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Developments in Tank Fire-Fighting Theory

Author: Dr. Istvn Szcs www.foamfatale.com

1.

Introduction

The Rules for extinguishing a fire in Flammable Liquid Storage Tanks are based on several standards and recommendations (e.g. FM, NFPA, UL, BS, EN, GOST, DIN etc.). These technical prescriptions give guidelines for the method of extinguishment, for the arrangement and for the technical parameters of a storage tank fire protection installation, being either fixed or semi-fixed systems. All of the standards are special collections of the engineering experiences from the incidents in the past. Following these instructions and the recommendations one can successfully fight the fire of small size storage tanks. The Traditional Rules were appropriate 30-40 years ago when only small (20 000m3) size tanks existed. The traditional foam application intensity, the foam generating and introduction method (using foam generators located outside the tank shell and foam chambers) brought success for the firemen at that time. Later on, when the size of the storage tanks began to increase, none of the standards identified the need to modify the system standards accordingly. Since the very large storage tanks started to be used widely in the Oil- and Petrochemicals Industry as from the 1980s onwards the standards should have been adapted already in these days. Now that these tanks are getting older we see that a few of these tanks are experiencing full surface fires. And we notice that the success rate of extinguishing these large size tanks is disappointingly low. This low success is the result of not keeping pace of the extinguishing standards with the increased tank sizes. So it is time to take action. 1.1 The reason of the low success rate

While examining the standards from the theory of the tank fire extinguishing view, a false doctrinal approach has been found. It is the idea of using the very same (constant) foam solution application intensity, independently from the size of the storage tanks. This old concept says: if the fire surface is doubled the foam solution application rate does not have to be changed. The flow rate simply has to be increased linearly with the increased burning surface. This is a pure proportional response to the fire, but it does not work. 1.2 Improving the existing standards

The firemen found the proper solution by themselves. This is the progressive response to the fire. In case of larger tank fire extinguishing they begun to increase the foam application rate, leaving the standards for what they are. This study gives a lesson on the new theory providing the scientific background of the practice of Progressive Response.

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2 of 12 There are five major factors which have to be inspected in view of the new theory: The foam solution application rate, (see 2.) The determination of the extinguishing time criteria, (see 3.) The determination of the necessary foam blanket thickness, The foam introduction method The arrangement of the foam supply

2.

Foam solution application rate

2.1 Comparison of traditional recommendation and the TFEX proposal The traditional standards recommend to use a constant foam solution application rate (usually 4,2 liter/minute/square meter) for full surface fires, independently from the size of the storage tank. The total foam solution flow rate [liter/minute] that is needed for the foam attack is to be calculated by the multiplication of the Fire Surface [m2] and the Foam Solution Application Rate [liter/m2*minute]. The longer distance the foam has to run and the longer period of time the foam is exposed to the effects of the fire are out of consideration.

Figure 1. Foam Solution Application Rate versus Tank Diameter

The diagram of Figure 1. shows the difference between the traditional recommendation (blue line) and the TFEX recommendation (red line). At the traditional view the foam solution application rate is in linear function with the diameter (constant) and of course the total foam solution flow rate is in square
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3 of 12 function with the diameter of the tank. If the surface of the fire is double, the flow rate shall be also the double. The standards recommend different constant values of Foam Solution Application Rate for rim seal fire protection, for dike area, for monitor application, and the sort of the burning material (polar or a-polar solvents) has also to be considered. But all of these recommended values are independent from the fire size. By the view of the TFEX theory the larger the tank is the longer distance the foam has to run until it reaches the center of the tank and closes to achieve coverage of the entire surface with a foam blanket. Longer run means that the foam is exposed for a longer period to the heat of the flames. Foam is damaged by drying out, thermal decomposition, thermal updraft etc. The heat flux is also increased to some extent by the size of the fire. Hardening the non-moistened surface of the foam will cause slower movement, thus resulting again in higher losses. These effects should be compensated by higher application rate, otherwise the foam will never close, and the fire can not be extinguished. This increased application rate consequently shortens the extinguishing time as well. 2.2 Shortening the extinguishing time

The traditional diagram of the function of Extinguishing Time versus Foam Solution Application Rate is well known from the books of the fire fighting theory. The critical intensity value and phenomena is the most interesting and important part of this diagram. The traditional view of tank fire fighting does not consider the critical foam application intensity as it would depend on the size of fire.

Figure 2. Traditional Extinguishing Time versus Foam Solution Application Rate diagram

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4 of 12 By the traditional view this diagram (Figure 2.) is referring to all size of tanks. In other words: the critical foam solution application rate (icrit ,the abscissa of this hyperbola) is constant, not depending on the tank size. The traditional extinguishing time-foam solution application rate diagram is found to be valid only for one (probably small) tank size. Investigating the Critical Foam Solution Application Rate in Figure 2., it was found that it is not a constant value, but it is changing by the size of the fire surface. By the TFEX view every fire surface (tank diameter) has its own curve (see Figure 3.) The differences raised from the foam features are not considered now, for easier discussion of the phenomena. When drawing a summarizing diagram, one gets series of curves. Looking at this series, the curves seem to be very similar to the known traditional one, but they are moved towards the direction of the higher application rates, parallel to themselves. This way a three dimensional surface is formed; the third parameter on the Z axle is the diameter of the tank. Figure 3. shows the projection of some curves on the Z axle to the plane X-Y, belonging to diameter 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50 meters.

Figure 3. The critical application rate changes by the diameter of the tank.

The larger fire surface will cause more damage to the foam. We will have higher foam losses, and over a certain size of the tanks the total foam flow will be consumed by the fire. The foam will never reach the middle of the liquid surface, the extinguishing time is infinite. In other words the fire will not be extinguished. The explanation of such cases is that the critical application rate increases by the increase of the tank size. At larger size of tanks the critical foam application rate

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5 of 12 belonging to that size, likely exceeds the application rate recommended by the traditional standards.

Figure 4. The mathematical plane of the Extinguishing time-Foam Application Intensity-Tank Diameter function in three dimensional form.

The critical foam application rate is changing by the size of the storage tank. The larger the fire surface is the higher the critical intensity value will be. In other words: the application rate that is used successfully at small size tanks will be insufficient at larger sizes.

Figure 5. Critical Foam Solution Application Rate versus Tank Diameter

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6 of 12 Successful extinguishment is possible only above the critical intensity value that belongs to the given tank. The real trend of the Critical Foam Application Rate versus tank diameter curve is not known. Large size fire tests would be required to determine the exact trend. The sole statement which is available right now is that the derivate of the curve is positive. The Dynamic Tactical Rules recommends using always higher foam application rate than the critical application rate of the size of the tank on fire is.

3.

Criteria of extinguishing time

The traditional calculation of the necessary quantity of foam concentrate that should be available at the beginning of the foam attack is based on the multiplication of the Fire Surface, the Foam Solution Application Rate, the recommended Application Time and the Proportioning Percentage. Plus 100% reserve must be prepared. The Application Time is given in the traditional standards. 30 minutes and 55 minutes Application Time is required depending on the flash point of the stored flammable material. The extinguishing time is the period of time which is necessary to form a foam blanket on the entire flammable liquid surface. When the foam closes, usually in the middle of the surface, the flames will be put out. When investigating the conditions of foam blanket closing we must consider the Wall Effect as well. The faster the moving velocity of the foam is the shorter the extinguishing time will be. TFEX recommends reducing the extinguishing time by the drastic increase of the Foam Solution Application Rate. The explanation of this method is based on the rules of Fluid Dynamics included in the foam spread theory. The most important factor in foam spread is the foam front moving velocity.

Figure 6. Driving force of the foam movement

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7 of 12 As we learned from the study of Foamspex written by SP Sweden, the foam, when it immerses in the hydrocarbon liquid, displaces the appropriate volume of the hydrocarbon, to be able to float on the surface of that. The depth of the immersion is in linear function with the difference in density of the foam and the hydrocarbon liquid, and with the dynamic effect of the flow rate of the foam, while flowing down the inside surface of the tank shell. The immersion created a hydrostatic pressure at the original meeting point of the liquid surface and the tank shell. This pressure is pushing the foam away from the shell; this is the driving force of the movement. The velocity of the movement is proportional to the hydrostatic pressure, therefore to the specific gravity and the foam flow rate. Instead of the total foam flow rate that is used during the fire extinguishing procedure, it is easier to explain the situation by the introduction of the idea of the Specific Foam Application Rate, which is the foam flow rate produced per each meter of the perimeter of the storage tank.

Figure 7. The function of Foam Spread Velocity and the Specific Foam Flow Rate.

The one-minute fire extinguishing criteria can be achieved at any size of tank, when using the appropriate Foam Solution Application Rate as Figure 7. shows. In case of real fire fighting, thick and safe foam blanket is needed to prevent re-ignition by hot parts of the storage tank.

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4. Necessary foam blanket thickness.

Re-ignition-safe foam blanket thickness forming is also considered as requirement. The larger the tank is the thicker foam blanket is to be. The effect of the side-wind and turbulences has to be taken into account. Figure 8. gives guidelines how the foam blanket thickness is to be determined to create the appropriate foam spread velocity necessary to fulfill the criteria of the one minute extinguishing time.

Figure 8. Foam Blanket Thickness Requirement versus Fire Surface

The extremely high foam spread velocity and the fast extinguishment results in very low foam losses. In spite of the fact of the unusually high flow rates the total volume of the foam concentrate needed to extinguish the fire is considerably less than in the traditional foam application methods.

5. Designing the foam introduction

The increased foam flow rate requires the change of the calculation of the foam introduction system. By the traditional standards foam chambers have to be installed in every 24 meters along the circumference, independently from the size of the diameter of the tank. See Figure 9. The function of the tank diameter and its circumference is linear: K = D *. In other words if the diameter of the tank increases to the double, we must design the installation of two times more pieces of foam chambers. The performance of the foam chambers is limited by fabrication reasons; therefore the total foam solution flow rate is also limited. This constant foam inlet point pitch

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9 of 12 along the perimeter of the tank is quite good to fulfill the Foam Solution Application Rate requirements of the traditional standards up to 35 meters of diameter. At larger tank sizes this method of foam introduction will not be sufficient to provide the necessary higher foam flow rate as the new tactical rules recommend.

Figure 9. The function of the Distance between the foam chambers and the Tank diameter by the traditional standards and by the new TFEX recommendations.

TFEX suggests preventing excessive velocities in foam introduction by the increased total cross section of the foam outlet. One method to create larger cross sections in the foam outlet is the increase of the number of the foam inlet points. Figure 9. shows the necessary distance between the foam chambers if each of them is providing 2500 liters/minute foam solution flow rate. In the reality TFEX recommends using infinite foam inlet points, in other words a continuous slot on a ring inside the tank shell, made of a hydraulically calculated foam distribution pipe. This is called Continuous Linear Nozzle (CLN). Basic research was published in FOAMSPEX report, made on the foam spread by SP (Swedish Fire Research Laboratory). It was shown that large cross section foam inlet devices were needed to reach the middle of the fire surface. The 4,1 [l/m2*min] application rate, the recommended high expansion ratio and the few inlet points reflects to the ancient version of NFPA 11. TFEX found that the high expansion ratio does not protect the foam against the heat damages. The lower expansion type foams have lower viscosity and better rolling features. The lower the expansion ratio is, the higher the hydrostatic pressure at the shell of the tank is (see Figure 6.), the higher the moving force and foam spreading velocity will be.

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6. Foam supply arrangement

This item is discussed in a separate study.

7. Practice
Several references of installations were built by this rules of design, therefore experimental evidences are provided for this new foam introduction method and the theoretical approach of the storage tank fire extinguishing.

Figure 12.: Live fire test on 500 sqm storage tank model, Extinguishing the gasoline fire in 40 seconds.

Please pay attention to the third photograph. This is a unique shot, the column of smoke moves away from the fire surface as it had been cut off, thanks for the extremely fast extinguishment. The small ants on the right side of the storage tank model are firemen.

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Figure 13. Fire protection system of a 6000m3 storage tank in a Power Plant.

8.

The responsibility of the Standardizing Committees

Society expects that the Standards imposed on the Industry will provide adequate HSE protection to Society. Some tank fire incidents in the recent past ran out of control since the extinguishing systems installed on these tanks were not able to do what they were supposed to do. The engineers designing the extinguishing systems for these tanks can in fact not be blamed for their design, since they simply complied with the Standards imposed on them. In reports on Incident Investigations one never reads that the applied Standards as such were challenged. Critical remarks concerning the applied Standards would probably have triggered a thorough review of the Standards already years ago. Due to the lack of such critical remarks, with a wide exposure, no fundamental changes have been made to the Standards over the past decades. Now that it is known that the Tank Fire Protection Standards are not adequate it has become clear that the various Standardizing Committees should update their Standard without delay.

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9.

Summary

A thorough revision of the tank fire fighting technology standards, based on the above study, is unavoidable. The enormous air and water pollution caused by the tank fires is unacceptable for the Society and can be avoided by a quick reform of the applicable Standards and by imposing the revised standards on existing tanks. The low success rate is felt as a shame by the firemen, but they are just complying with the existing ancient standards. Spreading the new theory to these groups of professionals will result in an improved understanding of the mechanisms of tank fire extinguishment.

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