit t duy khoa hc v t duy phn khoa hc. Trong khoa hc, chng minh cc lun im khc nhm m rng tri thc ca ta, c th s dng cc lun im c chng minh, c y c s, nh chng c coi l ng n. Cc gi thuyt, cc lun im cha c chng minh th khng c s dng lm lun c trong qu trnh chng minh. Do , tun th lut l do y l nhm bo m tnh ng n, tnh c th chng minh, tnh c cn c ca t duy. Lut l do y cng ngn cm chng ta tip nhn tri thc mt cch vu v, thiu cn c. Tip nhn tri thc bng lng tin theo kiu tn giao hoc tip nhn tri thc trn c s tin n, cn c vo d lun, v.v l vi phm lut l do y .
114

85

115

TI LIU THAM KHO CHNH

[1] HONG CHNG LOGIC HC PH THNG. NXB Gio dc, Tp. H Ch Minh, 1994. [2] NGUYN C DN LOGIC, NG NGHA, C PHP. NXB i hc v Trung hc chuyn nghip, 1987. [3] VNG TT T LOGIC HNH THC. HSP H ni 1, 1992 [4] GORKI LOGIC HC. NXB Gio dc, 1974 [5] NGUYN CHNG NHIP LOGIC HC. HSP TP. H Ch Minh, 1996. [6] NGUYN CHNG NHIP NHP MN LOGIC HC. NXB Lao ng H ni, 1997. [7] HONG PH LOGIC NGN NG HC. NXB Khoa hc x hi, 1989. [8] BI THANH QUT LOGIC HC HNH THC. HTH H ni, 1994.
86

[9] L T THNH TM HIU LOGIC HC. NXB Tr, 1994 [10] NGUYN VN TRN LOGIC VUI. NXB Chnh tr Quc gia, 1993 [11] NGUYN V UYN I CNG LUN L HC HNH THC. La Thing, 1974. [12] V.I.KIRILLOV A.A.STARCHENKO LOGIC HC. A Moskva, 1987 (ting Nga). [13] V NGC PHA (Ch bin) CNG BI GING TRIT HC MC-LNIN. NXB Gio dc, 1994. [14] R-DEN-TAN T IN TRIT HC NXB Tin b v NXB S tht, 1986 (ting Vit). .
116

87

117

MC LC Trang Phn I 1 4 5 8 Phn II 10 12 14 18 19 20 23 25 30 32 35 38 41 41


88

Chng I : I CNG V LOGIC Ii tng ca logic hc.......................................... II- Cc c im ca logic hc.................................... III- S hnh thnh v pht trin ca logic hc............... IV- ngha ca logic hc............................................. Chng II : KHI NIM I- c im ca khi nim.......................................... II- Ni hm v ngoi din ca khi nim..................... III- Quan h gia cc khi nim.................................... IV- Cc loi khi nim.................................................. V- M rng v thu hp khi nim................................ VI- nh ngha khi nim.............................................. VII- Cc qui tc nh ngha khi nim............................ VIII- Phn chia khi nim.............................................. Chng III : PHN ON I- c im chung ca phn on.............................. II- Phn loi phn on................................................ III- Ngoi din ca ch t v v t trong phn on..... IV- Quan h gia cc phn on Hnh vung logic... V- Cc php logic trn phn on................................ 1- Php ph nh.....................................................

2- Php hi.............................................................. 3- Php tuyn........................................................... 118 4- Php ko theo...................................................... 5- Php tng ng............................................... Chng IV : SUY LUN I- c im chung ca suy lun................................. II- Suy lun din dch................................................... 1nh ngha......................................................... 2Suy din trc tip............................................... 3Mt s qui tc suy din trc tip........................ 4Suy din gin tip.............................................. 4.1 Tam on lun............................................ 4.2 Suy din t hai tin ................................ 4.3 Suy din t nhiu tin ............................ 4.4 Suy lun rt gn.......................................... 5Mt s kiu suy lun sai lm............................. 6Phn tch tnh ng n ca mt s suy lun..... III- Suy lun qui np...................................................... 1nh ngha......................................................... 2Phn loi............................................................ IV- Suy lun tng t.................................................... Chng V : CHNG MINH, BC B V NGY BIN I- Chng minh............................................................ 1nh ngha......................................................... 2Cu trc ca chng minh................................... 3Cc qui tc ca chng minh............................... 4Phn loi chng minh........................................ II- Bc b.....................................................................
119

42 44 47 51 53 54 54 55 56 59 59 65 70 71 74 77 81 81 82 87 90 90 90 91 93 96
89

12-

nh ngha......................................................... 96 Cc hnh thc bc b......................................... 96 III- Ngy bin................................................................ 99 1nh ngha......................................................... 99 2Cc hnh thc ngy bin....................................100 Phn III Chng VI : CC QUI LUT C BN CA LOGIC HNH THC I- nh ngha...............................................................107 II- Cc qui lut.............................................................108 1Lut ng nht...................................................108 2Lut mu thun..................................................110 3Lut bi trung.....................................................113 4Lut l do y ...............................................114 Ti liu tham kho................................................................116 Mc lc...................................................................................118

Din n sinh vin hnh chnh


www.hanhchinhvn.com

90
120

You might also like