Toanroirac 2

Chng 1: i s mnh
CHNG 1 : I S MNH
1.1.
Tng quan
Mc tiu ca chng 1
Hc xong chng ny, sinh vin phi nm bt c cc vn sau:

- Th no l mnh , chn tr ca mnh , cc php ton mnh .
- Thc hin c cc php ton mnh .
- Hiu c cc ng dng ca php ton logic trong lp trnh v trong i
sng hng ngy.
Kin thc c bn cn thit

Cc kin thc c bn trong chng ny bao gm:
- Kin thc v php ton i s, php ton hnh hc c bn.
- C kh nng suy lun.
- Bit lp trnh bng ngn ng Pascal, C
Ti liu tham kho

Phm vn Thiu, ng Hu Thnh. Ton ri rc ng dng trong tin hc.
Nh xut bn Khoa hc v K thut, H Ni - 1997 (chng 1, trang 6 - 28).
Ni dung ct li
- nh ngha mnh , biu thc mnh .
- Cc php ton
- V d ng dng
- Gii thiu mt s thut ng chuyn dng
- Tng ng logic v cch chng minh.
1.2.
nh ngha mnh
Mi cu pht biu l ng hay l sai c gi l mt mnh .

(Definition proposition: Any statement that is either true or false is called a
proposition.)
Trang 5
Chng 1: i s mnh
V d 1: Cc cu xc nh di y l mt mnh
.
2+3=5
3*4 = 10
Tam gic u c 3 cnh bng nhau
Washington D.C. l th ca Hoa K
Toronto l th ca Canada
Cu xc nh "2 + 3 = 5",
"Tam gic u c 3 cnh bng nhau" v
"Washington D.C. l th ca Hoa K" l cc mnh ng. Cn cc cu xc nh

"3*4 = 10" v "Toronto l th ca Canada" l cc mnh sai.
Nh vy, mt mnh c th l mnh ng hoc mnh sai. Hay ni cch
khc, mt mnh ch c th la chn 1 trong 2 gi tr l ng hoc l sai.
Mt mnh khng th va ng va sai.
V d 2: Xt cc cu pht biu sau
.
Hm nay l th my ?
Mt s thc m khng phi l s chnh phng
Hy c k an ny
x+1=2
x+y=z
Cu "Hm nay l th my ? " khng l mnh v n ch l mt cu hi khng

c gi tr ng, sai. Cu "Mt s m khng phi l s chnh phng" c chn tr l
ng nu xt trn tp hp s thc R nhng li c chn tr sai khi xt trn tp hp s
phc. Cu "x+1=2" v cu "x+y=z" khng phi l mnh v chng chng ng cng
chng sai bi cc bin trong nhng cu cha c gn cho mt gi tr c th no.
Gi tr ng, sai ca mt mnh c gi l chn tr ca mnh . Chn tr
ca mnh ng k hiu l T (true), chn tr ca mnh sai k hiu l F (false).
Bng chn tr ca mnh bao gm cc trng hp ng, sai c th xy ra ca
mnh .
Mc ch ca cc hat ng khoa hc l phn bit cc mnh xc nh
chn tr ca n. S xc nh chn tr ny da vo thc nghim v l lun. L lun
y l xc nh chn tr ca mnh bng cch kt hp cc mnh m ta bit
Trang 6
Chng 1: i s mnh
chn tr. Cc lut l ch ng cch kt hp mang tnh chnh xc ca php ton i s.

V th, chng ta cn ni n "i s mnh ".
1.3.
Cc php tnh mnh
Trong php tnh mnh , ngi ta khng quan tm n ngha ca cu pht

biu m ch ch n chn tr ca cc mnh . Do , khi thc hin cc php ton
mnh thng thng ngi ta khng ghi r cc cu pht biu m ch ghi k hiu.
Cc ch ci s c dng k hiu cc mnh . Nhng ch ci thng dng l P,
Q, R,.....
Mnh ch c mt gi tr n (lun ng hoc sai) c gi l mnh
nguyn t ( atomic proposition ). Cc mnh khng phi l mnh nguyn t c
gi l mng phc hp (compound propositions). Thng thng, tt c mnh
phc hp l mnh lin kt (c cha php tnh mnh ).
Cc php tnh mnh c s dng nhm mc ch kt ni cc mnh li
vi nhau to ra mt mnh mi. Cc php ton mnh c trnh by trong
chng ny bao gm : php ph nh, php hi, php tuyn, php XOR, php ko
theo, php tng ng.
1.3.1. Php ph nh (NEGATION)

Cho P l mt mnh , cu "khng phi l P" l mt mnh khc c gi l
ph nh ca mnh P. K hiu : P ( P ).
V d :
P="2>0"
P="20"
Bng chn tr (truth table)
p p
TF
F T
Qui tc: Nu P c gi tr l T th ph nh P c gi tr l F.
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Chng 1: i s mnh
1.3.2. Php hi (CONJUNCTION)

Cho hai mnh P, Q. Cu xc nh "P v Q" l mt mnh mi c gi l
hi ca 2 mnh P v Q. K hiu P Q.
V d : Cho 2 mnh P v Q nh sau
P = " 2 > 0 " l mnh ng
Q = " 2 = 0 " l mnh sai
P Q = " 2> 0 v 2 = 0 " l mnh sai.
Bng chn tr
p
T
T
F
F
q
T
F
T
F
p q
T
F
F
F
Qui tc : Hi ca 2 mnh ch ng khi c hai mnh l ng. Cc trng

hp cn li l sai.
1.3.3. Php tuyn (DISJUNCTION)

Cho hai mnh P, Q. Cu xc nh "P hay (hoc) Q" l mt mnh mi
c gi l tuyn ca 2 mnh P v Q. K hiu P Q.
V d : Cho 2 mnh P v Q nh sau
P = " 2 > 0 " l mnh ng
Q = " 2 = 0 " l mnh sai
P Q = " 2 0 " l mnh ng.
Bng chn tr
p
T
T
F
F
q
T
F
T
F
pq
T
T
T
F
Trang 8
Chng 1: i s mnh
Qui tc : Tuyn ca 2 mnh ch sai khi c hai mnh l sai. Cc trng

hp cn li l ng.
1.3.4. Php XOR

Cho hai mnh P v Q. Cu xc nh "loi tr P hoc lai tr Q", ngha l
"hoc l P ng hoc Q ng nhng khng ng thi c hai l ng" l mt mnh
mi c gi l P xor Q. K hiu P Q.
Bng chn tr
p
T
T
F
F
q pq
T F
F T
T T
F F
1.3.5. Php ton trn bit

Cc my tnh dng cc bit biu din thng tin. Mt bit c 2 gi tr kh d l
0 v 1. Bit cng c th c dng biu din chn tr. Thng ngi ta dng bit 1
biu din chn tr ng v bit 0 biu din chn tr sai. Cc php ton trn bit trong
my tnh l cc php ton logic. Thng tin thng c bin din bng cch dng cc
xu bit. Ta c nh ngha xu bit nh sau:
nh ngha : Mt xu bit (hoc xu nh phn) l dy c mt hoc nhiu bit.
Chiu di ca xu l s cc bit trong xu .
V d : 101011000 l mt xu bit c chiu di l 9
C th m rng cc php ton trn bit ti cc xu bit. Ngi ta nh ngha cc
OR bit, AND bit v XOR bit i vi 2 xu bit c cng chiu di l cc xu c cc bit
ca chng l ca1c OR, AND, XOR ca cc bit tng ng trong 2 xu tng ng.
Chng ta cng dng cc k hiu , , biu din cc php tnh OR bit, AND v
XOR tng ng.
Trang 9
Chng 1: i s mnh
V d : Tm OR bit, AND bit v XOR bit i vi 2 xu sau y (mi xu

c tch thnh 2 khi, mi khi c 5 bit cho d c)
01101
10110
11000
11101
11101
11111
OR bit
01000
10100
AND bit
10101
01011
XOR bit
1.3.6. Php ko theo (IMPLICATION)

Cho P v Q l hai mnh . Cu "Nu P th Q" l mt mnh mi c gi l
mnh ko theo ca hai mnh P,Q. K hiu P Q. P c gi l gi thit v Q
c gi l kt lun.
V d : Cho hai mnh P v Q nh sau
P = " tam gic T l u "
Q = " tam gic T c mt gc bng 60"
xt chn tr ca mnh P Q, ta c nhn xt sau :
- Nu P ng, ngha l tam gic T l u th r rng rng P Q l ng.
- Nu P sai, ngha l tam gic T khng u v cng khng l cn th d
Q l ng hay sai th mnh P Q vn ng.
Sau y l bng chn tr ca v d v cng l bng chn tr ca mnh P Q.
p q pq
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
Qui tc : mnh ko theo ch sai khi gi thit ng v kt lun sai. Cc
trng hp khc l ng.
Trang 10
Chng 1: i s mnh
T mnh P Q, chng ta c th to ra cc mnh ko theo khc nh l

mnh Q P v Q P c gi l mnh o v mnh phn o ca
mnh P Q.
V d : Tm mnh o v phn o ca mnh sau
" Nu ti c nhiu tin th ti mua xe hi"
Mnh o l :
" Nu ti mua xe hi th ti c nhiu tin"
Mnh phn o l :
" Nu ti khng mua xe hi th ti khng c nhiu tin"
1.3.7. Php tng ng (BICONDITIONAL)

Cho P v Q l hai mnh . Cu "P nu v ch nu Q" l mt mnh mi c
gi l P tng ng Q. K hiu P Q. Mnh tng ng l ng khi P v Q c
cng chn tr.
P Q = (P Q) (Q P)
c l :
P nu v ch nu Q
P l cn v i vi Q
Nu P th Q v ngc li
Bng chn tr
p q pq
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T
1.4.
Biu thc mnh (LOGICAL CONNECTIVES)
Cho P, Q, R,... l cc mnh . Nu cc mnh ny lin kt vi nhau bng cc

php ton th ta c mt biu thc mnh .
Trang 11
Chng 1: i s mnh
Ch :
. Mt mnh cng l mt biu thc mnh
. Nu P l mt biu thc mnh th P cng l biu thc mnh

Chn tr ca biu thc mnh l kt qu nhn c t s kt hp gia cc
php ton v chn tr ca cc bin mnh .
V
chn tr ca
mnh P
QR
P (Q R)
d
biu
Tm
thc
(Q R )
Do biu thc mnh l s lin kt ca nhiu mnh bng cc php ton nn

chng ta c th phn tch biu din cc biu thc mnh ny bng mt cy mnh
.
V d : Xt cu pht biu sau :
" Nu Michelle thng trong k thi Olympic, mi ngi s khm phc c y, v c ta s
tr nn giu c. Nhng, nu c ta khng thng th c ta s mt tt c."
y l mt biu thc mnh v php ton chnh l php hi. C th vit li nh sau :
"Nu Michelle thng trong k thi Olympic, mi ngi s khm phc c y, v
c ta s tr nn giu c.
Nhng,
nu c ta khng thng th c ta s mt tt c. "
C hai mnh chnh trong biu thc mnh ny l mnh phc hp. C
th nh ngha cc bin mnh nh sau:
P: Michelle thng trong k thi Olympic
Trang 12
Chng 1: i s mnh
Q: mi ngi s khm phc c y

R: c ta s tr nn giu c
S: c ta s mt tt c
Biu din cu pht biu trn bng cc mnh v cc php ton, ta c biu thc mnh
( P (Q R)) (P S)
sau :
Biu din cu pht biu trn thnh mt cy ng ngha nh sau :
Nu Michelle thng trong k thi Olympic, mi ngi s

khm phc c y, v c ta s tr nn giu c. Nhng, nu c
ta khng thng th c ta s mt tt c.
Nu Michelle thng trong k thi

Olympic, mi ngi s khm phc
c y, v c ta s tr nn giu c.
Michelle
thng trong
k thi
Olympic
Mi ngi s khm
phc c y
AND
Mi ngi s
khm phc c
y, v c ta s
tr nn giu c.
AND
Nu c ta khng thng th c ta s
mt tt c.
C ta khng
thng
C ta s tr
nn giu c.
Trang 13
NOT
C ta s
mt tt c.
C ta s mt
tt c.
Chng 1: i s mnh
1.5.
Cc ng dng ca Logic (EVERDAY LOGICAL)
Ngy nay, logic mnh c ng dng nhiu trong cc lnh vc khc nhau
nh:
- Vit
- Ni
- Tm kim trn mng (search engines)
- Ton hc
- Cc chng trnh my tnh (logic in programming)
Do , hiu bit cc qui tc s dng logic l rt hu ch. Sau y l mt vi
v d ch ra cc ng dng .
V d 1: Logic trong tm kim trn mng
t vn : Bn mun tm ti liu trn mng c lin quan n hai t "disc
golf". Nu bn g vo tm kim hai t "disc golf" ny, bn s tm thy cc ti
liu v disc v cc ti liu v golf nhng khng tm thy cc cc ti liu v "disc
golf".
Cch gii quyt : Bn ch cn g vo tm kim l "disc AND golf"
V d 2 : Logic trong lp trnh (Logic in programming)
t vn : Bn mun t iu kin l nu 0<x<10 hay x=10 th tng x ln 1
n v.
if (0<x<10 OR x=10) x++;
Cch gii quyt : Bn c th vit li cu lnh nh sau
if ( x>0 AND x < = 10 ) x++ ;
V d 3 : Logic trong cch ni gia nh
t vn : M ca b An ni rng : "Nu con ngoan th con c th c n
kem
hoc n bnh bng lan". B An hiu rng nu n ngoan th n s c n kem v
n bnh bng lan. Tuy nhin, m ca b An tc gin v tht s b ta ch cho php
n c n mt trong hai th m thi.
Cch gii quyt l m ca b An phi ni nh th ny :"Nu con ngoan th con
s c n hoc l kem hoc l bnh bng lan nhng khng c n c hai".
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Chng 1: i s mnh
V d 4 : Logic trong tnh ton

t vn : Bn c 3 ln kim tra trong lp hc. Nu bn t c 2 ln im
A, hoc ch mt ln im A nhng khng c c mt ln no rt trong 3 ln
kim tra th bn s t im A cho ton kha hc. Bn l ngi khng c
sing nng lm, vy th bn s chn cch no t im A cho ton kha hc ?
Cch gii quyt : Bi v iu kin l OR nn cch gii quyt l bn c th t 2
im A v rt ln 3, hay l ch cn t mt im A v khng rt ln no. Bn s la
chn t mt im A v khng rt ln no.
V d 5 : Logic trong i sng
t vn : Sau khi nng 1 chic bnh cho 2 a chu trai v 2 a chu gi
n thm, D Nellie ly bnh ra khi l nng v ngui. Sau , c ri khi nh
n ng ca hng gn . Lc tr v th c ai n 1/4 chic bnh v
thm ch cn t li ci da d bn phn bnh cn li. V khng cn ai n nh D
ngy hm tr 4 a chu nn D bit ngay l 1 trong 4 a n m cha c
cho php. D Nellie bn hi 4 a th c cc cu tr li nh sau:
- Charles : Kelly n phn bnh
- Dawn : Con khng n bnh
- Kelly : Tyler n bnh
- Tyler : Con khng n, Kelly ni chi khi bo rng con n bnh.
Nu ch 1 trong 4 cu tr li trn l ng v ch 1 trong 4 a chu l th phm,
hy tm ra ngi m D Nellie phi pht ?
Cch gii quyt : V ch 1 trong 4 cu tr li trn l ng nn chng ta c th
dng php vt cn tm li gii.
- Gi s Charles ni ng ngha l Kelly n bnh. Ba cu cn li l sai. Dawn
ni "Con khng n bnh" l sai ngha l Dawn c n bnh. Vy c n 2 ngi n
bnh, iu ny mu thun gi thit, gi s khng c chp thun.
- Gi s Dawn ni ng ngha l Dawn khng n bnh v 3 cu cn li l sai.
Nhn thy c mu thun gia Kelly v Tyler. Bi v Kelly ni "Tyler n bnh" l sai
ngha l Tyler khng n. Trong khi , Tyler li ni rng "Con khng n..." l sai, vy
thc t l n c n. Gi thuyt ny l khng chp nhn c.
Trang 15
Chng 1: i s mnh
- Gi s Kelly ni ng ngha l Tyler n bnh v 3 cu cn li l sai. Nh vy,

cng c 2 th phm l Kelly v Dawn. Mu thun gi thit.
- Gi s sau cng l Tyler ni ng ngha l n khng n bnh v 3 cu cn li
l sai. Nhn thy ch c mt ngi n bnh chnh l Dawn. Vy gi thuyt ny l hp
l v th phm chnh l Dawn.
V d 6 : Logic trong ton hc
t vn : Tm s t nhin a bit rng trong 3 mnh di y c 2 mnh l
ng v 1 mnh l sai.
1/
a + 51 l s chnh phng
2/
Ch s tn cng ca a l 1
3/
a - 38 l s chnh phng
Cch gii quyt : Trc ht, chng ta s phi xc nh xem 2 mnh ng v 1

mnh sai l mnh no ? Sau t 2 mnh ng tm ra s t nhin a.
S chnh phng l s nguyn dng khi ly cn bc hai. Do , s chnh phng
c cc ch s tn cng l 0, 1, 4, 5, 6, 9.
- Nhn thy gia mnh 1 v 2 c mu thun. Bi v, gi s 2 mnh ny
ng thi l ng th a+51 c ch s tn cng l 2 nn khng th l s chnh
phng. Vy trong 2 mnh ny phi c 1 mnh l ng v 1 l sai.
- Tng t, nhn thy gia mnh 2 v 3 cng c mu thun. Bi v, gi s
mnh ny ng thi l ng th a-38 c ch s tn cng l 3 nn khng th l s
chnh phng.
Vy trong 3 mnh trn th mnh 1 v 3 l ng, cn mnh 2 l sai.
Vi x > 0 v y > 0 . t :
a + 51 = x2
-
a - 38 = y2
---------------89 = 1.89 = x2 - y2 = ( x + y )( x - y )
Suy ra :
x+y=1
(loi v x, y l nguyn dng nn khng th c x + y = 1)
x - y = 89
Trang 16
Chng 1: i s mnh
Hay l :
x + y = 89
x-y =1
Gii h phung trnh ny ta c x = 45 v y = 44. Vy a = 1974.
Trn y l vi v d n gin. Hy vng rng cc v d ny cho chng ta thy
c s quan trng ca logic khng ch trong ton hc, khoa hc my tnh m cn
trong cuc sng hng ngy.
1.6.
Cc thut ng chuyn ngnh (SOME TERMINOLOGY)
1.6.1. nh ngha Hng ng (Tautologie):

Mt hng ng l mt mnh lun c chn tr l ng.
Mt hng ng cng l mt biu thc mnh lun c chn tr l ng bt
chp s la chn chn tr ca bin mnh .
V d : xt chn tr ca biu thc mnh P P
P
PP
Vy PP l mt hng ng.
1.6.2. nh ngha Hng sai (Contradiction):

Mt hng sai l mt mnh lun c chn tr l sai.
Mt hng sai cng l mt biu thc mnh lun c chn tr l sai bt chp s
la chn chn tr ca bin mnh .
V d : xt chn tr ca biu thc mnh P P
P
PP
Trang 17
Chng 1: i s mnh
Vy PP l mt hng sai.
1.6.3. nh ngha tip lin (Contingency):

Mt tip lin l mt biu thc mnh khng phi l hng ng v khng phi
l hng sai.
V d : Tm chn tr ca biu thc mnh (P Q ) Q
p
T
T
F
F
q
T
F
T
F
q p q (pq) q
F
T
T
T
F
T
F
F
F
T
F
T
Vy (P Q ) Q l mt tip lin v n khng phi l hng ng v cng khng phi

l hng sai.
1.7.
Mnh h qu
nh ngha : Cho F v G l 2 biu thc mnh . Ngi ta ni rng G l mnh

h qu ca F hay G c suy ra t F nu F G l hng ng.
K hiu F | G
V d : Cho F = ( P Q ) ( Q R )
G=PR
Xt xem G c l mnh h qu ca F khng ?
P
R PQ QR
FG
Trang 18
Chng 1: i s mnh
Vy G l mnh h qu ca F
Nhn xt : Nu G l h qu ca F th khi F l ng th bt bt buc G phi ng.
Ngc li, nu G l ng th cha c kt lun g v chn tr ca F.
1.8.
Tng ng Logic (LOGICALLY EQUIVALENT)

nh ngha 1 : Mnh P v mnh Q c gi l tng ng logic
nu php tng ng ca P v Q (PQ) l hng ng.
nh ngha 2 : Hai mnh P v Q c gi l tng ng logic nu

v ch nu chng c cng chn tr.
Mnh P v Q tng ng logic c k hiu l P Q (hay P = Q)

V d 1 : Cho
F = P(QR)
G = (PQ) (PR)
Xt xem hai mnh trn l c tng ng logic khng ?
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Chng 1: i s mnh
Vy F v G l tng ng logic hay F=G.

F=PQ
V d 2: Cho
G = (PQ)
Xt xem hai mnh trn l c tng ng logic khng ?
p
T
T
F
F
q pq p pq
T T F T
F F F
F
T T T T
F T T T
Vy F G hay P Q = (PQ)
p q r qr
T
T
T
T
F
F
F
F
T
T
T
T
T
F
F
F
T
T
F
F
T
T
F
F
T
F
T
F
T
F
T
F
T
F
F
F
T
F
F
F
pq pr
T
T
T
T
T
T
F
F
T
T
T
T
T
F
T
F
Trang 20
FG
T
T
T
T
T
F
F
F
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
Chng 1: i s mnh
Bng cc tng ng logic thng dng

t T= hng ng, F = hng sai
Equivalence
Name
pT T
Domination laws
pF F
pT p
Identity laws
pF p
pp p
Idempotent laws
pp p
(p) p
Double negation law
pp T
Cancellation laws
pp F
pq qp
(Not an offical name)

Commutative laws
pq qp
(pq)r p(qr)
Associative laws
(pq)r p(qr)
p(qr) (pq)(pr)
Distributive laws
p(qr) (pq)(pr)
(pq) pq
De Morgans laws
(pq) pq
(pq) (pq)
Implication law
Lu :
Domination laws : lut nut

Identity laws : lut ng nht
Idempotent laws : lut ly ng
Trang 21
Chng 1: i s mnh
Double negation law : lut ph nh kp

Cancellation laws : lut xa b
Commutative laws : lut giao hon
Associative laws : lut kt hp
Distributive laws : lut phn b
De Morgans laws : lut De Morgan
Ngoi cc tng ng thng dng trong bng trn, c mt tng
ng logic khc m chng ta cng s hay gp trong cc chng minh.
l :
P(PQ)=P
P(PQ)=P
( sinh vin t chng minh xem nh bi tp )
V d 1 : Khng lp bng chn tr, s dng cc tng ng logic chng

minh rng (P Q) Q l hng ng.
(( p q) q) ( p q) q
(p q) q
De Morgans Law
p (q q)
Associative law
p T
V d 2 :
Cancellation Law
Domination Law
Implication law
Chng minh rng
Trang 22
(q p ) (p q ) = q
Chng 1: i s mnh
((q p)) ( p q) ((q p)) ( p q)
Implication law
Commutative law
(q p) ( p q)
(q p) (q p)
q (p p)
qT
Distributive law
Cancellation law
Identity law
V d 3 : p dng trong lp trnh

Gi s trong chng trnh c cu lnh sau :
while(NOT(A[i]!=0 AND NOT(A[i]>= 10)))

Ta c th vit li cu lnh ny mt cch n gin hn bng cch s dng cng thc De
Morgan.
while( A[i]==0 OR A[i]>= 10)

V d 4:
Gi s trong chng trnh c cu lnh sau :
while( (i<size AND A[i]>10) OR (i<size AND A[i]<0) OR

NOT (A[i]!= 0 AND NOT (A[i]>= 10)))
Trc ht chng ta s p dng cng thc De Morgan bin i biu thc sau
cng nh sau :
while( (i<size AND A[i]>10) OR (i<size
AND A[i]<0)
OR (A[i]==0 OR A[i]>= 10) )

Sau , chng ta li s dng cng thc v tnh phn b ca php hi i vi
php tuyn rt gn biu thc pha trc. Ta c cu lnh sau cng l :
while( (i<size AND ( A[i]>10 OR A[i]<0) ) OR (A[i]==0

OR A[i]>= 10) )
1.9.
Tng kt chng 1
Trong chng ny sinh vin cn nm vng nh ngha mnh cng cc php

ton logic. Ngoi ra, cc thut ng chuyn ngnh cng rt quan trng. Sinh vin
Trang 23
Chng 1: i s mnh
phi bit cch p dng cc php ton logic trong lp trnh. Tuy nhin, c vn
cn lu khi p dng tnh giao hon.
Trong mt vi ngn ng lp trnh, v d nh C, Java, C++ th vic s dng tnh
cht giao hon c th khng l mt tng hay.
V d : Nu A l mt mng c n phn t th cu lnh :
if(i<n AND A[i]==0)

v
if(A[i]==0 AND i<n)
l khng tng nhau. (Ti sao ?)
(sinh vin t tm cu tr li)
1.10.
Bi tp chng 1
1/ a. Nu bit mnh PQ l sai, hy cho bit chn tr ca cc mnh

sau:
P Q
PQ
QP
b. Cho cc biu thc mnh sau:
1.
(( PQ)R) (SM)
2.
( P(QR)) (SM)
Xc nh chn tr ca cc bin mnh P, Q, R, S, M nu cc biu thc mnh

trn l sai.
2/ Nu Q c chn tr l T, hy xc nh chn tr ca cc bin mnh P, R, S
nu biu thc mnh sau cng l ng
(Q ((PR) S)) (S (RQ))
3/ Cho on chng trnh sau
a/
if n>5 then n:=n+2 ;
b/
if ((n+2 = 8) or (n-3=6)) then n:= 2*n + 1 ;
c/
if ((n-3=16) and (n div 5=1)) then n:= n + 3 ;
d/
if ((n<>21) and (n-7=15)) then n:= n - 4 ;
e/
if ((n div 5 = 2) or (n+1=20)) then n:=n+1 ;
Ban u bin nguyn n c gn tr l 7. Hy xc nh gi tr n trong cc trng

hp sau :
Trang 24
Chng 1: i s mnh
- Sau mi cu lnh ( ngha l khi qua cu lnh mi th gn li n = 7)

- Sau tt c cc lnh ( s dng kt qu ca cu lnh trc tnh ton
cho cu sau)
4/ Cho on chng trnh sau :
a/
if n-m = 5 then n:= n-2 ;
b/
if ((2*m=n) and (n div 4 =1) then n:= 4*m - 3 ;
c/
if ((n<8) or (m div 2=2)) then n:= 2*m else m:= 2*n ;
d/
if ((n<20) and (n div 6 =1) then m:= m-n-5 ;
e/
if ((n= 2*m) or (n div 2= 5)) then m:= m+2 ;
f/
if ((n div 3 = 3) and (m div 3 <>1)) then m:= n ;
g/
if m*n <> 35 then n:= 3*m+7 ;
Ban u bin nguyn n = 8 v m = 3. Hy xc nh gi tr ca m, n trong cc

trng hp sau :
- Sau mi cu lnh ( ngha l khi qua cu lnh mi th gn li n = 7)
- Sau tt c cc lnh ( s dng kt qu ca cu lnh trc tnh ton
cho cu sau)
5/ Vng lp Repeat ... Until trong mt on chng trnh Pascal nh sau :
Repeat
........................
Until ((x<>0) and (y>0)) or ( not ((w>0) and (t=3)) ;
Vi mi cch gn gi tr bin nh sau, hy xc nh trong trng hp no th
vng lp kt thc.
a/ x= 7, y= 2, w= 5, t= 3
b/ x= 0, y= 2, w= -3, t= 3
c/ x= 0, y= -1, w= 1, t= 3
d/ x= 1, y= -1, w= 1, t= 3
6/ Trong mt phin ta x n 3 b can c lin quan n vn ti chnh, trc
ta c 3 b co u tuyn th khai ng s tht v li khai nh sau :
Anh A:
Ch B c ti v anh C v ti
Ch B :
Nu anh A c ti th anh C cng c ti
Anh C:
Ti v ti nhng mt trong hai ngi kia l c ti
Trang 25
Chng 1: i s mnh
Hy xt xem ai l ngi c ti ?
7/ Cho cc mnh c pht biu nh sau, hy tm s ln nht cc mnh
ng thi l ng.
a/ Quang l ngi khn kho
b/ Quang khng gp may mn
c/ Quang gp may mn nhng khng khn kho
d/ Nu Quang l ngi khn kho th n khng gp may mn
e/ Quang l ngi khn kho khi v ch khi n gp may mn
f/ Hoc Quang l ngi khn kho, hoc n gp may mn nhng khng
ng thi c hai.
8/ Cho a v b l hai s nguyn dng. Bit rng, trong 4 mnh sau y c 3
mnh ng v 1 mnh sai. Hy tm mi cp s (a, b) c th c.
1/ a+1 chia ht cho b
2/ a = 2b + 5
3/ a+b chia ht cho 3
4/ a+7b l s nguyn t
9/ Khng lp bng chn tr, s dng cc cng thc tng ng logic, chng
minh rng cc biu thc mnh sau l hng ng
a/ (PQ)P
b/ P( P P)
c/ P((Q (PQ))
d/ (P Q) P
e/ ((PQ) (QR)) (PR)
10/ Khng lp bng chn tr, s dng cc cng thc tng ng logic, xt xem
biu thc mnh G c l h qu ca F khng ?
a/ F = P(QR)
G = (PQ)R
b/ F = (PQ)(QR)
G = P (Q R)
c/ F = PQ
G = (PQ) (P Q)
11/ Tng t bi tp 9 v 10, chng minh cc tng ng logic sau y:

a/ (PQ) (PQ) P
Trang 26
Chng 1: i s mnh
b/ (((PQ)R) Q) QR
c/ ((PQ) (P Q)) Q PQ
d/ (PQ) ((P Q) Q) (QP)
e/ (PQ) (Q (R Q)) (QP)
f/ P (P (PQ) P
g/ P Q (P Q R) PQR
h/ ((P Q) (PQR ) PQ
i/ P ((Q (RR)) (Q (RS) (R S))) P
j/ (PQR) (P S Q) (P S R) P (R (S Q)
Trang 27
Chng 1: i s mnh
CHNG 1 : I S MNH .................................................................................5

1.1. Tng quan .........................................................................................................5
1.2. nh ngha mnh ..........................................................................................5
1.3. Cc php tnh mnh .....................................................................................7
1.3.1. Php ph nh (NEGATION) ...................................................................7
1.3.2. Php hi (CONJUNCTION) .....................................................................8
1.3.3. Php tuyn (DISJUNCTION) ...................................................................8
1.3.4. Php XOR..................................................................................................9
1.3.5. Php ton trn bit.......................................................................................9
1.3.6. Php ko theo (IMPLICATION).............................................................10
1.3.7. Php tng ng (BICONDITIONAL) ................................................11
1.4. Biu thc mnh (LOGICAL CONNECTIVES)........................................11
1.5. Cc ng dng ca Logic (EVERDAY LOGICAL)........................................14
1.6. Cc thut ng chuyn ngnh (SOME TERMINOLOGY) .............................17
1.6.1. nh ngha Hng ng (Tautologie): ......................................................17
1.6.2. nh ngha Hng sai (Contradiction): .....................................................17
1.6.3. nh ngha tip lin (Contingency):........................................................18
1.7. Mnh h qu...............................................................................................18
1.8. Tng ng Logic (LOGICALLY EQUIVALENT)...................................19
1.9. Tng kt chng 1 ..........................................................................................23
1.10.
Bi tp chng 1 .........................................................................................24
Trang 28
Chng 2: Suy lun ton hc & Cc phng php chng minh
CHNG 2 : SUY LUN TON HC &

CC PHNG PHP CHNG MINH
2.1.
Tng quan
Mc tiu ca chng 1

- Khi nim v suy lun ton hc
- Cc phng php chng minh v bit vn dng cc phng php ny
chng minh mt bi ton c th.

- Cc php ton i s, hnh hc c bn c th a ra v d minh ha
trong tng phng php.
- Hiu r qui tc ca php ko theo chng 1.
Ti liu tham kho

Nh xut bn Khoa hc v K thut, H Ni - 1997 (chng 3, trang 208 228).
Ni dung ct li
- Khi nim v suy lun ton hc
- Trnh by cc phng php chng minh bao gm:
. Chng minh rng
. Chng minh tm thng
. Chng minh trc tip
. Chng minh gin tip
. Chng minh phn chng
. Chng minh qui np
Trang 28
2.2.
Suy lun ton hc
2.2.1. Khi nim

Suy lun c xem l mt trong nhng nn tng xy dng nn cc ngnh khoa
hc t nhin. T xa n nay, nh suy lun m ngi ta c th nhn thc c ci
cha bit t nhng ci bit. Suy lun cn l c s ca s sng to. T cc phn
on, a n cc chng minh chp nhn hay bc b mt vn no .
Suy lun ton hc da trn nn tng ca cc php ton mnh , ch yu l
php ko theo. chng minh mt vn no , thng thng ngi ta phi xc
nh im ban u (c th gi l gi thit) v im kt thc (gi l kt lun). Qu trnh
i t gi thit n kt lun gi l qu trnh chng minh v qu trnh ny c thc thi
bng cch no th gi l phng php chng minh.
Cc phng php chng minh l rt quan trng v khng nhng chng thng
c s dng trong ton hc m cn c p dng nhiu trong tin hc. V d, s kim
tra tnh ng n ca mt chng trnh, ca mt h iu hnh, xy dng cc lut suy
din trong lnh vc tr tu nhn to... Do , chng ta cn phi nm vng cc phng
php chng minh.
Tuy nhn, c nhng phng php chng minh ng v n c da trn c s
ca mt mnh ng (hng ng) v c nhng phng php chng minh sai. Cc
phng php chng minh sai ny l c hoc v . Khi phng php chng minh
da trn mt hng sai th s mang li kt qu sai nhng ngi ta vn cho l ng th
c gi l c . i khi c nhng phng php chng minh da trn mt tip lin
(c khi mnh l ng nhng cng c lc sai) m ngi ta tng lm l hng ng
nn cho l kt qu bao gi cng ng th trng hp ny gi l v (hay ng nhn).
Sau y, chng ta s i tm hiu cc qui tc suy lun.
2.2.2. Cc qui tc suy lun

Nh gii thiu trn, nhng suy lun c dng cc qui tc suy din gi l suy
lun c c s. Khi tt c cc suy lun c c s l ng th s dn n mt kt lun
ng. Mt suy lun c c s c th dn n mt kt lun sai nu mt trong cc mnh
dng trong suy din l sai. Sau y l bng cc qui tc suy lun ng.
Trang 29
Quy Tc
Hng ng
Tn Lut
P
P Q
P(PQ)
Cng
PQ
P
(PQ)P
Rt gn
P
PQ
Q
(P(PQ))Q
Modus Ponens
Q
PQ
P
(Q(PQ)) P
Modus Tollens
PQ
QR
P R
((PQ)(QR))
(PR)
nh
PQ
Q
(PQ) Q
Tam on lun tuyn
Tam on lun gi
Trong cc phn s ca qui tc th cc gi thit c vit trn t s, kt lun

c vit di mu s. K hiu c ngha l "vy th", "do ",...
V d : Qui tc suy lun no l c s ca suy din sau :
" Nu hm nay tri ma th c ta khng n,

Nu c ta khng n th ngy mai c ta n,
Vy th, nu hm nay tri ma th ngy mai c ta n."
y l suy din da trn qui tc tam on lun gi nh.
"Nu hm nay tuyt ri th trng i hc ng ca.

Hm nay trng i hc khng ng ca.
Do , hm nay khng c tuyt ri "
y l suy din da trn qui tc Modus Tollens
" Alice gii ton. Do , Alice gii ton hoc tin"

y l suy din da trn qui tc cng.
Ngy bin
Trang 30
Cc phng php chng minh sai cn c gi l ngy bin. Ngy bin

ging nh qui tc suy lun nhng khng da trn mt hng ng m ch l
mt tip lin. y chnh l s khc nhau c bn gia suy lun ng v suy
lun sai. Loi suy lun sai ny c gi l ng nhn kt lun.
V d : Xt xem suy din sau l c c s ng khng ?
" Nu bn gii ht bi tp trong sch ton ri rc 2 ny th bn nm
vng logic. Bn nm vng logic vy th bn gii ht bi tp trong sch
ton ri rc 2 ny".
Nhn thy suy din ny l da trn mnh sau :
((PQ) Q) P
Trong :
P = "Bn gii ht bi tp trong sch ton ri rc 2"
Q = "Bn nm vng logic"
Mnh ((PQ) Q) P khng phi l hng ng v n s sai khi P
l F v Q l T. Do , suy din ny khng hon ton c c s ng. Bi v,
khi Q l T ngha l bn nm vng logic nhng khng chc l bn gii
ht bi tp trong sch ton ri rc 2 ny m c th gii sch khc (P l F).
2.3.
Cc phng php chng minh
Nh gii thiu trong phn trn, mi bi ton cn chng minh thng thng
u c hai phn chnh l gi thit v kt lun. Vic ch ra c ci no l gi thit, ci
no l kt lun s gip cho vic chng minh d dng hn thng qua vic s dng
phng php chng minh thch hp. Do , cc phng php chng minh trong dng
bi ton ny l c lin quan n mnh ko theo.
Vy, trc khi tm hiu cc phng php chng minh, chng ta hy xem li
bng chn tr ca mnh P ko theo Q ( vi P l gi thit v Q l kt lun). Cc
trng hp cho mnh P ko theo Q l ng cng chnh l cc phng php
chng minh bi ton ng.
p q pq
Trang 31
T
T
F
F
T
F
T
F
T
F
T
T
Nhn thy rng, PQ l ng c 3 trng hp. Cc trng hp ny chnh l

cc phng php chng minh s c trnh by di y.
Trc khi i vo cc phng php chng minh, c mt khi nim m chng ta
cn tm hiu, l khi nim v "hm mnh ".
Hm mnh :
Cho A l mt tp hp khng rng sao cho ng vi mi xA ta c mt mnh
, k hiu l P(x). By gi ta ni P (hay P(x)) l mt hm mnh theo bin xA.
Nh vy, khi ni ng vi mi xA, ta c mt mnh P(x), ngha l khi tnh ng
sai ca P(x) c hon ton xc nh ph thuc vo tng gi tr ca xA.
V d : Cho hm mnh
P(x) = { x l s l } ;
xN
Ta c : P(1) l mnh ng
P(2) l mnh sai.
Tng qut, vi cc tp hp khng rng A1, A2, ..., An, sao cho ng vi mi
x1A1, x2A2, ..., xnAn, ta c mt mnh , k hiu P(x1, x2, ...,xn ). Ta ni P(x1,
x2, ...,xn ) l mt hm mnh theo n bin x.
V d : Cho hm mnh
P(x,y,z) = { 2x + y - z = 0 }
Ta c :
x,y,zZ
P(x,y,z) l mnh ng khi x = 1, y = -1, z = 1.

P(x,y,z) l mnh sai khi x = 1, y = 1, z = 1.
2.3.1. Chng minh rng ( P l sai)

Da vo 2 dng cui ca bng chn tr, nhn thy rng khi P sai, bt
chp kt lun Q th no th mnh PQ l lun ng. Vy, chng minh mnh
Trang 32
PQ l ng, ngi ta ch cn chng minh rng P l sai. Phng php chng minh
ny c gi l chng minh rng.
Phng php chng minh rng thng c s dng chng minh cc trng
hp c bit ca nh l. Trng hp tng qut th nh l ny lun ng vi mi s n
nguyn dng.
V d : Cho hm mnh P(n) = " Nu n>1 th n2 >n "
Chng minh rng P(1) l ng.
Gii : Ta c P(1) = { Nu 1 >1 th 12 >1 }
Nhn thy rng gi thit 1>1 l sai, bt chp kt lun 12 >1 l ng hay
sai th P(1) l ng.
2.3.2. Chng minh tm thng (Q l ng)

Da vo dng 1 v dng 3 ca bng chn tr, nhn thy rng khi Q ng,
bt chp gi thit P l ng hay sai th mnh PQ l lun ng. Vy, chng
minh mnh PQ l ng, ngi ta ch cn chng minh rng Q l ng. Phng
php chng minh ny c gi l chng minh tm thng.
Phng php chng minh tm thng cng c s dng chng minh cc
trng hp c bit ca nh l. Trng hp tng qut th nh l ny lun ng vi
mi s n nguyn dng.
V d : Cho hm mnh
P(n) = { Nu a v b l 2 s nguyn dng v a b th an bn }
Chng minh rng P(0) l ng.
Gii : Ta c a0 = b0 =1. Do a0 b0 l ng.
Vy P(0) l ng bt chp gi thit ab l ng hay sai.
2.3.3. Chng minh trc tip

Trong dng 1 ca bng chn tr, mnh P ko theo Q c th c chng minh
bng cch ch ra rng nu P ng th Q cng phi ng. Ngha l t hp P ng Q sai
khng bao gi xy ra. Phng php ny c gi l chng minh trc tip.
Vy thc hin phng php chng minh trc tip, ngi ta gi s rng P l
ng, sau s dng cc qui tc suy lun hay cc nh l ch ra rng Q l ng v
kt lun PQ l ng.
Trang 33
V d 1: Chng minh rng { Nu n l s l th n2 l s l }

Gii : Gi s rng gi thit ca nh l ny l ng, tc l n l s l. Ta c
n = 2k + 1
( k=0,1,2,...)
n2 = (2k + 1)2 = 4k2 + 4k + 1
= 2(2k + 2k) + 1 l l.
Vy nu n l s l th n2 l s l.
V d 2 : Cho hm mnh P(n) = " Nu n>1 th n2 >n "
Chng minh rng P(n) l ng vi n l s nguyn dng.
Gii : Gi s n > 1 l ng, ta c :
n=1+k
( k 1)
n2 = ( 1 + k )2 = 1 + 2k + k2 = (1 + k) + k + k2 > n
Vy Nu n>1 th n2 >n .
2.3.4. Chng minh gin tip

V mnh PQ Q P. Do , chng minh mnh PQ
l ng, ngi ta c th ch ra rng mnh Q P l ng.
V d : Chng minh nh l { Nu 3n + 2 l s l th n l s l }
Gii : Gi s ngc li kt lun ca php ko theo l sai, tc n l chn.
Ta c n = 2k
( kN )
3n + 2 = 3.2k + 2 = 2( 3k + 1 ) l s chn
Vy Nu 3n + 2 l s l th n l s l
Nhn xt
C nhng bi ton c th s dng phng php chng minh trc tip hay
gin tip u c c. Tuy nhin, c nhng bi ton khng th s dng
phng php chng minh trc tip c hoc s dng trc tip th bi
gii s di dng phc tp hn l s dng chng minh gin tip ( hoc
ngc li). y chnh l s khc bit ca chng minh trc tip v chng
minh gin tip.
V d 1 :
S dng chng minh gin tip chng minh rng " Nu n>1 th n2 >n "
Gii : Gi s ngc li kt lun ca php ko theo l sai, tc l n2 < n.
Trang 34
V n l nguyn dng nn ta c th chia 2 v cho n m bt ng thc

khng i chiu. Ta c : n < 1.
Vy t Q dn n P. Do , Nu n>1 th n2 >n.
V d 2 : S dng chng minh trc tip chng minh rng " Nu 3n + 2 l s
l th n l s l ".
Gii : Gi s 3n + 2 l s l l ng.
Nhn thy rng v 2 l s chn nn suy ra c 3n l s l.
V 3 l s l do n l s l.
Vy Nu 3n + 2 l s l th n l s l.
y chng ta phi chng minh thm nh l l tch ca 2 s l l mt s l th bi
gii cht ch hn. Do , trong bi ton ny vic s dng chng minh gin tip l hay
hn dng trc tip.
chng minh mnh c dng :
(P1P2...Pn) Q
Chng ta c th s dng hng ng sau :
((P1P2...Pn) Q) ((P1Q)(P2Q)....(PnQ))
Cch chng minh ny gi l chng minh tng trng hp.
V d 3: Chng minh rng:
" Nu n khng chia ht cho 3 th n2 khng chia ht cho 3".
Gii : Gi P l mnh "n khng chia ht cho 3" v Q l mnh "n2
khng chia ht cho 3". Khi , P tng ng vi P1 P2. Trong :
P1 = " n mod 3 =1"
P2 = " n mod 3 =2"
Vy, chng minh P Q l ng, c th chng minh rng:
(P1 P2) Q hay l (P1 Q ) ( P2 Q)
Gi s P1 l ng. Ta c, n mod 3 = 1. t n = 3k + 1
( k l s nguyn no ).
Suy ra
n2 = ( 3k+1)2 = 9k2 + 6k + 1 = 3(3k2 + 2k) + 1 khng chia chn cho 3.
Do , P1 Q l ng.
Trang 35
Tng t, gi s P2 l ng. Ta c, n mod 3 = 2. t n = 3k + 2 ( k l s

nguyn no ).
Suy ra n2 = ( 3k+2)2 = 9k2 + 12k + 4 = 3(3k2 + 4k + 1) + 1 khng chia chn
cho 3.
Do , P2 Q l ng.
Do P1 Q l ng v P2 Q l ng, hay l (P1 Q ) ( P2 Q).
Vy (P1 P2) Q.
2.3.5. Chng minh phn chng

Chng minh phn chng thng c s dng chng minh mnh P l
ng. Trc ht, ngi ta gi s ngc li rng P l sai hay P l ng. T mnh
P l ng dn n kt lun Q sao cho PQ phi ng. Khi , ngi ta ch ra rng
Q l mt mu thun, ngha l :
Q = R R. (S d c mu thun ny l do ta gi s P l sai)
V PQ phi ng v Q l F, suy ra rng P = F P = T.
Phng php chng minh phn chng thng c s dng chng minh
nhng vn c bn v iu quan trng trong k thut ny l tm ra c mu thun
RR.
V d 1: Chng minh rng " 2 l s v t ".
Gii : Gi P l mnh " 2 l s v t ". Gi s ngc li P l ng. Vy,
2 l s hu t ( v tp s thc gm 2 tp con l tp s v t v tp s hu t. Hai tp
con ny khng c 3 giao nhau). Khi a,b (a,bN) sao cho:

2 =
a
b
( vi a, b khng c c chung hay phn s ny l ti gin (mnh
R))
Bnh phng hai v : 2 =
a2
b2
2b2 = a2 a2 l s chn a l s
chn.
t a = 2c, c N.
Ta c
2b2 = 4c2 b2 = 2c2
b2 l s chn b l s chn.
Vy a, b u c c chung l 2 (mnh R).

Trang 36
iu ny mu thun v a/b l ti gin. T P RR.

S d c mu thun ny l do ta gi s
2 l s hu t. Vy
2 phi l s v
t.
V d 2 : Mt trong nhng cch gii bi ton tn ti l dng lp lun phn chng.
Cho 7 on thng c di ln hn 10 v nh hn 100. Chng minh rng lun
tm c 3 on c th ghp thnh mt tam gic.
Gii : Trc ht sp xp cc on cho theo th t tng dn ca di a1, a2,
..., a7, v chng minh rng trong dy xp lun tm c 3 on lin tip sao cho
tng ca 2 on u ln hn on cui (v iu kin 3 on c th ghp thnh mt
tam gic l tng ca 2 on nh hn on th ba).
Gi s iu cn chng minh l khng xy ra, ngha l ng thi xy ra cc bt
ng thc sau:
a1 + a2 a3
a2 + a3 a4
a3 + a4 a5
a4 + a5 a6
a5 + a6 a7
T gi thit a1 , a2 c gi tr ln hn 10, ta nhn c a3 > 20 . T a2 >10 v
a3 > 20
ta nhn c a4 > 30 , a5 > 50, a6 > 80 v a7 > 130. iu a7 > 130 l mu thun vi
gi thit cc di nh hn 100. C mu thun ny l do gi s iu cn chng minh
khng xy ra.
Vy, lun tn ti 3 on lin tip sao cho tng ca 2 on u ln hn on
cui. Hay ni cch khc l 3 on ny c th ghp thnh mt tam gic.
2.3.6. Chng minh qui np

Gi s cn tnh tng n s nguyn l u tin. Vi n = 1,2,3,4,5 ta c :
n = 1: 1 = 1 = 12
n = 2: 1 + 3 = 4 = 22
n = 3: 1 + 3 + 5 = 9 = 32
n = 4: 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 = 16 = 42
Trang 37
n = 5: 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 = 25 = 52
T cc kt qu ny ta d on tng n s nguyn l u tin l n2. Tuy
nhin, chng ta cn c phng php chng minh d on trn l ng.
Qui np ton hc l mt k thut chng minh rt quan trng. Ngi ta dng n
chng minh nhng kt qu c da trn s suy lun no nh v d trn. Tuy
nhin, qui np ton hc ch dng chng minh cc kt qu nhn c bng mt cch
no ch khng l cng c pht hin ra cng thc.
Nguyn l chng minh qui np yu
Nhiu nh l pht biu rng P(n) l ng n nguyn dng, trong P(n) l
hm mnh , k hiu nP(n). Qui np ton hc l mt k thut chng minh cc nh
l thuc dng trn. Ni cch khc qui np ton hc thng s dng chng minh cc
mnh dng nP(n).
Nguyn l chng minh qui np yu bao gm 2 bc :
- Kim tra P(x0) l ng vi x0 l gi tr u tin ca dy s n
- Gi s rng P(k) l ng khi n=k. T suy ra rng P(k+1) l ng.
Ta c cch vit ca suy lun trn nh sau:
[P(x0) (P(k)P(k+1))] nP(n)
V d 1: Chng minh rng
n
i = 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n =
i =1
Gii : t
P(n) = i =
i =1
- Vi n= 1 : 1 =
1(1 + 1)
2
n(n + 1)
2
n(n + 1)
P(1) l ng
- Gi s P(k) l ng khi n=k. Ta c :
i =
i =1
k (k + 1)
2
Cn chng minh rng P(k+1) l ng. Ngha l

k +1
i =
i =1
(k + 1)(k + 2)
2
(iu phi chng minh)
Trang 38
Ta c :
K +1
i =1
i =1
i = i + (k + 1) =
(k + 1)(k + 2)
k (k + 1)
+ (k + 1) =
2
2
(pcm)
Vy nP(n).
V d 2: Chng minh rng
P(n) =
i =1
- Vi n=1 :
i
1
= 1
(i + 1)!
(n + 1)!
1
1
= 1
2
2
P(1) l ng
- Gi s P(k) l ng khi n= k. Ta c :
K
(i + 1)! = 1 (k + 1)!
i =1
Cn chng minh rng :

K +1
(i + 1)! = 1 (k + 2)!
i =1
Ta c :
K
i
i
k +1
k +1
1
=
+
= 1
+
(k + 2)!
(k + 1)! (k + 2)!
i =1 (i + 1)!
i =1 (i + 1)!
K +1
= 1
(k + 2) (k + 1)
1
= 1
(k + 2)!
(k + 2)!
Vy nP(n)
V d 3 : Chng minh bt ng thc sau :
n < 2n
vi n nguyn dng.
- Khi n=1 : 1 < 2 mnh ng

- Gi s mnh ng khi n=k, ta c k < 2k .
Cn chng minh rng k + 1< 2k+1 .
Tht vy, v k < 2k k +1 < 2k +1 < 2k + 2k = 2k+1.
Do , n < 2n
vi n nguyn dng.
Ch 1:
Trang 39
(pcm)
Khi s dng nguyn l chng minh qui np, khng c b qua bc kim tra
P(x) l ng v nu ch c (P(n)P(n+1)) l khng kt lun rng nP(n) l
ng.
V d : Xt
P(n)= i = 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n =
i =0
(n + 3)(n 2)
Gi s P(k) l ng khi n=k. Ta c :

K
i = 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + k =
i =0
(k + 3)(k 2)
2
Cn chng minh:
K +1
i = 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + k + (k + 1) =
i =0
(k + 3)(k 1)
2
Ta c :
K +1
i =0
i =0
i = i + (k + 1) =
(k + 3)(k 2)
+ (k + 1)
2
k 2 2k + 3k 6 + 2k + 2 k 2 + 3k 4
VT =
=
2
2
VT =
(k 1)(k + 4)
= P(k + 1)
2
(pcm)
Ta c P(k)P(k+1) l ng.
Tuy nhin, khi xt P(0):
P(0) = {0 = 3} l mnh sai.
Vy nP(n) l sai.
Trong trng hp ny ta c th kt lun nh sau : Nu P(k) l ng v nu
nk(P(k)P(k+1)) l ng th nk, P(n) l ng.

Ch 2 :
i khi chng ta cn tnh ton mt biu thc ph thuc vo n, bt u l vic
on ra kt qu, cng vic ny c lm bng cch t hay nhiu da vo kinh nghim.
Sau , s dng nguyn l chng minh qui np chng minh rng kt qu va tm
c l ng.
Trang 40
V d 1: Tnh tng n s l u tin.

S = 1+3+5+7+...+(2n-1) =
(2i 1)
i =1
Khi
n=1 : S = 1 = 12
n=2 : S = 1+ 3 = 22
n=3 : S = 1+3 + 5 = 32
n=4 : S = 1+3+5+7 = 42
S = 1+3+5+7+9 = 52
n=5
...........................................
Vy c th d on rng S =
(2i 1)
= n2
i =1
Sau s dng chng minh qui np chng minh kt qu va tm c.
t P(n) = (2i 1) = n 2
i =1
- Khi n=1 : 1 = 1
P(1) l ng
- Gi s rng P(k) l ng khi n=k. Ta c :

K
(2i 1) = k
i =1
cn chng minh P(k+1) l ng, ngha l :

K +1
(2i 1) = (k + 1)
i =1
V tri =
(2i 1) + (2(k + 1) 1) = k
+ (2k + 1) = (k + 1) 2
(pcm)
i =1
Vy nP(n).
V d 2: Tng trn c th tnh ton vi mt cch khc nh sau :
S=
V d 3:
n
n(n + 1)
n = n(n + 1) n = n 2
(
2
1
)
2
i
i
1 = 2
i =1
i =1
i =1
n
Tnh tng
Trang 41
S=
i(i + 1)
i =1
Khi
n=1: S =
1
1
=
2 1+1
n=2: S =
1 1
3 +1 2
2
+
=
= =
2 2.3 2.3 3 2 + 1
n=3: S =
2 1
2.4 + 1 3
3
+
=
= =
3 3.4
3.4
4 3 +1
n=4: S =
3 1
3.5 + 1 4
4
+
=
= =
4 4.5
4.5
5 4 +1
..........................................
Vy c th d on tng S =
n
n +1
S dng nguyn l qui np chng minh cng thc trn.
n
1
n
=
t P(n) =
i =1 i (i + 1) n(n + 1
- Khi n=1 :
1/2 = 1/2
P(1) l ng
- Gi s P(k) l ng khi n=k. Ta c

K
i(i + 1) = k + 1
i =1
Cn chng minh P(k+1) l ng. Ngha l :

K +1
k +1
i(i + 1) = k + 2
(pcm)
i =1
V tri =
K +1
K
1
1
1
k
1
=
+
=
+
(k + 1)(k + 2) k + 1 (k + 1)(k + 2)
i =1 i (i + 1)
i =1 i (i + 1)
k ( k + 2) + 1
(k + 1) 2
k +1
=
=
(k + 1)(k + 2) (k + 1)(k + 2) k + 2
Vy nP(n).
Nguyn l chng minh qui np mnh

Trang 42
(pcm)
Cho P(n) l mt ng thc c cha bin n, nu P(0) l ng v nu (P(0)

P(1)P(2)P(3)...P(k)) P(k+1) l ng th P(n) l mnh ng n (vi 0 l phn
t u tin).
Ch rng, to ra gi thit qui np vi nguyn tc qui np yu, ngi ta
ch gi thit rng P(k) l ng ti n=k. Vi nguyn tc qui np mnh, ngi ta ch
ra rng gi thit ng cho tt c cc mnh P(0) P(1)P(2)P(3)...P(k). y
chnh l s khc bit c bn ca 2 nguyn tc qui np vi gi thit yu v gi thit
mnh.
V d 1: Chng minh rng tch ca 3 s lin tip lun chia ht cho 6.
Gii : t P(n) = {n.(n+1).(n+2) chia ht cho 6}
Ta c :
(n nguyn dng)
P(1) = 1.2.3 chia ht cho 6. Mnh ng.

................................
Gi s n k ta c P(k) l ng. Ngha l : k.(k+1).(k+2) chia ht cho 6.

Cn chng minh rng P(k+1) l ng.
Nhn thy:
(k+1)(k+2)(k+3) = k.(k+1).(k+2) + 3.(k+1).(k+2)
Trong :
k.(k+1).(k+2) chia ht cho 6.
3.(k+1).(k+2) chia ht cho 6 = 2.3 (v (k+1).(k+2) l tch ca
2 s t
nhin lin tip nn chia chn cho 2).

V tng ca 2 s chia ht cho 6 s chia ht cho 6 (sinh vin t chng minh), do
(k+1).(k+2)(k+3) chia ht cho 6. P(n) ng vi mi n nguyn dng.

V d 2: Chng minh rng nu n l mt s nguyn ln hn 1, khi n c th
c vit di dng tch ca cc s nguyn t.
Gii : t P(n) = { n = a.b...c } (a, b,..,c l cc s nguyn t)
Ta c P(2) = { 2= 2.1}
P(3) = { 3= 3.1}
P(4) = { 4= 2.4}
......................
P(18) = { 6.3= 3.2.3}
Trang 43
.......................... l cc mnh ng.

Gi s P(n) ng n 2 ta c P(k) l ng.
Cn chng minh rng P(k+1) l ng.
Vi n = k+1 ta c 2 trng hp xy ra nh sau:
- k+1 l s nguyn t : k+1 = (k+1).1
P(k+1) ng
- k+1 khng l s nguyn t (hp s): k+1 = a.b ( a,b, [2,k] )

Theo gi thit qui np mnh, a, b c th l s nguyn t hoc l tch ca cc s
nguyn t. Vy nu k+1 l hp s th n cng s c vit di dng tch ca cc s
nguyn t. P(n) ng vi mi n 2.
V d 3: Chng minh rng mi bu ph bng hay ln hn 12 xu u c th to
ra bng cc con tem 4 xu hay 5 xu.
Gii : t P(n) = { n = 4 + ...+ 5+....}
Ta c :
P(12) = { 12 = 4 + 4 + 4}
P(13) = { 13 = 4 + 4 + 5}
P(14) = { 14 = 4 + 5 + 5}
P(15) = { 15 = 5+ 5 + 5}
P(16) = { 16 = 4 + 4 + 4 + 4 }
P(17) = { 17 = 4 + 4 + 4 + 5 }
Gi s n > 15 v P(n) l ng. Nht thy rng to ra bu ph (n+1) xu

ta ch cn dng con tem n-3 xu v cng thm mt tem 4 xu.
2.4.
Tng kt chng 2
Chng ta m t cc phng php khc nhau chng minh nh l.
C th thy rng khng th a ra mt phng php no chng minh cho mt bi

ton no. Nm vng cc phng php chng minh l mt chuyn, bit p dng chng
chng minh cc bi ton l mt k thut i hi ngi s dng phi thc tp nhiu
ln bng cch th cc trng hp khc nhau.
2.5.
Bi tp chng 2
1/ Quy tc suy lun no c dng trong mi lp lun sau :

Trang 44
a. Nhng con kanguroo sng Australia l loi th c ti. Do , kanguroo l

loi th c ti.
b. Hoc hm nay tri nng trn 100 hoc l s nhim l nguy hi. Hm
nay nhit ngoi tri thp hn 100 . Do , nhim l nguy hi.
c. Steve s lm vic mt cng ty tin hc vo ma h ny. Do , ma h ny
anh ta s lm vic mt cng ty tin hc hoc l mt k lang thang ngoi b bi.
d. Nu ti lm bi tp ny c m th ti c th tr li c tt c bi tp. Nu
ti tr li c tt c bi tp th ti s hiu c ti liu ny. Do , nu ti lm
bi tp ny c m th ti s hiu c ti liu ny
2/ Xc nh xem cc suy lun sau l c c s khng. Nu mt suy lun l c c
s th n dng qui tc suy lun no. Nu khng hy ch ra ngy bin no c
s dng.
a. Nu n l mt s thc ln hn 1 khi n2 > 1. Gi s n2 > 1. Khi n > 1.
b. Nu n l mt s thc v n > 3, khi n2 > 9. Gi s n2 9. Khi , n 3.
c. Mt s nguyn dng hoc l s chnh phng hoc c mt s chn cc c
nguyn dng. Gi s, n l mt s nguyn dng c mt s l cc c nguyn
dng. Khi , n l s chnh phng.
3/ Chng minh rng bnh phng ca mt s chn l mt s chn bng :
a. Chng minh trc tip
b. Chng minh gin tip
c. Chng minh phn chng
4/ Chng minh rng tch ca 2 s hu t l mt s hu t.
5/ Chng minh rng mt s nguyn khng chia ht cho 5 th bnh phng ca n
khi chia cho 5 s d 1 hoc 4.
6/ Chng minh rng nu n l s nguyn dng khi n l l nu v ch nu 5n +
6 l l.
7/ C 2 gi thit
- Mn logic l kh hoc khng c nhiu sinh vin thch mn logic.
- Nu mn ton l d thi logic l khng kh.
Bng cch chuyn cc gi thit trn thnh cc mnh cha cc bin v
cc ton t logic. Hy xc nh xem mi mt trong cc khng nh sau l cc kt
lun c c s ca cc gi thit cho khng :
Trang 45
a/ Mn ton l khng d nu nhiu sinh vin thch mn logic.

b/ Khng c nhiu sinh vin thch mn logic nu mn ton l khng d.
c/ Mn ton l d hoc mn logic l kh.
d/ Mn logic l khng kh hoc mn ton l khng d.
e/ Nu khng c nhiu sinh vin thch mn logic khi hoc l mn ton
khng d hoc l logic khng kh.
8/ Dng nguyn l qui np yu, chng minh cc biu thc tng sau :
n
a.
i =1
n(n + 1)(n + 2)
6
i(i + 1)(i + 2) =
b.
i =1
n(n + 1)(n + 2)(n + 3)

4
i(i)!= (n + 1)! - 1
c.
i =1
(i + 1) = 1 (n + 1)!
d.
i =1
n(n + 3)
(i + 1)(i + 2) = 4(n + 1)(n + 2)
e.
i =1
n
i.2
f.
= 2 + (n 1).2 n+1
i =1
n
2.3
g.
i 1
= 3n 1
i =1
i(i + 2) =
h.
i =1
n(n + 1)(2n + 7)
6
9. Tm cng thc tnh cc tng sau v s dng nguyn l qui np chng minh
cng thc va tm c
n
a.
(2i 1)
i =1
n
b.
i 1
i =1
n
c.
i(3i 1)
i =1
Trang 46
d.
i(i + 1)
i =1
n
e.
(2i 1)
i =1
n
f.
i(i + 1)
i =1
n
g.
i =1
10. Dng nguyn l qui np mnh, chng minh cc bt ng thc sau:

a.
n > 3 :
2n < n!
b.
n > 4 :
n2 < 2n
c.
n > 9 :
n2 < 2n
d.
n >= 6 :
4n < n2 - 7
e.
n > 10 :
n - 2 < (n2 - n)/12
Trang 47
CHNG 2 : SUY LUN TON HC &..................................................................28

CC PHNG PHP CHNG MINH.......................................................................28
2.1. Tng quan .......................................................................................................28
2.2. Suy lun ton hc............................................................................................29
2.2.1. Khi nim ................................................................................................29
2.2.2. Cc qui tc suy lun ................................................................................29
2.3. Cc phng php chng minh........................................................................31
2.3.1. Chng minh rng ( P l sai) ....................................................................32
2.3.2. Chng minh tm thng (Q l ng) ......................................................33
2.3.3. Chng minh trc tip ..............................................................................33
2.3.4. Chng minh gin tip ..............................................................................34
2.3.5. Chng minh phn chng .........................................................................36
2.3.6. Chng minh qui np ................................................................................37
2.4. Tng kt chng 2 ..........................................................................................44
2.5. Bi tp chng 2.............................................................................................44
Trang 48
Chng 3: V t v lng t
CHNG 3 : V T V LNG T
3.1.
Tng quan
Mc tiu ca chng 3
- Th no l v t, khng gian ca v t, trng lng ca v t.
- Th no l lng t, lng t tn ti, lng t vi mi.
- Cch biu din mt cu thng thng thnh biu thc logic.

- Cc php ton i s, hnh hc c bn xc nh c gi tr ng,
sai ca cc pht biu.
- C kh nng suy lun.
- Nm vng cc php ton logic trong chng 1.
Ti liu tham kho

Nh xut bn Khoa hc v K thut, H Ni - 1997 (chng 1.3, trang 32 52).
Ni dung ct li
- nh ngha v t, khng gian ca v t, trng lng ca v t.
- nh ngha lng t, lng t vi mi, lng t tn ti.
- Dch cc cu thng thng thnh biu thc logic.
3.2.
Cc nh ngha
Trong ton hc hay trong chng trnh ca my tnh, chng ta thng gp

nhng cu c cha cc bin nh sau : "x>3", "x=y+3", "x+y=z"...
Cc cu ny khng ng cng khng sai v cc bin cha c gn cho nhng
gi tr xc nh. Trong chng ny, chng ta s xem xt cch to ra nhng mnh t
nhng cu nh vy.
Trang: 48
Chng 3: V t v lng t
3.2.1. nh ngha v t (Prdicat)

Mt v t l mt khng nh P(x,y,...) trong c cha mt s bin x,y,... ly
gi tr trong nhng tp hp A,B,... cho trc, sao cho :
- Bn thn P(x,y,...) khng phi l mnh .
- Nu thay x, y ,... bng nhng gi tr c th thuc tp hp A, B,... cho trc ta
s c mt mnh P(x, y, ...), ngha l khi chn tr ca P(x, y,...) hon ton xc
nh. Cc bin x, y,... c gi l cc bin t do ca v t.
V d 1: Cc cu c lin quan n cc bin nh: "x>3", "x + y = 5" rt thng
gp trong ton hc v trong cc chng trnh ca my tnh. Cc cu ny khng ng
cng khng sai v cc bin cha c cho nhng gi tr xc nh.
Ni cch khc, v t c th xem l mt hm mnh c nhiu bin hoc khng
c bin no, n c th ng hoc sai ty thuc vo gi tr ca bin v lp lun ca v
t.
V d 2: Cu {n l chn} l mt v t. Nhng, khi cho n l mt s c th l
chn hay l l ta c mt mnh :
n = 2 :{2 l chn}: mnh ng.
n = 5 :{5 l chn}: mnh sai.
V t {n l chn} c 2 phn. Phn th nht l bin x l ch ng ca cu. Phn
th hai "l chn" cng c gi l v t, n cho bit tnh cht m ch ng c th c.
K hiu: P(n) = {n l chn}
Tng qut, ngi ta ni P(n) l gi tr ca hm mnh P ti n. Mt khi bin n
c gn tr th P(n) l mt mnh .
V d 3: Cho v t P(x) = {x>3}. Xc nh chn tr ca P(4) v P(2).
Gii:
P(4) = {4>3} : mnh ng.

P(2) = {2>3} : mnh sai.
3.2.2. Khng gian ca v t (Prdi cat)

Ngi ta c th xem v t nh l mt nh x P, vi mi phn t x thuc tp hp
E ta c mt nh P(x){, 1}. Tp hp E ny c gi l khng gian ca v t.
Khng gian ny s ch r cc gi tr kh d ca bin x lm cho P(x) tr thnh mnh
ng hoc sai.
Trang: 49
Chng 3: V t v lng t
3.2.3. Trng lng ca v t (Prdi cat)

Chng ta cng thng gp nhng cu c nhiu bin hn. V t xut hin cng
nh mt hm nhiu bin, khi s bin c gi l trng lng ca v t.
V d 1: V t P(a,b) = {a + b = 5} l mt v t 2 bin trn khng gian N. Ta ni
P c trong lng 2.
Trong mt v t P(x1, x2, ..., xn) c trng lng l n. Nu gn gi tr xc nh
cho mt bin trong nhiu bin th ta c mt v t mi Q(x1, x2, ... xn) c trng
lng l (n-1). Qui lut ny c p dng cho n khi n=1 th ta c mt mnh . Vy,
thc cht mnh l mt v t c trng lng l .
V d 2: Cho v t P(x, y, z ) = {x + y = z}.
Cho
x=:
Q(y,z) = P(, y, z) = { + y = z}
y=:
R(z) = Q(, z) = P(, , z) = { + = z}
z=:
T = P(, , 1) = { + = 1}
mnh sai.
Cu c dng P(x1, x2, ..., xn) c gi l gi tr ca hm mnh P ti (x1, x2, ..., xn)
v P cng c gi l v t.
3.2.4. Php ton v t

Php ton v t s dng cc php ton logic mnh v l s m rng ca
php ton mnh th hin r hn cc tri thc.
V d 1: Cn vit cu "nu hai ngi thch mt ngi th h khng thch nhau"
di dng logic v t.
Trc khi vit cu trn ta hy tm hiu cc cu n gin c vit nh sau:
"Nam thch Mai" c vit theo php ton v t l: thch (Nam, Mai).
"ng thch Mai" c vit theo php ton v t l: thch (ng, Mai).
Tng qut khng nh trn c vit nh sau:
Thch (X, Z) AND thch (Y, Z) NOT thch (X, Y)
(Thch (X, Z) thch (Y, Z) thch (X, Y)
V d 2: Cho v t "Qu bng mu xanh". Php ton v t cho php m t theo

quan h tri thc theo dng: (qu bng, xanh).
Cch th hin ny thun tin i vi vic dng bin v hm trong x l tri thc.
Trong lnh vc tr tu nhn to, lp trnh trn cc v t ngi ta s dng ngn ng
Trang: 50
Chng 3: V t v lng t
Prolog. l mt ngn ng cp cao c c im gn vi ngn ng t nhin, do ng
C.Cameraller (i hc Marseilles, Php) v nhm ng s cho ra i nm 1973.
V d: Ta c tam on lun sau:
"Ngi ta ai cng cht
Socrates l ngi
Vy Socrates phi cht"
Trong phn ny chng ta khng i su vo ngn ng Prolog (v s hc k
mn ngn ng lp trnh) m ch gii thiu cc khi nim trong lp trnh Prolog c s
dng cc v t.
a) Hng:
L mt gi tr xc nh trong khng gian ca v t. cc hng c k hiu bi
cc ch thng dng t tn cc i tng c bit hay thuc tnh.
b) Bin:
Dng th hin cc lp tng qut ca cc i tng hay cc thuc tnh. Bin
c vit bng cc k hiu bt u l ch in hoa. Vy c th dng v t c bin th
hin cc v t tng t.
V d: V t "Qu bng mu xanh" c th vit li: "X mu Y".
Qu bng xanh l cc hng c xc nh trong khng gian ca v t. X, Y l
bin.
c) Cc v t:
Mt s kin hay mnh trong php ton v t c chia thnh phn. V t v
tham s. Tham s th hin mt hay nhiu i tng ca mnh , cn v t dng
khng nh v i tng.
V d: Cu "X thch Y" c dng thch (X, Y).
Thch l v t cho bit quan h gia cc i tng trong ngoc. i s l cc k
hiu thay cho cc i tng ca bi ton.
d) Hm:
c th hin bng k hiu, cho bit quan h hm s.
V d: Hoa l m ca Mai, ng l cha ca Cc. Hoa v ng l bn ca nhau.
Ta co hm s c vit th hin quan h ny.
M (Mai) = Hoa
Cha (Cc) = ng
Trang: 51
Chng 3: V t v lng t
Bn (Hoa, ng)
Cc hm c dng trong v t l: Bn (M (Mai), Cha (Cc)
3.3.
Cc lng t
Khi tt c cc trong mtk hm mnh iu c gn cho mt gi tr xc nh.

Ta c chn tr ca hm mnh . Tuy nhin, cn c mt cch khc bin cc v t
thnh mnh m ngi ta gi l s lng ha (hay lng t).
3.3.1. Lng t tn ti ( )
Cu xc nh "Tp hp nhng bin x lm cho P(x) l ng khng l tp hp
rng" l mt mnh . Hay "Tn ti t nht mt phn t x trong khng gian sao cho
P(x) l ng" l mt mnh c gi l lng t tn ti ca P(x).
K hiu: x P(x) .
3.3.2. Lng t vi mi ( )
Cu xc nh "Tp hp nhng x lm cho P(x) ng l tt c tp hp E" l mt
mnh . Hay "P(x) ng vi mi gi tr x trong khng gian" cng l mt mnh
c gi l lng t vi mi ca P(x).
K hiu: xP(x)
V d: Cho v t P(x) = {s nguyn t nhin x l s chn}.
Xt chn tr ca hai mnh xP(x) v xP(x).
Gii:
x P(x) = {tt c s nguyn t nhin x l s chn} l mnh sai khi x = 5.
x P(x) = {hin hu mt s nguyn t nhin x l s chn} l mnh ng
khi x = 10.
Ch : Cho P l mt v t c khng gian E. Nu E = {e1, e2, ... en}, mnh
xP(x) l ng khi tt c cc mnh P(e1), P(e2), ... P(en) l ng. Ngha l x P(x)
P(e1) P(e2) ... P(en) l ng.
Tng t xP(x) l ng nu c t nht mt trong nhng mnh P(e1), P(e2),
... P(en) l ng. Ngha l xP(x) P(e1) P(e2) ... P(en) l ng.
Trang: 52
Chng 3: V t v lng t
- Nu khng gian E l mt tp trng th xP(x) v xP(x) c chn tr nh th
no ? (Sinh vin t gii p).
V d: Cho P(a,b) = {cp s nguyn tng ng tha a + b = 5}
Hy xc nh chn tr ca cc mnh sau:
(a,b) P(a,b)
{Tt c cp s nguyn tng ng
(a,b) P(a,b)
{Hin hu mt cp s nguyn tng ng (a,b) sao cho a + b V
= 5}
ba P(a,b)
{Hin hu mt cp s nguyn tng ng b sao cho cho mi F

s nguyn tng ng a ta c a + b = 5}
ab P(a, b)
{Mi s nguyn tng ng a, hin hu mt s nguyn tng V

ng b sao cho a + b = 5}
ab P(a,b)
{Hin hu mt cp s nguyn tng ng a sao cho cho mi F

s nguyn tng ng b ta c a + b = 5}
ba P(a, b)
{Mi s nguyn tng ng b, hin hu mt s nguyn tng V

ng a sao cho a + b = 5}
nh l 1: Cho v t P(a, b) c trng lng l 2. Khi :

a) ab P(a,b) v ba P(a, b) l c cng chn tr.
Ngha l :
ab P(a,b) ba P(a, b)
K hiu:
(a,b) P(a,b)
b) ab P(a,b) v ba P(a, b) l c cng chn tr.

Ngha l:
ab P(a,b) ba P(a, b)
K hiu:
(a,b) P(a,b)
c) Nu ab P(a,b) l ng th ba P(a,b) cng ng nhng iu ngc

li cha ng. Ngha l :
ab P(a,b) ba P(a,b)
d) Nu ba P(a,b) l ng th ab P(a,b) cng ng nhng iu ngc

li cha ng. Ngha l :
ba P(a,b) ab P(a,b)
Trang: 53
Chng 3: V t v lng t
nh l 2:
1. ( x P(x)) v x ( P(x) l c cng chn tr.
2. ( x P(x)) v x ( P(x) l c cng chn tr.
Gii thch:
1. Ph nh vi x P(x) ni rng tp hp nhng x lm cho P(x) ng
khng l tt c tp hp E. Vy ni rng hin hu t nht mt phn t x E m chng
P(x) l sai hay ni rng hin hu t nht mt phn t x E m chng P(x) l ng.
2. x P(x) ni rng tp hp nhng x m chng P(x) l ng l tp
hp trng. Ngha l, tp hp nhng x m chng P(x) l sai l tp hp E hay khng
c phn t no lm P(x) ng. Ta c x ( P(x)).
V d:
Ph nh ca "Mi s nguyn n l chia chn cho 3"

l "Tn ti t nht mt s nguyn n khng chia chn cho 3"
- Phng php ng dng.

t c ph nh ca mt mnh xy dng bng lin kt ca nhng bin
ca vi t vi phng tin nh lng, ngi ta thay th nhng nh lng vi mi
bi tn ti , tn ti bi vi vi mi v sau cng thay th v t bng ph nh ca
v t .
nh l 3: Cho P v Q l hai v t c cng khng gian.
1. Mnh x (P(x) Q(x)) v (x (P(x) x (Q(x)) l c cng chn tr.
2. Nu mnh x (P(x) Q(x)) l ng th ta c mnh :
(x P(x)) (xQ(x)) cng ng.
3. Mnh x (P(x) Q(x)) v (xP(x) xQ(x)) l c cng chn tr.
4. Nu mnh x (P(x) Q(x)) l ng th ta c mnh xP(x) xQ(x)
l ng, nhng iu ngc li khng lun lun ng.
Ch thch:
Nu P v Q l hai v t c cng khng gian E. Ta c :
- Tp hp A E : Tp hp nhng phn t x thuc E m chng th P(x) l
ng.
- Tp hp B E: Tp hp nhng phn t x thuc E m chng th Q(x) l
ng.
Trang: 54
Chng 3: V t v lng t
Khi ngi ta lu rng, AB l tp hp nhng x thuc E m chng mnh
P(x)Q(x) l ng. Trong khi AB l tp hp nhng x ca E m mnh
P(x)Q(x) l ng.
3.4. Dch cc cu thng thng thnh biu thc logic

Sau khi c gii thiu v cc lng t, chng ta c th biu din
c mt tp hp rng ln cc cu thng thng thnh cc biu thc logic. Vic lm
ny nhm mc ch loi i nhng iu cha r rng v ngi ta c th s dng cc cu
suy lun ny trong vic lp trnh logic v tr tu nhn to.
V d 1: Biu din cu "Mi ngi u c chnh xc mt ngi bn tt nht"
thnh mt biu thc logic.
Gii: Gi s B(x,y) l cu "y l bn tt ca x". dch cu trong v d cn ch
B(x,y) mun ni rng i vi mi c nhn x c mt c nhn khc l y sao cho y l
bn tt nht ca x, nu z l mt c nhn khc y th z khng phi l bn tt nht ca x.
Do , cu trong v d c th dch thnh:
x y z [B(x,y) ((z y) B(x, z))]
V d 2: Biu din cu: "Nu mt ngi no l ph n v sinh con, th
ngi s l m ca mt ngi no khc" thnh mt biu thc logic:
Gii:
Gi s
F(x) = "x l ph n"

P(x) = "x sinh con"
M(x,y) = "x l m ca y"
V trong v d p dng cho tt c mi ngi nn ta c th vit n thnh biu

x (F(x) P(x)) y M(x,y)
thc nh sau:
V d 3: Xt cc cu sau. Hai cu u tin l tin v cu ba l kt lun. Ton

b tp hp 3 cu ny c gi l mt suy l.
"Tt c s t H ng u hung d".
"Mt s s t H ng khng ung c ph".
"Mt s sinh vt hung d khng ung c ph".
Gii: Gi
P(x)= {x l s t h ng}
Q(x)= {x hung d}
R(x)= {x ung c ph}
Gi s rng khng gian l tp hp ton b cc sinh vt, ta c cch suy din sau:
Trang: 55
Chng 3: V t v lng t
x ( P(x) Q(x)
x ( P(x) R(x))
x ( Q(x) R(x))
3.5.
Tng kt chng 3
C mt s iu cn lu trong vic ph nh cc lng t trong nh l 2.

V d : Hy xt ph nh ca cu sau y :
"Tt c sinh vin trong lp u hc mn Ton ri rc 2"
Cu ny chnh l cu s dng lng t vi mi nh sau: xP(x)
Trong P(x) = { x hc mn Ton ri rc 2 }.
Ph nh ca cu ny l : " Khng phi tt c cc sinh vin trong lp u hc
mn Ton ri rc 2". iu ny c ngha l :" C t nht mt sinh vin lp ny cha
hc Ton ri rc 2" . y chnh l lng t tn ti ca ph nh hm mnh ban u
c vit nh sau : xP(x). Ta c :
xP(x) xP(x)
xP(x) xP(x)
Php ph nh cc lng t c minh ha r hn trong bng ch thch sau:
Ph nh
xP(x)
Mnh
tng Khi no ph nh l Khi no sai
ng
ng
xP(x)
P(x) sai vi mi x
C mt x P(x) l
C mt x P(x) sai
ng
xP(x) xP(x)
P(x) ng vi mi x
3.6.
Bi tp chng 3
1. Cho 2 v t P(x) xc nh nh sau:

P(x) = {x 3}
Q(X) = {x+ 1 l s l}
Nu khng gian l tp s nguyn, hy xc nh chn tr ca nhng mnh sau:
Trang: 56
Chng 3: V t v lng t
c) P(3)
a) P(1)
b) Q(1)
d) Q(6)
e) P(7)Q(7)
f) P(3)Q(4)
g) P(4)
h) (P(-4)Q(-3)
i) P(-4) Q(-3)
2. Cc v t P(x), Q(x) c cho nh bi tp 1. R(x) = {x > 0}. Nu khng gian

vn l tp s nguyn.
a) Xc nh chn tr ca nhng mnh sau:
1. P(3) [Q(3) R(3)]
2. P(3) [Q(3) [Q(3) R(3)]
3. P(2) [Q(2) R(2)]
4. [P(2) Q(2)] R(2)
5. P(0) [ Q(1) R(1)
5. [P(-1) Q(-2) R(-3)
b) Xc nh tt c cc gi tr x sao cho [P(x) Q(x)] R(x) l mt mnh

ng.
c) Tm 5 gi tr nguyn dng nh nht cu x sao cho v t.
P(x) [ Q(x) R(x) l mnh ng.
3. Cho v t P(x) c xc nh nh sau: P(x) = {x2 = 2x} trn khng gian l
tp hp s nguyn. Xc nh gi tr ng, sai ca nhng mnh :
a) P(0)
b) P(1)
c) P(2)
d) P(-2)
e) x P(x)
f) x P(x)
4. Cho 2 v t 2 bin P(x,y) v Q(x,y) c xc nh nh sau:

P(x,y) = {x2 y}
Q(x,y) = {x+2 <y}
Nu khng gian l tp s thc, xc nh chn tr ca cc mnh
a) P(2,4)
b) Q(1,)
c) P(-3,8)Q(1,3)
d) P( , )Q(-2,-3)
e) P(2,2)Q(1,1)
f) P(1,2)Q(1,2)
1 1
2 3
5. Trong mt chng trnh Pascal, n l mt bin nguyn v A l mng cha 20

gi tr nguyn A[1],A[2],...A[20] c khai bo nh sau:
for n:=1 to 20 do
A[n]:=n*n-n;
Hy vit dng k hiu ca nhng mnh sau: nu xem A[n] nh v t mt bin
n trn khng gian cc s nguyn t 1 n 20:
a) Mi phn t ca mng u khng m.
Trang: 57
Chng 3: V t v lng t
b) S nguyn A[20] l phn t ln nht trong mng.
c) Tn ti 2 phn t trong mng A m phn t sau gp 2 ln phn t
trc.
d) Cc phn t trong mng c xp theo th t tng dn.
e) Mi phn t trong mng u khc nhau.
Chng minh cc mnh trn.
6. Trn khng gian l tp s nguyn, cho cc v t sau:
P(x) = {x>0)
Q(x) = {x l s chn}
R(x) = {x l s chnh phng}
S(x) = {x chia ht cho 4}
T(x) = {x chia ht cho 5}
a) Vit dng k hiu ca nhng mnh sau:
1. C t nht 1 s nguyn chn.
2. Tn ti 1 s nguyn dng l s chn.
3. Nu x chn, th x khng chia ht cho 5.
4. Khng c s nguyn chn no l chia ht cho 5.
5. Tn ti 1 s nguyn chn chia ht cho 4.
6. Nu x chn v x l s chnh phng, th x chia ht cho 4.
b) Xc nh chn tr ca mi mnh a). Vi mi mnh sai, hy cho mt
dn chng c th.
c) Vit thnh li cc dng k hiu sau:
1. x [R(x) P(x)]
2. x [S(x) Q(x)]
3. x [S(x) T(x)]
4. x [S(x) R(x)]
5. x [ R(x) Q(x) S(x)]

7. Cho cc v t trn khng gian l tp s thc nh sau:
P(x) = {x 0)
Q(x) = {x2 0}
R(x) = {x2 - 3x -4 = 0}
S(x) = {x2 - 3 > 0}
Xc nh gi tr ng, sai ca nhng mnh sau. Theo dn chng hoc gii
thch c th:
Trang: 58
Chng 3: V t v lng t
a) x [P(x) R(x)]
b) x [P(x) Q(x)]
c) x [Q(x) S(x)]
d) x [R(x) S(x)]
e) x [R(x) P(x)]
8. Cho 3 v t P(x), Q(x), R(x) c xc nh nh sau:
P(x) = {x2 - 8x + 15 = 0)
Q(x) = {x l s l}
R(x) = {x > 0}
Trn tp khng gian l tt c cc s nguyn, hy xc nh gi tr ng, sai ca
nhng mnh sau. Cho dn chng hoc gii thch c th:
a) x [P(x) Q(x)]
b) x [Q(x) P(x)]
c) x [P(x) Q(x)]
d) x [Q(x) P(x)]
e) x [R(x) P(x)]
f) x [P(x) R(x)]
g) x [R(x) P(x)]
h) x [ Q(x) P(x)]
i) x [P(x) (Q(x) R(x))]
j) x [(P(x) Q(x) R(x)]
9. Cho 3 v t P(x), Q(x), R(x) nh sau:

P(x) = {x2 - 7x + 10 = 0)
Q(x) = {x2 - 2x -3 = 0}
R(x) = {x < 0}
a) Xc nh gi tr ng, sai ca nhng mnh sau, cho dn chng hoc gii
thch c th, nu khng gian l tp s nguyn.
1. a [P(x) R(x)]
2. [Q(x) R(x)]
3. x [Q(x) R(x)]
3. x [P(x) R(x)]
b) Cu hi nh phn a) nhng khng gian l tp Z'

c) Cu hi nh phn a) nhng khng gian ch gm 2 s nguyn 2, 5.
10. Cho P(x) = {x hc lp hn 5 gi mi ngy trong tun}
Khng gian l tp hp cc sinh vin. Hy din t cc lng t sau thnh cu
thng thng.
a) x P(x)
b) x P(x)
c) x P(x)
d) x P(x)
Trang: 59
Chng 3: V t v lng t
11. Cho v t P(x,y) = {x hc mn y} vi khng gian ca x l tp hp tt c
cc sinh vin lp bn v khng gian ca y l tp hp tt c cc mn tin hc ca hc k
m bn ang hc.
Hy din t cc lng t sau thnh cc cu thng thng:
a) x y P(x,y)
b) x y P(x,y)
c) x y P(x,y)
d) y x P(x,y)
e) y x P(x,y)
f) x y P(x,y)
12. Cho v t:
P(x) = {x ni c ting anh}
Q(x) = {x bit ngn ng C++}
Cho khng gian l tp hp cc sinh vin lp bn. Hy din t cc cu sau
bng cch dng P(x), Q(x), cc lng t v cc php ton logic.
a) C mt sinh vin lp bn ni c ting Anh v bit C++
b) C mt sinh vin lp bn ni c ting Anh nhng khng bit C++
c) Mi sinh vin lp bn u ni c ting Anh hoc bit C++
d) Khng c mt sinh vin no lp bn ni c ting Anh hoc bit C++
13. Cho tn t:
P(x) = {xl l sinh vin)
Q(x) = {x l k ngu dt}
R(x) = {x l k v tch s}
Bng cch dng cc lng t, cc php ton logic v vi cc v t P(x), Q(x),
R(x). Hy din t cc cu sau vi khng gian l ton th sinh vin:
a) Khng c sinh vin no l k ngu dt
b) Mi k ngu dt u l v tch s.
c) Khng c sinh vin no l v tch s.
Trang: 60
Chng 3: V t v lng t
CHNG 3 : V T V LNG T ........................................................................48

3.1. Tng quan .......................................................................................................48
3.2. Cc nh ngha ................................................................................................48
3.2.1. nh ngha v t (Prdicat)......................................................................49
3.2.2. Khng gian ca v t (Prdi cat) .............................................................49
3.2.3. Trng lng ca v t (Prdi cat) ............................................................50
3.2.4. Php ton v t.........................................................................................50
3.3. Cc lng t ...................................................................................................52
3.3.1. Lng t tn ti ( )...............................................................................52
3.3.2. Lng t vi mi ( )............................................................................52
3.4. Dch cc cu thng thng thnh biu thc logic ..........................................55
3.5. Tng kt chng 3 ..........................................................................................56
3.6. Bi tp chng 3.............................................................................................56
Trang: 61
Chng 4: L thuyt tp m & Logic m
CHNG 4 : L THUYT TP M &

LOGIC M
4.1.
Tng quan
Mc tiu ca chng 4
- Th no l khi nim ca tp m, mnh m, suy din m.
- Cc php ton trn tp m v logic m.

- Nm vng cc php ton logic trong chng 1.
- Cc suy lun chng 2.
Ti liu tham kho

Nguyn Hong Cng, Bi Cng Cng, Nguyn Don Phc, Phan Xun
Minh, Chu Vn H, H m v ng dng. Nh xut bn Khoa hc v K
thut, H Ni - 1998.
Ni dung ct li
- Gii thiu khi nim v tp m, cc php ton trn tp m.
- Mnh m v cc php ton logic m.
- Suy din m.
4.2.
Gii thiu
Nh bit, trong nhng suy lun i thng cng nh cc suy lun khoa hc,
logic ton hc ng mt vai tr rt quan trng.
Ngy nay, x hi cng pht trin th nhu cu con ngi ngy cng cao. Do ,
s tin b ca khoa hc cng rt cao. Suy lun logic mnh gii thiu trong
chng 1 (tm gi l logic nguyn thy hay logic r) vi hai gi tr ng, sai hay 1, 0
khng gii quyt c ht cc bi ton phc tp ny sinh trong thc t.
Trang 61

V d: qun o nh th no c gi l dy, l mng my git bit c m
c ch t ng sy kh cho hp l ?
Hay trong th vn c cu:
" Trng kia bao tui trng gi?
Ni kia bao tui gi l ni non? "
Khi nim trng gi hay ni non l khng c nh ngha r rng. Nhng bi
ton nh vy ngy mt nhiu hn trong cc lnh vc iu khin ti u, nhn dng h
thng,... ni chung l trong cc qu trnh quyt nh nhm gii cc bi ton vi cc d
liu khng y , hoc khng c nh ngha mt cch r rng (trong iu kin
thiu thng tin chng hn).
Mt cch tip cn mi mang li nhiu kt qu thc tin v ang tip tc pht
trin l cch tip cn ca l thuyt tp m (FUZZY SET THEORY), do gio s
Lotfi Zadeh ca trng i hc California - M ra nm 1965. Cng trnh ny thc
s khai sinh mt ngnh khoa hc mi l l thuyt tp m v nhanh chng c
cc nh nghin cu cng ngh mi chp nhn tng. Mt s kt qu bc u v
hng nghin cu tip theo gp phn to nn nhng sn phm cng nghip ang c
tiu th trn th trng. L thuyt tp m ngy cng phong ph v hon chnh, to
nn vng chc pht trin logic m. C th ni logic m (Fuzzy logic) l nn tng
xy dng cc h m thc tin, v d trong cng nghip sn xut xi mng, sn xut in
nng, cc h chuyn gia trong y hc gip chun on v iu tr bnh, cc h chuyn
gia trong x l ting ni, nhn dng hnh nh,...Cng c ch cht ca logic m l tin
ha v lp lun xp x vi php suy din m.
Trong chng ny, mc ch chnh l gii thiu khi nim tp m, logic m,
tp trung i vo cc php ton c bn v bc u i vo lp lun xp x vi php suy
din m.
4.3.
Khi nim tp m (fuzzy set)
Nh chng ta bit, tp hp thng l kt hp ca mt s phn t c cng

mt s tnh cht chung no . V d : tp cc sinh vin. Ta c :
T = { t / t l sinh vin }
Vy, nu mt ngi no l sinh vin th thuc tp T, ngc li l khng
thuc tp T. Tuy nhin, trong thc t cuc sng cng nh trong khoa hc k thut c
Trang 62

nhiu khi nim khng c nh ngha mt cch r rng. V d, khi ni v mt
"nhm sinh vin kh", th th no l kh ? Khi nim v kh khng r rng v c th
sinh vin c im thi trung bnh bng 8.4 l kh, cng c th im thi trung bnh bng
6.6 cng l kh ( di im kh c th t 6.5 n 8.5),... Ni cch khc, "nhm sinh
vin kh" khng c nh ngha mt cch tch bch r rng nh khi nim thng
thng v tp hp. Hoc, khi chng ta ni n mt "lp cc s ln hn 10" hoc " mt
ng qun o c",..., l chng ta ni n nhng khi nim m, hay nhng khi nim
khng c nh ngha mt cch r rng. Cc phn t ca nhm trn khng c mt
tiu chun r rng v tnh "thuc v" ( thuc v mt tp hp no ). y chnh l
nhng khi nim thuc v tp m. Trong i thoi hng ngy chng ta bt gp rt
nhiu khi nim m ny. V d, mt ng gim c ni: " Nm qua chng ta gt hi
c mt s thnh tch ng khen ngi. Nm ti y chng ta phi c gng thm mt
bc na". y l mt cu cha rt nhiu khi nim m.
Nh vy, logic r c th biu din bng mt th nh sau
Logic m cng c th biu din bng mt th nhng l th lin tc
nh ngha tp m (Fuzzy set):

Cho l khng gian nn, mt tp m A trn tng ng vi mt nh x t
n on [0,1].
A : [0,1] c gi l hm thuc v (membership function)
K hiu A = {(a, A(a)) / a }
Trang 63

Trong , A(a) [0,1] ch mc thuc v (membership degree) ca phn
t a vo tp m A.
Khong xc nh ca hm A(a) l on [0, 1], trong gi tr 0 ch mc
khng thuc v, cn gi tr 1 ch mc thuc v hon ton.
V d 1: Mt s biu din tp m cho s "integer nh".
int
V d 2: Mt s biu din tp m cho cc tp ngi n ng thp, trung bnh v

cao.
chiu cao
V d 3: Cho = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, tp m A trn tng ng vi nh x A nh

sau:
A :
10
21
3 0.5
4 0.3
5 0.2
Ta c tp m A = {(1,0), (2,1), (3,0.5), (4,0.3), (5,0.2)}

Cch vit trn l s lit k cc phn t khc nhau cng vi mc thuc v tp hp A.
T nh ngha trn chng ta c th suy ra:
- Tp m A l rng nu v ch nu hm thuc v A(a)= 0 ,a
- Tp m A l ton phn nu v ch nu A(a) = 1 ,a
- Hai tp m A v B bng nhau nu A(x) = B(x) vi mi x trong .
Trang 64

V d 4: Cho = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, tp m A trn tng ng vi nh x A nh v du
trn.
A = {(1,0), (2,1), (3,0.5), (4,0.3), (5,0.2)}
Tp m B trn tng ng vi nh x B nh sau:
B :
10
21
3 0.5
4 0.3
5 0.2
Ta c tp m B = {(1,0), (2,1), (3,0.5), (4,0.3), (5,0.2)}

Nhn thy, A(x) = B(x) vi mi x trong . Vy A= B.
4.4.
Cc php ton v tp m
c th tin hnh m hnh ha cc h thng c cha tp m v biu
din cc qui lut vn hnh ca h thng ny, trc tin chng ta cn ti vic suy rng
cc php ton logic c bn vi cc mnh c chn tr trn on [0, 1].
Cho = {P1, P2, ...} vi P1, P2, ... l cc mnh . Tp m A trn tng
ng vi nh x v nh sau:
v:
[0, 1]
Pi v(Pi)
Ta gi v(Pi) l chn tr ca mnh Pi trn [0, 1].
4.4.1. Php b
Php ph nh trong logic kinh in l mt trong nhng php ton c bn cho
vic xy dng php b ca 2 tp hp. suy rng php ny trong tp m chng ta cn
ti ton t v(NOT P). Ton t ny phi tha cc tnh cht sau :
- v(NOT P) ch ph thuc vo v(P).
- Nu v(P)=1 th v(NOT P)=0
- Nu v(P)=0 th v(NOT P)=1
- Nu v(P1) v(P2) th v(NOT P1) v(NOT P2)
nh ngha 1 :
Trang 65

Hm n : [0,1] [0, 1] khng tng tha mn cc iu kin n(0) = 1, n(1)
= 0, c gi l hm ph nh.
V d : n(x) = 1 - x hay n(x) = 1 - x2 l cc hm ph nh.
Ta c nhn xt :
- Nu v(P1) < v(P2) th v(NOT P1) > v(NOT P2)
- v(NOT P) ph thuc lin tc vo v(P)
- v(NOT (NOT P)) = v(P)
nh ngha 2 (Phn b ca mt tp m):
c
Cho n l hm ph nh, phn b A ca tp m A l mt tp m vi hm thuc

v c xc nh bi :
A C (a) = n(A(a)) , vi mi a .
th ca hm thuc v c dng sau:
Ac
Hnh a
Hnh b
Hnh a : Hm thuc v ca tp m A
Hnh b : Hm thuc v ca tp m Ac
V d : vi n(x) = 1 - x th ta c :
A C (a) = n(A(a)) = 1-A(a) , vi mi a .
Cho = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, v A l tp m trong nh sau:

A = {(1,0), (2,1), (3,0.5), (4,0.3), (5,0.2)}
Ta c :
c
A = {(1,1), (2,0), (3,0.5), (4,0.7), (5,0.8)}

nh ngha 3:
a. Hm ph nh n l nghim ngt (strict) nu n l hm lin tc v gim
nghim ngt.
Trang 66

b. Hm ph nh n l mnh (strong) nu n l cht v tha n(n(x)) = x , x[0,
1].
nh ngha 4:
Hm = [a,b] [a,b] gi l mt t ng cu (automorphism) ca on [a,b]
nu n l hm lin tc, tng nghim ngt v (a) = a, (b) = b.
nh l 1:
Hm n:[0,1] [0,1] l hm ph nh mnh khi v ch khi c mt t ng cu
ca on [0,1] sao cho N(x) = N(x) = -1(1 - (x)).
nh l 2 :
Hm n: [0,1] [0,1] l hm ph nh nghim ngt khi v ch khi c hai php
t ng cu , ca [0,1] sao cho n(x) = (1- (x)).
4.4.2. Php giao

Php hi AND trong logic kinh in l c s nh ngha php giao ca 2 tp
m. AND tho cc tnh cht sau :
- v(P1 AND P2) ch ph thuc vo v(P1), v(P2).
- Nu v(P1)=1 th v(P1 AND P2) = v(P2) , vi mi P2
- Giao hon v(P1 AND P2) = v(P2 AND P1)
- Nu v(P1) v(P2) th v(P1 AND P3) v(P2 AND P3), vi mi P3
- Kt hp
v(P1 AND (P2 AND P3 )) = v((P1 AND P2 )AND P3 )
nh ngha 5:
Hm T : [0,1]2 [0,1] l php hi (t-chun) khi v ch khi tha cc iu kin
sau:
- T(1, x) = x, vi mi 0 x 1.
- T c tnh giao hon, ngha l : T(x,y) = T(y,x), vi mi 0 x,y 1.
- T khng gim theo ngha : T(x,y) T(u,v), vi mi x u, y v.
- T c tnh kt hp : T(x,T(y,z)) = T(T(x,y),x), vi mi 0 x,y,z 1.
T cc tnh cht trn c th suy ra T(0,x) = 0.
V d :
T(x,y) = min(x,y)
Trang 67

T(x,y) = max(0,x+y-1)
T(x,y) = x.y (tch i s ca x v y)
nh ngha 6:
Cho hai tp m A, B trn cng khng gian nn vi hm thuc v A(a),
B(a), cho T l mt php hi .
ng vi php hi T, tp giao ca hai tp m A, B l mt tp m trn vi hm
thuc v cho bi :
AB(a) = T(A(a), B(a)) a
Vi T(x,y)=min(x,y) ta c :
AB(a) = min(A(a), B(a))
Vi T(x,y) = x.y ta c:
AB(a) = A(a).B(a) (tch i s)
Ta c th biu din php giao ca hai tp m qua hai hm T(x,y)=min(x,y) v
T(x,y) = x.y theo cc th sau y:
- Hnh a : Hm thuc v ca hai tp m A v B
- Hnh b: Giao ca hai tp m theo T(x,y) = min(x,y)
- Hnh c: Giao ca hai tp m theo T(x,y) = x.y
A(x)
B(x)
A(x)
B(x)
Hnh a
A(x)
Hnh b
Hnh c
V d : Cho = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, v A, B l cc tp m trong nh sau:

A = {(1,0), (2,1), (3,0.5), (4,0.3), (5,0.2)}
B = {(1,0), (2,0.5), (3,0.7), (4,0.2), (5,0.4)}
Vi T(x,y) = min(x,y), ta c :
AB = {(1,0), (2,0.5), (3,0.5), (4,0.2), (5,0.2)}
AAc = {(1,0), (2,0.1), (3,0.5), (4,0.3), (5,0.2)}
Trang 68
B(x)
4.4.3. Php hp
Php tuyn OR trong logic kinh in l c s nh ngha php hp ca 2 tp
m. OR tho cc tnh cht sau :
- v(P1 OR P2) ch ph thuc vo v(P1), v(P2).
- Nu v(P1) = 0 th v(P1 OR P2) = v(P2) , vi mi P2
- Giao hon v(P1 OR P2) = v(P2 OR P1)
- Nu v(P1) v(P2) th v(P1 OR P3) v(P2 OR P3), vi mi P3
- Kt hp
v(P1 OR (P2 OR P3 )) = v((P1 OR P2 ) OR P3 ).
nh ngha 7:
Hm S :[0,1]2 [0,1] c gi l php tuyn (t- i chun) nu tha cc tin
sau :
- S(0, x) = x, vi mi 0 x 1.
- S c tnh giao hon, ngha l : S(x,y) = S(y,x), vi mi 0 x,y 1.
- S khng gim theo ngha : S(x,y) S(u,v), vi mi x u, y v.
- S c tnh kt hp : S(x,S(y,z)) = S(S(x,y),x), vi mi 0 x,y,z 1.
T cc tnh cht trn suy ra S(1,x) = 1.
V d :
S(x,y) = max(x,y)
S(x,y) = min(1, x+y)
S(x,y) = x + y - x.y
nh ngha 8:
Cho hai tp m A, B trn cng khng gian nn vi hm thuc v A(a),
B(a). Cho S l php tuyn , php hp ca hai tp m A, B l mt tp m trn vi
hm thuc v cho bi :
AB(a) = = S(A(a), B(a)) , a
Vi S(x,y) = max(x,y) ta c :
AB(a) = max(A(a), B(a))
( xem hnh a)
Vi S(x,y) = min(1, x+y)

AB(a) = min(1, A(a) + B(a))
(xem hnh b)
Vi S(x,y) = x + y + x.y
AB(a) = A(a) + B(a) - A(a).B(a)
Trang 69
(xem hnh c)

C th biu din giao ca cc tp m vi cc php ton trn bng cc th sau
:
A(x)
B(x)
A(x)
B(x)
A(x)
B(x)
Hnh a:
Hnh b
Hnh c

A = {(1,0), (2,1), (3,0.5), (4,0.3), (5,0.2)}
B = {(1,0), (2,0.5), (3,0.7), (4,0.2), (5,0.4)}
Ta c : AB = {(1,0), (2,1), (3,0.7), (4,0.3), (5,0.4)}
AAc = {(1,1), (2,1), (3,0.5), (4,0.7), (5,0.8)}
4.4.4. Mt s qui tc
Trong logic r vi hai gi tr ng, sai, c nhiu qui tc n gin m chng ta
thng s dng xem nh tnh cht hin nhin.
c
V d : vi bt k tp r A , ta c: AA = v A A = .
Thc ra, nhng qui tc ny c c l nh vo s xy dng ton hc trc .
Chuyn sang l thuyt tp m th hai tnh cht quen dng ny khng cn ng na.
Do , chng ta cn xem xt li mt s tinh cht.
Tnh ly ng (demportancy)
Chng ta ni T l ly ng nu T(x,x) = x, x[0,1].
Tng t, S l ly ng nu S(x,x) = x, x[0,1].
Tnh hp thu (absorption)
C hai dng hp thu :
- T(S(x,y),x) = x ,
x,y[0,1].
- S(T(x,y),x) = x ,
x,y[0,1].
Trang 70

Tnh phn phi (distributivity)
C hai biu thc xc nh tnh phn phi:
- S(x,T(y,z)) = T(S(x,y), S(x,z)), x,y,z[0,1].
- T(x,S(y,z)) = S(T(x,y), T(x,z)), x,y,z[0,1].
Lut De Morgan
Cho T l t-chun, S l t-i chun, n l php ph nh. Chng ta c b ba
(T,S,n) l mt b ba De Morgan nu :
n(S(x,y)) = T(nx,ny)
4.4.5. Php ko theo

Chng ta s xt php ko theo nh mt mi quan h, mt ton t logic.
Ta c cc tin sau cho hm v(P1 P2) :
- v(P1 P2) ch ph thuc vo v(P1), v(P2).
- Nu v(P1) v(P3) th v(P1 P2) v(P3 P2), P2
- Nu v(P2) v(P3) th v(P1 P2) v(P1 P3), P1
- Nu v(P1) = 0 th v(P1 P) = 1 ,
P.
- Nu v(P1) = 1 th v(P P1) = 1 ,
P.
- Nu v(P1) = 1 v v(P2) = 0 th v(P1 P2) = 0.

Tnh hp l ca nhng tin ny da vo logic kinh in v nhng t duy trc
quan ca php suy din. T tin ban u (v(P1 P2) ch ph thuc vo v(P1),
v(P2)) khng nh s tn ti ca hm s I(x,y) xc nh trn [0,1]2 vi mong mun tnh
chn tr ca php ko theo qua biu thc
v(P1 P2) = I(v(P1), v(P2))
nh ngha 9:
Php ko theo ca mt hm s I : [0,1]2 [0,1] tha cc iu kin sau :
- Nu x z th I(x,y) I(z,y),
y[0,1].
- Nu y u th I(x,y) I(z,y),
x[0,1].
- I(0,x) = 1, x[0,1].
- I(x,1) = 1,
x[0,1].
- I(1,0) = 0
nh ngha 10:
Trang 71

Cho T l t-chun, A l t-i chun, n l php ph nh. Hm IS(x,y) xc nh
trn [0,1]2 bng biu thc :
IS(x,y) = S(n(x),y)
A = {(1,0), (2,1), (3,0.5), (4,0.3), (5,0.2)}
B = {(1,0), (2,0.5), (3,0.7), (4,0.2), (5,0.4)}
Vi S(x,y) = max(x,y) v n(x) = 1 - x ta c :
Is (0,0) = S(n(0),0) = 1
Is (1,0.5) = S(n(1),0.5) = 0.5
Is (0.5,0.7) = S(n(0.5),0.7) = 0.7
Is (0.3,0.2) = S(n(0.3),0.2) = 0.7
Is (0.2,0.4) = S(n(0.2),0.4) = 0.8
4.5.
Logic m
4.5.1. nh ngha mnh m

Trong logic r th mnh l mt cu pht biu c gi tr ng hoc sai. Trong
logic m th mi mnh m l mt cu pht biu khng nht thit l ng hoc sai.
Mnh m c gn cho mt gi tr trong khong t 0 n 1 ch mc ng (
thuc v) ca n.
V d : " Nam trng kh p trai"
" Chic xe ny chy cng c y".
" C y sng tm gi l hnh phc".
Cho = {P1, P2, ...} vi P1, P2, ... l cc mnh . Tp m A trn tng
ng vi nh x v nh sau:
v:
[0, 1]
Pi v(Pi)
Ta gi v(Pi) l chn tr ca mnh Pi trn [0, 1].
Cc php ton trn mnh m l cc php ton logic m da trn cc tp m.
K hiu mc ng (chn tr) ca mnh m P l v(P). Ta c : 0 v(P) 1.
Trang 72
4.5.2. Cc php ton trn logic m

Cc php ton mnh trong logic m c nh ngha nh sau:
. Php ph nh :
v( P ) = 1 - v(P)
. Php tuyn :
v(P1 P2) = max(v(P1), v(P2))
. Php hi :
v(P1 P2) = min(v(P1), v(P2))
V d 1:
Cho P, Q, R l cc mnh m vi : v(P) = 0.1, v(Q)= 0.9, v(R) = 0.8.
Mnh M = (PQ)R c chn tr ( thuc v) l : 0.8
. Php ko theo:
v(PQ) = v( P Q) = max(v( P ), v(Q))
V d 2:
Cho P, Q l cc mnh m vi : v(P) = 0.1, v(Q)= 0.6
Mnh v(PQ) = v( P Q) = max(v( P ), v(Q)) = max(1- 0.1, 0.6) = 0.9
4.6.
Suy din m (Fuzzy inference)
Suy din m hay cn gi l suy lun xp x l qu trnh suy ra nhng kt lun

di dng cc mnh m trong iu kin ca qui tc "Nu... Th...", vi cc d liu
u vo cho trc l khng c r rng.
Thng thng, suy din m hay s dng lut Modus Ponnens hoc Modus
Tollen. Trong logic r, Modus Ponnen din t nh sau:
Mnh 1 (Lut hoc tri thc):
PQ
Mnh 2 (s kin):
P ng
Kt lun :
Q ng
Trong suy din m, lut c din t di dng sau :

Lut m :
Nu x=A th y=B
S kin m :
x=A'
Kt lun :
y=B'
Trang 73

trong A, A' l cc tp m trn khng gian nn U, B v B' l cc tp m trn
khng gian nn V.
V d :
Lut m :
Nu gc tay quay ga ln th xe i nhanh
S kin m : Gc tay quay kh ln

Kt lun :
Xe i kh nhanh
Trong logic r Modus Tollen c dng:

Mnh 1 (Lut hoc tri thc):
PQ
Mnh 2 (s kin):
Q ng
Kt lun :
P ng
Trong suy din m, lut c din t di dng sau :

Lut m (hoc tri thc m):
PQ
S kin m :
Q kh ng
Kt lun :
P kh ng
V d :
Lut m :
Nu gc tay quay ga ln th xe i nhanh
S kin m : Xe khng i nhanh lm

Kt lun :
Gc tay quay khng ln lm
ng dng suy din m vo trong bi ton thc t th vn mu cht m

chng ta cn thc hin l xy dng c ch lp lun xp x. Sau y, chng ti xin
trnh by mt ng dng suy lun xp x trong vic chn on bnh lao phi. Trong
phm vi ca chng ny, chng ti ch trnh by phn s lc v cch xy dng suy
lun xp x.
Trc ht chng ta hy i tm hiu v qui trnh chn on. Hin nay, khi mt
bnh nhn n khm ti mt vin lao, bc s tin hnh chn on theo cc bc sau:
Giai on 1: khm lm sng
- Khm ban u : nhn b ngoi (tc, da, mt,...)
- Hi v tnh trng ca c th bnh nhn c thm nhiu thng tin.
- T cc triu chng lm sng tin hnh chn on khng nh kh nng mc
bnh ca bnh nhn.
Trang 74

- Nu ht giai on ny, bc s khng c nghi ng g v bnh lao, ng ta s a
ra cu tr li ph nh bnh lao v c th gi v kh nng bnh nhn mc mt khc.
Bnh nhn s c khuyn l nn quay li nu bnh nng hn m khng r cn
nguyn.
- Ngc li, nu ti cui giai on lm sng bnh nhn b nghi l mc bnh
lao th giai on chn on th hai s c tin hnh c kt lun chc chn.
Giai on 2: khm cn lm sng
- Khm nghim m, ...
- Chp X quang.
Hu ht cc triu chng cn lm sng u c nh hng rt mnh n kh nng
mc bnh ca bnh nhn. V vy, bnh trng c khng nh hoc loi tr mt cch
chc chn trong giai on ny.
Sau , bc s s c kt lun v a ra mt phng n iu tr th. Nu bnh
trm trng th bnh nhn c iu tr lao phi th, nu khng qu trm trng thi iu
tr bng khng sinh. Bi v, nu thc t khng phi l lao phi m ch b vim phi th
iu tr khng sinh s em li kt qu tch cc. Ngc li, nu thc s mc bnh lao
phi th ch phng n iu tr lao phi mi c tc dng.
Ton b qui trnh c th hin qua lc sau:
Trang 75
Chn on lm sng
Khng bnh lao phi
Nghi ng bnh lao phi
Chn on cn lm sng
Khng nh lao phi
Loi tr lao phi

Khng c kt lun
iu tr lao phi
iu tr th
Bnh nng
Bnh khng qu nng
Th iu tr lao phi
khng hiu qu
Th iu tr khng sinh
Hi u qu tt
khng hiu qu
Khng nh v iu tr lao phi
Loi tr lao phi
Trang 76
Hi u qu tt

Xy dng suy din xp x :
C 3 i tng m chng ta cn quan tm :
1. Bnh nhn : k hiu l P (Patient)
2. Cc triu chng : S (Symptom)
Bao gm : lm sng, cn lm sng, ... gi chung l cc triu chng. Ta c
:
S = {S1, S2, ..., Sn}
3. Bnh cn chn on : lao phi D (Disease)
Nhn thy gia cc i tng trn xut hin nhng quan h m :
Quan h triu chng - bnh nhn : RSP
Quan h ny c s dng lm thng tin u vo cho c ch lp lun trong qu
trnh chn on, c xc nh bi SP [0,1]. Gi tr ny th hin mc xut hin
ca triu chng S trn bnh nhn P. Ni cch khc, RSP l mt tp m c hm thuc
v xc nh nh sau:
SP : RSP [0,1]
Vi SP = 0 c ngha l chc chn bnh nhn khng c triu chng S.
Vi SP = 1 c ngha l chc chn bnh nhn c triu chng S.
Vi 0 < SP < 1 c ngha l bnh nhn c triu chng S vi mc xut hin
l SP.
V d : Gi s xem xt mc st ca bnh nhn a ra liu lung thuc,
c cc pht biu m (lut m) nh sau :
IF st nh THEN liu lng asperine thp
IF st THEN liu lng asperine bnh thng
IF st cao THEN liu lng asperine cao
IF st rt cao THEN liu lng asperine cao nht
Trang 77
37
38
38.7 39
T
0
SC
SN
200
40
600
41
BT
400
SRC
800
CN
1000
mg
Thng thng ngi ta s thc hin 3 bc:

M ha (fuzzyfication) gi tr nhp vo
Suy lun M
Kh tnh m (defuzzyfication) cho gi tr xut ra
Vy nu bnh nhn st 38.7
=> liu lng k n l 480mg
Phn => l c qu trnh kh tnh m (lm r ha) chng ti khng trnh by
chi tit y, c th da vo th suy ra kt qu.
Ngoi ra, i khi bc s phi i n kt lun "khng r" i vi mt triu chng
no . Khi , SP c nh ngha l mt gi tr rt b nh sau: SP = 0
K tip, chng ta phi xc nh quan h bnh nhn - bnh lao phi : RPD . Xc
nh mi quan h ny cng c ngha l a ra kt qu chn on v kh nng mc
bnh ca bnh nhn.
4.7.
Tng kt chng 4
Tt c nhng kin thc trnh by trong chng ny ch l phn c bn
ca l thuyt tp m v logic m. Chng ti khng i su vo chi tit m ch nhm

mc ch trnh by cc khi nim v cc php ton sinh vin nm bt c vn
l bn cnh logic r cn c logic m. Sinh vin c th tm hiu su hn v logic m
nm th t trong phn ng dng logic m vo iu khin t ng ha (dnh cho lp
in t) hay ng dng logic m trong tr tu nhn to. Tuy vy, hy vng rng vi cc
c s kin thc nn v logic mnh , suy lun ton hc, v t v l thuyt tp m
trong gio trnh ny l hnh trang hu ch i vo cc tri thc cao hn.
Trang 78
4.8.
Bi tp chng 4
1. Cho = {6, 2, 7, 4, 9}, cc tp m A, B, C trn tng ng vi nh x A , B v

C nh sau:
A = {(6,0.2), (2,0.9), (7,0.5), (4,0.3), (9,0.2)}
B = {(6,0), (2,1), (7,0.5), (4,0.6), (9,0.1)}
C = {(6,0.3), (2,0.1), (7,1), (4,0), (9,0.5)}
a/ Tnh cc tp AC, BC v CC vi hm thuc v l 1-x
b/ Tnh AB, BC, ABC, ACC, ACC vi T(x,y) = min(x,y)
c/ Tnh AB, BC, ABC, ACC, ACC vi S(x,y) = max(x,y)
2. Cho cc tp m A,B,C c nh ngha trn nn s nguyn = [0,5] vi cc hm
thuc v nh sau: A =
x
x+2
v B =
1
x
Hy xc nh cc tp m sau dng lit k v th :

a/ Tnh cc tp AC, BC v CC vi hm thuc v l 1-x
b/ Tnh AB, BC, ABC, ACC, ACC vi T(x,y) = min(x,y)
c/ Tnh AB, BC, ABC, ACC, ACC vi S(x,y) = max(x,y)
3. Thit lp m hnh phn loi sinh vin qua cc tp m sinh vin cn c, sinh vin
thng minh v sinh vin li.
4. Cho A l tp m xc nh trn nn X. Hy ch ra rng biu thc ACC = X khng
ng nh i vi tp hp kinh in.
5. Kim tra xem tp m A, B vi cc hm thuc v xc nh bi tp 2 l tha hai
cng thc ca De Morgan.
Trang 79
CHNG 4 : L THUYT TP M & LOGIC M ........................................................ 61

4.1. Tng quan ............................................................................................................... 61
4.2. Gii thiu ................................................................................................................ 61
4.3. Khi nim tp m (fuzzy set) ................................................................................. 62
4.4. Cc php ton v tp m......................................................................................... 65
4.4.1. Php b ............................................................................................................ 65
4.4.2. Php giao ......................................................................................................... 67
4.4.3. Php hp.......................................................................................................... 69
4.4.4. Mt s qui tc .................................................................................................. 70
4.4.5. Php ko theo .................................................................................................. 71
4.5. Logic m................................................................................................................. 72
4.5.1. nh ngha mnh m .................................................................................. 72
4.5.2. Cc php ton trn logic m............................................................................ 73
4.6. Suy din m (Fuzzy inference)............................................................................... 73
4.7. Tng kt chng 4 .................................................................................................. 78
4.8. Bi tp chng 4..................................................................................................... 79
Trang 80
Predicates and Quantifiers: Suggested Exercises

1. Write each of the following expressions so that negations are only applied to propositional functions
(and not quantifiers or connectives).

!"#
" $%" "
&!' "(
"!)
"(!*
+"#-,#" "
2. Let
= likes , where the universe of discourse for and is the set of all people. For each
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
of the following, translate the expression to English, and tell the truth value.

/.10 2354

3. Let
" =(68796;:<"#6 , where the universe of discourse for all variables is the set of integers.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
What are the truth values of each of the following?

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
="#
"
>!"=
+"#
"=
+"#
"#
"
="#
"
"=
+"#
"#
?+@ +"#

/A>

@=
4. Write each of the following sentences using quantifiers and propositional functions (if it is possible).
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
All disc golfers play ultimate frisbee.

If all students in my class do their homework, then some of the students will pass.
If none of the students in my class study, then all of the students in my class will fail.
Not everybody knows how to throw a frisbee 300 feet.
Some people like ice cream, and some people like cake, but everybody needs to drink water.
Everybody loves somebody.
Everybody is loved by somebody.
Not everybody is loved by everybody.
Nobody is loved by everybody.
You cant please all of the people all of the time, but you can please some of the people some of
the time.
(k) If only somebody would give me some money, I would buy a new house.
(l) Nobody loves me, everybody hates me, Im going to eat some worms.
(m) Every rose has its thorn, and every night has its dawn.
Rules of Inference
Tautology
p(pq)
(pq)p
((p)(q)) (pq)
[p(pq)]q
Rule
Addition
Simplification
Conjunction
Modus Ponens
[q(pq)]p
[(pq)(qr)](pr)
[(pq) p]q
(pq) (qp)
Modus Tollens
Hypothetical Syllogism
Disjunctive Syllogism
Contrapositive
Rules of Inference for Quantifiers

x P(x)
P(c) if cU
Universal instantiation
P(c) for arbitrary cU

x P(x)
Universal generalization
x P(x)
P(c) for some cU
Existential instantiation
P(c) for some cU

x P(x)
Existential generalization
Equivalence Relations
Definition: A relation on a set is called an equivalence

relation if it is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive. Recall the
definitions:
for all
.

implies
, for

and

when

transitive:
for

symmetric:

reflexive:
If two elements are related by an equivalence relation, they

are said to be equivalent.
Examples
1. Let be the relation on the set of English words such

if and only if starts with the same letter as .
that
Then is an equivalence relation.

2. Let be the relation on the set of all human beings such

if and only if was born in the same country as
that
. Then is an equivalence relation.

3. Let be the relation on the set of all human beings such

if and only if owns the same color car as .
that
Then is an not equivalence relation.

Congruence Modulo

Let
be a positive integer. Then the relation

is an equivalence relation.
if and only if
Proof: By definition,
, for some integer . Using this,we proceed:

, and

, for some integer .

, and we have
, so

, then
If
Thus,
is symmetric.
, we have that
Since
is reflexive.

!

, and
Therefore, congruence modulo
"!

and we have

, then we have
, for integers and . Thus,
, and
and
If
is transitive.
is an equivalence relation
Definition: Let be an equivalence relation on a set . The

equivalence class of is

&
'
$%
#
$%
#
In words,
is the set of all elements that are related to the
. If the relation is clear, we can omit the
element
instead of
).
subscript (i.e.
, then is called a representative of the equivalence
If
class.
$%
#
#
$%
#
Examples Continued
1. The equivalence class of Xenon is all words starting with
the letter X. That is,
is an English word starting with the letter X

Xenon
2. The equivalence class of Chuck Cusack is all people born

in the United States of America. That is,

is a person that was born in the U.S.A.

Chuck Cusack
$(
#

&
&

&
,

)
/.
)
&
&
&
'
$+
*)#
&
&
2
&
&
43$
&
&
&
/.

.
1

/5
&
1
&

&
&
&
$0
#
43$
*2#
is denoted by
modulo
The congruence class of an integer
.
Example: Congruence Classes Modulo
Thus,
Equivalence Classes and Partitions

Theorem 1: Let be an equivalence relation on a set . The

following statements are equivalent:

9
, and
8$
#
$
#
76$
#
&)
-&
&
Proof: Show that
Notice that this theorem says that if the intersection of two

equivalence classes is not empty, then they are equal. That is,
two equivalence classes are either equal or disjoint.
Definition: A partition of a set is a collection of disjoint

nonempty subsets of whose union is . That is, a partition
such that
of is a collections of subsets ,
;
>
=
<

6<
= 8
when
>
9
<8
=
for
and
?

&;

A
<
<
BC

&
&
D
&
.)
>
>
( is an index set. For example, often
Theorem 2: Let be an equivalence relation on a set .

Then the equivalence classes of form a partition of .
of the set , there
Conversely, given a partition
, as its
is an equivalence relation that has the sets ,
equivalence classes.
;
>
=
<
>
=
<
$%
#
Proof (informal): The equivalence classes of an equivalence

), and by Theorem 1 are
relation are nonempty (since
disjoint. Since every element of the set is in some
), the equivalence classes
equivalence class (e.g.
partition .
;
$%
#
10
>
=
<
(Proof of Theorem 2, continued)

Now, assume we have a partition
of a set .
Define a relation on by
if and only if
for
some . It is not hard to see that this is an equivalence relation

<
Example: We can partition the set of integers according to

the equivalence classes modulo as follows:
L
L
M
LM
PF
Q
M
FM
N M
PF
N M
O
7LK
IJ H+
GFE
L
M
WVM
LM
P
Z
O
N M
Y
7LK
O
N M
T
7LK
I\ H+
U E
N M
7LK
IJ H+
Z E
N M
7LK
IJ H+
7XE
IS H+
P E
R
L
L
LM
Z
LM
PX
W[M
XM
R
L
P
Y
M
R
O
N M
N M
O
V
N M
[
N M
7LR
T
M
LM
11
Example: Let be the equivalence relation on the set of

if and only if starts with the
English words defined by
same letter as . Then we can partition the set of English
words as follows:

D
&
bc
&
&

D]

^
d #
e

_ #
#
&
&

&

_
`

_
^
a
`
&
&
&

&
&
&
&
b
b
f
d
d
^`
d
12
Logical Equivalences
Equivalence
Name
pT T
Domination laws
pF F
pT p
Identity laws
pF p
pp p
Idempotent laws
pp p
(p) p
Double negation law
pp T
Cancellation laws
pp F
pq qp
(Unofficial name)
Commutative laws
pq qp
(pq)r p(qr)
Associative laws
(pq)r p(qr)
p(qr) (pq)(pr)
Distributive laws
p(qr) (pq)(pr)
(pq) pq
De Morgans laws
(pq) pq
(pq) (pq)
Implication law

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Chng 1: i s mnh

Hc xong chng ny, sinh vin phi nm bt c cc vn sau:

Kin thc c bn cn thit

Ti liu tham kho

Mi cu pht biu l ng hay l sai c gi l mt mnh .

Tam gic u c 3 cnh bng nhau

Washington D.C. l th ca Hoa K

"Tam gic u c 3 cnh bng nhau" v

"Washington D.C. l th ca Hoa K" l cc mnh ng. Cn cc cu xc nh

Mt s thc m khng phi l s chnh phng

Cu "Hm nay l th my ? " khng l mnh v n ch l mt cu hi khng

chn tr. Cc lut l ch ng cch kt hp mang tnh chnh xc ca php ton i s.

Cc php tnh mnh

Trong php tnh mnh , ngi ta khng quan tm n ngha ca cu pht

1.3.1. Php ph nh (NEGATION)

Bng chn tr (truth table)

1.3.2. Php hi (CONJUNCTION)

Qui tc : Hi ca 2 mnh ch ng khi c hai mnh l ng. Cc trng

1.3.3. Php tuyn (DISJUNCTION)

Qui tc : Tuyn ca 2 mnh ch sai khi c hai mnh l sai. Cc trng

1.3.4. Php XOR

1.3.5. Php ton trn bit

V d : Tm OR bit, AND bit v XOR bit i vi 2 xu sau y (mi xu

1.3.6. Php ko theo (IMPLICATION)

T mnh P Q, chng ta c th to ra cc mnh ko theo khc nh l

1.3.7. Php tng ng (BICONDITIONAL)

Biu thc mnh (LOGICAL CONNECTIVES)

Cho P, Q, R,... l cc mnh . Nu cc mnh ny lin kt vi nhau bng cc

. Mt mnh cng l mt biu thc mnh

. Nu P l mt biu thc mnh th P cng l biu thc mnh

Do biu thc mnh l s lin kt ca nhiu mnh bng cc php ton nn

Q: mi ngi s khm phc c y

Biu din cu pht biu trn thnh mt cy ng ngha nh sau :

Nu Michelle thng trong k thi Olympic, mi ngi s

Nu Michelle thng trong k thi

Cc ng dng ca Logic (EVERDAY LOGICAL)

V d 4 : Logic trong tnh ton

- Gi s Kelly ni ng ngha l Tyler n bnh v 3 cu cn li l sai. Nh vy,

Cch gii quyt : Trc ht, chng ta s phi xc nh xem 2 mnh ng v 1

(loi v x, y l nguyn dng nn khng th c x + y = 1)

Cc thut ng chuyn ngnh (SOME TERMINOLOGY)

1.6.1. nh ngha Hng ng (Tautologie):

1.6.2. nh ngha Hng sai (Contradiction):

1.6.3. nh ngha tip lin (Contingency):

Vy (P Q ) Q l mt tip lin v n khng phi l hng ng v cng khng phi

nh ngha : Cho F v G l 2 biu thc mnh . Ngi ta ni rng G l mnh

Tng ng Logic (LOGICALLY EQUIVALENT)

nh ngha 2 : Hai mnh P v Q c gi l tng ng logic nu

Mnh P v Q tng ng logic c k hiu l P Q (hay P = Q)

Xt xem hai mnh trn l c tng ng logic khng ?

Vy F v G l tng ng logic hay F=G.

Bng cc tng ng logic thng dng

Double negation law

(Not an offical name)

Domination laws : lut nut

Double negation law : lut ph nh kp

( sinh vin t chng minh xem nh bi tp )

V d 1 : Khng lp bng chn tr, s dng cc tng ng logic chng

Chng minh rng

((q p)) ( p q) ((q p)) ( p q)

V d 3 : p dng trong lp trnh

while(NOT(A[i]!=0 AND NOT(A[i]>= 10)))

while( A[i]==0 OR A[i]>= 10)

if ((2m=n) and (n div 4 =1) then n:= 4m - 3 ;

if ((n<8) or (m div 2=2)) then n:= 2m else m:= 2n ;

if mn <> 35 then n:= 3m+7 ;