___________________________________________ Chng 3

Cc loi m trong truyn d liu

III - 1

CHNG 3

CC LOI M TRONG TRUYN D LIU

M NH PHN
M Baudot
M ASCII
M EBCDIC

CC M PHT HIN LI
Kim tra chn l
Kim tra khi
Kim tra d tha theo chu k
M Hamming

M NN D LIU
M Huffman
M Run-length
M vi phn

MT M
M Caesar
M a mu t
M chuyn v
M DES
__________________________________________________________________________________________
____

Tin tc bao gm cc vn bn, s liu, hnh nh . . . . cn c m ha bng tp hp cc

s nh phn trc khi c chuyn i thnh cc tn hiu s truyn i
Mt yu t quan trng trong h thng thng tin l chnh xc, thiu yu t ny h
thng xem nh khng c gi tr s dng, nn km theo bn tin thng phi thm vo cc t
m c kh nng pht hin li v thm ch sa c li.
Ngoi ra, nu s lng bit dng m ha cng mt i tng cng t th vi cng
vn tc truyn, lng thng tin truyn ca h thng cng ln m li hn ch c kh nng
xy ra li. Do vic gim s lng bit dng m ha cng l mt vn cn c quan tm.
Chng ny bn n mt s phng php m ha d liu ph bin to cc loi m
c kh nng pht hin li, pht hin v sa li, cc loi m nn.

3.1 M NH PHN CA CC CH S
biu din cc ch v s ngi ta dng cc m nh phn. Mt s nh phn n bit biu
th c 2n k t (ch, s, cc du hiu ....)
Cc b m ph bin trong truyn d liu l : m Baudot, m ASCII v m EBCDIC

3.1.1 M Baudot
L b m nh phn dng 5 bit biu din ch s v mt s du hiu.
Bng 3.1 B m Baudot
M

Ch

Du/S

Ch

Du/S

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III - 2
110001001101
110100101000
010110010110
010101100110
101111001001
0011100110
00011
01101

A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P

Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
X
Y
Z
LTRS
FIGS
SPC
CR
LF
NULL

11101
01010
10100
00001
11100
01111
11001
10111
10101
10001
11111
11011
00100
00010
01000
00000

?
:
$
3
!
&
#
8
'
(
)
.
,
9
0

1
4
BELL
5
7
;
2
/
6
"
LTRS
FIGS
SPC
CR
LF
NULL

Vi n = 5 ch c 25 = 32 m khc nhau, khng biu din cc k t ch v s nn

mt s m phi biu th c hai v chng c phn bit bng cch km theo k t FIGS hoc
LTRS trc.
Th d: m ca on vn NO. 27 c dng nh sau :
LTRS
N
O
FIGS
.
SPC
2
7
11111
00110
00011
11011
00111
00100
11001
11100
Khi dng m Baudot truyn bt ng b, s bit stop lun lun l 1,5

3.1.2 M ASCII
L b m thng dng nht trong truyn d liu. M ASCII dng s nh phn 7 bit nn
c 2 = 128 m, tng i din t cc ch, s v mt s du hiu thng dng. T iu
khin dng trong cc giao thc truyn thng thng ly trong bng m ASCII.
Khi truyn bt ng b dng m ASCII s bit stop l 1 hoc 2.
Bng 3.2 trnh by m ASCII cng cc t iu khin.
7

* T iu khin trong vn bn:

BS (Back space): ch c ch in hay con tr c di lui mt v tr. N c th c
dng in 2 k t mt v tr (thng dng gch di) hay in m mt k t (in 1 k
t 2 ln cng v tr). Trn mn hnh (CRT) ch sau s thay cho ch trc.
HT (Horizontal Tab): ch c ch in hay con tr c di ti v tr tab k cn hay v tr
dng.
LF (Line Feed): ch c ch in hay con tr c di xung u dng k.
VT (Vertical Tab): ch c ch in hay con tr c di n dng k ca chui dng
nh du.
FF (Form Feed): ch c ch in hay con tr c di n im bt u ca trang (mn
nh) sau
CR (Cariage Return): ch c ch in hay con tr c di n im bt u trn cng
mt dng
Bng 3.2
Bit
Bit

M ASCII
765
4321

000
0

001
1

010
2

011
3

100
4

101
5

110
6

111
7

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III - 3
0000
0001
0010
0011
0100
0101
0110
0111
1000
1001
1010
1011
1100
1101
1110
1111

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
A
B
C
D
E
F

NULL
SOH
STX
ETX
EOT
ENQ
ACK
BEL
BS
HT
LF
VT
FF
CR
SO
SI

DLED
C1
DC2
DC3
DC4
NAK
SYN
ETB
CAN
EM
SUB
ESC
FS
GS
RS
US

Th d: k t D l 1000100 = 44H

SP
!
"
#
$
%
&
`
(
)
*
+
,
.
/

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
:
;
<
=
>
?

@
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O

P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
X
Y
Z
[
\
]
^()
_()

'
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
j
k
l
m
n
o

p
q
r
s
t
u
v
w
x
y
z
{
|
}
~
DEL

ngha cc t trong bng m ASCII

* T iu khin trong truyn thng

SOH (Start of Heading): bt u ca phn u bn tin. N c th cha a ch, chiu
di bn tin hay d liu dng cho kim tra li.
STX (Start of Text): bt u vn bn ng thi kt thc phn u. Thng i i vi
ETX.
ETX (End of Text): kt thc vn bn
EOT (End of Transmission): chm dt truyn
ENQ (Enquiry): yu cu mt i xa t xc nh (identify itself).
ACK (Acknowledge) : t pht bi my thu bo cho my pht nhn bn tin ng.
NAK (Negative Acknowledgment): t pht bi my thu bo nhn bn tin sai.
SYN (Synchronous/Idle): dng bi mt h thng truyn ng b thc hin ng
b. Khi khng c d liu pht, my pht ca h thng ng b pht lin tc cc t SYN
ETB (End of Transmission Block): ch s chm dt mt khi ca bn tin.
* Information separator
FS (File Separator), GS (Group Separator), RS (Record Separator), US (United
Separator): Dng cho s phn cch. Ch u ch thnh c phn cch (F: File, G: Group, R:
Record (bng ghi), U: Unit (n v))
* Miscellaneous (Linh tinh)
NUL (Null): k t rng, dng lp y khong trng khi khng c d liu
BEL (Bell): dng khi cn bo s lu .
SO (Shift Out): ch cc t hp m theo sau c thng dch bi k t ngoi tp hp k
t chun cho ti khi gp t Shift In.
SI (Shift In): ch tp hp m theo sau c thng dch bi k t chun.
DEL (Delete): dng b t
SP (Space): khong cch t
DLE (Data Link Escape): dng ch s thay i ngha ca cc t theo sau. N c th
cung cp mt s iu khin ph, hay cho php gi k t d liu c mt t hp bit bt k.
DC1, DC2, DC3, DC4 (Device Control): t dng cho s iu khin thit b.
CAN (Cancel): ch d liu t trc n khng c gi tr, do d c li.
EM (End of Medium): ch s kt thc v mt vt l ca mt card, bng hay mi
trng khc.
SUB (Substitute): thay th mt t b li hoc khng c gi tr
ESC (Escape) : t tng cng cung cp mt m m rng.
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III - 4

3.1.3 M EBCDIC (Extended BCD Information Code)

L b m 8 bit c dng rng ri trong h thng thng tin dng my tnh IBM.
Bng 3.3 trnh by m EBCDIC v cc k t iu khin. V m k t chim 8 bit nn
mun dng parity phi dng bit th 9 (cc thanh ghi trong cc USART thng c 8 bit) do
m EBCDIC thng c dng trong nhng chc nng c bit nh trong cc ng dng
ha.

Bng 3.3 M EBCDIC

High
Lw
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
A
B
C
D
E
F

NULL
SOH
STX
ETX
PF
HT
LC
DEL

DLE
DC1
DC2
DC3
RES
NL
BS
IL
CAN
EM
CC

DS
SOS
FS

SYN

BYP
LF
ETB
ESP

PN
RS
UC
EOT

RLF
SMM
VT
FF
CR
SO
SI

IFS
IGS
IRS
IUS

SP

&

SM
ENQ
ACK
BEL

DC4
NAK
SUB

(
+

!
$
*
)

%
?

a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i

J
k
l
m
n
o
p
q
r

s
t
u
v
w
x
y
z

A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I

J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R

S
T
U
V
W
X
Y
Z

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

:
#
@
,
=

Cc m iu khin khng c trong ASCII l :

PF Punch Off
CC
LC Lower Case
IFS
UC Upper Case
IGS
RLF Reverse Line Feed
IUS
SMM Start of Manual Message
IRS
RES Restore
DS
NL New Line
SOS
ID Idle
BYP
SM Set Mode
RS
PN Punch On

Cursor Control
Interchange File Separator
Interchange Group Separator
Interchange Unit Separator
Interchange Record Separator
Digit Selector
Start of Significance
Bypass
Reader Top

3.2 CC M PHT HIN LI

Nhm pht hin li ngi ta thm vo dng d liu cc bit kim tra. Phng php ny
gi chung l kim tra li d tha (Redundancy error check methode), t d tha c dng v
cc bit thm vo khng phi l phn thng tin cn gi i.

3.2.1 Kim tra chn l

- Dng kim tra chn l d ra mt bit sai:
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III - 5

y l phng php kim tra n gin nht, bng cch thm vo sau chui d liu
(thng l mt k t) mt bit sao cho tng s bit 1 k c bit thm vo l s chn (hoc l),
my thu kim tra li tng s ny bit c li hay khng. Phng php n gin nn cht
lng khng cao, nu s li l chn th my thu khng nhn ra.
- Dng kim tra chn l d sai hai bit:
V mi ln thc hin kim tra chn l cho php d ra mt bit li nn ta c th ngh
rng nu thc hin nhiu php kim tra ng thi cho php d c nhiu li.
Th d, d ra 2 li ca mt chui d liu c th thc hin hai php kim tra, mt
vi cc bit chn v mt vi cc bit l.
Cho chui d liu: 01101000
Ln lt thc hin kim tra chn vi cc bit v tr 1, 3, 5, 7 v cc bit v tr 2, 4, 6,
8. Gi P1 v P2 l cc bit kim tra:
P1=0+1+1+0 = 0
v
P2=1+0+0+0 = 1.
Chui d liu pht: 01101000 01.
My thu d ra li khi 2 bit lin tip b sai. Tuy nhin, nu hai bit sai u l 2 bit chn
(hoc 2 bit l) th my thu cng khng d ra.
- Dng kim tra chn l d ra mt chui bit sai:
i khi nhiu lm sai c mt chui d liu (ta gi l burst errors), d ra c
chui bit sai ny, ngi ta bt chc cch lu v truyn d liu ca my tnh (lu tng bit ca
mt byte trong cc chip ring truyn trn cc ng khc nhau v ni nhn s ti hp)
thc hin vic kim tra. Chui d liu s c chia ra thnh cc khung (frames), thc hin
kim tra cho tng khung, thay v pht mi ln mt khung, ngi ta pht cc t hp bit cng v
tr ca cc khung, nhiu c th lm hng mt trong cc t hp ny v chui bit sai ny c th
c nhn ra my thu.
Th d di y minh ha cho vic kim tra pht hin chui d liu sai:
Gi

Nhn

Bit parity
S khung
Bit parity
S
ca tng
(hng)
ca tng
khung
hng
1
hng
(hng)
1
01101
2
1
01101
1

0
10001
3
0
10001
2
Nhiu tc
1*
01100
4
1
01110
3
ng vo
1
11001
5
1
11001
4
ct 4,
0*
01000
6
0
01010
5
lm cho
0*
10101
7
0
10111
6
tt c
0
01100
8
0
01100
7
cc bit = 0
1*
0
0
1
0
1
9
1
00111
8

1*
10001
10
1
10011
9
0
11000
S ct
0
11000
10
6
12345
6
12345
S ct
My thu d ra cc khung c li (cc bit parity c du *) nhng khng xc nh c
ct no b sai do phi yu cu my pht pht li tt c cc ct
- Kim tra khi:
Mt ci tin ca kim tra chn l l kim tra khi (Block Check Character, BCC). Bn tin
c vit thnh khi v vic kim tra chn l c thc hin theo c 2 chiu dc (Vertical
Redundancy Check, VRC) v ngang (Longitudinal Redundancy Check, LRC)
Gi cc bit ca mi k t l bij (i=1,....., n l th t cc bit trong k t ; j=1,...., m l
th t ca k t)
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III - 6

Rj l bit parity ca k t th j, gi s chn parity chn, ta c :

Rj = b1j + b2j + ...........+ bnj
Ci l bt parity ca tt c bt th i
Ci = bi1 + bi2 + ...........+ bim +
Tp hp cc bit Ri (j = 1,.......,m) dng kim tra chiu dc v tp hp cc bit Ci (i =
1,......,n) dng kim tra chiu ngang.
(H 3.1) cho ta dng ca khi d liu c thc hin kim tra chn theo chiu ngang v
dc.
Character 1

bit 1
B11

2
B21

.......
.......

bit n
Bn1

Parity
R1

Character 2

B12

B22

.......

Bn2

R2

10110111 VRC
11010111
00111010
11110000
10001011

Character m

B1m

B2m

.......

bnm

Rm

01011111

Parity check char.

C1

C2

.......
(H 3.1)

Cn

Cn+1

01111110 LRC

Phng php kim tra khi cho php pht hin v sa mt li v xc nh c v tr

ca li , chnh l giao im ca hng v ct c bit sai.
My thu c kh nng pht hin hai li sai trn cng mt hng hoc ct nhng khng
xc nh c v tr bit li. V d hai bit 1 v 3 ca k t th nht cng sai th bit kim tra
VRC khng pht hin c nhng bit LRC th thy ngay. Nu by gi c thm cc bit 1 v 3
ca k t th 5 cng sai th my thu s khng pht hin c, nh vy cng cn trng hp
khng pht hin c li nu s li l mt s chn theo nhng v tr xc nh no , tuy
nhin trng hp ny rt him xy ra.
Tm li, dng kim tra chn l cho php pht hin li trong mt s trng hp, tuy
nhin hiu sut pht s b gim v ch c dng trong cc h thng c vn tc truyn thp
(bt ng b). Trong cc h thng truyn ng b ngi ta hay s dng m CRC , m ny cho
php d li rt hiu qu v hiu sut truyn cng cao.

3.2.2 Kim tra d tha theo chu k

ci thin hn na vic kim tra li ngi ta dng phng php kim tra d tha
theo chu k (Cyclic Redundancy Check, CRC)
Nguyn tc to m CRC : Xt khung d liu gm k bit v nu ta dng n bit cho khung
kim tra FCS (Frame check sequence) th khung thng tin k c d liu kim tra gm (k+n)
bit sao cho (k+n) bit ny chia ng cho mt s P c (n+1) bit chn trc (dng php chia
Modulo-2). my thu khi nhn c khung d liu, li mang chia cho s P ny v nu php
chia ng th khung d liu khng cha li
* Nhc li mt s tnh cht ca php ton Mod-2 :
- Php cng Mod-2 l php cng nh phn khng nh, di y l th d v php cng
v php nhn
1111
+ 1010

11001
x
11

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III - 7

0101

11001
11001
101011
- Php cng Mod-2 c thc hin bi cng EX-OR
- Php tr Mod-2 ging nh php cng
- Nhn Mod-2 mt s vi 2n tng ng vi di s n bit v bn tri v thm
n bit 0 vo bn phi s , th d 11001* 23 = 11001000
- Php chia Mod-2 c thc hin ging nh php chia thng nhng nh l
php tr trong khi chia c thc hin nh php cng.

3.2.2.1. Xc nh m CRC dng thut ton Mod-2

Gi T = (k+n) bit l khung thng tin c pht , vi n < k
M = k bit d liu, k bit u tin ca T
F = n bit ca khung FCS, n bit cui ca T
P = (n+1) bit, s chia trong php ton
S T c to ra bng cch di s M sang tri n bit ri cng vi s F :
T = 2nM + F
Chia s 2nM cho P ta c :
R
M
2n
=Q+
P
P
Q l s thng v R l s d
V php chia thc hin vi s nh phn nn s d lun lun t hn s chia 1 bit.
Ta dng s d ny lm s F, ngha l :
T = 2nM + R.
my thu khi nhn c khi d liu, mang chia cho P, kt qu s d s = 0 :
T
R R
R+ R
=Q+ + =Q+
P
P P
P
V R + R = 0 nn T/P = Q
Nh vy dng s d R ca php chia 2nM cho P lm k t kim tra trong khung FCS th chc
chn T s chia ng cho P nu bn tin khng c li.
Th d:
Cho M = 1010001101 (10 bit)
P = 110101
(6 bit)
S phi tm R (5 bit) cho khung FCS c xc nh nh sau :
- Nhn M vi 25 cho : 101000110100000
- Thc hin php chia cho P
1101010110
110101 101000110100000
110101
0111011
110101
00111010
110101
00111110
110101
00101100
110101
0110010
110101
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Cc loi m trong truyn d liu

III - 8
0001110 R

R = 01110, cng vi 25M, s cho s T pht i l :

T = 101000110100000 + 01110 = 101000110101110
Nu bn tin khng c li T phi chia ng cho P.
Thc hin php chia T/P ta thy s d = 0
Tm li, c mt khung FCS n bit , ngi ta phi dng mt s P c n+1 bit to s
R c n bit dng cho khung FCS. P c gi l a thc sinh (generator polynomial), dng ca
n do cc giao thc qui nh, tng qut P phi c bit u v bit cui l bit 1.
Ta c

3.2.2.2. Dng php biu din a thc

thy qu trnh hnh thnh m CRC, ta c th dng php biu din mt s nh phn
di dng mt a thc ca bin x vi h s l cc s nh phn v bc ca x l gi tr ch v tr
ca s nh phn .
V d s nh phn 110101 c th biu din bi
1.x5 + 1.x4 + 0.x3 + 1. x2 + 0.x1 + 1.x0
= x5 + x4 + x2 + 1
Ch m s n bit cho bc cao nht ca a thc l n-1
Qu trnh hnh thnh m CRC thc hin nh sau :
- Gi M l a thc biu din thng tin cn truyn
P l a thc sinh, bc n (cha n+1 bit)
Thc hin php chia
M(x)
R(x)
= Q(x) +
xn
P(x)
P(x)
Khung thng tin truyn c trng bi
T(x) = xn M(x) + R(x)
Lu l nhn M(x) vi xn tng ng vi vic di M(x) sang tri n bit
- my thu thc hin php chia T(x) cho P(x) s d phi bng khng
T(x)
R(x) R(x)
= Q(x) +
+
P(x)
P(x) P(x)
R(x)
= Q(x) + (1 + 1)
= Q(x)
P(x)
Ly li th d trn, bn tin 1010001101 tng ng vi a thc
M(x) = x9 + x7 + x3 + x2 +1
S chia
P = 110101 (6 bt) tng ng vi a thc
P(x) = x5 + x4 + x2 +1
x5M(x) = x14 + x12 + x8 + x7 + x5
Thc hin php chia :
x9 + x8 + x6 + x4 + x2 +x
x + x + x +1 x + x12 + x8 + x7 + x5
x14 + x13 + x11 + x9
x13 + x12 + x11 + x9 + x8 + x7 + x5
x13 + x12 + x10 + x8
x11 + x10 + x9 + x7 + x5
x11 + x10 + x8 + x6
x9 + x8 + x7 + x6 + x5
x9 + x8 + x6 +x4
x7 + x5 + x4
x7 + x6 + x4 + x2
x6 + x5 + x2
x6 + x5 + x3 + x
x3 + x2 + x = R(x)
5

14

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Cc loi m trong truyn d liu

III - 9

R(x) = x3 + x2 + x tng ng vi 01110

3.2.2.3. Kh nng d sai ca m CRC

Mt li xy ra mt v tr no trong khung d liu lm o bit v tr ca
khung, iu ny tng ng vi php tnh EX-OR bit v bit 1 (v 0+1=1 v 1+1=0).
Nu gi E l mt khung c s lng bit bng vi khung d liu, trong ch cc v tr
ca bit li = 1 v cc bit khc = 0 th khung thng tin Tr nhn c c th vit.
Tr = T + E.
Th d:
T = 11010111010
Dng a thc:
T(x) = x10 + x9 + x7 + x5 + x4 + x3 + x
Gi s bn tin sai cc bit x7 , x5 v x4
Khung E c dng:
E = 00010110000
E(x) = x7 + x5 + x4
Khung d liu nhn c:
Tr = 11000001010
Tr(x) =x10 + x9 + x3 + x
Lu php cng Modulo 2, tng ng vi php ton EX-OR, nn x7+x7=(1+1)x7 = 0
Ta c
T+E T E
= +
P
P P
My thu khng nhn ra li khi no Tr(x) chia ng cho P(x), hay ch khi E(x) chia
ng cho P(x).
Vy vi iu kin no th E(x) chia ht cho P(x) ?
Ta s xt mt s trng hp c th:
@- Gi s bn tin ch sai mt bit, a thc E(x) c dng xi, i l mt s nguyn, E(x)
chia ng cho P(x) ch khi P(x) cng c dng xn. Ngi ta chn P(x) c t nht l 2 s hng
nn E(x) khng th chia ng cho P(x). Vy
M CRC lun lun cho php my thu d ra mt bit sai.
@- Gi s bn tin sai mt chui, nhng c tng s bit sai l s l: a thc E(x) cha
s l bit 1 nn E(1) =1. Mt khc, gi s (x+1) l tha s ca P(x), ta c th vit P(x) =
(x+1)*H(x), H(x) l mt a thc. Ta cng gi s li ny khng c d ra, ngha l E(x) chia
ng cho P(x), hay E(x) = P(x)*K(x). Thay P(x) = (x+1)*H(x) vo E(x) c E(x) =
(x+1)*H(x)*K(x), biu thc ny cho E(1) = 0. iu ny tri vi gi thit trn, hay ni cch
khc, my thu s d ra li nu ta chn P(x) sao cho chia ng cho (x+1). Vy
My thu s lun lun d ra li gm nhiu bit v c tng s bit li l s l nu ta
chn P(x) chia ng cho (x+1).
@-Gi s nhiu lm sai mt on d liu c chiu di m bc n ca P(x)
Gi s chui bit sai c v tr t th i n th i+m-1, E(x) c dng:
E(x) = xi+m-1 + . . . . +xi = xi*(xm-1+ . . . +1)
E(x) x i (x m 1 + .... + 1)
=
P(x)
P(x)
i
P(x) khng l tha s ca x nn E(x) ch chia ng cho P(x) khi xm-1+ . . . +1 chia
ng cho P(x). V m n hay m-1<n nn php chia trn khng th l php chia ng. Vy
My thu lun lun d ra li nu chui d liu sai c chiu di bc ca P(x)
@-on d liu sai c chiu di m >n
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T kt qu trn
E(x) x i (x m 1 + .... + 1)
=
P(x)
P(x)
m-1
Nhng by gi m-1 n nn x + . . . +1 c th chia ng cho P(x). Vy vn l c
bao nhiu c hi iu ny xy ra.
- Trng hp m-1 = n hay (m=n+1). V bc ca P(x) l n nn c php chia ng
P(x) phi c dng xn+ . . . . . +1 vi cc s hng gia xn v 1 phi hon ton ging vi cc s
hng ca xm-1+ . . . . . +1 th my thu khng d c li. C n-1 s hng gia xn v 1 nn c
2n-1 t hp v nu cc t hp ny c xc sut xy ra nh nhau th xc sut my thu khng
nhn c li s l 1/2n-1.
- Trng hp m>n+1, ta chp nhn kt qu xc sut ny l 1/2n.
Ly th d m CRC-32 (n=32), xc sut khng d ra mt li c chiu di >33 bit l
1/2.1032 (tng ng vi kh nng d ra li l 99,99999998%).
Tm li vi n cng ln vic my thu khng d ra li cng rt kh xy ra.

3.2.2.4. Mch to m CRC.

Thut ton mod 2 c thc hin bi cng EX-OR.
Di bit c thc hin bi thanh ghi dch.
Quan st php tnh chia mod.2 ca s 2nM cho P(x) c R(x) ta thy y l s kt
hp ca s di bit ca s 2nM vi php cng Mod.2 ca s P(x). Trong th d trn, to m
CRC vi P(x) = 110101, ngi ta dng mch (H 3.2): Cho chui d liu l s 2nM (gm 15
bit, 101000110100000) vo mch, sau 15 ln di bit, kt qu trn cc thanh ghi dch chnh l
R(x). Mch to m trong trng hp ny gm 5 thanh ghi dch, k hiu A(x5), B(x4), C(x3),
D(x2), E(x) .
Mch to m CRC c thc hin nh sau:
- Thanh ghi dch cha n bit, bng vi chiu di ca khung FCS.
- C nhiu nht n cng EX-OR.
- S c mt hay khng ca cng EX-OR tng ng vi s c mt ca s hng ly
tha bc n trong a thc P(x) (Ring bc cao nht (n) ca a thc khng k )

(H 3.2 )
A

D liu vo

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III - 11
0
0
0
0
0
1*
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
1
0
0

Bt u
Bc 1
Bc 2
Bc 3
Bc 4
Bc 5
Bc 6
Bc 7
Bc 8
Bc 9
Bc 10
Bc 11
Bc 12
Bc 13
Bc 14
Bc 15

0
0
0
0
1
0*
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
1
0
1

0
0
0
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
1
0
1
1

0
0
1
0
1
0*
0
1
0
1
1
1
1
0
1
1

0
1
0
1
0
0
1
0
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
0

1
0
1
0
0
0* Bn tin gi
1
1
0
1
0
0
0 5 bit 0 thm vo
0
0

14444444244444443
s d

- Trong th d trn P =110101 = x5 + x4 + x2 + 1, nn mch cha ba cng EX-OR

cc v tr tng ng vi 1, x2 v x4 (x5 ng vi thanh ghi dch cui cng FFA). ng hi tip
t x5 v x4 , x2 v 1 (x0) thc hin php cng Mod-2 vi s P(x) nh ni trn.
- Trong 5 bc u tin, cc bit c trng s ln ca M(x). 2n xut hin ng ra cc
FFD mt cch bnh thng.
- T bc th 6 cc kt qu phi k n tc dng ca cng EX-OR, th d bc th
6 ng ra E chnh l cng Mod-2 ca tn hiu vo (bit 0) v tn hiu ng ra A trc (bit 1),
tc thc hin EX-OR hai bit 0 v 1 ta c bit 1. Ng ra D (bit 0) EX-OR vi ng ra A (bit 1)
c bit 1 ng ra C. Ng ra B(bit 0) EX-OR vi ng ra A (bit 1) c bit 1 ng ra
A. Trn hnh v cc bit EX-OR vi bit ng ra A c nh du.
Tng t nh th, sau 15 ln dch (bc 15), d liu ng ra cc FF chnh l m
CRC (s d R = 01110). Ng ra A l MSB.
C 4 a thc P(x) c dng to m CRC thng dng:
CRC_12
= x12 +x11 + x3 + x2 + x + 1
CRC_16
= x16+x15 + x2 + 1
CRC_CCITT = x16+x12 + x5 + 1
CRC_32
= x32+ x26+ x23+ x22 + x16+ x12 + x11+ x10+ x8+ x7 + x5 + x4 + x2+ x +1
CRC_12 dng truyn vi k t 6 bit v khung FCS di 12 bit.
CRC_16 & CRC_CCITT dng truyn k t 8 bit v khung FCS di 16 bit. ( M v
u chu).
CRC_32 Dng trong mng cc b (LAN) v mt s ng dng ca DOD (Department
Of Defense).

3.2.3 M Hamming
M Hamming l mt bc pht trin ca kim tra chn l v c kh nng sa sai do
xc nh c v tr li. S lng bit ca m Hamming ty thuc s lng bit ca chui d
liu. Ta c th l lun nh sau xc nh s lng bit ca m Hamming.
Gi m l s bit ca chui d liu v n l s bit ca m Hamming, tng s bit pht i l
m+n
- Vi n = 1 ta xc nh c 1 trong 2 kt qu : chui d liu sai hoc ng nhng
khng bit v tr li.
- Vi n = 2, 1 trong 4 trng hp xy ra: 2 php kim tra u cho kt qu ng, 2 php
kim tra u cho kt qu sai, php kim tra th nht sai, php kim tra th hai ng v ngc
li. 4 trng hp ny cho php kt lun c 1 bit sai 1 trong 3 v tr.
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- Vi n=3, c 8 kh nng xy ra v ta c th kt lun c 1 bit sai 1 trong 7 v tr.

- Vi s n bt k, c 2n kh nng xy ra v ta c th kt lun c 1 bit sai 1 trong
n
2 -1 v tr.
Vy c th pht hin 1 li ti 1 v tr c th th s n nh nht c chn phi tha:
2n - 1 m + n hay 2n m + n + 1
Cc bit ca m Hamming chn vo v tr 2n v dng cho kim tra chn l. Cc bit
khc l bit thng tin (d liu).
Di y l mt v d thy cch xc nh m Hamming:
Gi s chui d liu cn truyn gm 4 bit nh sau :
1 0 1 0
Vi m = 4 , ta chn n = 3, bt ng thc trn c tha
Gi cc bit ca m Hamming l H1 H2 v H4 (1, 2, 4 l cc v tr m ta s t 3 bit ca
m Hamming vo dng d liu). Gi cc bit dng d liu l X3, X5, X6, X7.
T hp cc bit d liu v bit m, ta c
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
H1
H2
X3
H4
X5
X6 X7
Gi s ta chn Parity chn, cc bit m s c xc nh nh sau:
H1 X3 X5X7 = 0
H1 = X3 X5X7 =1 ( 0 0 ) = 1 0 = 1
Tng t:
H2 = X3 X6X7 =1 (1 0 ) = 1 1 = 0
H4 = X5 X6X7 =0 (1 0 ) = 0 1 = 1
Bn tin bao gm bit m tr thnh: 1 0 1 1 0 1 0
my thu kim tra ngi ta thc hin cc php ton:
C1 = H1 X3 X5X7
C2 = H2 X3 X6X7
C4 = H4 X5 X6X7
Nu C1= C2 = C4 = 0, khng c li xy ra
Nu C1 = 1, C2 = C4 = 0, mt trong cc bit v tr 1, 3, 5, 7 b li. Nhng C2 = C4 = 0
c ngha l cc bit v tr 2, 3, 6, 7 v 4, 5, 6, 7 ng. Vy bit sai phi v tr 1
L lun tng t ta c cc trng hp khc. Th d nu C1= C2 = C4 = 1 th bit li l
bit v tr 7
Th d bn tin nhn c l 1 0 1 1 1 1 0
Mch d sai s tnh C1 , C2 , C4 nh sau:
C1 = H1 X3 X5X7 = 1 1 1 0 = 1
C2 = H2 X3 X6X7 = 0 1 1 0 = 0
C4 = H4 X5 X6 X7 = 1 1 1 0 = 1
V ch bit X5 thuc c C1 v C4 nn bit sai l bit th 5
Quan st t hp C4 C2 C1 ta thy C4 C2 C1 = 101 = (5)10 . Nh vy gi tr c c ca
t hp ny cho ta bit v tr bit sai cn sa cha.
Nu t hp ny bng 0 chng t bn tin nhn ng.
M Hamming c th c pht trin d ra hai bit sai v sa c mt bit li.

3.3 M NN D LIU
Mt vn cng lun c quan tm trong truyn d liu l lm th no gim thiu
s bit cn thit truyn mt bn tin.
- Nh ta bit, phng php iu ch vi phn, ngoi tc dng tt v mt ng b cn
c tc dng gim s bit i rt nhiu nu thng tin c tnh lp li.
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- Mt phng php khc l m ha Run Length. Phng php ny cho php ngi ta
pht i cc m thay cho cc chui k t c tnh lp li km theo m iu khin bo cho bn
thu s ln lp li, nh m ny m bn thu c th to li ton b chui thng tin truyn.
- M ha trong h thng Videotex dng mt bng m hnh hc pht i cc
ha ca my tnh hoc hnh nh video. Mi hnh c pht i l tp hp cc hnh c bn vi
v tr, mu sc v kch thc xc nh. Cc hnh c bn l cc vng trn, hnh ch nht....iu
ny lm gim rt nhiu s bit cn thit so vi vic phi pht i tng ta v mu ca tng
im trn mn hnh

3.3.1 M Huffman
M Huffman li dng xc sut xy ra ca cc k t khc nhau m gn cc t m ngn
cho cc k t c xc sut xy ra ln v ngc li. Th d, thay v dng 7 bit m tt c cc
k t nh m ASCII, ngi ta ch gn 2 bit cho ch E v 10 bit cho ch Z, bi l, trong ting
Anh xc sut xut hin ch E rt ln so vi xc sut xut hin ch Z. M ny cn c tn M
ph thuc tn s (frequency dependent code)
Vi phng php ny s bit trung bnh dng cho mi k t s gim. Nhng do cc m
di ngn khc nhau, my thu phn bit c, ngi ta phi chn cc t m ngn sao cho
khng trng vi cc bit u ca cc t m di hn. Gi l tnh tin t (prefix property).
Gii thut Huffman: Di y l cc bc to m Huffman
- Tng ng vi mi d kin lin kt mt cy nh phn cha duy nht mt nt. mi
cy ghi tn s xut hin m ta gi l trng lng ca cy.
- Tm hai cy nh nht. Nu c nhiu hn hai, ta chn ngu nhin hai cy trong s cc
cy c trng lng nh nht, ghp chng li thnh mt cy n vi nt gc mi. Tng trng
lng hai cy ny l trng lng ca cy mi.
- Lp li cc bc cho ti lc ch cn mt cy duy nht.
Cc cy ban u tr thnh cc l ca cy nh phn cui cng ny. Ta bit rng i vi
cy nh phn th ch c mt ng duy nht t gc cho ti l. Vi mi l, ng t gc n
n chnh l m Huffman tng ng. M ny xc nh bng cch ghi tr 0 cho nhnh bn tri
v 1 cho nhnh bn phi (hoc ngc li).
Th d 1: Thit lp m Huffman cho cc k t A, B, C, D, E vi tn s xut hin ln
lt l 0,25; 0,15; 0,10; 0,20; 0,30.
(H 3.3a) l cy vi 5 nt n ban u v trng lng tng ng.
(H 3.3b) ghp 2 cy B v C thnh mt cy mi vi trng lng l tng trng lng
cy B v C (0,25)
Bc tip theo ta c th ghp cy mi hnh thnh vi cy D hay cy A vi D. (H 3.3c)
ghp cy mi vi D c mt cy trng lng l 0,45.
(H 3.3d) ghp cy E v A
Cui cng, ghp hai cy mi to c mt cy duy nht, Ghi tr 0 v 1 vo cc
nhnh (H 3.3e).

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(H 3.3)

Ta c bng m sau:
K t
A
B
C
D
E

M
01
100
101
11
00

Chiu di trung bnh ca t m c th tnh nh sau:

0,25*2 + 0,15*3 + 0,10*3 + 0,20*2 + 0,30*2 = 2,25 bt/k t
Do c s chn ngu nhin khi cc d kin c cng trng lng nn kt qu c th cho
cc bng m khc nhau. Tuy nhin, kt qu cui cng ca cc b m khc nhau phi cho cng
chiu di trung bnh ca t m.
Th d 2: M ho gi tr nhit trong khong t 20 C n 30 C vi xc sut cho
trong (H 3.4). Thay v thc hin cc cy nh phn nh trn, ta c th da vo xc sut ca cc
gi tr nhit m lp mt ha thc hin vic m ha sao cho cc gi tr c xc sut ln
s dng t m ngn nht c th c.
Cc s kin (l cc gi tr nhit ) c lit k theo xc sut gim dn (H 3.4a)
Ta bt u bng cch gn hai bt 0 v 1 cho 2 s kin c kh nng xy ra t nht, sau
hai s kin ny c t hp thnh mt s kin c xc sut bng tng hai xc sut ca hai
s kin , cc s kin c sp xp theo th t gim dn v th tc lp li t di ln v t
tri sang phi cho n khi hai s kin cui cng c kt hp. T m ca cc s kin c
vit bng cch d theo cc ng ca s theo chiu ngc li, t phi qua tri. Cui cng
ta c bng m (H 3.4b)
T m trung bnh: 0,21*2 + 0,17*3 + 0,15*3 + 0,12*3 + 0,1*3 + 0,06*4 + 0,05*4 +
0,04*5 + 0,03*6 + 0,02*6 =3,18 bt/s kin
S bit dng m ha gim khong 20%.
Mt u th ca phng php Huffman l c th lp trnh thc hin vic m ha.
Tr li Th d 1, by gi gi s chui k t c pht i l A B E C A D B C, tng
ng vi chui bit 01100001010111100101, my thu khi nhn c chui d liu s thc hin
vic gii m nh th no ?
Nh vo tnh tin t ca cc m, my thu s ln lt c cc bit cho ti khi gp mt
chui con cc bit tng ng vi mt m s dng li, gii m k t ny, sau tip tc c
chui d liu k tip tm ra k t th hai. . .
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(a)

(b)
(H 3.4)

3.3.2 M Run length

M Huffman tuy c lm gim s bit truyn i nhng n i hi d liu phi c tp
hp thnh tng nhm hay k t xc nh tn s lp li ca cc nhm hay k t ny. Vic
ny i khi rt kh thc hin i vi mt s loi d liu th d nh d liu t mt bn fax, tn
hiu m hnh nh . . .
Ly th d trng hp bn fax, d liu c pht i khng phi l cc k t m l cc
bit tng ng vi im sng ti trn t giy, nh vy phi c mt k thut ph hp nn
chui d liu ny, chnh l m Run length.
M Run length c to ra bng cch quan st chui bit 0 (hoc 1) lin tip v thay
th chiu di chui bit ny bi mt s nh phn. my thu khi nhn c cc s
nh phn s thay cc s ny bi cc bit 0 (hoc 1) ng thi chn cc bit khc loi vo.
Th d ta phi to m Run length cho chui d liu sau bng cch dng s 4 bit thay
cho s bit 0 lin tip:
Dng d liu
0. . .010. . .0110. . .010. . .0110. . .0
91 bit
S bit 0 lin tip
14
9
20
30
11
Run length (nh phn) 1110 1001 0000 1111 0101 1111 1111 0000 0000 1011 40 bit
Run length (thp phn) 14
9
0
15
5
15 15
0
0
11
Nhn xt cch to m :
- 1 bit 1 gia cc chui bit 0 s khng c m, my thu t ng chn bit 1 ny vo
khi phc hi d liu.
- Nu c 2 bit 1 lin tip, ta xem nh c 1 chui gm khng bit 0 gia 2 bit 1 ny v
phi c thay th bi s 0000.
- Nu s s 0 nhiu hn 15 ta phi dng 2 s nh phn thay cho chui ny (20=15+5;
30=15+15). my thu khi gp chui bn bit 1 n phi hiu l phi ly tng s ny vi cc s
pha sau, nu s sau cng cng gm 4 bit 1, my thu phi c bo bng chui 4 bit 0 theo
sau (trng hp sau s 30)
- Nu chui d liu bt u bng bit 1 th my pht s gi i 4 bit 0 u tin.
- cui bn tin my pht s gi tn hiu bo chm dt bn tin v nh my thu bit
cch x l cho trng hp bn tin kt thc bi chui bit 0 hay bit 1.
K thut nn ny ch c hiu qu khi chui d liu cha rt nhiu mt loi bit.
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Ngoi ra, k thut nn Run length cng c dng m ha cc chui k t ging nhau
bng cch thay mi chui k t lin tip bng con s ch di ng trc k t .
Th d, vi chui
HHHHHFFFFFFFFYYYYYYYYYYYYYGGGGGGGGGG
S c m l: 5H8F13Y10G

3.3.3 M vi phn (Differential encoding)

Cn gi l m tng i (Relative encoding)
Trong nhiu trng hp, cc d liu lin tip nhau thay i rt t . Th d trng hp
m tn hiu hnh nh trong k thut video, do phi x l 30 bn nh (khung) trong mt giy
to nh ng, nn chi tit ca cc nh khng khc nhau bao nhiu, thay v phi nn tn hiu
tng khung ngi ta ngh ti vic xc nh s khc nhau ca cc khung lin tip, m thng tin
ny v gi i.
Nguyn tc ca m vi phn nh sau: khung th nht c pht i ng thi lu b
m ca my pht v thu. My pht s so snh khung th hai vi khung th nht ny, m s
khc bit v pht i di dng mt khung. My thu khi nhn khung th hai, nh cc m ch s
khc bit m so snh vi khung th nht ( lu trc ) ti to khung th hai, ng thi
n lu khung th hai ny trong b m v qu trnh tip tc vi cc khung mi.
(H 3.5) l mt th d minh ha.
5762866356
6575563247
8468564885
5129865566
5529968951
Khung th nht

5762866356
6576563237
8468564885
5139865576
5529968951
Khung th nh
0000000000
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 -1 0
0000000000
0010000010
0000000000
Khung pht i l sai bit gia
khung th nh v khung th
nht

5762866356
6585563337
8468564885
5139765586
5529968951
Khung th ba
0000000000
0010000100
0000000000
0 0 0 0 -1 0 0 0 1 0
0000000000
Khung pht i l sai bit
gia khung th ba v
khung th nh

(H 3.5)

D liu gm cc s nguyn c biu din trong mt khung 2 chiu, chng khng

mang mt ngha c th no, mc ch ca th d l hiu cch to m. Khung th nht
cha mt tp hp cc s nguyn v khung th hai cha mt tp hp cc s nguyn khc
khung th nht mt t.
Trong hnh, cc khung nm di khung th hai v th ba l khung cha cc m vi
phn, s 0 ch khng c s khc bit d liu ca 2 khung, s 1 ch d liu khung sau ln hn
khung trc 1 n v v s -1 ch ngc li. D nhin c th s dng cc s khc hn l 1 v 1.
Th d cho ta thy s xut hin mt chui di cc bit 0 v c th c nn nh phng
php Run length.

3.4 Mt m
Trong nhiu trng hp, bn tin cn c gi b mt i vi tam nhn th vic m
ha c thc hin di dng mt: bn tin c m bi mt kha m ch hai ngi lin h
trong trao i thng tin bit s dng khi m ha v gii m.
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Gi bn tin ban u l P (Plaintext), bn tin ci mt m l C (Ciphertext) th C =

Ek(P), E v k l gii thut v kha to m ( Algorithm & Encryption key). Ni nhn, nhn bn
tin C v phc hi li P vi gii thut v kha l D v k : P =Dk(C) = Dk Ek(P). Trong a s
trng hp (nhng khng phi lun lun) k=k.
Gii thut v kha cng phc tp th an ton ca bn tin cng cao.
Chng ta s xt mt s cch to mt m t n gin n phc tp.

3.4.1. M Caesar (Caesar cipher)

Cn gi l m mu t n (mono-alphabetic cipher)
y l loi mt m c sm nht v n gin nht. Ngi ta s thay cc k t ca bn
tin bng cc k t khc theo mt qui lut no , th d bng cch cng mt s nguyn vo
m ASCII ca cc k t ta s c mt bn tin mt. Th d cng 1 vo m ASCII ta s c k t
B thay cho A, C thay cho B . . . . V ni nhn s gii m bng cch tr 1 cho cc m nhn
c trc khi tra bng m ASCII.
V gii thut to m qu n gin nn bn tin c th c gii m mt cch d dng
m khng cn bit trc kha. Th d, trong ting Anh, cc k t E, T, O v N l cc k t
thng xut hin nhiu ln trong cc vn bn nn khi gp bn m ngi ta c th thay cc k
t lp li nhiu ln bng cc k t ny. Sau vi th nghim c th thy c qui lut v suy ra
bn tin.
minh ha, gi s mt ngi nhn c bn tin sau:
{;RSDR\SFF\,PMRU\YP\,U\NSML\SVVPIMY\$234567890
Trc nht ngi ta lit k cc k t thng xy ra : \ (7 ln), S (4 ln), R, P v M (3
ln), nh vy ngi ta c th thay th cc k t S, R, P, M bi E, T, O, A v N (in m):
{;EADE\AFF\,ONEU\YO\,U\NANL\AVVOINY\$234567890
Tip tc, ngi ta c th ngh l trong mt vn bn lun c cc khong trng, nh vy
th thay cc du \ bng cc khong trng, bn tin thnh
{;EADE AFF ,ONEU YO ,U NANL AVVOINY $234567890
Nhn xt tip cc t cha t k t nh AFF v YO, trong ting Anh, t 3 k t m hai
k t sau ging nhau khin ta ngh n t ADD v t 2 k t kt thc bng O khin ta ngh ti
t TO. Thay vo ta li c bn tin:
{;EADE ADD ,ONEU TO ,U NANL AVVOINY $234567890
Cho ti y, dng nh ta i c mt on ng kh di sp ti ch, thm
vi ln th ngi ta c th tm ra bn tin.
PLEASE ADD MONEY TO MY BANK ACCOUNT #123456789
Mt phng php khc to m mu t n c tn l Polybius square. Mu t I v J
c kt hp li v c x l nh mt t n, tng s mu t l 25. 25 mu t li c
chia thnh dy 5x5. Mi mu t s c m bi mt cp s tng ng vi hng v ct trong
bng m
1
2
3
4
5

1
A
F
L
Q
V

2
B
G
M
R
W

3
C
H
N
S
X

4
D
IJ
O
T
Y

5
E
K
P
U
Z

Th d bn vn N O W I S T H E T I M E
33 43 25 42 34 44 32 51 44 42 23 51

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III - 18

3.4.2. M a mu t (Poly-alphabetic cipher)

trnh vic lp li cc k t trong bn mt m, ngi ta dng loi m a mu t,
tng t m Caesar, mi k t cng c thay bi mt k t khc, nhng cc k t ging
nhau khng phi c thay bng mt k t duy nht, m s c thay bng cc k t khc
nhau ty theo v tr ca n.
Mt th d ca m a mu t l m Vigenre
Dng mt mng 2 chiu ca cc k t, trong mi hng cha cc mu t theo
Alphabet nhng th t trong tng hng khc nhau:
Th d
Ct
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Hng 0
A B CD E FGH I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
Hng 1
B C DE FGH I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A
Hng 2
C DE F GH I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A B
Hng 3
D E FG H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A B C
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Hng 24 Y Z AB C D E FGH I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X
Hng 25 Z AB C D E FGH I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y
Ct
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 1920 21 22 23 24 25
thay th mt k t, gi i l v tr tng i ca n trong bn tin (bt u l v tr 0)
v j l v tr tng i ca n trong th t Alphabet. Gi V l mng, k t s c thay bng
mt k t trong V[ i mod 26,j ].
Th d dng mng trn thay cc ch THE trong bn tin cc v tr 25, 54 v 104.
Ta lp bng thay th nh sau:
K t cn thay
V tr i
i mod 26
V tr j
K t phi thay
S (h25, kt19)
19
25
25
T
H (h0, kt7)
7
0
26
H
F
4
1
27
E
V
19
2
54
T
K
7
3
55
H
I
4
4
56
E
T
19
0
104
T
I
7
1
105
H
G
4
2
106
E
Nh vy cc k t THE cc v tr khc nhau trong bn tin ln lt c thay bi
SHF, VKI v TIG.
Mc d gii quyt c s lp li, nhng xt k chng ta vn thy rng c mt qui
lut m ngi ta vn c th nhn ra l khong cch ca cc k t ca cng mt m l nh
nhau do tnh tun hon ca mng mu t m chng ta s dng v do bi ton mod 26 (khong
cch trong m ASCII ca S & H, V & K v T & I u l 11).
khc phc iu ny ngi ta c th tng s hng ca mng k t ln, nhng nh
vy a n kt qu l kha c th qu di (thm ch di hn bn tin), kh khn cho vic pht
v lu tr mt cch an ton.

3.4.3. M chuyn v (Transposition cipher)

Ngi ta s sp xp li th t cc k t ca bn vn bng cch lu chng trong mt
mng 2 chiu m ct, m k t u tin s cho vo hng th nht, m k t k tip cho vo hng
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th hai, v c th tip tc cho ht bn tin, sau hon i v tr cc ct theo th t mi, gi s

p1, p2 . . . pm. S hon i c th thc hin mt cch ngu nhin hoc theo mt qui lut nh
trc. Bn tin s c truyn i theo th t t p1, p2 . . . n pm
Th d bn tin cn pht:
MISS PIGGY KERMIT ANIMAL AND FOZZIE BEAR
Gi s dng mng 5 ct 1 2 3 4 5, Bn tin c a vo mng nh sau:
S ct
1

M
P

I
I
K
T
M
N
Z
B

S
G
E

S
G
R
A
L

Y
M
N

I
I
A
O

A
D
Z
E

I
A

F
E
R

Sp xp li cc ct theo th t 2, 4, 3, 1, 5, ta c bn tin:
IIKTMNZBSGRAL IASGE ADZEMP IIAO (2 khong trng) YMN FER
R rng l bn tin m ha khng cn mt dng dp no ca bn tin ban u. Nhng
phng php vn cn khuyt im l s lp li ca cc k t. Nu k gian xc nh c mt
m dng l loi chuyn v th kh nng gii c m khng kh lm (nht l c phng
tin tin hc trong tay).

3.4.4. M DES (Data Encryption Standard)

M DES c pht trin bi IBM vo nhng nm u thp nin 70, c chnh
ph cho php xem nh chun trong vic to mt m dng trong thng mi v nhng tin tc
khng coi l b mt v ngi ta ch to cc chip VLSI thc hin vic to m nhanh
hn.
DES chia bn tin ra thnh tng khi 64 bit v dng kha 56 bit thc hin qu trnh
to m rt phc tp bao gm cc k thut nh chuyn v, thay th, ton t EX-OR v vi x l
khc to nn mt bn m 64 bit.
Tin trnh thc hin gm:
- Bc 1: Chuyn v 64 bit d liu v 56 bit kha
- Bc 2 gm 16 ln thc hin s m ha tng t nhau nhng vi cc kha khc
nhau, d liu ra ca ln thc hin trc s l d liu vo ca ln thc hin sau.
- Bc 3: Trn 32 bit u v 32 bit cui
- Bc 4: Thc hin ln chuyn v cui cng.
(H 3. 6) m t cc bc to m ca DES

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(H 3.6)

(H 3.7) minh ha mt trong 16 ln thc hin m ha

Trong (H 3.7) , cc k hiu C64 ch 64 bit c m ha, L32 ch 32 bit u ca C64,
R32 l 32 bit cui, K56 l kha 56 bit. Ngoi ra cc k hiu nh X48 ch chui d liu 48 bit c
c t mt tc v trung gian trc . Lu l n gin, chng ta ch dng cng 1 k
hiu cho cc chui d liu ra ca cng 1 tc v, nhng cc chui ny l khc nhau (Th d,
cng dng k hiu X6 cho cc chui d liu ra t mch chia nhm, nhng cc chui ra t cc
mch khc nhau th khc nhau).
Nh (H 3.7) m t, u tin, ngi ta chia 64 bit ra lm i, 32 bit u k hiu L32 v
32 bit cn li l R32. Tip theo chui R32 c m rng thnh 48 bit (R48) bng cch chuyn v
v nhn i mt s bit (Ta k hiu R48 nhn mnh rng chui ny c dn xut t R32).
ng thi kha 56 bit cng c phn lm i v thc hin vic quay vng cho mi nhm (s
ln quay ty theo gii thut tng bc m ha khc nhau), sau thc hin chuyn v,
chui bit ra k hiu l K56. Bc tip theo l thc hin hm EX-OR cho R48 v K56, kt qu l
chui X48, chui ny li c phn thnh 8 nhm 6 bit (X6) ri thc hin vic thay th
gim xung thnh cc nhm 4 bt (X4) sau t hp 8 nhm ny thnh chui X32. X32 li
c EX-OR vi L32, kt qu l X32. Cui cng chui X32 t hp vi chui bit R32 cho m
64 bit (C64).

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(H 3.7)

Tm li, gii thut c c mt bn tin mt rt l phc tp, nhng nh th vn cha

chc bo mt tuyt i c bn tin. Ngoi ra, vic qui c vi nhau cch to cc kha
hoc cch thng tin cho nhau v cc kha cng phi c thc hin sao cho b mt phi c
bo m. Vn bo mt cn rt nhiu iu phi nghin cu.

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