Quantum Mechanics Collection

Quantum Mechanics
An Introductory Framework
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Contents
Articles
Foreword 1. Introductory Principles
History of Quantum Mechanics Basic Concepts of Quantum Mechanics Introduction to Quantum Mechanics 1 2 2 22 40 59 59 65 67 75 75 82 99 107 107 110 120 135 135 149 167 176 176 180
2. Measurement Problems
Schrdinger's Cat The Measurement Problem Measurement in Quantum Mechanics
3. The Quantum Theories

Old Quantum Theory Quantum Mechanics Copenhagen Interpretation
4. Einstein's Objections
Principle of Locality EPR Paradox Bell's Theorem
5. Advanced Principles
Quantum Field Theory String Theory Quantum Gravity
Appendix - Quantisation of Charge

The Elementary Charge Quarks
References
Article Sources and Contributors Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 193 197
Article Licenses
License 199
Foreword
1. Introductory Principles
History of Quantum Mechanics
The history of quantum mechanics, as it interlaces with the history of quantum chemistry, began essentially with a number of different scientific discoveries: the 1838 discovery of cathode rays by Michael Faraday; the 1859-1860 winter statement of the black body radiation problem by Gustav Kirchhoff; the 1877 suggestion by Ludwig Boltzmann that the energy states of a physical system could be discrete; the discovery of the photoelectric effect by Heinrich Hertz in 1887; and the 1900 quantum hypothesis by Max Planck that any energy-radiating atomic system can theoretically be divided into a number of discrete "energy elements" (epsilon) such that each of these energy elements is proportional to the frequency with which each of them individually radiate energy, as defined by the following formula:
where h is a numerical value called Planck's constant. Then, Albert Einstein in 1905, in order to explain the photoelectric effect previously reported by Heinrich Hertz in 1887, postulated consistently with Max Planck's quantum hypothesis that light itself is made of individual quantum particles, which in 1926 came to be called photons by Gilbert N. Lewis. The photoelectric effect was observed upon shining light of particular wavelengths on certain materials, such as metals, which caused electrons to be ejected from those materials only if the light quantum energy was greater than the Fermi level (work function) in the metal. The phrase "quantum mechanics" was first used in Max Born's 1924 paper "Zur Quantenmechanik". In the years to follow, this theoretical basis slowly began to be applied to chemical structure, reactivity, and bonding.
Overview
In short, Ludwig Eduard Boltzmann was one of the founders of quantum mechanics because he suggested in 1877 that the energy levels of a physical system, such as a molecule, could be discrete. He was also a founder of the Austrian Mathematical Society together with the mathematicians Gustav von Escherich and Emil Mller. Boltzmann's rationale for the presence of discrete energy levels in molecules such as those of iodine gas had its origins in his statistical thermodynamics and statistical mechanics theories, and was backed up by mathematical arguments, as it will also be the case twenty years later with the first quantum theory put
Ludwig Boltzmanns diagram of the I2 molecule proposed in 1898 showing the atomic sensitive region (, ) of overlap
forward by Max Planck.
Niels Bohr's 1913 quantum model of the atom, which incorporated an explanation of Johannes Rydberg's 1888 formula, Max Planck's 1900 quantum hypothesis, i.e. that atomic energy radiators have discrete energy values ( = h), J.J.Thomson's 1904 plum pudding model, Albert Einstein's 1905 light quanta postulate, and Ernest Rutherford's 1907 discovery of the atomic nucleus
Thus, in 1900, the German physicist Max Planck reluctantly introduced the idea that energy is quantized, to derive a formula for the observed frequency dependence of the energy emitted by a black body, called Planck's Law, that included a Boltzmann distribution (applicable in the classical limit). Planck's law[1] can be stated as follows: where: I(,T) is the energy per unit time (or the power) radiated per unit area of emitting surface in the normal direction per unit solid angle per unit frequency by a black body at temperature T; h is the Planck constant; c is the speed of light in a vacuum; k is the Boltzmann constant; is the frequency of the electromagnetic radiation; and T is the temperature of the body in degrees Kelvin. The earlier Wien approximation may be derived from Planck's law by assuming .
With decreasing temperature, the peak of the blackbody radiation curve shifts to longer wavelengths and also has lower intensities. The blackbody radiation curves (1862) at left are also compared with the early, classical limit model of Rayleigh and Jeans (1900) shown at right. The short wavelength side of the curves was already approximated in 1896 by the Wien distribution law.
Moreover, the application of Planck's quantum theory to the electron allowed tefan Procopiu in 19111913, and subsequently Niels Bohr in 1913, to calculate the magnetic moment of the electron, which was later called the ``magneton"; similar quantum computations, but with numerically quite different values, were subsequently made possible for both the magnetic moments of the proton and the neutron that are three orders of magnitude smaller than
History of Quantum Mechanics that of the electron.
Photoelectric effect
The emission of electrons from a metal plate caused by light quanta (photons) with energy greater than the Fermi level of the metal. The photoelectric effect reported by Heinrich Hertz in 1887, and explained by Albert Einstein in 1905. Low-energy phenomena: Photoelectric effect Mid-energy phenomena: Compton scattering High-energy phenomena: Pair production
In 1905, Einstein explained the photoelectric effect by postulating that light, or more generally all electromagnetic radiation, can be divided into a finite number of "energy quanta" that are localized points in space. From the introduction section of his March 1905 quantum paper, On a heuristic viewpoint concerning the emission and transformation of light, Einstein states: `Àccording to the assumption to be contemplated here, when a light ray is spreading from a point, the energy is not distributed continuously over ever-increasing spaces, but consists of a finite number of energy quanta that are localized in points in space, move without dividing, and can be absorbed or generated only as a whole." This statement has been called the most revolutionary sentence written by a physicist of the twentieth century.[2] These energy quanta later came to be called "photons", a term introduced by Gilbert N. Lewis in 1926. The idea that each photon had to consist of energy in terms of quanta was a remarkable achievement; it effectively solved the problem of black body radiation attaining infinite energy, which occurred in theory if light were to be explained only in terms of waves. In 1913, Bohr explained the spectral lines of the hydrogen atom, again by using quantization, in his paper of July 1913 On the Constitution of Atoms and Molecules. These theories, though successful, were strictly phenomenological: during this time, there was no rigorous justification for quantization, aside, perhaps, from Henri Poincar's discussion of Planck's theory in his 1912 paper Sur la thorie des quanta.[3][4] They are collectively known as the old quantum theory. The phrase "quantum physics" was first used in Johnston's Planck's Universe in Light of Modern Physics (1931). In 1924, the French physicist Louis de Broglie put forward his theory of matter waves by stating that particles can exhibit wave characteristics and vice versa. This theory was for a single particle and derived from special relativity theory. Building on de Broglie's approach, modern quantum mechanics was born in 1925, when the German physicists Werner Heisenberg and Max Born developed matrix mechanics and the Austrian physicist Erwin Schrdinger invented wave mechanics and the non-relativistic Schrdinger equation as an approximation to the generalised case of de Broglie's theory.[5] Schrdinger subsequently showed that the two approaches were
History of Quantum Mechanics equivalent. Heisenberg formulated his uncertainty principle in 1927, and the Copenhagen interpretation started to take shape at about the same time. Starting around 1927, Paul Dirac began the process of unifying quantum mechanics with special relativity by proposing the Dirac equation for the electron. The Dirac equation achieves the relativistic description of the wavefunction of an electron that Schrdinger failed to obtain. It predicts electron spin and led Dirac to predict the existence of the positron. He also pioneered the use of operator theory, including the influential bra-ket notation, as described in his famous 1930 textbook. During the same period, Hungarian polymath John von Neumann formulated the rigorous mathematical basis for quantum mechanics as the theory of linear operators on Hilbert spaces, as described in his likewise famous 1932 textbook. These, like many other works from the founding period, still stand, and remain widely used. The field of quantum chemistry was pioneered by physicists Walter Heitler and Fritz London, who published a study of the covalent bond of the hydrogen molecule in 1927. Quantum chemistry was subsequently developed by a large number of workers, including the American theoretical chemist Linus Pauling at Caltech, and John C. Slater into various theories such as Molecular Orbital Theory or Valence Theory. Beginning in 1927, attempts were made to apply quantum mechanics to fields rather than single particles, resulting in what are known as quantum field theories. Early workers in this area included P.A.M. Dirac, W. Pauli, V. Weisskopf, and P. Jordan. This area of research culminated in the formulation of quantum electrodynamics by R.P. Feynman, F. Dyson, J. Schwinger, and S.I. Tomonaga during the 1940s. Quantum electrodynamics is a quantum theory of electrons, positrons, and the electromagnetic field, and served as a role model for subsequent Quantum Field theories.[6][7][8] The theory of Quantum Chromodynamics was formulated beginning in the early 1960s. The theory as we know it today was formulated by Politzer, Gross and Wilczek in 1975. Building on pioneering work by Schwinger, Higgs and Goldstone, the physicists Glashow, Weinberg and Salam independently showed how the weak nuclear force and quantum electrodynamics could be merged into a single electroweak force, for which they received the 1979 Nobel Prize in Physics.
Timeline
Feynman diagram of gluon radiation in Quantum Chromodynamics
The following timeline shows the key steps, precursors and contributors to the development of quantum mechanics, quantum field theories and quantum chemistry:
Date Person 1877 Ludwig Eduard Boltzmann
Contributions Suggested that the energy levels of a physical system could be discrete based on statistical mechanics and mathematical arguments; also produced the first circle diagram representation, or atomic model of a molecule (such as an iodine gas molecule) in terms of the overlapping terms and , later (in 1928) called molecular orbitals, of the constituting atoms. Discovers the photoelectric effect, shown by Einstein in 1905 to involve quanta of light. Modified the Balmer formula to include all spectral series of lines for the hydrogen atom, producing the Rydberg formula which was employed later by Niels Bohr and others to verify Bohr's first quantum model of the atom. Discovered in December 1895 the X-rays in experiments with electron beams in plasma and received the first Nobel prize awarded in 1901; later, in 1922 in experiments involving scattering of X-rays by electrons, Arthur Compton demonstrated the "particle" aspect of electromagnetic radiation. Discovered accidentally radioactivity while investigating the work of Wilhelm Conrad Rntgen; thus, he found that uranium salts emitted radiation that resembled Rntgen's X-rays in their penetrating power. In one experiment, Becquerel wrapped a sample of a phosphorescent substance, potassium uranyl sulfate, in photographic plates surrounded by very thick black paper in preparation for an experiment with bright sunlight; then, to his surprise, prior to actually performing the experiment, Becquerel found that the photographic plates [9] were already exposed, showing a projected image of his sample. First observed the Zeeman splitting effect by passing the light emitted by hydrogen through a magnetic field.
1887 Heinrich Hertz 1888 Johannes Rydberg
1895 Wilhelm Conrad Rntgen
1896 Antoine Henri Becquerel
1896 Pieter Zeeman
1899 Ernest Rutherford, 1st During the investigation of radioactivity he coined the terms alpha and beta rays in 1899 to describe the two to Baron, Lord Rutherford distinct types of radiation emitted by thorium and uranium salts. Ernest Rutherford was joined at McGill 1903 of Nelson, of Cambridge, University in 1900 by Frederick Soddy and together they discovered nuclear transmutation when they found in OM, FRS 1902 that radioactive thorium was converting itself into radium through a process of nuclear decay and a gas [10] (later found to be He); they reported their interpretation of radioactivity in 1903. Sir Ernest Rutherford became known as the ``father of nuclear physics": with his concept of the nuclear atom model proposed in [11] 1911 he led the exploration of nuclear physics. 1900 Max Planck To explain black body radiation (1862), he suggested that electromagnetic energy could only be emitted in quantized form, i.e. the energy could only be a multiple of an elementary unit E = h, where h is Planck's constant and is the frequency of the radiation. To explain the octet rule (1893), he developed the cubical atom theory in which electrons in the form of dots were positioned at the corner of a cube and suggested that single, double, or triple bonds result when two atoms are held together by multiple pairs of electrons (one pair for each bond) located between the two atoms (1916). Shared the 1903 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discoveries and study of spontaneous radioactivity; Antoine Henri Becquerel accidentally discovered radioactivity in 1896 while investigating the phosphorescence of uranium salts. Then, Marie SkodowskaCurie decided to look into uranium rays as a possible field of research for her doctoral thesis. She used to investigate her uranium salt samples a very sensitive electrometer device that was invented 15 years before by her husband and his brother Jacques Curie to measure electrical charge; using the Curie's electrometer, she discovered that rays emitted by the uranium salt samples caused the air around such samples to conduct electricity, and that the emitted rays' intensity could be quantitated using the Curie electrometer. In April 1898 she found through a systematic search of substances that thorium compounds, like those of uranium, emitted 'Becquerel rays', thus preceding the work of Frederick Soddy and Ernest [12] Rutherford on the nuclear decay of thorium to radium by three years. Noted the pattern that the numerical difference between the maximum positive valence, such as +6 for H2SO4, and the maximum negative valence, such as -2 for H2S, of an element tends to be eight (Abegg's rule). Explained the photoelectric effect (reported in 1887 by Heinrich Hertz), i.e. that shining light on certain materials can function to eject electrons from the material, he postulated, as based on Plancks quantum hypothesis (1900), that light itself consists of individual quantum particles (photons). First to explain the effects of Brownian motion as caused by the kinetic energy (i.e., movement) of atoms, which was subsequently, experimentally verified by Jean Baptiste Perrin, thereby settling the century-long dispute about the validity of John Dalton's atomic theory.
1902 Gilbert N. Lewis
1903 Antoine Henri Becquerel, Pierre Curie and Marie Curie, ne Skodowska, Becquerel's doctoral student
1904 Richard Abegg
1905 Albert Einstein
7
Publishes his Special Theory of Relativity. Determines the equivalence of matter and energy. To test his 'plum pudding' model of 1904, later known as the planetary, or Rutherford model, he sent a beam of positively-charged, alpha particles onto a gold foil and noticed that some bounced back thus showing that an atom has a small-sized positively charged atomic nucleus at its center. However, he received in 1908 the Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for his investigations into the disintegration of the elements, and the chemistry of [13] radioactive substances", which followed on the work of Marie Curie, not for his planetary model of the atom; he is also widely credited with first "splitting the atom" in 1917. In 1911 Ernest Rutherford explained the Geiger-Marsden experiment by invoking a nuclear atom model and derived the Rutherford cross section. Demonstrated that interference patterns of light were generated even when the light energy introduced consisted of only one photon. This discovery of the wave-particle duality of matter and energy was fundamental to the later development of quantum field theory. Showed that, if Planck's law of black-body radiation is accepted, the energy quanta must also carry momentum p = h / , making them full-fledged particles.
1905 Albert Einstein 1905 Albert Einstein 1907 Ernest Rutherford to 1917
1909 Geoffrey Ingram Taylor
1909 Albert Einstein and 1916 1911 Lise Meitner and Otto Hahn
Performed an experiment that showed that the energies of electrons emitted by beta decay had a continuous rather than discrete spectrum. This was in apparent contradiction to the law of conservation of energy, as it appeared that energy was lost in the beta decay process. A second problem was that the spin of the Nitrogen-14 atom was 1, in contradiction to the Rutherford prediction of . These anomalies were later explained by the discoveries of the neutrino and the neutron. Performed experiments in which he determined the correct value of electron's magnetic dipole moment, B = 9.2710^(21) ergOe^(1); (in 1913 he was also able to calculate a theoretical value of the Bohr magneton based on Planck's quantum theory). Discovers the existence of cosmic radiation. Published an influential mathematical argument in support of the essential nature of energy quanta. [3][4]
1911 tefan Procopiu
1912 Victor Hess 1912 Henri Poincar 1913 Robert Andrews Millikan
Publishes the results of his "oil drop" experiment, in which he precisely determines the electric charge of the electron. Determination of the fundamental unit of electric charge made it possible to calculate the Avogadro constant (which is the number of atoms or molecules in one mole of any substance) and thereby to determine the atomic weight of the atoms of each element. Publishes a theoretical paper with the correct value of the electron's magnetic dipole moment B: tefan Procopiu. 1913. ``Determining the Molecular Magnetic Moment by M. Planck's Quantum Theory". Bulletin scientifique de lAcadmie Roumaine de sciences., 1: 151. Obtains theoretically the value of the electron's magnetic dipole moment B as a consequence of his atom model Independently discovered the shifting and splitting of the spectral lines of atoms and molecules due to the presence of the light source in an external static electric field. To explain the Rydberg formula (1888), which correctly modeled the light emission spectra of atomic hydrogen, Bohr hypothesized that negatively charged electrons revolve around a positively charged nucleus at certain fixed quantum distances and that each of these spherical orbits has a specific energy associated with it such that electron movements between orbits requires quantum emissions or absorptions of energy. First presents to the Prussian Academy of Science what are now known as the Einstein field equations. These equations specify how the geometry of space and time is influenced by whatever matter is present, and form the core of Einstein's General Theory of Relativity. Although this theory is not directly applicable to quantum mechanics, theorists of quantum gravity seek to reconcile them. To account for the Zeeman effect (1896), i.e. that atomic absorption or emission spectral lines change when the light source is subjected to a magnetic field, he suggested there might be elliptical orbits in atoms in addition to spherical orbits.
1913 tefan Procopiu
1913 Niels Bohr 1913 Johannes Stark and Antonino Lo Surdo 1913 Niels Bohr
1916 Arnold Sommerfeld
8
Noticed that, when alpha particles were shot into nitrogen gas, his scintillation detectors showed the signatures of hydrogen nuclei. Rutherford determined that the only place this hydrogen could have come from was the nitrogen, and therefore nitrogen must contain hydrogen nuclei. He thus suggested that the hydrogen nucleus, which was known to have an atomic number of 1, was an elementary particle, which he decided must be the protons hypothesized by Eugen Goldstein. Building on the work of Lewis (1916), he coined the term "covalence" and postulated that coordinate covalent bonds occur when two electrons of a pair of atoms come from both atoms and are equally shared by them, thus explaining the fundamental nature of chemical bonding and molecular chemistry. Received the Nobel Prize for 1921 in Chemistry one year later, in 1922, "for his contributions to our knowledge of the chemistry of radioactive substances, and his investigations into the origin and nature of isotopes"; he wrote in his Nobel Lecture of 1922:``The interpretation of radioactivity which was published in 1903 by Sir Ernest Rutherford and myself ascribed the phenomena to the spontaneous disintegration of the atoms of the radio-element, whereby a part of the original atom was violently ejected as a radiant particle, and the remainder formed a totally new kind of atom with a distinct chemical and physical character". Found that X-ray wavelengths increase due to scattering of the radiant energy by "free electrons". The scattered quanta have less energy than the quanta of the original ray. This discovery, known as the "Compton effect," or "Compton scattering" demonstrates the "particle" concept of electromagnetic radiation. Stern-Gerlach experiment detects discrete values of angular momentum for atoms in the ground state passing through an inhomogeneous magnetic field leading to the discovery of the spin of the electron. Postulated that electrons in motion are associated with waves the lengths of which are given by Plancks constant h divided by the momentum of the mv = p of the electron: = h / mv = h / p. His work on quantum mechanics provides the foundation for Bose-Einstein statistics, the theory of the Bose-Einstein condensate, and the discovery of the boson Postulated the existence of the electron spin
1918 Sir Ernest Rutherford
1919 Irving Langmuir
1921 Frederick Soddy and 1922
1922 Arthur Compton
1922 Otto Stern and Walther Gerlach 1923 Louis De Broglie
1924 Satyendra Nath Bose
1925 George Uhlenbeck and Samuel Goudsmit 1925 Friedrich Hund
Outlined the rule of maximum multiplicity which states that when electrons are added successively to an atom as many levels or orbits are singly occupied as possible before any pairing of electrons with opposite spin occurs and made the distinction that the inner electrons in molecules remained in atomic orbitals and only the valence electrons needed to be in molecular orbitals involving both nuclei. Developed the matrix mechanics formulation of Quantum Mechanics. Outlined the Pauli exclusion principle which states that no two identical fermions may occupy the same quantum state simultaneously. Coined the term photon, which he derived from the Greek word for light, (transliterated phs). Stated their relativistic quantum wave equation, now called the Klein-Gordon equation
1925 Werner Heisenberg 1925 Wolfgang Pauli
1926 Gilbert N. Lewis 1926 Oskar Klein and Walter Gordon (physicist) 1926 Enrico Fermi 1926 Paul Dirac 1926 Erwin Schrdinger
Discovered the spin-statistics theorem connection Introduced Fermi-Dirac statistics Used De Broglies electron wave postulate (1924) to develop a wave equation that represents mathematically the distribution of a charge of an electron distributed through space, being spherically symmetric or prominent in certain directions, i.e. directed valence bonds, which gave the correct values for spectral lines of the hydrogen atom; also introduced the Hamiltonian operator in quantum mechanics. Laid the mathematical foundations of Quantum Mechanics in terms of Hermitian operators on Hilbert spaces, [14] subsequently published in 1932 as a basic textbook of quantum mechanics. Formulates the quantum uncertainty principle interpreted the probabilistic nature of wavefunctions Introduced the concepts of valence bond theory and applied it to the hydrogen molecule.
1926 John von Neumann to 1932 1927 Werner Heisenberg 1927 Max Born 1927 Walter Heitler and Fritz London 1927 Thomas and Fermi
developed the Thomas-Fermi model
9
Studied optical photon scattering by electrons Stated his relativistic electron quantum wave equation Solved the Dirac equation for a Coulomb potential
1927 Chandrasekhara Raman 1927 Paul Dirac 1927 Charles G. Darwin and Walter Gordon 1927 Charles Drummond Ellis (along with James Chadwick and colleagues) 1927 Walter Heitler
Finally established clearly that the beta decay spectrum is in fact continuous and not discrete, posing a problem that would later by solved by theorizing (and later discovering) the existence of the neutrino.
Used Schrdingers wave equation (1926) to show how two hydrogen atom wavefunctions join together, with plus, minus, and exchange terms, to form a covalent bond. In 1927 Mulliken worked, in coordination with Hund, to develop a molecular orbital theory where electrons are assigned to states that extend over an entire molecule and, in 1932, introduced many new molecular orbital terminologies, such as bond, bond, and bond. Proved in collaboration with his student Fritz Peter a fundamental theorem in harmonic analysisthe Peter-Weyl theorem-- relevant to group representations in quantum theory (including the complete reducibility [15] of unitary representations of a compact topological group); introduced the Weyl quantization, and earlier, in 1918, introduced the concept of gauge and a gauge theory; later in 1935 he introduced and characterized with [16] Richard Bauer the concept of spinor in n-dimensions. In the Dirac equations, Paul Dirac integrated the principle of special relativity with quantum electrodynamics and hypothesized the existence of the positron. Outlined the nature of the chemical bond in which he used Heitlers quantum mechanical covalent bond model (1927) to outline the quantum mechanical basis for all types of molecular structure and bonding and suggested that different types of bonds in molecules can become equalized by rapid shifting of electrons, a process called resonance (1931), such that resonance hybrids contain contributions from the different possible electronic configurations.
1927 Robert Mulliken
1927 Hermann Klaus Hugo Weyl
1928 Paul Dirac
1928 Linus Pauling
1928 Friedrich Hund and Robert Introduce the concept of molecular orbital S. Mulliken 1929 Oskar Klein 1929 Oskar Klein and Yoshio Nishina 1929 Sir Nevill Mott 1929 John Lennard-Jones 1930 Paul Dirac 1930 Fritz London 1930 Wolfgang Pauli Discovers the Klein paradox Derive the Klein-Nishina cross section for high energy photon scattering by electrons
Derives the Mott cross section for the Coulomb scattering of relativistic electrons Introduced the linear combination of atomic orbitals approximation for the calculation of molecular orbitals. Introduces electron hole theory Explains van der Waals forces as due to the interacting fluctuating dipole moments between molecules In a famous letter, Pauli suggested that, in addition to electrons and protons, atoms also contained an extremely light neutral particle which he called the "neutron." He suggested that this "neutron" was also emitted during beta decay and had simply not yet been observed. Later it was determined that this particle was actually the almost massless neutrino Proposes the Lennard-Jones interatomic potential Found that if the very energetic alpha particles emitted from polonium fell on certain light elements, specifically beryllium, boron, or lithium, an unusually penetrating radiation was produced. At first this radiation was thought to be gamma radiation, although it was more penetrating than any gamma rays known, and the details of experimental results were very difficult to interpret on this basis. Some scientists began to hypothesize the possible existence of another fundamental, atomic particle. Renamed Pauli's "neutron" to neutrino to distinguish it from the then-hypothetical possibility of a much more massive neutron.
1931 John Lennard-Jones 1931 Walther Bothe and Herbert Becker
1931 Enrico Fermi
10
Showed that if the unknown radiation generated by alpha particles fell on paraffin or any other hydrogen-containing compound, it ejected protons of very high energy. This was not in itself inconsistent with the proposed gamma ray nature of the new radiation, but detailed quantitative analysis of the data became increasingly difficult to reconcile with such a hypothesis. Performed a series of experiments showing that the gamma ray hypothesis for the unknown radiation produced by alpha particles was untenable, and that the new particles must be the neutrons hypothesized by Enrico Fermi. Chadwick suggested that, in fact, the new radiation consisted of uncharged particles of approximately the same mass as the proton, and he performed a series of experiments verifying his suggestion. Applied perturbation theory to the two-electron problem and showed how resonance arising from electron exchange could explain exchange forces. Building upon the nuclear transmutation experiments of Ernest Rutherford done a few years earlier, fusion of light nuclei (hydrogen isotopes) was first observed by Oliphant in 1932. The steps of the main cycle of nuclear fusion in stars were subsequently worked out by Hans Bethe throughout the remainder of that decade. Experimentally proves the existence of the positron. First theorized the concept of a nuclear chain reaction. He filed a patent for his idea of a simple nuclear reactor the following year. Published a very successful model of beta decay in which neutrinos were produced. Studies the effects of bombarding uranium isotopes with neutrons. Develops the total quantitative chain chemical reaction theory. The idea of the chain reaction, developed by Semyonov, is the basis of various high technologies using the incineration of gas mixtures. The idea was also used for the description of the nuclear reaction. Discovered artificial radioactivity and were jointly awarded the 1935 Novel Prize in Chemistry [17]
1932 Irne Joliot-Curie and Frdric Joliot
1932 James Chadwick
1932 Werner Heisenberg
1932 Mark Oliphant
1932 Carl D. Anderson 1933 Le Szilrd
1934 Enrico Fermi 1934 Enrico Fermi 1934 N.N.Semyonov
1934 Irne Joliot-Curie and Frdric Joliot-Curie 1935 Hideki Yukawa
Formulated his hypothesis of the Yukawa potential and predicted the existence of the pion, stating that such a potential arises from the exchange of a massive scalar field, as it would be found in the field of the pion. Prior to Yukawa's paper, it was believed that the scalar fields of the fundamental forces necessitated massless particles. Published prior to Hideki Yukawa his relativistic quantum field equations for a massive vector meson of spin-1 as a basis for nuclear forces. [18] Introduced Quantum Logic in an attempt to reconcile the apparent inconsistency of classical, Boolean logic with the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle of quantum mechanics as applied, for example, to the measurement [19] of complementary (noncommuting) observables in quantum mechanics, such as position and momentum; [20][21] current approaches to quantum logic involve noncommutative and non-associative many-valued logic. Discovered muons while he studied cosmic radiation. Experimentally proves the existence of the pion. [22] Proved, using group theory, that non-linear degenerate molecules are unstable. The Jahn-Teller theorem essentially states that any non-linear molecule with a degenerate electronic ground state will undergo a geometrical distortion that removes that degeneracy, because the distortion lowers the overall energy of the complex. The latter process is called the Jahn-Teller effect; this effect was recently considered also in relation to the superconductivity mechanism in YBCO and other high temperature superconductors. The details of the Jahn-Teller effect are presented with several examples and EPR data in the basic textbook by Abragam and Bleaney (1970). Made the first accurate calculation of a molecular orbital wavefunction with the hydrogen molecule. Hahn and Strassmann sent a manuscript to Naturwissenschaften reporting they had detected the element barium after bombarding uranium with neutrons. Simultaneously, they communicated these results to Meitner. Meitner, and her nephew Frisch, correctly interpreted these results as being nuclear fission. Frisch confirmed this experimentally on 13 January 1939. Discovered neutron multiplication in uranium, proving that a chain reaction was indeed possible.
1936 Alexandru Proca
1936 Garrett Birkhoff and John von Neumann
1936 Carl D. Anderson 1937 Carl Anderson 1937 Hermann Arthur Jahn and Edward Teller
1938 Charles Coulson 1938 Otto Hahn, Fritz Strassmann, Lise Meitner, and Otto Robert Frisch
1939 Le Szilrd and Enrico Fermi
11
First proposed the use of beta capture to experimentally detect neutrinos. Created the first artificial self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction, called Chicago Pile-1 (CP-1), in a racquets court below the bleachers of Stagg Field at the University of Chicago on December 2, 1942. Lead successfully the Manhattan Project, predicted quantum tunneling and proposed the OppenheimerPhillips process in nuclear fusion First nuclear fission explosion on July 16, 1945 in the Trinity test in New Mexico. Reported the construction of the first hydrogen maser by coherent stimulation of radiation in molecular hydrogen. Published two cloud chamber photographs of cosmic ray-induced events, one showing what appeared to be a neutral particle decaying into two charged pions, and one which appeared to be a charged particle decaying into a charged pion and something neutral. The estimated mass of the new particles was very rough, about half a proton's mass. More examples of these "V-particles" were slow in coming, and they were soon given the name kaons. Independently introduced perturbative renormalization as a method of correcting the original Lagrangian of a quantum field theory so as to eliminate an infinite series of counterterms that would otherwise result. Stated the path integral formulation of quantum mechanics. Determined the equivalence of the formulations of quantum electrodynamics that existed by that time Richard Feynman's diagrammatic path integral formulation and the operator method developed by Julian Schwinger and Sin-Itiro Tomonaga. A by-product of that demonstration was the invention of the Dyson [23] series. Derived the Roothaan-Hall equations, putting rigorous molecular orbital methods on a firm basis.
1942 Kan-Chang Wang 1942 Enrico Fermi
1945 Julius Robert Oppenheimer 1945 Manhattan Project 1946 Theodor V. Ionescu and Vasile Mihu 1947 G. D. Rochester and C. C. Butler
1948 Sin-Itiro Tomonaga and Julian Schwinger 1948 Richard Feynman 1949 Freeman Dyson
1951 Clemens C. J. Roothaan and George G. Hall 1951 Edward Teller--'Father of the Hydrogen bomb', physicist and Stanisaw Ulam, mathematician
Were reported to have written jointly in March 1951 a classified report on Hydrodynamic Lenses and Radiation Mirrors that resulted in the next step in the Manhattan Project. In 1999, Edward Teller told a Scientific American reporter: "I contributed; Ulam did not. I'm sorry I had to answer it in this abrupt way. Ulam was rightly dissatisfied with an old approach. He came to me with a part of an idea which I already had worked out and (had) difficulty getting people to listen to. He was willing to sign a paper. When it then came to [24] defending that paper and really putting work into it, he refused. He said: `Ì don't believe in it". First planned fusion thermonuclear reaction experiment was carried out successfully in the Spring of 1951 at Eniwetok, based only on the work of Edward Teller and Dr. Hans A. Bethe who wrote in 1952:``the results of the calculations of Ulam and Fermi in 1950 (which were logical steps in the program) would have led nearly every scientist to give up the thermonuclear program altogether. Only Teller's persistent belief in the [25] practicality of thermonuclear reactions led to our present, completely novel concepts in this field.". The Los Alamos Laboratory proposed a date in November 1952 for a Hydrogen bomb, full-scale test that was apparently kept. Received a shared Nobel Prize in Physics for their first observations of the quantum phenomenon of nuclear magnetic resonance reported in 1949 ("for their development of new methods for nuclear magnetic precision measurements and discoveries in connection therewith"); Felix Bloch reported his NMR discovery as "the [26][27][28] Principle of Nuclear Induction" (in collaboration with W. W. Hansen, and M. Packard); Purcell reported his contribution as ``Research in Nuclear Magnetism", and gave credit to his coworkers such as [29][30] Herbert S. Gutowsky for their NMR contributions, as well as theoretical researchers of nuclear magnetism such as Professor Van Vleck. Formulated a theory of theory of the dynamic nuclear polarization, also known as the Overhauser Effect; other contenders are the subsequent theory of Ionel Solomon reported in 1955 that includes the Solomon equations for dipolar coupled spin dynamics, and that of R. Kaiser in 1963; Overhauser was elected to the US National Academy of Sciences in 1974 and received the National Medal of Science in 1994. The general Overhauser [31] effect was first demonstrated experimentally by T. R. Carver and Charles P. Slichter in 1953
1951 Manhattan Project and 1952
1951 Felix Bloch and Edward Mills Purcell
1952 Albert W. Overhauser
12
Built and reported the first ammonia maser; received a Nobel prize in 1964 for his experimental success in producing coherent radiation by atoms and molecules.
1953 Charles H. Townes,(collaborating with J. P. Gordon, and H. J. Zeiger) 1954 Chen Ning Yang and Robert Mills 1955 Ionel Solomon
Derived a gauge theory for nonabelian groups, leading to the successful formulation of both electroweak unification and quantum chromodynamics. First nuclear magnetic resonance theory of magnetic dipole coupled nuclear spins and of the Nuclear Overhauser Effect (NOE). Independently derived the Gell-MannNishijima formula, which relates the baryon number B, the strangeness S, and the isospin Iz of hadrons to the charge Q, eventually leading to the systematic categorization of hadrons and, ultimately, the Quark Model of hadron composition. Predicted that self-sustaining nuclear chain reactions should occur in natural uranium deposits. Experimentally proved the existence of the neutrino.
1955 Murray Gell-Mann and and Kazuhiko Nishijima 1956 1956 P. Kuroda 1956 Clyde L. Cowan and Frederick Reines 1957 John Bardeen, Leon Cooper and John Robert Schrieffer 1957 William Alfred Fowler, Margaret Burbidge, Geoffrey Burbidge, and Fred Hoyle 1958 Edward Raymond and Andrew, FRS 1976
Proposed their quantum BCS theory of low temperature superconductivity as a macroscopic quantum coherence phenomenon involving phonon coupled electron pairs with opposite spin, for which their received a Nobel prize in 1972. In their 1957 paper Synthesis of the Elements in Stars, they explained how the abundances of essentially all but the lightest chemical elements could be explained by the process of nucleosynthesis in stars.
Made critical field measurements on superconducting tin foils in 1949 for his PhD; then in 1958 he discovered the magic angle spinning (MAS) technique for obtaining resolved chemical shifts in [32][33][34][35][36][37][38][39][40][41][42][43][44][45][46] [47][48] solids, including Knight shifts in metals, and subsequently in 1964 carried out pioneering experiments with nuclear magnetic resonance imaging (NMRI) [49][50][51][52][53][54][55] [56] also in solids; for his important discoveries he was elected Fellow of the Royal Society in 1984; together with R.G. Eades he published an important theoretical paper on the separation of [57] intramolecular and intermolecular contributions to the Van Vleck second moment of the NMR spectrum Performed Young's double-slit experiment (1909) for the first time with particles other than photons by using electrons and with similar results, confirming that massive particles also behaved according to the wave-particle duality that is a fundamental principle of quantum field theory. Published in 1961 the fundamental textbook on the quantum theory of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance entitled ``The Principles of Nuclear Magnetism". Clarendon Press: Oxford. pp.599. OCLC 242700 (1961); it surpasses by far both the earlier textbook by E.R. Andrew published in 1955, and the Magnetic Resonance textbook [58] published two years later by Professor Charles P. Slichter Extended the electroweak unification models developed by Julian Schwinger by including a short range neutral current, the Z_o. The resulting symmetry structure that Glashow proposed, SU(2) X U(1), formed the basis of the accepted theory of the electroweak interactions. Showed that more than one type of neutrino exists by detecting interactions of the muon neutrino (already hypothesised with the name "neutretto")
1961 Clauss Jnsson
1961 Anatole Abragam
1961 Sheldon Lee Glashow
1962 Leon M. Lederman, Melvin Schwartz and Jack Steinberger 1962 Murray Gell-Mann and Yuval Ne'eman 1962 Jeffrey Goldstone, Yoichiro Nambu, Abdus Salam, and Steven Weinberg
Independently classified the hadrons according to a system that Gell-Mann called the "Eightfold Way," and which ultimately led to the quark model (1964) of hadron composition. Developed what is now known as Goldstone's Theorem, in which it was proved that, if there is continuous symmetry transformation under which the Lagrangian is invariant, then either the vacuum state is also invariant under the transformation, or there must exist spinless particles of zero mass, thereafter called Nambu-Goldstone bosons. Subsequently, in 2004 Steven Weinberg explained in his 3-volume book on "Quantum Field Theory" that low temperature superconductivity could not be explained by the BCS model alone without the appearance of Goldstone bosons upon symmetry breaking. One notes however that the importance of symmetry breaking for superconductivity was already pointed out in 1973 by Brian David Josephson in his Nobel lecture.
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1962 Brian David Josephson, to FRS 1973
Predicted correctly the quantum tunnelling effect involving supercurrents while he was a PhD student under the supervision of Professor Brian Pippard at the Royal Society Mond Laboratory in Cambridge, UK; subsequently, in 1964, he applied his theory to coupled superconductors. The Josephson, tunnelling supercurrent effect was later demonstrated experimentally at Bell Labs in the USA. For his important quantum discovery he was [59] awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1973. Laid the foundation for the theory of symmetries in quantum mechanics as well as for basic research into the structure of the atomic nucleus; made important "contributions to the theory of the atomic nucleus and the elementary particles, particularly through the discovery and application of fundamental symmetry principles"; he shared half of his Nobel prize in Physics with Maria Goeppert-Mayer and J. Hans D. Jensen. Shared with Eugene P. Wigner one half of the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1963 "for their discoveries concerning [60] nuclear shell structure theory". Developed the mathematical matrix by which the first two (and ultimately three) generations of quarks could be predicted. Independently proposed the quark model of hadrons, predicting the arbitrarily named up, down, and strange quarks. Gell-Mann is credited with coining the term "quark," which he found in James Joyce's book Finnegans Wake. Postulated that a fundamental quantum field, now called the Higgs field, permeates space and, by way of the Higgs mechanism, provides mass to all the elementary subatomic particles that interact with it. While the Higgs field is postulated to confer mass on quarks and leptons, it represents only a tiny portion of the masses of other subatomic particles, such as protons and neutrons. In these, gluons that bind quarks together confer most of the particle mass. The Higgs mechanism, which gives mass to vector bosons, such as Proca's vector spin-1 mesons, was theorized in 1964 by Franois Englert and Robert Brout. In October of the same year, Peter Higgs, working from the ideas of Philip Anderson reached the same conclusions; and, independently, by Gerald Guralnik, C. R. Hagen, and Tom Kibble, who worked out the results by the spring of 1963. Predicted the existence of the charm quark. The addition was proposed because it allowed for a better description of the weak interaction (the mechanism that allows quarks and other particles to decay), equalized the number of known quarks with the number of known leptons, and implied a mass formula that correctly reproduced the masses of the known mesons. Shared the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1964 for, respectively, semiconductor lasers and Quantum Electronics; they also shared the prize with Charles H. Townes, the inventor of the ammonium maser. Published a paper in which he described Yang-Mills Theory using the SU(2) X U(1) supersymmetry group, thereby yielding a mass for the W particle of the Weak Interaction via spontaneous symmetry breaking. Deep inelastic scattering experiments at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center (SLAC) showed that the proton contained much smaller, point-like objects and was therefore not an elementary particle. Physicists at the time were reluctant to identify these objects with quarks, instead calling them "partons" a term coined by Richard Feynman. The objects that were observed at SLAC would later be identified as up and down quarks. Nevertheless, "parton" remains in use as a collective term for the constituents of hadrons (quarks, antiquarks, and gluons). The strange quark's existence was indirectly validated by the SLAC's scattering experiments: not only was it a necessary component of Gell-Mann and Zweig's three-quark model, but it provided an explanation for the kaon (K) and pion () hadrons discovered in cosmic rays in 1947. Published quantum theories for electrons in non-crystalline solids, such as glasses and amorphous semiconductors; received in 1977 a Nobel prize in Physics for their investigations into the electronic structure of magnetic and disordered systems,which allowed for the development of electronic switching and memory devices in computers; shared with John Hasbrouck Van Vleck for his contributions to the understanding of the behavior of electrons in magnetic solids; he established the fundamentals of the quantum mechanical theory of magnetism and the crystal field theory (chemical bonding in metal complexes) and is regarded as the Father of modern Magnetism. Observed and reported quantum amplified stimulation of electromagnetic radiation in hot deuterium plasmas in a longitudinal magnetic field; published a quantum theory of the amplified coherent emission of radiowaves and microwaves by focused electron beams coupled to ions in hot plasmas.
1963 Eugene P. Wigner
1963 Maria Goeppert Mayer and J. Hans D. Jensen 1963 Nicola Cabibbo
1964 Murray Gell-Mann and George Zweig
1964 Franois Englert, Robert Brout, Peter Higgs, Gerald Guralnik, C. R. Hagen, [61] [62] and Tom Kibble [63][64] [65] [66] [67]
1964 Sheldon Lee Glashow and James Bjorken
1964 Nikolai G. Basov and Aleksandr M. Prokhorov 1967 Steven Weinberg and Abdus Salam 1968 Stanford University
1969 Sir Neville Mott and to Philip Warren Anderson 1977
1969 Theodor V. Ionescu, Radu and Prvan and I.C. Baianu 1970
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Predicted the charmed quark that was subsequently found experimentally and shared a Nobel prize for their theoretical prediction.
1970 Sheldon Lee Glashow, John Iliopoulos and Luciano Maiani 1970 Anatole Abragam and B. Bleaney
Presented an extensive quantum theory of Electron Paramagnetic Resonance of transition ions with thoroughly worked out examples in an encyclopedic style that remains todate a key, enormous reference book; significantly, this unsurpassed quantum textbook, which is widely appreciated in the quantum mechanics [68][69] community, was dedicated to J. H. Van Vleck. Showed that, if the symmetries of Yang-Mills Theory were to be broken according to the method suggested by Peter Higgs, then Yang-Mills theory can be renormalized. The renormalization of Yang-Mills Theory predicted the existence of a massless particle, called the gluon, which could explain the nuclear Strong Force. It also explained how the particles of the Weak Interaction, the W and Z bosons, obtained their mass via spontaneous symmetry breaking and the Yukawa interaction. Introduced two-dimensional FT-NMR Spectroscopy at the Ampere Summer School in Basko Polje, Yugoslavia, in September 1971; his unpublished lecture notes for this presentation were later published in NMR and More in Honour of Anatole Abragam, Eds. M. Goldman and M. Porneuf, Les editions de physique, Avenue du Hoggar, Zone Industrielle de Courtaboeuf, BP 112, F-91944 Les Ulis cedex A, France (1994); `ìt has shown an unprecedented impact on the development of state-of-the-art NMR spectroscopy. In principle, any multiple-dimensional NMR experiment introduced so far relies on the method proposed by Jean Jeener. Countless examples can be found in both liquid-state and solid-state NMR, as well as in NMR imaging applications in medicine, biology and material science". Discovered the existence of "natural nuclear fission reactors" in uranium deposits in Oklo, Gabon, where analysis of isotope ratios demonstrated that self-sustaining, nuclear chain reactions had occurred. The conditions under which a natural nuclear reactor could exist were predicted in 1956 by P. Kuroda. Discovered the quark asymptotic freedom in the theory of strong interactions; received the Lorentz Medal in 2002, and the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2004 for his discovery and his subsequent contributions to Quantum [70] Chromodynamics. Noted that the experimental observation of CP violation could be explained if an additional pair of quarks existed. The two new quarks were eventually named top and bottom. Formulated the physical theory of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Imaging (NMRI) [71][72][73][74]
1971 Martinus J. G. Veltman and Gerardus 't Hooft
1971 Jean Jeener, solid-state NMR physicist, professor
1972 Francis Perrin
1973 Frank Anthony Wilczek
1973 Makoto Kobayashi and Toshihide Maskawa 1973 Peter Mansfield 1974 Pier Giorgio Merli
Performed Young's double-slit experiment (1909) using a single electron with similar results, confirming the existence of quantum fields for massive particles. Charm quarks were produced almost simultaneously by two teams in November 1974 (see November Revolution) one at SLAC under Burton Richter, and one at Brookhaven National Laboratory under Samuel Ting. The charm quarks were observed bound with charm antiquarks in mesons. The two discovering parties had independently assigned the discovered meson two different symbols, J and ; thus, it became formally known as the J/ meson. The discovery finally convinced the physics community of the quark model's validity. With his colleagues at the SLACLBL group, he detected the tau in a series of experiments between 1974 and 1977. Observed the bottom quark with his team at Fermilab. This discovery was a strong indicator of the top quark's existence: without the top quark, the bottom quark would have been without a partner that was required by the mathematics of the theory. Developed non-equilibrium, irreversible thermodynamics and quantum operator theory, especially the time superoperator theory; he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1977 "for his contributions to [75] non-equilibrium thermodynamics, particularly the theory of dissipative structures". Observed new phenomena in hot deuterium plasmas excited by very high power microwaves in attempts to obtain controlled thermonuclear fusion reactions in such plasmas placed in longitudinal magnetic fields, using a novel and low-cost design of thermonuclear reactor, similar in concept to that reported by Theodor V. Ionescu et al. in 1969; received a Nobel prize for early low temperature physics experiments on helium superfluidity carried out in 1937 at the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge, UK, and discussed his 1977 thermonuclear reactor results in his Nobel lecture on December 8, 1978.
1974 Burton Richter and Samuel Ting
1975 Martin Lewis Perl
1977 Leon Lederman
1977 Ilya Prigogine
1978 Pyotr Kapitsa
15
1979 Kenneth A. Rubinson and coworkers
Observed at the Cavendish Laboratory ferromagnetic spin wave resonant excitations (FSWR) in locally anisotropic, FENiPB metallic glasses and interpreted the experimental results in terms of two-magnon [76] dispersion and a spin exchange Hamiltonian, similar in form to that of a Heisenberg ferromagnet. Verified experimentally the quantum entanglement hypothesis; his ``Bell test" experiments provided strong evidence that a quantum event at one location can affect an event at another location without any obvious [77][78] mechanism for communication between the two locations. Operated since 1982, produced 10.7MW of controlled fusion power for only 0.21s in 1994 by using T-D nuclear fusion in a tokamak reactor with `à toroidal 6T magnetic field for plasma confinement, a 3MA plasma [79] current and an electron density of 1.0 x 10**20 m-3 of 13.5keV" Unambiguous signals of W particles were seen in January 1983 during a series of experiments conducted by Carlo Rubbia and Simon van der Meer at the Super Proton Synchrotron. The actual experiments were called UA1 (led by Rubbia) and UA2 (led by Peter Jenni), and were the collaborative effort of many people. Simon van der Meer was the driving force on the use of the accelerator. UA1 and UA2 found the Z particle a few months later, in May 1983. Began operation of the largest and most powerful, experimental nuclear fusion tokamak reactor in the world at Culham Facility in UK; operates with T-D plasma pulses and had a reported gain factor Q of 0.7 in 2009, with [80] an input of 40MW for plasma heating, and a 2800 ton iron magnet for confinement; in 1997 in a tritium-deuterium experiment JET produced 16 MW of fusion power, a total of 22 MJ of fusion, energy and a [81] steady fusion power of 4 MW which was maintained for 4 seconds. Began operation in 1985 with an experimental D-D nuclear fusion tokamak similar to JET, currently run by the Japan Atomic Energy Agency's (JAEA) Naka Fusion Institute in the Ibaraki Prefecture; in 2010 JT-60 held the record for the highest value of the fusion triple product achieved: 1.771028Ksm3 = [82] 1.531021keVsm3.; JT-60 claimed an equivalent energy gain factor, Q of 1.25 if it would have been operated with a T-D plasma instead of the D-D plasma, and on May 9, 2006 attained a fusion hold time of 28.6 s in full operation; moreover, a high-power microwave gyrotron construction was completed which is capable [83] of 1.5MW output for 1s, thus meeting the conditions for the planned ITER, large-scale nuclear fusion reactor;; JT-60 was disassembled in 2010 in order to be upgraded to a more powerful nuclear fusion reactorthe JT-60SAby using niobium-titanium superconducting coils for the magnet confining the ultra-hot D-D plasma. Produced unambiguous experimental proof of high temperature superconductivity involving Jahn-Teller polarons in orthorhombic La_2CuO_4, YBCO and other perovskite-type oxides; promptly received a Nobel [84] prize in 1987 and delivered their Nobel lecture on December 8, 1987. Introduced the concept of 'quantum groups' as Hopf algebras in his seminal address on quantum theory at the International Congress of Mathematicians, and also connected them to the study of the YangBaxter equation, which is a necessary condition for the solvability of statistical mechanics models; he also generalized Hopf algebras to quasi-Hopf algebras, and introduced the study of Drinfeld twists, which can be used to factorize the R-matrix corresponding to the solution of the YangBaxter equation associated with a quasitriangular Hopf algebra. Discovered in 1988 the new quantum phenomenon of Atomic Dichotomy in hydrogen and subsequently published a book on the atomic structure and decay in high-frequency fields of hydrogen atoms placed in [85][86][87][88][89][90][91] ultra-intense laser fields;. Developed Two-Dimensional Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (2D-FT NMRS) for small molecules in solution and was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1991 "for his contributions to the development of [92] the methodology of high resolution nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy". The top quark was finally observed by a team at Fermilab after an 18-year search. It had a mass much greater than had been previously expected almost as great as a gold atom.
1980 Alain Aspect to 1982 1982 Tokamak Fusion Test to Reactor(TFTR) at PPPL, 1997 Princeton, USA 1983 Carlo Rubbia and Simon van der Meer
1983 JET to 2011
1985 JT-60 (Japan Torus) to 2010
1986 Johannes Georg Bednorz and Karl Alexander Mller 1986 Vladimir Gershonovich Drinfel'd
1988 Mihai Gavril to 1998 1991 Richard R. Ernst
1977 Fermilab to 1995
16
1995 Eric Cornell, Carl Wieman The first "pure" BoseEinstein condensate was created by Eric Cornell, Carl Wieman, and co-workers at JILA. and Wolfgang Ketterle They did this by cooling a dilute vapor consisting of approximately two thousand rubidium-87 atoms to below 170 nK using a combination of laser cooling and magnetic evaporative cooling. About four months later, an independent effort led by Wolfgang Ketterle at MIT created a condensate made of sodium-23. Ketterle's condensate had about a hundred times more atoms, allowing him to obtain several important results such as the observation of quantum mechanical interference between two different condensates. 1998 Super-Kamiokande (Japan) detector facility 1999 NSTXThe National to Spherical Torus 2013 Experiment at PPPL, Princeton, USA 2000 CERN Reported experimental evidence for neutrino oscillations, implying that at least one neutrino has mass.
PPPL launched a nuclear fusion project on February 12, 1999 for `àn innovative magnetic fusion device that was constructed by the Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory (PPPL) in collaboration with the Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Columbia University, and the University of Washington at Seattle"; NSTX is being used [93] to study the physics principles of spherically shaped plasmas. CERN scientists publish experimental results in which they claim to have observed indirect evidence of the existence of a quark-gluon plasma, which they call a "new state of matter." Confirmed the existence of neutrino oscillations.
2001 The Sudbury Neutrino Observatory (Canada) 2002 Leonid Vainerman
Organized at Strasbourg a meeting of theoretical physicists and mathematicians focused on quantum group and quantum groupoid applications in quantum theories; the proceedings of the meeting were published in 2003 in a [94] book edited by the meeting organizer Received the 2003 Nobel Prize in Physics for pioneering contributions to the quantum theory of superconductors, and superfluids such as Helium-3, shared with V. L. Ginzburg and A. A. Abrikosov. Generated a quark-gluon fluid, perhaps the quark-gluon plasma
2003 Sir Anthony James Leggett, KBE, FRS 2005 The RHIC accelerator of Brookhaven National Laboratory 2007 Charles Pence Slichter to 2010 2008 Lithium Tokamak to Experiment (LTX) 2010
Was awarded the National Medal of Science in 2007 for his studies of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance in Solids, [95][96][97][98][99] and especially his NMR Studies of High-Temperature Superconductors.
Started in September 2008based on the Andrei Zakharov theoryusing a very thin lithium metal layer (<40 [100] microns) on the inside surface of a 'small' tokamak reactorfacing the ultra-hot plasma; it was however planned to achieve only 400kA plasma currents in 100 ms pulses in the Spring of 2009, but was expected to achieve higher plasma ignition temperatures than in other tokamaks that do not utilize the liquid lithiumplasma interface so that the lithium would "soak up the particles at the plasma edge", thus avoiding plasma cooling by hot plasma particles reflected at the walls, as shown in the earlier experiments with the CDX-U toroidal lithium tray where a 50% recycling coefficient was measured, that is 35% lower than in the TFTR; in CDX-U the measured thickness of the coating lithium layer was on the order of 10nm; shut down for upgrades in 2010, including a neutral beam injector, and then to be re-started during 2011.
2007 Alain Aspect, Anton Presented progess with the resolution of the non-locality aspect of quantum theory and was awarded in 2010 the to Zeilinger and John Clauser Wolf Prize in Physics, together with Anton Zeilinger and John Clauser[101] 2010
17
Received the Nobel Prize in Physics ``for groundbreaking experiments regarding the two-dimensional material graphene"
2010 Andre Geim and Konstantin Novoselov
Graphene is a planar atomic-scale honeycomb lattice made of carbon atoms which exhibits unusual and interesting quantum properties.
Energy states of the electrons with wavenumber k in graphene. Occupied states are shown in green and touch the unoccupied states (colored in blue) at the six k-vectors, without any gap between the two sets.
Founding experiments
Thomas Young's double-slit experiment demonstrating the wave nature of light (c1805) Henri Becquerel discovers radioactivity (1896) J. J. Thomson's cathode ray tube experiments (discovers the electron and its negative charge) (1897) The study of black body radiation between 1850 and 1900, which could not be explained without quantum concepts. The photoelectric effect: Einstein explained this in 1905 (and later received a Nobel prize for it) using the concept of photons, particles of light with quantized energy Robert Millikan's oil-drop experiment, which showed that electric charge occurs as quanta (whole units), (1909) Ernest Rutherford's gold foil experiment disproved the plum pudding model of the atom which suggested that the mass and positive charge of the atom are almost uniformly distributed. (1911) Otto Stern and Walther Gerlach conduct the Stern-Gerlach experiment, which demonstrates the quantized nature of particle spin (1920)
History of Quantum Mechanics Clinton Davisson and Lester Germer demonstrate the wave nature of the electron[102] in the Electron diffraction experiment (1927) Clyde L. Cowan and Frederick Reines confirm the existence of the neutrino in the neutrino experiment (1955) Claus Jnsson`s double-slit experiment with electrons (1961) The Quantum Hall effect, discovered in 1980 by Klaus von Klitzing. The quantized version of the Hall effect has allowed for the definition of a new practical standard for electrical resistance and for an extremely precise independent determination of the fine structure constant. The experimental verification of quantum entanglement by Alain Aspect in 1982.
18
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Phys. Soc. A66, 45 (1953) [58] C.P. Slichter,Principles of Magnetic Resonance with Examples from Solid State Physics, Harper & Row: New York, Evanston, and London, pp.246 [59] Brian David Josephson. December 12,1973. Nobel Lecture: The Discovery of Tunnelling Supercurrents (http:/ / nobelprize. org/ nobel_prizes/ physics/ laureates/ 1973/ josephson-lecture. pdf) [60] Maria Goeppert Mayer.1963.The shell model, Nobel Lecture, December 12, 1963. (http:/ / nobelprize. org/ nobel_prizes/ physics/ laureates/ 1963/ mayer-lecture. pdf) [61] F. Englert, R. Brout (1964), "Broken Symmetry and the Mass of Gauge Vector Mesons", Physical Review Letters 13 (9): 321323, Bibcode1964PhRvL..13..321E, doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.13.321. [62] P.W. Higgs (1964), "Broken Symmetries and the Masses of Gauge Bosons", Physical Review Letters 13 (16): 508509, Bibcode1964PhRvL..13..508H, doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.13.508. [63] G.S. Guralnik, C.R. Hagen, T.W.B. Kibble (1964), "Global Conservation Laws and Massless Particles", Physical Review Letters 13 (20): 585587, Bibcode1964PhRvL..13..585G, doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.13.585. [64] G.S. Guralnik (2009), "The History of the Guralnik, Hagen and Kibble development of the Theory of Spontaneous Symmetry Breaking and Gauge Particles", International Journal of Modern Physics A 24 (14): 26012627, arXiv:0907.3466, Bibcode2009IJMPA..24.2601G, doi:10.1142/S0217751X09045431. [65] T.W.B. Kibble (2009), "EnglertBroutHiggsGuralnikHagenKibble mechanism" (http:/ / www. scholarpedia. org/ article/ Englert-Brout-Higgs-Guralnik-Hagen-Kibble_mechanism), Scholarpedia 4 (1): 6441, doi:10.4249/scholarpedia.6441, . [66] M. Blume, S. Brown, Y. Millev (2008). "Letters from the past, a PRL retrospective (1964)" (http:/ / prl. aps. org/ 50years/ milestones#1964). Physical Review Letters. . Retrieved 2010-01-30. [67] "J. J. Sakurai Prize Winners" (http:/ / www. aps. org/ units/ dpf/ awards/ sakurai. cfm). American Physical Society. 2010. . Retrieved 2010-01-30. [68] A. Abragam and B. Bleaney. 1970. Electron Parmagnetic Resonance of Transition Ions, Oxford University Press: Oxford, U.K., pp.911
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[69] Anatole Abragam. `The Principles of Nuclear Magnetism". Clarendon Press: Oxford. pp. 599. OCLC 242700 (1961); [70] * Frank Wilczek (1999) " Quantum field theory (http:/ / arxiv. org/ abs/ hep-th/ 9803075)", Reviews of Modern Physics 71: S83-S95. Also doi=10.1103/Rev. Mod. Phys. 71. [71] P. Mansfield and P. K. Grannell. NMR `Diffraction in solids ? , J Phys C 6, L422 (1973). [72] A N Garroway, P. K. Grannell and P Mansfield. Image formation in NMR by a selective irradiative process., J Phys C 7, L457, (1974) [73] P. Mansfield and A. A. Maudsley. Medical imaging by NMR., Brit J Radiol 50, 188 (1977). [74] P. Mansfield. Multi-planar imaging formation using NMR spin echoes. , J Physics C Solid State Phys. 10, L55L58 (1977). [75] http:/ / nobelprize. org/ nobel_prizes/ chemistry/ laureates/ 1977/ prigogine-lecture. pdf Ilya Prigogine's Nobel lecture,"TIME, STRUCTURE AND FLUCTUATIONS" 8 December 1977 [76] Rubinson, K.A. et al. (1979). "Ferromagnetic resonance and spin wave excitations in metallic glasses". J. Phys. Chem. Solids 40 (12): 941950. [77] A. Aspect, P. Grangier, and G. Roger. Experimental Realization of Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen-Bohm Gedankenexperiment: A New Violation of Bell's Inequalities, Physical Review Letters, Vol. 49, Iss. 2, pp.9194 (1982) doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.49.91 [78] A. Aspect, J. Dalibard and G. Roger. Experimental Test of Bell's Inequalities Using Time-Varying Analyzers, Physical Review Letters, Vol. 49, Iss. 25, pp.18041807 (1982) doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.49.1804 [79] http:/ / w3. pppl. gov/ tftr/ info/ tftrparams. html TFTR Machine Parameters [80] http:/ / www. jet. efda. org/ jet/ jets-main-features/ JET's Main Features-EFDA JET [81] http:/ / www. jet. efda. org/ wp-content/ uploads/ jeteuropeansucess. pdf European JET website [82] Fusion Plasma Research (http:/ / www-jt60. naka. jaea. go. jp/ english/ index-e. html) [83] http:/ / www-jt60. naka. jaea. go. jp/ english/ index-e. html Fusion Plasma Research (FPR), JASEA, Naka Fusion Institute [84] Mller, K. A. and Bednorz, J, G. (1987) Science 237, 1133. [85] M. Pont, N.R. Walet, M. Gavrila and C.W. McCurdy: Dichotomy of the Hydrogen Atom in Superintense, High-Frequency Laser Fields, Physical Review Letters, 61 (8), 939942 (1988) [86] M. Pont, N.R. Walet and M. Gavrila: Radiative distortion of the hydrogen atom in superintense, high-frequency fields of linear polarization, Physical Review A, 41 (1), 477494 (1990). [87] Mihai Gavrila: Atomic Structure and Decay in High-Frequency Fields, in Atoms in Intense Laser Fields, ed. M. Gavrila, Academic Press, San Diego, 1992, pp. 435510. ISBN 0-12-003901-X [88] H.G. Muller and M. Gavrila: Light-Induced Excited States in H, Physical Review Letters, 71 (11), 16931696 (1993). [89] J.C. Wells, I. Simbotin and M. Gavrila: Physical Reality of Light-Induced Atomic States, Physical Review Letters, 80 (16), 34793482 (1998) [90] Ernst van Duijn, M. Gavrila and H.G. Muller: Multiply Charged Negative Ions of Hydrogen Induced by Superintense Laser Fields, Physical Review Letters, 77 (18), 37593762 (1996) [91] J. Shertzer, A. Chandler and M. Gavrila: H2+ in Superintense Laser Fields: Alignment and Spectral Restructuring, Physical Review Letters, 73 (15), 20392042 (1994) [92] Richard R. Ernst. 1992. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Fourier Transform (2D-FT) Spectroscopy., Nobel Lecture presented on December 9, 1992. (http:/ / nobelprize. org/ nobel_prizes/ chemistry/ laureates/ 1991/ ernst-lecture. pdf) [93] http:/ / www. pppl. gov/ nationalsphericaltorus. cfm PPPL, Princeton, USA [94] L. Vainerman. 2003. Locally Compact Quantum Groups and Groupoids. Walter de Gruyter: Berlin and New York, pp.247 [95] C.P. Slichter, "Nuclear magnetic resonance and the BCS theory," Intern. J. Modern Phys. B 24, 3783-3813 (2010) [96] C.P. Slichter, "Nuclear Magnetic Resonance and the BCS Theory," in BCS: 50 Years, ed. Leon N. Cooper and Dmitri Feldman (Singapore, World Scientific, 2010), Chapter 5 [97] Haase J., N. J. Curro, R. Stern, and C. P. Slichter. New methods for NMR of cuprate superconductors. Phys. Rev. Lett. 81, 1489-1492 (1998) [98] Sakaie K. E., C. P. Slichter, P. Lin, M. Jaime, and M. B. Salamon. 139La spectrum and spin-lattice relaxation measurements of La2/3Ca1/3MnO3 in the paramagnetic state. Phys. Rev. B 59, 9382-9391 (1999) [99] Corey R. L., N. J. Curro, K. O'Hara, T. Imai, C. P. Slichter et al. 63 Cu(2) nuclear quadrupole and nuclear magnetic resonance studies of YBa2Cu4O8 in the normal and superconducting states. Phys. Rev. B 53, 5907-5914 (1996). [100] http:/ / www. pppl. gov/ polImage. cfm?doc_Id=487& size_code=Doc LTX EXperiment Achieves First Plasma (at PPPL) [101] A. Aspect. To be or not to be local. Nature, Vol. 446, pp.866867 (2007) [102] The Davisson-Germer experiment, which demonstrates the wave nature of the electron (http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ hbase/ quantum/ davger2. html)
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Further reading
Bacciagaluppi, Guido; Valentini, Antony (2009), Quantum theory at the crossroads: reconsidering the 1927 Solvay conference, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, pp.9184, arXiv:quant-ph/0609184, Bibcode2006quant.ph..9184B, ISBN9780521814218, OCLC227191829 Bernstein, Jeremy (2009), Quantum Leaps (http://books.google.com/?id=j0Me3brYOL0C& printsec=frontcover), Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, ISBN9780674035416 Jammer, Max (1966), The conceptual development of quantum mechanics, New York: McGraw-Hill, OCLC534562 Jammer, Max (1974), The philosophy of quantum mechanics: The interpretations of quantum mechanics in historical perspective, New York: Wiley, ISBN0471439584, OCLC969760 F. Bayen, M. Flato, C. Fronsdal, A. Lichnerowicz and D. Sternheimer, Deformation theory and quantization I,and II, Ann. Phys. (N.Y.), 111 (1978) pp.61110, 111-151. D. Cohen, An Introduction to Hilbert Space and Quantum Logic, Springer-Verlag, 1989. This is a thorough and well-illustrated introduction. Finkelstein, D.. "Matter, Space and Logic". Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science V: 1969. A. Gleason. Measures on the Closed Subspaces of a Hilbert Space, Journal of Mathematics and Mechanics, 1957. R. Kadison. Isometries of Operator Algebras, Annals of Mathematics, Vol. 54, pp.325338, 1951 G. Ludwig. Foundations of Quantum Mechanics, Springer-Verlag, 1983. G. Mackey. Mathematical Foundations of Quantum Mechanics, W. A. Benjamin, 1963 (paperback reprint by Dover 2004). R. Omns. Understanding Quantum Mechanics, Princeton University Press, 1999. (Discusses logical and philosophical issues of quantum mechanics, with careful attention to the history of the subject). N. Papanikolaou. Reasoning Formally About Quantum Systems: An Overview, ACM SIGACT News, 36(3), pp.5166, 2005. C. Piron. Foundations of Quantum Physics, W. A. Benjamin, 1976. Hermann Weyl. The Theory of Groups and Quantum Mechanics, Dover Publications, 1950.
External links
A History of Quantum Mechanics (http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/ The_Quantum_age_begins.html) A Brief History of Quantum Mechanics (http://www.oberlin.edu/physics/dstyer/StrangeQM/history.html) Homepage of the Quantum History Project (http://quantum-history.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/)
Basic Concepts of Quantum Mechanics
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Quantum mechanics is the body of scientific principles that explains the behavior of matter and its interactions with energy on the scale of atoms and atomic particles. Classical physics explains matter and energy at the macroscopic level of the scale familiar to human experience, including the behavior of astronomical bodies. It remains the key to measurement for much of modern science and technology; but at the end of the 19th Century observers discovered phenomena in both the large (macro) and the small (micro) worlds that classical physics could not explain.[1] Coming to terms with these limitations led to the development of quantum mechanics, a major revolution in physics. This article describes how physicists discovered the limitations of classical physics and developed the main concepts of the quantum theory that replaced them in the early decades of the 20th century.[2] These concepts are described in roughly the order they were first discovered; for a more complete history of the subject, see History of quantum mechanics. Some aspects of quantum mechanics can seem counter-intuitive, because they describe behavior quite different than that seen at larger length scales, where classical physics is an excellent approximation. In the words of Richard Feynman, quantum mechanics deals with "nature as she is absurd."[3] Many types of energy, such as photons (discrete units of light), behave in some respects like particles and in other respects like waves. Radiators of photons (such as neon lights) have emission spectra that are discontinuous, in that only certain frequencies of light are present. Quantum mechanics predicts the energies, the colours, and the spectral intensities of all forms of electromagnetic radiation. But quantum mechanics theory ordains that the more closely one pins down one measure (such as the position of a particle), the less precise another measurement pertaining to the same particle (such as its momentum) must become. Put another way, measuring position first and then measuring momentum does not have the same outcome as measuring momentum first and then measuring position; the act of measuring the first property necessarily introduces additional energy into the micro-system being studied, thereby perturbing that system.
Left to right: Max Planck, Albert Einstein, Niels Bohr, Louis deBroglie, Max Born, Paul Dirac, Werner Heisenberg, Wolfgang Pauli, Erwin Schrdinger, Richard Feynman.
Even more disconcerting, pairs of particles can be created as entangled twins which means that a measurement which pins down one property of one of the particles will instantaneously pin down the same or another property of its entangled twin, regardless of the distance separating them though this may be regarded as merely a mathematical anomaly, rather than a real one.
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The first quantum theory: Max Planck and black body radiation
Thermal radiation is electromagnetic radiation emitted from the surface of an object due to the object's temperature. If an object is heated sufficiently, it starts to emit light at the red end of the spectrum it is red hot. Heating it further causes the colour to change from red to yellow to blue to white, as light at shorter wavelengths (higher frequencies) begins to be emitted. It turns out that a perfect emitter is also a perfect absorber. When it is cold, such an object looks perfectly black, because it absorbs all the light that falls on it and emits none. Consequently, an ideal thermal emitter is known as a black body, and the radiation it emits is called black body radiation.
In the late 19th century, thermal radiation had been fairly well-characterized experimentally. How the wavelength at which the radiation is strongest changes with temperature is given by Wien's displacement law, and the overall power emitted per unit area is given by the StefanBoltzmann law. However, classical physics was unable to explain the relationship between temperatures and predominant frequencies of radiation. In fact, at short wavelengths, classical physics predicted that energy will be emitted by a hot body at an infinite rate. This result, which is clearly wrong, is known as the ultraviolet catastrophe. Physicists were searching for a single theory that explained why they got the experimental results that they did. The first model that was able to explain the full spectrum of thermal radiation was put forward by Max Planck in 1900.[4] He modeled the thermal radiation as being in equilibrium, using a set of harmonic oscillators. To reproduce the experimental results he had to assume that each oscillator produced an integral number of units of energy at its single characteristic frequency, rather than being able to emit any arbitrary amount of energy. In other words, the energy of each oscillator was "quantized."[5] The quantum of energy for each oscillator, according to Planck, was proportional to the frequency of the oscillator; the constant of proportionality is now known as the Planck constant. The Planck constant, usually written as h, has the value 6.631034J s, and so the energy E of an oscillator of frequency f is given by
[6]
Hot metalwork from a blacksmith. The yellow-orange glow is the visible part of the thermal radiation emitted due to the high temperature. Everything else in the picture is glowing with thermal radiation as well, but less brightly and at longer wavelengths than the human eye can detect. A far-infrared camera can observe this radiation.
Correct values (green) contrasted against the classical values (Rayleigh-Jeans law, red and Wien approximation, blue).
Planck's law was the first quantum theory in physics, and Planck won the Nobel Prize in 1918 "in recognition of the services he rendered to the advancement of Physics by his discovery of energy quanta."[7] At the time, however, Planck's view was that quantization was purely a mathematical trick, rather than (as we now know) a fundamental change in our understanding of the world.[8]
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Photons: the quantisation of light

In 1905, Albert Einstein took an extra step. He suggested that quantisation was not just a mathematical trick: the energy in a beam of light occurs in individual packets, which are now called photons.[9] The energy of a single photon is given by its frequency multiplied by Planck's constant:
For centuries, scientists had debated between two possible theories of light: was it a wave or did it instead comprise a stream of tiny particles? By the 19th century, the debate was generally considered to have been settled in favour of the wave theory, as it was able to explain observed effects such as refraction, diffraction and polarization. James Clerk Maxwell had shown that electricity, magnetism and light are all manifestations of the same phenomenon: the Einstein's portrait by Harm electromagnetic field. Maxwell's equations, which are the complete set of laws of Kamerlingh Onnes at the University of Leiden in 1920 classical electromagnetism, describe light as waves: a combination of oscillating electric and magnetic fields. Because of the preponderance of evidence in favour of the wave theory, Einstein's ideas were met initially with great scepticism. Eventually, however, the photon model became favoured; one of the most significant pieces of evidence in its favour was its ability to explain several puzzling properties of the photoelectric effect, described in the following section. Nonetheless, the wave analogy remained indispensable for helping to understand other characteristics of light, such as diffraction.
The photoelectric effect

In 1887 Heinrich Hertz observed that light can eject electrons from metal.[10] In 1902 Philipp Lenard discovered that the maximum possible energy of an ejected electron is related to the frequency of the light, not to its intensity; if the frequency is too low, no electrons are ejected regardless of the intensity. The lowest frequency of light that causes electrons to be emitted, called the threshold frequency, is different for every metal. This observation is at odds with classical electromagnetism, which predicts that the electron's energy should be proportional to the intensity of the radiation.[11]:24
Einstein explained the effect by postulating that a beam of light is a stream of particles (photons), and that if the beam is of frequency f then each photon has an energy equal to hf.[10] An electron is likely to be struck only by a single photon, which imparts at most an energy hf to the electron.[10] Therefore, the intensity of the beam has no effect;[12] only its frequency determines the maximum energy that can be imparted to the electron.[10] To explain the threshold effect, Einstein argued that it takes a certain amount of energy, called the work function, denoted by , to remove an electron from the metal.[10] This amount of energy is different for each metal. If the energy of the photon is less than the work function then it does not carry sufficient energy to remove the electron from the metal. The threshold frequency, f0, is the frequency of a photon whose energy is equal to the work function: If f is greater than f0, the energy hf is enough to remove an electron. The ejected electron has a kinetic energy EK which is, at most, equal to the photon's energy minus the energy needed to dislodge the electron from the metal:
Light (red arrows, left) is shone upon a metal. If the light is of sufficient frequency (i.e. sufficient energy), electrons are ejected (blue arrows, right).
Basic Concepts of Quantum Mechanics Einstein's description of light as being composed of particles extended Planck's notion of quantised energy: a single photon of a given frequency f delivers an invariant amount of energy hf. In other words, individual photons can deliver more or less energy, but only depending on their frequencies. However, although the photon is a particle it was still being described as having the wave-like property of frequency. Once again, the particle account of light was being "compromised".[13][14] The relationship between the frequency of electromagnetic radiation and the energy of each individual photon is why ultraviolet light can cause sunburn, but visible or infrared light cannot. A photon of ultraviolet light will deliver a high amount of energyenough to contribute to cellular damage such as occurs in a sunburn. A photon of infrared light will deliver a lower amount of energyonly enough to warm one's skin. So an infrared lamp can warm a large surface, perhaps large enough to keep people comfortable in a cold room, but it cannot give anyone a sunburn. If each individual photon had identical energy, it would not be correct to talk of a "high energy" photon. Light of high frequency could carry more energy only because of flooding a surface with more photons arriving per second. Light of low frequency could carry more energy only for the same reason. If it were true that all photons carry the same energy, then if you doubled the rate of photon delivery, you would double the number of energy units arriving each second. Einstein rejected that wave-dependent classical approach in favour of a particle-based analysis where the energy of the particle must be absolute and varies with frequency in discrete steps (i.e. is quantised). All photons of the same frequency have identical energy, and all photons of different frequencies have proportionally different energies. In nature, single photons are rarely encountered. The sun emits photons continuously at all electromagnetic frequencies, so they appear to propagate as a continuous wave, not as discrete units. The emission sources available to Hertz and Lennard in the 19th century shared that characteristic. A sun that radiates red light, or a piece of iron in a forge that glows red, may both be said to contain a great deal of energy. It might be surmised that adding continuously to the total energy of some radiating body would make it radiate red light, orange light, yellow light, green light, blue light, violet light, and so on in that order. But that is not so for otherwise larger suns and larger pieces of iron in a forge would glow with colours more toward the violet end of the spectrum. To change the color of such a radiating body it is necessary to change its temperature, and increasing its temperature changes the quanta of energy that are available to excite individual atoms to higher levels and permit them to emit photons of higher frequencies. The total energy emitted per unit of time by a sun or by a piece of iron in a forge depends on both the number of photons emitted per unit of time and also on the amount of energy carried by each of the photons involved. In other words, the characteristic frequency of a radiating body is dependent on its temperature. When physicists were looking only at beams of light containing huge numbers of individual and virtually indistinguishable photons it was difficult to understand the importance of the energy levels of individual photons. So when physicists first discovered devices exhibiting the photoelectric effect, the effect that makes the light meters of modern cameras work, they initially expected that a higher intensity of light would produce a higher voltage from the photoelectric device. They discovered that strong beams of light toward the red end of the spectrum might produce no electrical potential at all, and that weak beams of light toward the violet end of the spectrum would produce higher and higher voltages. Einstein's idea that individual units of light may contain different amounts of energy depending on their frequency made it possible to explain the experimental results that hitherto had seemed quite counter-intuitive. Although the energy imparted by photons is invariant at any given frequency, the initial energy-state of the electrons in a photoelectric device prior to absorption of light is not necessarily uniform. Therefore anomalous results may occur in the case of individual electrons. An electron that was already excited above the equilibrium level of the photoelectric device might be ejected when it absorbed uncharacteristically low frequency illumination. Statistically, however, the characteristic behavior of a photoelectric device will reflect the behavior of the vast majority of its electrons, which will be at their equilibrium level. This point is helpful in comprehending the distinction between the study of individual particles in quantum dynamics and the study of massed particles in classical physics.
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The quantisation of matter: the Bohr model of the atom

By the dawn of the 20th century, it was known that atoms comprise a diffuse cloud of negatively-charged electrons surrounding a small, dense, positively-charged nucleus. This understanding suggested a model in which the electrons circle around the nucleus like planets orbiting a sun.[15] However, it was also known that the atom in this model would be unstable: according to classical theory orbiting electrons are undergoing centripetal acceleration, and should therefore give off electromagnetic radiation, the loss of energy also causing them to spiral toward the nucleus, colliding with it in a fraction of a second. A second, related, puzzle was the emission spectrum of atoms. When a gas is heated, it gives off light only at discrete frequencies. For example, the visible light given off by hydrogen consists of four different colours, as shown in the picture below. By contrast, white light consists of a continuous emission across the whole range of visible frequencies.
Emission spectrum of hydrogen. When excited, hydrogen gas gives off light in four distinct colours (spectral lines) in the visible spectrum, as well as a number of lines in the infra-red and ultra-violet.
In 1885 the Swiss mathematician Johann Balmer discovered that each wavelength (lambda) in the visible spectrum of hydrogen is related to some integer n by the equation
where B is a constant which Balmer determined to be equal to 364.56nm. Thus Balmer's constant was the basis of a system of discrete, i.e. quantised, integers. In 1888 Johannes Rydberg generalized and greatly increased the explanatory utility of Balmer's formula. He predicted that is related to two integers n and m according to what is now known as the Rydberg formula:[16]
where R is the Rydberg constant, equal to 0.0110nm1, and n must be greater than m. Rydberg's formula accounts for the four visible wavelengths of hydrogen by setting m = 2 and n = 3, 4, 5, 6. It also predicts additional wavelengths in the emission spectrum: for m = 1 and for n > 1, the emission spectrum should contain certain ultraviolet wavelengths, and for m = 3 and n > 3, it should also contain certain infrared wavelengths. Experimental observation of these wavelengths came two decades later: in 1908 Louis Paschen found some of the predicted infrared wavelengths, and in 1914 Theodore Lyman found some of the predicted ultraviolet wavelengths.[16]
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Bohr's model
In 1913 Niels Bohr proposed a new model of the atom that included quantized electron orbits.[17] In Bohr's model, electrons could inhabit only certain orbits around the atomic nucleus. When an atom emitted (or absorbed) energy, the electron did not move in a continuous trajectory from one orbit around the nucleus to another, as might be expected classically. Instead, the electron would jump instantaneously from one orbit to another, giving off the emitted light in the form of a photon.[18] The possible energies of photons given off by each element were determined by the differences in energy between the orbits, and so the emission spectrum for each element would contain a number of lines.[19] Bohr theorised that the angular momentum, L, of an electron is quantised:
The Bohr model of the atom, showing an electron quantum jumping to ground state n = 1.
where n is an integer and h is the Planck constant. Starting from this assumption, Coulomb's law and the equations of circular motion show that an electron with n units of angular momentum will orbit a proton at a distance r given by , where ke is the Coulomb constant, m is the mass of an electron, and e is the charge on an electron. For simplicity this is written as
where a0, called the Bohr radius, is equal to 0.0529nm. The Bohr radius is the radius of the smallest allowed orbit. The energy of the electron[20] can also be calculated, and is given by . Thus Bohr's assumption that angular momentum is quantised means that an electron can only inhabit certain orbits around the nucleus, and that it can have only certain energies. A consequence of these constraints is that the electron will not crash into the nucleus: it cannot continuously emit energy, and it cannot come closer to the nucleus than a0 (the Bohr radius). An electron loses energy by jumping instantaneously from its original orbit to a lower orbit; the extra energy is emitted in the form of a photon. Conversely, an electron that absorbs a photon gains energy, hence it jumps to an orbit that is farther from the nucleus. Each photon from glowing atomic hydrogen is due to an electron moving from a higher orbit, with radius rn, to a lower orbit, rm. The energy E of this photon is the difference in the energies En and Em of the electron:
Since Planck's equation shows that the photon's energy is related to its wavelength by E = hc/, the wavelengths of light that can be emitted are given by
This equation has the same form as the Rydberg formula, and predicts that the constant R should be given by
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Therefore the Bohr model of the atom can predict the emission spectrum of hydrogen in terms of fundamental constants.[21] However, it was not able to make accurate predictions for multi-electron atoms, or to explain why some spectral lines are brighter than others.
Wave-particle duality
In 1924, Louis de Broglie proposed the idea that just as light has both wave-like and particle-like properties, matter also has wave-like properties.[22] The wavelength, , associated with a particle is related to its momentum, p:[23][24]
The relationship, called the de Broglie hypothesis, holds for all types of matter. Thus all matter exhibits properties of both particles and waves. Three years later, the wave-like nature of electrons was demonstrated by showing that a beam of electrons could exhibit diffraction, just like a beam of light. At the University of Aberdeen, George Thomson passed a beam of electrons through a thin metal film and observed the predicted diffraction patterns. At Bell Labs, Davisson and Germer guided their beam through a crystalline grid. Similar wave-like phenomena were later shown for atoms and even small molecules. De Broglie was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1929 for his hypothesis; Thomson and Davisson shared the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1937 for their experimental work. The concept of wave-particle duality says that neither the classical concept of "particle" nor of "wave" can fully describe the behavior of quantum-scale objects, either photons or matter. Indeed, astrophysicist A.S. Eddington proposed in 1927 that "We can scarcely describe such an entity as a wave or as a particle; perhaps as a compromise we had better call it a 'wavicle' ".[25] (This term was later popularised by mathematician Banesh Hoffmann.)[26]:172 Wave-particle duality is an example of the principle of complementarity in quantum physics. An elegant example of wave-particle duality, the double slit experiment, is discussed in the section below. De Broglie's treatment of quantum events served as a jumping off point for Schrdinger when he set about to construct a wave equation to describe quantum theoretical events.
The double-slit experiment

In the double-slit experiment as originally performed by Thomas Young and Augustin Fresnel in 1827, a beam of light is directed through two narrow, closely spaced slits, producing an interference pattern of light and dark bands on a screen. If one of the slits is covered up, one might naively expect that the intensity of the fringes due to interference would be halved everywhere. In fact, a much simpler pattern is seen, a simple diffraction pattern. Closing one slit results in a much simpler pattern diametrically opposite the open slit. Exactly the same behaviour can be demonstrated in water waves, and so the double-slit experiment was seen as a demonstration of the wave nature of light.
Light from one slit interferes with light from the other, producing an interference pattern (the 3 fringes shown at the right).
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The double-slit experiment has also been performed using electrons, atoms, and even molecules, and the same type of interference pattern is seen. Thus it has been demonstrated that all matter possesses both particle and wave characteristics. Even if the source intensity is turned down so that only one particle (e.g. photon or electron) is passing through the apparatus at a time, the same interference pattern develops over time. The quantum particle acts as a wave when passing through the double slits, but as a particle when it is detected. This is a typical feature of quantum complementarity: a quantum particle will act as a wave when we do an experiment to measure its wave-like properties, and like a particle when we do an experiment to measure its particle-like properties. Where on the detector screen any individual particle shows up will be the result of an entirely random process.
The diffraction pattern produced when light is shone through one slit (top) and the interference pattern produced by two slits (bottom). The interference pattern from two slits is much more complex, demonstrating the wave-like propagation of light.
Application to the Bohr model

De Broglie expanded the Bohr model of the atom by showing that an electron in orbit around a nucleus could be thought of as having wave-like properties. In particular, an electron will be observed only in situations that permit a standing wave around a nucleus. An example of a standing wave is a violin string, which is fixed at both ends and can be made to vibrate. The waves created by a stringed instrument appear to oscillate in place, moving from crest to trough in an up-and-down motion. The wavelength of a standing wave is related to the length of the vibrating object and the boundary conditions. For example, because the violin string is fixed at both ends, it can carry standing waves of wavelengths 2l/n, where l is the length and n is a positive integer. De Broglie suggested that the allowed electron orbits were those for which the circumference of the orbit would be an integer number of wavelengths.
Development of modern quantum mechanics

In 1925, building on de Broglie's hypothesis, Erwin Schrdinger developed the equation that describes the behaviour of a quantum mechanical wave. The equation, called the Schrdinger equation after its creator, is central to quantum mechanics, defines the permitted stationary states of a quantum system, and describes how the quantum state of a physical system changes in time.[27] In the paper that introduced Schrdinger's cat, he says that the psi-function featured in his equation provides the "means for predicting probability of measurement results," and that it therefore provides "future expectation[s] , somewhat as laid down in a catalog."[28] Schrdinger was able to calculate the energy levels of hydrogen by treating a hydrogen atom's electron as a classical wave, moving in a well of electrical potential created by the proton. This calculation accurately reproduced the energy levels of the Bohr model.
Erwin Schrdinger, about 1933, age 46
At a somewhat earlier time, Werner Heisenberg was trying to find an explanation for the intensities of the different lines in the hydrogen emission spectrum. By means of a series of mathematical analogies, Heisenberg wrote out the quantum mechanical analogue for the classical computation of intensities. Shortly afterwards, Heisenberg's colleague Max Born realised that Heisenberg's method of calculating the
Basic Concepts of Quantum Mechanics probabilities for transitions between the different energy levels could best be expressed by using the mathematical concept of matrices.[29] In May 1926, Schrdinger proved that Heisenberg's matrix mechanics and his own wave mechanics made the same predictions about the properties and behaviour of the electron; mathematically, the two theories were identical. Yet the two men disagreed on the interpretation of their mutual theory. For instance, Heisenberg saw no problem in the theoretical prediction of instantaneous transitions of electrons between orbits in an atom, but Schrdinger hoped that a theory based on continuous wave-like properties could avoid what he called (in the words of Wilhelm Wien[30]) "this nonsense about quantum jumps."
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Copenhagen interpretation
Bohr, Heisenberg and others tried to explain what these experimental results and mathematical models really mean. Their description, known as the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics, aimed to describe the nature of reality that was being probed by the measurements and described by the mathematical formulations of quantum mechanics. The main principles of the Copenhagen interpretation are: 1. A system is completely described by a wave function, . (Heisenberg) 2. How changes over time is given by the Schrdinger equation. 3. The description of nature is essentially probabilistic. The probability of an event for example, where on the screen a particle will show up in the two slit experiment is related to the square of the amplitude of its wave function. (Born rule, due to Max Born, which gives a physical meaning to the wavefunction in the Copenhagen interpretation: the probability amplitude) 4. It is not possible to know the values of all of the properties of the system at the same time; those properties that are not known with precision must be described by probabilities. (Heisenberg's uncertainty principle) 5. Matter, like energy, exhibits a wave-particle duality. An experiment can demonstrate the particle-like properties of matter, or its wave-like properties; but not both at the same time. (Complementarity principle due to Bohr) 6. Measuring devices are essentially classical devices, and measure classical properties such as position and momentum. 7. The quantum mechanical description of large systems should closely approximate the classical description. (Correspondence principle of Bohr and Heisenberg) Various consequences of these principles are discussed in more detail in the following subsections.
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Uncertainty principle
Suppose that we want to measure the position and speed of an object for example a car going through a radar speed trap. Naively, we assume that the car has a definite position and speed at a particular moment in time, and how accurately we can measure these values depends on the quality of our measuring equipment if we improve the precision of our measuring equipment, we will get a result that is closer to the true value. In particular, we would assume that how precisely we measure the speed of the car does not affect its position, and vice versa. In 1927, Heisenberg proved that these assumptions are not correct.[32] Quantum mechanics shows that certain pairs of physical properties, like position and speed, cannot both be known to arbitrary precision: the more precisely one property is known, the less precisely the other can be known. This statement is known as the uncertainty principle. The uncertainty principle isn't a statement about the accuracy of our measuring equipment, but about the nature of the system itself our naive assumption that the car had a definite position and speed was incorrect. On a scale of cars and people, these uncertainties are too small to notice, but when dealing with atoms and electrons they become critical.[33]
Werner Heisenberg at the age of 26. Heisenberg won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1932 for the work that he [31] did at around this time.
Heisenberg gave, as an illustration, the measurement of the position and momentum of an electron using a photon of light. In measuring the electron's position, the higher the frequency of the photon the more accurate is the measurement of the position of the impact, but the greater is the disturbance of the electron, which absorbs a random amount of energy, rendering the measurement obtained of its momentum increasingly uncertain (momentum is velocity multiplied by mass), for one is necessarily measuring its post-impact disturbed momentum, from the collision products, not its original momentum. With a photon of lower frequency the disturbance - hence uncertainty - in the momentum is less, but so is the accuracy of the measurement of the position of the impact.[34] The uncertainty principle shows mathematically that the product of the uncertainty in the position and momentum of a particle (momentum is velocity multiplied by mass) could never be less than a certain value, and that this value is related to Planck's constant.
Wave function collapse

Wave function collapse is a forced term for whatever happened when it becomes appropriate to replace the description of an uncertain state of a system by a description of the system in a definite state. Explanations for the nature of the process of becoming certain are controversial. At any time before a photon "shows up" on a detection screen it can only be described by a set of probabilities for where it might show up. When it does show up, for instance in the CCD of an electronic camera, the time and the space where it interacted with the device are known within very tight limits. However, the photon has disappeared, and the wave function has disappeared with it. In its place some physical change in the detection screen has appeared, e.g., an exposed spot in a sheet of photographic film.
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Eigenstates and eigenvalues

For a more detailed introduction to this subject, see: Introduction to eigenstates Because of the uncertainty principle, statements about both the position and momentum of particles can only assign a probability that the position or momentum will have some numerical value. Therefore it is necessary to formulate clearly the difference between the state of something that is indeterminate, such as an electron in a probability cloud, and the state of something having a definite value. When an object can definitely be "pinned-down" in some respect, it is said to possess an eigenstate.
The Pauli exclusion principle

In 1924, Wolfgang Pauli proposed a new quantum degree of freedom (or quantum number), with two possible values, to resolve inconsistencies between observed molecular spectra and the predictions of quantum mechanics. In particular, the spectrum of atomic hydrogen had a doublet, or pair of lines differing by a small amount, where only one line was expected. Pauli formulated his exclusion principle, stating that "There cannot exist an atom in such a quantum state that two electrons within [it] have the same set of quantum numbers."[35] A year later, Uhlenbeck and Goudsmit identified Pauli's new degree of freedom with a property called spin. The idea, originating with Ralph Kronig, was that electrons behave as if they rotate, or "spin", about an axis. Spin would account for the missing magnetic moment, and allow two electrons in the same orbital to occupy distinct quantum states if they "spun" in opposite directions, thus satisfying the exclusion principle. The quantum number represented the sense (positive or negative) of spin.
Application to the hydrogen atom

Bohr's model of the atom was essentially two-dimensional an electron orbiting in a plane around its nuclear "sun." However, the uncertainty principle states that an electron cannot be viewed as having an exact location at any given time. In the modern theory the orbit has been replaced by an atomic orbital, a "cloud" of possible locations. It is often depicted as a three-dimensional region within which there is a 95 percent probability of finding the electron.[36] Schrdinger was able to calculate the energy levels of hydrogen by treating a hydrogen atom's electron as a wave, represented by the "wave function" , in a electric potential well, V, created by the proton. The solutions to Schrdinger's equation are distributions of probabilities for electron positions and locations. Orbitals have a range of different shapes in three dimensions. The energies of the different orbitals can be calculated, and they accurately reproduce the energy levels of the Bohr model. Within Schrdinger's picture, each electron has four properties: 1. An "orbital" designation, indicating whether the particle wave is one that is closer to the nucleus with less energy or one that is farther from the nucleus with more energy; 2. The "shape" of the orbital, spherical or otherwise; 3. The "inclination" of the orbital, determining the magnetic moment of the orbital around the z-axis. 4. The "spin" of the electron. The collective name for these properties is the quantum state of the electron. The quantum state can be described by giving a number to each of these properties; these are known as the electron's quantum numbers. The quantum state of the electron is described by its wavefunction. The Pauli exclusion principle demands that no two electrons within an atom may have the same values of all four numbers.
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The first property describing the orbital is the principal quantum number, n, which is the same as in Bohr's model. n denotes the energy level of each orbital. The possible values for n are integers:
The shapes of the first five atomic orbitals: 1s, 2s, 2px,2py, and 2pz. The colours show the phase of the wavefunction.
The next quantum number, the azimuthal quantum number, denoted l, describes the shape of the orbital. The shape is a consequence of the angular momentum of the orbital. The angular momentum represents the resistance of a spinning object to speeding up or slowing down under the influence of external force. The azimuthal quantum number represents the orbital angular momentum of an electron around its nucleus. The possible values for l are integers from 0 to n 1:
The shape of each orbital has its own letter as well. The first shape is denoted by the letter s (a mnemonic being "sphere"). The next shape is denoted by the letter p and has the form of a dumbbell. The other orbitals have more complicated shapes (see atomic orbital), and are denoted by the letters d, f, and g. The third quantum number, the magnetic quantum number, describes the magnetic moment of the electron, and is denoted by ml (or simply m). The possible values for ml are integers from l to l: The magnetic quantum number measures the component of the angular momentum in a particular direction. The choice of direction is arbitrary, conventionally the z-direction is chosen. The fourth quantum number, the spin quantum number (pertaining to the "orientation" of the electron's spin) is denoted ms, with values +12 or 12. The chemist Linus Pauling wrote, by way of example: In the case of a helium atom with two electrons in the 1s orbital, the Pauli Exclusion Principle requires that the two electrons differ in the value of one quantum number. Their values of n, l, and ml are the same; moreover, they have the same spin, s = 12. Accordingly they must differ in the value of ms, which can have the value of +12 for one electron and 12 for the other."[35] It is the underlying structure and symmetry of atomic orbitals, and the way that electrons fill them, that determines the organisation of the periodic table and the structure and strength of chemical bonds between atoms.
Dirac wave equation

In 1928, Paul Dirac extended the Pauli equation, which described spinning electrons, to account for special relativity. The result was a theory that dealt properly with events, such as the speed at which an electron orbits the nucleus, occurring at a substantial fraction of the speed of light. By using the simplest electromagnetic interaction, Dirac was able to predict the value of the magnetic moment associated with the electron's spin, and found the experimentally observed value, which was too large to be that of a spinning charged sphere governed by classical physics. He was able to solve for the spectral lines of the hydrogen atom, and to reproduce from physical first principles Sommerfeld's successful formula for the fine structure of the hydrogen spectrum. Dirac's equations sometimes yielded a negative value for energy, for which he proposed a novel solution: he posited the existence of an antielectron and of a dynamical vacuum. This led to the many-particle quantum field theory.
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Quantum entanglement
The Pauli exclusion principle says that two electrons in one system cannot be in the same state. Nature leaves open the possibility, however, that two electrons can have both states "superimposed" over them. Recall that the wave functions that emerge Superposition of two quantum characteristics, and two resolution possibilities. simultaneously from the double slits arrive at the detection screen in a state of superposition. Nothing is certain until the superimposed waveforms "collapse," At that instant an electron shows up somewhere in accordance with the probabilities that are the squares of the amplitudes of the two superimposed waveforms. The situation there is already very abstract. A concrete way of thinking about entangled photons, photons in which two contrary states are superimposed on each of them in the same event, is as follows: Imagine that the superposition of a state that can be mentally labeled as blue and another state that can be mentally labeled as red will then appear (in imagination, of course) as a purple state. Two photons are produced as the result of the same atomic event. Perhaps they are produced by the excitation of a crystal that characteristically absorbs a photon of a certain frequency and emits two photons of half the original frequency. So the two photons come out "purple." If the experimenter now performs some experiment that will determine whether one of the photons is either blue or red, then that experiment changes the photon involved from one having a superposition of "blue" and "red" characteristics to a photon that has only one of those characteristics. The problem that Einstein had with such an imagined situation was that if one of these photons had been kept bouncing between mirrors in a laboratory on earth, and the other one had traveled halfway to the nearest star, when its twin was made to reveal itself as either blue or red, that meant that the distant photon now had to lose its "purple" status too. So whenever it might be investigated, it would necessarily show up, instantaneously, in the opposite state to whatever its twin had revealed. In trying to show that quantum mechanics was not a complete theory, Einstein started with the theory's prediction that two or more particles that have interacted in the past can appear strongly correlated when their various properties are later measured. He sought to explain this seeming interaction in a classical way, through their common past, and preferably not by some "spooky action at a distance." The argument is worked out in a famous paper, Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen (1935; abbreviated EPR), setting out what is now called the EPR paradox. Assuming what is now usually called local realism, EPR attempted to show from quantum theory that a particle has both position and momentum simultaneously, while according to the Copenhagen interpretation, only one of those two properties actually exists and only at the moment that it is being measured. EPR concluded that quantum theory is incomplete in that it refuses to consider physical properties which objectively exist in nature. (Einstein, Podolsky, & Rosen 1935 is currently Einstein's most cited publication in physics journals.) In the same year, Erwin Schrdinger used the word "entanglement" and declared: "I would not call that one but rather the characteristic trait of quantum mechanics." [37] The question of whether entanglement is a real condition is still in dispute.[38] The Bell inequalities are the most powerful challenge to Einstein's claims.
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Quantum field theory

The idea of quantum field theory began in the late 1920s with British physicist Paul Dirac, when he attempted to quantise the electromagnetic field a procedure for constructing a quantum theory starting from a classical theory. A field in physics is "a region or space in which a given effect (such as magnetism) exists."[39] Other effects that manifest themselves as fields are gravitation and static electricity.[40] In 2008, physicist Richard Hammond wrote that Sometimes we distinguish between quantum mechanics (QM) and quantum field theory (QFT). QM refers to a system in which the number of particles is fixed, and the fields (such as the electromechanical field) are continuous classical entities. QFT . . . goes a step further and allows for the creation and annihilation of particles . . . . He added, however, that quantum mechanics is often used to refer to "the entire notion of quantum view."[41]:108 In 1931, Dirac proposed the existence of particles that later became known as anti-matter.[42] Dirac shared the Nobel Prize in physics for 1933 with Schrdinger, "for the discovery of new productive forms of atomic theory."[43]
Quantum electrodynamics
Quantum electrodynamics (QED) is the name of the quantum theory of the electromagnetic force. Understanding QED begins with understanding electromagnetism. Electromagnetism can be called "electrodynamics" because it is a dynamic interaction between electrical and magnetic forces. Electromagnetism begins with the electric charge. Electric charges are the sources of, and create, electric fields. An electric field is a field which exerts a force on any particles that carry electric charges, at any point in space. This includes the electron, proton, and even quarks, among others. As a force is exerted, electric charges move, a current flows and a magnetic field is produced. The magnetic field, in turn causes electric current (moving electrons). The interacting electric and magnetic field is called an electromagnetic field. The physical description of interacting charged particles, electrical currents, electrical fields, and magnetic fields is called electromagnetism. In 1928 Paul Dirac produced a relativistic quantum theory of electromagnetism. This was the progenitor to modern quantum electrodynamics, in that it had essential ingredients of the modern theory. However, the problem of unsolvable infinities developed in this relativistic quantum theory. Years later, renormalization solved this problem. Initially viewed as a suspect, provisional procedure by some of its originators, renormalization eventually was embraced as an important and self-consistent tool in QED and other fields of physics. Also, in the late 1940s Feynman's diagrams depicted all possible interactions pertaining to a given event. The diagrams showed that the electromagnetic force is the interactions of photons between interacting particles. An example of a prediction of quantum electrodynamics which has been verified experimentally is the Lamb shift. This refers to an effect whereby the quantum nature of the electromagnetic field causes the energy levels in an atom or ion to deviate slightly from what they would otherwise be. As a result, spectral lines may shift or split. In the 1960s physicists realized that QED broke down at extremely high energies. From this inconsistency the Standard Model of particle physics was discovered, which remedied the higher energy breakdown in theory. The
This sculpture in Bristol, England a series of clustering cones presents the idea of small worlds that Paul Dirac studied to reach his discovery of anti-matter.
Basic Concepts of Quantum Mechanics Standard Model unifies the electromagnetic and weak interactions into one theory. This is called the electroweak theory.
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Interpretations
The physical measurements, equations, and predictions pertinent to quantum mechanics are all consistent and hold a very high level of confirmation. However, the question of what these abstract models say about the underlying nature of the real world has received competing answers.
Applications
Applications of quantum mechanics include the laser, the transistor, the electron microscope, and magnetic resonance imaging. The study of semiconductors led to the invention of the diode and the transistor, which are indispensable for modern electronics. In even the simple light switch, quantum tunnelling is vital, as otherwise the electrons in the electric current could not penetrate the potential barrier made up of a layer of oxide. Flash memory chips found in USB drives also use quantum tunnelling, to erase their memory cells.[44]
Notes
[1] Quantum Mechanics from [[National Public Radio (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ trasnsistor/ science/ info/ quantum. html)]] [2] Classical physics also does not accurately describe the universe on the largest scales or at speeds close to that of light. An accurate description requires general relativity. [3] Richard P. Feynman, QED, p. 10 [4] This result was published (in German) as Planck, Max (1901). "Ueber das Gesetz der Energieverteilung im Normalspectrum" (http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ historic-papers/ 1901_309_553-563. pdf). Ann. Phys. 309 (3): 55363. Bibcode1901AnP...309..553P. doi:10.1002/andp.19013090310. . English translation: " On the Law of Distribution of Energy in the Normal Spectrum (http:/ / dbhs. wvusd. k12. ca. us/ webdocs/ Chem-History/ Planck-1901/ Planck-1901. html)". [5] The word "quantum" comes from the Latin word for "how much" (as does "quantity"). Something which is "quantized," like the energy of Planck's harmonic oscillators, can only take specific values. For example, in most countries money is effectively quantized, with the "quantum of money" being the lowest-value coin in circulation. "Mechanics" is the branch of science that deals with the action of forces on objects, so "quantum mechanics" is the part of mechanics that deals with objects for which particular properties are quantized. [6] Francis Weston Sears (1958). Mechanics, Wave Motion, and Heat (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?hl=en& q="Mechanics,+ Wave+ Motion,+ and+ Heat"+ "where+ n+ =+ 1,"& btnG=Search+ Books). Addison-Wesley. p.537. . [7] "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1918" (http:/ / nobelprize. org/ nobel_prizes/ physics/ laureates/ 1918/ ). The Nobel Foundation. . Retrieved 2009-08-01. [8] Kragh, Helge (1 December 2000). "Max Planck: the reluctant revolutionary" (http:/ / physicsworld. com/ cws/ article/ print/ 373). PhysicsWorld.com. [9] Einstein, Albert (1905). "ber einen die Erzeugung und Verwandlung des Lichtes betreffenden heuristischen Gesichtspunkt" (http:/ / www. zbp. univie. ac. at/ dokumente/ einstein1. pdf). Annalen der Physik 17: 132148. Bibcode1905AnP...322..132E. doi:10.1002/andp.19053220607. ., translated into English as On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light (http:/ / lorentz. phl. jhu. edu/ AnnusMirabilis/ AeReserveArticles/ eins_lq. pdf). The term "photon" was introduced in 1926. [10] Taylor, J. R.; Zafiratos, C. D.; Dubson, M. A. (2004). Modern Physics for Scientists and Engineers. Prentice Hall. pp.1279. ISBN0135897890. [11] Stephen Hawking, The Universe in a Nutshell, Bantam, 2001. [12] Actually there can be intensity-dependent effects, but at intensities achievable with non-laser sources these effects are unobservable. [13] Dicke and Wittke, Introduction to Quantum Mechanics, p. 12 [14] Einstein's photoelectric effect equation can be derived and explained without requiring the concept of "photons". That is, the electromagnetic radiation can be treated as a classical electromagnetic wave, as long as the electrons in the material are treated by the laws of quantum mechanics. The results are quantitatively correct for thermal light sources (the sun, incandescent lamps, etc) both for the rate of electron emission as well as their angular distribution. For more on this point, see NTRS.NASA.gov (http:/ / ntrs. nasa. gov/ archive/ nasa/ casi. ntrs. nasa. gov/ 19680009569_1968009569. pdf) [15] The classical model of the atom is called the planetary model, or sometimes the Rutherford model after Ernest Rutherford who proposed it in 1911, based on the Geiger-Marsden gold foil experiment which first demonstrated the existence of the nucleus. [16] Taylor, J. R.; Zafiratos, C. D.; Dubson, M. A. (2004). Modern Physics for Scientists and Engineers. Prentice Hall. pp.1478. ISBN0135897890.

[17] McEvoy, J. P.; Zarate, O. (2004). Introducing Quantum Theory. Totem Books. pp.7089, especially p. 89. ISBN1840465778. [18] World Book Encyclopedia, page 6, 2007. [19] Dicke and Wittke, Introduction to Quantum Mechanics, p. 10f. [20] In this case, the energy of the electron is the sum of its kinetic and potential energies. The electron has kinetic energy by virtue of its actual motion around the nucleus, and potential energy because of its electromagnetic interaction with the nucleus. [21] The model can be easily modified to account of the emission spectrum of any system consisting of a nucleus and a single electron (that is, ions such as He+ or O7+ which contain only one electron). [22] J. P. McEvoy and Oscar Zarate (2004). Introducing Quantum Theory. Totem Books. p.110f. ISBN1-84046-577-8. [23] Aezel, Amir D., Entanglrment, p. 51f. (Penguin, 2003) ISBN 0-452-28457 [24] J. P. McEvoy and Oscar Zarate (2004). Introducing Quantum Theory. Totem Books. p.114. ISBN1-84046-577-8. [25] A.S. Eddington, The Nature of the Physical World, the course of Gifford Lectures that Eddington delivered in the University of Edinburgh in January to March 1927, Kessinger Publishing, 2005, p. 201. (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=PGOTKcxSqMUC& pg=PA201& lpg=PA201& dq=We+ can+ scarcely+ describe+ such+ an+ entity+ as+ a+ wave+ or+ as+ a+ particle;+ perhaps+ as+ a+ compromise+ we+ had+ better+ call+ it+ a+ `wavicle& source=bl& ots=K0IfGzaXli& sig=zgrQiBJbHRLuUzVBT-yy8jZhC1Y& hl=en& ei=i8g1SpOHC4PgtgOu_4jVDg& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=1) [26] Banesh Hoffman, The Strange Story of the Quantum, Dover, 1959 [27] "Schrodinger Equation (Physics)," Encyclopdia Britannica (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 528298/ Schrodinger-equation) [28] Erwin Schrdinger, "The Present Situation in Quantum Mechanics," p. 9. "This translation was originally published in Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 124, 323-38. [And then appeared as Section I.11 of Part I of Quantum Theory and Measurement (J.A. Wheeler and W.H. Zurek, eds., Princeton university Press, New Jersey 1983). This paper can be downloaded from http:/ / www. tu-harburg. de/ rzt/ rzt/ it/ QM/ cat. html. " [29] For a somewhat more sophisticated look at how Heisenberg transitioned from the old quantum theory and classical physics to the new quantum mechanics, see Heisenberg's entryway to matrix mechanics. [30] W. Moore, Schrdinger: Life and Thought, Cambridge University Press (1989), p. 222. [31] Heisenberg's Nobel Prize citation (http:/ / nobelprize. org/ nobel_prizes/ physics/ laureates/ 1932/ ) [32] Heisenberg first published his work on the uncertainty principle in the leading German physics journal Zeitschrift fr Physik: Heisenberg, W. (1927). "ber den anschaulichen Inhalt der quantentheoretischen Kinematik und Mechanik". Z. Phys. 43 (34): 172198. Bibcode1927ZPhy...43..172H. doi:10.1007/BF01397280. [33] Nobel Prize in Physics presentation speech, 1932 (http:/ / nobelprize. org/ nobel_prizes/ physics/ laureates/ 1932/ press. html) [34] "Uncertainty principle," Encyclopdia Britannica (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 614029/ uncertainty-principle) [35] Linus Pauling, The Nature of the Chemical Bond, p. 47 [36] "Orbital (chemistry and physics)," Encyclopdia Britannica (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 431159/ orbital) [37] E. Schrdinger, Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, 31 (1935), p. 555says: "When two systems, of which we know the states by their respective representation, enter into a temporary physical interaction due to known forces between them and when after a time of mutual influence the systems separate again, then they can no longer be described as before, viz., by endowing each of them with a representative of its own. I would not call that one but rather the characteristic trait of quantum mechanics." [38] "Quantum Nonlocality and the Possibility of Superluminal Effects", John G. Cramer, npl.washington.edu (http:/ / www. npl. washington. edu/ npl/ int_rep/ qm_nl. html) [39] "Mechanics," Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary (http:/ / www. merriam-webster. com/ dictionary/ field) [40] "Field," Encyclopdia Britannica (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 206162/ field) [41] Richard Hammond, The Unknown Universe, New Page Books, 2008. ISBN 978-1-60163-003-2 [42] The Physical World website (http:/ / www. physicalworld. org/ restless_universe/ html/ ru_dira. html) [43] "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1933" (http:/ / nobelprize. org/ nobel_prizes/ physics/ laureates/ 1933/ ). The Nobel Foundation. . Retrieved 2007-11-24. [44] Durrani, Z. A. K.; Ahmed, H. (2008). Vijay Kumar. ed. Nanosilicon. Elsevier. p.345. ISBN9780080445281.
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References
Bernstein, Jeremy (2005). "Max Born and the quantum theory". American Journal of Physics 73 (11). Beller, Mara (2001). Quantum Dialogue: The Making of a Revolution. University of Chicago Press. Bohr, Niels (1958). Atomic Physics and Human Knowledge. John Wiley & Sons. ASINB00005VGVF. ISBN0486479285. OCLC530611. de Broglie, Louis (1953). The Revolution in Physics. Noonday Press. LCCN53010401. Einstein, Albert (1934). Essays in Science. Philosophical Library. ISBN0486470113. LCCN55003947. Feigl, Herbert; Brodbeck, May (1953). Readings in the Philosophy of Science. Appleton-Century-Crofts. ISBN0390304883. LCCN53006438. Feynman, Richard P. (1949). "Space-Time Approach to Quantum Electrodynamics" (http://www.physics. princeton.edu/~mcdonald/examples/QED/feynman_pr_76_769_49.pdf). Physical Review 76 (6): 769789. Bibcode1949PhRv...76..769F. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.76.769. Fowler, Michael (1999). The Bohr Atom. University of Virginia. Heisenberg, Werner (1958). Physics and Philosophy. Harper and Brothers. ISBN0061305499. LCCN99010404. Lakshmibala, S. (2004). "Heisenberg, Matrix Mechanics and the Uncertainty Principle". Resonance, Journal of Science Education 9 (8). Liboff, Richard L. (1992). Introductory Quantum Mechanics (2nd ed.). Lindsay, Robert Bruce; Margenau, Henry (1957). Foundations of Physics. Dover. ISBN0918024188. LCCN57014416. McEvoy, J. P.; Zarate, Oscar. Introducing Quantum Theory. ISBN1-874166-37-4. Nave, Carl Rod (2005). "Quantum Physics" (http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/quacon. html#quacon). HyperPhysics. Georgia State University. Peat, F. David (2002). From Certainty to Uncertainty: The Story of Science and Ideas in the Twenty-First Century. Joseph Henry Press. Reichenbach, Hans (1944). Philosophic Foundations of Quantum Mechanics. University of California Press. ISBN0486404595. LCCNa44004471. Schlipp, Paul Arthur (1949). Albert Einstein: Philosopher-Scientist. Tudor Publishing Company. LCCN50005340. Scientific American Reader, 1953. Sears, Francis Weston (1949). Optics (3rd ed.). Addison-Wesley. ISBN0195046013. LCCN51001018. Shimony, A. (1983). "(title not given in citation)". Foundations of Quantum Mechanics in the Light of New Technology (S. Kamefuchi et al., eds.). Tokyo: Japan Physical Society. pp.225.; cited in: Popescu, Sandu; Daniel Rohrlich (1996). "Action and Passion at a Distance: An Essay in Honor of Professor Abner Shimony". arXiv:quant-ph/9605004[quant-ph]. Tavel, Morton; Tavel, Judith (illustrations) (2002). Contemporary physics and the limits of knowledge (http:// books.google.com/?id=SELS0HbIhjYC&pg=PA200&dq=Wave+function+collapse). Rutgers University Press. ISBN9780813530772. Van Vleck, J. H.,1928, "The Correspondence Principle in the Statistical Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics," Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 14: 179. Wheeler, John Archibald; Feynman, Richard P. (1949). "Classical Electrodynamics in Terms of Direct Interparticle Action". Reviews of Modern Physics 21 (3): 425433. Bibcode1949RvMP...21..425W. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.21.425. Wieman, Carl; Perkins, Katherine (2005). "Transforming Physics Education". Physics Today. Westmoreland; Benjamin Schumacher (1998). "Quantum Entanglement and the Nonexistence of Superluminal Signals". arXiv:quant-ph/9801014[quant-ph]. Bronner, Patrick; Strunz, Andreas; Silberhorn, Christine; Meyn, Jan-Peter (2009). "Demonstrating quantum random with single photons". European Journal of Physics 30 (5): 11891200. Bibcode2009EJPh...30.1189B.
Basic Concepts of Quantum Mechanics doi:10.1088/0143-0807/30/5/026.
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Further reading
The following titles, all by working physicists, attempt to communicate quantum theory to lay people, using a minimum of technical apparatus. Jim Al-Khalili (2003) Quantum: A Guide for the Perplexed. Weidenfield & Nicholson. Richard Feynman (1985) QED: The Strange Theory of Light and Matter. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-08388-6 Ford, Kenneth (2005) The Quantum World. Harvard Univ. Press. Includes elementary particle physics. Ghirardi, GianCarlo (2004) Sneaking a Look at God's Cards, Gerald Malsbary, trans. Princeton Univ. Press. The most technical of the works cited here. Passages using algebra, trigonometry, and bra-ket notation can be passed over on a first reading. Tony Hey and Walters, Patrick (2003) The New Quantum Universe. Cambridge Univ. Press. Includes much about the technologies quantum theory has made possible. Vladimir G. Ivancevic, Tijana T. Ivancevic (2008) Quantum leap: from Dirac and Feynman, across the universe, to human body and mind. World Scientific Publishing Company. Provides an intuitive introduction in non-mathematical terms and an introduction in comparatively basic mathematical terms. N. David Mermin (1990) Spooky actions at a distance: mysteries of the QT in his Boojums all the way through. Cambridge Univ. Press: 110176. The author is a rare physicist who tries to communicate to philosophers and humanists. Roland Omnes (1999) Understanding Quantum Mechanics. Princeton Univ. Press. Victor Stenger (2000) Timeless Reality: Symmetry, Simplicity, and Multiple Universes. Buffalo NY: Prometheus Books. Chpts. 58. Martinus Veltman (2003) Facts and Mysteries in Elementary Particle Physics. World Scientific Publishing Company. Brian Cox and Jeff Forshaw (2011) The Quantum Universe. Allen Lane. A website with good introduction to Quantum mechanics can be found here. (http://www.chem1.com/acad/ webtext/atoms/atpt-4.html)
External links
Takada, Kenjiro, Emeritus professor at Kyushu University, " Microscopic World Introduction to Quantum Mechanics. (http://www2.kutl.kyushu-u.ac.jp/seminar/MicroWorld1_E/MicroWorld_1_E.html)" Quantum Theory. (http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-quantumt.html) Quantum Mechanics. (http://www.aip.org/history/heisenberg/p07.htm) The spooky quantum (http://www.imamu.edu.sa/Scientific_selections/abstracts/Physics/THE SPOOKY QUANTUM.pdf) Planck's original paper (http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/webdocs/Chem-History/Planck-1901/Planck-1901. html) on Planck's constant. Everything you wanted to know about the quantum world. (http://www.newscientist.com/channel/ fundamentals/quantum-world) From the New Scientist. This Quantum World. (http://thisquantumworld.com/ht/index.php) The Quantum Exchange (http://www.compadre.org/quantum) (tutorials and open source learning software). Theoretical Physics wiki (http://theoreticalphysics.wetpaint.com) " Uncertainty Principle, (http://www.thebigview.com/spacetime/index.html)" a recording of Werner Heisenberg's voice.
Basic Concepts of Quantum Mechanics Single and double slit interference (http://class.phys.psu.edu/251Labs/10_Interference_&_Diffraction/ Single_and_Double-Slit_Interference.pdf) Time-Evolution of a Wavepacket in a Square Well (http://demonstrations.wolfram.com/ TimeEvolutionOfAWavepacketInASquareWell/) An animated demonstration of a wave packet dispersion over time. Experiments with single photons (http://www.didaktik.physik.uni-erlangen.de/quantumlab/english/) An introduction into quantum physics with interactive experiments Hitachi video recording of double-slit experiment done with electrons. You can see the interference pattern build up over time. (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oxknfn97vFE)
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Introduction to Quantum Mechanics

Quantum mechanics is the body of scientific principles that explains the behavior of matter and its interactions with energy on the scale of atoms and atomic particles. Classical physics explains matter and energy at the macroscopic level of the scale familiar to human experience, including the behavior of astronomical bodies. It remains the key to measurement for much of modern science and technology; but at the end of the 19th Century observers discovered phenomena in both the large (macro) and the small (micro) worlds that classical physics could not explain.[1] Coming to terms with these limitations led to the development of quantum mechanics, a major revolution in physics. This article describes how physicists discovered the limitations of classical physics and developed the main concepts of the quantum theory that replaced them in the early decades of the 20th century.[2] These concepts are described in roughly the order they were first discovered; for a more complete history of the subject, see History of quantum mechanics. Some aspects of quantum mechanics can seem counter-intuitive, because they describe behavior quite different than that seen at larger length scales, where classical physics is an excellent approximation. In the words of Richard Feynman, quantum mechanics deals with "nature as she is absurd."[3] Many types of energy, such as photons (discrete units of light), behave in some respects like particles and in other respects like waves. Radiators of photons (such as neon lights) have emission spectra that are discontinuous, in that only certain frequencies of light are present. Quantum mechanics predicts the energies, the colours, and the spectral intensities of all forms of electromagnetic radiation. But quantum mechanics theory ordains that the more closely one pins down one measure (such as the position of a particle), the less precise another measurement pertaining to the same particle (such as its momentum) must become. Put another way, measuring position first and then measuring momentum does not have the same outcome as measuring momentum first and then measuring position; the act of measuring the first property necessarily introduces additional energy into the micro-system being studied, thereby perturbing that system.
Left to right: Max Planck, Albert Einstein, Niels Bohr, Louis deBroglie, Max Born, Paul Dirac, Werner Heisenberg, Wolfgang Pauli, Erwin Schrdinger, Richard Feynman.
Even more disconcerting, pairs of particles can be created as entangled twins which means that a measurement which pins down one property of one of the particles will instantaneously pin down the same or another property of its entangled twin, regardless of the distance separating them though this may be regarded as merely a
Introduction to Quantum Mechanics mathematical anomaly, rather than a real one.
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The first quantum theory: Max Planck and black body radiation
Thermal radiation is electromagnetic radiation emitted from the surface of an object due to the object's temperature. If an object is heated sufficiently, it starts to emit light at the red end of the spectrum it is red hot. Heating it further causes the colour to change from red to yellow to blue to white, as light at shorter wavelengths (higher frequencies) begins to be emitted. It turns out that a perfect emitter is also a perfect absorber. When it is cold, such an object looks perfectly black, because it absorbs all the light that falls on it and emits none. Consequently, an ideal thermal emitter is known as a black body, and the radiation it emits is called black body radiation.
Hot metalwork from a blacksmith. The yellow-orange glow is the visible part of the thermal radiation emitted due to the high temperature. Everything else in the picture is glowing with thermal radiation as well, but less brightly and at longer wavelengths than the human eye can detect. A far-infrared camera can observe this radiation.
In the late 19th century, thermal radiation had been fairly well-characterized experimentally. How the wavelength at which the radiation is strongest changes with temperature is given by Wien's displacement law, and the overall power emitted per unit area is given by the StefanBoltzmann law. However, classical physics was unable to explain the relationship between temperatures and predominant frequencies of radiation. In fact, at short wavelengths, classical physics predicted that energy will be emitted by a hot body at an infinite rate. This result, which is clearly wrong, is known as the ultraviolet catastrophe. Physicists were searching for a single theory that explained why they got the experimental results that they did. The first model that was able to explain the full spectrum of thermal radiation was put forward by Max Planck in 1900.[4] He modeled the thermal radiation as being in equilibrium, using a set of harmonic oscillators. To reproduce the experimental results he had to assume that each oscillator produced an integral number of units of energy at its single characteristic frequency, rather than being able to emit any arbitrary amount of energy. In other words, the energy of each oscillator was "quantized."[5] The quantum of energy for each oscillator, according to Planck, was proportional to the frequency of the oscillator; the constant of proportionality is now known as the Planck constant. The Planck constant, usually written as h, has the value 6.631034J s, and so the energy E of an oscillator of frequency f is given by
[6]
Correct values (green) contrasted against the classical values (Rayleigh-Jeans law, red and Wien approximation, blue).
Planck's law was the first quantum theory in physics, and Planck won the Nobel Prize in 1918 "in recognition of the services he rendered to the advancement of Physics by his discovery of energy quanta."[7] At the time, however, Planck's view was that quantization was purely a mathematical trick, rather than (as we now know) a fundamental change in our understanding of the world.[8]
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Photons: the quantisation of light

In 1905, Albert Einstein took an extra step. He suggested that quantisation was not just a mathematical trick: the energy in a beam of light occurs in individual packets, which are now called photons.[9] The energy of a single photon is given by its frequency multiplied by Planck's constant:
For centuries, scientists had debated between two possible theories of light: was it a wave or did it instead comprise a stream of tiny particles? By the 19th century, the debate was generally considered to have been settled in favour of the wave theory, as it was able to explain observed effects such as refraction, diffraction and polarization. James Clerk Maxwell had shown that electricity, magnetism and light are all manifestations of the same phenomenon: the Einstein's portrait by Harm electromagnetic field. Maxwell's equations, which are the complete set of laws of Kamerlingh Onnes at the University of Leiden in 1920 classical electromagnetism, describe light as waves: a combination of oscillating electric and magnetic fields. Because of the preponderance of evidence in favour of the wave theory, Einstein's ideas were met initially with great scepticism. Eventually, however, the photon model became favoured; one of the most significant pieces of evidence in its favour was its ability to explain several puzzling properties of the photoelectric effect, described in the following section. Nonetheless, the wave analogy remained indispensable for helping to understand other characteristics of light, such as diffraction.
The photoelectric effect

In 1887 Heinrich Hertz observed that light can eject electrons from metal.[10] In 1902 Philipp Lenard discovered that the maximum possible energy of an ejected electron is related to the frequency of the light, not to its intensity; if the frequency is too low, no electrons are ejected regardless of the intensity. The lowest frequency of light that causes electrons to be emitted, called the threshold frequency, is different for every metal. This observation is at odds with classical electromagnetism, which predicts that the electron's energy should be proportional to the intensity of the radiation.[11]:24
Einstein explained the effect by postulating that a beam of light is a stream of particles (photons), and that if the beam is of frequency f then each photon has an energy equal to hf.[10] An electron is likely to be struck only by a single photon, which imparts at most an energy hf to the electron.[10] Therefore, the intensity of the beam has no effect;[12] only its frequency determines the maximum energy that can be imparted to the electron.[10] To explain the threshold effect, Einstein argued that it takes a certain amount of energy, called the work function, denoted by , to remove an electron from the metal.[10] This amount of energy is different for each metal. If the energy of the photon is less than the work function then it does not carry sufficient energy to remove the electron from the metal. The threshold frequency, f0, is the frequency of a photon whose energy is equal to the work function: If f is greater than f0, the energy hf is enough to remove an electron. The ejected electron has a kinetic energy EK which is, at most, equal to the photon's energy minus the energy needed to dislodge the electron from the metal:
Light (red arrows, left) is shone upon a metal. If the light is of sufficient frequency (i.e. sufficient energy), electrons are ejected (blue arrows, right).
Introduction to Quantum Mechanics Einstein's description of light as being composed of particles extended Planck's notion of quantised energy: a single photon of a given frequency f delivers an invariant amount of energy hf. In other words, individual photons can deliver more or less energy, but only depending on their frequencies. However, although the photon is a particle it was still being described as having the wave-like property of frequency. Once again, the particle account of light was being "compromised".[13][14] The relationship between the frequency of electromagnetic radiation and the energy of each individual photon is why ultraviolet light can cause sunburn, but visible or infrared light cannot. A photon of ultraviolet light will deliver a high amount of energyenough to contribute to cellular damage such as occurs in a sunburn. A photon of infrared light will deliver a lower amount of energyonly enough to warm one's skin. So an infrared lamp can warm a large surface, perhaps large enough to keep people comfortable in a cold room, but it cannot give anyone a sunburn. If each individual photon had identical energy, it would not be correct to talk of a "high energy" photon. Light of high frequency could carry more energy only because of flooding a surface with more photons arriving per second. Light of low frequency could carry more energy only for the same reason. If it were true that all photons carry the same energy, then if you doubled the rate of photon delivery, you would double the number of energy units arriving each second. Einstein rejected that wave-dependent classical approach in favour of a particle-based analysis where the energy of the particle must be absolute and varies with frequency in discrete steps (i.e. is quantised). All photons of the same frequency have identical energy, and all photons of different frequencies have proportionally different energies. In nature, single photons are rarely encountered. The sun emits photons continuously at all electromagnetic frequencies, so they appear to propagate as a continuous wave, not as discrete units. The emission sources available to Hertz and Lennard in the 19th century shared that characteristic. A sun that radiates red light, or a piece of iron in a forge that glows red, may both be said to contain a great deal of energy. It might be surmised that adding continuously to the total energy of some radiating body would make it radiate red light, orange light, yellow light, green light, blue light, violet light, and so on in that order. But that is not so for otherwise larger suns and larger pieces of iron in a forge would glow with colours more toward the violet end of the spectrum. To change the color of such a radiating body it is necessary to change its temperature, and increasing its temperature changes the quanta of energy that are available to excite individual atoms to higher levels and permit them to emit photons of higher frequencies. The total energy emitted per unit of time by a sun or by a piece of iron in a forge depends on both the number of photons emitted per unit of time and also on the amount of energy carried by each of the photons involved. In other words, the characteristic frequency of a radiating body is dependent on its temperature. When physicists were looking only at beams of light containing huge numbers of individual and virtually indistinguishable photons it was difficult to understand the importance of the energy levels of individual photons. So when physicists first discovered devices exhibiting the photoelectric effect, the effect that makes the light meters of modern cameras work, they initially expected that a higher intensity of light would produce a higher voltage from the photoelectric device. They discovered that strong beams of light toward the red end of the spectrum might produce no electrical potential at all, and that weak beams of light toward the violet end of the spectrum would produce higher and higher voltages. Einstein's idea that individual units of light may contain different amounts of energy depending on their frequency made it possible to explain the experimental results that hitherto had seemed quite counter-intuitive. Although the energy imparted by photons is invariant at any given frequency, the initial energy-state of the electrons in a photoelectric device prior to absorption of light is not necessarily uniform. Therefore anomalous results may occur in the case of individual electrons. An electron that was already excited above the equilibrium level of the photoelectric device might be ejected when it absorbed uncharacteristically low frequency illumination. Statistically, however, the characteristic behavior of a photoelectric device will reflect the behavior of the vast majority of its electrons, which will be at their equilibrium level. This point is helpful in comprehending the distinction between the study of individual particles in quantum dynamics and the study of massed particles in classical physics.
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The quantisation of matter: the Bohr model of the atom

By the dawn of the 20th century, it was known that atoms comprise a diffuse cloud of negatively-charged electrons surrounding a small, dense, positively-charged nucleus. This understanding suggested a model in which the electrons circle around the nucleus like planets orbiting a sun.[15] However, it was also known that the atom in this model would be unstable: according to classical theory orbiting electrons are undergoing centripetal acceleration, and should therefore give off electromagnetic radiation, the loss of energy also causing them to spiral toward the nucleus, colliding with it in a fraction of a second. A second, related, puzzle was the emission spectrum of atoms. When a gas is heated, it gives off light only at discrete frequencies. For example, the visible light given off by hydrogen consists of four different colours, as shown in the picture below. By contrast, white light consists of a continuous emission across the whole range of visible frequencies.
Emission spectrum of hydrogen. When excited, hydrogen gas gives off light in four distinct colours (spectral lines) in the visible spectrum, as well as a number of lines in the infra-red and ultra-violet.
In 1885 the Swiss mathematician Johann Balmer discovered that each wavelength (lambda) in the visible spectrum of hydrogen is related to some integer n by the equation
where B is a constant which Balmer determined to be equal to 364.56nm. Thus Balmer's constant was the basis of a system of discrete, i.e. quantised, integers. In 1888 Johannes Rydberg generalized and greatly increased the explanatory utility of Balmer's formula. He predicted that is related to two integers n and m according to what is now known as the Rydberg formula:[16]
where R is the Rydberg constant, equal to 0.0110nm1, and n must be greater than m. Rydberg's formula accounts for the four visible wavelengths of hydrogen by setting m = 2 and n = 3, 4, 5, 6. It also predicts additional wavelengths in the emission spectrum: for m = 1 and for n > 1, the emission spectrum should contain certain ultraviolet wavelengths, and for m = 3 and n > 3, it should also contain certain infrared wavelengths. Experimental observation of these wavelengths came two decades later: in 1908 Louis Paschen found some of the predicted infrared wavelengths, and in 1914 Theodore Lyman found some of the predicted ultraviolet wavelengths.[16]
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Bohr's model
In 1913 Niels Bohr proposed a new model of the atom that included quantized electron orbits.[17] In Bohr's model, electrons could inhabit only certain orbits around the atomic nucleus. When an atom emitted (or absorbed) energy, the electron did not move in a continuous trajectory from one orbit around the nucleus to another, as might be expected classically. Instead, the electron would jump instantaneously from one orbit to another, giving off the emitted light in the form of a photon.[18] The possible energies of photons given off by each element were determined by the differences in energy between the orbits, and so the emission spectrum for each element would contain a number of lines.[19] Bohr theorised that the angular momentum, L, of an electron is quantised:
The Bohr model of the atom, showing an electron quantum jumping to ground state n = 1.
where n is an integer and h is the Planck constant. Starting from this assumption, Coulomb's law and the equations of circular motion show that an electron with n units of angular momentum will orbit a proton at a distance r given by , where ke is the Coulomb constant, m is the mass of an electron, and e is the charge on an electron. For simplicity this is written as
where a0, called the Bohr radius, is equal to 0.0529nm. The Bohr radius is the radius of the smallest allowed orbit. The energy of the electron[20] can also be calculated, and is given by . Thus Bohr's assumption that angular momentum is quantised means that an electron can only inhabit certain orbits around the nucleus, and that it can have only certain energies. A consequence of these constraints is that the electron will not crash into the nucleus: it cannot continuously emit energy, and it cannot come closer to the nucleus than a0 (the Bohr radius). An electron loses energy by jumping instantaneously from its original orbit to a lower orbit; the extra energy is emitted in the form of a photon. Conversely, an electron that absorbs a photon gains energy, hence it jumps to an orbit that is farther from the nucleus. Each photon from glowing atomic hydrogen is due to an electron moving from a higher orbit, with radius rn, to a lower orbit, rm. The energy E of this photon is the difference in the energies En and Em of the electron:
Since Planck's equation shows that the photon's energy is related to its wavelength by E = hc/, the wavelengths of light that can be emitted are given by
This equation has the same form as the Rydberg formula, and predicts that the constant R should be given by
46
Therefore the Bohr model of the atom can predict the emission spectrum of hydrogen in terms of fundamental constants.[21] However, it was not able to make accurate predictions for multi-electron atoms, or to explain why some spectral lines are brighter than others.
Wave-particle duality
In 1924, Louis de Broglie proposed the idea that just as light has both wave-like and particle-like properties, matter also has wave-like properties.[22] The wavelength, , associated with a particle is related to its momentum, p:[23][24]
The relationship, called the de Broglie hypothesis, holds for all types of matter. Thus all matter exhibits properties of both particles and waves. Three years later, the wave-like nature of electrons was demonstrated by showing that a beam of electrons could exhibit diffraction, just like a beam of light. At the University of Aberdeen, George Thomson passed a beam of electrons through a thin metal film and observed the predicted diffraction patterns. At Bell Labs, Davisson and Germer guided their beam through a crystalline grid. Similar wave-like phenomena were later shown for atoms and even small molecules. De Broglie was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1929 for his hypothesis; Thomson and Davisson shared the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1937 for their experimental work. The concept of wave-particle duality says that neither the classical concept of "particle" nor of "wave" can fully describe the behavior of quantum-scale objects, either photons or matter. Indeed, astrophysicist A.S. Eddington proposed in 1927 that "We can scarcely describe such an entity as a wave or as a particle; perhaps as a compromise we had better call it a 'wavicle' ".[25] (This term was later popularised by mathematician Banesh Hoffmann.)[26]:172 Wave-particle duality is an example of the principle of complementarity in quantum physics. An elegant example of wave-particle duality, the double slit experiment, is discussed in the section below. De Broglie's treatment of quantum events served as a jumping off point for Schrdinger when he set about to construct a wave equation to describe quantum theoretical events.
The double-slit experiment

In the double-slit experiment as originally performed by Thomas Young and Augustin Fresnel in 1827, a beam of light is directed through two narrow, closely spaced slits, producing an interference pattern of light and dark bands on a screen. If one of the slits is covered up, one might naively expect that the intensity of the fringes due to interference would be halved everywhere. In fact, a much simpler pattern is seen, a simple diffraction pattern. Closing one slit results in a much simpler pattern diametrically opposite the open slit. Exactly the same behaviour can be demonstrated in water waves, and so the double-slit experiment was seen as a demonstration of the wave nature of light.
Light from one slit interferes with light from the other, producing an interference pattern (the 3 fringes shown at the right).
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The double-slit experiment has also been performed using electrons, atoms, and even molecules, and the same type of interference pattern is seen. Thus it has been demonstrated that all matter possesses both particle and wave characteristics. Even if the source intensity is turned down so that only one particle (e.g. photon or electron) is passing through the apparatus at a time, the same interference pattern develops over time. The quantum particle acts as a wave when passing through the double slits, but as a particle when it is detected. This is a typical feature of quantum complementarity: a quantum particle will act as a wave when we do an experiment to measure its wave-like properties, and like a particle when we do an experiment to measure its particle-like properties. Where on the detector screen any individual particle shows up will be the result of an entirely random process.
The diffraction pattern produced when light is shone through one slit (top) and the interference pattern produced by two slits (bottom). The interference pattern from two slits is much more complex, demonstrating the wave-like propagation of light.
Application to the Bohr model

De Broglie expanded the Bohr model of the atom by showing that an electron in orbit around a nucleus could be thought of as having wave-like properties. In particular, an electron will be observed only in situations that permit a standing wave around a nucleus. An example of a standing wave is a violin string, which is fixed at both ends and can be made to vibrate. The waves created by a stringed instrument appear to oscillate in place, moving from crest to trough in an up-and-down motion. The wavelength of a standing wave is related to the length of the vibrating object and the boundary conditions. For example, because the violin string is fixed at both ends, it can carry standing waves of wavelengths 2l/n, where l is the length and n is a positive integer. De Broglie suggested that the allowed electron orbits were those for which the circumference of the orbit would be an integer number of wavelengths.
Development of modern quantum mechanics

In 1925, building on de Broglie's hypothesis, Erwin Schrdinger developed the equation that describes the behaviour of a quantum mechanical wave. The equation, called the Schrdinger equation after its creator, is central to quantum mechanics, defines the permitted stationary states of a quantum system, and describes how the quantum state of a physical system changes in time.[27] In the paper that introduced Schrdinger's cat, he says that the psi-function featured in his equation provides the "means for predicting probability of measurement results," and that it therefore provides "future expectation[s] , somewhat as laid down in a catalog."[28] Schrdinger was able to calculate the energy levels of hydrogen by treating a hydrogen atom's electron as a classical wave, moving in a well of electrical potential created by the proton. This calculation accurately reproduced the energy levels of the Bohr model.
Erwin Schrdinger, about 1933, age 46
At a somewhat earlier time, Werner Heisenberg was trying to find an explanation for the intensities of the different lines in the hydrogen emission spectrum. By means of a series of mathematical analogies, Heisenberg wrote out the quantum mechanical analogue for the classical computation of intensities. Shortly afterwards, Heisenberg's colleague Max Born realised that Heisenberg's method of calculating the
Introduction to Quantum Mechanics probabilities for transitions between the different energy levels could best be expressed by using the mathematical concept of matrices.[29] In May 1926, Schrdinger proved that Heisenberg's matrix mechanics and his own wave mechanics made the same predictions about the properties and behaviour of the electron; mathematically, the two theories were identical. Yet the two men disagreed on the interpretation of their mutual theory. For instance, Heisenberg saw no problem in the theoretical prediction of instantaneous transitions of electrons between orbits in an atom, but Schrdinger hoped that a theory based on continuous wave-like properties could avoid what he called (in the words of Wilhelm Wien[30]) "this nonsense about quantum jumps."
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Bohr, Heisenberg and others tried to explain what these experimental results and mathematical models really mean. Their description, known as the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics, aimed to describe the nature of reality that was being probed by the measurements and described by the mathematical formulations of quantum mechanics. The main principles of the Copenhagen interpretation are: 1. A system is completely described by a wave function, . (Heisenberg) 2. How changes over time is given by the Schrdinger equation. 3. The description of nature is essentially probabilistic. The probability of an event for example, where on the screen a particle will show up in the two slit experiment is related to the square of the amplitude of its wave function. (Born rule, due to Max Born, which gives a physical meaning to the wavefunction in the Copenhagen interpretation: the probability amplitude) 4. It is not possible to know the values of all of the properties of the system at the same time; those properties that are not known with precision must be described by probabilities. (Heisenberg's uncertainty principle) 5. Matter, like energy, exhibits a wave-particle duality. An experiment can demonstrate the particle-like properties of matter, or its wave-like properties; but not both at the same time. (Complementarity principle due to Bohr) 6. Measuring devices are essentially classical devices, and measure classical properties such as position and momentum. 7. The quantum mechanical description of large systems should closely approximate the classical description. (Correspondence principle of Bohr and Heisenberg) Various consequences of these principles are discussed in more detail in the following subsections.
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Uncertainty principle
Suppose that we want to measure the position and speed of an object for example a car going through a radar speed trap. Naively, we assume that the car has a definite position and speed at a particular moment in time, and how accurately we can measure these values depends on the quality of our measuring equipment if we improve the precision of our measuring equipment, we will get a result that is closer to the true value. In particular, we would assume that how precisely we measure the speed of the car does not affect its position, and vice versa. In 1927, Heisenberg proved that these assumptions are not correct.[32] Quantum mechanics shows that certain pairs of physical properties, like position and speed, cannot both be known to arbitrary precision: the more precisely one property is known, the less precisely the other can be known. This statement is known as the uncertainty principle. The uncertainty principle isn't a statement about the accuracy of our measuring equipment, but about the nature of the system itself our naive assumption that the car had a definite position and speed was incorrect. On a scale of cars and people, these uncertainties are too small to notice, but when dealing with atoms and electrons they become critical.[33]
Werner Heisenberg at the age of 26. Heisenberg won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1932 for the work that he [31] did at around this time.
Heisenberg gave, as an illustration, the measurement of the position and momentum of an electron using a photon of light. In measuring the electron's position, the higher the frequency of the photon the more accurate is the measurement of the position of the impact, but the greater is the disturbance of the electron, which absorbs a random amount of energy, rendering the measurement obtained of its momentum increasingly uncertain (momentum is velocity multiplied by mass), for one is necessarily measuring its post-impact disturbed momentum, from the collision products, not its original momentum. With a photon of lower frequency the disturbance - hence uncertainty - in the momentum is less, but so is the accuracy of the measurement of the position of the impact.[34] The uncertainty principle shows mathematically that the product of the uncertainty in the position and momentum of a particle (momentum is velocity multiplied by mass) could never be less than a certain value, and that this value is related to Planck's constant.
Wave function collapse

Wave function collapse is a forced term for whatever happened when it becomes appropriate to replace the description of an uncertain state of a system by a description of the system in a definite state. Explanations for the nature of the process of becoming certain are controversial. At any time before a photon "shows up" on a detection screen it can only be described by a set of probabilities for where it might show up. When it does show up, for instance in the CCD of an electronic camera, the time and the space where it interacted with the device are known within very tight limits. However, the photon has disappeared, and the wave function has disappeared with it. In its place some physical change in the detection screen has appeared, e.g., an exposed spot in a sheet of photographic film.
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Eigenstates and eigenvalues

For a more detailed introduction to this subject, see: Introduction to eigenstates Because of the uncertainty principle, statements about both the position and momentum of particles can only assign a probability that the position or momentum will have some numerical value. Therefore it is necessary to formulate clearly the difference between the state of something that is indeterminate, such as an electron in a probability cloud, and the state of something having a definite value. When an object can definitely be "pinned-down" in some respect, it is said to possess an eigenstate.
The Pauli exclusion principle

In 1924, Wolfgang Pauli proposed a new quantum degree of freedom (or quantum number), with two possible values, to resolve inconsistencies between observed molecular spectra and the predictions of quantum mechanics. In particular, the spectrum of atomic hydrogen had a doublet, or pair of lines differing by a small amount, where only one line was expected. Pauli formulated his exclusion principle, stating that "There cannot exist an atom in such a quantum state that two electrons within [it] have the same set of quantum numbers."[35] A year later, Uhlenbeck and Goudsmit identified Pauli's new degree of freedom with a property called spin. The idea, originating with Ralph Kronig, was that electrons behave as if they rotate, or "spin", about an axis. Spin would account for the missing magnetic moment, and allow two electrons in the same orbital to occupy distinct quantum states if they "spun" in opposite directions, thus satisfying the exclusion principle. The quantum number represented the sense (positive or negative) of spin.
Application to the hydrogen atom

Bohr's model of the atom was essentially two-dimensional an electron orbiting in a plane around its nuclear "sun." However, the uncertainty principle states that an electron cannot be viewed as having an exact location at any given time. In the modern theory the orbit has been replaced by an atomic orbital, a "cloud" of possible locations. It is often depicted as a three-dimensional region within which there is a 95 percent probability of finding the electron.[36] Schrdinger was able to calculate the energy levels of hydrogen by treating a hydrogen atom's electron as a wave, represented by the "wave function" , in a electric potential well, V, created by the proton. The solutions to Schrdinger's equation are distributions of probabilities for electron positions and locations. Orbitals have a range of different shapes in three dimensions. The energies of the different orbitals can be calculated, and they accurately reproduce the energy levels of the Bohr model. Within Schrdinger's picture, each electron has four properties: 1. An "orbital" designation, indicating whether the particle wave is one that is closer to the nucleus with less energy or one that is farther from the nucleus with more energy; 2. The "shape" of the orbital, spherical or otherwise; 3. The "inclination" of the orbital, determining the magnetic moment of the orbital around the z-axis. 4. The "spin" of the electron. The collective name for these properties is the quantum state of the electron. The quantum state can be described by giving a number to each of these properties; these are known as the electron's quantum numbers. The quantum state of the electron is described by its wavefunction. The Pauli exclusion principle demands that no two electrons within an atom may have the same values of all four numbers.
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The first property describing the orbital is the principal quantum number, n, which is the same as in Bohr's model. n denotes the energy level of each orbital. The possible values for n are integers:
The shapes of the first five atomic orbitals: 1s, 2s, 2px,2py, and 2pz. The colours show the phase of the wavefunction.
The next quantum number, the azimuthal quantum number, denoted l, describes the shape of the orbital. The shape is a consequence of the angular momentum of the orbital. The angular momentum represents the resistance of a spinning object to speeding up or slowing down under the influence of external force. The azimuthal quantum number represents the orbital angular momentum of an electron around its nucleus. The possible values for l are integers from 0 to n 1:
The shape of each orbital has its own letter as well. The first shape is denoted by the letter s (a mnemonic being "sphere"). The next shape is denoted by the letter p and has the form of a dumbbell. The other orbitals have more complicated shapes (see atomic orbital), and are denoted by the letters d, f, and g. The third quantum number, the magnetic quantum number, describes the magnetic moment of the electron, and is denoted by ml (or simply m). The possible values for ml are integers from l to l: The magnetic quantum number measures the component of the angular momentum in a particular direction. The choice of direction is arbitrary, conventionally the z-direction is chosen. The fourth quantum number, the spin quantum number (pertaining to the "orientation" of the electron's spin) is denoted ms, with values +12 or 12. The chemist Linus Pauling wrote, by way of example: In the case of a helium atom with two electrons in the 1s orbital, the Pauli Exclusion Principle requires that the two electrons differ in the value of one quantum number. Their values of n, l, and ml are the same; moreover, they have the same spin, s = 12. Accordingly they must differ in the value of ms, which can have the value of +12 for one electron and 12 for the other."[35] It is the underlying structure and symmetry of atomic orbitals, and the way that electrons fill them, that determines the organisation of the periodic table and the structure and strength of chemical bonds between atoms.
Dirac wave equation

In 1928, Paul Dirac extended the Pauli equation, which described spinning electrons, to account for special relativity. The result was a theory that dealt properly with events, such as the speed at which an electron orbits the nucleus, occurring at a substantial fraction of the speed of light. By using the simplest electromagnetic interaction, Dirac was able to predict the value of the magnetic moment associated with the electron's spin, and found the experimentally observed value, which was too large to be that of a spinning charged sphere governed by classical physics. He was able to solve for the spectral lines of the hydrogen atom, and to reproduce from physical first principles Sommerfeld's successful formula for the fine structure of the hydrogen spectrum. Dirac's equations sometimes yielded a negative value for energy, for which he proposed a novel solution: he posited the existence of an antielectron and of a dynamical vacuum. This led to the many-particle quantum field theory.
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Quantum entanglement
The Pauli exclusion principle says that two electrons in one system cannot be in the same state. Nature leaves open the possibility, however, that two electrons can have both states "superimposed" over them. Recall that the wave functions that emerge Superposition of two quantum characteristics, and two resolution possibilities. simultaneously from the double slits arrive at the detection screen in a state of superposition. Nothing is certain until the superimposed waveforms "collapse," At that instant an electron shows up somewhere in accordance with the probabilities that are the squares of the amplitudes of the two superimposed waveforms. The situation there is already very abstract. A concrete way of thinking about entangled photons, photons in which two contrary states are superimposed on each of them in the same event, is as follows: Imagine that the superposition of a state that can be mentally labeled as blue and another state that can be mentally labeled as red will then appear (in imagination, of course) as a purple state. Two photons are produced as the result of the same atomic event. Perhaps they are produced by the excitation of a crystal that characteristically absorbs a photon of a certain frequency and emits two photons of half the original frequency. So the two photons come out "purple." If the experimenter now performs some experiment that will determine whether one of the photons is either blue or red, then that experiment changes the photon involved from one having a superposition of "blue" and "red" characteristics to a photon that has only one of those characteristics. The problem that Einstein had with such an imagined situation was that if one of these photons had been kept bouncing between mirrors in a laboratory on earth, and the other one had traveled halfway to the nearest star, when its twin was made to reveal itself as either blue or red, that meant that the distant photon now had to lose its "purple" status too. So whenever it might be investigated, it would necessarily show up, instantaneously, in the opposite state to whatever its twin had revealed. In trying to show that quantum mechanics was not a complete theory, Einstein started with the theory's prediction that two or more particles that have interacted in the past can appear strongly correlated when their various properties are later measured. He sought to explain this seeming interaction in a classical way, through their common past, and preferably not by some "spooky action at a distance." The argument is worked out in a famous paper, Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen (1935; abbreviated EPR), setting out what is now called the EPR paradox. Assuming what is now usually called local realism, EPR attempted to show from quantum theory that a particle has both position and momentum simultaneously, while according to the Copenhagen interpretation, only one of those two properties actually exists and only at the moment that it is being measured. EPR concluded that quantum theory is incomplete in that it refuses to consider physical properties which objectively exist in nature. (Einstein, Podolsky, & Rosen 1935 is currently Einstein's most cited publication in physics journals.) In the same year, Erwin Schrdinger used the word "entanglement" and declared: "I would not call that one but rather the characteristic trait of quantum mechanics." [37] The question of whether entanglement is a real condition is still in dispute.[38] The Bell inequalities are the most powerful challenge to Einstein's claims.
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Quantum field theory

The idea of quantum field theory began in the late 1920s with British physicist Paul Dirac, when he attempted to quantise the electromagnetic field a procedure for constructing a quantum theory starting from a classical theory. A field in physics is "a region or space in which a given effect (such as magnetism) exists."[39] Other effects that manifest themselves as fields are gravitation and static electricity.[40] In 2008, physicist Richard Hammond wrote that Sometimes we distinguish between quantum mechanics (QM) and quantum field theory (QFT). QM refers to a system in which the number of particles is fixed, and the fields (such as the electromechanical field) are continuous classical entities. QFT . . . goes a step further and allows for the creation and annihilation of particles . . . . He added, however, that quantum mechanics is often used to refer to "the entire notion of quantum view."[41]:108 In 1931, Dirac proposed the existence of particles that later became known as anti-matter.[42] Dirac shared the Nobel Prize in physics for 1933 with Schrdinger, "for the discovery of new productive forms of atomic theory."[43]
Quantum electrodynamics
Quantum electrodynamics (QED) is the name of the quantum theory of the electromagnetic force. Understanding QED begins with understanding electromagnetism. Electromagnetism can be called "electrodynamics" because it is a dynamic interaction between electrical and magnetic forces. Electromagnetism begins with the electric charge. Electric charges are the sources of, and create, electric fields. An electric field is a field which exerts a force on any particles that carry electric charges, at any point in space. This includes the electron, proton, and even quarks, among others. As a force is exerted, electric charges move, a current flows and a magnetic field is produced. The magnetic field, in turn causes electric current (moving electrons). The interacting electric and magnetic field is called an electromagnetic field. The physical description of interacting charged particles, electrical currents, electrical fields, and magnetic fields is called electromagnetism. In 1928 Paul Dirac produced a relativistic quantum theory of electromagnetism. This was the progenitor to modern quantum electrodynamics, in that it had essential ingredients of the modern theory. However, the problem of unsolvable infinities developed in this relativistic quantum theory. Years later, renormalization solved this problem. Initially viewed as a suspect, provisional procedure by some of its originators, renormalization eventually was embraced as an important and self-consistent tool in QED and other fields of physics. Also, in the late 1940s Feynman's diagrams depicted all possible interactions pertaining to a given event. The diagrams showed that the electromagnetic force is the interactions of photons between interacting particles. An example of a prediction of quantum electrodynamics which has been verified experimentally is the Lamb shift. This refers to an effect whereby the quantum nature of the electromagnetic field causes the energy levels in an atom or ion to deviate slightly from what they would otherwise be. As a result, spectral lines may shift or split. In the 1960s physicists realized that QED broke down at extremely high energies. From this inconsistency the Standard Model of particle physics was discovered, which remedied the higher energy breakdown in theory. The
This sculpture in Bristol, England a series of clustering cones presents the idea of small worlds that Paul Dirac studied to reach his discovery of anti-matter.
Introduction to Quantum Mechanics Standard Model unifies the electromagnetic and weak interactions into one theory. This is called the electroweak theory.
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Interpretations
The physical measurements, equations, and predictions pertinent to quantum mechanics are all consistent and hold a very high level of confirmation. However, the question of what these abstract models say about the underlying nature of the real world has received competing answers.
Applications
Applications of quantum mechanics include the laser, the transistor, the electron microscope, and magnetic resonance imaging. The study of semiconductors led to the invention of the diode and the transistor, which are indispensable for modern electronics. In even the simple light switch, quantum tunnelling is vital, as otherwise the electrons in the electric current could not penetrate the potential barrier made up of a layer of oxide. Flash memory chips found in USB drives also use quantum tunnelling, to erase their memory cells.[44]
Notes
[1] Quantum Mechanics from [[National Public Radio (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ trasnsistor/ science/ info/ quantum. html)]] [2] Classical physics also does not accurately describe the universe on the largest scales or at speeds close to that of light. An accurate description requires general relativity. [3] Richard P. Feynman, QED, p. 10 [4] This result was published (in German) as Planck, Max (1901). "Ueber das Gesetz der Energieverteilung im Normalspectrum" (http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ historic-papers/ 1901_309_553-563. pdf). Ann. Phys. 309 (3): 55363. Bibcode1901AnP...309..553P. doi:10.1002/andp.19013090310. . English translation: " On the Law of Distribution of Energy in the Normal Spectrum (http:/ / dbhs. wvusd. k12. ca. us/ webdocs/ Chem-History/ Planck-1901/ Planck-1901. html)". [5] The word "quantum" comes from the Latin word for "how much" (as does "quantity"). Something which is "quantized," like the energy of Planck's harmonic oscillators, can only take specific values. For example, in most countries money is effectively quantized, with the "quantum of money" being the lowest-value coin in circulation. "Mechanics" is the branch of science that deals with the action of forces on objects, so "quantum mechanics" is the part of mechanics that deals with objects for which particular properties are quantized. [6] Francis Weston Sears (1958). Mechanics, Wave Motion, and Heat (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?hl=en& q="Mechanics,+ Wave+ Motion,+ and+ Heat"+ "where+ n+ =+ 1,"& btnG=Search+ Books). Addison-Wesley. p.537. . [7] "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1918" (http:/ / nobelprize. org/ nobel_prizes/ physics/ laureates/ 1918/ ). The Nobel Foundation. . Retrieved 2009-08-01. [8] Kragh, Helge (1 December 2000). "Max Planck: the reluctant revolutionary" (http:/ / physicsworld. com/ cws/ article/ print/ 373). PhysicsWorld.com. [9] Einstein, Albert (1905). "ber einen die Erzeugung und Verwandlung des Lichtes betreffenden heuristischen Gesichtspunkt" (http:/ / www. zbp. univie. ac. at/ dokumente/ einstein1. pdf). Annalen der Physik 17: 132148. Bibcode1905AnP...322..132E. doi:10.1002/andp.19053220607. ., translated into English as On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light (http:/ / lorentz. phl. jhu. edu/ AnnusMirabilis/ AeReserveArticles/ eins_lq. pdf). The term "photon" was introduced in 1926. [10] Taylor, J. R.; Zafiratos, C. D.; Dubson, M. A. (2004). Modern Physics for Scientists and Engineers. Prentice Hall. pp.1279. ISBN0135897890. [11] Stephen Hawking, The Universe in a Nutshell, Bantam, 2001. [12] Actually there can be intensity-dependent effects, but at intensities achievable with non-laser sources these effects are unobservable. [13] Dicke and Wittke, Introduction to Quantum Mechanics, p. 12 [14] Einstein's photoelectric effect equation can be derived and explained without requiring the concept of "photons". That is, the electromagnetic radiation can be treated as a classical electromagnetic wave, as long as the electrons in the material are treated by the laws of quantum mechanics. The results are quantitatively correct for thermal light sources (the sun, incandescent lamps, etc) both for the rate of electron emission as well as their angular distribution. For more on this point, see NTRS.NASA.gov (http:/ / ntrs. nasa. gov/ archive/ nasa/ casi. ntrs. nasa. gov/ 19680009569_1968009569. pdf) [15] The classical model of the atom is called the planetary model, or sometimes the Rutherford model after Ernest Rutherford who proposed it in 1911, based on the Geiger-Marsden gold foil experiment which first demonstrated the existence of the nucleus. [16] Taylor, J. R.; Zafiratos, C. D.; Dubson, M. A. (2004). Modern Physics for Scientists and Engineers. Prentice Hall. pp.1478. ISBN0135897890.

[17] McEvoy, J. P.; Zarate, O. (2004). Introducing Quantum Theory. Totem Books. pp.7089, especially p. 89. ISBN1840465778. [18] World Book Encyclopedia, page 6, 2007. [19] Dicke and Wittke, Introduction to Quantum Mechanics, p. 10f. [20] In this case, the energy of the electron is the sum of its kinetic and potential energies. The electron has kinetic energy by virtue of its actual motion around the nucleus, and potential energy because of its electromagnetic interaction with the nucleus. [21] The model can be easily modified to account of the emission spectrum of any system consisting of a nucleus and a single electron (that is, ions such as He+ or O7+ which contain only one electron). [22] J. P. McEvoy and Oscar Zarate (2004). Introducing Quantum Theory. Totem Books. p.110f. ISBN1-84046-577-8. [23] Aezel, Amir D., Entanglrment, p. 51f. (Penguin, 2003) ISBN 0-452-28457 [24] J. P. McEvoy and Oscar Zarate (2004). Introducing Quantum Theory. Totem Books. p.114. ISBN1-84046-577-8. [25] A.S. Eddington, The Nature of the Physical World, the course of Gifford Lectures that Eddington delivered in the University of Edinburgh in January to March 1927, Kessinger Publishing, 2005, p. 201. (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=PGOTKcxSqMUC& pg=PA201& lpg=PA201& dq=We+ can+ scarcely+ describe+ such+ an+ entity+ as+ a+ wave+ or+ as+ a+ particle;+ perhaps+ as+ a+ compromise+ we+ had+ better+ call+ it+ a+ `wavicle& source=bl& ots=K0IfGzaXli& sig=zgrQiBJbHRLuUzVBT-yy8jZhC1Y& hl=en& ei=i8g1SpOHC4PgtgOu_4jVDg& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=1) [26] Banesh Hoffman, The Strange Story of the Quantum, Dover, 1959 [27] "Schrodinger Equation (Physics)," Encyclopdia Britannica (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 528298/ Schrodinger-equation) [28] Erwin Schrdinger, "The Present Situation in Quantum Mechanics," p. 9. "This translation was originally published in Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 124, 323-38. [And then appeared as Section I.11 of Part I of Quantum Theory and Measurement (J.A. Wheeler and W.H. Zurek, eds., Princeton university Press, New Jersey 1983). This paper can be downloaded from http:/ / www. tu-harburg. de/ rzt/ rzt/ it/ QM/ cat. html. " [29] For a somewhat more sophisticated look at how Heisenberg transitioned from the old quantum theory and classical physics to the new quantum mechanics, see Heisenberg's entryway to matrix mechanics. [30] W. Moore, Schrdinger: Life and Thought, Cambridge University Press (1989), p. 222. [31] Heisenberg's Nobel Prize citation (http:/ / nobelprize. org/ nobel_prizes/ physics/ laureates/ 1932/ ) [32] Heisenberg first published his work on the uncertainty principle in the leading German physics journal Zeitschrift fr Physik: Heisenberg, W. (1927). "ber den anschaulichen Inhalt der quantentheoretischen Kinematik und Mechanik". Z. Phys. 43 (34): 172198. Bibcode1927ZPhy...43..172H. doi:10.1007/BF01397280. [33] Nobel Prize in Physics presentation speech, 1932 (http:/ / nobelprize. org/ nobel_prizes/ physics/ laureates/ 1932/ press. html) [34] "Uncertainty principle," Encyclopdia Britannica (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 614029/ uncertainty-principle) [35] Linus Pauling, The Nature of the Chemical Bond, p. 47 [36] "Orbital (chemistry and physics)," Encyclopdia Britannica (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 431159/ orbital) [37] E. Schrdinger, Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, 31 (1935), p. 555says: "When two systems, of which we know the states by their respective representation, enter into a temporary physical interaction due to known forces between them and when after a time of mutual influence the systems separate again, then they can no longer be described as before, viz., by endowing each of them with a representative of its own. I would not call that one but rather the characteristic trait of quantum mechanics." [38] "Quantum Nonlocality and the Possibility of Superluminal Effects", John G. Cramer, npl.washington.edu (http:/ / www. npl. washington. edu/ npl/ int_rep/ qm_nl. html) [39] "Mechanics," Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary (http:/ / www. merriam-webster. com/ dictionary/ field) [40] "Field," Encyclopdia Britannica (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 206162/ field) [41] Richard Hammond, The Unknown Universe, New Page Books, 2008. ISBN 978-1-60163-003-2 [42] The Physical World website (http:/ / www. physicalworld. org/ restless_universe/ html/ ru_dira. html) [43] "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1933" (http:/ / nobelprize. org/ nobel_prizes/ physics/ laureates/ 1933/ ). The Nobel Foundation. . Retrieved 2007-11-24. [44] Durrani, Z. A. K.; Ahmed, H. (2008). Vijay Kumar. ed. Nanosilicon. Elsevier. p.345. ISBN9780080445281.
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Bernstein, Jeremy (2005). "Max Born and the quantum theory". American Journal of Physics 73 (11). Beller, Mara (2001). Quantum Dialogue: The Making of a Revolution. University of Chicago Press. Bohr, Niels (1958). Atomic Physics and Human Knowledge. John Wiley & Sons. ASINB00005VGVF. ISBN0486479285. OCLC530611. de Broglie, Louis (1953). The Revolution in Physics. Noonday Press. LCCN53010401. Einstein, Albert (1934). Essays in Science. Philosophical Library. ISBN0486470113. LCCN55003947. Feigl, Herbert; Brodbeck, May (1953). Readings in the Philosophy of Science. Appleton-Century-Crofts. ISBN0390304883. LCCN53006438. Feynman, Richard P. (1949). "Space-Time Approach to Quantum Electrodynamics" (http://www.physics. princeton.edu/~mcdonald/examples/QED/feynman_pr_76_769_49.pdf). Physical Review 76 (6): 769789. Bibcode1949PhRv...76..769F. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.76.769. Fowler, Michael (1999). The Bohr Atom. University of Virginia. Heisenberg, Werner (1958). Physics and Philosophy. Harper and Brothers. ISBN0061305499. LCCN99010404. Lakshmibala, S. (2004). "Heisenberg, Matrix Mechanics and the Uncertainty Principle". Resonance, Journal of Science Education 9 (8). Liboff, Richard L. (1992). Introductory Quantum Mechanics (2nd ed.). Lindsay, Robert Bruce; Margenau, Henry (1957). Foundations of Physics. Dover. ISBN0918024188. LCCN57014416. McEvoy, J. P.; Zarate, Oscar. Introducing Quantum Theory. ISBN1-874166-37-4. Nave, Carl Rod (2005). "Quantum Physics" (http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/quacon. html#quacon). HyperPhysics. Georgia State University. Peat, F. David (2002). From Certainty to Uncertainty: The Story of Science and Ideas in the Twenty-First Century. Joseph Henry Press. Reichenbach, Hans (1944). Philosophic Foundations of Quantum Mechanics. University of California Press. ISBN0486404595. LCCNa44004471. Schlipp, Paul Arthur (1949). Albert Einstein: Philosopher-Scientist. Tudor Publishing Company. LCCN50005340. Scientific American Reader, 1953. Sears, Francis Weston (1949). Optics (3rd ed.). Addison-Wesley. ISBN0195046013. LCCN51001018. Shimony, A. (1983). "(title not given in citation)". Foundations of Quantum Mechanics in the Light of New Technology (S. Kamefuchi et al., eds.). Tokyo: Japan Physical Society. pp.225.; cited in: Popescu, Sandu; Daniel Rohrlich (1996). "Action and Passion at a Distance: An Essay in Honor of Professor Abner Shimony". arXiv:quant-ph/9605004[quant-ph]. Tavel, Morton; Tavel, Judith (illustrations) (2002). Contemporary physics and the limits of knowledge (http:// books.google.com/?id=SELS0HbIhjYC&pg=PA200&dq=Wave+function+collapse). Rutgers University Press. ISBN9780813530772. Van Vleck, J. H.,1928, "The Correspondence Principle in the Statistical Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics," Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 14: 179. Wheeler, John Archibald; Feynman, Richard P. (1949). "Classical Electrodynamics in Terms of Direct Interparticle Action". Reviews of Modern Physics 21 (3): 425433. Bibcode1949RvMP...21..425W. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.21.425. Wieman, Carl; Perkins, Katherine (2005). "Transforming Physics Education". Physics Today. Westmoreland; Benjamin Schumacher (1998). "Quantum Entanglement and the Nonexistence of Superluminal Signals". arXiv:quant-ph/9801014[quant-ph]. Bronner, Patrick; Strunz, Andreas; Silberhorn, Christine; Meyn, Jan-Peter (2009). "Demonstrating quantum random with single photons". European Journal of Physics 30 (5): 11891200. Bibcode2009EJPh...30.1189B.
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Further reading
The following titles, all by working physicists, attempt to communicate quantum theory to lay people, using a minimum of technical apparatus. Jim Al-Khalili (2003) Quantum: A Guide for the Perplexed. Weidenfield & Nicholson. Richard Feynman (1985) QED: The Strange Theory of Light and Matter. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-08388-6 Ford, Kenneth (2005) The Quantum World. Harvard Univ. Press. Includes elementary particle physics. Ghirardi, GianCarlo (2004) Sneaking a Look at God's Cards, Gerald Malsbary, trans. Princeton Univ. Press. The most technical of the works cited here. Passages using algebra, trigonometry, and bra-ket notation can be passed over on a first reading. Tony Hey and Walters, Patrick (2003) The New Quantum Universe. Cambridge Univ. Press. Includes much about the technologies quantum theory has made possible. Vladimir G. Ivancevic, Tijana T. Ivancevic (2008) Quantum leap: from Dirac and Feynman, across the universe, to human body and mind. World Scientific Publishing Company. Provides an intuitive introduction in non-mathematical terms and an introduction in comparatively basic mathematical terms. N. David Mermin (1990) Spooky actions at a distance: mysteries of the QT in his Boojums all the way through. Cambridge Univ. Press: 110176. The author is a rare physicist who tries to communicate to philosophers and humanists. Roland Omnes (1999) Understanding Quantum Mechanics. Princeton Univ. Press. Victor Stenger (2000) Timeless Reality: Symmetry, Simplicity, and Multiple Universes. Buffalo NY: Prometheus Books. Chpts. 58. Martinus Veltman (2003) Facts and Mysteries in Elementary Particle Physics. World Scientific Publishing Company. Brian Cox and Jeff Forshaw (2011) The Quantum Universe. Allen Lane. A website with good introduction to Quantum mechanics can be found here. (http://www.chem1.com/acad/ webtext/atoms/atpt-4.html)
External links
Takada, Kenjiro, Emeritus professor at Kyushu University, " Microscopic World Introduction to Quantum Mechanics. (http://www2.kutl.kyushu-u.ac.jp/seminar/MicroWorld1_E/MicroWorld_1_E.html)" Quantum Theory. (http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-quantumt.html) Quantum Mechanics. (http://www.aip.org/history/heisenberg/p07.htm) The spooky quantum (http://www.imamu.edu.sa/Scientific_selections/abstracts/Physics/THE SPOOKY QUANTUM.pdf) Planck's original paper (http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/webdocs/Chem-History/Planck-1901/Planck-1901. html) on Planck's constant. Everything you wanted to know about the quantum world. (http://www.newscientist.com/channel/ fundamentals/quantum-world) From the New Scientist. This Quantum World. (http://thisquantumworld.com/ht/index.php) The Quantum Exchange (http://www.compadre.org/quantum) (tutorials and open source learning software). Theoretical Physics wiki (http://theoreticalphysics.wetpaint.com) " Uncertainty Principle, (http://www.thebigview.com/spacetime/index.html)" a recording of Werner Heisenberg's voice.
Introduction to Quantum Mechanics Single and double slit interference (http://class.phys.psu.edu/251Labs/10_Interference_&_Diffraction/ Single_and_Double-Slit_Interference.pdf) Time-Evolution of a Wavepacket in a Square Well (http://demonstrations.wolfram.com/ TimeEvolutionOfAWavepacketInASquareWell/) An animated demonstration of a wave packet dispersion over time. Experiments with single photons (http://www.didaktik.physik.uni-erlangen.de/quantumlab/english/) An introduction into quantum physics with interactive experiments Hitachi video recording of double-slit experiment done with electrons. You can see the interference pattern build up over time. (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oxknfn97vFE)
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2. Measurement Problems
Schrdinger's Cat
Schrdinger's cat is a thought experiment, sometimes described as a paradox, devised by Austrian physicist Erwin Schrdinger in 1935. It illustrates what he saw as the problem of the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics applied to everyday objects. The scenario presents a cat that might be alive or dead, depending on an earlier random event. Although the original "experiment" was imaginary, Schrdinger's Cat: A cat, along with a flask containing a poison and a radioactive source, similar principles have been researched is placed in a sealed box. If an internal Geiger counter detects radiation, the flask is and used in practical applications. The shattered, releasing the poison that kills the cat. The Copenhagen interpretation of thought experiment is also often quantum mechanics implies that after a while, the cat is simultaneously alive and dead. Yet, when we look in the box, we see the cat either alive or dead, not both alive and featured in theoretical discussions of the dead. interpretation of quantum mechanics. In the course of developing this experiment, Schrdinger coined the term Verschrnkung (entanglement).
Origin and motivation

Schrdinger intended his thought experiment as a discussion of the EPR articlenamed after its authors Einstein, [1] Podolsky, and Rosenin 1935. The EPR article highlighted the strange nature of quantum entanglement, which is a characteristic of a quantum state that is a combination of the states of two systems (for example, two subatomic particles), that once interacted but were then separated and are not each in a definite state. The Copenhagen interpretation implies that the state of the two systems undergoes collapse into a definite state when one of the systems is measured. Schrdinger and Einstein exchanged letters about Einstein's EPR article, in the course of which Einstein pointed out that the state of an unstable keg of gunpowder will, after a while, contain a superposition of both exploded and unexploded states. To further illustrate the putative incompleteness of quantum mechanics, Schrdinger describes how one could, in principle, transpose the superposition of an atom to large-scale systems. He proposed a scenario with a cat in a sealed box, wherein the cat's life or death depended on the state of a subatomic particle. According to Schrdinger, the Copenhagen interpretation implies that the cat remains both alive and dead (to the universe outside the box) until the box is opened. Schrdinger did not wish to promote the idea of dead-and-alive cats as a serious possibility; quite the reverse, the paradox is a classic reductio ad absurdum.[2] The thought experiment illustrates the counterintuitiveness of quantum mechanics and the mathematics necessary to describe quantum states. Intended as a critique of just the Copenhagen interpretation (the prevailing orthodoxy in 1935), the Schrdinger cat thought experiment remains a typical touchstone for all interpretations of quantum mechanics. Physicists often use the way each interpretation deals with Schrdinger's cat as a way of illustrating and comparing the particular features, strengths, and weaknesses
Schrdinger's Cat of each interpretation.
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The thought experiment

Schrdinger wrote:[3][2] One can even set up quite ridiculous cases. A cat is penned up in a steel chamber, along with the following device (which must be secured against direct interference by the cat): in a Geiger counter, there is a tiny bit of radioactive substance, so small that perhaps in the course of the hour, one of the atoms decays, but also, with equal probability, perhaps none; if it happens, the counter tube discharges, and through a relay releases a hammer that shatters a small flask of hydrocyanic acid. If one has left this entire system to itself for an hour, one would say that the cat still lives if meanwhile no atom has decayed. The psi-function of the entire system would express this by having in it the living and dead cat (pardon the expression) mixed or smeared out in equal parts. It is typical of these cases that an indeterminacy originally restricted to the atomic domain becomes transformed into macroscopic indeterminacy, which can then be resolved by direct observation. That prevents us from so naively accepting as valid a "blurred model" for representing reality. In itself, it would not embody anything unclear or contradictory. There is a difference between a shaky or out-of-focus photograph and a snapshot of clouds and fog banks. Erwin Schrdinger,Die gegenwrtige Situation in der Quantenmechanik (The present situation in quantum mechanics), Naturwissenschaften (translated by John D. Trimmer in Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society) Schrdinger's famous thought experiment poses the question, when does a quantum system stop existing as a superposition of states and become one or the other? (More technically, when does the actual quantum state stop being a linear combination of states, each of which resembles different classical states, and instead begins to have a unique classical description?) If the cat survives, it remembers only being alive. But explanations of the EPR experiments that are consistent with standard microscopic quantum mechanics require that macroscopic objects, such as cats and notebooks, do not always have unique classical descriptions. The thought experiment illustrates this apparent paradox. Our intuition says that no observer can be in a mixture of statesyet the cat, it seems from the thought experiment, can be such a mixture. Is the cat required to be an observer, or does its existence in a single well-defined classical state require another external observer? Each alternative seemed absurd to Albert Einstein, who was impressed by the ability of the thought experiment to highlight these issues. In a letter to Schrdinger dated 1950, he wrote: You are the only contemporary physicist, besides Laue, who sees that one cannot get around the assumption of reality, if only one is honest. Most of them simply do not see what sort of risky game they are playing with realityreality as something independent of what is experimentally established. Their interpretation is, however, refuted most elegantly by your system of radioactive atom + amplifier + charge of gunpowder + cat in a box, in which the psi-function of the system contains both the cat alive and blown to bits. Nobody really doubts that the presence or absence of the cat is something independent of the act of observation.[4] Note that no charge of gunpowder is mentioned in Schrdinger's setup, which uses a Geiger counter as an amplifier and hydrocyanic poison instead of gunpowder. The gunpowder had been mentioned in Einstein's original suggestion to Schrdinger 15 years before, and apparently Einstein had carried it forward to the present discussion.
Schrdinger's Cat
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Interpretations of the experiment

Since Schrdinger's time, other interpretations of quantum mechanics have been proposed that give different answers to the questions posed by Schrdinger's cat of how long superpositions last and when (or whether) they collapse.
The most commonly held interpretation of quantum mechanics is the Copenhagen interpretation.[5] In the Copenhagen interpretation, a system stops being a superposition of states and becomes either one or the other when an observation takes place. This experiment makes apparent the fact that the nature of measurement, or observation, is not well-defined in this interpretation. The experiment can be interpreted to mean that while the box is closed, the system simultaneously exists in a superposition of the states "decayed nucleus/dead cat" and "undecayed nucleus/living cat," and that only when the box is opened and an observation performed does the wave function collapse into one of the two states. However, one of the main scientists associated with the Copenhagen interpretation, Niels Bohr, never had in mind the observer-induced collapse of the wave function, so that Schrdinger's Cat did not pose any riddle to him. The cat would be either dead or alive long before the box is opened by a conscious observer.[6] Analysis of an actual experiment found that measurement alone (for example by a Geiger counter) is sufficient to collapse a quantum wave function before there is any conscious observation of the measurement.[7] The view that the "observation" is taken when a particle from the nucleus hits the detector can be developed into objective collapse theories. In contrast, the many worlds approach denies that collapse ever occurs.
Many-worlds interpretation and consistent histories

In 1957, Hugh Everett formulated the many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics, which does not single out observation as a special process. In the many-worlds interpretation, both alive and dead states of the cat persist after the box is opened, but are decoherent from each other. In other words, when the box is opened, the observer and the already-dead cat split into an observer looking at a box with a dead cat, and an observer looking at a box with a live cat. But since the dead and alive states are decoherent, there is no effective communication or interaction between them.
The quantum-mechanical "Schrdinger's cat" paradox according to the many-worlds interpretation. In this interpretation, every event is a branch point. The cat is both alive and deadregardless of whether the box is openedbut the "alive" and "dead" cats are in different branches of the universe that are equally real but cannot interact with each other.
When opening the box, the observer becomes entangled with the cat, so "observer states" corresponding to the cat's being alive and dead are formed; each observer state is entangled or linked with the cat so that the "observation of the cat's state" and the "cat's state" correspond with each other. Quantum decoherence ensures that the different outcomes have no interaction with each other. The same mechanism of quantum decoherence is also important for the interpretation in terms of consistent histories. Only the "dead cat" or "alive cat" can be a part of a consistent history in this interpretation. Roger Penrose criticises this:
Schrdinger's Cat "I wish to make it clear that, as it stands, this is far from a resolution of the cat paradox. For there is nothing in the formalism of quantum mechanics that demands that a state of consciousness cannot involve the simultaneous perception of a live and a dead cat",[8] Although the mainstream view (without necessarily endorsing many-worlds) is that decoherence is the mechanism that forbids such simultaneous perception.[9][10] A variant of the Schrdinger's Cat experiment, known as the quantum suicide machine, has been proposed by cosmologist Max Tegmark. It examines the Schrdinger's Cat experiment from the point of view of the cat, and argues that by using this approach, one may be able to distinguish between the Copenhagen interpretation and many-worlds.
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Ensemble interpretation
The ensemble interpretation states that superpositions are nothing but subensembles of a larger statistical ensemble. The state vector would not apply to individual cat experiments, but only to the statistics of many similarly prepared cat experiments. Proponents of this interpretation state that this makes the Schrdinger's Cat paradox a trivial non-issue. This interpretation serves to discard the idea that a single physical system in quantum mechanics has a mathematical description that corresponds to it in any way.
Relational interpretation
The relational interpretation makes no fundamental distinction between the human experimenter, the cat, or the apparatus, or between animate and inanimate systems; all are quantum systems governed by the same rules of wavefunction evolution, and all may be considered "observers." But the relational interpretation allows that different observers can give different accounts of the same series of events, depending on the information they have about the system.[11] The cat can be considered an observer of the apparatus; meanwhile, the experimenter can be considered another observer of the system in the box (the cat plus the apparatus). Before the box is opened, the cat, by nature of it being alive or dead, has information about the state of the apparatus (the atom has either decayed or not decayed); but the experimenter does not have information about the state of the box contents. In this way, the two observers simultaneously have different accounts of the situation: To the cat, the wavefunction of the apparatus has appeared to "collapse"; to the experimenter, the contents of the box appear to be in superposition. Not until the box is opened, and both observers have the same information about what happened, do both system states appear to "collapse" into the same definite result, a cat that is either alive or dead.
Objective collapse theories

According to objective collapse theories, superpositions are destroyed spontaneously (irrespective of external observation) when some objective physical threshold (of time, mass, temperature, irreversibility, etc.) is reached. Thus, the cat would be expected to have settled into a definite state long before the box is opened. This could loosely be phrased as "the cat observes itself," or "the environment observes the cat." Objective collapse theories require a modification of standard quantum mechanics to allow superpositions to be destroyed by the process of time evolution.
Schrdinger's Cat
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Applications and tests

The experiment as described is a purely theoretical one, and the machine proposed is not known to have been constructed. However, successful experiments involving similar principles, e.g. superpositions of relatively large (by the standards of quantum physics) objects have been performed.[12] These experiments do not show that a cat-sized object can be superposed, but the known upper limit on "cat states" has been pushed upwards by them. In many cases the state is short-lived, even when cooled to near absolute zero. A "cat state" has been achieved with photons.[13] A beryllium ion has been trapped in a superposed state.[14] An experiment involving a superconducting quantum interference device ("SQUID") has been linked to theme of the thought experiment: " The superposition state does not correspond to a billion electrons flowing one way and a billion others flowing the other way. Superconducting electrons move en masse. All the superconducting electrons in the SQUID flow both ways around the loop at once when they are in the Schrdingers cat state.".[15] A piezoelectric "tuning fork" has been constructed, which can be placed into a superposition of vibrating and non vibrating states. The resonator comprises about 10 trillion atoms.[16] An experiment involving a flu virus has been proposed.[17] In quantum computing the phrase "cat state" often refers to the special entanglement of qubits wherein the qubits are in an equal superposition of all being 0 and all being 1; e.g., .
Extensions
Wigner's friend is a variant on the experiment with two external observers: the first opens and inspects the box and then communicates his observations to a second observer. The issue here is, does the wave function "collapse" when the first observer opens the box, or only when the second observer is informed of the first observer's observations? In another extension, prominent physicists have gone so far as to suggest that astronomers observing dark energy in the universe in 1998 may have "reduced its life expectancy" through a pseudo-Schrdinger's Cat scenario, although this is a controversial viewpoint.[18][19]
References
[1] EPR article: Can Quantum-Mechanical Description Reality Be Considered Complete? (http:/ / prola. aps. org/ abstract/ PR/ v47/ i10/ p777_1) [2] Schrdinger, Erwin (November 1935). "Die gegenwrtige Situation in der Quantenmechanik (The present situation in quantum mechanics)". Naturwissenschaften. [3] Schroedinger: "The Present Situation in Quantum Mechanics" (http:/ / www. tu-harburg. de/ rzt/ rzt/ it/ QM/ cat. html#sect5) [4] Pay link to Einstein letter (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ pss/ 687649) [5] Hermann Wimmel (1992). Quantum physics & observed reality: a critical interpretation of quantum mechanics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=-4sJ_fgyZJEC& pg=PA2). World Scientific. p.2. ISBN9789810210106. . Retrieved 9 May 2011. [6] Faye, J (2008-01-24). "Copenhagen Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics" (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ qm-copenhagen/ ). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. The Metaphysics Research Lab Center for the Study of Language and Information, Stanford University. . Retrieved 2010-09-19. [7] Carpenter RHS, Anderson AJ (2006). "The death of Schroedinger's Cat and of consciousness-based wave-function collapse" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20061130173850/ http:/ / www. ensmp. fr/ aflb/ AFLB-311/ aflb311m387. pdf). Annales de la Fondation Louis de Broglie (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080618174026/ http:/ / www. ensmp. fr/ aflb/ AFLB-Web/ en-annales-index. htm) 31 (1): 4552. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. ensmp. fr/ aflb/ AFLB-311/ aflb311m387. pdf) on 2006-11-30. . Retrieved 2010-09-10. [8] Penrose, R. The Road to Reality, p 807. [9] Wojciech H. Zurek, Decoherence, einselection, and the quantum origins of the classical, Reviews of Modern Physics 2003, 75, 715 or (http:/ / arxiv. org/ abs/ quant-ph/ 0105127) [10] Wojciech H. Zurek, "Decoherence and the transition from quantum to classical", Physics Today, 44, pp 3644 (1991) [11] Rovelli, Carlo (1996). "Relational Quantum Mechanics". International Journal of Theoretical Physics 35: 16371678. arXiv:quant-ph/9609002. Bibcode1996IJTP...35.1637R. doi:10.1007/BF02302261.
Schrdinger's Cat
[12] What is the World's Biggest Schrodinger Cat? (http:/ / physics. stackexchange. com/ questions/ 3309/ what-is-the-worlds-biggest-schrodinger-cat) [13] Schr%C%B6dingers Cat Now Made of Light (http:/ / www. science20. com/ news_articles/ schrdingers_cat_now_made_light) [14] C. Monroe, et. al. A Schrodinger Cat Superposition State of an Atom (http:/ / www. quantumsciencephilippines. com/ seminar/ seminar-topics/ SchrodingerCatAtom. pdf) [15] Physics World: Schrodinger's cat comes into view (http:/ / physicsworld. com/ cws/ article/ news/ 2815) [16] Scientific American : Macro-Weirdness: "Quantum Microphone" Puts Naked-Eye Object in 2 Places at Once: A new device tests the limits of Schrdinger's cat (http:/ / www. scientificamerican. com/ article. cfm?id=quantum-microphone) [17] How to Create Quantum Superpositions of Living Things (http:/ / www. technologyreview. com/ blog/ arxiv/ 24101/ )> [18] Chown, Marcus (2007-11-22). "Has observing the universe hastened its end?" (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ channel/ fundamentals/ mg19626313. 800-has-observing-the-universe-hastened-its-end. html). New Scientist. . Retrieved 2007-11-25. [19] Krauss, Lawrence M.; James Dent (April 30, 2008). "Late Time Behavior of False Vacuum Decay: Possible Implications for Cosmology and Metastable Inflating States". Phys. Rev. Lett. (US: APS) 100 (17). arXiv:0711.1821. Bibcode2008PhRvL.100q1301K. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.100.171301.
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External links
Schrdinger's cat in audio (http://soundcloud.com/siftpodcast/schr-dingers-cat) produced by Sift (http:// siftpodcast.com/) Erwin Schrdinger, The Present Situation in Quantum Mechanics (Translation) (http://www.tu-harburg.de/rzt/ rzt/it/QM/cat.html) The EPR paper (http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v47/i10/p777_1) Viennese Meow (the cat's perspective - short story) (http://primastoria.com/story/viennese-meow/) The story of Schroedinger's cat (an epic poem) (http://www.straightdope.com/classics/a1_122.html); The Straight Dope Tom Leggett (Aug. 1, 2000) New life for Schrdinger's cat, Physics World, UK (http://physicsworld.com/cws/ article/print/525) Experiments at two universities claim to observe superposition in large scale systems Information Philosopher on Schrdinger's cat (http://www.informationphilosopher.com/solutions/ experiments/schrodingerscat/) More diagrams and an information creation explanation. A YouTube video explaining Schrdingers cat (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CrxqTtiWxs4)
The Measurement Problem
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The Measurement Problem

The measurement problem in quantum mechanics is the unresolved problem of how (or if) wavefunction collapse occurs. The inability to observe this process directly has given rise to different interpretations of quantum mechanics, and poses a key set of questions that each interpretation must answer. The wavefunction in quantum mechanics evolves according to the Schrdinger equation into a linear superposition of different states, but actual measurements always find the physical system in a definite state. Any future evolution is based on the state the system was discovered to be in when the measurement was made, meaning that the measurement "did something" to the process under examination. Whatever that "something" may be does not appear to be explained by the basic theory. To express matters differently (to paraphrase Steven Weinberg [1][2]), the wave function evolves deterministically knowing the wave function at one moment, the Schrdinger equation determines the wave function at any later time. If observers and their measuring apparatus are themselves described by a deterministic wave function, why can we not predict precise results for measurements, but only probabilities? As a general question: How can one establish a correspondence between quantum and classical reality?[3]
Example
The best known is the "paradox" of the Schrdinger's cat: a cat is apparently evolving into a linear superposition of basis vectors that can be characterized as an "alive cat" and states that can be described as a "dead cat". Each of these possibilities is associated with a specific nonzero probability amplitude; the cat seems to be in a "mixed" state. However, a single, particular observation of the cat does not measure the probabilities: it always finds either a living cat, or a dead cat. After the measurement the cat is definitively alive or dead. The question is: How are the probabilities converted into an actual, sharply well-defined outcome?
Interpretations
Hugh Everett's many-worlds interpretation attempts to avoid the problem by suggesting there is only one wavefunction, the superposition of the entire universe, and it never collapsesso there is no measurement problem. Instead the act of measurement is actually an interaction between two quantum entities, which entangle to form a single larger entity, for instance living cat/happy scientist. Everett also attempted to demonstrate the way that in measurements the probabilistic nature of quantum mechanics would appear; work later extended by Bryce DeWitt. De BroglieBohm theory tries to solve the measurement problem very differently: this interpretation contains not only the wavefunction, but also the information about the position of the particle(s). The role of the wavefunction is to generate the velocity field for the particles. These velocities are such that the probability distribution for the particle remains consistent with the predictions of the orthodox quantum mechanics. According to de BroglieBohm theory, interaction with the environment during a measurement procedure separates the wave packets in configuration space which is where apparent wavefunction collapse comes from even though there is no actual collapse. Erich Joos and Heinz-Dieter Zeh claim that the latter approach was put on firm ground in the 1980s by the phenomenon of quantum decoherence[4]. Zeh further claims that decoherence makes it possible to identify the fuzzy boundary between the quantum microworld and the world where the classical intuition is applicable.[5] Quantum decoherence was proposed in the context of the many-worlds interpretation, but it has also become an important part of some modern updates of the Copenhagen interpretation based on consistent histories. Quantum decoherence does not describe the actual process of the wavefunction collapse, but it explains the conversion of the quantum probabilities (that exhibit interference effects) to the ordinary classical probabilities. See, for example, Zurek,[3] Zeh[5] and Schlosshauer.[6] The present situation is slowly clarifying, as described in a recent paper by Schlosshauer as follows:[7]
The Measurement Problem Several decoherence-unrelated proposals have been put forward in the past to elucidate the meaning of probabilities and arrive at the Born rule It is fair to say that no decisive conclusion appears to have been reached as to the success of these derivations. As it is well known, [many papers by Bohr insist upon] the fundamental role of classical concepts. The experimental evidence for superpositions of macroscopically distinct states on increasingly large length scales counters such a dictum. Only the physical interactions between systems then determine a particular decomposition into classical states from the view of each particular system. Thus classical concepts are to be understood as locally emergent in a relative-state sense and should no longer claim a fundamental role in the physical theory.
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References and notes

[1] Steven Weinberg (1998). The Oxford History of the Twentieth Century (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=uYTW5ZWrwWAC& pg=PA22& dq=observer+ measurement+ "S+ Weinberg") (Michael Howard & William Roger Louis, editors ed.). Oxford University Press. p.26. ISBN0198204280. . [2] Steven Weinberg: Einstein's Mistakes (http:/ / scitation. aip. org/ journals/ doc/ PHTOAD-ft/ vol_58/ iss_11/ 31_1. shtml) in Physics Today (2005); see subsection "Contra quantum mechanics" [3] Wojciech Hubert Zurek Decoherence, einselection, and the quantum origins of the classical Reviews of Modern Physics, Vol. 75, July 2003 (http:/ / hubcap. clemson. edu/ ~daw/ D_PHYS455/ RevModPhys. v75p715y03. pdf) [4] Joos, E., and H. D. Zeh, "The emergence of classical properties through interaction with the environment" (1985), Z. Phys. B 59, 223. [5] H D Zeh (http:/ / arxiv. org/ abs/ quant-ph/ 9506020v3) in E. Joos .... (2003). Decoherence and the Appearance of a Classical World in Quantum Theory (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=6eTHcxeNxdUC& printsec=frontcover& dq=isbn=3540613943#PPT21,M1) (2nd Edition; Erich Joos, H. D. Zeh, C. Kiefer, Domenico Giulini, J. Kupsch, I. O. Stamatescu (editors) ed.). Springer-Verlag. Chapter 2. ISBN3540003908. . [6] Maximilian Schlosshauer (2005). "Decoherence, the measurement problem, and interpretations of quantum mechanics". Rev. Mod. Phys. 76 (4): 12671305. arXiv:quant-ph/0312059. Bibcode2004RvMP...76.1267S. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.76.1267. [7] M Schlosshauer: Experimental motivation and empirical consistency in minimal no-collapse quantum mechanics, Annals of Physics, Volume 321, Issue 1, January 2006, Pages 112-149 (http:/ / www. citebase. org/ fulltext?format=application/ pdf& identifier=oai:arXiv. org:quant-ph/ 0506199)
Further reading
R. Buniy, S. Hsu and A. Zee On the origin of probability in quantum mechanics (2006) (http://duende.uoregon. edu/~hsu/talks/probability_qm.pdf)
External links
The Quantum Measurement Problem (http://www.shantena.com/en/physicslectures/quantummeasurement) Two presentations: a non-technical and a more technical presentation.
Measurement in Quantum Mechanics
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The framework of quantum mechanics requires a careful definition of measurement. The issue of measurement lies at the heart of the problem of the interpretation of quantum mechanics, for which there is currently no consensus.
Measurement from a practical point of view

Measurement is viewed in different ways in the many interpretations of quantum mechanics; however, despite the considerable philosophical differences, they almost universally agree on the practical question of what results from a routine quantum-physics laboratory measurement. To describe this, a simple framework to use is the Copenhagen interpretation, and it will be implicitly used in this section; the utility of this approach has been verified countless times, and all other interpretations are necessarily constructed so as to give the same quantitative predictions as this in almost every case.
Qualitative overview
The quantum state of a system is a mathematical object that fully describes the quantum system. One typically imagines some experimental apparatus and procedure which "prepares" this quantum state; the mathematical object then reflects the setup of the apparatus. Once the quantum state has been prepared, some aspect of it is measured (for example, its position or energy). If the experiment is repeated, so as to measure the same aspect of the same quantum state prepared in the same way, the result of the measurement will often be different. The expected result of the measurement is in general described by a probability distribution that specifies the likelihoods that the various possible results will be obtained. (This distribution can be either discrete or continuous, depending on what is being measured.) The measurement process is often said to be random and indeterministic. (However, there is considerable dispute over this issue; in some interpretations of quantum mechanics, the result merely appears random and indeterministic, in other interpretations the indeterminism is core and irreducible.) This is because an important aspect of measurement is wavefunction collapse, the nature of which varies according to the interpretation adopted. What is universally agreed, however, is that if the measurement is repeated, without re-preparing the state, one finds the same result as the first measurement. As a result, after measuring some aspect of the quantum state, we normally update the quantum state to reflect the result of the measurement; it is this updating that ensures that if an immediate re-measurement is repeated without re-preparing the state, one finds the same result as the first measurement. The updating of the quantum state model is called wavefunction collapse.
Quantitative details
The mathematical relationship between the quantum state and the probability distribution is, again, widely accepted among physicists, and has been experimentally confirmed countless times. This section summarizes this relationship, which is stated in terms of the mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics. Measurable quantities ("observables") as operators It is a postulate of quantum mechanics that all measurements have an associated operator (called an observable operator, or just an observable), with the following properties: 1. The observable is a Hermitian (self-adjoint) operator mapping a Hilbert space (namely, the state space, which consists of all possible quantum states) into itself. 2. The observable's eigenvalues are real. The possible outcomes of the measurement are precisely the eigenvalues of the given observable.
Measurement in Quantum Mechanics 3. For each eigenvalue there are one or more corresponding eigenvectors (which in this context are called eigenstates), which will make up the state of the system after the measurement. 4. The observable has a set of eigenvectors which span the state space. It follows that each observable generates an orthonormal basis of eigenvectors (called an eigenbasis). Physically, this is the statement that any quantum state can always be represented as a superposition of the eigenstates of an observable. Important examples of observables are: The Hamiltonian operator, representing the total energy of the system; with the special case of the nonrelativistic Hamiltonian operator: The momentum operator: The position operator: , where . (in the position basis). (in the momentum basis).
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Operators can be noncommuting. Two Hermitian operators commute if (and only if) there is at least one basis of vectors, each of which is an eigenvector of both operators (this is sometimes called a simultaneous eigenbasis). Noncommuting observables are said to be incompatible and cannot in general be measured simultaneously. In fact, they are related by an uncertainty principle, as a consequence of the Robertson-Schrdinger relation. Measurement probabilities and wavefunction collapse There are a few possible ways to mathematically describe the measurement process (both the probability distribution and the collapsed wavefunction). The most convenient description depends on the spectrum (i.e., set of eigenvalues) of the observable. Discrete, nondegenerate spectrum Let be an observable, and suppose that it has discrete eigenstates (in bra-ket notation) for
and corresponding eigenvalues Assume the system is prepared in state follows that (where
, no two of which are equal. . Since the eigenstates of an observable form a basis (the eigenbasis), it
can be written in terms of the eigenstates as are complex numbers). Then measuring can yield any of the results , with
corresponding probabilities given by
Usually
is assumed to be normalized, in which case this expression reduces to , then the system's quantum state after the measurement is
If the result of the measurement is
so any repeated measurement of collapse.)
will yield the same result
. (This phenomenon is called wavefunction
Measurement in Quantum Mechanics Continuous, nondegenerate spectrum Let be an observable, and suppose that it has a continuous spectrum of eigenvalues filling the interval (a,b). . , which can be written in terms of the eigenbasis as
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Assume further that each eigenvalue x in this range is associated with a unique eigenstate Assume the system is prepared in state
(where
is a complex-valued function). Then measuring
can yield a result anywhere in the interval (a,b),
with probability density function
; i.e., a result between y and z will occur with probability
Again,
is often assumed to be normalized, in which case this expression reduces to
If the result of the measurement is x, then the new wave function will be
Alternatively, it is often possible and convenient to analyze a continuous-spectrum measurement by taking it to be the limit of a different measurement with a discrete spectrum. For example, an analysis of scattering involves a continuous spectrum of energies, but by adding a "box" potential (which bounds the volume in which the particle can be found), the spectrum becomes discrete. By considering larger and larger boxes, this approach need not involve any approximation, but rather can be regarded as an equally valid formalism in which this problem can be analyzed. Degenerate spectra If there are multiple eigenstates with the same eigenvalue (called degeneracies), the analysis is a bit less simple to state, but not essentially different. In the discrete case, for example, instead of finding a complete eigenbasis, it is a bit more convenient to write the Hilbert space as a direct sum of eigenspaces. The probability of measuring a particular eigenvalue is the squared component of the state vector in the corresponding eigenspace, and the new state after measurement is the projection of the original state vector into the appropriate eigenspace. Density matrix formulation Instead of performing quantum-mechanics computations in terms of wavefunctions (kets), it is sometimes necessary to describe a quantum-mechanical system in terms of a density matrix. The analysis in this case is formally slightly different, but the physical content is the same, and indeed this case can be derived from the wavefunction formulation above. The result for the discrete, degenerate case, for example, is as follows: Let be an observable, and suppose that it has discrete eigenvalues respectively. Let the results be the projection operator into the space . can yield any of , associated with eigenspaces
Assume the system is prepared in the state described by the density matrix . Then measuring , with corresponding probabilities given by
where Tr denotes trace. If the result of the measurement is n, then the new density matrix will be
Alternatively, one can say that the measurement process results in the new density matrix
Measurement in Quantum Mechanics where the difference is that ' ' is the density matrix describing the entire ensemble, whereas ' is the density matrix describing the sub-ensemble whose measurement result was n. Statistics of measurement As detailed above, the result of measuring a quantum-mechanical system is described by a probability distribution. Some properties of this distribution are as follows: Suppose we take a measurement corresponding to observable , on a state whose quantum state is .
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The mean (average) value of the measurement is (see Expectation value (quantum mechanics)) . The variance of the measurement is
The standard deviation of the measurement is
These are direct consequences of the above formulas for measurement probabilities. Example Suppose that we have a particle in a 1-dimensional box, set up initially in the ground state computed from the time-independent Schrdinger equation, the energy of this state is particle's mass and L is the box length), and the spatial wavefunction is . As can be (where m is the . If the energy
is now measured, the result will always certainly be , and this measurement will not affect the wavefunction. Next suppose that the particle's position is measured. The position x will be measured with probability density
If the measurement result was x=S, then the wavefunction after measurement will be the position eigenstate . If the particle's position is immediately measured again, the same position will be obtained. The new wavefunction can, like any wavefunction, be written as a superposition of eigenstates of any , we have
observable. In particular, using energy eigenstates,
If we now leave this state alone, it will smoothly evolve in time according to the Schrdinger equation. But suppose instead that an energy measurement is immediately taken. Then the possible energy values will be measured with relative probabilities:
and moreover if the measurement result is
, then the new state will be the energy eigenstate
So in this example, due to the process of wavefunction collapse, a particle initially in the ground state can end up in any energy level, after just two subsequent non-commuting measurements are made.
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Wavefunction collapse
The process in which a quantum state becomes one of the eigenstates of the operator corresponding to the measured observable is called "collapse", or "wavefunction collapse". The final eigenstate appears randomly with a probability equal to the square of its overlap with the original state. The process of collapse has been studied in many experiments, most famously in the double-slit experiment. The wavefunction collapse raises serious questions regarding "the measurement problem",[1] as well as, questions of determinism and locality, as demonstrated in the EPR paradox and later in GHZ entanglement. (See below.) In the last few decades, major advances have been made toward a theoretical understanding of the collapse process. This new theoretical framework, called quantum decoherence, supersedes previous notions of instantaneous collapse and provides an explanation for the absence of quantum coherence after measurement. While this theory correctly predicts the form and probability distribution of the final eigenstates, it does not explain the randomness inherent in the choice of final state.
von Neumann measurement scheme

The von Neumann measurement scheme, the ancestor of quantum decoherence theory, describes measurements by taking into account the measuring apparatus which is also treated as a quantum object. Let the quantum state be in the superposition , where are eigenstates of the operator that needs to be measured. In order to make the measurement, the measured system described by described by the quantum state needs to interact with the measuring apparatus . During the , so that the total wave function before the interaction is
interaction of object and measuring instrument the unitary evolution is supposed to realize the following transition from the initial to the final total wave function:
where
are orthonormal states of the measuring apparatus. The unitary evolution above is referred to as
premeasurement. The relation with wave function collapse is established by calculating the final density operator of the object from the final total wave function. This density operator is interpreted by von Neumann as describing an ensemble of objects being after the measurement with probability The transition in the state
is often referred to as weak von Neumann projection, the wave function collapse or strong von Neumann projection
being thought to correspond to an additional selection of a subensemble by means of observation. In case the measured observable has a degenerate spectrum, weak von Neumann projection is generalized to Lders projection
in which the vectors
for fixed n are the degenerate eigenvectors of the measured observable. For an arbitrary
state described by a density operator Lders projection is given by
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Measurements of the second kind

In a measurement of the second kind the unitary evolution during the interaction of object and measuring instrument is supposed to be given by
in which the states
of the object are determined by specific properties of the interaction between object and
measuring instrument. They are normalized but not necessarily mutually orthogonal. The relation with wave function collapse is analogous to that obtained for measurements of the first kind, the final state of the object now being with probability Note that many present-day measurement procedures are measurements of the second kind, some even functioning correctly only as a consequence of being of the second kind (for instance, a photon counter, detecting a photon by absorbing and hence annihilating it, thus ideally leaving the electromagnetic field in the vacuum state rather than in the state corresponding to the number of detected photons; also the Stern-Gerlach [2] experiment would not function at all if it really were a measurement of the first kind ). [pdf]
Decoherence in quantum measurement

One can also introduce the interaction with the environment interaction the total wave function takes a form , so that, in a measurement of the first kind, after the
which is related to the phenomenon of decoherence. The above is completely described by the Schrdinger equation and there are not any interpretational problems with this. Now the problematic wavefunction collapse does not need to be understood as a process on the level of the measured system, but can also be understood as a process or as a process on the level of the measuring apparatus, on the level of the environment. Studying these processes provides considerable insight into
the measurement problem by avoiding the arbitrary boundary between the quantum and classical worlds, though it does not explain the presence of randomness in the choice of final eigenstate. If the set of states , , or
represents a set of states that do not overlap in space, the appearance of collapse can be generated by either the Bohm interpretation or the Everett interpretation which both deny the reality of wavefunction collapse. Both of these are stated to predict the same probabilities for collapses to various states as the conventional interpretation by their supporters. The Bohm interpretation is held to be correct only by a small minority of physicists, since there are difficulties with the generalization for use with relativistic quantum field theory. However, there is no proof that the Bohm interpretation is inconsistent with quantum field theory, and work to reconcile the two is ongoing. The Everett interpretation easily accommodates relativistic quantum field theory.
Philosophical problems of quantum measurements

What physical interaction constitutes a measurement?
Until the advent of quantum decoherence theory in the late 20th century, a major conceptual problem of quantum mechanics and especially the Copenhagen interpretation was the lack of a distinctive criterion for a given physical interaction to qualify as "a measurement" and cause a wavefunction to collapse. This is best illustrated by the Schrdinger's cat paradox. Certain aspects of this question are now well understood in the framework of quantum decoherence theory, such as an understanding of weak measurements, and quantifying what measurements or interactions are sufficient to destroy quantum coherence. Nevertheless, there remains less than universal agreement among physicists on some aspects of the question of what constitutes a measurement.
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Does measurement actually determine the state?

The question of whether (and in what sense) a measurement actually determines the state is one which differs among the different interpretations of quantum mechanics. (It is also closely related to the understanding of wavefunction collapse.) For example, in most versions of the Copenhagen interpretation, the measurement determines the state, and after measurement the state is definitely what was measured. But according to the Many-worlds interpretation, measurement determines the state in a more restricted sense: In other "worlds", other measurement results were obtained, and the other possible states still exist.
Is the measurement process random or deterministic?

As described above, there is universal agreement that quantum mechanics appears random, in the sense that all experimental results yet uncovered can be predicted and understood in the framework of quantum mechanics measurements being fundamentally random. Nevertheless, it is not settled[3] whether this is true, fundamental randomness, or merely "emergent" randomness resulting from underlying hidden variables which deterministically cause measurement results to happen a certain way each time. This continues to be an area of active research.[4] (If there are hidden variables, they would have to be "nonlocal", see below.)
Does the measurement process violate locality?

In physics, the Principle of locality is the concept that information cannot travel faster than the speed of light (also see special relativity). It is known experimentally (see Bell's theorem, which is related to the EPR paradox) that if quantum mechanics is deterministic (due to hidden variables, as described above), then it is nonlocal (i.e. violates the principle of locality). Nevertheless, there is not universal agreement among physicists on whether quantum mechanics is nondeterministic, nonlocal, or both.[3]
External links
"The Double Slit Experiment [5]". (physicsweb.org) "Measurement in Quantum Mechanics [6]" Henry Krips in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Decoherence, the measurement problem, and interpretations of quantum mechanics [7] Measurements and Decoherence [8] The conditions for discrimination between quantum states with minimum error [9] Quantum behavior of measurement apparatus [10] Yonina C. Eldar, Alexandre Megretski, and George C. Verghese. Designing optimal quantum detectors via semidefinite programming. IEEE Transactions on Information Theory, Vol. 49, No. 4, 10071012, 2003.
Further reading
John A. Wheeler and Wojciech Hubert Zurek (eds), Quantum Theory and Measurement, Princeton University Press, (1983), ISBN 0-691-08316-9 Vladimir B. Braginsky and Farid Ya. Khalili, Quantum Measurement, Cambridge University Press, (1992), ISBN 0-521-41928-X Greenstein, G. and Zajonc, A.G., The Quantum Challenge, Jones and Bartlett Publishers, (2006), ISBN 0-7367-2470-X
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References
[1] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=5t0tm0FB1CsC& pg=PA215& lpg=PA215& dq=wave+ function+ collapse& source=bl& ots=a7iUGurRDC& sig=o1ddjY7lQrj4EQdvS49xcceWq2M& hl=en& ei=RfgtSsDNL4WgM8u-rf4J& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=7#PPA215,M1 [2] M.O. Scully, W.E. Lamb, A. Barut, On the theory of the Stern-Gerlach apparatus, Foundations of Physics 17, 575-583 (1987). [3] Quantum mechanics: Myths and facts (http:/ / arxiv. org/ pdf/ quant-ph/ 0609163) [4] S. Grblacher et al., An experimental test of non-local realism, Nature 446, 871 (2007). Direct web link (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1038/ nature05677) [5] http:/ / physicsweb. org/ article/ world/ 15/ 9/ 1 [6] http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ qt-measurement/ [7] http:/ / arxiv. org/ abs/ quant-ph/ 0312059 [8] http:/ / arxiv. org/ abs/ quant-ph/ 0505070 [9] http:/ / arxiv. org/ pdf/ 0810. 1919 [10] http:/ / arxiv1. library. cornell. edu/ abs/ 1001. 3032v1
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3. The Quantum Theories

Old Quantum Theory
The old quantum theory was a collection of results from the years 19001925 which predate modern quantum mechanics. The theory was never complete or self-consistent, but was a collection of heuristic prescriptions which are now understood to be the first quantum corrections to classical mechanics.[1] The Bohr model was the focus of study, and Arnold Sommerfeld[2] made a crucial contribution by quantizing the z-component of the angular momentum, which in the old quantum era was inappropriately called space quantization (Richtungsquantelung). This allowed the orbits of the electron to be ellipses instead of circles, and introduced the concept of quantum degeneracy. The theory would have correctly explained the Zeeman effect, except for the issue of electron spin. The main tool was Bohr Sommerfeld quantization, a procedure for selecting out certain discrete set of states of a classical integrable motion as allowed states. These are like the allowed orbits of the Bohr model of the atom; the system can only be in one of these states and not in any states in between. The theory did not extend to chaotic motions, because it required a full multiply periodic trajectory of the classical system for all time in order to pose the quantum conditions.
Basic principles
The basic idea of the old quantum theory is that the motion in an atomic system is quantized, or discrete. The system obeys classical mechanics except that not every motion is allowed, only those motions which obey the old quantum condition:
where the
are the momenta of the system and the
are the corresponding coordinates. The quantum numbers
are integers and the integral is taken over one period of the motion at constant energy (as described by the Hamiltonian). The integral is an area in phase space, which is a quantity called the action and is quantized in units of Planck's constant. For this reason, Planck's constant was often called the quantum of action. In order for the old quantum condition to make sense, the classical motion must be separable, meaning that there are separate coordinates in terms of which the motion is periodic. The periods of the different motions do not have to be the same, they can even be incommensurate, but there must be a set of coordinates where the motion decomposes in a multi-periodic way. The motivation for the old quantum condition was the correspondence principle, complemented by the physical observation that the quantities which are quantized must be adiabatic invariants. Given Planck's quantization rule for the harmonic oscillator, either condition determines the correct classical quantity to quantize in a general system up to an additive constant.
Old Quantum Theory
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Examples
Harmonic oscillator
The simplest system in the old quantum theory is the harmonic oscillator, whose Hamiltonian is:
The level sets of H are the orbits, and the quantum condition is that the area enclosed by an orbit in phase space is an integer. It follows that the energy is quantized according to the Planck rule:
a result which was known well before, and used to formulate the old quantum condition. Please note that this result differs by from the results found with the help of quantum mechanics. This constant is neglected in the
derivation of the old quantum theory, and its value can not be determined using it. The thermal properties of a quantized oscillator may be found by averaging the energy in each of the discrete states assuming that they are occupied with a Boltzmann weight:
kT is Boltzmann constant times the absolute temperature, which is the temperature as measured in more natural units of energy. The quantity is more fundamental in thermodynamics than the temperature, because it is the thermodynamic potential associated to the energy. From this expression, it is easy to see that for large values of , for very low temperatures, the average energy U in the Harmonic oscillator approaches zero very quickly, exponentially fast. The reason is that kT is the typical energy of random motion at temperature T, and when this is smaller than , there is not enough energy to give the oscillator even one quantum of energy. So the oscillator stays in its ground state, storing next to no energy at all. This means that at very cold temperatures, the change in energy with respect to beta, or equivalently the change in energy with respect to temperature, is also exponentially small. The change in energy with respect to temperature is the specific heat, so the specific heat is exponentially small at low temperatures, going to zero like
At small values of
, at high temperatures, the average energy U is equal to
. This reproduces the
equipartition theorem of classical thermodynamics--- every harmonic oscillator at temperature T has energy kT on average. This means that the specific heat of an oscillator is constant in classical mechanics and equal to k. For a collection of atoms connected by springs, a reasonable model of a solid, the total specific heat is equal to the total number of oscillators times k. There are overall three oscillators for each atom, corresponding to the three possible directions of independent oscillations in three dimensions. So the specific heat of a classical solid is always 3k per atom, or in chemistry units, 3R per mole of atoms. Monatomic solids at room temperatures have approximately the same specific heat of 3k per atom, but at low temperatures they don't. The specific heat is smaller at colder temperatures, and it goes to zero at absolute zero. This is true for all material systems, and this observation is called the third law of thermodynamics. Classical mechanics cannot explain the third law, because in classical mechanics the specific heat is independent of the temperature. This contradiction between classical mechanics and the specific heat of cold materials was noted by James Clerk Maxwell in the 19th century, and remained a deep puzzle for those who advocated an atomic theory of matter. Einstein resolved this problem in 1906 by proposing that atomic motion is quantized. This was the first application of quantum theory to mechanical systems. A short while later, Debye gave a quantitative theory of solid specific heats in terms of quantized oscillators with various frequencies (see Einstein solid and Debye model).
Old Quantum Theory
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One dimensional potential

One dimensional problems are easy to solve. At any energy E, the value of the momentum p is found from the conservation equation:
which is integrated over all values of q between the classical turning points, the places where the momentum vanishes. The integral is easiest for a particle in a box of length L, where the quantum condition is:
which gives the allowed momenta:
and the energy levels
Another easy case to solve with the old quantum theory is a linear potential on the positive halfline, the constant confining force F binding a particle to an impenetrable wall. This case is much more difficult in the full quantum mechanical treatment, and unlike the other examples, the semiclassical answer here is not exact but approximate, becoming more accurate at large quantum numbers.
so that the quantum condition is:
Which determines the energy levels.
Rotator
Another simple system is the rotator. A rotator consists of a mass M at the end of a massless rigid rod of length R and in two dimensions has the Lagrangian:
which determines that the momentum J conjugate to requires that J multiplied by the period of
, the polar angle,
. The old quantum condition
is an integer multiple of Planck's constant:
the angular momentum to be an integer multiple of was enough to determine the energy levels.
. In the Bohr model, this restriction imposed on circular orbits
In three dimensions, a rigid rotator can be described by two angles and , where is the inclination relative to an arbitrarily chosen z-axis while is the rotator angle in the projection to the xy plane. The kinetic energy is again the only contribution to the Lagrangian:
And the conjugate momenta are
and
. The equation of motion for
is trivial:
is a constant:
Old Quantum Theory which is the z-component of the angular momentum. The quantum condition demands that the integral of the constant as varies from 0 to is an integer multiple of h:
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And m is called the magnetic quantum number, because the z component of the angular momentum is the magnetic moment of the rotator along the z direction in the case where the particle at the end of the rotator is charged. Since the three dimensional rotator is rotating about an axis, the total angular momentum should be restricted in the same way as the two-dimensional rotator. The two quantum conditions restrict the total angular momentum and the z-component of the angular momentum to be the integers l,m. This condition is reproduced in modern quantum mechanics, but in the era of the old quantum theory it led to a paradox: how can the orientation of the angular momentum relative to the arbitrarily chosen z-axis be quantized? This seems to pick out a direction in space. This phenomenon, the quantization of angular momentum about an axis, was given the name space quantization, because it seemed incompatible with rotational invariance. In modern quantum mechanics, the angular momentum is quantized the same way, but the discrete states of definite angular momentum in any one orientation are quantum superpositions of the states in other orientations, so that the process of quantization does not pick out a preferred axis. For this reason, the name "space quantization" fell out of favor, and the same phenomenon is now called the quantization of angular momentum.
Hydrogen atom
The angular part of the Hydrogen atom is just the rotator, and gives the quantum numbers l and m. The only remaining variable is the radial coordinate, which executes a periodic one dimensional potential motion, which can be solved. For a fixed value of the total angular momentum L, the Hamiltonian for a classical Kepler problem is (the unit of mass and unit of energy redefined to absorb two constants):
Fixing the energy to be (a negative) constant and solving for the radial momentum p, the quantum condition integral is:
which is elementary, and gives a new quantum number k which determines the energy in combination with l. The energy is:
and it only depends on the sum of k and l, which is the principal quantum number n. Since k is positive, the allowed values of l for any given n are no bigger than n. The energies reproduce those in the Bohr model, except with the correct quantum mechanical multiplicities, with some ambiguity at the extreme values. The semiclassical hydrogen atom is called the Sommerfeld model, and its orbits are ellipses of various sizes at discrete inclinations. The Sommerfeld model predicted that the magnetic moment of an atom measured along an axis will only take on discrete values, a result which seems to contradict rotational invariance but which was confirmed by the SternGerlach experiment. BohrSommerfeld theory is a part of the development of quantum mechanics and describes the possibility of atomic energy levels being split by a magnetic field.
Old Quantum Theory
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Relativistic orbit
Arnold Sommerfeld derived the relativistic solution of atomic energy levels.[3] We will start this derivation with the relativistic equation for energy in the electric potential
After substitution
we get
For momentum equation)
and their ratio
the equation of motion is (see Binet
with solution
The angular shift of periapsis per revolution is given by
With the quantum conditions
and
we will obtain energies
where
is the fine-structure constant. This solution is same as the solution of the Dirac equation.[4]
De Broglie waves
In 1905, Einstein noted that the entropy of the quantized electromagnetic field oscillators in a box is, for short wavelength, equal to the entropy of a gas of point particles in the same box. The number of point particles is equal to the number of quanta. Einstein concluded that the quanta could be treated as if they were localizable objects (see[5] page 139/140). , particles of light, and named them photons Einstein's theoretical argument was based on thermodynamics, on counting the number of states, and so was not completely convincing. Nevertheless, he concluded that light had attributes of both waves and particles, more precisely that an electromagnetic standing wave with frequency with the quantized energy:
Old Quantum Theory should be thought of as consisting of n photons each with an energy photons were related to the wave. . Einstein could not describe how the where is the wavenumber of
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The photons have momentum as well as energy, and the momentum had to be
the electromagnetic wave. This is required by relativity, because the momentum and energy form a four-vector, as do the frequency and wave-number. In 1924, as a PhD candidate, Louis de Broglie proposed a new interpretation of the quantum condition. He suggested that all matter, electrons as well as photons, are described by waves obeying the relations.
or, expressed in terms of wavelength
instead,
He then noted that the quantum condition:
counts the change in phase for the wave as it travels along the classical orbit, and requires that it be an integer multiple of . Expressed in wavelengths, the number of wavelengths along a classical orbit must be an integer. This is the condition for constructive interference, and it explained the reason for quantized orbitsthe matter waves make standing waves only at discrete frequencies, at discrete energies. For example, for a particle confined in a box, a standing wave must fit an integer number of wavelengths between twice the distance between the walls. The condition becomes:
so that the quantized momenta are:
reproducing the old quantum energy levels. This development was given a more mathematical form by Einstein, who noted that the phase function for the waves: in a mechanical system should be identified with the solution to the HamiltonJacobi equation, an equation which even Hamilton considered to be a short-wavelength limit of a wave mechanics. These ideas led to the development of Schrdinger equation.
Kramers transition matrix

The old quantum theory was formulated only for special mechanical systems which could be separated into action angle variables which were periodic. It did not deal with the emission and absorption of radiation. Nevertheless, Hendrik Kramers was able to find heuristics for describing how emission and absorption should be calculated. Kramers suggested that the orbits of a quantum system should be Fourier analyzed, decomposed into harmonics at multiples of the orbit frequency:
The index n describes the quantum numbers of the orbit, it would be nlm in the Sommerfeld model. The frequency is the angular frequency of the orbit while k is an index for the Fourier mode. Bohr had suggested that the k-th harmonic of the classical motion correspond to the transition from level n to level nk. Kramers proposed that the transition between states were analogous to classical emission of radiation, which happens at frequencies at multiples of the orbit frequencies. The rate of emission of radiation is proportional to , as it would be in classical mechanics. The description was approximate, since the Fourier components did
Old Quantum Theory not have frequencies that exactly match the energy spacings between levels. This idea led to the development of matrix mechanics.
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History
The old quantum theory was sparked by the work of Max Planck on the emission and absorption of light, and began in earnest after the work of Albert Einstein on the specific heats of solids. Einstein, followed by Debye, applied quantum principles to the motion of atoms, explaining the specific heat anomaly. In 1913, Niels Bohr identified the correspondence principle and used it to formulate a model of the Hydrogen atom which explained the line spectrum. In the next few years Arnold Sommerfeld extended the quantum rule to arbitrary integrable systems making use of the principle of adiabatic invariance of the quantum numbers introduced by Lorentz and Einstein. Sommerfeld's model was much closer to the modern quantum mechanical picture than Bohr's. Throughout the 1910s and well into the 1920s, many problems were attacked using the old quantum theory with mixed results. Molecular rotation and vibration spectra were understood and the electron's spin was discovered, leading to the confusion of half-integer quantum numbers. Max Planck introduced the zero point energy and Arnold Sommerfeld semiclassically quantized the relativistic hydrogen atom. Hendrik Kramers explained the Stark effect. Bose and Einstein gave the correct quantum statistics for photons. Kramers gave a prescription for calculating transition probabilities between quantum states in terms of Fourier components of the motion, ideas which were extended in collaboration with Werner Heisenberg to a semiclassical matrix-like description of atomic transition probabilities. Heisenberg went on to reformulate all of quantum theory in terms of a version of these transition matrices, creating Matrix mechanics. In 1924, Louis de Broglie introduced the wave theory of matter, which was extended to a semiclassical equation for matter waves by Albert Einstein a short time later. In 1926 Erwin Schrdinger found a completely quantum mechanical wave-equation, which reproduced all the successes of the old quantum theory without ambiguities and inconsistencies. Schrdinger's wave mechanics developed separately from matrix mechanics until Schrdinger and others proved that the two methods predicted the same experimental consequences. Paul Dirac later proved in 1926 that both methods can be obtained from a more general method called transformation theory. Matrix mechanics and wave mechanics put an end to the era of the old-quantum theory.
References
[1] [2] [3] [4] ter Haar, D. (1967). The Old Quantum Theory. Pergamon Press. pp.206. ISBN0080121012. Sommerfeld, Arnold (1919). Atombau und Spektrallinien'. Braunschweig: Friedrich Vieweg und Sohn. ISBN3871444847. Arnold Sommerfeld (1924). Atombau und Spektrallinien. Braunschweig. ISBN3871444847. Ya I Granovski (2004). "Sommerfeld formula and Dirac's theory" (http:/ / www. iop. org/ EJ/ article/ 1063-7869/ 47/ 5/ L06/ PHU_47_5_L06. pdf). Physics Uspekhi 47 (5): 523524. . [5] Einstein, Albert (1905). "ber einen die Erzeugung und Verwandlung des Lichtes betreffenden heuristischen Gesichtspunkt" (http:/ / www. physik. uni-augsburg. de/ annalen/ history/ einstein-papers/ 1905_17_132-148. pdf). Annalen der Physik 17 (6): 132148. Bibcode1905AnP...322..132E. doi:10.1002/andp.19053220607. . Retrieved 2008-02-18.
Further reading
Thewlis, J., ed. (1962). Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Physics.
Quantum Mechanics
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Quantum Mechanics
Quantum mechanics, also known as quantum physics or quantum theory, is a branch of physics dealing with physical phenomena where the action is of the order of Planck constant; quantum mechanics departs from classical mechanics primarily at the atomic and subatomic scales, the so-called quantum realm. It provides a mathematical description of much of the dual particle-like and wave-like behavior and interactions of energy and matter. In advanced topics of quantum mechanics, some of these behaviors are macroscopic and only emerge at very low or very high energies or temperatures. The name "quantum mechanics" derives from the observation that some physical quantities can change only by discrete amounts, or quanta in Latin. For example, the angular momentum of an electron bound to an atom or molecule is quantized.[1] In the context of quantum mechanics, the waveparticle duality of energy and matter and the uncertainty principle provide a unified view of the behavior of photons, electrons and other atomic-scale objects. The mathematical formulations of quantum mechanics are abstract. A mathematical function called the wavefunction provides information about the probability amplitude of position, momentum, and other physical properties of a particle. Mathematical manipulations of the wavefunction usually involve the bra-ket notation, which requires an understanding of complex numbers and linear functionals. The wavefunction treats the object as a quantum harmonic oscillator and the mathematics is akin to that of acoustic resonance. Many of the results of quantum mechanics are not easily visualized in terms of classical mechanics; for instance, the ground state in the quantum mechanical model is a non-zero energy state that is the lowest permitted energy state of a system, rather than a more traditional system that is thought of as simply being at rest with zero kinetic energy. Instead of a traditional static, unchanging zero state, quantum mechanics allows for far more dynamic, chaotic possibilities, according to John Wheeler. The earliest versions of quantum mechanics were formulated in the first decade of the 20th century. At around the same time, the atomic theory and the corpuscular theory of light (as updated by Einstein) first came to be widely accepted as scientific fact; these latter theories can be viewed as quantum theories of matter and electromagnetic radiation. The early quantum theory was significantly reformulated in the mid-1920s by Werner Heisenberg, Max Born, Wolfgang Pauli and their associates, and the Copenhagen interpretation of Niels Bohr became widely accepted. By 1930, quantum mechanics had been further unified and formalized by the work of Paul Dirac and John von Neumann, with a greater emphasis placed on measurement in quantum mechanics, the statistical nature of our knowledge of reality and philosophical speculation about the role of the observer. Quantum mechanics has since branched out into almost every aspect of 20th century physics and other disciplines such as quantum chemistry, quantum electronics, quantum optics and quantum information science. Much 19th century physics has been re-evaluated as the classical limit of quantum mechanics, and its more advanced developments in terms of quantum field theory, string theory, and speculative quantum gravity theories.
History
The history of quantum mechanics dates back to the 1838 discovery of cathode rays by Michael Faraday. This was followed by the 1859 statement of the black body radiation problem by Gustav Kirchhoff, the 1877 suggestion by Ludwig Boltzmann that the energy states of a physical system can be discrete, and the 1900 quantum hypothesis of Max Planck.[2] Planck's hypothesis that energy is radiated and absorbed in discrete "quanta", or "energy elements", precisely matched the observed patterns of black body radiation. According to Planck, each energy element E is proportional to its frequency :
where h is Planck's constant. Planck cautiously insisted that this was simply an aspect of the processes of absorption and emission of radiation and had nothing to do with the physical reality of the radiation itself.[3] However, in 1905 Albert Einstein interpreted Planck's quantum hypothesis realistically and used it to explain the photoelectric effect, in
Quantum Mechanics which shining light on certain materials can eject electrons from the material. The foundations of quantum mechanics were established during the first half of the twentieth century by Niels Bohr, Werner Heisenberg, Max Planck, Louis de Broglie, Albert Einstein, Erwin Schrdinger, Max Born, John von Neumann, Paul Dirac, Wolfgang Pauli, David Hilbert, and others. In the mid-1920s, developments in quantum mechanics led to its becoming the standard formulation for atomic physics. In the summer of 1925, Bohr and Heisenberg published results that closed the "Old Quantum Theory". Out of deference to their dual state as particles, light quanta came to be called photons (1926). From The 1927 Solvay Conference in Brussels. Einstein's simple postulation was born a flurry of debating, theorizing and testing. Thus the entire field of quantum physics emerged, leading to its wider acceptance at the Fifth Solvay Conference in 1927. The other exemplar that led to quantum mechanics was the study of electromagnetic waves such as light. When it was found in 1900 by Max Planck that the energy of waves could be described as consisting of small packets or quanta, Albert Einstein further developed this idea to show that an electromagnetic wave such as light could be described as a particle - later called the photon - with a discrete quanta of energy that was dependent on its frequency.[4] This led to a theory of unity between subatomic particles and electromagnetic waves called waveparticle duality in which particles and waves were neither one nor the other, but had certain properties of both. While quantum mechanics traditionally described the world of the very small, it is also needed to explain certain recently investigated macroscopic systems such as superconductors and superfluids. The word quantum derives from Latin, meaning "how great" or "how much".[5] In quantum mechanics, it refers to a discrete unit that quantum theory assigns to certain physical quantities, such as the energy of an atom at rest (see Figure 1). The discovery that particles are discrete packets of energy with wave-like properties led to the branch of physics dealing with atomic and sub-atomic systems which is today called quantum mechanics. It is the underlying mathematical framework of many fields of physics and chemistry, including condensed matter physics, solid-state physics, atomic physics, molecular physics, computational physics, computational chemistry, quantum chemistry, particle physics, nuclear chemistry, and nuclear physics.[6] Some fundamental aspects of the theory are still actively studied.[7] Quantum mechanics is essential to understand the behavior of systems at atomic length scales and smaller. For example, if classical mechanics governed the workings of an atom, electrons would rapidly travel towards and collide with the nucleus, making stable atoms impossible. However, in the natural world the electrons normally remain in an uncertain, non-deterministic "smeared" (waveparticle wave function) orbital path around or through the nucleus, defying classical electromagnetism.[8] Quantum mechanics was initially developed to provide a better explanation of the atom, especially the differences in the spectra of light emitted by different isotopes of the same element. The quantum theory of the atom was developed as an explanation for the electron remaining in its orbit, which could not be explained by Newton's laws of motion and Maxwell's laws of classical electromagnetism. Broadly speaking, quantum mechanics incorporates four classes of phenomena for which classical physics cannot account: The quantization of certain physical properties Waveparticle duality The uncertainty principle
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Quantum Mechanics Quantum entanglement.
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Mathematical formulations
In the mathematically rigorous formulation of quantum mechanics developed by Paul Dirac[9] and John von Neumann,[10] the possible states of a quantum mechanical system are represented by unit vectors (called "state vectors"). Formally, these reside in a complex separable Hilbert space (variously called the "state space" or the "associated Hilbert space" of the system) well defined up to a complex number of norm 1 (the phase factor). In other words, the possible states are points in the projective space of a Hilbert space, usually called the complex projective space. The exact nature of this Hilbert space is dependent on the system; for example, the state space for position and momentum states is the space of square-integrable functions, while the state space for the spin of a single proton is just the product of two complex planes. Each observable is represented by a maximally Hermitian (precisely: by a self-adjoint) linear operator acting on the state space. Each eigenstate of an observable corresponds to an eigenvector of the operator, and the associated eigenvalue corresponds to the value of the observable in that eigenstate. If the operator's spectrum is discrete, the observable can only attain those discrete eigenvalues. In the formalism of quantum mechanics, the state of a system at a given time is described by a complex wave function, also referred to as state vector in a complex vector space.[11] This abstract mathematical object allows for the calculation of probabilities of outcomes of concrete experiments. For example, it allows one to compute the probability of finding an electron in a particular region around the nucleus at a particular time. Contrary to classical mechanics, one can never make simultaneous predictions of conjugate variables, such as position and momentum, with accuracy. For instance, electrons may be considered to be located somewhere within a region of space, but with their exact positions being unknown. Contours of constant probability, often referred to as "clouds", may be drawn around the nucleus of an atom to conceptualize where the electron might be located with the most probability. Heisenberg's uncertainty principle quantifies the inability to precisely locate the particle given its conjugate momentum.[12] According to one interpretation, as the result of a measurement the wave function containing the probability information for a system collapses from a given initial state to a particular eigenstate. The possible results of a measurement are the eigenvalues of the operator representing the observable which explains the choice of Hermitian operators, for which all the eigenvalues are real. We can find the probability distribution of an observable in a given state by computing the spectral decomposition of the corresponding operator. Heisenberg's uncertainty principle is represented by the statement that the operators corresponding to certain observables do not commute. The probabilistic nature of quantum mechanics thus stems from the act of measurement. This is one of the most difficult aspects of quantum systems to understand. It was the central topic in the famous Bohr-Einstein debates, in which the two scientists attempted to clarify these fundamental principles by way of thought experiments. In the decades after the formulation of quantum mechanics, the question of what constitutes a "measurement" has been extensively studied. Newer interpretations of quantum mechanics have been formulated that do away with the concept of "wavefunction collapse"; see, for example, the relative state interpretation. The basic idea is that when a quantum system interacts with a measuring apparatus, their respective wavefunctions become entangled, so that the original quantum system ceases to exist as an independent entity. For details, see the article on measurement in quantum mechanics.[13] Generally, quantum mechanics does not assign definite values. Instead, it makes predictions using probability distributions; that is, it describes the probability of obtaining possible outcomes from measuring an observable. Often these results are skewed by many causes, such as dense probability clouds[14] or quantum state nuclear attraction.[15][16] Naturally, these probabilities will depend on the quantum state at the "instant" of the measurement. Hence, uncertainty is involved in the value. There are, however, certain states that are associated with a definite value of a particular observable. These are known as eigenstates of the observable ("eigen" can be translated from German as meaning inherent or characteristic).[17]
Quantum Mechanics In the everyday world, it is natural and intuitive to think of everything (every observable) as being in an eigenstate. Everything appears to have a definite position, a definite momentum, a definite energy, and a definite time of occurrence. However, quantum mechanics does not pinpoint the exact values of a particle's position and momentum (since they are conjugate pairs) or its energy and time (since they too are conjugate pairs); rather, it only provides a range of probabilities of where that particle might be given its momentum and momentum probability. Therefore, it is helpful to use different words to describe states having uncertain values and states having definite values (eigenstate). Usually, a system will not be in an eigenstate of the observable (particle) we are interested in. However, if one measures the observable, the wavefunction will instantaneously be an eigenstate (or generalised eigenstate) of that observable. This process is known as wavefunction collapse, a controversial and much debated process.[18] It involves expanding the system under study to include the measurement device. If one knows the corresponding wave function at the instant before the measurement, one will be able to compute the probability of collapsing into each of the possible eigenstates. For example, the free particle in the previous example will usually have a wavefunction that is a wave packet centered around some mean position x0, neither an eigenstate of position nor of momentum. When one measures the position of the particle, it is impossible to predict with certainty the result.[13] It is probable, but not certain, that it will be near x0, where the amplitude of the wave function is large. After the measurement is performed, having obtained some result x, the wave function collapses into a position eigenstate centered at x.[19] The time evolution of a quantum state is described by the Schrdinger equation, in which the Hamiltonian (the operator corresponding to the total energy of the system) generates time evolution. The time evolution of wave functions is deterministic in the sense that, given a wavefunction at an initial time, it makes a definite prediction of what the wavefunction will be at any later time.[20] During a measurement, on the other hand, the change of the wavefunction into another one is not deterministic; it is unpredictable, i.e. random. A time-evolution simulation can be seen here.[21][22] Wave functions can change as time progresses. An equation known as the Schrdinger equation describes how wavefunctions change in time, a role similar to Newton's second law in classical mechanics. The Schrdinger equation, applied to the aforementioned example of the free particle, predicts that the center of a wave packet will move through space at a constant velocity, like a classical particle with no forces acting on it. However, the wave packet will also spread out as time progresses, which means that the position becomes more uncertain. This also has the effect of turning position eigenstates (which can be thought of as infinitely sharp wave packets) into broadened wave packets that are no longer position eigenstates.[23]
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Some wave functions produce probability distributions that are constant, or independent of time, such as when in a stationary state of constant energy, time drops out of the absolute square of the wave function. Many systems that are treated dynamically in classical mechanics are described by such "static" wave functions. For example, a single electron in an unexcited atom is pictured classically as a particle moving in a circular trajectory around the atomic nucleus, whereas in quantum mechanics it is described by a static, spherically symmetric wavefunction surrounding the nucleus (Fig. 1). (Note that only the lowest angular momentum states, labeled s, are spherically symmetric).[24] The Schrdinger equation acts on the entire probability amplitude, not merely its absolute Fig. 1: Probability densities corresponding to the wavefunctions of an value. Whereas the absolute value of the electron in a hydrogen atom possessing definite energy levels (increasing from the top of the image to the bottom: n = 1, 2, 3, ...) and angular probability amplitude encodes information about momentum (increasing across from left to right: s, p, d, ...). Brighter areas probabilities, its phase encodes information about correspond to higher probability density in a position measurement. the interference between quantum states. This Wavefunctions like these are directly comparable to Chladni's figures of gives rise to the wave-like behavior of quantum acoustic modes of vibration in classical physics and are indeed modes of oscillation as well: they possess a sharp energy and thus a keen frequency. states. It turns out that analytic solutions of The angular momentum and energy are quantized, and only take on discrete Schrdinger's equation are only available for a values like those shown (as is the case for resonant frequencies in small number of model Hamiltonians, of which acoustics). the quantum harmonic oscillator, the particle in a box, the hydrogen molecular ion and the hydrogen atom are the most important representatives. Even the helium atom, which contains just one more electron than hydrogen, defies all attempts at a fully analytic treatment. There exist several techniques for generating approximate solutions. For instance, in the method known as perturbation theory one uses the analytic results for a simple quantum mechanical model to generate results for a more complicated model related to the simple model by, for example, the addition of a weak potential energy. Another method is the "semi-classical equation of motion" approach, which applies to systems for which quantum mechanics produces weak deviations from classical behavior. The deviations can be calculated based on the classical motion. This approach is important for the field of quantum chaos. There are numerous mathematically equivalent formulations of quantum mechanics. One of the oldest and most commonly used formulations is the transformation theory proposed by Cambridge theoretical physicist Paul Dirac, which unifies and generalizes the two earliest formulations of quantum mechanics, matrix mechanics (invented by Werner Heisenberg)[25][26] and wave mechanics (invented by Erwin Schrdinger).[27] In this formulation, the instantaneous state of a quantum system encodes the probabilities of its measurable properties, or "observables". Examples of observables include energy, position, momentum, and angular momentum. Observables can be either continuous (e.g., the position of a particle) or discrete (e.g., the energy of an electron bound to a hydrogen atom).[28] An alternative formulation of quantum mechanics is Feynman's path integral formulation, in which a quantum-mechanical amplitude is considered as a sum over histories between initial and final states; this is the quantum-mechanical counterpart of action principles in classical mechanics.
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Interactions with other scientific theories

The rules of quantum mechanics are fundamental; they assert that the state space of a system is a Hilbert space and that observables of that system are Hermitian operators acting on that space; they do not tell us which Hilbert space or which operators. These can be chosen appropriately in order to obtain a quantitative description of a quantum system. An important guide for making these choices is the correspondence principle, which states that the predictions of quantum mechanics reduce to those of classical physics when a system moves to higher energies or, equivalently, larger quantum numbers (i.e. whereas a single particle exhibits a degree of randomness, in systems incorporating millions of particles averaging takes over and, at the high energy limit, the statistical probability of random behaviour approaches zero). In other words, classical mechanics is simply a quantum mechanics of large systems. This "high energy" limit is known as the classical or correspondence limit. One can even start from an established classical model of a particular system, and attempt to guess the underlying quantum model that would give rise to the classical model in the correspondence limit. When quantum mechanics was originally formulated, it was applied to models whose correspondence limit was non-relativistic classical mechanics. For instance, the well-known model of the quantum harmonic oscillator uses an explicitly non-relativistic expression for the kinetic energy of the oscillator, and is thus a quantum version of the classical harmonic oscillator. Early attempts to merge quantum mechanics with special relativity involved the replacement of the Schrdinger equation with a covariant equation such as the Klein-Gordon equation or the Dirac equation. While these theories were successful in explaining many experimental results, they had certain unsatisfactory qualities stemming from their neglect of the relativistic creation and annihilation of particles. A fully relativistic quantum theory required the development of quantum field theory, which applies quantization to a field rather than a fixed set of particles. The first complete quantum field theory, quantum electrodynamics, provides a fully quantum description of the electromagnetic interaction. The full apparatus of quantum field theory is often unnecessary for describing electrodynamic systems. A simpler approach, one employed since the inception of quantum mechanics, is to treat charged particles as quantum mechanical objects being acted on by a classical electromagnetic field. For example, the elementary quantum model of the hydrogen atom describes the electric field of the hydrogen atom using a classical Coulomb potential. This "semi-classical" approach fails if quantum fluctuations in the electromagnetic field play an important role, such as in the emission of photons by charged particles. Quantum field theories for the strong nuclear force and the weak nuclear force have been developed. The quantum field theory of the strong nuclear force is called quantum chromodynamics, and describes the interactions of subnuclear particles: quarks and gluons. The weak nuclear force and the electromagnetic force were unified, in their quantized forms, into a single quantum field theory known as electroweak theory, by the physicists Abdus Salam, Sheldon Glashow and Steven Weinberg. These three men shared the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1979 for this work.[29] It has proven difficult to construct quantum models of gravity, the remaining fundamental force. Semi-classical approximations are workable, and have led to predictions such as Hawking radiation. However, the formulation of a complete theory of quantum gravity is hindered by apparent incompatibilities between general relativity, the most accurate theory of gravity currently known, and some of the fundamental assumptions of quantum theory. The resolution of these incompatibilities is an area of active research, and theories such as string theory are among the possible candidates for a future theory of quantum gravity. Classical mechanics has been extended into the complex domain, and complex classical mechanics exhibits behaviours similar to quantum mechanics.[30]
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Quantum mechanics and classical physics

Predictions of quantum mechanics have been verified experimentally to an extremely high degree of accuracy. According to the correspondence principle between classical and quantum mechanics, all objects obey the laws of quantum mechanics, and classical mechanics is just an approximation for large systems (or a statistical quantum mechanics of a large collection of particles). The laws of classical mechanics thus follow from the laws of quantum mechanics as a statistical average at the limit of large systems or large quantum numbers.[31] However, chaotic systems do not have good quantum numbers, and quantum chaos studies the relationship between classical and quantum descriptions in these systems. Quantum coherence is an essential difference between classical and quantum theories, and is illustrated by the Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen paradox. Quantum interference involves adding together probability amplitudes, whereas classical waves infer that there is an adding together of intensities. For microscopic bodies, the extension of the system is much smaller than the coherence length, which gives rise to long-range entanglement and other nonlocal phenomena characteristic of quantum systems.[32] Quantum coherence is not typically evident at macroscopic scales, although an exception to this rule can occur at extremely low temperatures, when quantum behavior can manifest itself on more macroscopic scales (see Bose-Einstein condensate and Quantum machine). This is in accordance with the following observations: Many macroscopic properties of a classical system are a direct consequences of the quantum behavior of its parts. For example, the stability of bulk matter (which consists of atoms and molecules which would quickly collapse under electric forces alone), the rigidity of solids, and the mechanical, thermal, chemical, optical and magnetic properties of matter are all results of the interaction of electric charges under the rules of quantum mechanics.[33] While the seemingly exotic behavior of matter posited by quantum mechanics and relativity theory become more apparent when dealing with extremely fast-moving or extremely tiny particles, the laws of classical Newtonian physics remain accurate in predicting the behavior of the vast majority of large objectsof the order of the size of large molecules and biggerat velocities much smaller than the velocity of light.[34]
Relativity and quantum mechanics

Main articles: Quantum gravity and Theory of everything Even with the defining postulates of both Einstein's theory of general relativity and quantum theory being indisputably supported by rigorous and repeated empirical evidence and while they do not directly contradict each other theoretically (at least with regard to primary claims), they are resistant to being incorporated within one cohesive model.[35] Einstein himself is well known for rejecting some of the claims of quantum mechanics. While clearly contributing to the field, he did not accept the more philosophical consequences and interpretations of quantum mechanics, such as the lack of deterministic causality (he is famously quoted as saying in response to this aspect, "My God does not play with dice") and the assertion that a single subatomic particle can occupy numerous areas of space at one time. He also was the first to notice some of the apparently exotic consequences of entanglement and used them to formulate the Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen paradox, in the hope of showing that quantum mechanics had unacceptable implications. This was 1935, but in 1964 it was shown by John Bell (see Bell inequality) that, although Einstein was correct in identifying seemingly paradoxical implications of quantum mechanical nonlocality, these implications could be experimentally tested. Alain Aspect's initial experiments in 1982, and many subsequent experiments since, have verified quantum entanglement. According to the paper of J. Bell and the Copenhagen interpretation (the common interpretation of quantum mechanics by physicists since 1927), and contrary to Einstein's ideas, quantum mechanics was not at the same time a "realistic" theory and a local theory.
Quantum Mechanics The Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen paradox shows in any case that there exist experiments by which one can measure the state of one particle and instantaneously change the state of its entangled partner, although the two particles can be an arbitrary distance apart; however, this effect does not violate causality, since no transfer of information happens. Quantum entanglement is at the basis of quantum cryptography, with high-security commercial applications in banking and government. Gravity is negligible in many areas of particle physics, so that unification between general relativity and quantum mechanics is not an urgent issue in those applications. However, the lack of a correct theory of quantum gravity is an important issue in cosmology and physicists' search for an elegant "theory of everything". Thus, resolving the inconsistencies between both theories has been a major goal of twentieth- and twenty-first-century physics. Many prominent physicists, including Stephen Hawking, have labored in the attempt to discover a theory underlying everything, combining not only different models of subatomic physics, but also deriving the universe's four forcesthe strong force, electromagnetism, weak force, and gravity from a single force or phenomenon. While Stephen Hawking was initially a believer in the Theory of Everything, after considering Gdel's Incompleteness Theorem, concluded that one was not obtainable, and stated such publicly in his lecture, "Gdel and the end of physics" in 2002.[36] One of the leaders in this field is Edward Witten, a theoretical physicist who formulated the groundbreaking M-theory, which is an attempt at describing the supersymmetrical based string theory.
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Attempts at a unified field theory

The quest to unify the fundamental forces through quantum mechanics is still ongoing. Quantum electrodynamics (or "quantum electromagnetism"), which is currently (in the perturbative regime at least) the most accurately tested physical theory,[37] (blog) has been successfully merged with the weak nuclear force into the electroweak force and work is currently being done to merge the electroweak and strong force into the electrostrong force. Current predictions state that at around 1014 GeV the three aforementioned forces are fused into a single unified field,[38] Beyond this "grand unification," it is speculated that it may be possible to merge gravity with the other three gauge symmetries, expected to occur at roughly 1019 GeV. However and while special relativity is parsimoniously incorporated into quantum electrodynamics the expanded general relativity, currently the best theory describing the gravitation force, has not been fully incorporated into quantum theory.
Philosophical implications
Since its inception, the many counter-intuitive results of quantum mechanics have provoked strong philosophical debate and many interpretations. Even fundamental issues such as Max Born's basic rules concerning probability amplitudes and probability distributions took decades to be appreciated by the society and leading scientists. Richard Feynman said, "I think I can safely say that nobody understands quantum mechanics."[39] The Copenhagen interpretation, due largely to the Danish theoretical physicist Niels Bohr, is the interpretation of the quantum mechanical formalism most widely accepted amongst physicists. According to it, the probabilistic nature of quantum mechanics is not a temporary feature which will eventually be replaced by a deterministic theory, but instead must be considered to be a final renunciation of the classical ideal of causality. In this interpretation, it is believed that any well-defined application of the quantum mechanical formalism must always make reference to the experimental arrangement, due to the complementarity nature of evidence obtained under different experimental situations. Albert Einstein, himself one of the founders of quantum theory, disliked this loss of determinism in measurement. (A view paraphrased as "God does not play dice with the universe.") Einstein held that there should be a local hidden variable theory underlying quantum mechanics and that, consequently, the present theory was incomplete. He produced a series of objections to the theory, the most famous of which has become known as the Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen paradox. John Bell showed that the EPR paradox led to experimentally testable differences between quantum mechanics and local realistic theories. Experiments have been performed confirming the accuracy
Quantum Mechanics of quantum mechanics, thus demonstrating that the physical world cannot be described by local realistic theories.[40] The Bohr-Einstein debates provide a vibrant critique of the Copenhagen Interpretation from an epistemological point of view. The Everett many-worlds interpretation, formulated in 1956, holds that all the possibilities described by quantum theory simultaneously occur in a multiverse composed of mostly independent parallel universes.[41] This is not accomplished by introducing some new axiom to quantum mechanics, but on the contrary by removing the axiom of the collapse of the wave packet: All the possible consistent states of the measured system and the measuring apparatus (including the observer) are present in a real physical (not just formally mathematical, as in other interpretations) quantum superposition. Such a superposition of consistent state combinations of different systems is called an entangled state. While the multiverse is deterministic, we perceive non-deterministic behavior governed by probabilities, because we can observe only the universe, i.e. the consistent state contribution to the mentioned superposition, we inhabit. Everett's interpretation is perfectly consistent with John Bell's experiments and makes them intuitively understandable. However, according to the theory of quantum decoherence, the parallel universes will never be accessible to us. This inaccessibility can be understood as follows: Once a measurement is done, the measured system becomes entangled with both the physicist who measured it and a huge number of other particles, some of which are photons flying away towards the other end of the universe; in order to prove that the wave function did not collapse one would have to bring all these particles back and measure them again, together with the system that was measured originally. This is completely impractical, but even if one could theoretically do this, it would destroy any evidence that the original measurement took place (including the physicist's memory).
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Applications
Quantum mechanics had enormous[42] success in explaining many of the features of our world. The individual behaviour of the subatomic particles that make up all forms of matterelectrons, protons, neutrons, photons and otherscan often only be satisfactorily described using quantum mechanics. Quantum mechanics has strongly influenced the string theory, a candidate for a theory of everything (see reductionism) and the multiverse hypothesis. Quantum mechanics is important for understanding how individual atoms combine covalently to form chemicals or molecules. The application of quantum mechanics to chemistry is known as quantum chemistry. (Relativistic) quantum mechanics can in principle mathematically describe most of chemistry. Quantum mechanics can provide quantitative insight into ionic and covalent bonding processes by explicitly showing which molecules are energetically favorable to which others, and by approximately how much.[43] Most of the calculations performed in computational chemistry rely on quantum mechanics.[44]
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Much of modern technology operates at a scale where quantum effects are significant. Examples include the laser, the transistor (and thus the microchip), the electron microscope, and magnetic resonance imaging. The study of semiconductors led to the invention of the diode and the transistor, which are indispensable for modern electronics. Researchers are currently seeking robust methods of directly manipulating quantum states. Efforts are being made to develop quantum cryptography, which will allow guaranteed secure transmission of information. A more distant goal is the A working mechanism of a resonant tunneling diode device, based on the phenomenon of development of quantum computers, quantum tunneling through the potential barriers. which are expected to perform certain computational tasks exponentially faster than classical computers. Another active research topic is quantum teleportation, which deals with techniques to transmit quantum information over arbitrary distances. Quantum tunneling is vital in many devices, even in the simple light switch, as otherwise the electrons in the electric current could not penetrate the potential barrier made up of a layer of oxide. Flash memory chips found in USB drives use quantum tunneling to erase their memory cells. Quantum mechanics primarily applies to the atomic regimes of matter and energy, but some systems exhibit quantum mechanical effects on a large scale; superfluidity (the frictionless flow of a liquid at temperatures near absolute zero) is one well-known example. Quantum theory also provides accurate descriptions for many previously unexplained phenomena such as black body radiation and the stability of electron orbitals. It has also given insight into the workings of many different biological systems, including smell receptors and protein structures.[45] Recent work on photosynthesis has provided evidence that quantum correlations play an essential role in this most fundamental process of the plant kingdom.[46] Even so, classical physics often can be a good approximation to results otherwise obtained by quantum physics, typically in circumstances with large numbers of particles or large quantum numbers.
Examples
Free particle
For example, consider a free particle. In quantum mechanics, there is wave-particle duality so the properties of the particle can be described as the properties of a wave. Therefore, its quantum state can be represented as a wave of arbitrary shape and extending over space as a wave function. The position and momentum of the particle are observables. The Uncertainty Principle states that both the position and the momentum cannot simultaneously be measured with full precision at the same time. However, one can measure the position alone of a moving free particle creating an eigenstate of position with a wavefunction that is very large (a Dirac delta) at a particular position x and zero everywhere else. If one performs a position measurement on such a wavefunction, the result x will be obtained with 100% probability (full certainty). This is called an eigenstate of position (mathematically more precise: a generalized position eigenstate (eigendistribution)). If the particle is in an eigenstate of position then its
Quantum Mechanics momentum is completely unknown. On the other hand, if the particle is in an eigenstate of momentum then its position is completely unknown.[47] In an eigenstate of momentum having a plane wave form, it can be shown that the wavelength is equal to h/p, where h is Planck's constant and p is the momentum of the eigenstate.[48]
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3D confined electron wave functions for each eigenstate in a Quantum Dot. Here, rectangular and triangular-shaped quantum dots are shown. Energy states in rectangular dots are more s-type and p-type. However, in a triangular dot the wave functions are mixed due to confinement symmetry.
Step potential
The potential in this case is given by:
The solutions are superpositions of left and right moving waves: ,

The step potential with incident and exiting waves shown.
where the wave vectors are related to the energy via , and
and the coefficients A and B are determined from the boundary conditions and by imposing a continuous derivative to the solution. Each term of the solution can be interpreted as an incident, reflected or transmitted component of the wave, allowing the calculation of transmission and reflection coefficients. In contrast to classical mechanics, incident particles with energies higher than the size of the potential step are still partially reflected.
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Rectangular potential barrier

This is a model for the quantum tunneling effect, which has important applications to modern devices such as flash memory and the scanning tunneling microscope.
Particle in a box
The particle in a 1-dimensional potential energy box is the most simple example where restraints lead to the quantization of energy levels. The box is defined as having zero potential energy inside a certain region and infinite potential energy everywhere outside that region. For the 1-dimensional case in the direction, the time-independent Schrdinger equation can be written as:[49]
Writing the differential operator

1-dimensional potential energy box (or infinite potential well)
the previous equation can be seen to be evocative of the classic analogue
with
as the energy for the state
, in this case coinciding with the kinetic energy of the particle.
The general solutions of the Schrdinger equation for the particle in a box are:
or, from Euler's formula,
The presence of the walls of the box determines the values of C, D, and k. At each wall (x = 0 and x = L), = 0. Thus when x = 0,
and so D = 0. When x = L,
C cannot be zero, since this would conflict with the Born interpretation. Therefore sin kL = 0, and so it must be that kL is an integer multiple of . Therefore,
The quantization of energy levels follows from this constraint on k, since
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Finite potential well

This is generalization of the infinite potential well problem to potential wells of finite depth.
Harmonic oscillator
As in the classical case, the potential for the quantum harmonic oscillator is given by:
This problem can be solved either by solving the Schrdinger equation directly, which is not trivial, or by using the more elegant ladder method, first proposed by Paul Dirac. The eigenstates are given by:
Some trajectories of a harmonic oscillator (a ball attached to a spring) in classical mechanics (A-B) and quantum mechanics (C-H). In quantum mechanics, the position of the ball is represented by a wave (called the wavefunction), with real part shown in blue and imaginary part in red. Some of the trajectories, such as C,D,E,F, are standing waves (or "stationary states"). Each standing-wave frequency is proportional to a possible energy level of the oscillator. This "energy quantization" does not occur in classical physics, where the oscillator can have any energy.
where Hn are the Hermite polynomials:
and the corresponding energy levels are . This is another example which illustrates the quantization of energy for bound states.
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Notes
[1] [2] [3] [4] The angular momentum of an unbound electron is not quantized. J. Mehra and H. Rechenberg, The historical development of quantum theory, Springer-Verlag, 1982. T.S. Kuhn, Black-body theory and the quantum discontinuity 1894-1912, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1978. A. Einstein, ber einen die Erzeugung und Verwandlung des Lichtes betreffenden heuristischen Gesichtspunkt (On a heuristic point of view concerning the production and transformation of light), Annalen der Physik 17 (1905) 132-148 (reprinted in The collected papers of Albert Einstein, John Stachel, editor, Princeton University Press, 1989, Vol. 2, pp. 149-166, in German; see also Einstein's early work on the quantum hypothesis, ibid. pp. 134-148). [5] "Merriam-Webster.com" (http:/ / www. merriam-webster. com/ dictionary/ quantum). Merriam-Webster.com. 2010-08-13. . Retrieved 2010-10-15. [6] Edwin Thall. "FCCJ.org" (http:/ / mooni. fccj. org/ ~ethall/ quantum/ quant. htm). Mooni.fccj.org. . Retrieved 2010-10-15. [7] Compare the list of conferences presented here (http:/ / ysfine. com/ ). [8] Oocities.com (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20091026095410/ http:/ / geocities. com/ mik_malm/ quantmech. html) [9] P.A.M. Dirac, The Principles of Quantum Mechanics, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1930. [10] J. von Neumann, Mathematische Grundlagen der Quantenmechanik, Springer, Berlin, 1932 (English translation: Mathematical Foundations of Quantum Mechanics, Princeton University Press, 1955). [11] Greiner, Walter; Mller, Berndt (1994). Quantum Mechanics Symmetries, Second edition (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=gCfvWx6vuzUC& pg=PA52). Springer-Verlag. p.52. ISBN3-540-58080-8. ., [12] "AIP.org" (http:/ / www. aip. org/ history/ heisenberg/ p08a. htm). AIP.org. . Retrieved 2010-10-15. [13] Greenstein, George; Zajonc, Arthur (2006). The Quantum Challenge: Modern Research on the Foundations of Quantum Mechanics, Second edition (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=5t0tm0FB1CsC& pg=PA215). Jones and Bartlett Publishers, Inc. p.215. ISBN0-7637-2470-X. ., [14] probability clouds are approximate, but better than the Bohr model, whereby electron location is given by a probability function, the wave function eigenvalue, such that the probability is the squared modulus of the complex amplitude [15] "Actapress.com" (http:/ / www. actapress. com/ PaperInfo. aspx?PaperID=25988& reason=500). Actapress.com. . Retrieved 2010-10-15. [16] Hirshleifer, Jack (2001). The Dark Side of the Force: Economic Foundations of Conflict Theory (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=W2J2IXgiZVgC& pg=PA265). Campbridge University Press. p.265. ISBN0-521-80412-4. ., [17] Dict.cc (http:/ / www. dict. cc/ german-english/ eigen. html) De.pons.eu (http:/ / de. pons. eu/ deutsch-englisch/ eigen) [18] "PHY.olemiss.edu" (http:/ / www. phy. olemiss. edu/ ~luca/ Topics/ qm/ collapse. html). PHY.olemiss.edu. 2010-08-16. . Retrieved 2010-10-15. [19] "Farside.ph.utexas.edu" (http:/ / farside. ph. utexas. edu/ teaching/ qmech/ lectures/ node28. html). Farside.ph.utexas.edu. . Retrieved 2010-10-15. [20] "Reddit.com" (http:/ / www. reddit. com/ r/ philosophy/ comments/ 8p2qv/ determinism_and_naive_realism/ ). Reddit.com. 2009-06-01. . Retrieved 2010-10-15. [21] Michael Trott. "Time-Evolution of a Wavepacket in a Square Well Wolfram Demonstrations Project" (http:/ / demonstrations. wolfram. com/ TimeEvolutionOfAWavepacketInASquareWell/ ). Demonstrations.wolfram.com. . Retrieved 2010-10-15. [22] Michael Trott. "Time Evolution of a Wavepacket In a Square Well" (http:/ / demonstrations. wolfram. com/ TimeEvolutionOfAWavepacketInASquareWell/ ). Demonstrations.wolfram.com. . Retrieved 2010-10-15. [23] Mathews, Piravonu Mathews; Venkatesan, K. (1976). A Textbook of Quantum Mechanics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=_qzs1DD3TcsC& pg=PA36). Tata McGraw-Hill. p.36. ISBN0-07-096510-2. ., [24] "Wave Functions and the Schrdinger Equation" (http:/ / physics. ukzn. ac. za/ ~petruccione/ Phys120/ Wave Functions and the Schrdinger Equation. pdf) (PDF). . Retrieved 2010-10-15. [25] "Spaceandmotion.com" (http:/ / www. spaceandmotion. com/ physics-quantum-mechanics-werner-heisenberg. htm). Spaceandmotion.com. . Retrieved 2010-10-15. [26] Especially since Werner Heisenberg was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1932 for the creation of quantum mechanics, the role of Max Born has been obfuscated. A 2005 biography of Born details his role as the creator of the matrix formulation of quantum mechanics. This was recognized in a paper by Heisenberg, in 1940, honoring Max Planck. See: Nancy Thorndike Greenspan, "The End of the Certain World: The Life and Science of Max Born" (Basic Books, 2005), pp. 124 - 128, and 285 - 286. [27] "IF.uj.edu.pl" (http:/ / th-www. if. uj. edu. pl/ acta/ vol19/ pdf/ v19p0683. pdf) (PDF). . Retrieved 2010-10-15. [28] "OCW.ssu.edu" (http:/ / ocw. usu. edu/ physics/ classical-mechanics/ pdf_lectures/ 06. pdf) (PDF). . Retrieved 2010-10-15. [29] "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1979" (http:/ / nobelprize. org/ nobel_prizes/ physics/ laureates/ 1979/ index. html). Nobel Foundation. . Retrieved 2010-02-16. [30] Complex Elliptic Pendulum (http:/ / arxiv. org/ abs/ 1001. 0131), Carl M. Bender, Daniel W. Hook, Karta Kooner [31] "Scribd.com" (http:/ / www. scribd. com/ doc/ 5998949/ Quantum-mechanics-course-iwhatisquantummechanics). Scribd.com. 2008-09-14. . Retrieved 2010-10-15. [32] Philsci-archive.pitt.edu (http:/ / philsci-archive. pitt. edu/ archive/ 00002328/ 01/ handbook. pdf)
Quantum Mechanics
[33] "Academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu" (http:/ / academic. brooklyn. cuny. edu/ physics/ sobel/ Nucphys/ atomprop. html). Academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu. . Retrieved 2010-10-15. [34] "Cambridge.org" (http:/ / assets. cambridge. org/ 97805218/ 29526/ excerpt/ 9780521829526_excerpt. pdf) (PDF). . Retrieved 2010-10-15. [35] "There is as yet no logically consistent and complete relativistic quantum field theory.", p. 4. V. B. Berestetskii, E. M. Lifshitz, L P Pitaevskii (1971). J. B. Sykes, J. S. Bell (translators). Relativistic Quantum Theory 4, part I. Course of Theoretical Physics (Landau and Lifshitz) ISBN 0080160255 [36] http:/ / www. damtp. cam. ac. uk/ strings02/ dirac/ hawking/ [37] "Life on the lattice: The most accurate theory we have" (http:/ / latticeqcd. blogspot. com/ 2005/ 06/ most-accurate-theory-we-have. html). Latticeqcd.blogspot.com. 2005-06-03. . Retrieved 2010-10-15. [38] Parker, B. (1993). Overcoming some of the problems. pp.259279. [39] The Character of Physical Law (1965) Ch. 6; also quoted in The New Quantum Universe (2003) by Tony Hey and Patrick Walters [40] Joseph Berkovitz (2007-01-26). "Plato.stanford.edu" (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ qm-action-distance/ ). Plato.stanford.edu. . Retrieved 2010-10-15. [41] Jeffrey Barrett. "Plato.stanford.edu" (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ qm-everett/ ). Plato.stanford.edu. . Retrieved 2010-10-15. [42] See, for example, the the Feynman Lectures on Physics for some of the technological applications which use quantum mechanics, e.g., transistors (vol III pp 14-11 ff), integrated circuits (which are follow-on technology in solid-state physics II 8-6), and lasers (III p9-13). [43] Books.google.com (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=vdXU6SD4_UYC). Books.google.com. . Retrieved 2010-10-23. [44] "en.wikiboos.org" (http:/ / en. wikibooks. org/ wiki/ Computational_chemistry/ Applications_of_molecular_quantum_mechanics). En.wikibooks.org. . Retrieved 2010-10-23. [45] Anderson, Mark (2009-01-13). "Discovermagazine.com" (http:/ / discovermagazine. com/ 2009/ feb/ 13-is-quantum-mechanics-controlling-your-thoughts/ article_view?b_start:int=1& -C). Discovermagazine.com. . Retrieved 2010-10-23. [46] "Quantum mechanics boosts photosynthesis" (http:/ / physicsworld. com/ cws/ article/ news/ 41632). physicsworld.com. . Retrieved 2010-10-23. [47] Davies, P. C. W.; Betts, David S. (1984). Quantum Mechanics, Second edition (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=XRyHCrGNstoC& pg=PA79). Chapman and Hall. p.79. ISBN0-7487-4446-0. ., [48] Books.Google.com (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=tKm-Ekwke_UC). Books.Google.com. 2007-08-30. . Retrieved 2010-10-23. [49] Derivation of particle in a box, chemistry.tidalswan.com (http:/ / chemistry. tidalswan. com/ index. php?title=Quantum_Mechanics)
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References
The following titles, all by working physicists, attempt to communicate quantum theory to lay people, using a minimum of technical apparatus. Chester, Marvin (1987) Primer of Quantum Mechanics. John Wiley. ISBN 0-486-42878-8 Richard Feynman, 1985. QED: The Strange Theory of Light and Matter, Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-08388-6. Four elementary lectures on quantum electrodynamics and quantum field theory, yet containing many insights for the expert. Ghirardi, GianCarlo, 2004. Sneaking a Look at God's Cards, Gerald Malsbary, trans. Princeton Univ. Press. The most technical of the works cited here. Passages using algebra, trigonometry, and bra-ket notation can be passed over on a first reading. N. David Mermin, 1990, "Spooky actions at a distance: mysteries of the QT" in his Boojums all the way through. Cambridge University Press: 110-76. Victor Stenger, 2000. Timeless Reality: Symmetry, Simplicity, and Multiple Universes. Buffalo NY: Prometheus Books. Chpts. 5-8. Includes cosmological and philosophical considerations. More technical: Bryce DeWitt, R. Neill Graham, eds., 1973. The Many-Worlds Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics, Princeton Series in Physics, Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-08131-X Dirac, P. A. M. (1930). The Principles of Quantum Mechanics. ISBN0198520115. The beginning chapters make up a very clear and comprehensible introduction. Hugh Everett, 1957, "Relative State Formulation of Quantum Mechanics," Reviews of Modern Physics 29: 454-62. Feynman, Richard P.; Leighton, Robert B.; Sands, Matthew (1965). The Feynman Lectures on Physics. 1-3. Addison-Wesley. ISBN0738200085.
Quantum Mechanics Griffiths, David J. (2004). Introduction to Quantum Mechanics (2nd ed.). Prentice Hall. ISBN0-13-111892-7. OCLC40251748. A standard undergraduate text. Max Jammer, 1966. The Conceptual Development of Quantum Mechanics. McGraw Hill. Hagen Kleinert, 2004. Path Integrals in Quantum Mechanics, Statistics, Polymer Physics, and Financial Markets, 3rd ed. Singapore: World Scientific. Draft of 4th edition. (http://www.physik.fu-berlin.de/~kleinert/b5) Gunther Ludwig, 1968. Wave Mechanics. London: Pergamon Press. ISBN 0-08-203204-1 George Mackey (2004). The mathematical foundations of quantum mechanics. Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-43517-2. Albert Messiah, 1966. Quantum Mechanics (Vol. I), English translation from French by G. M. Temmer. North Holland, John Wiley & Sons. Cf. chpt. IV, section III. Omns, Roland (1999). Understanding Quantum Mechanics. Princeton University Press. ISBN0-691-00435-8. OCLC39849482. Scerri, Eric R., 2006. The Periodic Table: Its Story and Its Significance. Oxford University Press. Considers the extent to which chemistry and the periodic system have been reduced to quantum mechanics. ISBN 0-19-530573-6 Transnational College of Lex (1996). What is Quantum Mechanics? A Physics Adventure. Language Research Foundation, Boston. ISBN0-9643504-1-6. OCLC34661512. von Neumann, John (1955). Mathematical Foundations of Quantum Mechanics. Princeton University Press. ISBN0691028931. Hermann Weyl, 1950. The Theory of Groups and Quantum Mechanics, Dover Publications. D. Greenberger, K. Hentschel, F. Weinert, eds., 2009. Compendium of quantum physics, Concepts, experiments, history and philosophy, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg.
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Further reading
Bernstein, Jeremy (2009). Quantum Leaps (http://books.google.com/books?id=j0Me3brYOL0C& printsec=frontcover). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN9780674035416. Bohm, David (1989). Quantum Theory. Dover Publications. ISBN0-486-65969-0. Eisberg, Robert; Resnick, Robert (1985). Quantum Physics of Atoms, Molecules, Solids, Nuclei, and Particles (2nd ed.). Wiley. ISBN0-471-87373-X. Liboff, Richard L. (2002). Introductory Quantum Mechanics. Addison-Wesley. ISBN0-8053-8714-5. Merzbacher, Eugen (1998). Quantum Mechanics. Wiley, John & Sons, Inc. ISBN0-471-88702-1. Sakurai, J. J. (1994). Modern Quantum Mechanics. Addison Wesley. ISBN0-201-53929-2. Shankar, R. (1994). Principles of Quantum Mechanics. Springer. ISBN0-306-44790-8. Cox, Brian; Forshaw, Jeff (2011). The Quantum Universe: Everything That Can Happen Does Happen. Allen Lane. ISBN1846144329.
Quantum Mechanics
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External links
Quantum Cook Book (http://oyc.yale.edu/sites/default/files/notes_quantum_cookbook.pdf) by R. Shankar, Open Yale PHYS 201 material (4pp) A foundation approach to quantum Theory that does not rely on wave-particle duality. (http://www.mesacc. edu/~kevinlg/i256/QM_basics.pdf) The Modern Revolution in Physics (http://www.lightandmatter.com/lm/) - an online textbook. J. O'Connor and E. F. Robertson: A history of quantum mechanics. (http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/ history/HistTopics/The_Quantum_age_begins.html) Introduction to Quantum Theory at Quantiki. (http://www.quantiki.org/wiki/index.php/ Introduction_to_Quantum_Theory) Quantum Physics Made Relatively Simple (http://bethe.cornell.edu/): three video lectures by Hans Bethe H is for h-bar. (http://www.nonlocal.com/hbar/) Quantum Mechanics Books Collection (http://www.freebookcentre.net/Physics/Quantum-Mechanics-Books. html): Collection of free books Course material Doron Cohen: Lecture notes in Quantum Mechanics (comprehensive, with advanced topics). (http://arxiv.org/ abs/quant-ph/0605180) MIT OpenCourseWare: Chemistry (http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Chemistry/index.htm). MIT OpenCourseWare: Physics (http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Physics/index.htm). See 8.04 (http://ocw. mit.edu/OcwWeb/Physics/8-04Spring-2006/CourseHome/index.htm) Stanford Continuing Education PHY 25: Quantum Mechanics (http://www.youtube.com/stanford#g/c/ 84C10A9CB1D13841) by Leonard Susskind, see course description (http://continuingstudies.stanford.edu/ courses/course.php?cid=20072_PHY 25) Fall 2007 5 Examples in Quantum Mechanics (http://www.physics.csbsju.edu/QM/) Imperial College Quantum Mechanics Course. (http://www.imperial.ac.uk/quantuminformation/qi/tutorials) Spark Notes - Quantum Physics. (http://www.sparknotes.com/testprep/books/sat2/physics/ chapter19section3.rhtml) Quantum Physics Online : interactive introduction to quantum mechanics (RS applets). (http://www. quantum-physics.polytechnique.fr/) Experiments to the foundations of quantum physics with single photons. (http://www.didaktik.physik. uni-erlangen.de/quantumlab/english/index.html) AQME (http://www.nanohub.org/topics/AQME) : Advancing Quantum Mechanics for Engineers by T.Barzso, D.Vasileska and G.Klimeck online learning resource with simulation tools on nanohub Quantum Mechanics (http://www.lsr.ph.ic.ac.uk/~plenio/lecture.pdf) by Martin Plenio Quantum Mechanics (http://farside.ph.utexas.edu/teaching/qm/389.pdf) by Richard Fitzpatrick Online course on Quantum Transport (http://nanohub.org/resources/2039) FAQs Many-worlds or relative-state interpretation. (http://www.hedweb.com/manworld.htm) Measurement in Quantum mechanics. (http://www.mtnmath.com/faq/meas-qm.html) Media PHYS 201: Fundamentals of Physics II (http://oyc.yale.edu/physics/phys-201#sessions) by Ramamurti Shankar, Open Yale Course Lectures on Quantum Mechanics (http://www.youtube.com/view_play_list?p=84C10A9CB1D13841) by Leonard Susskind Everything you wanted to know about the quantum world (http://www.newscientist.com/channel/ fundamentals/quantum-world) archive of articles from New Scientist.
Quantum Mechanics Quantum Physics Research (http://www.sciencedaily.com/news/matter_energy/quantum_physics/) from Science Daily Overbye, Dennis (December 27, 2005). "Quantum Trickery: Testing Einstein's Strangest Theory" (http://www. nytimes.com/2005/12/27/science/27eins.html?scp=1&sq=quantum trickery&st=cse). The New York Times. Retrieved April 12, 2010. Audio: Astronomy Cast (http://www.astronomycast.com/physics/ep-138-quantum-mechanics/) Quantum Mechanics June 2009. Fraser Cain interviews Pamela L. Gay. Philosophy "Quantum Mechanics" (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/qm) entry by Jenann Ismael in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy "Measurement in Quantum Theory" (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/qt-measurement) entry by Henry Krips in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
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Copenhagen Interpretation
The Copenhagen interpretation is one of the earliest and most commonly taught interpretations of quantum mechanics.[1] It holds that quantum mechanics does not yield a description of an objective reality but deals only with probabilities of observing, or measuring, various aspects of energy quanta, entities which fit neither the classical idea of particles nor the classical idea of waves. According to the interpretation, the act of measurement causes the set of probabilities to immediately and randomly assume only one of the possible values. This feature of the mathematics is known as wavefunction collapse. The essential concepts of the interpretation were devised by Niels Bohr, Werner Heisenberg and others in the years 192427.
Background
Classical physics draws a distinction between particles and energy, holding that only the latter exhibit waveform characteristics, whereas quantum mechanics is based on the observation that matter has both wave and particle aspects and postulates that the state of every subatomic particle can be described by a wavefunctiona mathematical representation used to calculate the probability that the particle, if measured, will be in a given location or state of motion. In the early work of Max Planck, Albert Einstein and Niels Bohr, the existence of energy in discrete quantities had been postulated, in order to avoid certain paradoxes that arise when classical physics is pushed to extremes. Also, while elementary particles showed predictable properties in many experiments, they became highly unpredictable in certain contexts, for example, if one attempted to measure their individual trajectories through a simple physical apparatus. The Copenhagen interpretation is an attempt to explain the mathematical formulations of quantum mechanics and the corresponding experimental results. Early twentieth-century experiments on the physics of very small-scale phenomena led to the discovery of phenomena which could not be predicted on the basis of classical physics, and to the development of new models (theories) that described and predicted very accurately these micro-scale phenomena. These models could not easily be reconciled with the way objects are observed to behave on the macro scale of everyday life. The predictions they offered often appeared counter-intuitive and caused much consternation among the physicistsoften including their discoverers.
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Origin of the term

Werner Heisenberg had been an assistant to Niels Bohr at his institute in Copenhagen during part of the 1920's, when they helped originate quantum mechanical theory. In 1929, Heisenberg gave a series of invited lectures at the University of Chicago, explaining the new field of quantum mechanics. The lectures then served as the basis for his textbook, The Physical Principles of the Quantum Theory, published in 1930.[2] In the book's preface, Heisenberg wrote: On the whole the book contains nothing that is not to be found in previous publications, particularly in the investigations of Bohr. The purpose of the book seems to me to be fulfilled if it contributes somewhat to the diffusion of that 'Kopenhagener Geist der Quantentheorie' [i.e., Copenhagen spirit of quantum theory] if I may so express myself, which has directed the entire development of modern atomic physics. The expression 'The Copenhagen Interpretation' suggests something that is rather more than just a spirit, such as some definite set of rules for interpreting the mathematical formalism of quantum mechanics, presumably dating back to the 20s. However, no such text exists, apart from some informal popular lectures by Bohr and Heisenberg, which contradict each other on several important issues. It appears that the particular term with its more definite sense was coined by Heisenberg in the 1950s[3], while criticizing alternate "interpretations" (e.g., David Bohm's[4]) that had been developed.[5] Lectures with the titles 'The Copenhagen Interpretation of Quantum Theory' and 'Criticisms and Counterproposals to the Copenhagen Interpretation', that Heisenberg delivered in 1955, are reprinted in the collection Physics and Philosophy[6].
Principles
Because it consists of the views developed by a number of scientists and philosophers during the second quarter of the 20th Century, there is no definitive statement of the Copenhagen Interpretation.[7] Thus, various ideas have been associated with it; Asher Peres remarked that very different, sometimes opposite, views are presented as "the Copenhagen interpretation" by different authors.[8] Nonetheless, there are several basic principles that are generally accepted as being part of the interpretation: 1. A system is completely described by a wave function , representing the state of the system. 2. The description of nature is essentially probabilistic, with the probability of an event related to the square of the amplitude of the wave function related to it. (The Born rule, after Max Born) 3. It is not possible to know the value of all the properties of the system at the same time; those properties that are not known with precision must be described by probabilities. (Heisenberg's uncertainty principle) 4. Matter exhibits a waveparticle duality. An experiment can show the particle-like properties of matter, or the wave-like properties; in some experiments both of these complementary viewpoints must be invoked to explain the results, according to the complementarity principle of Niels Bohr. 5. Measuring devices are essentially classical devices, and measure only classical properties such as position and momentum. 6. The quantum mechanical description of large systems will closely approximate the classical description. (The correspondence principle of Bohr and Heisenberg.)
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Meaning of the wave function

The Copenhagen Interpretation denies that the wave function is anything more than a theoretical concept, or is at least non-committal about its being a discrete entity or a discernible component of some discrete entity. The subjective view, that the wave function is merely a mathematical tool for calculating the probabilities in a specific experiment, is a similar approach to the Ensemble interpretation. There are some who say that there are objective variants of the Copenhagen Interpretation that allow for a "real" wave function, but it is questionable whether that view is really consistent with logical positivism and/or with some of Bohr's statements. Bohr emphasized that science is concerned with predictions of the outcomes of experiments, and that any additional propositions offered are not scientific but meta-physical. Bohr was heavily influenced by positivism. On the other hand, Bohr and Heisenberg were not in complete agreement, and they held different views at different times. Heisenberg in particular was prompted to move towards realism.[9] Even if the wave function is not regarded as real, there is still a divide between those who treat it as definitely and entirely subjective, and those who are non-committal or agnostic about the subject. An example of the agnostic view is given by Carl Friedrich von Weizscker, who, while participating in a colloquium at Cambridge, denied that the Copenhagen interpretation asserted: "What cannot be observed does not exist." He suggested instead that the Copenhagen interpretation follows the principle: "What is observed certainly exists; about what is not observed we are still free to make suitable assumptions. We use that freedom to avoid paradoxes."[10]
Nature of collapse
All versions of the Copenhagen interpretation include at least a formal or methodological version of wave function collapse,[11] in which unobserved eigenvalues are removed from further consideration. (In other words, Copenhagenists have always made the assumption of collapse, even in the early days of quantum physics, in the way that adherents of the Many-worlds interpretation have not.) In more prosaic terms, those who hold to the Copenhagen understanding are willing to say that a wave function involves the various probabilities that a given event will proceed to certain different outcomes. But when one or another of those more- or less-likely outcomes becomes manifest the other probabilities cease to have any function in the real world. So if an electron passes through a double slit apparatus there are various probabilities for where on the detection screen that individual electron will hit. But once it has hit, there is no longer any probability whatsoever that it will hit somewhere else. Many-worlds interpretations say that an electron hits wherever there is a possibility that it might hit, and that each of these hits occurs in a separate universe. An adherent of the subjective view, that the wave function represents nothing but knowledge, would take an equally subjective view of "collapse". Some argue that the concept of the collapse of a "real" wave function was introduced by Heisenberg and later developed by John Von Neumann in 1932.[12]
Acceptance among physicists

According to a poll at a Quantum Mechanics workshop in 1997,[13] the Copenhagen interpretation is the most widely-accepted specific interpretation of quantum mechanics, followed by the many-worlds interpretation.[14] Although current trends show substantial competition from alternative interpretations, throughout much of the twentieth century the Copenhagen interpretation had strong acceptance among physicists. Astrophysicist and science writer John Gribbin describes it as having fallen from primacy after the 1980s.[15]
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Consequences
The nature of the Copenhagen Interpretation is exposed by considering a number of experiments and paradoxes. 1. Schrdinger's Cat This thought experiment highlights the implications that accepting uncertainty at the microscopic level has on macroscopic objects. A cat is put in a sealed box, with its life or death made dependent on the state of a subatomic particle. Thus a description of the cat during the course of the experimenthaving been entangled with the state of a subatomic particlebecomes a "blur" of "living and dead cat." But this can't be accurate because it implies the cat is actually both dead and alive until the box is opened to check on it. But the cat, if he survives, will only remember being alive. Schrdinger resists "so naively accepting as valid a 'blurred model' for representing reality."[16] How can the cat be both alive and dead? The Copenhagen Interpretation: The wave function reflects our knowledge of the system. The wave function means that, once the cat is observed, there is a 50% chance it will be dead, and 50% chance it will be alive. 2. Wigner's Friend Wigner puts his friend in with the cat. The external observer believes the system is in the state . His friend however is convinced that cat is alive, i.e. for him, the cat is in the state . How can Wigner and his friend see different wave functions? The Copenhagen Interpretation: Wigner's friend highlights the subjective nature of probability. Each observer (Wigner and his friend) has different information and therefore different wave functions. The distinction between the "objective" nature of reality and the subjective nature of probability has led to a great deal of controversy. Cf. Bayesian versus Frequentist interpretations of probability. 3. Double-Slit Diffraction Light passes through double slits and onto a screen resulting in a diffraction pattern. Is light a particle or a wave? The Copenhagen Interpretation: Light is neither. A particular experiment can demonstrate particle (photon) or wave properties, but not both at the same time (Bohr's Complementarity Principle). The same experiment can in theory be performed with any physical system: electrons, protons, atoms, molecules, viruses, bacteria, cats, humans, elephants, planets, etc. In practice it has been performed for light, electrons, buckminsterfullerene,[17][18] and some atoms. Due to the smallness of Planck's constant it is practically impossible to realize experiments that directly reveal the wave nature of any system bigger than a few atoms but, in general, quantum mechanics considers all matter as possessing both particle and wave behaviors. The greater systems (like viruses, bacteria, cats, etc.) are considered as "classical" ones but only as an approximation, not exact. 4. EPR (EinsteinPodolskyRosen) paradox Entangled "particles" are emitted in a single event. Conservation laws ensure that the measured spin of one particle must be the opposite of the measured spin of the other, so that if the spin of one particle is measured, the spin of the other particle is now instantaneously known. The most discomforting aspect of this paradox is that the effect is instantaneous so that something that happens in one galaxy could cause an instantaneous change in another galaxy. But, according to Einstein's theory of special relativity, no information-bearing signal or entity can travel at or faster than the speed of light, which is finite. Thus, it seems as if the Copenhagen interpretation is inconsistent with special relativity. The Copenhagen Interpretation: Assuming wave functions are not real, wave-function collapse is interpreted subjectively. The moment one observer measures the spin of one particle, he knows the spin of the other. However, another observer cannot benefit until the results of that measurement have been relayed to him, at
Copenhagen Interpretation less than or equal to the speed of light. Copenhagenists claim that interpretations of quantum mechanics where the wave function is regarded as real have problems with EPR-type effects, since they imply that the laws of physics allow for influences to propagate at speeds greater than the speed of light. However, proponents of Many worlds[19] and the Transactional interpretation[20][21] (TI) maintain that Copenhagen interpretation is fatally non-local. The claim that EPR effects violate the principle that information cannot travel faster than the speed of light have been countered by noting that they cannot be used for signaling because neither observer can control, or predetermine, what he observes, and therefore cannot manipulate what the other observer measures. However, it should be noted that is a somewhat spurious argument, in that speed of light limitations applies to all information, not to what can or can not be subsequently done with the information. A further argument is that relativistic difficulties about establishing which measurement occurred first also undermine the idea that one observer is causing what the other is measuring. This is totally spurious, since no matter who measured first the other will measure the opposite spin despite the fact that (in theory) the other has a 50% 'probability' (50:50 chance) of measuring the same spin, unless data about the first spin measurement has somehow passed faster than light (of course TI gets around the light speed limit by having information travel backwards in time instead).
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Criticism
The completeness of quantum mechanics (thesis 1) was attacked by the Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen thought experiment which was intended to show that quantum physics could not be a complete theory. Experimental tests of Bell's inequality using particles have supported the quantum mechanical prediction of entanglement. The Copenhagen Interpretation gives special status to measurement processes without clearly defining them or explaining their peculiar effects. In his article entitled "Criticism and Counterproposals to the Copenhagen Interpretation of Quantum Theory," countering the view of Alexandrov that (in Heisenberg's paraphrase) "the wave function in configuration space characterizes the objective state of the electron." Heisenberg says, Of course the introduction of the observer must not be misunderstood to imply that some kind of subjective features are to be brought into the description of nature. The observer has, rather, only the function of registering decisions, i.e., processes in space and time, and it does not matter whether the observer is an apparatus or a human being; but the registration, i.e., the transition from the "possible" to the "actual," is absolutely necessary here and cannot be omitted from the interpretation of quantum theory.[22] Many physicists and philosophers have objected to the Copenhagen interpretation, both on the grounds that it is non-deterministic and that it includes an undefined measurement process that converts probability functions into non-probabilistic measurements. Einstein's comments "I, at any rate, am convinced that He (God) does not throw dice."[23] and "Do you really think the moon isn't there if you aren't looking at it?"[24] exemplify this. Bohr, in response, said "Einstein, don't tell God what to do". Steven Weinberg in "Einstein's Mistakes", Physics Today, November 2005, page 31, said: All this familiar story is true, but it leaves out an irony. Bohr's version of quantum mechanics was deeply flawed, but not for the reason Einstein thought. The Copenhagen interpretation describes what happens when an observer makes a measurement, but the observer and the act of measurement are themselves treated classically. This is surely wrong: Physicists and their apparatus must be governed by the same quantum mechanical rules that govern everything else in the universe. But these rules are expressed in terms of a wave function (or, more precisely, a state vector) that evolves in a perfectly deterministic way. So where do the probabilistic rules of the Copenhagen interpretation come from?
Copenhagen Interpretation Considerable progress has been made in recent years toward the resolution of the problem, which I cannot go into here. It is enough to say that neither Bohr nor Einstein had focused on the real problem with quantum mechanics. The Copenhagen rules clearly work, so they have to be accepted. But this leaves the task of explaining them by applying the deterministic equation for the evolution of the wave function, the Schrdinger equation, to observers and their apparatus. The problem of thinking in terms of classical measurements of a quantum system becomes particularly acute in the field of quantum cosmology, where the quantum system is the universe.[25] E. T. Jaynes[26], from a Bayesian point of view, pointed out probability is a measure of human's information about the physical world. Quantum mechanics under Copenhagen Interpretation interpreted probability as a physical phenomenon, which is what Jaynes called a Mind Projection Fallacy. A similar view is adopted in Quantum Information Theories.
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Alternatives
Further information: Interpretation of quantum mechanics The Ensemble interpretation is similar; it offers an interpretation of the wave function, but not for single particles. The consistent histories interpretation advertises itself as "Copenhagen done right". Although the Copenhagen interpretation is often confused with the idea that consciousness causes collapse, it defines an "observer" merely as that which collapses the wave function.[22] If the wave function is regarded as ontologically real, and collapse is entirely rejected, a many worlds theory results. If wave function collapse is regarded as ontologically real as well, an objective collapse theory is obtained. Dropping the principle that the wave function is a complete description results in a hidden variable theory. Many physicists have subscribed to the instrumentalist interpretation of quantum mechanics, a position often equated with eschewing all interpretation. It is summarized by the sentence "Shut up and calculate!". While this slogan is sometimes attributed to Paul Dirac[27] or Richard Feynman, it is in fact due to David Mermin.[28]
Notes and references

[1] Hermann Wimmel (1992). Quantum physics & observed reality: a critical interpretation of quantum mechanics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=-4sJ_fgyZJEC& pg=PA2). World Scientific. p.2. ISBN9789810210106. . Retrieved 9 May 2011. [2] J. Mehra and H. Rechenberg, The historical development of quantum theory, Springer-Verlag, 2001, p. 271. [3] Howard, Don (2004). "Who invented the Copenhagen Interpretation? A study in mythology" (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 10. 1086/ 425941). Philosophy of Science: 669-682. . [4] Bohm, David (1952). "A Suggested Interpretation of the Quantum Theory in Terms of "Hidden" Variables. I & II". Physical Review 85 (2): 166193. Bibcode1952PhRv...85..166B. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.85.166. [5] H. Kragh, Quantum generations: A History of Physics in the Twentieth Century, Princeton University Press, 1999, p. 210. ("the term 'Copenhagen interpretation' was not used in the 1930s but first entered the physicists vocabulary in 1955 when Heisenberg used it in criticizing certain unorthodox interpretations of quantum mechanics.") [6] Werner Heisenberg, Physics and Philosophy, Harper, 1958 [7] In fact Bohr and Heisenberg never totally agreed on how to understand the mathematical formalism of quantum mechanics. Bohr once distanced himself from what he considered to be Heisenberg's more subjective interpretation Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ qm-copenhagen/ ) [8] "There seems to be at least as many different Copenhagen interpretations as people who use that term, probably there are more. For example, in two classic articles on the foundations of quantum mechanics, Ballentine (1970) and Stapp(1972) give diametrically opposite definitions of 'Copenhagen.'", Asher Peres (2002). "Popper's experiment and the Copenhagen interpretation". Stud. History Philos. Modern Physics 33 (23): 10078. arXiv:quant-ph/9910078. Bibcode1999quant.ph.10078P. [9] "Historically, Heisenberg wanted to base quantum theory solely on observable quantities such as the intensity of spectral lines, getting rid of all intuitive (anschauliche) concepts such as particle trajectories in space-time. This attitude changed drastically with his paper in which he introduced the uncertainty relations there he put forward the point of view that it is the theory which decides what can be observed. His move from positivism to operationalism can be clearly understood as a reaction on the advent of Schrdingers wave mechanics which, in particular due to its intuitiveness, became soon very popular among physicists. In fact, the word anschaulich (intuitive) is contained in the title of Heisenbergs paper.", from Claus Kiefer (2002). "On the interpretation of quantum theory - from Copenhagen to the present day".
arXiv:quant-ph/0210152[quant-ph]. [10] John Cramer on the Copenhagen Interpretation (http:/ / www. npl. washington. edu/ npl/ int_rep/ tiqm/ TI_20. html#2. 0) [11] "To summarize, one can identify the following ingredients as being characteristic for the Copenhagen interpretation(s)[...]Reduction of the wave packet as a formal rule without dynamical significance", Claus Kiefer (2002). "On the interpretation of quantum theory - from Copenhagen to the present day". arXiv:quant-ph/0210152[quant-ph]. [12] "the collapse or reduction of the wave function. This was introduced by Heisenberg in his uncertainty paper [3] and later postulated by von Neumann as a dynamical process independent of the Schrodinger equation", Claus Kiefer (2002). "On the interpretation of quantum theory - from Copenhagen to the present day". arXiv:quant-ph/0210152[quant-ph]. [13] Max Tegmark (1998). "The Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics: Many Worlds or Many Words?". Fortsch.Phys. 46 (68): 855862. arXiv:quant-ph/9709032. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1521-3978(199811)46:6/8<855::AID-PROP855>3.0.CO;2-Q. [14] The Many Worlds Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics (http:/ / www. hep. upenn. edu/ ~max/ everett. ps) [15] Gribbin, J. Q for Quantum [16] Erwin Schrdinger, in an article in the Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 124, 323-38. [17] Nairz, Olaf; Brezger, Bjrn; Arndt, Markus; Zeilinger, Anton (2001). "Diffraction of Complex Molecules by Structures Made of Light". Physical Review Letters 87 (16). arXiv:quant-ph/0110012. Bibcode2001PhRvL..87p0401N. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.87.160401. [18] Brezger, Bjrn; Hackermller, Lucia; Uttenthaler, Stefan; Petschinka, Julia; Arndt, Markus; Zeilinger, Anton (2002). "Matter-Wave Interferometer for Large Molecules". Physical Review Letters 88 (10): 100404. arXiv:quant-ph/0202158. Bibcode2002PhRvL..88j0404B. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.88.100404. PMID11909334. [19] Michael price on nonlocality in Many Worlds (http:/ / www. hedweb. com/ manworld. htm#local) [20] Relativity and Causality in the Transactional Interpretation (http:/ / www. npl. washington. edu/ npl/ int_rep/ tiqm/ TI_38. html#3. 9) [21] Collapse and Nonlocality in the Transactional Interpretation (http:/ / www. npl. washington. edu/ npl/ int_rep/ tiqm/ TI_33. html#3. 7) [22] Werner Heisenberg, Physics and Philosophy, Harper, 1958, p. 137. [23] "God does not throw dice" quote [24] A. Pais, Einstein and the quantum theory, Reviews of Modern Physics 51, 863-914 (1979), p. 907. [25] 'Since the Universe naturally contains all of its observers, the problem arises to come up with an interpretation of quantum theory that contains no classical realms on the fundamental level.', Claus Kiefer (2002). "On the interpretation of quantum theory - from Copenhagen to the present day". arXiv:quant-ph/0210152[quant-ph]. [26] Jaynes, E. T. (1989). "Clearing up Mysteries--The Original Goal" (http:/ / bayes. wustl. edu/ etj/ articles/ cmystery. pdf). Maximum Entropy and Bayesian Methods: 7. . [27] http:/ / home. fnal. gov/ ~skands/ slides/ A-Quantum-Journey. ppt [28] N. David Mermin. "Could Feynman Have Said This?" (http:/ / scitation. aip. org/ journals/ doc/ PHTOAD-ft/ vol_57/ iss_5/ 10_1. shtml). Physics Today 57 (5). .
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Further reading
G. Weihs et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 81 (1998) 5039 M. Rowe et al., Nature 409 (2001) 791. J.A. Wheeler & W.H. Zurek (eds), Quantum Theory and Measurement, Princeton University Press 1983 A. Petersen, Quantum Physics and the Philosophical Tradition, MIT Press 1968 H. Margeneau, The Nature of Physical Reality, McGraw-Hill 1950 M. Chown, Forever Quantum, New Scientist No. 2595 (2007) 37. T. Schrmann, A Single Particle Uncertainty Relation, Acta Physica Polonica B39 (2008) 587. (http://th-www. if.uj.edu.pl/acta/vol39/pdf/v39p0587.pdf)
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External links
Copenhagen Interpretation (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ qm-copenhagen) Physics FAQ section about Bell's inequality (http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/Quantum/ bells_inequality.html) The Copenhagen Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics (http://www.benbest.com/science/quantum.html) Preprint of Afshar Experiment (http://www.irims.org/quant-ph/030503/) The Quantum Illusion (http://knol.google.com/k/andy-biddulph/the-quantum-illusion/2na7zaaxgtohe/2/)
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4. Einstein's Objections
Principle of Locality
In physics, the principle of locality states that an object is influenced directly only by its immediate surroundings. Experiments have shown that quantum mechanically entangled particles must violate either the principle of locality or the form of philosophical realism known as counterfactual definiteness.
Pre-quantum mechanics
In the 17th Century Newton's law of universal gravitation was formulated in terms of action at a distance, thereby violating the principle of locality. Coulomb's law of electric forces was initially also formulated as instantaneous action at a distance, but was later superseded by Maxwell's Equations of electromagnetism which obey locality. In 1905 Albert Einstein's Special Theory of Relativity postulated that no material or energy can travel faster than the speed of light, and Einstein thereby sought to reformulate physical laws in a way which obeyed the principle of locality. He later succeeded in producing an alternative theory of gravitation, General Relativity, which obeys the principle of locality. However a different challenge to the principle of locality subsequently emerged from the theory of Quantum Mechanics, which Einstein himself had helped to create.
Quantum mechanics
Einstein's view
EPR Paradox Albert Einstein felt that there was something fundamentally incorrect with quantum mechanics since it predicted violations of the principle of locality. Seeking to undermine quantum mechanics, in a famous paper he and his co-authors articulated the Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen Paradox. Thirty years later John Stewart Bell responded with a paper that posited (paraphrased) that no physical theory of local hidden variables, no local realism, can ever reproduce all of the predictions of quantum mechanics (known as Bell's theorem). Philosophical view Einstein assumed that the principle of locality was necessary, and that there could be no violations of it. He said: The following idea characterises the relative independence of objects far apart in space, A and B: external influence on A has no direct influence on B; this is known as the Principle of Local Action, which is used consistently only in field theory. If this axiom were to be completely abolished, the idea of the existence of quasienclosed systems, and thereby the postulation of laws which can be checked empirically in the accepted sense, would become impossible.[1]
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Local realism
Local realism is the combination of the principle of locality with the "realistic" assumption that all objects must objectively have a pre-existing value for any possible measurement before the measurement is made. Einstein liked to say that the Moon is "out there" even when no one is observing it.
Realism
Realism in the sense used by physicists does not equate to realism in metaphysics.[2] The latter is the claim that the world is in some sense mind-independent: that even if the results of a possible measurement do not pre-exist the act of measurement, that does not require that they are the creation of the observer (contrary to the "consciousness causes collapse" interpretation of quantum mechanics). Furthermore, a mind-independent property does not have to be the value of some physical variable such as position or momentum. A property can be dispositional (or potential), i.e. it can be a tendency: in the way that glass objects tend to break, or are disposed to break, even if they do not actually break. Likewise, the mind-independent properties of quantum systems could consist of a tendency to respond to particular measurements with particular values with ascertainable probability.[3] Such an ontology would be metaphysically realistic, without being realistic in the physicist's sense of "local realism" (which would require that a single value be produced with certainty). A closely related term is counterfactual definiteness (CFD), used to refer to the claim that one can meaningfully speak of the definiteness of results of measurements that have not been performed (i.e. the ability to assume the existence of objects, and properties of objects, even when they have not been measured). Local realism is a significant feature of classical mechanics, of general relativity, and of electrodynamics; but quantum mechanics largely rejects this principle due to the theory of distant quantum entanglements, an interpretation rejected by Einstein in the EPR paradox but subsequently apparently quantified by Bell's inequalities.[4] Any theory, such as quantum mechanics, that violates Bell's inequalities must abandon either local realism or counterfactual definiteness; but some physicists dispute that experiments have demonstrated Bell's violations, on the grounds that the sub-class of inhomogeneous Bell inequalities has not been tested or due to experimental limitations in the tests. Different interpretations of quantum mechanics violate different parts of local realism and/or counterfactual definiteness.
In most of the conventional interpretations, such as the Copenhagen interpretation and the interpretation based on Consistent Histories, where the wavefunction is not assumed to be a direct physical interpretation of reality, it is local realism that is rejected. These interpretations propose that actual definite properties of a physical system "do not exist" prior to the measurement; and the wavefunction has a restricted interpretation, as nothing more than a mathematical tool used to calculate the probabilities of experimental outcomes, hence in agreement with positivism in philosophy as the only topic that science should discuss. In the version of the Copenhagen interpretation where the wavefunction is assumed to be a physical interpretation of reality (the nature of which is unspecified) the principle of locality is violated during the measurement process via wavefunction collapse. This is a non-local process because Born's Rule, when applied to the system's wavefunction, yields a probability density for all regions of space and time. Upon actual measurement of the physical system, the probability density vanishes everywhere instantaneously, except where (and when) the measured entity is found to exist. This "vanishing" is postulated to be a real physical process, and clearly non-local (i.e. faster than light) if the wavefunction is considered physically real and the probability density has converged to zero at arbitrarily far distances during the finite time required for the measurement process.
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Bohm interpretation
The Bohm interpretation preserves realism, hence it needs to violate the principle of locality in order to achieve the required correlations.
Many-worlds interpretation
In the many-worlds interpretation both realism and locality are retained, but counterfactual definiteness is rejected by the extension of the notion of reality to allow the existence of parallel universes. Because the differences between the different interpretations are mostly philosophical ones (except for the Bohm and many-worlds interpretations), physicists usually employ language in which the important statements are neutral with regard to all of the interpretations. In this framework, only the measurable action at a distance - a superluminal propagation of real, physical information - would usually be considered in violation of the principle of locality by physicists. Such phenomena have never been seen, and they are not predicted by the current theories.
Relativity
Locality is one of the axioms of relativistic quantum field theory, as required for causality. The formalization of locality in this case is as follows: if we have two observables, each localized within two distinct space-time regions which happen to be at a spacelike separation from each other, the observables must commute. Alternatively, a solution to the field equations is local if the underlying equations are either Lorentz invariant or, more generally, generally covariant or locally Lorentz invariant.
References
[1] [2] [3] [4] "Quantum Mechanics and Reality" ("Quanten-Mechanik und Wirklichkeit", Dialectica 2:320-324, 1948) Norsen, T. - Against "Realism" (http:/ / arxiv. org/ abs/ quant-ph/ 0607057v2) Ian Thomson's dispositional quantum mechanics (http:/ / www. generativescience. org/ ) Ben Dov, Y. Local Realism and the Crucial experiment. (http:/ / bendov. info/ eng/ crucial. htm)
External links
Quantum nonlocality vs. Einstein locality (http://www.rzuser.uni-heidelberg.de/~as3/nonlocality.html) by H. D. Zeh
EPR Paradox
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EPR Paradox
The EPR paradox is an early and influential critique leveled against quantum mechanics. Albert Einstein and his colleagues Boris Podolsky and Nathan Rosen (known collectively as EPR) designed a thought experiment intended to reveal what they believed to be inadequacies of quantum mechanics. To that end they pointed to a consequence of quantum mechanics that its supporters had not noticed. According to quantum mechanics, a single system has its own wave function, its own unitary quantum-theoretical description. If such a single system can be transformed into two individual systems, doing so does not create two wave functions. Instead, theory indicates that each system shares a single wave function. It was known from experiments that the outcome of an experiment sometimes cannot be uniquely predicted. An example of such indeterminacy can be seen when a beam of light is incident on a half-silvered mirror. One half of the beam will reflect, the other will pass. But what happens when we keep decreasing the intensity of the beam, so that only one photon is in transit at any time? Half of the photons will pass and another half will be reflected. Even if we 'prepare' the photons by passing them through a polarizer, there will always be an experiment of which the result could not be predicted with certainty. The routine explanation of this effect was, at that time, provided by Heisenberg's uncertainty principle. Physical quantities come in pairs which are called Conjugate quantities. Example of such a conjugate pair are position and momentum of a particle, or components of spin measured around different axes. When one quantity was measured, and became determined, the conjugated quantity became indeterminate. Heisenberg explained this as a disturbance caused by measurement. The EPR paper written in 1936 has shown that this explanation is inadequate. It considered two entangled particles, let's call them A and B, and pointed out measuring a quantity of a particle A will cause the conjugated quantity of particle B to become undetermined, even if there was no contact, no classical disturbance. Heisenberg's principle was an attempt to provide a classical explanation of a quantum effect we call non-locality. There were two possible explanations. Either there was some interaction between the particles, even though they were separated, or the information about the outcome of all possible measurements was already present in both particles. The EPR authors preferred the second explanation according to which that information was encoded in some 'hidden parameters'. The first explanation, that an effect propagated instantly, across a distance, was (and is) in conflict with the theory of relativity. However, as later experiments and Bell's theorem demonstrated, their preferred explanation was not viable. They then concluded that quantum mechanics was incomplete since, in its formalism, there was no space for such hidden parameters. They would both be determinate values, not just one of them as indicated by quantum mechanics. If the two values of the remote, undisturbed, system were real, then they must have been real all along and not determined by the act of measurement. The act of measurement might well disturb and change subsequent values of the system measured, but that fact did not deny that there must have been something real there to be measured all along. In short, they gave reason to believe that the second, undisturbed, system had a real and definite position, and a real and definite momentum, and that therefore the first system must also have had a real and definite position, and a real and definite momentum waiting there for the experimenter to disturb and change. However, quantum mechanics could not provide a theoretical description or prediction of these values, and so must be held to be incomplete.
EPR Paradox
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History of EPR developments

The article that first brought forth these matters, "Can Quantum-Mechanical Description of Physical Reality Be Considered Complete?" was published in 1935.[1] Einstein struggled to the end of his life for a theory that could better comply with his idea of causality, protesting against the view that there exists no objective physical reality other than that which is revealed through measurement interpreted in terms of quantum mechanical formalism. However, since Einstein's death, experiments analogous to the one described in the EPR paper have been carried out, starting in 1976 by French scientists Lamehi-Rachti and Mittig[2] at the Saclay Nuclear Research Centre. These experiments appear to show that the local realism idea is false,[3] thereby supporting the position of Bohr et al., against the challenge from Einstein and his group.
Quantum mechanics and its interpretation

Since the early twentieth century, quantum theory has proved to be successful in describing accurately the physical reality of the mesoscopic and microscopic world, in multiple reproducible physics experiments. Quantum mechanics was developed with the aim of describing atoms and explaining the observed spectral lines in a measurement apparatus. Although disputed, it has yet to be seriously challenged. Philosophical interpretations of quantum phenomena, however, are another matter: the question of how to interpret the mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics has given rise to a variety of different answers from people of different philosophical persuasions (see Interpretation of quantum mechanics). Quantum theory and quantum mechanics do not provide single measurement outcomes in a deterministic way. According to the understanding of quantum mechanics known as the Copenhagen interpretation, measurement causes an instantaneous collapse of the wave function describing the quantum system into an eigenstate of the observable state that was measured. Einstein characterized this imagined collapse in the 1927 Solvay Conference. He presented a thought experiment in which electrons are introduced through a small hole in a sphere whose inner surface serves as a detection screen. The electrons will contact the spherical detection screen in a widely dispersed manner. Those electrons, however, are all individually described by wave fronts that expand in all directions from the point of entry. A wave as it is understood in everyday life would paint a large area of the detection screen, but the electrons would be found to impact the screen at single points and would eventually form a pattern in keeping with the probabilities described by their identical wave functions. Einstein asks what makes each electron's wave front "collapse" at its respective location. Why do the electrons appear as single bright scintillations rather than as dim washes of energy across the surface? Why does any single electron appear at one point rather than some alternative point? The behavior of the electrons gives the impression of some signal having been sent to all possible points of contact that would have nullified all but one or them, or, in other words, would have preferentially selected a single point to the exclusion of all others.[4] The most prominent opponent of the Copenhagen interpretation is Albert Einstein. In his view, quantum mechanics is incomplete. Commenting on this, other writers (such as John von Neumann[5] and David Bohm[6]) have suggested that consequently there would have to be 'hidden' variables responsible for random measurement results, something which was not expressly claimed in the original paper. That paper, "Can Quantum-Mechanical Description of Physical Reality Be Considered Complete?"[7], authored by Einstein, Podolsky and Rosen in 1935, condensed the philosophical discussion into a physical argument. They claim that given a specific experiment, in which the outcome of a measurement is known before the measurement takes place, there must exist something in the real world, an "element of reality", that determines the measurement outcome. They postulate that these elements of reality are local, in the sense that each belongs to a certain point in spacetime. Each element may only be influenced by events which are located in the backward light cone of its point in spacetime (i.e. the past). These claims are founded on assumptions about nature that constitute what is now known as local realism.
EPR Paradox Though the EPR paper has often been taken as an exact expression of Einstein's views, it was primarily authored by Podolsky, based on discussions at the Institute for Advanced Study with Einstein and Rosen. Einstein later expressed to Erwin Schrdinger that, "it did not come out as well as I had originally wanted; rather, the essential thing was, so to speak, smothered by the formalism."[8] In 1936 Einstein presented an individual account of his local realist ideas.[9]
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Description of the paradox

The original EPR paradox challenges the prediction of quantum mechanics that it is impossible to know both the position and the momentum of a quantum particle. This challenge can be extended to other pairs of physical properties.
EPR paper
The original paper purports to describe what must happen to "two systems I and II, which we permit to interact ...", and, after some time, "we suppose that there is no longer any interaction between the two parts." In the words of Kumar (2009), the EPR description involves "two particles, A and B, [which] interact briefly and then move off in opposite directions."[10] According to Heisenberg's uncertainty principle, it is impossible to measure both the momentum and the position of particle B exactly. However, according to Kumar, it is possible to measure the exact position of particle A. By calculation, therefore, with the exact position of particle A known, the exact position of particle B can be known. Also, the exact momentum of particle A can be measured, so the exact momentum of particle B can be worked out. Kumar writes: "EPR argued that they had proved that ... [particle] B can have simultaneously exact values of position and momentum. ... Particle B has a position that is real and a momentum that is real." EPR appeared to have contrived a means to establish the exact values of either the momentum or the position of B due to measurements made on particle A, without the slightest possibility of particle B being physically disturbed.[11] EPR tried to set up a paradox to question the range of true application of Quantum Mechanics: Quantum theory predicts that both values cannot be known for a particle, and yet the EPR thought experiment purports to show that they must all have determinate values. The EPR paper says: "We are thus forced to conclude that the quantum-mechanical description of physical reality given by wave functions is not complete."[12] The EPR paper ends by saying: While we have thus shown that the wave function does not provide a complete description of the physical reality, we left open the question of whether or not such a description exists. We believe, however, that such a theory is possible.
Measurements on an entangled state

We have a source that emits electron-positron pairs, with the electron sent to destination A, where there is an observer named Alice, and the positron sent to destination B, where there is an observer named Bob. According to quantum mechanics, we can arrange our source so that each emitted pair occupies a quantum state called a spin singlet. The particles are thus said to be entangled. This can be viewed as a quantum superposition of two states, which we call state I and state II. In state I, the electron has spin pointing upward along the z-axis (+z) and the positron has spin pointing downward along the z-axis (-z). In state II, the electron has spin -z and the positron has spin +z. Therefore, it is impossible (without measuring) to know the definite state of spin of either particle in the spin singlet.
EPR Paradox
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The EPR thought experiment, performed with electron-positron pairs. A source (center) sends particles toward two observers, electrons to Alice (left) and positrons to Bob (right), who can perform spin measurements.
Alice now measures the spin along the z-axis. She can obtain one of two possible outcomes: +z or -z. Suppose she gets +z. According to the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics, the quantum state of the system collapses into state I. The quantum state determines the probable outcomes of any measurement performed on the system. In this case, if Bob subsequently measures spin along the z-axis, there is 100% probability that he will obtain -z. Similarly, if Alice gets -z, Bob will get +z. There is, of course, nothing special about choosing the z-axis: according to quantum mechanics the spin singlet state may equally well be expressed as a superposition of spin states pointing in the x direction. Suppose that Alice and Bob had decided to measure spin along the x-axis. We'll call these states Ia and IIa. In state Ia, Alice's electron has spin +x and Bob's positron has spin -x. In state IIa, Alice's electron has spin -x and Bob's positron has spin +x. Therefore, if Alice measures +x, the system 'collapses' into state Ia, and Bob will get -x. If Alice measures -x, the system collapses into state IIa, and Bob will get +x. Whatever axis their spins are measured along, they are always found to be opposite. This can only be explained if the particles are linked in some way. Either they were created with a definite (opposite) spin about every axisa "hidden variable" argument or they are linked so that one electron "feels" which axis the other is having its spin measured along, and becomes its opposite about that one axisan "entanglement" argument. Moreover, if the two particles have their spins measured about different axes, once the electron's spin has been measured about the x-axis (and the positron's spin about the x-axis deduced), the positron's spin about the y-axis will no longer be certain, as if (a) it knows that the measurement has taken place, or (b) it has a definite spin already, about a second axisa hidden variable. However, it turns out that the predictions of Quantum Mechanics, which have been confirmed by experiment, cannot be explained by any hidden variable theory. This is demonstrated in Bell's theorem.[13] In quantum mechanics, the x-spin and z-spin are "incompatible observables", meaning there is a Heisenberg uncertainty principle operating between them: a quantum state cannot possess a definite value for both of these variables. Suppose Alice measures the z-spin and obtains +z, so that the quantum state collapses into state I. Now, instead of measuring the z-spin as well, Bob measures the x-spin. According to quantum mechanics, when the system is in state I, Bob's x-spin measurement will have a 50% probability of producing +x and a 50% probability of -x. It is impossible to predict which outcome will appear until Bob actually performs the measurement. Here is the crux of the matter. You might imagine that, when Bob measures the x-spin of his positron, he would get an answer with absolute certainty, since prior to this he hasn't disturbed his particle at all. But Bob's positron has a 50% probability of producing +x and a 50% probability of -xso the outcome is not certain. Bob's positron "knows" that Alice's electron has been measured, and its z-spin detected, and hence B's z-spin calculated, so its x-spin is uncertain.
EPR Paradox Put another way, how does Bob's positron know which way to point if Alice decides (based on information unavailable to Bob) to measure x (i.e. to be the opposite of Alice's electron's spin about the x-axis) and also how to point if Alice measures z, since it is only supposed to know one thing at a time? The Copenhagen interpretation rules that say the wave function "collapses" at the time of measurement, so there must be action at a distance (entanglement) or the positron must know more than it's supposed to (hidden variables). Here is the paradox summed up: It is one thing to say that physical measurement of the first particle's momentum affects uncertainty in its own position, but to say that measuring the first particle's momentum affects the uncertainty in the position of the other is another thing altogether. Einstein, Podolsky and Rosen asked how can the second particle "know" to have precisely defined momentum but uncertain position? Since this implies that one particle is communicating with the other instantaneously across space, i.e. faster than light, this is the "paradox". Incidentally, Bell used spin as his example, but many types of physical quantitiesreferred to as "observables" in quantum mechanicscan be used. The EPR paper used momentum for the observable. Experimental realisations of the EPR scenario often use photon polarization, because polarized photons are easy to prepare and measure.
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Locality in the EPR experiment

The principle of locality states that physical processes occurring at one place should have no immediate effect on the elements of reality at another location. At first sight, this appears to be a reasonable assumption to make, as it seems to be a consequence of special relativity, which states that information can never be transmitted faster than the speed of light without violating causality. It is generally believed that any theory which violates causality would also be internally inconsistent, and thus deeply unsatisfactory. It turns out that the usual rules for combining quantum mechanical and classical descriptions violate the principle of locality without violating causality. Causality is preserved because there is no way for Alice to transmit messages (i.e. information) to Bob by manipulating her measurement axis. Whichever axis she uses, she has a 50% probability of obtaining "+" and 50% probability of obtaining "-", completely at random; according to quantum mechanics, it is fundamentally impossible for her to influence what result she gets. Furthermore, Bob is only able to perform his measurement once: there is a fundamental property of quantum mechanics, known as the "no cloning theorem", which makes it impossible for him to make a million copies of the electron he receives, perform a spin measurement on each, and look at the statistical distribution of the results. Therefore, in the one measurement he is allowed to make, there is a 50% probability of getting "+" and 50% of getting "-", regardless of whether or not his axis is aligned with Alice's. However, the principle of locality appeals powerfully to physical intuition, and Einstein, Podolsky and Rosen were unwilling to abandon it. Einstein derided the quantum mechanical predictions as "spooky action at a distance". The conclusion they drew was that quantum mechanics is not a complete theory. In recent years, however, doubt has been cast on EPR's conclusion due to developments in understanding locality and especially quantum decoherence. The word locality has several different meanings in physics. For example, in quantum field theory "locality" means that quantum fields at different points of space do not interact with one another. However, quantum field theories that are "local" in this sense appear to violate the principle of locality as defined by EPR, but they nevertheless do not violate locality in a more general sense. Wavefunction collapse can be viewed as an epiphenomenon of quantum decoherence, which in turn is nothing more than an effect of the underlying local time evolution of the wavefunction of a system and all of its environment. Since the underlying behaviour doesn't violate local causality, it follows that neither does the additional effect of wavefunction collapse, whether real or apparent. Therefore, as outlined in the example above, neither the EPR experiment nor any quantum experiment demonstrates that faster-than-light signaling is possible.
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Resolving the paradox

Hidden variables
There are several ways to resolve the EPR paradox. The one suggested by EPR is that quantum mechanics, despite its success in a wide variety of experimental scenarios, is actually an incomplete theory. In other words, there is some yet undiscovered theory of nature to which quantum mechanics acts as a kind of statistical approximation (albeit an exceedingly successful one). Unlike quantum mechanics, the more complete theory contains variables corresponding to all the "elements of reality". There must be some unknown mechanism acting on these variables to give rise to the observed effects of "non-commuting quantum observables", i.e. the Heisenberg uncertainty principle. Such a theory is called a hidden variable theory. To illustrate this idea, we can formulate a very simple hidden variable theory for the above thought experiment. One supposes that the quantum spin-singlet states emitted by the source are actually approximate descriptions for "true" physical states possessing definite values for the z-spin and x-spin. In these "true" states, the electron going to Bob always has spin values opposite to the electron going to Alice, but the values are otherwise completely random. For example, the first pair emitted by the source might be "(+z, -x) to Alice and (-z, +x) to Bob", the next pair "(-z, -x) to Alice and (+z, +x) to Bob", and so forth. Therefore, if Bob's measurement axis is aligned with Alice's, he will necessarily get the opposite of whatever Alice gets; otherwise, he will get "+" and "-" with equal probability. Assuming we restrict our measurements to the z and x axes, such a hidden variable theory is experimentally indistinguishable from quantum mechanics. In reality, there may be an infinite number of axes along which Alice and Bob can perform their measurements, so there would have to be an infinite number of independent hidden variables. However, this is not a serious problem; we have formulated a very simplistic hidden variable theory, and a more sophisticated theory might be able to patch it up. It turns out that there is a much more serious challenge to the idea of hidden variables. Bell's inequality In 1964, John Bell showed that the predictions of quantum mechanics in the EPR thought experiment are significantly different from the predictions of a particular class of hidden variable theories (the local hidden variable theories). Roughly speaking, quantum mechanics has a much stronger statistical correlation with measurement results performed on different axes than do these hidden variable theories. These differences, expressed using inequality relations known as "Bell's inequalities", are in principle experimentally detectable. Later work by Eberhard showed that the key properties of local hidden variable theories which lead to Bell's inequalities are locality and counter-factual definiteness. Any theory in which these principles apply produces the inequalities. Arthur Fine subsequently showed that any theory satisfying the inequalities can be modeled by a local hidden variable theory. After the publication of Bell's paper, a variety of experiments were devised to test Bell's inequalities (experiments which generally rely on photon polarization measurement). All the experiments conducted to date have found behavior in line with the predictions of standard quantum mechanics theory. However, Bell's theorem does not apply to all possible philosophically realist theories. It is a common misconception that quantum mechanics is inconsistent with all notions of philosophical realism, but realist interpretations of quantum mechanics are possible, although, as discussed above, such interpretations must reject either locality or counter-factual definiteness. Mainstream physics prefers to keep locality, while striving also to maintain a notion of realism that nevertheless rejects counter-factual definiteness. Examples of such mainstream realist interpretations are the consistent histories interpretation and the transactional interpretation. Fine's work showed that, taking locality as a given, there exist scenarios in which two statistical variables are correlated in a manner inconsistent with counter-factual definiteness, and that such scenarios are no more mysterious than any other, despite the inconsistency with counter-factual definiteness seeming 'counter-intuitive'.
EPR Paradox Violation of locality is difficult to reconcile with special relativity, and is thought to be incompatible with the principle of causality. On the other hand the Bohm interpretation of quantum mechanics keeps counter-factual definiteness while introducing a conjectured non-local mechanism in form of the 'quantum potential', defined as one of the terms of the Schrdinger equation. Some workers in the field have also attempted to formulate hidden variable theories that exploit loopholes in actual experiments, such as the assumptions made in interpreting experimental data, although no theory has been proposed that can reproduce all the results of quantum mechanics. There are also individual EPR-like experiments that have no local hidden variables explanation. Examples have been suggested by David Bohm and by Lucien Hardy.
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Einstein's hope for a purely algebraic theory

The Bohm interpretation of quantum mechanics hypothesizes that the state of the universe evolves smoothly through time with no collapsing of quantum wavefunctions. One problem for the Copenhagen interpretation is to precisely define wavefunction collapse. Einstein maintained that quantum mechanics is physically incomplete and logically unsatisfactory. In "The Meaning of Relativity," Einstein wrote, "One can give good reasons why reality cannot at all be represented by a continuous field. From the quantum phenomena it appears to follow with certainty that a finite system of finite energy can be completely described by a finite set of numbers (quantum numbers). This does not seem to be in accordance with a continuum theory and must lead to an attempt to find a purely algebraic theory for the representation of reality. But nobody knows how to find the basis for such a theory." If time, space, and energy are secondary features derived from a substrate below the Planck scale, then Einstein's hypothetical algebraic system might resolve the EPR paradox (although Bell's theorem would still be valid). Edward Fredkin in the Fredkin Finite Nature Hypothesis has suggested an informational basis for Einstein's hypothetical algebraic system. If physical reality is totally finite, then the Copenhagen interpretation might be an approximation to an information processing system below the Planck scale.
"Acceptable theories" and the experiment

According to the present view of the situation, quantum mechanics flatly contradicts Einstein's philosophical postulate that any acceptable physical theory must fulfill "local realism". In the EPR paper (1935) the authors realised that quantum mechanics was inconsistent with their assumptions, but Einstein nevertheless thought that quantum mechanics might simply be augmented by hidden variables (i.e. variables which were, at that point, still obscure to him), without any other change, to achieve an acceptable theory. He pursued these ideas for over twenty years until the end of his life, in 1955. In contrast, John Bell, in his 1964 paper, showed that quantum mechanics and the class of hidden variable theories Bell investigated[14] would lead to different experimental results: different by a factor of 32 for certain correlations. So the issue of "acceptability", up to that time mainly concerning theory, finally became experimentally decidable. There are many Bell test experiments, e.g. those of Alain Aspect and others. They support the predictions of quantum mechanics rather than the class of hidden variable theories Bell investigated.[15] According to Karl Popper these experiments showed that the class of "hidden variables" Bell investigated is erroneous.
Implications for quantum mechanics

Most physicists today believe that quantum mechanics is correct, and that the EPR paradox is a "paradox" only because classical intuitions do not correspond to physical reality. How EPR is interpreted regarding locality depends on the interpretation of quantum mechanics one uses. In the Copenhagen interpretation, it is usually understood that instantaneous wavefunction collapse does occur. However, the view that there is no causal instantaneous effect has also been proposed within the Copenhagen interpretation: in this alternate view, measurement affects our ability to define (and measure) quantities in the physical system, not the system itself. In the many-worlds interpretation locality is strictly preserved, since the effects of operations such as measurement affect only the state of the particle
EPR Paradox that is measured. However, the results of the measurement are not unique -- every possible result is obtained. The EPR paradox has deepened our understanding of quantum mechanics by exposing the fundamentally non-classical characteristics of the measurement process. Prior to the publication of the EPR paper, a measurement was often visualized as a physical disturbance inflicted directly upon the measured system. For instance, when measuring the position of an electron, one imagines shining a light on it, thus disturbing the electron and producing the quantum mechanical uncertainties in its position. Such explanations, which are still encountered in popular expositions of quantum mechanics, are debunked by the EPR paradox, which shows that a "measurement" can be performed on a particle without disturbing it directly, by performing a measurement on a distant entangled particle. In fact, Yakir Aharonov and his collaborators have developed a whole theory of so-called Weak measurement. Technologies relying on quantum entanglement are now being developed. In quantum cryptography, entangled particles are used to transmit signals that cannot be eavesdropped upon without leaving a trace. In quantum computation, entangled quantum states are used to perform computations in parallel, which may allow certain calculations to be performed much more quickly than they ever could be with classical computers.
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Mathematical formulation
The above discussion can be expressed mathematically using the quantum mechanical formulation of spin. The spin degree of freedom for an electron is associated with a two-dimensional complex Hilbert space H, with each quantum state corresponding to a vector in that space. The operators corresponding to the spin along the x, y, and z direction, denoted Sx, Sy, and Sz respectively, can be represented using the Pauli matrices:
where
stands for Planck's constant divided by 2.
The eigenstates of Sz are represented as
and the eigenstates of Sx are represented as
The Hilbert space of the electron pair is singlet state is
, the tensor product of the two electrons' Hilbert spaces. The spin
where the two terms on the right hand side are what we have referred to as state I and state II above. From the above equations, it can be shown that the spin singlet can also be written as
where the terms on the right hand side are what we have referred to as state Ia and state IIa. To illustrate how this leads to the violation of local realism, we need to show that after Alice's measurement of Sz (or Sx), Bob's value of Sz (or Sx) is uniquely determined, and therefore corresponds to an "element of physical reality". This follows from the principles of measurement in quantum mechanics. When Sz is measured, the system state collapses into an eigenvector of Sz. If the measurement result is +z, this means that immediately after measurement the system state undergoes an orthogonal projection of onto the space of states of the form
EPR Paradox For the spin singlet, the new state is
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Similarly, if Alice's measurement result is -z, the system undergoes an orthogonal projection onto
which means that the new state is
This implies that the measurement for Sz for Bob's electron is now determined. It will be -z in the first case or +z in the second case. It remains only to show that Sx and Sz cannot simultaneously possess definite values in quantum mechanics. One may show in a straightforward manner that no possible vector can be an eigenvector of both matrices. More generally, one may use the fact that the operators do not commute,
along with the Heisenberg uncertainty relation
References
Selected papers
A. Aspect, Bell's inequality test: more ideal than ever, Nature 398 189 (1999). [16] J.S. Bell, On the Einstein-Poldolsky-Rosen paradox [17], Physics 1 195bbcv://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v48/i8/p696_1] P.H. Eberhard, Bell's theorem without hidden variables. Nuovo Cimento 38B1 75 (1977). P.H. Eberhard, Bell's theorem and the different concepts of locality. Nuovo Cimento 46B 392 (1978). A. Einstein, B. Podolsky, and N. Rosen, Can quantum-mechanical description of physical reality be considered complete? [18] Phys. Rev. 47 777 (1935). [7] A. Fine, Hidden Variables, Joint Probability, and the Bell Inequalities. Phys. Rev. Lett. 48, 291 (1982).[19] A. Fine, Do Correlations need to be explained?, in Philosophical Consequences of Quantum Theory: Reflections on Bell's Theorem, edited by Cushing & McMullin (University of Notre Dame Press, 1986). L. Hardy, Nonlocality for two particles without inequalities for almost all entangled states. Phys. Rev. Lett. 71 1665 (1993).[20] M. Mizuki, A classical interpretation of Bell's inequality. Annales de la Fondation Louis de Broglie 26 683 (2001). P. Pluch, "Theory for Quantum Probability", PhD Thesis University of Klagenfurt (2006) M. A. Rowe, D. Kielpinski, V. Meyer, C. A. Sackett, W. M. Itano, C. Monroe and D. J. Wineland, Experimental violation of a Bell's inequality with efficient detection, Nature 409, 791-794 (15 February 2001). [21] M. Smerlak, C. Rovelli, Relational EPR [22]
EPR Paradox Notes

[1] Einstein, A; B Podolsky, N Rosen (1935-05-15). "Can Quantum-Mechanical Description of Physical Reality be Considered Complete?". Physical Review 47 (10): 777780. Bibcode1935PhRv...47..777E. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.47.777. [2] Advances in atomic and molecular physics, Volume 14 By David Robert Bates (http:/ / books. google. com. au/ books?id=dkaCKHKLo3gC& pg=PA330& lpg=PA330& dq="Saclay"+ "Bell's+ inequality"& source=bl& ots=u-b4s3klA0& sig=1P7sX78b-I9TKtT15KvRSADgLlo& hl=en& ei=VJ7aTpn-FMW8iAeJs-jsDQ& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=2& ved=0CCEQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage& q="Saclay" "Bell's inequality"& f=false) [3] Gribbin, J (1984). In Search of Schrdinger's cat. Black Swan. ISBN0704530716. [4] http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ qt-epr/ [5] von Neumann, J. (1932/1955). In Mathematische Grundlagen der Quantenmechanik, Springer, Berlin, translated into English by Beyer, R.T., Princeton University Press, Princeton, cited by Baggott, J. (2004) Beyond Measure: Modern physics, philosophy, and the meaning of quantum theory, Oxford University Press, Oxford, ISBN 0-19-852927-9, pages 144-145. [6] Bohm, D. (1951). Quantum Theory (http:/ / books. google. com. au/ books?id=9DWim3RhymsC& printsec=frontcover& dq=david+ bohm+ quantum+ theory& source=bl& ots=6G-2u1wtav& sig=Q1GcoVDLFRmKOmDYFAJte6LzrZU& hl=en& ei=Pv45TNSnLYffcfnS6foO& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=7& ved=0CEEQ6AEwBg#v=onepage& q& f=false), Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, page 29, and Chapter 5 section 3, and Chapter 22 Section 19. [7] http:/ / prola. aps. org/ abstract/ PR/ v47/ i10/ p777_1 [8] Quoted in Kaiser, David. "Bringing the human actors back on stage: the personal context of the Einstein-Bohr debate," British Journal for the History of Science 27 (1994): 129-152, on page 147. [9] See "Physics and Reality," originally published in vol. 221, No. 132327 of Journal of the Franklin Institute, pp. 313347, with the Jean Piccard translation starting p.380. The English translation can be downloaded, with different pagination, from: www.kostic.niu.edu/Physics and Reality-Albert Einstein.pdf. The relevant section appears on pp. 371-379. [10] Kumar, M., Quantum, Icon Books, 2009, p. 305. [11] Kumar, M., Quantum, Icon Books, 2009, p. 305-6. [12] Kumar, M., Quantum, Icon Books, 2009, p. 306. [13] George Greenstein and Arthur G. Zajonc, The Quantum Challenge, p. "[Experiments in the early 1980s] have conclusively shown that quantum mechanics is indeed orrect, and that the EPR argument had relied upon incorrect assumptions." [14] Clearing up mysteries: the original goal (http:/ / bayes. wustl. edu/ etj/ articles/ cmystery. pdf). . [15] Aspect A (1999-03-18). "Bells inequality test: more ideal than ever" (http:/ / www-ece. rice. edu/ ~kono/ ELEC565/ Aspect_Nature. pdf). Nature 398 (6724): 18990. Bibcode1999Natur.398..189A. doi:10.1038/18296. . Retrieved 2010-09-08. [16] http:/ / www-ece. rice. edu/ ~kono/ ELEC565/ Aspect_Nature. pdf [17] http:/ / www. drchinese. com/ David/ Bell_Compact. pdf [18] http:/ / www. drchinese. com/ David/ EPR. pdf [19] http:/ / prola. aps. org/ abstract/ PRL/ v48/ i5/ p291_1 [20] http:/ / prola. aps. org/ abstract/ PRL/ v71/ i11/ p1665_1 [21] http:/ / www. nature. com/ nature/ journal/ v409/ n6822/ full/ 409791a0. html [22] http:/ / arxiv. org/ abs/ quant-ph/ 0604064
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Books
John S. Bell (1987) Speakable and Unspeakable in Quantum Mechanics. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-36869-3. Arthur Fine (1996) The Shaky Game: Einstein, Realism and the Quantum Theory, 2nd ed. Univ. of Chicago Press. J.J. Sakurai, J. J. (1994) Modern Quantum Mechanics. Addison-Wesley: 174187, 223-232. ISBN 0-201-53929-2. Selleri, F. (1988) Quantum Mechanics Versus Local Realism: The Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen Paradox. New York: Plenum Press. ISBN 0-306-42739-7 Leon Lederman, L., Teresi, D. (1993). The God Particle: If the Universe is the Answer, What is the Question? Houghton Mifflin Company, pages 21, 187 to 189. John Gribbin (1984) In Search of Schrdinger's Cat. Black Swan. ISBN 9780552125550 .
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External links
The Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen Argument in Quantum Theory; 1.2 The argument in the text; http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/qt-epr/#1.2 The original EPR paper. (http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v47/i10/p777_1) Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: " The Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen Argument in Quantum Theory (http:// plato.stanford.edu/entries/qt-epr/)" by Arthur Fine. Abner Shimony (2004) " Bells Theorem. (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/bell-theorem/)" EPR, Bell & Aspect: The Original References. (http://www.drchinese.com/David/EPR_Bell_Aspect.htm) Does Bell's Inequality Principle rule out local theories of quantum mechanics? (http://math.ucr.edu/home/ baez/physics/Quantum/bells_inequality.html) From the Usenet Physics FAQ. Theoretical use of EPR in teleportation. (http://www.research.ibm.com/journal/rd/481/brassard.html) Effective use of EPR in cryptography. (http://www.dhushara.com/book/quantcos/aq/qcrypt.htm) EPR experiment with single photons interactive. (http://www.QuantumLab.de) Spooky Actions At A Distance?: Oppenheimer Lecture by Prof. Mermin. (http://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=ta09WXiUqcQ)
Bell's Theorem
In theoretical physics, Bell's theorem (a.k.a. Bell's inequality) is a no-go theorem, loosely stating that: No physical theory of local hidden variables can reproduce all of the predictions of quantum mechanics. The theorem has great importance for physics and the philosophy of science, as it implies that quantum physics must necessarily violate either the principle of locality or counterfactual definiteness.[1] It is the most famous legacy of the physicist John Stewart Bell. Results of tests of Bell's theorem agree with the predictions of quantum mechanical theory, and demonstrate that some quantum effects appear to travel faster than light. Hence the class of tenable hidden variable theories are limited to the non-local variety. However, none of the tests of the theorem performed to date has fulfilled all of the requisite conditions implicit in the theorem. Accordingly, none of the results are totally conclusive.
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Overview
Bells theorem implies that the concept of local realism, favoured by Einstein, yields predictions that disagree with those of quantum mechanical theory. Because numerous experiments agree with the predictions of quantum mechanical theory, and show correlations that are stronger than could be explained by local hidden variables, the concept of local realism is thus refuted as an explanation of the physical phenomena under test, and superluminal effects are evidenced. The theorem applies to any quantum system of two entangled qubits. The most common examples concern systems of particles that are entangled in spin or polarization. Following the argument in the EinsteinPodolskyRosen (EPR) paradox paper (but using the example of spin, as in David Bohm's version of the EPR Illustration of Bell test for particles such as photons. A source produces a singlet argument[2][3]), Bell considered an pair, one particle is sent to one location, and the other is sent to another location. A experiment in which there are "a pair of spin measurement of the entangled property is performed at various angles at each location. one-half particles formed somehow in the singlet spin state and moving freely in opposite directions."[2] Each is sent to two distant locations at which measurements of spin are performed, along axes that are independently chosen. Each measurement yields a result of either spin-up (+) or spin-down (). The probability of the same result being obtained at the two locations varies, depending on the relative angles at which the two spin measurements are made, and is subject to some uncertainty for all relative angles other than perfectly parallel alignments (0 or 180). Bell's theorem thus applies only to the statistical results from many trials of the experiment. Symbolically, the correlation between results for a single pair can be represented as either "+1" for a match, or "1" for a non-match. While measuring the spin of these entangled particles along parallel axes will always result in identical (i.e., perfectly correlated) results, measurement at perpendicular directions will have only a 50% chance of matching (i.e., will have a 50% probability of an uncorrelated result). These basic cases are illustrated in the table below.
Same axis Alice, 0 Bob, 0 Correlation: ( Pair 1 Pair 2 Pair 3 Pair 4 Pair n + + +1 +1 +1 + + +1 + + +1 ) / n = +1 (100% identical) Orthogonal axes Pair 1 Pair 2 Pair 3 Pair 4 Pair n Alice, 0 Bob, 90 Correlation ( + 1 +1 + + +1 + 1 1 )/n=0 (50% identical)
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With the measurements oriented at intermediate angles between these basic cases, the existence of local hidden variables would imply a linear variation in the correlation. However, according to quantum mechanical theory, the correlation varies as the cosine of the angle. Experimental results match the curve predicted by quantum mechanics. Bell achieved his breakthrough by first deriving the results that local realism would necessarily yield. Without making any The local realist prediction (solid lines) for quantum correlation for spin (assuming assumptions about the specific form of the 100% detector efficiency). The quantum mechanical prediction is the dotted theory beyond requirements of basic (cosine) curve. consistency, the mathematical inequality he discovered was clearly at odds with the results (described above) predicted by quantum mechanics and, later, observed experimentally. Thus, Bell's theorem rules out local hidden variables as a viable explanation of quantum mechanics (though it still leaves the door open for non-local hidden variables). Bell concluded: In a theory in which parameters are added to quantum mechanics to determine the results of individual measurements, without changing the statistical predictions, there must be a mechanism whereby the setting of one measuring device can influence the reading of another instrument, however remote. Moreover, the signal involved must propagate instantaneously, so that a theory could not be Lorentz invariant. [2] Over the years, Bell's theorem has undergone a wide variety of experimental tests. Various common deficiencies in the testing of the theorem have been identified, including the detection loophole[4] and the communication loophole.[4] Over the years experiments have been gradually improved to better address these loopholes, but no experiment to date has simultaneously fully addressed all of them.[4] To date, Bell's theorem is supported by a substantial body of evidence and is treated as a fundamental principle of physics in mainstream quantum mechanics textbooks.[5][6] However, no principle of physics can ever be absolutely beyond question; some theorists argue that experimental loopholes or hidden assumptions refute the theorem's validity,[7][8][9] though most physicists accept that experiments confirm the violation of Bell inequalities.[10]
Importance of the theorem

Bell's theorem, derived in his seminal 1964 paper titled On the Einstein Podolsky Rosen paradox,[2] has been called "the most profound in science".[11] The title of the article refers to the famous paper by Einstein, Podolsky and Rosen[12] that challenged the completeness of quantum mechanics. In his paper, Bell started from the same two assumptions as did EPR, namely (i) reality (that microscopic objects have real properties determining the outcomes of quantum mechanical measurements), and (ii) locality (that reality is not influenced by measurements performed simultaneously at a large distance). Bell was able to derive from those two assumptions an important result, namely Bell's inequality, implying that at least one of the assumptions must be false. In two respects Bell's 1964 paper was a step forward compared to the EPR paper: firstly, it considered more hidden variables than merely the element of physical reality in the EPR paper; and, more importantly, Bell's inequality was liable to be experimentally tested, thus yielding the opportunity to convert the question of local realism from philosophy to physics. Whereas Bell's paper deals only with deterministic hidden variable theories, Bell's theorem was later generalized to stochastic theories[13] as well, and it was also realised[14] that the theorem can even be
Bell's Theorem proven without introducing hidden variables. After the EPR paper, quantum mechanics was in an unsatisfactory position: either it was incomplete, in the sense that it failed to account for some elements of physical reality, or it violated the principle of a finite propagation speed of physical effects. In a modified version of the EPR thought experiment, two hypothetical observers, now commonly referred to as Alice and Bob, perform independent measurements of spin on a pair of electrons, prepared at a source in a special state called a spin singlet state. It is the conclusion of EPR that once Alice measures spin in one direction (e.g. on the x axis), Bob's measurement in that direction is determined with certainty, as being the opposite outcome to that of Alice, whereas immediately before Alice's measurement Bob's outcome was only statistically determined (i.e., was only a probability, not a certainty); thus, either the spin in each direction is an element of physical reality, or the effects travel from Alice to Bob instantly. In QM, predictions are formulated in terms of probabilities for example, the probability that an electron will be detected in a particular place, or the probability that its spin is up or down. The idea persisted, however, that the electron in fact has a definite position and spin, and that QM's weakness is its inability to predict those values precisely. The possibility existed that some unknown theory, such as a hidden variables theory, might be able to predict those quantities exactly, while at the same time also being in complete agreement with the probabilities predicted by QM. If such a hidden variables theory exists, then because the hidden variables are not described by QM the latter would be an incomplete theory. Two assumptions drove the desire to find a local realist theory: 1. Objects have a definite state that determines the values of all other measurable properties, such as position and momentum. 2. Effects of local actions, such as measurements, cannot travel faster than the speed of light (in consequence of special relativity). Thus if observers are sufficiently far apart, a measurement made by one can have no effect on a measurement made by the other. In the form of local realism used by Bell, the predictions of the theory result from the application of classical probability theory to an underlying parameter space. By a simple argument based on classical probability, he showed that correlations between measurements are bounded in a way that is violated by QM. Bell's theorem seemed to put an end to local realism. According to Bell's theorem, either quantum mechanics or local realism is wrong, as they are mutually exclusive. The paper noted that "it requires little imagination to envisage the experiments involved actually being made",[2] to determine which of them is correct, but it took many years and many improvements in technology to perform them. The Bell test experiments have been interpreted as showing that the Bell inequalities are violated in favour of QM. The no-communication theorem shows that the observers cannot use the effect to communicate (classical) information to each other faster than the speed of light, but the fair sampling and no enhancement assumptions require more careful consideration (below). John Bell's paper examines both John von Neumann's 1932 proof of the incompatibility of hidden variables with QM and the seminal 1935 EPR paper on the subject by Albert Einstein and his colleagues.
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Bell inequalities
Bell inequalities concern measurements made by observers on pairs of particles that have interacted and then separated. According to quantum mechanics they are entangled, while local realism would limit the correlation of subsequent measurements of the particles. Different authors subsequently derived inequalities similar to Bells original inequality, and these are here collectively termed Bell inequalities. All Bell inequalities describe experiments in which the predicted result from quantum entanglement differs from that flowing from local realism. The inequalities assume that each quantum-level object has a well-defined state that accounts for all its measurable properties and that distant objects do not exchange information faster than the speed of light. These well-defined states are typically called hidden variables, the properties that Einstein posited when he stated his famous objection to quantum mechanics: "God does not play dice." Bell showed that under quantum mechanics, the mathematics of which contains no local hidden variables, the Bell inequalities can nevertheless be violated: the properties of a particle are not clear, but may be correlated with those of another particle due to quantum entanglement, allowing their state to be well defined only after a measurement is made on either particle. That restriction agrees with the Heisenberg uncertainty principle, a fundamental concept in quantum mechanics. In Bell's words: Theoretical physicists live in a classical world, looking out into a quantum-mechanical world. The latter we describe only subjectively, in terms of procedures and results in our classical domain. () Now nobody knows just where the boundary between the classical and the quantum domain is situated. () More plausible to me is that we will find that there is no boundary. The wave functions would prove to be a provisional or incomplete description of the quantum-mechanical part. It is this possibility, of a homogeneous account of the world, which is for me the chief motivation of the study of the so-called "hidden variable" possibility. () A second motivation is connected with the statistical character of quantum-mechanical predictions. Once the incompleteness of the wave function description is suspected, it can be conjectured that random statistical fluctuations are determined by the extra "hidden" variables "hidden" because at this stage we can only conjecture their existence and certainly cannot control them. () A third motivation is in the peculiar character of some quantum-mechanical predictions, which seem almost to cry out for a hidden variable interpretation. This is the famous argument of Einstein, Podolsky and Rosen. () We will find, in fact, that no local deterministic hidden-variable theory can reproduce all the experimental predictions of quantum mechanics. This opens the possibility of bringing the question into the experimental domain, by trying to approximate as well as possible the idealized situations in which local hidden variables and quantum mechanics cannot agree.[15] In probability theory, repeated measurements of system properties can be regarded as repeated sampling of random variables. In Bell's experiment, Alice can choose a detector setting to measure either or and Bob can choose a detector setting to measure either or . Measurements of Alice and Bob may be somehow correlated with each other, but the Bell inequalities say that if the correlation stems from local random variables, there is a limit to the amount of correlation one might expect to see.
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Original Bell's inequality

The original inequality that Bell derived was:[2]
where C is the "correlation" of the particle pairs and a, b and c settings of the apparatus. This inequality is not used in practice. For one thing, it is true only for genuinely "two-outcome" systems, not for the "three-outcome" ones (with possible outcomes of zero as well as +1 and 1) encountered in real experiments. For another, it applies only to a very restricted set of hidden variable theories, namely those for which the outcomes on both sides of the experiment are always exactly anticorrelated when the analysers are parallel, in agreement with the quantum mechanical prediction. A simple limit of Bell's inequality has the virtue of being completely intuitive. If the result of three different statistical coin-flips A, B, and C have the property that: 1. A and B are the same (both heads or both tails) 99% of the time 2. B and C are the same 99% of the time then A and C are the same at least 98% of the time. The number of mismatches between A and B (1/100) plus the number of mismatches between B and C (1/100) are together the maximum possible number of mismatches between A and C. In quantum mechanics, by letting A, B, and C be the values of the spin of two entangled particles measured relative to some axis at 0 degrees, degrees, and 2 degrees respectively, the overlap of the wavefunction between the different angles is proportional to . The probability that A and B give the same answer is , where is proportional to . This is also the probability that B and C give the same answer. But A and C are the same 1(2)2 of the time. Choosing the angle so that , A and B are 99% correlated, B and C are 99% correlated and A and C are only 96% correlated. Imagine that two entangled particles in a spin singlet are shot out to two distant locations, and the spins of both are measured in the direction A. The spins are 100% correlated (actually, anti-correlated but for this argument that is equivalent). The same is true if both spins are measured in directions B or C. It is safe to conclude that any hidden variables that determine the A,B, and C measurements in the two particles are 100% correlated and can be used interchangeably. If A is measured on one particle and B on the other, the correlation between them is 99%. If B is measured on one and C on the other, the correlation is 99%. This allows us to conclude that the hidden variables determining A and B are 99% correlated and B and C are 99% correlated. But if A is measured in one particle and C in the other, the results are only 96% correlated, which is a contradiction. The intuitive formulation is due to David Mermin, while the small-angle limit is emphasized in Bell's original article.
CHSH inequality
In addition to Bell's original inequality,[2] the form given by John Clauser, Michael Horne, Abner Shimony and R. A. Holt,[16] (the CHSH form) is especially important,[16] as it gives classical limits to the expected correlation for the above experiment conducted by Alice and Bob:
where C denotes correlation. Correlation of observables X, Y is defined as
This is a non-normalized form of the correlation coefficient considered in statistics (see Quantum correlation). To formulate Bell's theorem, we formalize local realism as follows:
Bell's Theorem 1. There is a probability space and the observed outcomes by both Alice and Bob result by random sampling of
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the parameter . 2. The values observed by Alice or Bob are functions of the local detector settings and the hidden parameter only. Thus Value observed by Alice with detector setting is Value observed by Bob with detector setting is Implicit in assumption 1) above, the hidden parameter space random variable X on with respect to is written has a probability measure and the expectation of a
where for accessibility of notation we assume that the probability measure has a density. Bell's inequality. The CHSH inequality (1) holds under the hidden variables assumptions above. For simplicity, let us first assume the observed values are +1 or 1; we remove this assumption in Remark 1 below. Let . Then at least one of
is 0. Thus
and therefore
Remark 1 The correlation inequality (1) still holds if the variables , are allowed to take on any real
values between 1 and +1. Indeed, the relevant idea is that each summand in the above average is bounded above by 2. This is easily seen as true in the more general case:
To justify the upper bound 2 asserted in the last inequality, without loss of generality, we can assume that
In that case
Bell's Theorem Remark 2 Though the important component of the hidden parameter in Bell's original proof is associated with the source and is shared by Alice and Bob, there may be others that are associated with the separate detectors, these others being independent. This argument was used by Bell in 1971, and again by Clauser and Horne in 1974,[13] to justify a generalisation of the theorem forced on them by the real experiments, in which detectors were never 100% efficient. The derivations were given in terms of the averages of the outcomes over the local detector variables. The formalisation of local realism was thus effectively changed, replacing A and B by averages and retaining the symbol but with a slightly different meaning. It was henceforth restricted (in most theoretical work) to mean only those components that were associated with the source. However, with the extension proved in Remark 1, CHSH inequality still holds even if the instruments themselves contain hidden variables. In that case, averaging over the instrument hidden variables gives new variables:
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on
, which still have values in the range [1,+1] to which we can apply the previous result.
Bell inequalities are violated by quantum mechanical predictions

In the usual quantum mechanical formalism, the observables X and Y are represented as self-adjoint operators on a Hilbert space. To compute the correlation, assume that X and Y are represented by matrices in a finite dimensional space and that X and Y commute; this special case suffices for our purposes below. The von Neumann measurement postulate states: a series of measurements of an observable X on a series of identical systems in state produces a distribution of real values. By the assumption that observables are finite matrices, this distribution is discrete. The probability of observing is non-zero if and only if is an eigenvalue of the matrix X and moreover the probability is
where EX () is the projector corresponding to the eigenvalue . The system state immediately after the measurement is
From this, we can show that the correlation of commuting observables X and Y in a pure state
is
We apply this fact in the context of the EPR paradox. The measurements performed by Alice and Bob are spin measurements on electrons. Alice can choose between two detector settings labelled a and a; these settings correspond to measurement of spin along the z or the x axis. Bob can choose between two detector settings labelled b and b; these correspond to measurement of spin along the z or x axis, where the x z coordinate system is rotated 135 relative to the x z coordinate system. The spin observables are represented by the 2 2 self-adjoint matrices:
These are the Pauli spin matrices normalized so that the corresponding eigenvalues are +1, 1. As is customary, we denote the eigenvectors of Sx by Let be the spin singlet state for a pair of electrons discussed in the EPR paradox. This is a specially constructed state described by the following vector in the tensor product
Now let us apply the CHSH formalism to the measurements that can be performed by Alice and Bob.
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Illustration of Bell test for spin 1/2 particles. Source produces spin singlet pairs, one particle of each pair is sent to Alice and the other to Bob. Each performs one of the two spin measurements.
The operators
correspond to Bob's spin measurements along x and z. Note that the A operators
commute with the B operators, so we can apply our calculation for the correlation. In this case, we can show that the CHSH inequality fails. In fact, a straightforward calculation shows that
and
so that
Bell's Theorem: If the quantum mechanical formalism is correct, then the system consisting of a pair of entangled electrons cannot satisfy the principle of local realism. Note that is indeed the upper bound for quantum mechanics called Tsirelson's bound. The operators giving this maximal value are always isomorphic to the Pauli matrices.
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Practical experiments testing Bell's theorem

Experimental tests can determine whether the Bell inequalities required by local realism hold up to the empirical evidence. Bell's inequalities are tested by "coincidence counts" from a Bell test experiment such as the optical one shown in the diagram. Pairs of particles are emitted as a result of a quantum process, analysed with respect to some key property such as polarisation direction, then detected. The setting (orientations) of the analysers are selected by the
Scheme of a "two-channel" Bell test The source S produces pairs of "photons", sent in opposite directions. Each photon encounters a two-channel polariser whose orientation (a or b) can be set by the experimenter. Emerging signals from each channel are detected and coincidences of four types (++, , + and +) counted by the coincidence monitor.
experimenter. Bell test experiments to date overwhelmingly violate Bell's inequality. Indeed, a table of Bell test experiments performed prior to 1986 is given in 4.5 of Redhead, 1987.[17] Of the thirteen experiments listed, only two reached results contradictory to quantum mechanics; moreover, according to the same source, when the experiments were repeated, "the discrepancies with QM could not be reproduced". Nevertheless, the issue is not conclusively settled. According to Shimony's 2004 Stanford Encyclopedia overview article:[4] Most of the dozens of experiments performed so far have favored Quantum Mechanics, but not decisively because of the 'detection loopholes' or the 'communication loophole.' The latter has been nearly decisively blocked by a recent experiment and there is a good prospect for blocking the former. To explore the 'detection loophole', one must distinguish the classes of homogeneous and inhomogeneous Bell inequality. The standard assumption in Quantum Optics is that "all photons of given frequency, direction and polarization are identical" so that photodetectors treat all incident photons on an equal basis. Such a fair sampling assumption generally goes unacknowledged, yet it effectively limits the range of local theories to those that conceive of the light field as corpuscular. The assumption excludes a large family of local realist theories, in particular, Max Planck's description. We must remember the cautionary words of Albert Einstein[18] shortly before he died: "Nowadays every Tom, Dick and Harry ('jeder Kerl' in German original) thinks he knows what a photon is, but he is mistaken". Objective physical properties for Bells analysis (local realist theories) include the wave amplitude of a light signal. Those who maintain the concept of duality, or simply of light being a wave, recognize the possibility or actuality that the emitted atomic light signals have a range of amplitudes and, furthermore, that the amplitudes are modified when the signal passes through analyzing devices such as polarizers and beam splitters. It follows that not all signals have the same detection probability.[19]
Two classes of Bell inequalities

The fair sampling problem was faced openly in the 1970s. In early designs of their 1973 experiment, Freedman and Clauser[20] used fair sampling in the form of the Clauser-Horne-Shimony-Holt (CHSH[16]) hypothesis. However, shortly afterwards Clauser and Horne[13] made the important distinction between inhomogeneous (IBI) and homogeneous (HBI) Bell inequalities. Testing an IBI requires that we compare certain coincidence rates in two separated detectors with the singles rates of the two detectors. Nobody needed to perform the experiment, because
Bell's Theorem singles rates with all detectors in the 1970s were at least ten times all the coincidence rates. So, taking into account this low detector efficiency, the QM prediction actually satisfied the IBI. To arrive at an experimental design in which the QM prediction violates IBI we require detectors whose efficiency exceeds 82% for singlet states, but have very low dark rate and short dead and resolving times. This is well above the 30% achievable[21] so Shimonys optimism in the Stanford Encyclopedia, quoted in the preceding section, appears over-stated.
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Practical challenges
Because detectors don't detect a large fraction of all photons, Clauser and Horne[13] recognized that testing Bell's inequality requires some extra assumptions. They introduced the No Enhancement Hypothesis (NEH): A light signal, originating in an atomic cascade for example, has a certain probability of activating a detector. Then, if a polarizer is interposed between the cascade and the detector, the detection probability cannot increase. Given this assumption, there is a Bell inequality between the coincidence rates with polarizers and coincidence rates without polarizers. The experiment was performed by Freedman and Clauser,[20] who found that the Bell's inequality was violated. So the no-enhancement hypothesis cannot be true in a local hidden variables model. The Freedman-Clauser experiment reveals that local hidden variables imply the new phenomenon of signal enhancement: In the total set of signals from an atomic cascade there is a subset whose detection probability increases as a result of passing through a linear polarizer. This is perhaps not surprising, as it is known that adding noise to data can, in the presence of a threshold, help reveal hidden signals (this property is known[22] as stochastic resonance). One cannot conclude that this is the only local-realist alternative to Quantum Optics, but it does show that the word loophole is biased. Moreover, the analysis leads us to recognize that the Bell-inequality experiments, rather than showing a breakdown of realism or locality, are capable of revealing important new phenomena.
Theoretical challenges
Most advocates of the hidden variables idea believe that experiments have ruled out local hidden variables. They are ready to give up locality, explaining the violation of Bell's inequality by means of a non-local hidden variable theory, in which the particles exchange information about their states. This is the basis of the Bohm interpretation of quantum mechanics, which requires that all particles in the universe be able to instantaneously exchange information with all others. A recent experiment ruled out a large class of non-Bohmian non-local hidden variable theories.[23] If the hidden variables can communicate with each other faster than light, Bell's inequality can easily be violated. Once one particle is measured, it can communicate the necessary correlations to the other particle. Since in relativity the notion of simultaneity is not absolute, this is unattractive. One idea is to replace instantaneous communication with a process that travels backwards in time along the past Light cone. This is the idea behind a transactional interpretation of quantum mechanics, which interprets the statistical emergence of a quantum history as a gradual coming to agreement between histories that go both forward and backward in time.[24] A few advocates of deterministic models have not given up on local hidden variables. For example, Gerard 't Hooft has argued that the superdeterminism loophole cannot be dismissed.[25][26] The quantum mechanical wavefunction can also provide a local realistic description, if the wavefunction values are interpreted as the fundamental quantities that describe reality. Such an approach is called a many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics. In this view, two distant observers both split into superpositions when measuring a spin. The Bell inequality violations are no longer counterintuitive, because it is not clear which copy of the observer B observer A will see when going to compare notes. If reality includes all the different outcomes, locality in physical space (not outcome space) places no restrictions on how the split observers can meet up.
Bell's Theorem This implies that there is a subtle assumption in the argument that realism is incompatible with quantum mechanics and locality. The assumption, in its weakest form, is called counterfactual definiteness. This states that if the results of an experiment are always observed to be definite, there is a quantity that determines what the outcome would have been even if you don't do the experiment. Many worlds interpretations are not only counterfactually indefinite, they are factually indefinite. The results of all experiments, even ones that have been performed, are not uniquely determined. E. T. Jaynes[27] pointed out two hidden assumptions in Bell Inequality that could limit its generality: 1. Bell interpreted conditional probability P(X|Y) as a causal inference, i.e. Y exerted a causal inference on X in reality. However, P(X|Y) actually only means logical inference (deduction). Causes cannot travel faster than light or backward in time, but deduction can. 2. Bell's inequality does not apply to some possible hidden variable theories. It only applies to a certain class of local hidden variable theories. In fact, it might have just missed the kind of hidden variable theories that Einstein is most interested in.
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Cultural impact
David Kaiser of MIT mentioned in his book, How the Hippies Saved Physics, that the possibilities of instantaneous long-range communication derived from Bell's theorem stirred interest among hippies, psychics, and even the CIA. He further argues that a "Fundamental Fysiks Group" of hippie creed in fact rescued Bell's theorem from the obscurity, because it struck a chord in them tuned to the Buddhist teachings. As Kaiser quotes a member of the group: "Bell's theorem gives precise physical content to the mystic motto, 'we are all one' ". [28]
Final remarks
The violations of Bell's inequalities, due to quantum entanglement, just provide the definite demonstration of something that was already strongly suspected, that quantum physics cannot be represented by any version of the classical picture of physics. Some earlier elements that had seemed incompatible with classical pictures included apparent complementarity and (hypothesized) wavefunction collapse. Complementarity is now seen not as an independent ingredient of the quantum picture but rather as a direct consequence of the Quantum decoherence expected from the quantum formalism itself. The possibility of wavefunction collapse is now seen as one possible problematic ingredient of some interpretations, rather than as an essential part of quantum mechanics. The Bell violations show that no resolution of such issues can avoid the ultimate strangeness of quantum behavior. The EPR paper "pinpointed" the unusual properties of the entangled states, e.g. the above-mentioned singlet state, which is the foundation for present-day applications of quantum physics, such as quantum cryptography; one application involves the measurement of quantum entanglement as a physical source of bits for Rabin's oblivious transfer protocol. This strange non-locality was originally supposed to be a Reductio ad absurdum, because the standard interpretation could easily do away with action-at-a-distance by simply assigning to each particle definite spin-states. Bell's theorem showed that the "entangledness" prediction of quantum mechanics has a degree of non-locality that cannot be explained away by any local theory. In well-defined Bell experiments (see the paragraph on "test experiments") one can now falsify either quantum mechanics or Einstein's quasi-classical assumptions: currently many experiments of this kind have been performed, and the experimental results support quantum mechanics, though some believe that detectors give a biased sample of photons, so that until nearly every photon pair generated is observed there will be loopholes. What is powerful about Bell's theorem is that it doesn't refer to any particular physical theory. What makes Bell's theorem unique and powerful is that it shows that nature violates the most general assumptions behind classical pictures, not just details of some particular models. No combination of local deterministic and local random variables can reproduce the phenomena predicted by quantum mechanics and repeatedly observed in experiments.
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Notes
[1] Blaylock, Guy (2010). "The EPR paradox, Bell's inequality, and the question of locality". American Journal of Physics 78 (1): 111120. arXiv:0902.3827. Bibcode2010AmJPh..78..111B. doi:10.1119/1.3243279. [2] Bell, John (1964). "On the Einstein Podolsky Rosen Paradox" (http:/ / www. drchinese. com/ David/ Bell_Compact. pdf). Physics 1 (3): 195200. . [3] Bohm, David Quantum Theory. Prentice-Hall, 1951. [4] Article on Bell's Theorem (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ bell-theorem) by Abner Shimony in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, (2004). [5] Griffiths, David J. (1998). Introduction to Quantum Mechanics (2nd ed.). Pearson/Prentice Hall. pp.423. [6] Merzbacher, Eugene (2005). Quantum Mechanics (3rd ed.). John Wiley & Sons. pp.18, 362. [7] Buchanan, Mark (2 November 2007). "Quantum Untanglement: Is spookiness under threat?" (http:/ / www. ipod. org. uk/ reality/ reality_quantum_untanglement. asp). New Scientist. . [8] Joy Christian (2011). "Disproof of Bell's Theorem". arXiv:1103.1879[quant-ph]. [9] Thompson (1996). "The Chaotic Ball: An Intuitive Analogy for EPR Experiments". Foundations of Physics Letters 9 (4): 357382. arXiv:quant-ph/9611037. Bibcode1996FoPhL...9..357T. doi:10.1007/BF02186307. [10] Kumar, M. (2009). Quantum. Icon Books. p.350. [11] Stapp, 1975 [12] Einstein, A.; Podolsky, B.; Rosen, N. (1935). "Can Quantum-Mechanical Description of Physical Reality Be Considered Complete?". Physical Review 47 (10): 777. Bibcode1935PhRv...47..777E. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.47.777. [13] Clauser, John F. (1974). "Experimental consequences of objective local theories". Physical Review D 10 (2): 526. Bibcode1974PhRvD..10..526C. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.10.526. [14] Eberhard, P. H. (1977). "Bell's theorem without hidden variables". Nuovo Cimento B 38: 7580. Bibcode1977NCimB..38...75E. doi:10.1007/BF02726212. [15] Bell, JS, Speakable and unspeakable in quantum mechanics: Introduction remarks at Naples-Amalfi meeting., 1984. Reprinted in Speakable and unspeakable in quantum mechanics: collected papers on quantum philosophy. CUP, 2004, p. 29. [16] Clauser, John; Horne, Michael; Shimony, Abner; Holt, Richard (1969). "Proposed Experiment to Test Local Hidden-Variable Theories". Physical Review Letters 23 (15): 880. Bibcode1969PhRvL..23..880C. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.23.880. [17] M. Redhead, Incompleteness, Nonlocality and Realism, Clarendon Press (1987) [18] A. Einstein in Correspondance EinsteinBesso, p.265 (Herman, Paris, 1979) [19] Marshall and Santos, Semiclassical optics as an alternative to nonlocality (http:/ / www. crisisinphysics. co. uk/ optrev. pdf) Recent Research Developments in Optics 2:683-717 (2002) ISBN 81-7736-140-6 [20] Freedman, Stuart J.; Clauser, John F. (1972). "Experimental Test of Local Hidden-Variable Theories". Physical Review Letters 28 (14): 938. Bibcode1972PhRvL..28..938F. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.28.938. [21] Giorgio Brida; Marco Genovese; Marco Gramegna; Fabrizio Piacentini; Enrico Predazzi; Ivano Ruo-Berchera (2007). "Experimental tests of hidden variable theories from dBB to Stochastic Electrodynamics". Journal of Physics: Conference Series 67 (12047): 012047. arXiv:quant-ph/0612075. Bibcode2007JPhCS..67a2047G. doi:10.1088/1742-6596/67/1/012047. [22] Gammaitoni, Luca; Hnggi, Peter; Jung, Peter; Marchesoni, Fabio (1998). "Stochastic resonance". Reviews of Modern Physics 70: 223. Bibcode1998RvMP...70..223G. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.70.223. [23] Grblacher, Simon; Paterek, Tomasz; Kaltenbaek, Rainer; Brukner, aslav; ukowski, Marek; Aspelmeyer, Markus; Zeilinger, Anton (2007). "An experimental test of non-local realism". Nature 446 (7138): 8715. Bibcode2007Natur.446..871G. doi:10.1038/nature05677. PMID17443179. [24] Cramer, John (1986). "The transactional interpretation of quantum mechanics". Reviews of Modern Physics 58 (3): 647. Bibcode1986RvMP...58..647C. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.58.647. [25] Gerard 't Hooft (2009). "Entangled quantum states in a local deterministic theory". arXiv:0908.3408[quant-ph]. [26] Gerard 't Hooft (2007). "The Free-Will Postulate in Quantum Mechanics". arXiv:quant-ph/0701097[quant-ph]. [27] Jaynes, E. T. (1989). "Clearing up Mysteries--The Original Goal" (http:/ / bayes. wustl. edu/ etj/ articles/ cmystery. pdf). Maximum Entropy and Bayesian Methods: 12. . [28] How the Hippies Saved Physics: Science, Counterculture, and the Quantum Revival (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=i59PHb9XhJcC& printsec=frontcover& dq=How+ the+ Hippies+ Saved+ Physics:+ Science,+ Counterculture+ and+ the+ Quantum+ Revival. #v=onepage& q& f=false). W. W. Norton. 2011. ISBN9780393076363. .
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References
A. Aspect et al., Experimental Tests of Realistic Local Theories via Bell's Theorem, Phys. Rev. Lett. 47, 460 (1981) A. Aspect et al., Experimental Realization of Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen-Bohm Gedankenexperiment: A New Violation of Bell's Inequalities, Phys. Rev. Lett. 49, 91 (1982). A. Aspect et al., Experimental Test of Bell's Inequalities Using Time-Varying Analyzers, Phys. Rev. Lett. 49, 1804 (1982). A. Aspect and P. Grangier, About resonant scattering and other hypothetical effects in the Orsay atomic-cascade experiment tests of Bell inequalities: a discussion and some new experimental data, Lettere al Nuovo Cimento 43, 345 (1985) B. D'Espagnat, The Quantum Theory and Reality (http://www.sciam.com/media/pdf/197911_0158.pdf), Scientific American, 241, 158 (1979) J. S. Bell, On the problem of hidden variables in quantum mechanics, Rev. Mod. Phys. 38, 447 (1966) J. S. Bell, On the Einstein Podolsky Rosen Paradox, Physics 1, 3, 195-200 (1964) J. S. Bell, Introduction to the hidden variable question, Proceedings of the International School of Physics 'Enrico Fermi', Course IL, Foundations of Quantum Mechanics (1971) 17181 J. S. Bell, Bertlmanns socks and the nature of reality, Journal de Physique, Colloque C2, suppl. au numero 3, Tome 42 (1981) pp C2 4161 J. S. Bell, Speakable and Unspeakable in Quantum Mechanics (Cambridge University Press 1987) [A collection of Bell's papers, including all of the above.] J. F. Clauser and A. Shimony, Bell's theorem: experimental tests and implications, Reports on Progress in Physics 41, 1881 (1978) J. F. Clauser and M. A. Horne, Phys. Rev D 10, 526535 (1974) E. S. Fry, T. Walther and S. Li, Proposal for a loophole-free test of the Bell inequalities, Phys. Rev. A 52, 4381 (1995) E. S. Fry, and T. Walther, Atom based tests of the Bell Inequalities the legacy of John Bell continues, pp 103117 of Quantum [Un]speakables, R.A. Bertlmann and A. Zeilinger (eds.) (Springer, Berlin-Heidelberg-New York, 2002) R. B. Griffiths, Consistent Quantum Theory', Cambridge University Press (2002). L. Hardy, Nonlocality for 2 particles without inequalities for almost all entangled states. Physical Review Letters 71 (11) 16651668 (1993) M. A. Nielsen and I. L. Chuang, Quantum Computation and Quantum Information, Cambridge University Press (2000) P. Pearle, Hidden-Variable Example Based upon Data Rejection, Physical Review D 2, 141825 (1970) A. Peres, Quantum Theory: Concepts and Methods, Kluwer, Dordrecht, 1993. P. Pluch, Theory of Quantum Probability, PhD Thesis, University of Klagenfurt, 2006. B. C. van Frassen, Quantum Mechanics, Clarendon Press, 1991. M.A. Rowe, D. Kielpinski, V. Meyer, C.A. Sackett, W.M. Itano, C. Monroe, and D.J. Wineland, Experimental violation of Bell's inequalities with efficient detection,(Nature, 409, 791794, 2001). S. Sulcs, The Nature of Light and Twentieth Century Experimental Physics, Foundations of Science 8, 365391 (2003) S. Grblacher et al., An experimental test of non-local realism,(Nature, 446, 871875, 2007). D. N. Matsukevich, P. Maunz, D. L. Moehring, S. Olmschenk, and C. Monroe, Bell Inequality Violation with Two Remote Atomic Qubits, Phys. Rev. Lett. 100, 150404 (2008). The comic Dilbert, by Scott Adams, refers to Bell's Theorem in the 1992-09-21 (http://www.dilbert.com/strips/ comic/1992-09-21/) and 1992-09-22 (http://www.dilbert.com/strips/comic/1992-09-22/) strips.
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Further reading
The following are intended for general audiences. Amir D. Aczel, Entanglement: The greatest mystery in physics (Four Walls Eight Windows, New York, 2001). A. Afriat and F. Selleri, The Einstein, Podolsky and Rosen Paradox (Plenum Press, New York and London, 1999) J. Baggott, The Meaning of Quantum Theory (Oxford University Press, 1992) N. David Mermin, "Is the moon there when nobody looks? Reality and the quantum theory", in Physics Today, April 1985, pp.3847. Louisa Gilder, The Age of Entanglement: When Quantum Physics Was Reborn (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2008) Brian Greene, The Fabric of the Cosmos (Vintage, 2004, ISBN 0-375-72720-5) Nick Herbert, Quantum Reality: Beyond the New Physics (Anchor, 1987, ISBN 0-385-23569-0) D. Wick, The infamous boundary: seven decades of controversy in quantum physics (Birkhauser, Boston 1995) R. Anton Wilson, Prometheus Rising (New Falcon Publications, 1997, ISBN 1-56184-056-4) Gary Zukav "The Dancing Wu Li Masters" (Perennial Classics, 2001, ISBN 0-06-095968-1)
External links
An explanation of Bell's Theorem (http://www.ncsu.edu/felder-public/kenny/papers/bell.html), based on N. D. Mermin's article, Mermin, N. D. (1981). "Bringing home the atomic world: Quantum mysteries for anybody". American Journal of Physics 49 (10): 940. Bibcode1981AmJPh..49..940M. doi:10.1119/1.12594. Mermin: Spooky Actions At A Distance? Oppenheimer Lecture (http://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=ta09WXiUqcQ) Quantum Entanglement (http://www.ipod.org.uk/reality/reality_entangled.asp) Includes a simple explanation of Bell's Inequality. Bell's theorem on arXiv.org (http://xstructure.inr.ac.ru/x-bin/theme3.py?level=2&index1=369244) Interactive experiments with single photons: entanglement and Bells theorem (http://www.didaktik.physik. uni-erlangen.de/quantumlab/english/index.html) Bell's Inequalities: Obscurantist Obfuscation or Condign Confabulation? (http://groups.google.com/groups/ profile?hl=en&show=more&enc_user=8YcXCQ4AAABUc-oUoA1Uy7yFEaUY6YXQ&group=sci.physics)
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5. Advanced Principles
Quantum Field Theory
Quantum field theory (QFT) provides a theoretical framework for constructing quantum mechanical models of systems classically parametrized (represented) by an infinite number of degrees of freedom, that is, fields and (in a condensed matter context) many-body systems. It is the natural and quantitative language of particle physics and condensed matter physics. Most theories in modern particle physics, including the Standard Model of elementary particles and their interactions, are formulated as relativistic quantum field theories. Quantum field theories are used in many contexts, and are especially vital in elementary particle physics, where the particle count/number may change over the course of a reaction. They are also used in the description of critical phenomena and quantum phase transitions, such as in the BCS theory of superconductivity. In perturbative quantum field theory, the forces between particles are mediated by other particles. The electromagnetic force between two electrons is caused by an exchange of photons. Intermediate vector bosons mediate the weak force and gluons mediate the strong force. There is currently no complete quantum theory of the remaining fundamental force, gravity, but many of the proposed theories postulate the existence of a graviton particle that mediates it. These force-carrying particles are virtual particles and, by definition, cannot be detected while carrying the force, because such detection will imply that the force is not being carried. In addition, the notion of "force mediating particle" comes from perturbation theory, and thus does not make sense in a context of bound states. In QFT, photons are not thought of as "little billiard balls" but are rather viewed as field quanta necessarily chunked ripples in a field, or "excitations", that "look like" particles. Fermions, like the electron, can also be described as ripples/excitations in a field, where each kind of fermion has its own field. In summary, the classical visualisation of "everything is particles and field", in quantum field theory, resolves into "everything is particles", which then resolves into "everything is fields". In the end, particles are regarded as excited states of a field (field quanta). The gravitational field and the electromagnetic field are the only two fundamental fields in Nature that have infinite range and a corresponding classical low-energy limit, which greatly diminishes and hides their "particle-like" excitations. Albert Einstein, in 1905, attributed "particle-like" and discrete exchanges of momenta and energy, characteristic of "field quanta", to the electromagnetic field. Originally, his principal motivation was to explain the thermodynamics of radiation. Although it is often claimed that the photoelectric and Compton effects require a quantum description of the EM field, this is now understood to be untrue, and proper proof of the quantum nature of radiation is now taken up into modern quantum optics as in the antibunching effect.[1] The word "photon" was coined in 1926 by physical chemist Gilbert Newton Lewis (see also the articles photon antibunching and laser). In the "low-energy limit", the quantum field-theoretic description of the electromagnetic field, quantum electrodynamics, does not exactly reduce to James Clerk Maxwell's 1864 theory of classical electrodynamics. Small quantum corrections due to virtual electron positron pairs give rise to small non-linear corrections to the Maxwell equations, although the "classical limit" of quantum electrodynamics has not been as widely explored as that of quantum mechanics. Presumably, the as yet unknown correct quantum field-theoretic treatment of the gravitational field will become and "look exactly like" Einstein's general theory of relativity in the "low-energy limit", or, more generally, like the Einstein-Yang-Mills-Dirac System. Indeed, quantum field theory itself is possibly the low-energy-effective-field-theory limit of a more fundamental theory such as superstring theory. Compare in this context the article effective field theory.
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History
Quantum field theory originated in the 1920s from the problem of creating a quantum mechanical theory of the electromagnetic field. In particlular de Broglie in 1924 introduced the idea of a wave description of elementary systems in the following way: "we proceed in this work from the assumption of existence of a certain periodic phenomenon of a yet to be determined character, which is to be attributed to each and every isolated energy parcel".[2] In 1925, Werner Heisenberg, Max Born, and Pascual Jordan constructed such a theory by expressing the field's internal degrees of freedom as an infinite set of harmonic oscillators and by employing the canonical quantization procedure to those oscillators. This theory assumed that no electric charges or currents were present and today would be called a free field theory. The first reasonably complete theory of quantum electrodynamics, which included both the electromagnetic field and electrically charged matter (specifically, electrons) as quantum mechanical objects, was created by Paul Dirac in 1927.[3] This quantum field theory could be used to model important processes such as the emission of a photon by an electron dropping into a quantum state of lower energy, a process in which the number of particles changesone atom in the initial state becomes an atom plus a photon in the final state. It is now understood that the ability to describe such processes is one of the most important features of quantum field theory. It was evident from the beginning that a proper quantum treatment of the electromagnetic field had to somehow incorporate Einstein's relativity theory, which had grown out of the study of classical electromagnetism. This need to put together relativity and quantum mechanics was the second major motivation in the development of quantum field theory. Pascual Jordan and Wolfgang Pauli showed in 1928 that quantum fields could be made to behave in the way predicted by special relativity during coordinate transformations (specifically, they showed that the field commutators were Lorentz invariant). A further boost for quantum field theory came with the discovery of the Dirac equation, which was originally formulated and interpreted as a single-particle equation analogous to the Schrdinger equation, but unlike the Schrdinger equation, the Dirac equation satisfies both the Lorentz invariance, that is, the requirements of special relativity, and the rules of quantum mechanics. The Dirac equation accommodated the spin-1/2 value of the electron and accounted for its magnetic moment as well as giving accurate predictions for the spectra of hydrogen. The attempted interpretation of the Dirac equation as a single-particle equation could not be maintained long, however, and finally it was shown that several of its undesirable properties (such as negative-energy states) could be made sense of by reformulating and reinterpreting the Dirac equation as a true field equation, in this case for the quantized "Dirac field" or the "electron field", with the "negative-energy solutions" pointing to the existence of anti-particles. This work was performed first by Dirac himself with the invention of hole theory in 1930 and by Wendell Furry, Robert Oppenheimer, Vladimir Fock, and others. Schrdinger, during the same period that he discovered his famous equation in 1926, also independently found the relativistic generalization of it known as the Klein-Gordon equation but dismissed it since, without spin, it predicted impossible properties for the hydrogen spectrum. (See Oskar Klein and Walter Gordon.) All relativistic wave equations that describe spin-zero particles are said to be of the Klein-Gordon type. Of great importance are the studies of Soviet physicists, Viktor Ambartsumian and Dmitri Ivanenko, in particular the Ambarzumian-Ivanenko hypothesis of creation of massive particles (published in 1930) which is the cornerstone of the contemporary quantum field theory.[4] The idea is that not only the quanta of the electromagnetic field, photons, but also other particles (including particles having nonzero rest mass) may be born and disappear as a result of their interaction with other particles. This idea of Ambartsumian and Ivanenko formed the basis of modern quantum field theory and theory of elementary particles.[5][6] A subtle and careful analysis in 1933 and later in 1950 by Niels Bohr and Leon Rosenfeld showed that there is a fundamental limitation on the ability to simultaneously measure the electric and magnetic field strengths that enter into the description of charges in interaction with radiation, imposed by the uncertainty principle, which must apply to all canonically conjugate quantities. This limitation is crucial for the successful formulation and interpretation of a quantum field theory of photons and electrons (quantum electrodynamics), and indeed, any perturbative quantum
Quantum Field Theory field theory. The analysis of Bohr and Rosenfeld explains fluctuations in the values of the electromagnetic field that differ from the classically "allowed" values distant from the sources of the field. Their analysis was crucial to showing that the limitations and physical implications of the uncertainty principle apply to all dynamical systems, whether fields or material particles. Their analysis also convinced most people that any notion of returning to a fundamental description of nature based on classical field theory, such as what Einstein aimed at with his numerous and failed attempts at a classical unified field theory, was simply out of the question. The third thread in the development of quantum field theory was the need to handle the statistics of many-particle systems consistently and with ease. In 1927, Jordan tried to extend the canonical quantization of fields to the many-body wave functions of identical particles, a procedure that is sometimes called second quantization. In 1928, Jordan and Eugene Wigner found that the quantum field describing electrons, or other fermions, had to be expanded using anti-commuting creation and annihilation operators due to the Pauli exclusion principle. This thread of development was incorporated into many-body theory and strongly influenced condensed matter physics and nuclear physics. Despite its early successes quantum field theory was plagued by several serious theoretical difficulties. Basic physical quantities, such as the self-energy of the electron, the energy shift of electron states due to the presence of the electromagnetic field, gave infinite, divergent contributionsa nonsensical resultwhen computed using the perturbative techniques available in the 1930s and most of the 1940s. The electron self-energy problem was already a serious issue in the classical electromagnetic field theory, where the attempt to attribute to the electron a finite size or extent (the classical electron-radius) led immediately to the question of what non-electromagnetic stresses would need to be invoked, which would presumably hold the electron together against the Coulomb repulsion of its finite-sized "parts". The situation was dire, and had certain features that reminded many of the "Rayleigh-Jeans difficulty". What made the situation in the 1940s so desperate and gloomy, however, was the fact that the correct ingredients (the second-quantized Maxwell-Dirac field equations) for the theoretical description of interacting photons and electrons were well in place, and no major conceptual change was needed analogous to that which was necessitated by a finite and physically sensible account of the radiative behavior of hot objects, as provided by the Planck radiation law. This "divergence problem" was solved in the case of quantum electrodynamics during the late 1940s and early 1950s by Hans Bethe, Tomonaga, Schwinger, Feynman, and Dyson, through the procedure known as renormalization. Great progress was made after realizing that ALL infinities in quantum electrodynamics are related to two effects: the self-energy of the electron/positron and vacuum polarization. Renormalization concerns the business of paying very careful attention to just what is meant by, for example, the very concepts "charge" and "mass" as they occur in the pure, non-interacting field-equations. The "vacuum" is itself polarizable and, hence, populated by virtual particle (on shell and off shell) pairs, and, hence, is a seething and busy dynamical system in its own right. This was a critical step in identifying the source of "infinities" and "divergences". The "bare mass" and the "bare charge" of a particle, the values that appear in the free-field equations (non-interacting case), are abstractions that are simply not realized in experiment (in interaction). What we measure, and hence, what we must take account of with our equations, and what the solutions must account for, are the "renormalized mass" and the "renormalized charge" of a particle. That is to say, the "shifted" or "dressed" values these quantities must have when due care is taken to include all deviations from their "bare values" is dictated by the very nature of quantum fields themselves. The first approach that bore fruit is known as the "interaction representation", (see the article Interaction picture) a Lorentz covariant and gauge-invariant generalization of time-dependent perturbation theory used in ordinary quantum mechanics, and developed by Tomonaga and Schwinger, generalizing earlier efforts of Dirac, Fock and Podolsky. Tomonaga and Schwinger invented a relativistically covariant scheme for representing field commutators and field operators intermediate between the two main representations of a quantum system, the Schrdinger and the Heisenberg representations (see the article on quantum mechanics). Within this scheme, field commutators at separated points can be evaluated in terms of "bare" field creation and annihilation operators. This allows for keeping
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Quantum Field Theory track of the time-evolution of both the "bare" and "renormalized", or perturbed, values of the Hamiltonian and expresses everything in terms of the coupled, gauge invariant "bare" field-equations. Schwinger gave the most elegant formulation of this approach. The next and most famous development is due to Feynman, who, with his brilliant rules for assigning a "graph"/"diagram" to the terms in the scattering matrix (See S-Matrix Feynman diagrams). These directly corresponded (through the Schwinger-Dyson equation) to the measurable physical processes (cross sections, probability amplitudes, decay widths and lifetimes of excited states) one needs to be able to calculate. This revolutionized how quantum field theory calculations are carried-out in practice. Two classic text-books from the 1960s, J.D. Bjorken and S.D. Drell, Relativistic Quantum Mechanics (1964) and J.J. Sakurai, Advanced Quantum Mechanics (1967), thoroughly developed the Feynman graph expansion techniques using physically intuitive and practical methods following from the correspondence principle, without worrying about the technicalities involved in deriving the Feynman rules from the superstructure of quantum field theory itself. Although both Feynman's heuristic and pictorial style of dealing with the infinities, as well as the formal methods of Tomonaga and Schwinger, worked extremely well, and gave spectacularly accurate answers, the true analytical nature of the question of "renormalizability", that is, whether ANY theory formulated as a "quantum field theory" would give finite answers, was not worked-out till much later, when the urgency of trying to formulate finite theories for the strong and electro-weak (and gravitational interactions) demanded its solution. Renormalization in the case of QED was largely fortuitous due to the smallness of the coupling constant, the fact that the coupling has no dimensions involving mass, the so-called fine structure constant, and also the zero-mass of the gauge boson involved, the photon, rendered the small-distance/high-energy behavior of QED manageable. Also, electromagnetic processess are very "clean" in the sense that they are not badly suppressed/damped and/or hidden by the other gauge interactions. By 1958 Sidney Drell observed: "Quantum electrodynamics (QED) has achieved a status of peaceful coexistence with its divergences...". The unification of the electromagnetic force with the weak force encountered with initial difficulties due to the lack of accelerator energies high enough to reveal processes beyond the Fermi interaction range. Additionally, a satisfactory theoretical understanding of hadron substructure had to be developed, culminating in the quark model. In the case of the strong interactions, progress concerning their short-distance/high-energy behavior was much slower and more frustrating. For strong interactions with the electro-weak fields, there were difficult issues regarding the strength of coupling, the mass generation of the force carriers as well as their non-linear, self interactions. Although there has been theoretical progress toward a grand unified quantum field theory incorporating the electro-magnetic force, the weak force and the strong force, empirical verification is still pending. Superunification, incorporating the gravitational force, is still very speculative, and is under intensive investigation by many of the best minds in contemporary theoretical physics. Gravitation is a tensor field description of a spin-2 gauge-boson, the "graviton", and is further discussed in the articles on general relativity and quantum gravity. From the point of view of the techniques of (four-dimensional) quantum field theory, and as the numerous and heroic efforts to formulate a consistent quantum gravity theory by some very able minds attests, gravitational quantization was, and is still, the reigning champion for bad behavior. There are problems and frustrations stemming from the fact that the gravitational coupling constant has dimensions involving inverse powers of mass, and as a simple consequence, it is plagued by badly behaved (in the sense of perturbation theory) non-linear and violent self-interactions. Gravity, basically, gravitates, which in turn...gravitates...and so on, (i.e., gravity is itself a source of gravity,...,) thus creating a nightmare at all orders of perturbation theory. Also, gravity couples to all energy equally strongly, as per the equivalence principle, so this makes the notion of ever really "switching-off", "cutting-off" or separating, the gravitational interaction from other interactions ambiguous and impossible since, with gravitation, we are dealing with the very structure of space-time itself. (See general covariance and, for a modest, yet highly non-trivial and significant interplay between (QFT) and gravitation (spacetime), see the article Hawking radiation and references cited therein. Also quantum field theory in curved spacetime).
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Quantum Field Theory Thanks to the somewhat brute-force, clanky and heuristic methods of Feynman, and the elegant and abstract methods of Tomonaga/Schwinger, from the period of early renormalization, we do have the modern theory of quantum electrodynamics (QED). It is still the most accurate physical theory known, the prototype of a successful quantum field theory. Beginning in the 1950s with the work of Yang and Mills, as well as Ryoyu Utiyama, following the previous lead of Weyl and Pauli, deep explorations illuminated the types of symmetries and invariances any field theory must satisfy. QED, and indeed, all field theories, were generalized to a class of quantum field theories known as gauge theories. Quantum electrodynamics is the most famous example of what is known as an Abelian gauge theory. It relies on the symmetry group U(1) and has one massless gauge field, the U(1) gauge symmetry, dictating the form of the interactions involving the electromagnetic field, with the photon being the gauge boson. That symmetries dictate, limit and necessitate the form of interaction between particles is the essence of the "gauge theory revolution". Yang and Mills formulated the first explicit example of a non-Abelian gauge theory, Yang-Mills theory, with an attempted explanation of the strong interactions in mind. The strong interactions were then (incorrectly) understood in the mid-1950s, to be mediated by the pi-mesons, the particles predicted by Hideki Yukawa in 1935, based on his profound reflections concerning the reciprocal connection between the mass of any force-mediating particle and the range of the force it mediates. This was allowed by the uncertainty principle. The 1960s and 1970s saw the formulation of a gauge theory now known as the Standard Model of particle physics, which systematically describes the elementary particles and the interactions between them. The electroweak interaction part of the standard model was formulated by Sheldon Glashow in the years 1958-60 with his discovery of the SU(2)xU(1) group structure of the theory. Steven Weinberg and Abdus Salam brilliantly invoked the Anderson-Higgs mechanism for the generation of the W's and Z masses (the intermediate vector boson(s) responsible for the weak interactions and neutral-currents) and keeping the mass of the photon zero. The Goldstone/Higgs idea for generating mass in gauge theories was sparked in the late 1950s and early 1960s when a number of theoreticians (including Yoichiro Nambu, Steven Weinberg, Jeffrey Goldstone, Franois Englert, Robert Brout, G. S. Guralnik, C. R. Hagen, Tom Kibble and Philip Warren Anderson) noticed a possibly useful analogy to the (spontaneous) breaking of the U(1) symmetry of electromagnetism in the formation of the BCS ground-state of a superconductor. The gauge boson involved in this situation, the photon, behaves as though it has acquired a finite mass. There is a further possibility that the physical vacuum (ground-state) does not respect the symmetries implied by the "unbroken" electroweak Lagrangian (see the article Electroweak interaction for more details) from which one arrives at the field equations. The electroweak theory of Weinberg and Salam was shown to be renormalizable (finite) and hence consistent by Gerardus 't Hooft and Martinus Veltman. The Glashow-Weinberg-Salam theory (GWS-Theory) is a triumph and, in certain applications, gives an accuracy on a par with quantum electrodynamics. Also during the 1970s, parallel developments in the study of phase transitions in condensed matter physics led Leo Kadanoff, Michael Fisher and Kenneth Wilson (extending work of Ernst Stueckelberg, Andre Peterman, Murray Gell-Mann, and Francis Low) to a set of ideas and methods known as the renormalization group. By providing a better physical understanding of the renormalization procedure invented in the 1940s, the renormalization group sparked what has been called the "grand synthesis" of theoretical physics, uniting the quantum field theoretical techniques used in particle physics and condensed matter physics into a single theoretical framework.
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Principles of quantum field theory

Classical fields and quantum fields
Quantum mechanics, in its most general formulation, is a theory of abstract operators (observables) acting on an abstract state space (Hilbert space), where the observables represent physically observable quantities and the state space represents the possible states of the system under study. Furthermore, each observable corresponds, in a technical sense, to the classical idea of a degree of freedom. For instance, the fundamental observables associated with the motion of a single quantum mechanical particle are the position and momentum operators and .
Quantum Field Theory Ordinary quantum mechanics deals with systems such as this, which possess a small set of degrees of freedom. (It is important to note, at this point, that this article does not use the word "particle" in the context of waveparticle duality. In quantum field theory, "particle" is a generic term for any discrete quantum mechanical entity, such as an electron or photon, which can behave like classical particles or classical waves under different experimental conditions, such that one could say 'this "particle" can behave like a wave or a particle'.) A quantum field is a quantum mechanical system containing a large, and possibly infinite, number of degrees of freedom. A classical field contains a set of degrees of freedom at each point of space; for instance, the classical electromagnetic field defines two vectors the electric field and the magnetic field that can in principle take on distinct values for each position r. When the field as a whole is considered as a quantum mechanical system, its observables form an infinite (in fact uncountable) set, because r is continuous. Furthermore, the degrees of freedom in a quantum field are arranged in "repeated" sets. For example, the degrees of freedom in an electromagnetic field can be grouped according to the position r, with exactly two vectors for each r. Note that r is an ordinary number that "indexes" the observables; it is not to be confused with the position operator encountered in ordinary quantum mechanics, which is an observable. (Thus, ordinary quantum mechanics is sometimes referred to as "zero-dimensional quantum field theory", because it contains only a single set of observables.) It is also important to note that there is nothing special about r because, as it turns out, there is generally more than one way of indexing the degrees of freedom in the field. In the following sections, we will show how these ideas can be used to construct a quantum mechanical theory with the desired properties. We will begin by discussing single-particle quantum mechanics and the associated theory of many-particle quantum mechanics. Then, by finding a way to index the degrees of freedom in the many-particle problem, we will construct a quantum field and study its implications.
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Single-particle and many-particle quantum mechanics

In quantum mechanics, the time-dependent Schrdinger equation for a single particle in one dimension is
where m is the particle's mass, V is the applied potential, and
denotes the wavefunction.
We wish to consider how this problem generalizes to N particles. There are two motivations for studying the many-particle problem. The first is a straightforward need in condensed matter physics, where typically the number of particles is on the order of Avogadro's number (6.0221415 x 1023). The second motivation for the many-particle problem arises from particle physics and the desire to incorporate the effects of special relativity. If one attempts to include the relativistic rest energy into the above equation (in quantum mechanics where position is an observable), the result is either the Klein-Gordon equation or the Dirac equation. However, these equations have many unsatisfactory qualities; for instance, they possess energy eigenvalues that extend to , so that there seems to be no easy definition of a ground state. It turns out that such inconsistencies arise from relativistic wavefunctions having a probabilistic interpretation in position space, as probability conservation is not a relativistically covariant concept. In quantum field theory, unlike in quantum mechanics, position is not an observable, and thus, one does not need the concept of a position-space probability density. For quantum fields whose interaction can be treated perturbatively, this is equivalent to neglecting the possibility of dynamically creating or destroying particles, which is a crucial aspect of relativistic quantum theory. Einstein's famous mass-energy relation allows for the possibility that sufficiently massive particles can decay into several lighter particles, and sufficiently energetic particles can combine to form massive particles. For example, an electron and a positron can annihilate each other to create photons. This suggests that a consistent relativistic quantum theory should be able to describe many-particle dynamics.
Quantum Field Theory Furthermore, we will assume that the N particles are indistinguishable. As described in the article on identical particles, this implies that the state of the entire system must be either symmetric (bosons) or antisymmetric (fermions) when the coordinates of its constituent particles are exchanged. These multi-particle states are rather complicated to write. For example, the general quantum state of a system of N bosons is written as
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where
are the single-particle states, Nj is the number of particles occupying state j, and the sum is taken over
all possible permutations p acting on N elements. In general, this is a sum of N! (N factorial) distinct terms, which quickly becomes unmanageable as N increases. The way to simplify this problem is to turn it into a quantum field theory.
Second quantization
In this section, we will describe a method for constructing a quantum field theory called second quantization. This basically involves choosing a way to index the quantum mechanical degrees of freedom in the space of multiple identical-particle states. It is based on the Hamiltonian formulation of quantum mechanics; several other approaches exist, such as the Feynman path integral,[7] which uses a Lagrangian formulation. For an overview, see the article on quantization. Second quantization of bosons For simplicity, we will first discuss second quantization for bosons, which form perfectly symmetric quantum states. Let us denote the mutually orthogonal single-particle states by and so on. For example, the 3-particle state with one particle in state and two in state is
The first step in second quantization is to express such quantum states in terms of occupation numbers, by listing the number of particles occupying each of the single-particle states etc. This is simply another way of labelling the states. For instance, the above 3-particle state is denoted as The next step is to expand the N-particle state space to include the state spaces for all possible values of N. This extended state space, known as a Fock space, is composed of the state space of a system with no particles (the so-called vacuum state), plus the state space of a 1-particle system, plus the state space of a 2-particle system, and so forth. It is easy to see that there is a one-to-one correspondence between the occupation number representation and valid boson states in the Fock space. At this point, the quantum mechanical system has become a quantum field in the sense we described above. The field's elementary degrees of freedom are the occupation numbers, and each occupation number is indexed by a number , indicating which of the single-particle states it refers to. The properties of this quantum field can be explored by defining creation and annihilation operators, which add and subtract particles. They are analogous to "ladder operators" in the quantum harmonic oscillator problem, which added and subtracted energy quanta. However, these operators literally create and annihilate particles of a given quantum state. The bosonic annihilation operator and creation operator have the following effects:
It can be shown that these are operators in the usual quantum mechanical sense, i.e. linear operators acting on the Fock space. Furthermore, they are indeed Hermitian conjugates, which justifies the way we have written them. They
Quantum Field Theory can be shown to obey the commutation relation
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where
stands for the Kronecker delta. These are precisely the relations obeyed by the ladder operators for an
infinite set of independent quantum harmonic oscillators, one for each single-particle state. Adding or removing bosons from each state is therefore analogous to exciting or de-exciting a quantum of energy in a harmonic oscillator. The Hamiltonian of the quantum field (which, through the Schrdinger equation, determines its dynamics) can be written in terms of creation and annihilation operators. For instance, the Hamiltonian of a field of free (non-interacting) bosons is
where
is the energy of the k-th single-particle energy eigenstate. Note that
Hence,
is known as the number operator for the k-th eigenstate.
Second quantization of fermions It turns out that a different definition of creation and annihilation must be used for describing fermions. According to the Pauli exclusion principle, fermions cannot share quantum states, so their occupation numbers Ni can only take on the value 0 or 1. The fermionic annihilation operators c and creation operators are defined by their actions on a Fock state thus
These obey an anticommutation relation:
One may notice from this that applying a fermionic creation operator twice gives zero, so it is impossible for the particles to share single-particle states, in accordance with the exclusion principle. Field operators We have previously mentioned that there can be more than one way of indexing the degrees of freedom in a quantum field. Second quantization indexes the field by enumerating the single-particle quantum states. However, as we have discussed, it is more natural to think about a "field", such as the electromagnetic field, as a set of degrees of freedom indexed by position. To this end, we can define field operators that create or destroy a particle at a particular point in space. In particle physics, these operators turn out to be more convenient to work with, because they make it easier to formulate theories that satisfy the demands of relativity. Single-particle states are usually enumerated in terms of their momenta (as in the particle in a box problem.) We can construct field operators by applying the Fourier transform to the creation and annihilation operators for these states. For example, the bosonic field annihilation operator is
The bosonic field operators obey the commutation relation
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where
stands for the Dirac delta function. As before, the fermionic relations are the same, with the
commutators replaced by anticommutators. The field operator is not the same thing as a single-particle wavefunction. The former is an operator acting on the Fock space, and the latter is a quantum-mechanical amplitude for finding a particle in some position. However, they are closely related, and are indeed commonly denoted with the same symbol. If we have a Hamiltonian with a space representation, say
where the indices i and j run over all particles, then the field theory Hamiltonian (in the non-relativistic limit and for negligible self-interactions) is
This looks remarkably like an expression for the expectation value of the energy, with
playing the role of the
wavefunction. This relationship between the field operators and wavefunctions makes it very easy to formulate field theories starting from space-projected Hamiltonians.
Implications of quantum field theory

Unification of fields and particles The "second quantization" procedure that we have outlined in the previous section takes a set of single-particle quantum states as a starting point. Sometimes, it is impossible to define such single-particle states, and one must proceed directly to quantum field theory. For example, a quantum theory of the electromagnetic field must be a quantum field theory, because it is impossible (for various reasons) to define a wavefunction for a single photon. In such situations, the quantum field theory can be constructed by examining the mechanical properties of the classical field and guessing the corresponding quantum theory. For free (non-interacting) quantum fields, the quantum field theories obtained in this way have the same properties as those obtained using second quantization, such as well-defined creation and annihilation operators obeying commutation or anticommutation relations. Quantum field theory thus provides a unified framework for describing "field-like" objects (such as the electromagnetic field, whose excitations are photons) and "particle-like" objects (such as electrons, which are treated as excitations of an underlying electron field), so long as one can treat interactions as "perturbations" of free fields. There are still unsolved problems relating to the more general case of interacting fields that may or may not be adequately described by perturbation theory. For more on this topic, see Haag's theorem. Physical meaning of particle indistinguishability The second quantization procedure relies crucially on the particles being identical. We would not have been able to construct a quantum field theory from a distinguishable many-particle system, because there would have been no way of separating and indexing the degrees of freedom. Many physicists prefer to take the converse interpretation, which is that quantum field theory explains what identical particles are. In ordinary quantum mechanics, there is not much theoretical motivation for using symmetric (bosonic) or antisymmetric (fermionic) states, and the need for such states is simply regarded as an empirical fact. From the point of view of quantum field theory, particles are identical if and only if they are excitations of the same underlying quantum field. Thus, the question "why are all electrons identical?" arises from mistakenly regarding individual electrons as fundamental objects, when in fact it is only the electron field that is fundamental.
Quantum Field Theory Particle conservation and non-conservation During second quantization, we started with a Hamiltonian and state space describing a fixed number of particles (N), and ended with a Hamiltonian and state space for an arbitrary number of particles. Of course, in many common situations N is an important and perfectly well-defined quantity, e.g. if we are describing a gas of atoms sealed in a box. From the point of view of quantum field theory, such situations are described by quantum states that are eigenstates of the number operator , which measures the total number of particles present. As with any quantum mechanical observable, is conserved if it commutes with the Hamiltonian. In that case, the quantum state is trapped in the N-particle subspace of the total Fock space, and the situation could equally well be described by ordinary N-particle quantum mechanics. (Strictly speaking, this is only true in the noninteracting case or in the low energy density limit of renormalized quantum field theories) For example, we can see that the free-boson Hamiltonian described above conserves particle number. Whenever the Hamiltonian operates on a state, each particle destroyed by an annihilation operator ak is immediately put back by the creation operator . On the other hand, it is possible, and indeed common, to encounter quantum states that are not eigenstates of ,
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which do not have well-defined particle numbers. Such states are difficult or impossible to handle using ordinary quantum mechanics, but they can be easily described in quantum field theory as quantum superpositions of states having different values of N. For example, suppose we have a bosonic field whose particles can be created or destroyed by interactions with a fermionic field. The Hamiltonian of the combined system would be given by the Hamiltonians of the free boson and free fermion fields, plus a "potential energy" term such as
where
and ak denotes the bosonic creation and annihilation operators,
and ck denotes the fermionic creation
and annihilation operators, and Vq is a parameter that describes the strength of the interaction. This "interaction term" describes processes in which a fermion in state k either absorbs or emits a boson, thereby being kicked into a different eigenstate k+q. (In fact, this type of Hamiltonian is used to describe interaction between conduction electrons and phonons in metals. The interaction between electrons and photons is treated in a similar way, but is a little more complicated because the role of spin must be taken into account.) One thing to notice here is that even if we start out with a fixed number of bosons, we will typically end up with a superposition of states with different numbers of bosons at later times. The number of fermions, however, is conserved in this case. In condensed matter physics, states with ill-defined particle numbers are particularly important for describing the various superfluids. Many of the defining characteristics of a superfluid arise from the notion that its quantum state is a superposition of states with different particle numbers. In addition, the concept of a coherent state (used to model the laser and the BCS ground state) refers to a state with an ill-defined particle number but a well-defined phase.
Axiomatic approaches
The preceding description of quantum field theory follows the spirit in which most physicists approach the subject. However, it is not mathematically rigorous. Over the past several decades, there have been many attempts to put quantum field theory on a firm mathematical footing by formulating a set of axioms for it. These attempts fall into two broad classes. The first class of axioms, first proposed during the 1950s, include the Wightman, Osterwalder-Schrader, and Haag-Kastler systems. They attempted to formalize the physicists' notion of an "operator-valued field" within the context of functional analysis, and enjoyed limited success. It was possible to prove that any quantum field theory satisfying these axioms satisfied certain general theorems, such as the spin-statistics theorem and the CPT theorem. Unfortunately, it proved extraordinarily difficult to show that any realistic field theory, including the Standard Model, satisfied these axioms. Most of the theories that could be treated with these analytic axioms were physically trivial, being restricted to low-dimensions and lacking interesting dynamics. The construction of theories satisfying
Quantum Field Theory one of these sets of axioms falls in the field of constructive quantum field theory. Important work was done in this area in the 1970s by Segal, Glimm, Jaffe and others. During the 1980s, a second set of axioms based on geometric ideas was proposed. This line of investigation, which restricts its attention to a particular class of quantum field theories known as topological quantum field theories, is associated most closely with Michael Atiyah and Graeme Segal, and was notably expanded upon by Edward Witten, Richard Borcherds, and Maxim Kontsevich. However, most of the physically relevant quantum field theories, such as the Standard Model, are not topological quantum field theories; the quantum field theory of the fractional quantum Hall effect is a notable exception. The main impact of axiomatic topological quantum field theory has been on mathematics, with important applications in representation theory, algebraic topology, and differential geometry. Finding the proper axioms for quantum field theory is still an open and difficult problem in mathematics. One of the Millennium Prize Problemsproving the existence of a mass gap in Yang-Mills theoryis linked to this issue.
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Phenomena associated with quantum field theory

In the previous part of the article, we described the most general properties of quantum field theories. Some of the quantum field theories studied in various fields of theoretical physics possess additional special properties, such as renormalizability, gauge symmetry, and supersymmetry. These are described in the following sections.
Renormalization
Early in the history of quantum field theory, it was found that many seemingly innocuous calculations, such as the perturbative shift in the energy of an electron due to the presence of the electromagnetic field, give infinite results. The reason is that the perturbation theory for the shift in an energy involves a sum over all other energy levels, and there are infinitely many levels at short distances that each give a finite contribution. Many of these problems are related to failures in classical electrodynamics that were identified but unsolved in the 19th century, and they basically stem from the fact that many of the supposedly "intrinsic" properties of an electron are tied to the electromagnetic field that it carries around with it. The energy carried by a single electronits self energyis not simply the bare value, but also includes the energy contained in its electromagnetic field, its attendant cloud of photons. The energy in a field of a spherical source diverges in both classical and quantum mechanics, but as discovered by Weisskopf with help from Wendell Furry, in quantum mechanics the divergence is much milder, going only as the logarithm of the radius of the sphere. The solution to the problem, presciently suggested by Stueckelberg, independently by Bethe after the crucial experiment by Lamb, implemented at one loop by Schwinger, and systematically extended to all loops by Feynman and Dyson, with converging work by Tomonaga in isolated postwar Japan, comes from recognizing that all the infinities in the interactions of photons and electrons can be isolated into redefining a finite number of quantities in the equations by replacing them with the observed values: specifically the electron 's mass and charge: this is called renormalization. The technique of renormalization recognizes that the problem is essentially purely mathematical, that extremely short distances are at fault. In order to define a theory on a continuum, first place a cutoff on the fields, by postulating that quanta cannot have energies above some extremely high value. This has the effect of replacing continuous space by a structure where very short wavelengths do not exist, as on a lattice. Lattices break rotational symmetry, and one of the crucial contributions made by Feynman, Pauli and Villars, and modernized by 't Hooft and Veltman, is a symmetry-preserving cutoff for perturbation theory (this process is called regularization). There is no known symmetrical cutoff outside of perturbation theory, so for rigorous or numerical work people often use an actual lattice. On a lattice, every quantity is finite but depends on the spacing. When taking the limit of zero spacing, we make sure that the physically observable quantities like the observed electron mass stay fixed, which means that the constants in the Lagrangian defining the theory depend on the spacing. Hopefully, by allowing the constants to vary with the
Quantum Field Theory lattice spacing, all the results at long distances become insensitive to the lattice, defining a continuum limit. The renormalization procedure only works for a certain class of quantum field theories, called renormalizable quantum field theories. A theory is perturbatively renormalizable when the constants in the Lagrangian only diverge at worst as logarithms of the lattice spacing for very short spacings. The continuum limit is then well defined in perturbation theory, and even if it is not fully well defined non-perturbatively, the problems only show up at distance scales that are exponentially small in the inverse coupling for weak couplings. The Standard Model of particle physics is perturbatively renormalizable, and so are its component theories (quantum electrodynamics/electroweak theory and quantum chromodynamics). Of the three components, quantum electrodynamics is believed to not have a continuum limit, while the asymptotically free SU(2) and SU(3) weak hypercharge and strong color interactions are nonperturbatively well defined. The renormalization group describes how renormalizable theories emerge as the long distance low-energy effective field theory for any given high-energy theory. Because of this, renormalizable theories are insensitive to the precise nature of the underlying high-energy short-distance phenomena. This is a blessing because it allows physicists to formulate low energy theories without knowing the details of high energy phenomenon. It is also a curse, because once a renormalizable theory like the standard model is found to work, it gives very few clues to higher energy processes. The only way high energy processes can be seen in the standard model is when they allow otherwise forbidden events, or if they predict quantitative relations between the coupling constants.
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Gauge freedom
A gauge theory is a theory that admits a symmetry with a local parameter. For example, in every quantum theory the global phase of the wave function is arbitrary and does not represent something physical. Consequently, the theory is invariant under a global change of phases (adding a constant to the phase of all wave functions, everywhere); this is a global symmetry. In quantum electrodynamics, the theory is also invariant under a local change of phase, that is one may shift the phase of all wave functions so that the shift may be different at every point in space-time. This is a local symmetry. However, in order for a well-defined derivative operator to exist, one must introduce a new field, the gauge field, which also transforms in order for the local change of variables (the phase in our example) not to affect the derivative. In quantum electrodynamics this gauge field is the electromagnetic field. The change of local gauge of variables is termed gauge transformation. In quantum field theory the excitations of fields represent particles. The particle associated with excitations of the gauge field is the gauge boson, which is the photon in the case of quantum electrodynamics. The degrees of freedom in quantum field theory are local fluctuations of the fields. The existence of a gauge symmetry reduces the number of degrees of freedom, simply because some fluctuations of the fields can be transformed to zero by gauge transformations, so they are equivalent to having no fluctuations at all, and they therefore have no physical meaning. Such fluctuations are usually called "non-physical degrees of freedom" or gauge artifacts; usually some of them have a negative norm, making them inadequate for a consistent theory. Therefore, if a classical field theory has a gauge symmetry, then its quantized version (i.e. the corresponding quantum field theory) will have this symmetry as well. In other words, a gauge symmetry cannot have a quantum anomaly. If a gauge symmetry is anomalous (i.e. not kept in the quantum theory) then the theory is non-consistent: for example, in quantum electrodynamics, had there been a gauge anomaly, this would require the appearance of photons with longitudinal polarization and polarization in the time direction, the latter having a negative norm, rendering the theory inconsistent; another possibility would be for these photons to appear only in intermediate processes but not in the final products of any interaction, making the theory non-unitary and again inconsistent (see optical theorem). In general, the gauge transformations of a theory consist of several different transformations, which may not be commutative. These transformations are together described by a mathematical object known as a gauge group. Infinitesimal gauge transformations are the gauge group generators. Therefore the number of gauge bosons is the group dimension (i.e. number of generators forming a basis).
Quantum Field Theory All the fundamental interactions in nature are described by gauge theories. These are: Quantum chromodynamics, whose gauge group is SU(3). The gauge bosons are eight gluons. The electroweak theory, whose gauge group is U(1) SU(2), (a direct product of U(1) and SU(2)). Gravity, whose classical theory is general relativity, admits the equivalence principle, which is a form of gauge symmetry. However, it is explicitly non-renormalizable.
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Multivalued gauge transformations

The gauge transformations which leave the theory invariant involve by definition only single-valued gauge functions which satisfy the Schwarz integrability criterion
An interesting extension of gauge transformations arises if the gauge functions
are allowed to be multivalued
functions which violate the integrability criterion. These are capable of changing the physical field strengths and are therefore no proper symmetry transformations.Nevertheless, the transformed field equations describe correctly the physical laws in the presence of the newly generated field strengths. See the textbook by H. Kleinert cited below for the applications to phenomena in physics.
Supersymmetry
Supersymmetry assumes that every fundamental fermion has a superpartner that is a boson and vice versa. It was introduced in order to solve the so-called Hierarchy Problem, that is, to explain why particles not protected by any symmetry (like the Higgs boson) do not receive radiative corrections to its mass driving it to the larger scales (GUT, Planck...). It was soon realized that supersymmetry has other interesting properties: its gauged version is an extension of general relativity (Supergravity), and it is a key ingredient for the consistency of string theory. The way supersymmetry protects the hierarchies is the following: since for every particle there is a superpartner with the same mass, any loop in a radiative correction is cancelled by the loop corresponding to its superpartner, rendering the theory UV finite. Since no superpartners have yet been observed, if supersymmetry exists it must be broken (through a so-called soft term, which breaks supersymmetry without ruining its helpful features). The simplest models of this breaking require that the energy of the superpartners not be too high; in these cases, supersymmetry is expected to be observed by experiments at the Large Hadron Collider.
Notes
[1] People.whitman.edu (http:/ / people. whitman. edu/ ~beckmk/ QM/ grangier/ Thorn_ajp. pdf) [2] Recherches sur la theorrie des quanta (ann. de Phys., 10, III, 1925; translation by A. F. Kracklauer) [3] Dirac, P.A.M. (1927). The Quantum Theory of the Emission and Absorption of Radiation, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series A, Vol. 114, p. 243. [4] G-sardanashvily.ru (http:/ / www. g-sardanashvily. ru/ ivanenko1. html) [5] Vaprize.sci.am (http:/ / vaprize. sci. am/ results. html) [6] Sciteclibrary.ru (http:/ / www. sciteclibrary. ru/ texsts/ rus/ stat/ st2718. pdf) [7] Abraham Pais, Inward Bound: Of Matter and Forces in the Physical World ISBN 0-19-851997-4. Pais recounts how his astonishment at the rapidity with which Feynman could calculate using his method. Feynman's method is now part of the standard methods for physicists.
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Further reading
General readers: Weinberg, S. Quantum Field Theory, Vols. I to III, 2000, Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK. Feynman, R.P. (2001) [1964]. The Character of Physical Law. MIT Press. ISBN0262560038. Feynman, R.P. (2006) [1985]. QED: The Strange Theory of Light and Matter. Princeton University Press. ISBN0691125759. Gribbin, J. (1998). Q is for Quantum: Particle Physics from A to Z. Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN0297817523. Schumm, Bruce A. (2004) Deep Down Things. Johns Hopkins Univ. Press. Chpt. 4. Introductory texts: Bogoliubov, N.; Shirkov, D. (1982). Quantum Fields. Benjamin-Cummings. ISBN0805309837. Frampton, P.H. (2000). Gauge Field Theories. Frontiers in Physics (2nd ed.). Wiley. Greiner, W; Mller, B. (2000). Gauge Theory of Weak Interactions. Springer. ISBN3-540-67672-4. Itzykson, C.; Zuber, J.-B. (1980). Quantum Field Theory. McGraw-Hill. ISBN0-07-032071-3. Kane, G.L. (1987). Modern Elementary Particle Physics. Perseus Books. ISBN0-201-11749-5. Kleinert, H.; Schulte-Frohlinde, Verena (2001). Critical Properties of 4-Theories (http://users.physik. fu-berlin.de/~kleinert/re.html#B6). World Scientific. ISBN981-02-4658-7.
Kleinert, H. (2008). Multivalued Fields in Condensed Matter, Electrodynamics, and Gravitation (http://users. physik.fu-berlin.de/~kleinert/public_html/kleiner_reb11/psfiles/mvf.pdf). World Scientific. ISBN978-981-279-170-2. Loudon, R (1983). The Quantum Theory of Light. Oxford University Press. ISBN0-19-851155-8. Mandl, F.; Shaw, G. (1993). Quantum Field Theory. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN0-0471-94186-7. Peskin, M.; Schroeder, D. (1995). An Introduction to Quantum Field Theory. Westview Press. ISBN0-201-50397-2. Ryder, L.H. (1985). Quantum Field Theory. Cambridge University Press. ISBN0-521-33859-X. Srednicki, Mark (2007) Quantum Field Theory. (http://www.cambridge.org/us/catalogue/catalogue. asp?isbn=0521864496) Cambridge Univ. Press. Yndurain, F.J. (1996). Relativistic Quantum Mechanics and Introduction to Field Theory (1st ed.). Springer. ISBN978-3540604532. Zee, A. (2003). Quantum Field Theory in a Nutshell. Princeton University Press. ISBN0-691-01019-6. Advanced texts: Bogoliubov, N.; Logunov, A.A.; Oksak, A.I.; Todorov, I.T. (1990). General Principles of Quantum Field Theory. Kluwer Academic Publishers. ISBN978-0792305408. Weinberg, S. (1995). The Quantum Theory of Fields. 13. Cambridge University Press. Articles: Gerard 't Hooft (2007) " The Conceptual Basis of Quantum Field Theory (http://www.phys.uu.nl/~thooft/ lectures/basisqft.pdf)" in Butterfield, J., and John Earman, eds., Philosophy of Physics, Part A. Elsevier: 661-730. Frank Wilczek (1999) " Quantum field theory (http://arxiv.org/abs/hep-th/9803075)", Reviews of Modern Physics 71: S83-S95. Also doi=10.1103/Rev. Mod. Phys. 71.
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External links
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: " Quantum Field Theory (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ quantum-field-theory/)", by Meinard Kuhlmann. Siegel, Warren, 2005. Fields. (http://insti.physics.sunysb.edu/~siegel/errata.html) A free text, also available from arXiv:hep-th/9912205. Quantum Field Theory (http://www.nat.vu.nl/~mulders/QFT-0.pdf) by P. J. Mulders Step-by-step solutions to quantum field theory (http://substepr.com/w/index.php?title=Quantum_field_theory) problems on Substepr.
String Theory
String theory is an active research framework in particle physics that attempts to reconcile quantum mechanics and general relativity.[1] It is a contender for a theory of everything (TOE), a self-contained mathematical model that describes all fundamental forces and forms of matter. String theory posits that the electrons and quarks within an atom are not 0-dimensional objects, but rather 1-dimensional oscillating lines ("strings"). The earliest string model, the bosonic string, incorporated only bosons, although this view developed to the superstring theory, which posits that a connection (a "supersymmetry") exists between bosons and fermions. String theories also require the existence of several extra dimensions to the universe that have been compactified into extremely small scales, in addition to the four known spacetime dimensions. The theory has its origins in an effort to understand the strong force, the dual resonance model (1969). Subsequent to this, five different superstring theories were developed that incorporated fermions and possessed other properties necessary for a theory of everything. Since the mid-1990s, in particular due to insights from dualities shown to relate the five theories, an eleven-dimensional theory called M-theory is believed to encompass all of the previously-distinct superstring theories. Many theoretical physicists (e.g., Stephen Hawking, Witten, Maldacena and Susskind) believe that string theory is a step toward the correct fundamental description of nature. This is because string theory allows for the consistent combination of quantum field theory and general relativity, agrees with general insights in quantum gravity (such as the holographic principle and Black hole thermodynamics), and because it has passed many non-trivial checks of its internal consistency.[2][3][4][5] According to Hawking in particular, "M-theory is the only candidate for a complete theory of the universe."[6] Nevertheless, other physicists, such as Feynman and Glashow, have criticized string theory for not providing novel experimental predictions at accessible energy scales.[7]
Overview
String theory posits that the electrons and quarks within an atom are not 0-dimensional objects, but made up of 1-dimensional strings. These strings can oscillate, giving the observed particles their flavor, charge, mass and spin. Among the modes of oscillation of the string is a massless, spin-two state -- a graviton. The existence of this graviton state and the fact that the equations describing string theory include Einstein's equations for general relativity mean that string theory is a quantum theory of gravity. Since string theory is widely believed[8] to be mathematically consistent, many hope that it fully describes our universe, making it a theory of everything. String theory is known to contain configurations that describe all the observed fundamental forces and matter but with a zero cosmological constant and some new fields.[9] Other configurations have different values of the cosmological constant, and are metastable but long-lived. This leads many to believe that there is at least one metastable solution that is quantitatively identical with the standard model, with a small cosmological constant, containing dark matter and a plausible mechanism for cosmic inflation. It is not yet known whether string theory has such a solution, nor how much freedom the theory allows to choose the details.
String Theory String theories also include objects other than strings, called branes. The word brane, derived from "membrane", refers to a variety of interrelated objects, such as D-branes, black p-branes and NeveuSchwarz 5-branes. These are extended objects that are charged sources for differential form generalizations of the vector potential electromagnetic field. These objects are related to one another by a variety of dualities. Black hole-like black p-branes are identified with D-branes, which are endpoints for strings, and this identification is called Gauge-gravity duality. Research on this equivalence has led to new insights on quantum chromodynamics, the fundamental theory of the strong nuclear force.[10][11][12][13] The strings make closed loops unless they encounter D-branes, where they can open up into 1-dimensional lines. The endpoints of the string cannot break off the D-brane, but they can slide around on it. The full theory does not yet have a satisfactory definition in all circumstances, since the scattering of strings is most straightforwardly defined by a perturbation theory. The complete quantum mechanics of high dimensional branes is not easily defined, and the behavior of string theory in cosmological settings (time-dependent backgrounds) is not fully worked out. It is also not clear as to whether there is any principle by which string theory selects its vacuum state, the spacetime configuration that determines the properties of our universe (see string theory landscape).
150
Basic properties
String theory can be formulated in terms of an action principle, either the Nambu-Goto action or the Polyakov action, which describe how strings propagate through space and time. In the absence of external interactions, string dynamics are governed by tension and kinetic energy, which combine to produce oscillations. The quantum mechanics of strings implies these oscillations exist in discrete vibrational modes, the spectrum of the theory. On distance scales larger than the string radius, each oscillation mode behaves as a different species of particle, with its mass, spin and charge determined by the string's dynamics. Splitting and recombination of strings correspond to particle emission and absorption, giving rise to the interactions between particles. An analogy for strings' modes of vibration is a guitar string's production of multiple but distinct musical notes. In the analogy, different notes correspond to different particles. One difference is the guitar string exists in 3 dimensions, so that there are only two dimensions transverse to the string. Fundamental strings exist in 9 dimensions and the strings can vibrate in any direction, meaning that the spectrum of vibrational modes is much richer.
Levels of magnification: 1. Macroscopic level Matter 2. Molecular level 3. Atomic level Protons, neutrons, and electrons 4. Subatomic level Electron 5. Subatomic level Quarks 6. String level
String theory includes both open strings, which have two distinct endpoints, and closed strings making a complete loop. The two types of string behave in slightly different ways, yielding two different spectra. For example, in most string theories one of the closed string modes is the graviton, and one of the open string modes is the photon. Because the two ends of an open string can always meet and connect, forming a closed string, there are no string theories without closed strings. The earliest string model, the bosonic string, incorporated only bosonic degrees of freedom. This model describes, in low enough energies, a quantum gravity theory, which also includes (if open strings are incorporated as well) gauge fields such as the photon (or, in more general terms, any gauge theory). However, this model has problems. What is
String Theory most significant is that the theory has a fundamental instability, believed to result in the decay (at least partially) of spacetime itself. In addition, as the name implies, the spectrum of particles contains only bosons, particles which, like the photon, obey particular rules of behavior. In broad terms, bosons are the constituents of radiation, but not of matter, which is made of fermions. Investigating how a string theory may include fermions in its spectrum led to the invention of supersymmetry, a mathematical relation between bosons and fermions. String theories that include fermionic vibrations are now known as superstring theories; several different kinds have been described, but all are now thought to be different limits of M-theory. Some qualitative properties of quantum strings can be understood in a fairly simple fashion. For example, quantum strings have tension, much like regular strings made of twine; this tension is considered a fundamental parameter of the theory. The tension of a quantum string is closely related to its size. Consider a closed loop of string, left to move through space without external forces. Its tension will tend to contract it into a smaller and smaller loop. Classical intuition suggests that it might shrink to a single point, but this would violate Heisenberg's uncertainty principle. The characteristic size of the string loop will be a balance between the tension force, acting to make it small, and the uncertainty effect, which keeps it "stretched". As a consequence, the minimum size of a string is related to the string tension.
151
Worldsheet
A point-like particle's motion may be described by drawing a graph of its position (in one or two dimensions of space) against time. The resulting picture depicts the worldline of the particle (its 'history') in spacetime. By analogy, a similar graph depicting the progress of a string as time passes by can be obtained; the string (a one-dimensional object a small line by itself) will trace out a surface (a two-dimensional manifold), known as the worldsheet. The different string modes (representing different particles, such as photon or graviton) are surface waves on this manifold. A closed string looks like a small loop, so its worldsheet will look like a pipe or, in more general terms, a Riemann surface (a two-dimensional oriented manifold) with no boundaries (i.e., no edge). An open string looks like a short line, so its worldsheet will look like a strip or, in more general terms, a Riemann surface with a boundary. Strings can split and connect. This is reflected by the form of their worldsheet (in more accurate terms, by its topology). For example, if a closed string splits, its worldsheet will look like a single pipe splitting (or connected) to two pipes (often referred to as a pair of pants see drawing at right). If a closed string splits and its two parts later reconnect, its worldsheet will look like a single pipe splitting to two and then reconnecting, which also looks like a torus connected to two pipes (one Interaction in the subatomic world: world lines of point-like particles in the representing the ingoing string, and the Standard Model or a world sheet swept up by closed strings in string theory other the outgoing one). An open string doing the same thing will have its worldsheet looking like a ring connected to two strips. Note that the process of a string splitting (or strings connecting) is a global process of the worldsheet, not a local one: Locally, the worldsheet looks the same everywhere, and it is not possible to determine a single point on the worldsheet where the splitting occurs. Therefore, these processes are an integral part of the theory, and are described by the same dynamics that controls the string modes.
String Theory In some string theories (namely, closed strings in Type I and some versions of the bosonic string), strings can split and reconnect in an opposite orientation (as in a Mbius strip or a Klein bottle). These theories are called unoriented. In formal terms, the worldsheet in these theories is a non-orientable surface.
152
Dualities
Before the 1990s, string theorists believed there were five distinct superstring theories: open type I, closed type I, closed type IIA, closed type IIB, and the two flavors of heterotic string theory (SO(32) and E8E8).[14] The thinking was that out of these five candidate theories, only one was the actual correct theory of everything, and that theory was the one whose low energy limit, with ten spacetime dimensions compactified down to four, matched the physics observed in our world today. It is now believed that this picture was incorrect and that the five superstring theories are connected to one another as if they are each a special case of some more fundamental theory (thought to be M-theory). These theories are related by transformations that are called dualities. If two theories are related by a duality transformation, it means that the first theory can be transformed in some way so that it ends up looking just like the second theory. The two theories are then said to be dual to one another under that kind of transformation. Put differently, the two theories are mathematically different descriptions of the same phenomena. These dualities link quantities that were also thought to be separate. Large and small distance scales, as well as strong and weak coupling strengths, are quantities that have always marked very distinct limits of behavior of a physical system in both classical field theory and quantum particle physics. But strings can obscure the difference between large and small, strong and weak, and this is how these five very different theories end up being related. T-duality relates the large and small distance scales between string theories, whereas S-duality relates strong and weak coupling strengths between string theories. U-duality links T-duality and S-duality.
String theories Type Spacetime dimensions 26 Details
Bosonic
Only bosons, no fermions, meaning only forces, no matter, with both open and closed strings; major flaw: a particle with imaginary mass, called the tachyon, representing an instability in the theory. Supersymmetry between forces and matter, with both open and closed strings; no tachyon; group symmetry is SO(32) Supersymmetry between forces and matter, with only closed strings bound to D-branes; no tachyon; massless fermions are non-chiral Supersymmetry between forces and matter, with only closed strings bound to D-branes; no tachyon; massless fermions are chiral Supersymmetry between forces and matter, with closed strings only; no tachyon; heterotic, meaning right moving and left moving strings differ; group symmetry is SO(32) Supersymmetry between forces and matter, with closed strings only; no tachyon; heterotic, meaning right moving and left moving strings differ; group symmetry is E8E8
I IIA
10 10
IIB
10
HO
10
HE
10
Note that in the type IIA and type IIB string theories closed strings are allowed to move everywhere throughout the ten-dimensional spacetime (called the bulk), while open strings have their ends attached to D-branes, which are membranes of lower dimensionality (their dimension is odd 1, 3, 5, 7 or 9 in type IIA and even 0, 2, 4, 6 or 8 in type IIB, including the time direction).
String Theory
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Extra dimensions
Number of dimensions An intriguing feature of string theory is that it predicts extra dimensions. In classical string theory the number of dimensions is not fixed by any consistency criterion. However, in order to make a consistent quantum theory, string theory is required to live in a spacetime of the so-called "critical dimension": we must have 26 spacetime dimensions for the bosonic string and 10 for the superstring. This is necessary to ensure the vanishing of the conformal anomaly of the worldsheet conformal field theory. Modern understanding indicates that there exist less-trivial ways of satisfying this criterion. Cosmological solutions exist in a wider variety of dimensionalities, and these different dimensions are related by dynamical transitions. The dimensions are more precisely different values of the "effective central charge", a count of degrees of freedom that reduces to dimensionality in weakly curved regimes.[15] One such theory is the 11-dimensional M-theory, which requires spacetime to have eleven dimensions,[16] as opposed to the usual three spatial dimensions and the fourth dimension of time. The original string theories from the 1980s describe special cases of M-theory where the eleventh dimension is a very small circle or a line, and if these formulations are considered as fundamental, then string theory requires ten dimensions. But the theory also describes universes like ours, with four observable spacetime dimensions, as well as universes with up to 10 flat space dimensions, and also cases where the position in some of the dimensions is not described by a real number, but by a completely different type of mathematical quantity. So the notion of spacetime dimension is not fixed in string theory: it is best thought of as different in different circumstances.[17] Nothing in Maxwell's theory of electromagnetism or Einstein's theory of relativity makes this kind of prediction; these theories require physicists to insert the number of dimensions "by both hands", and this number is fixed and independent of potential energy. String theory allows one to relate the number of dimensions to scalar potential energy. In technical terms, this happens because a gauge anomaly exists for every separate number of predicted dimensions, and the gauge anomaly can be counteracted by including nontrivial potential energy into equations to solve motion. Furthermore, the absence of potential energy in the "critical dimension" explains why flat spacetime solutions are possible. This can be better understood by noting that a photon included in a consistent theory (technically, a particle carrying a force related to an unbroken gauge symmetry) must be massless. The mass of the photon that is predicted by string theory depends on the energy of the string mode that represents the photon. This energy includes a contribution from the Casimir effect, namely from quantum fluctuations in the string. The size of this contribution depends on the number of dimensions, since for a larger number of dimensions there are more possible fluctuations in the string position. Therefore, the photon in flat spacetime will be masslessand the theory consistentonly for a particular number of dimensions.[18] When the calculation is done, the critical dimensionality is not four as one may expect (three axes of space and one of time). The subset of X is equal to the relation of photon fluctuations in a linear dimension. Flat space string theories are 26-dimensional in the bosonic case, while superstring and M-theories turn out to involve 10 or 11 dimensions for flat solutions. In bosonic string theories, the 26 dimensions come from the Polyakov equation.[19] Starting from any dimension greater than four, it is necessary to consider how these are reduced to four dimensional spacetime.
String Theory Compact dimensions Two different ways have been proposed to resolve this apparent contradiction. The first is to compactify the extra dimensions; i.e., the 6 or 7 extra dimensions are so small as to be undetectable by present day experiments. To retain a high degree of supersymmetry, these compactification spaces must be very special, as reflected in their holonomy. A 6-dimensional manifold must have SU(3) structure, a particular case (torsionless) of this being SU(3) holonomy, making it a CalabiYau space, and a 7-dimensional manifold must have G2 structure, with G2 holonomy again being a specific, simple, case. Such spaces have been studied in attempts to relate string theory to the 4-dimensional Standard Model, in part due to the computational simplicity afforded by the assumption of CalabiYau manifold (3D projection) supersymmetry. More recently, progress has been made constructing more realistic compactifications without the degree of symmetry of CalabiYau or G2 manifolds. A standard analogy for this is to consider multidimensional space as a garden hose. If the hose is viewed from a sufficient distance, it appears to have only one dimension, its length. Indeed, think of a ball just small enough to enter the hose. Throwing such a ball inside the hose, the ball would move more or less in one dimension; in any experiment we make by throwing such balls in the hose, the only important movement will be one-dimensional, that is, along the hose. However, as one approaches the hose, one discovers that it contains a second dimension, its circumference. Thus, an ant crawling inside it would move in two dimensions (and a fly flying in it would move in three dimensions). This "extra dimension" is only visible within a relatively close range to the hose, or if one "throws in" small enough objects. Similarly, the extra compact dimensions are only "visible" at extremely small distances, or by experimenting with particles with extremely small wavelengths (of the order of the compact dimension's radius), which in quantum mechanics means very high energies (see wave-particle duality). Brane-world scenario Another possibility is that we are "stuck" in a 3+1 dimensional (three spatial dimensions plus one time dimension) subspace of the full universe. Properly localized matter and Yang-Mills gauge fields will typically exist if the sub-space-time is an exceptional set of the larger universe.[20] These "exceptional sets" are ubiquitous in CalabiYau n-folds and may be described as subspaces without local deformations, akin to a crease in a sheet of paper or a crack in a crystal, the neighborhood of which is markedly different from the exceptional subspace itself. However, until the work of Randall and Sundrum,[21] it was not known that gravity too can be properly localized to a sub-spacetime. In addition, spacetime may be stratified, containing strata of various dimensions, allowing us to inhabit a 3+1-dimensional stratum -- such geometries occur naturally in CalabiYau compactifications.[22] Such sub-spacetimes are D-branes, hence such models are known as brane-world scenarios. Effect of the hidden dimensions In either case, gravity acting in the hidden dimensions affects other non-gravitational forces such as electromagnetism. In fact, Kaluza's early work demonstrated that general relativity in five dimensions actually predicts the existence of electromagnetism. However, because of the nature of CalabiYau manifolds, no new forces appear from the small dimensions, but their shape has a profound effect on how the forces between the strings appear in our four-dimensional universe. In principle, therefore, it is possible to deduce the nature of those extra dimensions by requiring consistency with the standard model, but this is not yet a practical possibility. It is also possible to extract information regarding the hidden dimensions by precision tests of gravity, but so far these have only put
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String Theory upper limitations on the size of such hidden dimensions.
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D-branes
Another key feature of string theory is the existence of D-branes. These are membranes of different dimensionality (anywhere from a zero dimensional membranewhich is in fact a pointand up, including 2-dimensional membranes, 3-dimensional volumes, and so on). D-branes are defined by the fact that worldsheet boundaries are attached to them. D-branes have mass, since they emit and absorb closed strings that describe gravitons, and in superstring theories charge as well, since they couple to open strings that describe gauge interactions. From the point of view of open strings, D-branes are objects to which the ends of open strings are attached. The open strings attached to a D-brane are said to "live" on it, and they give rise to gauge theories "living" on it (since one of the open string modes is a gauge boson such as the photon). In the case of one D-brane there will be one type of a gauge boson and we will have an Abelian gauge theory (with the gauge boson being the photon). If there are multiple parallel D-branes there will be multiple types of gauge bosons, giving rise to a non-Abelian gauge theory. D-branes are thus gravitational sources, on which a gauge theory "lives". This gauge theory is coupled to gravity (which is said to exist in the bulk), so that normally each of these two different viewpoints is incomplete.
Testability and experimental predictions

Several major difficulties complicate efforts to test string theory. The most significant is the extremely small size of the Planck length, which is expected to be close to the string length (the characteristic size of a string, where strings become easily distinguishable from particles). Another issue is the huge number of metastable vacua of string theory, which might be sufficiently diverse to accommodate almost any phenomena we might observe at lower energies. On the other hand, all string theory models are quantum mechanical, Lorentz invariant,[23] unitary, and contain Einstein's General Relativity as a low energy limit.[24] Therefore, to falsify[25] string theory, it would suffice to falsify quantum mechanics, fundamental Lorentz invariance,[23] or general relativity.[26] Other potential falsifications of string theory would include the confirmation of a model from the swampland[27] [28]or observations of positive curvature in cosmology[26][29] [30]. However, these falsifications do not necessarily correspond to predictions which are unique to string theory, and finding a way to experimentally verify string theory via unique predictions remains a major challenge.[31]
Predictions
String harmonics One unique prediction of string theory is the existence of string harmonics: at sufficiently high energies, the string-like nature of particles would become obvious. There should be heavier copies of all particles, corresponding to higher vibrational harmonics of the string. It is not clear how high these energies are. In most conventional string models they would be not far below the Planck energy, around 1014 times higher than the energies accessible in the newest particle accelerator, the LHC, making this prediction impossible to test with any particle accelerator in the foreseeable future. However, in models with large extra dimensions they could potentially be produced at the LHC or at energies not far above its reach.
String Theory Cosmology String theory as currently understood makes a series of predictions for the structure of the universe at the largest scales. Many phases in string theory have very large, positive vacuum energy [32]. Regions of the universe that are in such a phase will inflate exponentially rapidly in a process known as eternal inflation. As such, the theory predicts that most of the universe is very rapidly expanding. However, these expanding phases are not stable, and can decay via the nucleation of bubbles of lower vacuum energy. Since our local region of the universe is not very rapidly expanding, string theory predicts we are inside such a bubble. The spatial curvature of the "universe" inside the bubbles that form by this process is negative, a testable prediction [33]. Moreover, other bubbles will eventually form in the parent vacuum outside the bubble and collide with it. These collisions lead to potentially observable imprints on cosmology [30] [34]. However, it is possible that neither of these will be observed if the spatial curvature is too small and the collisions are too rare. Cosmic strings Under certain circumstances, fundamental strings produced at or near the end of inflation can be "stretched" to astronomical proportions. These cosmic strings could be observed in various ways, for instance by their gravitational lensing effects. However, certain field theories also predict cosmic strings arising from topological defects in the field configuration. Strength of gravity Theories with extra dimensions predict that the strength of gravity increases much more rapidly at small distances than is the case in 3 dimensions (where it increase as r-2). Depending on the size of the dimensions, this could lead to phenomena such as the production of micro-black holes at the LHC, or be detected in microgravity experiments. Quantum chromodynamics String theory was originally proposed as a theory of hadrons, and its study has led to new insights on quantum chromodynamics, a gauge theory, which is the fundamental theory of the strong nuclear force. To this end, it is hoped that a gravitational theory dual to quantum chromodynamics will be found.[35] A mathematical technique from string theory (the AdS/CFT correspondence) has been used to describe qualitative features of quarkgluon plasma behavior in relativistic heavy-ion collisions;[10][11][12][13] the physics, however, is strictly that of standard quantum chromodynamics, which has been quantitatively modeled by lattice QCD methods with good results.[36] Supersymmetry The discovery of supersymmetry could also be considered evidence, since it was discovered in the context of string theory, and all consistent string theories are supersymmetric. However, the absence of supersymmetric particles at energies accessible to the LHC would not necessarily disprove string theory, since the energy scale at which supersymmetry is broken could be well above the accelerator's range. A central problem for applications is that the best-understood backgrounds of string theory preserve much of the supersymmetry of the underlying theory, which results in time-invariant spacetimes: At present, string theory cannot deal well with time-dependent, cosmological backgrounds. However, several models have been proposed to predict supersymmetry breaking, the most notable one being the KKLT model,[32] which incorporates branes and fluxes to make a metastable compactification.
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String Theory AdS/CFT correspondence AdS/CFT relates string theory to gauge theory, and allows contact with low energy experiments in quantum chromodynamics. This type of string theory, which describes only the strong interactions, is much less controversial today than string theories of everything (although two decades ago, it was the other way around).[37] Coupling constant unification Grand unification natural in string theories of everything requires that the coupling constants of the four forces meet at one point under renormalization group rescaling. This is also a falsifiable statement, but it is not restricted to string theory, but is shared by grand unified theories.[38] The LHC will be used both for testing AdS/CFT, and to check if the electroweakstrong unification does happen as predicted.[39]
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Gauge-gravity duality
Gauge-gravity duality is a conjectured duality between a quantum theory of gravity in certain cases and gauge theory in a lower number of dimensions. This means that each predicted phenomenon and quantity in one theory has an analogue in the other theory, with a "dictionary" translating from one theory to the other.
Description of the duality

In certain cases the gauge theory on the D-branes is decoupled from the gravity living in the bulk; thus open strings attached to the D-branes are not interacting with closed strings. Such a situation is termed a decoupling limit. In those cases, the D-branes have two independent alternative descriptions. As discussed above, from the point of view of closed strings, the D-branes are gravitational sources, and thus we have a gravitational theory on spacetime with some background fields. From the point of view of open strings, the physics of the D-branes is described by the appropriate gauge theory. Therefore in such cases it is often conjectured that the gravitational theory on spacetime with the appropriate background fields is dual (i.e. physically equivalent) to the gauge theory on the boundary of this spacetime (since the subspace filled by the D-branes is the boundary of this spacetime). So far, this duality has not been proven in any cases, so there is also disagreement among string theorists regarding how strong the duality applies to various models.
Examples and intuition

The best known example and the first one to be studied is the duality between Type IIB superstring on AdS5 S5 (a product space of a five-dimensional Anti de Sitter space and a five-sphere) on one hand, and N = 4 supersymmetric YangMills theory on the four-dimensional boundary of the Anti de Sitter space (either a flat four-dimensional spacetime R3,1 or a three-sphere with time S3 R). This is known as the AdS/CFT correspondence,[40][41][42][43] a name often used for Gauge / gravity duality in general. This duality can be thought of as follows: suppose there is a spacetime with a gravitational source, for example an extremal black hole.[44] When particles are far away from this source, they are described by closed strings (i.e., a gravitational theory, or usually supergravity). As the particles approach the gravitational source, they can still be described by closed strings; also, they can be described by objects similar to QCD strings,[45][46][47] which are made of gauge bosons (gluons) and other gauge theory degrees of freedom.[48] So if one is able (in a decoupling limit) to describe the gravitational system as two separate regions one (the bulk) far away from the source, and the other close to the source then the latter region can also be described by a gauge theory on D-branes. This latter region (close to the source) is termed the near-horizon limit, since usually there is an event horizon around (or at) the gravitational source. In the gravitational theory, one of the directions in spacetime is the radial direction, going from the gravitational source and away (toward the bulk). The gauge theory lives only on the D-brane itself, so it does not include the
String Theory radial direction: it lives in a spacetime with one less dimension compared to the gravitational theory (in fact, it lives on a spacetime identical to the boundary of the near-horizon gravitational theory). Let us understand how the two theories are still equivalent: The physics of the near-horizon gravitational theory involves only on-shell states (as usual in string theory), while the field theory includes also off-shell correlation function. The on-shell states in the near-horizon gravitational theory can be thought of as describing only particles arriving from the bulk to the near-horizon region and interacting there between themselves. In the gauge theory, these are "projected" onto the boundary, so that particles that arrive at the source from different directions will be seen in the gauge theory as (off-shell) quantum fluctuations far apart from each other, while particles arriving at the source from almost the same direction in space will be seen in the gauge theory as (off-shell) quantum fluctuations close to each other. Thus the angle between the arriving particles in the gravitational theory translates to the distance scale between quantum fluctuations in the gauge theory. The angle between arriving particles in the gravitational theory is related to the radial distance from the gravitational source at which the particles interact: The larger the angle the closer the particles have to get to the source in order to interact with each other. On the other hand, the scale of the distance between quantum fluctuations in a quantum field theory is related (inversely) to the energy scale in this theory, so small radius in the gravitational theory translates to low energy scale in the gauge theory (i.e., the IR regime of the field theory), while large radius in the gravitational theory translates to high energy scale in the gauge theory (i.e., the UV regime of the field theory). A simple example to this principle is that if in the gravitational theory there is a setup in which the dilaton field (which determines the strength of the coupling) is decreasing with the radius, then its dual field theory will be asymptotically free, i.e. its coupling will grow weaker in high energies.
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History
Some of the structures reintroduced by string theory arose for the first time much earlier as part of the program of classical unification started by Albert Einstein. The first person to add a fifth dimension to general relativity was German mathematician Theodor Kaluza in 1919, who noted that gravity in five dimensions describes both gravity and electromagnetism in four. In 1926, the Swedish physicist Oskar Klein gave a physical interpretation of the unobservable extra dimension--- it is wrapped into a small circle. Einstein introduced a non-symmetric metric tensor, while much later Brans and Dicke added a scalar component to gravity. These ideas would be revived within string theory, where they are demanded by consistency conditions. String theory was originally developed during the late 1960s and early 1970s as a never completely successful theory of hadrons, the subatomic particles like the proton and neutron that feel the strong interaction. In the 1960s, Geoffrey Chew and Steven Frautschi discovered that the mesons make families called Regge trajectories with masses related to spins in a way that was later understood by Yoichiro Nambu, Holger Bech Nielsen and Leonard Susskind to be the relationship expected from rotating strings. Chew advocated making a theory for the interactions of these trajectories that did not presume that they were composed of any fundamental particles, but would construct their interactions from self-consistency conditions on the S-matrix. The S-matrix approach was started by Werner Heisenberg in the 1940s as a way of constructing a theory that did not rely on the local notions of space and time, which Heisenberg believed break down at the nuclear scale. While the scale was off by many orders of magnitude, the approach he advocated was ideally suited for a theory of quantum gravity. Working with experimental data, R. Dolen, D. Horn and C. Schmid[49] developed some sum rules for hadron exchange. When a particle and antiparticle scatter, virtual particles can be exchanged in two qualitatively different ways. In the s-channel, the two particles annihilate to make temporary intermediate states that fall apart into the final state particles. In the t-channel, the particles exchange intermediate states by emission and absorption. In field theory, the two contributions add together, one giving a continuous background contribution, the other giving peaks at certain energies. In the data, it was clear that the peaks were stealing from the background--- the authors interpreted this as saying that the t-channel contribution was dual to the s-channel one, meaning both described the
String Theory whole amplitude and included the other. The result was widely advertised by Murray Gell-Mann, leading Gabriele Veneziano to construct a scattering amplitude that had the property of Dolen-Horn-Schmid duality, later renamed world-sheet duality. The amplitude needed poles where the particles appear, on straight line trajectories, and there is a special mathematical function whose poles are evenly spaced on half the real line the Gamma function which was widely used in Regge theory. By manipulating combinations of Gamma functions, Veneziano was able to find a consistent scattering amplitude with poles on straight lines, with mostly positive residues, which obeyed duality and had the appropriate Regge scaling at high energy. The amplitude could fit near-beam scattering data as well as other Regge type fits, and had a suggestive integral representation that could be used for generalization. Over the next years, hundreds of physicists worked to complete the bootstrap program for this model, with many surprises. Veneziano himself discovered that for the scattering amplitude to describe the scattering of a particle that appears in the theory, an obvious self-consistency condition, the lightest particle must be a tachyon. Miguel Virasoro and Joel Shapiro found a different amplitude now understood to be that of closed strings, while Ziro Koba and Holger Nielsen generalized Veneziano's integral representation to multiparticle scattering. Veneziano and Sergio Fubini introduced an operator formalism for computing the scattering amplitudes that was a forerunner of world-sheet conformal theory, while Virasoro understood how to remove the poles with wrong-sign residues using a constraint on the states. Claud Lovelace calculated a loop amplitude, and noted that there is an inconsistency unless the dimension of the theory is 26. Charles Thorn, Peter Goddard and Richard Brower went on to prove that there are no wrong-sign propagating states in dimensions less than or equal to 26. In 1969, Yoichiro Nambu, Holger Bech Nielsen, and Leonard Susskind recognized that the theory could be given a description in space and time in terms of strings. The scattering amplitudes were derived systematically from the action principle by Peter Goddard, Jeffrey Goldstone, Claudio Rebbi, and Charles Thorn, giving a space-time picture to the vertex operators introduced by Veneziano and Fubini and a geometrical interpretation to the Virasoro conditions. In 1970, Pierre Ramond added fermions to the model, which led him to formulate a two-dimensional supersymmetry to cancel the wrong-sign states. John Schwarz and Andr Neveu added another sector to the fermi theory a short time later. In the fermion theories, the critical dimension was 10. Stanley Mandelstam formulated a world sheet conformal theory for both the bose and fermi case, giving a two-dimensional field theoretic path-integral to generate the operator formalism. Michio Kaku and Keiji Kikkawa gave a different formulation of the bosonic string, as a string field theory, with infinitely many particle types and with fields taking values not on points, but on loops and curves. In 1974, Tamiaki Yoneya discovered that all the known string theories included a massless spin-two particle that obeyed the correct Ward identities to be a graviton. John Schwarz and Joel Scherk came to the same conclusion and made the bold leap to suggest that string theory was a theory of gravity, not a theory of hadrons. They reintroduced KaluzaKlein theory as a way of making sense of the extra dimensions. At the same time, quantum chromodynamics was recognized as the correct theory of hadrons, shifting the attention of physicists and apparently leaving the bootstrap program in the dustbin of history. String theory eventually made it out of the dustbin, but for the following decade all work on the theory was completely ignored. Still, the theory continued to develop at a steady pace thanks to the work of a handful of devotees. Ferdinando Gliozzi, Joel Scherk, and David Olive realized in 1976 that the original Ramond and Neveu Schwarz-strings were separately inconsistent and needed to be combined. The resulting theory did not have a tachyon, and was proven to have space-time supersymmetry by John Schwarz and Michael Green in 1981. The same year, Alexander Polyakov gave the theory a modern path integral formulation, and went on to develop conformal field theory extensively. In 1979, Daniel Friedan showed that the equations of motions of string theory, which are generalizations of the Einstein equations of General Relativity, emerge from the Renormalization group equations for the two-dimensional field theory. Schwarz and Green discovered T-duality, and constructed two different superstring theories--- IIA and IIB related by T-duality, and type I theories with open strings. The consistency
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String Theory conditions had been so strong, that the entire theory was nearly uniquely determined, with only a few discrete choices. In the early 1980s, Edward Witten discovered that most theories of quantum gravity could not accommodate chiral fermions like the neutrino. This led him, in collaboration with Luis Alvarez-Gaum to study violations of the conservation laws in gravity theories with anomalies, concluding that type I string theories were inconsistent. Green and Schwarz discovered a contribution to the anomaly that Witten and Alvarez-Gaum had missed, which restricted the gauge group of the type I string theory to be SO(32). In coming to understand this calculation, Edward Witten became convinced that string theory was truly a consistent theory of gravity, and he became a high-profile advocate. Following Witten's lead, between 1984 and 1986, hundreds of physicists started to work in this field, and this is sometimes called the first superstring revolution. During this period, David Gross, Jeffrey Harvey, Emil Martinec, and Ryan Rohm discovered heterotic strings. The gauge group of these closed strings was two copies of E8, and either copy could easily and naturally include the standard model. Philip Candelas, Gary Horowitz, Andrew Strominger and Edward Witten found that the Calabi-Yau manifolds are the compactifications that preserve a realistic amount of supersymmetry, while Lance Dixon and others worked out the physical properties of orbifolds, distinctive geometrical singularities allowed in string theory. Cumrun Vafa generalized T-duality from circles to arbitrary manifolds, creating the mathematical field of mirror symmetry. Daniel Friedan, Emil Martinec and Stephen Shenker further developed the covariant quantization of the superstring using conformal field theory techniques. David Gross and Vipul Periwal discovered that string perturbation theory was divergent. Stephen Shenker showed it diverged much faster than in field theory suggesting that new non-perturbative objects were missing. In the 1990s, Joseph Polchinski discovered that the theory requires higher-dimensional objects, called D-branes and identified these with the black-hole solutions of supergravity. These were understood to be the new objects suggested by the perturbative divergences, and they opened up a new field with rich mathematical structure. It quickly became clear that D-branes and other p-branes, not just strings, formed the matter content of the string theories, and the physical interpretation of the strings and branes was revealed--- they are a type of black hole. Leonard Susskind had incorporated the holographic principle of Gerardus 't Hooft into string theory, identifying the long highly-excited string states with ordinary thermal black hole states. As suggested by 't Hooft, the fluctuations of the black hole horizon, the world-sheet or world-volume theory, describes not only the degrees of freedom of the black hole, but all nearby objects too. In 1995, at the annual conference of string theorists at the University of Southern California (USC), Edward Witten gave a speech on string theory that in essence united the five string theories that existed at the time, and giving birth to a new 11-dimensional theory called M-theory. M-theory was also foreshadowed in the work of Paul Townsend at approximately the same time. The flurry of activity that began at this time is sometimes called the second superstring revolution. During this period, Tom Banks, Willy Fischler, Stephen Shenker and Leonard Susskind formulated matrix theory, a full holographic description of M-theory using IIA D0 branes. [50] This was the first definition of string theory that was fully non-perturbative and a concrete mathematical realization of the holographic principle. It is an example of a gauge-gravity duality and is now understood to be a special case of the AdS/CFT correspondence. Andrew Strominger and Cumrun Vafa calculated the entropy of certain configurations of D-branes and found agreement with the semi-classical answer for extreme charged black holes. Petr Hoava and Edward Witten found the eleven-dimensional formulation of the heterotic string theories, showing that orbifolds solve the chirality problem. Witten noted that the effective description of the physics of D-branes at low energies is by a supersymmetric gauge theory, and found geometrical interpretations of mathematical structures in gauge theory that he and Nathan Seiberg had earlier discovered in terms of the location of the branes. In 1997, Juan Maldacena noted that the low energy excitations of a theory near a black hole consist of objects close to the horizon, which for extreme charged black holes looks like an anti de Sitter space. He noted that in this limit
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String Theory the gauge theory describes the string excitations near the branes. So he hypothesized that string theory on a near-horizon extreme-charged black-hole geometry, an anti-deSitter space times a sphere with flux, is equally well described by the low-energy limiting gauge theory, the N=4 supersymmetric Yang-Mills theory. This hypothesis, which is called the AdS/CFT correspondence, was further developed by Steven Gubser, Igor Klebanov and Alexander Polyakov, and by Edward Witten, and it is now well-accepted. It is a concrete realization of the holographic principle, which has far-reaching implications for black holes, locality and information in physics, as well as the nature of the gravitational interaction. Through this relationship, string theory has been shown to be related to gauge theories like quantum chromodynamics and this has led to more quantitative understanding of the behavior of hadrons, bringing string theory back to its roots.
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Criticisms
Some critics of string theory say that it is a failure as a theory of everything.[51][52][53][54][55][56] Notable critics include Peter Woit, Lee Smolin, Philip Warren Anderson,[57] Sheldon Glashow,[58] Lawrence Krauss,[59] and Carlo Rovelli.[60] Some common criticisms include: 1. Very high energies needed to test quantum gravity. 2. Lack of uniqueness of predictions due to the large number of solutions. 3. Lack of background independence.
High energies
It is widely believed that any theory of quantum gravity would require extremely high energies to probe directly, higher by orders of magnitude than those that current experiments such as the Large Hadron Collider[61] can attain. This is because strings themselves are expected to be only slightly larger than the Planck length, which is twenty orders of magnitude smaller than the radius of a proton, and high energies are required to probe small length scales. Generally speaking, quantum gravity is difficult to test because the gravity is much weaker than the other forces, and because quantum effects are controlled by Planck's constant h, a very small quantity. As a result, the effects of quantum gravity are extremely weak.
Number of solutions
String theory as it is currently understood has a huge number of solutions, called string vacua,[32] and these vacua might be sufficiently diverse to accommodate almost any phenomena we might observe at lower energies. The vacuum structure of the theory, called the string theory landscape (or the anthropic portion of string theory vacua), is not well understood. String theory contains an infinite number of distinct meta-stable vacua, and perhaps 10520 of these or more correspond to a universe roughly similar to ours with four dimensions, a high planck scale, gauge groups, and chiral fermions. Each of these corresponds to a different possible universe, with a different collection of particles and forces.[32] What principle, if any, can be used to select among these vacua is an open issue. While there are no continuous parameters in the theory, there is a very large set of possible universes, which may be radically different from each other. It is also suggested that the landscape is surrounded by an even more vast swampland of consistent-looking semiclassical effective field theories, which are actually inconsistent. Some physicists believe this is a good thing, because it may allow a natural anthropic explanation of the observed values of physical constants, in particular the small value of the cosmological constant.[62][63] The argument is that most universes contain values for physical constants that do not lead to habitable universes (at least for humans), and so we happen to live in the most "friendly" universe. This principle is already employed to explain the existence of life on earth as the result of a life-friendly orbit around the medium-sized sun among an infinite number of possible orbits (as well as a relatively stable location in the galaxy).
String Theory
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Background independence
A separate and older criticism of string theory is that it is background-dependent string theory describes perturbative expansions about fixed spacetime backgrounds. Although the theory has some background-independence topology change is an established process in string theory, and the exchange of gravitons is equivalent to a change in the background mathematical calculations in the theory rely on preselecting a background as a starting point. This is because, like many quantum field theories, much of string theory is still only formulated perturbatively, as a divergent series of approximations. This criticism has been addressed to some extent by the AdS/CFT duality, which is believed to provide a full, non-perturbative definition of string theory in spacetimes with anti-de Sitter space asymptotics. Nevertheless, a non-perturbative definition of the theory in arbitrary spacetime backgrounds is still lacking. Some hope that M-theory, or a non-perturbative treatment of string theory (such as "background independent open string field theory") will have a background-independent formulation.
References
[1] Sunil Mukhi(1999)" The Theory of Strings: A Detailed Introduction (http:/ / theory. tifr. res. in/ ~mukhi/ Physics/ string2. html)" [2] Joseph Polchinski, "All Strung Out?", American Scientist, January-February 2007 Volume 95, Number 1 (http:/ / www. americanscientist. org/ bookshelf/ pub/ all-strung-out) [3] "On the right track. Interview with Professor Edward Witten. ", Frontline, Volume 18 - Issue 03, Feb. 03 - 16, 2001 (http:/ / www. hinduonnet. com/ fline/ fl1803/ 18030830. htm) [4] Leonard Susskind, "Hold fire! This epic vessel has only just set sail...", Times Higher Education, 25 August 2006 (http:/ / www. timeshighereducation. co. uk/ story. asp?storyCode=204991& sectioncode=26) [5] Geoff Brumfiel, "Our Universe: Outrageous fortune", Nature, Nature 439, 10-12 (5 January 2006) | doi:10.1038/439010a; Published online 4 January 2006 (http:/ / www. nature. com/ nature/ journal/ v439/ n7072/ full/ 439010a. html) [6] Hawking, Stephen (2010). The Grand Design. Bantam Books. [7] "NOVA - The elegant Universe" (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ wgbh/ nova/ elegant/ view-glashow. html) [8] (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ wgbh/ nova/ elegant/ ) [9] Burt A. Ovrut (2006). "A Heterotic Standard Model". Fortschritte der Physik 54-(2-3): 160164. Bibcode2006ForPh..54..160O. doi:10.1002/prop.200510264. [10] H. Nastase, More on the RHIC fireball and dual black holes, BROWN-HET-1466, arXiv:hep-th/0603176, March 2006, [11] H. Liu, K. Rajagopal, U. A. Wiedemann, An AdS/CFT Calculation of Screening in a Hot Wind, MIT-CTP-3757, arXiv:hep-ph/0607062 July 2006, [12] H. Liu, K. Rajagopal, U. A. Wiedemann, Calculating the Jet Quenching Parameter from AdS/CFT, Phys.Rev.Lett.97:182301,2006 arXiv:hep-ph/0605178 [13] H. Nastase, The RHIC fireball as a dual black hole, BROWN-HET-1439, arXiv:hep-th/0501068, January 2005, [14] S. James Gates, Jr., Ph.D., Superstring Theory: The DNA of Reality (http:/ / www. teach12. com/ ttcx/ coursedesclong2. aspx?cid=1284) "Lecture 23 Can I Have That Extra Dimension in the Window?", 0:04:54, 0:21:00. [15] Simeon Hellerman and Ian Swanson(2006): " Dimension-changing exact solutions of string theory (http:/ / arxiv. org/ abs/ hep-th/ 0612051v3)".; Ofer Aharony and Eva Silverstein(2006):" Supercritical stability, transitions and (pseudo)tachyons (http:/ / arxiv. org/ abs/ hep-th/ 0612031v2)". [16] M. J. Duff, James T. Liu and R. Minasian Eleven Dimensional Origin of String/String Duality: A One Loop Test (http:/ / arxiv. org/ abs/ hep-th/ 9506126v2) Center for Theoretical Physics, Department of Physics, Texas A&M University [17] Polchinski, Joseph (1998). String Theory, Cambridge University Press. [18] The calculation of the number of dimensions can be circumvented by adding a degree of freedom, which compensates for the "missing" quantum fluctuations. However, this degree of freedom behaves similar to spacetime dimensions only in some aspects, and the produced theory is not Lorentz invariant, and has other characteristics that do not appear in nature. This is known as the linear dilaton or non-critical string. [19] "Quantum Geometry of Bosonic Strings Revisited" (ftp:/ / ftp2. biblioteca. cbpf. br/ pub/ apub/ 1999/ nf/ nf_zip/ nf04299. pdf) [20] See, for example, T. Hbsch, " A Hitchhikers Guide to Superstring Jump Gates and Other Worlds (http:/ / homepage. mac. com/ thubsch/ HSProc. pdf)", in Proc. SUSY 96 Conference, R. Mohapatra and A. Rasin (eds.), Nucl. Phys. (Proc. Supl.) 52A (1997) 347351 [21] L. Randall and R. Sundrum, " An Alternative to compactification (http:/ / arXiv. org/ pdf/ hep-th/ 9906064)" Phys. Rev. Lett. 83 (1999) 46904693 [22] P. Aspinwall, D. Morrison and B. Greene, " CalabiYau moduli space, mirror manifolds and space-time topology change in string theory (http:/ / arXiv. org/ pdf/ hep-th/ 9309097)", Nucl. Phys. B416 (1994) 414480
String Theory
[23] Jacques Distler, Benjamin Grinstein, Rafael A. Porto, and Ira Z. Rothstein, Falsifying Models of New Physics via WW Scattering, Phys.Rev.Lett.98, 041601 (2007) [24] J. Polchinski, String Theory, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK (1998) [25] http:/ / www. stephenjaygould. org/ ctrl/ popper_falsification. html [26] N. Comins, W. Kaufmann, Discovering the Universe: From the Stars to the Planets, W.H. Freeman & Co., p. 357 (2008). From page 519: "Some additional predictions of superstring theories include the following: The universe cannot have positive curvature." [27] hep-th/0509212 (http:/ / arxiv. org/ abs/ hep-th/ 0509212) [28] Arkani-Hamed, Nima; Motl, Lubo; Nicolis, Alberto; Vafa, Cumrun (15 June 2007). "The String Landscape, Black Holes and Gravity as the Weakest Force" (http:/ / arxiv. org/ abs/ hep-th/ 0601001). Journal of High Energy Physics (6). arXiv:hep-th/0601001. Bibcode2007JHEP...06..060A. doi:10.1088/1126-6708/2007/06/060. Archived from the original (http:/ / iopscience. iop. org/ 1126-6708/ 2007/ 06/ 060/ ) on 21 Feb 2006. . [29] F. Denef, Talk given at Constituents, Fundamental Forces and Symmetries of the Universe, Napoli, Italy 2006 http:/ / wsrtn06. na. infn. it/ talks/ Frederik_Denef. pdf [30] M. Kleban, T. Levi, and K. Sigurdson, Observing the landscape with cosmic wakes, arXiv:1109.3473 [31] David Gross, Perspectives (http:/ / video. tau. ac. il/ Lectures/ Exact_Sciences/ Physics/ stringfest/ OnDemand. html?11), String Theory: Achievements and Perspectives - A conference [32] S. Kachru, R. Kallosh, A. Linde and S. P. Trivedi, de Sitter Vacua in String Theory, Phys.Rev.D68:046005,2003, arXiv:hep-th/0301240 [33] B. Freivogel, M. Kleban, M. Rodriguez Martinez, and L. Susskind, Observational consequences of a landscape, JHEP 0603 (2006) 039, arXiv:hep-th/0505232 [34] S. Nadis, "How we could see another universe," Astronomy, June 2009 (http:/ / www. astronomy. com/ en/ sitecore/ content/ Magazine Issues/ 2009/ June 2009. aspx) [35] For example: T. Sakai and S. Sugimoto, Low energy hadron physics in holographic QCD, Prog.Theor.Phys.113:843882,2005, arXiv:hep-th/0412141, December 2004 [36] See for example Recent Results (http:/ / www. physics. indiana. edu/ ~sg/ milc/ results. pdf) of the MILC research program, taken from the MILC Collaboration homepage (http:/ / www. physics. indiana. edu/ ~sg/ milc. html) [37] S. James Gates, Jr., Ph.D., Superstring Theory: The DNA of Reality "Lecture 21 - Can 4D Forces (without Gravity) Love Strings?", 0:26:06-0:26:21, cf. 0:24:05-0:26-24. [38] Idem, "Lecture 19 - Do-See-Do and Swing your Superpartner Part II" 0:16:05-0:24:29. [39] Idem, Lecture 21, 0:20:10-0:21:20. [40] J. Maldacena, The Large N Limit of Superconformal Field Theories and Supergravity, arXiv:hep-th/9711200 [41] S. S. Gubser, I. R. Klebanov and A. M. Polyakov (1998). "Gauge theory correlators from non-critical string theory". Physics Letters B428: 105114. arXiv:hep-th/9802109. Bibcode1998PhLB..428..105G. doi:10.1016/S0370-2693(98)00377-3. [42] Edward Witten (1998). "Anti-de Sitter space and holography". Advances in Theoretical and Mathematical Physics 2: 253291. arXiv:hep-th/9802150. Bibcode1998hep.th....2150W. [43] Aharony, O.; S.S. Gubser, J. Maldacena, H. Ooguri, Y. Oz (2000). "Large N Field Theories, String Theory and Gravity". Phys. Rept. 323 (3-4): 183386. arXiv:hep-th/9905111. doi:10.1016/S0370-1573(99)00083-6.. [44] Robbert Dijkgraaf,Erik Verlinde and Herman Verlinde(1997)" 5D Black Holes and Matrix Strings (http:/ / arxiv. org/ abs/ hep-th/ 9704018v2)" [45] Minoru Eto,Koji Hashimoto and Seiji Terashima(2007)" QCD String as Vortex String in Seiberg-Dual Theory (http:/ / arxiv. org/ abs/ 0706. 2005v1)" [46] Harvey B.Meyer(2005)" Vortices on the worldsheet of the QCD string (http:/ / arxiv. org/ abs/ hep-th/ 0506034v1)" [47] Koji Hashimoto(2007)" Cosmic Strings, Strings and D-branes (http:/ / www2. yukawa. kyoto-u. ac. jp/ ~kiasyk2/ slides/ hashimoto. pdf)" [48] Piljin Yi(2007)" Story of baryons in a gravity dual of QCD (http:/ / www2. yukawa. kyoto-u. ac. jp/ ~gc2007/ pdf/ yi. pdf)" [49] Dolen, Horn, Schmid "Finite-Energy Sum Rules and Their Application to N Charge Exchange" http:/ / prola. aps. org/ abstract/ PR/ v166/ i5/ p1768_1 [50] Banks, Fischler, Shenker and Susskind "M Theory As A Matrix Model: A Conjecture" http:/ / arxiv. org/ abs/ hep-th/ 9610043v3 [51] Peter Woit's Not Even Wrong weblog (http:/ / www. math. columbia. edu/ ~woit/ wordpress/ ?cat=2) [52] Lee Smolin's The Trouble With Physics webpage (http:/ / www. thetroublewithphysics. com) [53] The n-Category Cafe (http:/ / golem. ph. utexas. edu/ category/ 2007/ 02/ this_weeks_finds_in_mathematic_7. html) [54] John Baez weblog (http:/ / math. ucr. edu/ home/ baez/ week246. html) [55] P. Woit (Columbia University), String theory: An Evaluation,February 2001, arXiv:physics/0102051 [56] P. Woit, Is String Theory Testable? (http:/ / www. math. columbia. edu/ ~woit/ testable. pdf) INFN Rome March 2007 [57] "string theory is the first science in hundreds of years to be pursued in pre-Baconian fashion, without any adequate experimental guidance", New York Times, 4 January 2005 [58] "there ain't no experiment that could be done nor is there any observation that could be made that would say, `You guys are wrong.' The theory is safe, permanently safe" NOVA interview (http:/ / pbs. org/ wgbh/ nova/ elegant/ view-glashow. html)) [59] "String theory [is] yet to have any real successes in explaining or predicting anything measurable" New York Times, 8 November 2005) [60] see his Dialog on Quantum Gravity, arXiv:hep-th/0310077)
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String Theory
[61] Elias Kiritsis(2007)" String Theory in a Nutshell (http:/ / press. princeton. edu/ chapters/ s8456. pdf)" [62] N. Arkani-Hamed, S. Dimopoulos and S. Kachru, Predictive Landscapes and New Physics at a TeV, arXiv:hep-th/0501082, SLAC-PUB-10928, HUTP-05-A0001, SU-ITP-04-44, January 2005 [63] L. Susskind The Anthropic Landscape of String Theory, arXiv:hep-th/0302219, February 2003
164
Further reading
Popular books and articles
Davies, Paul; Julian R. Brown (Eds.) (July 31 1992). Superstrings: A Theory of Everything? (Reprint ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.244. ISBN0-521-43775-X. Gefter, Amanda (December 2005). "Is string theory in trouble?" (http://www.newscientist.com/article/ mg18825305.800-is-string-theory-in-trouble.html?full=true). New Scientist. Retrieved December 19, 2005. An interview with Leonard Susskind, the theoretical physicist who discovered that string theory is based on one-dimensional objects and now is promoting the idea of multiple universes. Green, Michael (September 1986). "Superstrings" (http://www.damtp.cam.ac.uk/user/mbg15/superstrings/ superstrings.html). Scientific American. Retrieved December 19, 2005. Greene, Brian (October 20 2003). The Elegant Universe: Superstrings, Hidden Dimensions, and the Quest for the Ultimate Theory (Reissue ed.). New York: W.W. Norton & Company. p.464. ISBN0-393-05858-1. Greene, Brian (2004). The Fabric of the Cosmos: Space, Time, and the Texture of Reality. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. p.569. ISBN0-375-41288-3. Gribbin, John (1998). The Search for Superstrings, Symmetry, and the Theory of Everything. London: Little Brown and Company. p.224. ISBN0-316-32975-4. Halpern, Paul (2004). The Great Beyond: Higher Dimensions, Parallel Universes, and the Extraordinary Search for a Theory of Everything. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.. p.326. ISBN0-471-46595-X. Hooper, Dan (2006). Dark Cosmos: In Search of Our Universe's Missing Mass and Energy. New York: HarperCollins. p.240. ISBN978-0-06-113032-8. Kaku, Michio (April 1994). Hyperspace: A Scientific Odyssey Through Parallel Universes, Time Warps, and the Tenth Dimension. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p.384. ISBN0-19-508514-0. Klebanov, Igor and Maldacena, Juan (January 2009). Solving Quantum Field Theories via Curved Spacetimes (http://ptonline.aip.org/journals/doc/PHTOAD-ft/vol_62/iss_1/28_1.shtml). Physics Today. Musser, George (2008). The Complete Idiot's Guide to String Theory. Indianapolis: Alpha. p.368. ISBN978-1-59-257702-6. Randall, Lisa (September 1 2005). Warped Passages: Unraveling the Mysteries of the Universe's Hidden Dimensions. New York: Ecco Press. p.512. ISBN0-06-053108-8. Susskind, Leonard (December 2006). The Cosmic Landscape: String Theory and the Illusion of Intelligent Design. New York: Hachette Book Group/Back Bay Books. p.403. ISBN0-316-01333-1. Taubes, Gary (November 1986). "Everything's Now Tied to Strings" Discover Magazine vol 7, #11. (Popular article, probably the first ever written, on the first superstring revolution.) Vilenkin, Alex (2006). Many Worlds in One: The Search for Other Universes. New York: Hill and Wang. p.235. ISBN0-8090-9523-8. Witten, Edward (June 2002). "The Universe on a String" (http://www.sns.ias.edu/~witten/papers/string.pdf) (PDF). Astronomy Magazine. Retrieved December 19, 2005. An easy nontechnical article on the very basics of the theory. Two nontechnical books that are critical of string theory: Smolin, Lee (2006). The Trouble with Physics: The Rise of String Theory, the Fall of a Science, and What Comes Next. New York: Houghton Mifflin Co.. p.392. ISBN0-618-55105-0.
String Theory Woit, Peter (2006). Not Even Wrong - The Failure of String Theory And the Search for Unity in Physical Law. London: Jonathan Cape &: New York: Basic Books. p.290. ISBN978-0-465-09275-8.
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Textbooks
Becker, Katrin, Becker, Melanie, and John H. Schwarz (2007) String Theory and M-Theory: A Modern Introduction . Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-86069-5 Bintruy, Pierre (2007) Supersymmetry: Theory, Experiment, and Cosmology. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-850954-7. Dine, Michael (2007) Supersymmetry and String Theory: Beyond the Standard Model. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-85841-0. Paul H. Frampton (1974). Dual Resonance Models. Frontiers in Physics. ISBN0-805-32581-6. Gasperini, Maurizio (2007) Elements of String Cosmology. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-86875-4. Michael Green, John H. Schwarz and Edward Witten (1987) Superstring theory. Cambridge University Press. The original textbook. Vol. 1: Introduction. ISBN 0-521-35752-7. Vol. 2: Loop amplitudes, anomalies and phenomenology. ISBN 0-521-35753-5. Kiritsis, Elias (2007) String Theory in a Nutshell. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-12230-4. Johnson, Clifford (2003). D-branes. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN0-521-80912-6. Polchinski, Joseph (1998) String Theory. Cambridge University Press. Vol. 1: An introduction to the bosonic string. ISBN 0-521-63303-6. Vol. 2: Superstring theory and beyond. ISBN 0-521-63304-4. Szabo, Richard J. (Reprinted 2007) An Introduction to String Theory and D-brane Dynamics. Imperial College Press. ISBN 978-1-86094-427-7. Zwiebach, Barton (2004) A First Course in String Theory. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-83143-1. Contact author for errata. Technical and critical: Penrose, Roger (February 22 2005). The Road to Reality: A Complete Guide to the Laws of the Universe. Knopf. p.1136. ISBN0-679-45443-8.
Online material
David Tong. "Lectures on String Theory". arXiv:0908.0333. This is a one semester course on bosonic string theory aimed at beginning graduate students. The lectures assume a working knowledge of quantum field theory and general relativity. Schwarz, John H.. "Introduction to Superstring Theory". arXiv:hep-ex/0008017. Four lectures, presented at the NATO Advanced Study Institute on Techniques and Concepts of High Energy Physics, St. Croix, Virgin Islands, in June 2000, and addressed to an audience of graduate students in experimental high energy physics, survey basic concepts in string theory. Witten, Edward (1998). "Duality, Spacetime and Quantum Mechanics" (http://online.itp.ucsb.edu/online/ plecture/witten/). Kavli Institute for Theoretical Physics. Retrieved December 16, 2005. Slides and audio from an Ed Witten lecture where he introduces string theory and discusses its challenges. Kibble, Tom. "Cosmic strings reborn?". arXiv:astro-ph/0410073. Invited Lecture at COSLAB 2004, held at Ambleside, Cumbria, United Kingdom, from 10 to 17 September 2004. Marolf, Don. "Resource Letter NSST-1: The Nature and Status of String Theory". arXiv:hep-th/0311044. A guide to the string theory literature.
String Theory Ajay, Shakeeb, Wieland et al. (2004). "The nth dimension" (http://thenthdimension.com/). Retrieved December 16, 2005. A comprehensive compilation of materials concerning string theory. Created by an international team of students. Woit, Peter (2002). "Is string theory even wrong?" (http://www.americanscientist.org/issues/pub/ is-string-theory-even-wrong). American Scientist. Retrieved December 16, 2005. A criticism of string theory. Veneziano, Gabriele (May 2004). "The Myth of the Beginning of Time" (http://www.sciam.com/article. cfm?chanID=sa006&articleID=00042F0D-1A0E-1085-94F483414B7F0000). Scientific American Krauss, Lawrence (2005-11-23). "Theory of Anything?" (http://www.slate.com/articles/health_and_science/ science/2005/11/theory_of_anything.html). Slate (http://www.slate.com). - A criticism of string theory. McKie, Robin (2006-10-09). "Setback as string theory of the universe is de-bunked" (http://www.hindu.com/ thehindu/holnus/008200610091240.htm) ( Scholar search (http://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?hl=en&lr=& q=author:McKie+intitle:Setback+as+string+theory+of+the+universe+is+de-bunked&as_publication=& as_ylo=&as_yhi=&btnG=Search)). The Hindu Harris, Richard (2006-11-07). "Short of 'All,' String Theorists Accused of Nothing" (http://www.npr.org/ templates/story/story.php?storyId=6377252). National Public Radio. Retrieved 2007-03-05. A website dedicated to creative writing inspired by string theory. (http://banyancollege.org/scriblerus/) An Italian Website with various papers in English language concerning the mathematical connections between String Theory and Number Theory. (http://nardelli.xoom.it/virgiliowizard/) George Gardner (2007-01-24). " Theory of everything put to the test (news:ID109828243)". [news:tech.blorge.com tech.blorge.com]. (Web link) (http://tech.blorge.com/Structure: /2007/01/24/ theory-of-everything-put-to-the-test/). Retrieved 2007-03-03. Minkel, J. R. (2006-03-02). "A Prediction from String Theory, with Strings Attached" (http://www.sciam.com/ article.cfm?chanId=sa003&articleId=1475A684-E7F2-99DF-355B95296BE6031C). Scientific American Chalmers, Matthew (2007-09-03). "Stringscape" (http://physicsworld.com/cws/article/indepth/30940). Physics World (http://physicsworld.com). Retrieved September 6, 2007. An up-to-date and thorough review of string theory in a popular way. Woit, Peter. Not Even Wrong: The Failure of String Theory & the Continuing Challenge to Unify the Laws of Physics, 2006. ISBN 0-224-07605-1 (Jonathan Cape), ISBN 0-465-09275-6 (Basic Books) Schwarz, John (2001). "Early History of String Theory: A Personal Perspective" (http://online.itp.ucsb.edu/ online/colloq/schwarz1/). Retrieved July 17, 2009. Zidbits (2011-03-27). "A Layman's Explanation For String Theory?" (http://zidbits.com/2011/03/ a-laymans-explanation-for-string-theory/).
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External links
Dialogue on the Foundations of String Theory (http://www.mathpages.com/home/kmath632/kmath632.htm) at MathPages Superstrings! String Theory Home Page (http://www.sukidog.com/jpierre/strings/) Online tutorial CI.physics. STRINGS newsgroup (http://schwinger.harvard.edu/~sps/) A moderated newsgroup for discussion of string theory (a theory of quantum gravity and unification of forces) and related fields of high-energy physics. Not Even Wrong (http://www.math.columbia.edu/~woit/blog/) A blog critical of string theory. Superstring Theory (http://www.perimeterinstitute.ca/en/Outreach/What_We_Research/Superstring_Theory/ ) Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics The Official String Theory Web Site (http://superstringtheory.com/) The Elegant Universe (http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/elegant/) A Three-Hour Miniseries with Brian Greene by NOVA (original PBS Broadcast Dates: October 28, 8-10 p.m. and November 4, 8-9 p.m., 2003). Various images, texts, videos and animations explaining string theory.
String Theory Beyond String Theory (http://www.phys.ens.fr/~troost/beyondstringtheory/) A project by a string physicist explaining aspects of string theory to a broad audience. Spinning the Superweb: Essays on the History of Superstring Theory (http://www.spinningthesuperweb. blogspot.com) A Science Studies' approach to the history of string theory (an elementary knowledge of string theory is required).
167
Quantum Gravity
Quantum gravity (QG) is the field of theoretical physics which attempts to develop scientific models that unify quantum mechanics (describing three of the four known fundamental interactions) with general relativity (describing the fourth, gravity). It is hoped that development of such a theory would unify into a single consistent model all fundamental interactions and to describe all known observable interactions in the universe, at both subatomic and cosmological scales. Such theories would yield the same experimental results as ordinary quantum mechanics in conditions of weak gravity (gravitational potentials much less than c2) and the same results as Einsteinian general relativity in phenomena at scales much larger than individual molecules (action much larger than reduced Planck's constant), and be able to predict the outcome of situations where both quantum effects and strong-field gravity are important (at the Planck scale, unless large extra dimension conjectures are correct). They are sometimes described as theories of everything (TOE). Motivation for quantizing gravity comes from the remarkable success of the quantum theories of the other three fundamental interactions, and from experimental evidence suggesting that gravity can be made to show quantum effects.[1][2][3] Although some quantum gravity theories such as string theory and other unified field theories (or 'theories of everything') attempt to unify gravity with the other fundamental forces, others such as loop quantum gravity make no such attempt; they simply quantize the gravitational field while keeping it separate from the other forces. Observed physical phenomena can be described well by quantum mechanics or general relativity, without needing both. This can be thought of as due to an extreme separation of mass scales at which they are important. Quantum effects are usually important only for the "very small", that is, for objects no larger than typical molecules. General relativistic effects, on the other hand, show up mainly for the "very large" bodies such as collapsed stars. (Planets' gravitational fields, as of 2011, are well-described by linearized gravity except for Mercury's perihelion precession; so strong-field effectsany effects of gravity beyond lowest nonvanishing order in /c2have not been observed even in the gravitational fields of planets and main sequence stars). There is a lack of experimental evidence relating to quantum gravity, and classical physics adequately describes the observed effects of gravity over a range of 50 orders of magnitude of mass, i.e., for masses of objects from about 1023 to 1030 kg.
Quantum Gravity
168
Overview
Much of the difficulty in meshing these theories at all energy scales comes from the different assumptions that these theories make on how the universe works. Quantum field theory depends on particle fields embedded in the flat space-time of special relativity. General relativity models gravity as a curvature within space-time that changes as a gravitational mass moves. Historically, the most obvious way of combining the two (such as treating gravity as simply another particle field) ran quickly into what is known as the renormalization problem. Diagram showing where quantum gravity sits in In the old-fashioned understanding of renormalization, gravity particles the hierarchy of physics theories would attract each other and adding together all of the interactions results in many infinite values which cannot easily be cancelled out mathematically to yield sensible, finite results. This is in contrast with quantum electrodynamics where, while the series still do not converge, the interactions sometimes evaluate to infinite results, but those are few enough in number to be removable via renormalization.
Effective field theories

Quantum gravity can be treated as an effective field theory. Effective quantum field theories come with some high-energy cutoff, beyond which we do not expect that the theory provides a good description of nature. The "infinities" then become large but finite quantities proportional to this finite cutoff scale, and correspond to processes that involve very high energies near the fundamental cutoff. These quantities can then be absorbed into an infinite collection of coupling constants, and at energies well below the fundamental cutoff of the theory, to any desired precision; only a finite number of these coupling constants need to be measured in order to make legitimate quantum-mechanical predictions. This same logic works just as well for the highly successful theory of low-energy pions as for quantum gravity. Indeed, the first quantum-mechanical corrections to graviton-scattering and Newton's law of gravitation have been explicitly computed[4] (although they are so astronomically small that we may never be able to measure them). In fact, gravity is in many ways a much better quantum field theory than the Standard Model, since it appears to be valid all the way up to its cutoff at the Planck scale. (By comparison, the Standard Model is expected to start to break down above its cutoff at the much smaller scale of around 1000 GeV.) While confirming that quantum mechanics and gravity are indeed consistent at reasonable energies, it is clear that near or above the fundamental cutoff of our effective quantum theory of gravity (the cutoff is generally assumed to be of the order of the Planck scale), a new model of nature will be needed. Specifically, the problem of combining quantum mechanics and gravity becomes an issue only at very high energies, and may well require a totally new kind of model.
Quantum gravity theory for the highest energy scales

The general approach to deriving a quantum gravity theory that is valid at even the highest energy scales is to assume that such a theory will be simple and elegant and, accordingly, to study symmetries and other clues offered by current theories that might suggest ways to combine them into a comprehensive, unified theory. One problem with this approach is that it is unknown whether quantum gravity will actually conform to a simple and elegant theory, as it should resolve the dual conundrums of special relativity with regard to the uniformity of acceleration and gravity, and general relativity with regard to spacetime curvature. Such a theory is required in order to understand problems involving the combination of very high energy and very small dimensions of space, such as the behavior of black holes, and the origin of the universe.
Quantum Gravity
169
Quantum mechanics and general relativity

The graviton
At present, one of the deepest problems in theoretical physics is harmonizing the theory of general relativity, which describes gravitation, and applies to large-scale structures (stars, planets, galaxies), with quantum mechanics, which describes the other three fundamental forces acting on the atomic scale. This problem must be put in the proper context, however. In particular, contrary to the popular claim that quantum mechanics and general relativity are fundamentally incompatible, one can demonstrate that the structure of general relativity essentially follows inevitably from the quantum mechanics of interacting theoretical spin-2 massless particles [5][6][7][8][9] (called gravitons). While there is no concrete proof of the existence of gravitons, quantized theories of matter may necessitate their existence. Supporting this theory is the observation that all fundamental forces except gravity have one or more known messenger particles, leading researchers to believe that at least one most likely does exist; they have dubbed these hypothetical particles gravitons. Many of the accepted notions of a unified theory of physics since the 1970s, including string theory, superstring theory, M-theory, loop quantum gravity, all assume, and to some degree depend upon, the existence of the graviton. Many researchers view the detection of the graviton as vital to validating their work.
Gravity Probe B (GP-B) has measured spacetime curvature near Earth to test related models in application of Einstein's general theory of relativity.
The dilaton
The dilaton made its first appearance in KaluzaKlein theory, a five-dimensional theory that combined gravitation and electromagnetism. Generally, it appears in string theory. More recently, it has appeared in the lower-dimensional many-bodied gravity problem[10] based on the field theoretic approach of Roman Jackiw. The impetus arose from the fact that complete analytical solutions for the metric of a covariant N-body system have proven elusive in General Relativity. To simplify the problem, the number of dimensions was lowered to (1+1) namely one spatial dimension and one temporal dimension. This model problem, known as R=T theory[11] (as opposed to the general G=T theory) was amenable to exact solutions in terms of a generalization of the Lambert W function. It was also found that the field equation governing the dilaton (derived from differential geometry) was the Schrdinger equation and consequently amenable to quantization.[12] Thus, one had a theory which combined gravity, quantization and even the electromagnetic interaction, promising ingredients of a fundamental physical theory. It is worth noting that the outcome revealed a previously unknown and already existing natural link between general relativity and quantum mechanics. However, this theory needs to be generalized in (2+1) or (3+1) dimensions although, in principle, the field equations are amenable to such generalization as shown with the inclusion of a one-graviton process[13] and yielding the correct Newtonian limit in d dimensions if a dilaton is included. However, it is not yet clear what the full field equation will govern the dilaton in higher dimensions. This is further complicated by the fact that gravitons can propagate in (3+1) dimensions and consequently that would imply gravitons and dilatons exist in the real world. Moreover, detection of the dilaton is expected to be even more elusive than the graviton. However, since this approach allows for the combination of gravitational, electromagnetic and quantum effects, their coupling could potentially lead to a means of vindicating the theory, through cosmology and perhaps even experimentally.
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Nonrenormalizability of gravity
Further information: Renormalization General relativity, like electromagnetism, is a classical field theory. One might expect that, as with electromagnetism, there should be a corresponding quantum field theory. However, gravity is nonrenormalizable.[14] Also in one loop approximation ultraviolet divergencies cancel on mass shell. For a quantum field theory to be well-defined according to this understanding of the subject, it must be asymptotically free or asymptotically safe. The theory must be characterized by a choice of finitely many parameters, which could, in principle, be set by experiment. For example, in quantum electrodynamics, these parameters are the charge and mass of the electron, as measured at a particular energy scale. On the other hand, in quantizing gravity, there are infinitely many independent parameters (counterterm coefficients) needed to define the theory. For a given choice of those parameters, one could make sense of the theory, but since we can never do infinitely many experiments to fix the values of every parameter, we do not have a meaningful physical theory: At low energies, the logic of the renormalization group tells us that, despite the unknown choices of these infinitely many parameters, quantum gravity will reduce to the usual Einstein theory of general relativity. On the other hand, if we could probe very high energies where quantum effects take over, then every one of the infinitely many unknown parameters would begin to matter, and we could make no predictions at all. As explained below, there is a way around this problem by treating QG as an effective field theory. Any meaningful theory of quantum gravity that makes sense and is predictive at all energy scales must have some deep principle that reduces the infinitely many unknown parameters to a finite number that can then be measured. One possibility is that normal perturbation theory is not a reliable guide to the renormalizability of the theory, and that there really is a UV fixed point for gravity. Since this is a question of non-perturbative quantum field theory, it is difficult to find a reliable answer, but some people still pursue this option. Another possibility is that there are new symmetry principles that constrain the parameters and reduce them to a finite set. This is the route taken by string theory, where all of the excitations of the string essentially manifest themselves as new symmetries.
QG as an effective field theory

In an effective field theory, all but the first few of the infinite set of parameters in a non-renormalizable theory are suppressed by huge energy scales and hence can be neglected when computing low-energy effects. Thus, at least in the low-energy regime, the model is indeed a predictive quantum field theory.[4] (A very similar situation occurs for the very similar effective field theory of low-energy pions.) Furthermore, many theorists agree that even the Standard Model should really be regarded as an effective field theory as well, with "nonrenormalizable" interactions suppressed by large energy scales and whose effects have consequently not been observed experimentally. Recent work[4] has shown that by treating general relativity as an effective field theory, one can actually make legitimate predictions for quantum gravity, at least for low-energy phenomena. An example is the well-known calculation of the tiny first-order quantum-mechanical correction to the classical Newtonian gravitational potential between two masses.
Spacetime background dependence

A fundamental lesson of general relativity is that there is no fixed spacetime background, as found in Newtonian mechanics and special relativity; the spacetime geometry is dynamic. While easy to grasp in principle, this is the hardest idea to understand about general relativity, and its consequences are profound and not fully explored, even at the classical level. To a certain extent, general relativity can be seen to be a relational theory,[15] in which the only physically relevant information is the relationship between different events in space-time.
Quantum Gravity On the other hand, quantum mechanics has depended since its inception on a fixed background (non-dynamic) structure. In the case of quantum mechanics, it is time that is given and not dynamic, just as in Newtonian classical mechanics. In relativistic quantum field theory, just as in classical field theory, Minkowski spacetime is the fixed background of the theory. String theory String theory started out as a generalization of quantum field theory where instead of point particles, string-like objects propagate in a fixed spacetime background. Although string theory had its origins in the study of quark confinement and not of quantum gravity, it was soon discovered that the string spectrum contains the graviton, and that "condensation" of certain vibration modes of strings is equivalent to a modification of the original background. In this sense, string perturbation theory exhibits exactly the features one would expect of a perturbation theory that may exhibit a strong dependence on asymptotics (as seen, for example, in the AdS/CFT correspondence) which is a weak form of background dependence. Background independent theories Loop quantum gravity is the fruit of an effort to formulate a background-independent quantum theory. Topological quantum field theory provided an example of background-independent quantum theory, but with no local degrees of freedom, and only finitely many degrees of freedom globally. This is inadequate to describe gravity in 3+1 dimensions which has local degrees of freedom according to general relativity. In 2+1 dimensions, however, gravity is a topological field theory, and it has been successfully quantized in several different ways, including spin networks.
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Interaction in the subatomic world: world lines of point-like particles in the Standard Model or a world sheet swept up by closed strings in string theory
Semi-classical quantum gravity

Quantum field theory on curved (non-Minkowskian) backgrounds, while not a full quantum theory of gravity, has shown many promising early results. In an analogous way to the development of quantum electrodynamics in the early part of the 20th century (when physicists considered quantum mechanics in classical electromagnetic fields), the consideration of quantum field theory on a curved background has led to predictions such as black hole radiation. Phenomena such as the Unruh effect, in which particles exist in certain accelerating frames but not in stationary ones, do not pose any difficulty when considered on a curved background (the Unruh effect occurs even in flat Minkowskian backgrounds). The vacuum state is the state with least energy (and may or may not contain particles). See Quantum field theory in curved spacetime for a more complete discussion.
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Points of tension
There are other points of tension between quantum mechanics and general relativity. First, classical general relativity breaks down at singularities, and quantum mechanics becomes inconsistent with general relativity in the neighborhood of singularities (however, no one is certain that classical general relativity applies near singularities in the first place). Second, it is not clear how to determine the gravitational field of a particle, since under the Heisenberg uncertainty principle of quantum mechanics its location and velocity cannot be known with certainty. The resolution of these points may come from a better understanding of general relativity.[16] Third, there is the Problem of Time in quantum gravity. Time has a different meaning in quantum mechanics and general relativity and hence there are subtle issues to resolve when trying to formulate a theory which combines the two.[17]
Candidate theories
There are a number of proposed quantum gravity theories.[18] Currently, there is still no complete and consistent quantum theory of gravity, and the candidate models still need to overcome major formal and conceptual problems. They also face the common problem that, as yet, there is no way to put quantum gravity predictions to experimental tests, although there is hope for this to change as future data from cosmological observations and particle physics experiments becomes available.[19][20]
String theory
One suggested starting point is ordinary quantum field theories which, after all, are successful in describing the other three basic fundamental forces in the context of the standard model of elementary particle physics. However, while this leads to an acceptable effective (quantum) field theory of gravity at low energies,[21] gravity turns out to be much more problematic at higher energies. Where, for ordinary field theories such as quantum electrodynamics, a technique known as renormalization is an integral part of deriving predictions which take into account higher-energy contributions,[22] gravity turns out to be nonrenormalizable: at high energies, applying the recipes of ordinary quantum field theory yields models that are devoid of all predictive power.[23] One attempt to overcome these limitations is to replace ordinary quantum field theory, which is based on the classical concept of a point particle, with a quantum [24] theory of one-dimensional extended objects: string theory. At the energies reached in current experiments, these strings are indistinguishable from point-like particles, but, crucially, different modes of oscillation of one and the same type of fundamental string appear as particles with different (electric and other) charges. In this way, string theory promises to be a unified description of all particles and interactions.[25] The theory is successful in that one mode will always correspond to a graviton, the messenger particle of gravity; however, the price to pay are unusual features such as six extra dimensions of space in addition to the usual three for space and one for time.[26]
Projection of a Calabi-Yau manifold, one of the ways of compactifying the extra dimensions posited by string theory
Quantum Gravity In what is called the second superstring revolution, it was conjectured that both string theory and a unification of general relativity and supersymmetry known as supergravity[27] form part of a hypothesized eleven-dimensional model known as M-theory, which would constitute a uniquely defined and consistent theory of quantum gravity.[28][29] As presently understood, however, string theory admits a very large number (10500 by some estimates) of consistent vacua, comprising the so-called "string landscape". Sorting through this large family of solutions remains one of the major challenges.
173
Loop quantum gravity

Another approach to quantum gravity starts with the canonical quantization procedures of quantum theory. Starting with the initial-value-formulation of general relativity (cf. the section on evolution equations, above), the result is an analogue of the Schrdinger equation: the WheelerDeWitt equation, which some argue is ill-defined.[30] A major break-through came with the introduction of what are now known as Ashtekar variables, which represent geometric gravity using mathematical analogues of electric and magnetic fields.[31][32] The resulting candidate for a theory of quantum gravity is Loop quantum gravity, in which space is represented by a network structure called a spin network, evolving over time in discrete steps.[33][34][35][36]
Simple spin network of the type used in loop quantum gravity
Other approaches
There are a number of other approaches to quantum gravity. The approaches differ depending on which features of general relativity and quantum theory are accepted unchanged, and which features are modified.[37][38] Examples include: Acoustic metric and other analog models of gravity Asymptotic safety Causal Dynamical Triangulation[39] Causal sets[40] Group field theory[41] MacDowellMansouri action Noncommutative geometry. Path-integral based models of quantum cosmology[42] Regge calculus String-nets giving rise to gapless helicity 2 excitations with no other gapless excitations[43] Superfluid vacuum theory a.k.a. theory of BEC vacuum Supergravity Twistor models[44]
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174
WeinbergWitten theorem
In quantum field theory, the WeinbergWitten theorem places some constraints on theories of composite gravity/emergent gravity. However, recent developments attempt to show that if locality is only approximate and the holographic principle is correct, the WeinbergWitten theorem would not be valid.
References
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[25] Ibanez, L. E. (2000). "The second string (phenomenology) revolution". Classical & Quantum Gravity 17 (5): 11171128. arXiv:hep-ph/9911499. Bibcode2000CQGra..17.1117I. doi:10.1088/0264-9381/17/5/321. [26] For the graviton as part of the string spectrum, e.g. Green, Schwarz & Witten 1987, sec. 2.3 and 5.3; for the extra dimensions, ibid sec. 4.2. [27] Weinberg, Steven (2000). "31" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=aYDDRKqODpUC& printsec=frontcover). The Quantum Theory of Fields II: Modern Applications. Cambridge University Press. ISBN0-521-55002-5. . [28] Townsend, Paul K. (1996). Four Lectures on M-Theory. ICTP Series in Theoretical Physics. pp.385. arXiv:hep-th/9612121. Bibcode1997hepcbconf..385T. [29] Duff, Michael (1996). "M-Theory (the Theory Formerly Known as Strings)". International Journal of Modern Physics A 11 (32): 56235642. arXiv:hep-th/9608117. Bibcode1996IJMPA..11.5623D. doi:10.1142/S0217751X96002583. [30] Kucha, Karel (1973). "Canonical Quantization of Gravity". In Israel, Werner. Relativity, Astrophysics and Cosmology. D. Reidel. pp.237288 (section 3). ISBN90-277-0369-8. [31] Ashtekar, Abhay (1986). "New variables for classical and quantum gravity". Physical Review Letters 57 (18): 22442247. Bibcode1986PhRvL..57.2244A. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.57.2244. PMID10033673. [32] Ashtekar, Abhay (1987). "New Hamiltonian formulation of general relativity". Physical Review D 36 (6): 15871602. Bibcode1987PhRvD..36.1587A. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.36.1587. [33] Thiemann, Thomas (2006). "Loop Quantum Gravity: An Inside View". Approaches to Fundamental Physics 721: 185. arXiv:hep-th/0608210. Bibcode2007LNP...721..185T. [34] Rovelli, Carlo (1998). "Loop Quantum Gravity" (http:/ / www. livingreviews. org/ lrr-1998-1). Living Reviews in Relativity 1. . Retrieved 2008-03-13. [35] Ashtekar, Abhay; Lewandowski, Jerzy (2004). "Background Independent Quantum Gravity: A Status Report". Classical & Quantum Gravity 21 (15): R53R152. arXiv:gr-qc/0404018. Bibcode2004CQGra..21R..53A. doi:10.1088/0264-9381/21/15/R01. [36] Thiemann, Thomas (2003). "Lectures on Loop Quantum Gravity". Lecture Notes in Physics 631: 41135. arXiv:gr-qc/0210094. Bibcode2003LNP...631...41T. [37] Isham, Christopher J. (1994). "Prima facie questions in quantum gravity". In Ehlers, Jrgen; Friedrich, Helmut. Canonical Gravity: From Classical to Quantum. Springer. arXiv:gr-qc/9310031. ISBN3-540-58339-4. [38] Sorkin, Rafael D. (1997). "Forks in the Road, on the Way to Quantum Gravity". International Journal of Theoretical Physics 36 (12): 27592781. arXiv:gr-qc/9706002. Bibcode1997IJTP...36.2759S. doi:10.1007/BF02435709. [39] Loll, Renate (1998). "Discrete Approaches to Quantum Gravity in Four Dimensions" (http:/ / www. livingreviews. org/ lrr-1998-13). Living Reviews in Relativity 1: 13. arXiv:gr-qc/9805049. Bibcode1998LRR.....1...13L. . Retrieved 2008-03-09. [40] Sorkin, Rafael D. (2005). "Causal Sets: Discrete Gravity". In Gomberoff, Andres; Marolf, Donald. Lectures on Quantum Gravity. Springer. arXiv:gr-qc/0309009. ISBN0-387-23995-2. [41] See Daniele Oriti and references therein. [42] Hawking, Stephen W. (1987). "Quantum cosmology". In Hawking, Stephen W.; Israel, Werner. 300 Years of Gravitation. Cambridge University Press. pp.631651. ISBN0-521-37976-8.. [43] Wen 2006 [44] See ch. 33 in Penrose 2004 and references therein.
175
Further reading
Ahluwalia, D. V. (2002). "Interface of Gravitational and Quantum Realms". Modern Physics Letters A 17 (1517): 1135. arXiv:gr-qc/0205121. Bibcode2002MPLA...17.1135A. doi:10.1142/S021773230200765X Ashtekar, Abhay (2005). "The winding road to quantum gravity" (http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/dec252005/ 2064.pdf). Current Science 89: 20642074 Carlip, Steven (2001). "Quantum Gravity: a Progress Report". Reports on Progress in Physics 64 (8): 885942. arXiv:gr-qc/0108040. Bibcode2001RPPh...64..885C. doi:10.1088/0034-4885/64/8/301 Kiefer, Claus (2007). Quantum Gravity. Oxford University Press. ISBN019921252X Kiefer, Claus (2005). "Quantum Gravity: General Introduction and Recent Developments". Annalen der Physik 15: 129148. arXiv:gr-qc/0508120. Bibcode2006AnP...518..129K. doi:10.1002/andp.200510175 Lmmerzahl, Claus, ed. (2003). Quantum Gravity: From Theory to Experimental Search. Lecture Notes in Physics. Springer. ISBN354040810X Rovelli, Carlo (2004). Quantum Gravity. Cambridge University Press. ISBN0521837332 Trifonov, Vladimir (2008). "GR-friendly description of quantum systems". International Journal of Theoretical Physics 47 (2): 492510. arXiv:math-ph/0702095. Bibcode2008IJTP...47..492T. doi:10.1007/s10773-007-9474-3
176
Appendix - Quantisation of Charge

The Elementary Charge
Elementary charge
Definition: Symbol Charge of a proton e
Value in Coulombs: 1.602176565(35)1019C[1]
The elementary charge, usually denoted as e, is the electric charge carried by a single proton, or equivalently, the negation (opposite) of the electric charge carried by a single electron.[2] This elementary charge is a fundamental physical constant. To avoid confusion over its sign, e is sometimes called the elementary positive charge. This charge has a measured value of approximately 1.602176565(35)1019 coulombs.[1] In the cgs system, e is 4.80320425(10)1010statcoulombs.[3]
Elementary charge as a unit

Elementary charge (as a unit of charge)
Unit system: Atomic units Unit of... Symbol: electric charge e Unit conversions
1 e in...
coulomb statcoulomb
is equal to... 1.602176565(35)1019 4.80320425(10)1010

[1]
In some natural unit systems, such as the system of atomic units, e functions as the unit of electric charge, that is e is equal to 1e in those unit systems. The use of elementary charge as a unit was promoted by George Johnstone Stoney in 1874 for the first system of natural units, called Stoney units.[4] Later, he proposed the name electron for this unit. At the time, the particle we now call the electron was not yet discovered and the difference between the particle electron and the unit of charge electron was still blurred. Later, the name electron was assigned to the particle and the unit of charge e lost its name. However, the unit of energy electronvolt reminds us that the elementary charge was once called electron. The magnitude of the elementary charge was first measured in Robert A. Millikan's noted oil drop experiment in 1909.[5]
177
Quantization
Charge quantization is the principle that the charge of any object is an integer multiple of the elementary charge e. Thus, e.g., an object's charge can be exactly 0e, or exactly 1e, 1e, 2e, etc., but not, say, 12e, or 3.8e, etc. (There may be exceptions to this statement, depending on how "object" is defined; see below.) This is the reason for the terminology "elementary charge": it is meant to imply that it is an indivisible unit of charge.
Charges less than an elementary charge

There are two known sorts of exceptions to the indivisibility of the elementary charge: quarks and quasiparticles. Quarks, first posited in the 1960s, have quantized charge, but the charge is quantized into multiples of 13 e. However, quarks cannot be seen as isolated particles; they exist only in groupings, and stable groupings of quarks (such as a proton, which consists of three quarks) all have charges that are integer multiples of e. For this reason, either 1e or 13e can be justifiably considered to be "the quantum of charge", depending on the context. Quasiparticles are not particles as such, but rather an emergent entity in a complex material system that behaves like a particle. In 1982 Robert Laughlin explained the fractional quantum Hall effect by postulating the existence of fractionally-charged quasiparticles. This theory is now widely accepted, but this is not considered to be a violation of the principle of charge quantization, since quasiparticles are not elementary particles.
What is the quantum of charge?

All known elementary particles, including quarks, have charges that are integer multiples of 13e. Therefore, one can say that the "quantum of charge" is 13e. In this case, one says that the "elementary charge" is three times as large as the "quantum of charge". On the other hand, all isolatable particles have charges that are integer multiples of e. (Quarks cannot be isolated, except in combinations like protons that have total charges that are integer multiples of e.) Therefore, one can say that the "quantum of charge" is e, with the proviso that quarks are not to be included. In this case, "elementary charge" would be synonymous with the "quantum of charge". In fact, both terminologies are used.[6] For this reason, phrases like "the quantum of charge" or "the indivisible unit of charge" can be ambiguous, unless further specification is given. On the other hand, the term "elementary charge" is unambiguous: It universally refers to the charge of a proton.
Experimental measurements of the elementary charge

In terms of the Avogadro constant and Faraday constant
If the Avogadro constant NA and the Faraday constant F are independently known, the value of the elementary charge can be deduced, using the formula
(In other words, the charge of one mole of electrons, divided by the number of electrons in a mole, equals the charge of a single electron.) In practice, this method is not how the most accurate values are measured today: Nevertheless, it is a legitimate and still quite accurate method, and experimental methodologies are described below: The value of the Avogadro constant NA was first approximated by Johann Josef Loschmidt who, in 1865, estimated the average diameter of the molecules in air by a method that is equivalent to calculating the number of particles in a given volume of gas.[7] Today the value of NA can be measured at very high accuracy by taking an extremely pure crystal (in practice, often silicon), measuring how far apart the atoms are spaced using X-ray diffraction or another
The Elementary Charge method, and accurately measuring the density of the crystal. From this information, one can deduce the mass (m) of a single atom; and since the molar mass (M) is known, the number of atoms in a mole can be calculated: NA= M/m.[8] The value of F can be measured directly using Faraday's laws of electrolysis. Faraday's laws of electrolysis are quantitative relationships based on the electrochemical researches published by Michael Faraday in 1834.[9] In an electrolysis experiment, there is a one-to-one correspondence between the electrons passing through the anode-to-cathode wire and the ions that plate onto or off of the anode or cathode. Measuring the mass change of the anode or cathode, and the total charge passing through the wire (which can be measured as the time-integral of electric current), and also taking into account the molar mass of the ions, one can deduce F.[8] The limit to the precision of the method is the measurement of F: the best experimental value has a relative uncertainty of 1.6ppm, about thirty times higher than other modern methods of measuring or calculating the elementary charge.[8][10]
178
Oil-drop experiment
A famous method for measuring e is Millikan's oil-drop experiment. A small drop of oil in an electric field would move at a rate that balanced the forces of gravity, viscosity (of traveling through the air), and electric force. The forces due to gravity and viscosity could be calculated based on the size and velocity of the oil drop, so electric force could be deduced. Since electric force, in turn, is the product of the electric charge and the known electric field, the electric charge of the oil drop could be accurately computed. By measuring the charges of many different oil drops, it can be seen that the charges are all integer multiples of a single small charge, namely e.
Shot noise
Any electric current will be associated with noise from a variety of sources, one of which is shot noise. Shot noise exists because a current is not a smooth continual flow; instead, a current is made up of discrete electrons that pass by one at a time. By carefully analyzing the noise of a current, the charge of an electron can be calculated. This method, first proposed by Walter H. Schottky, can give only a value of e accurate to a few percent.[11] However, it was used in the first direct observation of Laughlin quasiparticles, implicated in the fractional quantum Hall effect.[12]
From the Josephson and von Klitzing constants

Another accurate method for measuring the elementary charge is by inferring it from measurements of two effects in quantum mechanics: The Josephson effect, voltage oscillations that arise in certain superconducting structures; and the quantum Hall effect, a quantum effect of electrons at low temperatures, strong magnetic fields, and confinement into two dimensions. The Josephson constant is
(where h is the Planck constant). It can be measured directly using the Josephson effect. The von Klitzing constant is
It can be measured directly using the quantum Hall effect. From these two constants, the elementary charge can be deduced:
179
CODATA method
In the most recent CODATA adjustments,[8] the elementary charge is not an independently defined quantity. Instead, a value is derived from the relation
where h is the Planck constant, is the fine structure constant, 0 is the magnetic constant and c0 is the speed of light. The uncertainty in the value of e is currently determined entirely by the uncertainty in the Planck constant. The most precise values of the Planck constant come from watt balance experiments, which are currently used to measure the product K RK. The most precise values of the fine structure constant come from comparisons of the measured and calculated value of the gyromagnetic ratio of the electron.[8]
References
Fundamentals of Physics, 7th Ed., Halliday, Robert Resnick, and Jearl Walker. Wiley, 2005
[1] "CODATA Value: elementary charge" (http:/ / physics. nist. gov/ cgi-bin/ cuu/ Value?e). The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty (http:/ / physics. nist. gov/ cuu/ index. html). US National Institute of Standards and Technology. June 2011. . Retrieved 2011-06-23. [2] Note that the symbol e has many other meanings. Somewhat confusingly, in atomic physics, e sometimes denotes the electron charge, i.e. the negative of the elementary charge. [3] This is derived from the NIST value and uncertainty, using the fact that one coulomb is exactly 2997924580 statcoulombs. (The conversion is ten times the numerical speed of light in meters/second.) [4] G. J. Stoney (1894). "Of the "Electron," or Atom of Electricity" (http:/ / www. chemteam. info/ Chem-History/ Stoney-1894. html). Philosophical Magazine. 5 38: 418420. . [5] Robert Millikan: The Oil-Drop Experiment (http:/ / www. juliantrubin. com/ bigten/ millikanoildrop. html) [6] Q is for Quantum, by John R. Gribbin, Mary Gribbin, Jonathan Gribbin, page 296, Web link (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=zBsDkgI1uQsC& pg=RA1-PA296) [7] Loschmidt, J. (1865). "Zur Grsse der Luftmolekle". Sitzungsberichte der kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften Wien 52 (2): 395413. English translation (http:/ / dbhs. wvusd. k12. ca. us/ webdocs/ Chem-History/ Loschmidt-1865. html). [8] Mohr, Peter J.; Taylor, Barry N.; Newell, David B. (2008). "CODATA Recommended Values of the Fundamental Physical Constants: 2006" (http:/ / physics. nist. gov/ cuu/ Constants/ index. html). Rev. Mod. Phys. 80 (2): 633730. Bibcode2008RvMP...80..633M. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.80.633. . Direct link to value (http:/ / physics. nist. gov/ cgi-bin/ cuu/ Value?e).. [9] Ehl, Rosemary Gene; Ihde, Aaron (1954). "Faraday's Electrochemical Laws and the Determination of Equivalent Weights". Journal of Chemical Education 31 (May): 226232. Bibcode1954JChEd..31..226E. doi:10.1021/ed031p226. [10] Mohr, Peter J.; Taylor, Barry N. (1999). "CODATA recommended values of the fundamental physical constants: 1998". J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data 28 (6): 17131852. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.72.351.. [11] Beenakker, Carlo; Schnenberger, Christian. "Quantum Shot Noise. Fluctuations in the flow of electrons signal the transition from particle to wave behavior". arXiv:cond-mat/0605025. [12] de-Picciotto, R.; Reznikov, M.; Heiblum, M.; Umansky, V.; Bunin, G.; Mahalu, D. (1997). "Direct observation of a fractional charge". Nature 389 (162164): 162. Bibcode1997Natur.389..162D. doi:10.1038/38241.
Quarks
180
Quarks
Quark
A proton, composed of two up quarks and one down quark. (The color assignment of individual quarks is not important, only that all three colors are present.) Composition Statistics Generation Interactions Symbol Antiparticle Theorized Elementary particle Fermionic 1st, 2nd, 3rd Electromagnetism, Gravitation, Strong, Weak q Antiquark (q) Murray Gell-Mann (1964) George Zweig (1964) SLAC (~1968) 6 (up, down, strange, charm, bottom, and top) +23e, 13e Yes
1
Discovered Types Electric charge Color charge Spin Baryon number
2 3
A quark ( /kwrk/ or /kwrk/) is an elementary particle and a fundamental constituent of matter. Quarks combine to form composite particles called hadrons, the most stable of which are protons and neutrons, the components of atomic nuclei.[1] Due to a phenomenon known as color confinement, quarks are never directly observed or found in isolation; they can only be found within baryons or mesons.[2][3] For this reason, much of what is known about quarks has been drawn from observations of the hadrons themselves. There are six types of quarks, known as flavors: up, down, strange, charm, bottom, and top.[4] Up and down quarks have the lowest masses of all quarks. The heavier quarks rapidly change into up and down quarks through a process of particle decay: the transformation from a higher mass state to a lower mass state. Because of this, up and down quarks are generally stable and the most common in the universe, whereas strange, charm, top, and bottom quarks can only be produced in high energy collisions (such as those involving cosmic rays and in particle accelerators). Quarks have various intrinsic properties, including electric charge, color charge, mass, and spin. Quarks are the only elementary particles in the Standard Model of particle physics to experience all four fundamental interactions, also known as fundamental forces (electromagnetism, gravitation, strong interaction, and weak interaction), as well as the only known particles whose electric charges are not integer multiples of the elementary charge. For every quark
Quarks flavor there is a corresponding type of antiparticle, known as antiquark, that differs from the quark only in that some of its properties have equal magnitude but opposite sign. The quark model was independently proposed by physicists Murray Gell-Mann and George Zweig in 1964.[5] Quarks were introduced as parts of an ordering scheme for hadrons, and there was little evidence for their physical existence until deep inelastic scattering experiments at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center in 1968.[6][7] All six flavors of quark have since been observed in accelerator experiments; the top quark, first observed at Fermilab in 1995, was the last to be discovered.[5]
181
Classification
The Standard Model is the theoretical framework describing all the currently known elementary particles, as well as the unobserved[8] Higgs boson.[9] This model contains six flavors of quarks (q), named up (u), down (d), strange (s), charm (c), bottom (b), and top (t).[4] Antiparticles of quarks are called antiquarks, and are denoted by a bar over the symbol for the corresponding quark, such as u for an anti-up quark. As with antimatter in general, antiquarks have the same mass, mean lifetime, and spin as their respective quarks, but the electric charge and other charges have the opposite sign.[10] Quarks are spin-12 particles, implying that they are fermions according to the spin-statistics theorem. They are subject to the Pauli exclusion principle, which states that no two identical fermions can Six of the particles in the Standard Model are quarks (shown in purple). Each of simultaneously occupy the same quantum the first three columns forms a generation of matter. state. This is in contrast to bosons (particles with integer spin), any number of which can be in the same state.[11] Unlike leptons, quarks possess color charge, which causes them to engage in the strong interaction. The resulting attraction between different quarks causes the formation of composite particles known as hadrons (see "Strong interaction and color charge" below). The quarks which determine the quantum numbers of hadrons are called valence quarks; apart from these, any hadron may contain an indefinite number of virtual (or sea) quarks, antiquarks, and gluons which do not influence its quantum numbers.[12] There are two families of hadrons: baryons, with three valence quarks, and mesons, with a valence quark and an antiquark.[13] The most common baryons are the proton and the neutron, the building blocks of the atomic nucleus.[14] A great number of hadrons are known (see list of baryons and list of mesons), most of them differentiated by their quark content and the properties these constituent quarks confer. The existence of "exotic" hadrons with more valence quarks, such as tetraquarks (qqqq) and pentaquarks (qqqqq), has been conjectured[15] but not proven.[16][15][17] Elementary fermions are grouped into three generations, each comprising two leptons and two quarks. The first generation includes up and down quarks, the second strange and charm quarks, and the third bottom and top quarks. All searches for a fourth generation of quarks and other elementary fermions have failed,[18] and there is strong
Quarks indirect evidence that no more than three generations exist.[19][20] Particles in higher generations generally have greater mass and less stability, causing them to decay into lower-generation particles by means of weak interactions. Only first-generation (up and down) quarks occur commonly in nature. Heavier quarks can only be created in high-energy collisions (such as in those involving cosmic rays), and decay quickly; however, they are thought to have been present during the first fractions of a second after the Big Bang, when the universe was in an extremely hot and dense phase (the quark epoch). Studies of heavier quarks are conducted in artificially created conditions, such as in particle accelerators.[21] Having electric charge, mass, color charge, and flavor, quarks are the only known elementary particles that engage in all four fundamental interactions of contemporary physics: electromagnetism, gravitation, strong interaction, and weak interaction.[14] Gravitation is too weak to be relevant to individual particle interactions except at extremes of energy (Planck energy) and distance scales (Planck distance). However, since no successful quantum theory of gravity exists, gravitation is not described by the Standard Model. See the table of properties below for a more complete overview of the six quark flavors' properties.
182
History
The quark model was independently proposed by physicists Murray Gell-Mann[22] and George Zweig[23][24] in 1964.[5] The proposal came shortly after Gell-Mann's 1961 formulation of a particle classification system known as the Eightfold Wayor, in more technical terms, SU(3) flavor symmetry.[25] Physicist Yuval Ne'eman had independently developed a scheme similar to the Eightfold Way in the same year.[26][27] At the time of the quark theory's inception, the "particle zoo" included, amongst other particles, a multitude of hadrons. Gell-Mann and Zweig posited that they were not elementary particles, but were instead composed of combinations of quarks and antiquarks. Their model involved three flavors of quarksup, down, Murray Gell-Mann at TED in 2007. and strangeto which they ascribed properties such as spin and electric Gell-Mann and George Zweig charge.[22][23][24] The initial reaction of the physics community to the proposal proposed the quark model in 1964. was mixed. There was particular contention about whether the quark was a physical entity or an abstraction used to explain concepts that were not properly understood at the time.[28] In less than a year, extensions to the Gell-MannZweig model were proposed. Sheldon Lee Glashow and James Bjorken predicted the existence of a fourth flavor of quark, which they called charm. The addition was proposed because it allowed for a better description of the weak interaction (the mechanism that allows quarks to decay), equalized the number of known quarks with the number of known leptons, and implied a mass formula that correctly reproduced the masses of the known mesons.[29] In 1968, deep inelastic scattering experiments at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center (SLAC) showed that the proton contained much smaller, point-like objects and was therefore not an elementary particle.[6][7][30] Physicists were reluctant to identify these objects with quarks at the time, instead calling them "partons"a term coined by Richard Feynman.[31][32][33] The objects that were observed at the SLAC would later be identified as up and down quarks as the other flavors were discovered.[34] Nevertheless, "parton" remains in use as a collective term for the constituents of hadrons (quarks, antiquarks, and gluons). The strange quark's existence was indirectly validated by the SLAC's scattering experiments: not only was it a necessary component of Gell-Mann and Zweig's three-quark model, but it provided an explanation for the kaon (K) and pion () hadrons discovered in cosmic rays in 1947.[35] In a 1970 paper, Glashow, John Iliopoulos and Luciano Maiani presented further reasoning for the existence of the as-yet undiscovered charm quark.[36][37] The number of supposed quark flavors grew to the current six in 1973,
Quarks when Makoto Kobayashi and Toshihide Maskawa noted that the experimental observation of CP violation[38][39] could be explained if there were another pair of quarks. Charm quarks were produced almost simultaneously by two teams in November 1974 (see November Revolution)one at the SLAC under Burton Richter, and one at Brookhaven National Laboratory under Samuel Ting. The charm quarks were observed bound with charm antiquarks in mesons. The two parties had assigned the discovered meson two different symbols, J and ; thus, it became formally known as the J/ meson. The discovery finally convinced the physics community of the quark model's validity.[33] In the following years a number of suggestions appeared for extending the quark model to six quarks. Of these, the 1975 paper by Haim Harari[40] was the first to coin the terms top and bottom for the additional quarks.[41] In 1977, the bottom quark was observed by a team at Fermilab led by Leon Lederman.[42][43] This was a strong indicator of the top quark's existence: without the top quark, the bottom quark would have been without a partner. However, it was not until 1995 that the top quark was finally observed, also by the CDF[44] and D[45] teams at Fermilab.[5] It had a mass much greater than had been previously expected[46]almost as great as a gold atom.[47]
183
Etymology
For some time, Gell-Mann was undecided on an actual spelling for the term he intended to coin, until he found the word quark in James Joyce's book Finnegans Wake: Three quarks for Muster Mark! Sure he has not got much of a bark And sure any he has it's all beside the mark. James Joyce, Finnegans Wake[48] Gell-Mann went into further detail regarding the name of the quark in his book, The Quark and the Jaguar:[49]
In 1963, when I assigned the name "quark" to the fundamental constituents of the nucleon, I had the sound first, without the spelling, which could have been "kwork". Then, in one of my occasional perusals of Finnegans Wake, by James Joyce, I came across the word "quark" in the phrase "Three quarks for Muster Mark". Since "quark" (meaning, for one thing, the cry of the gull) was clearly intended to rhyme with "Mark", as well as "bark" and other such words, I had to find an excuse to pronounce it as "kwork". But the book represents the dream of a publican named Humphrey Chimpden Earwicker. Words in the text are typically drawn from several sources at once, like the "portmanteau" words in "Through the Looking-Glass". From time to time, phrases occur in the book that are partially determined by calls for drinks at the bar. I argued, therefore, that perhaps one of the multiple sources of the cry "Three quarks for Muster Mark" might be "Three quarts for Mister Mark", in which case the pronunciation "kwork" would not be totally unjustified. In any case, the number three fitted perfectly the way quarks occur in nature.
Zweig preferred the name ace for the particle he had theorized, but Gell-Mann's terminology came to prominence once the quark model had been commonly accepted.[50] The quark flavors were given their names for a number of reasons. The up and down quarks are named after the up and down components of isospin, which they carry.[51] Strange quarks were given their name because they were discovered to be components of the strange particles discovered in cosmic rays years before the quark model was proposed; these particles were deemed "strange" because they had unusually long lifetimes.[52] Glashow, who coproposed charm quark with Bjorken, is quoted as saying, "We called our construct the 'charmed quark', for we were fascinated and pleased by the symmetry it brought to the subnuclear world."[53] The names "bottom" and "top", coined by Harari, were chosen because they are "logical partners for up and down quarks".[40][41][52] In the past, bottom and top quarks were sometimes referred to as "beauty" and "truth" respectively, but these names have somewhat fallen out of use.[54] While "truth" never did catch on, accelerator complexes devoted to massive production of bottom quarks are sometimes called "beauty factories".[55]
Quarks
184
Properties
Electric charge
Quarks have fractional electric charge values either 13 or 23 times the elementary charge, depending on flavor. Up, charm, and top quarks (collectively referred to as up-type quarks) have a charge of +23, while down, strange, and bottom quarks (down-type quarks) have 13. Antiquarks have the opposite charge to their corresponding quarks; up-type antiquarks have charges of 23 and down-type antiquarks have charges of +13. Since the electric charge of a hadron is the sum of the charges of the constituent quarks, all hadrons have integer charges: the combination of three quarks (baryons), three antiquarks (antibaryons), or a quark and an antiquark (mesons) always results in integer charges.[56] For example, the hadron constituents of atomic nuclei, neutrons and protons, have charges of 0 and +1 respectively; the neutron is composed of two down quarks and one up quark, and the proton of two up quarks and one down quark.[14]
Spin
Spin is an intrinsic property of elementary particles, and its direction is an important degree of freedom. It is sometimes visualized as the rotation of an object around its own axis (hence the name "spin"), though this notion is somewhat misguided at subatomic scales because elementary particles are believed to be point-like.[57] Spin can be represented by a vector whose length is measured in units of the reduced Planck constant (pronounced "h bar"). For quarks, a measurement of the spin vector component along any axis can only yield the values +/2 or /2; for this reason quarks are classified as spin-12 particles.[58] The component of spin along a given axisby convention the z axisis often denoted by an up arrow for the value +12 and down arrow for the value 12, placed after the symbol for flavor. For example, an up quark with a spin of +12 along the z axis is denoted by u.[59]
Weak interaction
A quark of one flavor can transform into a quark of another flavor only through the weak interaction, one of the four fundamental interactions in particle physics. By absorbing or emitting a W boson, any up-type quark (up, charm, and top quarks) can change into any down-type quark (down, strange, and bottom quarks) and vice versa. This flavor transformation mechanism causes the radioactive process of beta decay, in which a neutron (n) "splits" into a proton (p), an electron (e) and an electron antineutrino (e) (see picture). This occurs when one of the down quarks in the neutron (udd) decays into an up quark by emitting a virtual W boson, transforming the neutron into a proton (uud). The W boson then decays into an electron and an electron antineutrino.[60]
Feynman diagram of beta decay with time flowing upwards. The CKM matrix (discussed below) encodes the probability of this and other quark decays.
+ e + e (Beta decay, hadron notation)
udd uud + e + e (Beta decay, quark notation)
Both beta decay and the inverse process of inverse beta decay are routinely used in medical applications such as positron emission tomography (PET) and in high-energy experiments such as neutrino detection.
Quarks
185 While the process of flavor transformation is the same for all quarks, each quark has a preference to transform into the quark of its own generation. The relative tendencies of all flavor transformations are described by a mathematical table, called the CabibboKobayashiMaskawa matrix (CKM matrix). The approximate magnitudes of the entries of the CKM matrix are:[61]
The strengths of the weak interactions between the six quarks. The "intensities" of the lines are determined by the elements of the CKM matrix.
where Vij represents the tendency of a quark of flavor i to change into a quark of flavor j (or vice versa).[62] There exists an equivalent weak interaction matrix for leptons (right side of the W boson on the above beta decay diagram), called the PontecorvoMakiNakagawaSakata matrix (PMNS matrix).[63] Together, the CKM and PMNS matrices describe all flavor transformations, but the links between the two are not yet clear.[64]
Quarks
186
Strong interaction and color charge

Quarks possess a property called color charge. There are three types of color charge, arbitrarily labeled blue, green, and red.[65] Each of them is complemented by an anticolorantiblue, antigreen, and antired. Every quark carries a color, while every antiquark carries an anticolor.[66] The system of attraction and repulsion between quarks charged with different combinations of the three colors is called strong interaction, which is mediated by force carrying particles known as gluons; this is discussed at length below. The theory that describes strong interactions is called quantum chromodynamics (QCD). A quark charged with one color value can form a bound system with an antiquark carrying the corresponding anticolor; three (anti)quarks, one of each (anti)color, will similarly be bound together. The result of two attracting quarks will be color neutrality: a quark with color charge plus an antiquark with color charge will result in a color charge of 0 (or "white" color) and the formation of a meson. Analogous to the additive color model in basic optics, the combination of three quarks or three antiquarks, each with different color charges, will result in the same "white" color charge and the formation of a baryon or antibaryon.[67] In modern particle physics, gauge symmetriesa kind of symmetry grouprelate interactions between particles (see gauge theories). Color SU(3) (commonly abbreviated to SU(3)c) is the gauge symmetry that relates the color charge in quarks and is the defining symmetry for quantum chromodynamics.[68] Just as the laws of physics are independent of which directions in space are designated x, y, and z, and remain unchanged if the coordinate axes are rotated to a new orientation, the physics All types of hadrons have zero of quantum chromodynamics is independent of which directions in total color charge. three-dimensional color space are identified as blue, red, and green. SU(3)c color transformations correspond to "rotations" in color space (which, mathematically speaking, is a complex space). Every quark flavor f, each with subtypes fB, fG, fR corresponding to the quark colors,[69] forms a triplet: a three-component quantum field which transforms under the fundamental representation of SU(3)c.[70] The requirement that SU(3)c should be localthat is, that its transformations be allowed to vary with space and timedetermines the properties of the strong interaction, in particular the existence of eight gluon types to act as its force carriers.[68][71]
Mass
Two terms are used in referring to a quark's mass: current quark mass refers to the mass of a quark by itself, while constituent quark mass refers to the current quark mass plus the mass of the gluon particle field surrounding the quark.[72] These masses typically have very different values. Most of a hadron's mass comes from the gluons that bind the constituent quarks together, rather than from the quarks themselves. While gluons are inherently massless, they possess energymore specifically, quantum chromodynamics binding energy (QCBE)and it is this that contributes so greatly to the overall mass of the hadron (see mass in special relativity). For example, a proton has a mass of approximately 938MeV/c2, of which the rest mass of its three valence quarks only contributes about 11MeV/c2; much of the remainder can be attributed to the gluons' QCBE.[73][74] The Standard Model posits that elementary particles derive their masses from the Higgs mechanism, which is related to the unobserved Higgs boson. Physicists hope that further research into the reasons for the top quark's large mass, which was found to be approximately equal to that of a gold nucleus (~171 GeV/c2),[73][75] might reveal more about the origin of the mass of quarks and other elementary particles.[76]
Quarks
187
Table of properties
The following table summarizes the key properties of the six quarks. Flavor quantum numbers (isospin (I3), charm (C), strangeness (S, not to be confused with spin), topness (T), and bottomness (B)) are assigned to certain quark flavors, and denote qualities of quark-based systems and hadrons. The baryon number (B) is +13 for all quarks, as baryons are made of three quarks. For antiquarks, the electric charge (Q) and all flavor quantum numbers (B, I3, C, S, T, and B) are of opposite sign. Mass and total angular momentum (J; equal to spin for point particles) do not change sign for the antiquarks.
Quark flavor properties[73]

Name Symbol Mass (MeV/c2)* J B Q I3 C S T B Antiparticle Antiparticle symbol
First generation Up Down u d 1.7 to 3.3 4.1 to 5.8

1
2 +13 +23 +12 2 +13 13 12
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
Antiup Antidown
u d
Second generation Charm Strange c s 1270 101

1
2 +13 +23 2 +13 13
0 0
+1 0
0 1
0 0
0 0
Anticharm Antistrange
c s
Third generation Top Bottom t b 1720009001,300 4190

1
2 +13 +23 2 +13 13
0 0
0 0
0 0
+1 0
0 1
Antitop Antibottom
t b
J = total angular momentum, B = baryon number, Q = electric charge, I3 = isospin, C = charm, S = strangeness, T = topness, B = bottomness. * Notation such as 4190 denotes measurement uncertainty. In the case of the top quark, the first uncertainty is statistical in nature, and the second is systematic.
Interacting quarks
As described by quantum chromodynamics, the strong interaction between quarks is mediated by gluons, massless vector gauge bosons. Each gluon carries one color charge and one anticolor charge. In the standard framework of particle interactions (part of a more general formulation known as perturbation theory), gluons are constantly exchanged between quarks through a virtual emission and absorption process. When a gluon is transferred between quarks, a color change occurs in both; for example, if a red quark emits a redantigreen gluon, it becomes green, and if a green quark absorbs a redantigreen gluon, it becomes red. Therefore, while each quark's color constantly changes, their strong interaction is preserved.[77][78][79] Since gluons carry color charge, they themselves are able to emit and absorb other gluons. This causes asymptotic freedom: as quarks come closer to each other, the chromodynamic binding force between them weakens.[80] Conversely, as the distance between quarks increases, the binding force strengthens. The color field becomes stressed, much as an elastic band is stressed when stretched, and more gluons of appropriate color are spontaneously created to strengthen the field. Above a certain energy threshold, pairs of quarks and antiquarks are created. These pairs bind with the quarks being separated, causing new hadrons to form. This phenomenon is known as color confinement: quarks never appear in isolation.[78][81] This process of hadronization occurs before quarks, formed in a high energy collision, are able to interact in any other way. The only exception is the top quark, which may decay before it hadronizes.[82]
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188
Sea quarks
Hadrons, along with the valence quarks (qv) that contribute to their quantum numbers, contain virtual quarkantiquark (qq) pairs known as sea quarks (qs). Sea quarks form when a gluon of the hadron's color field splits; this process also works in reverse in that the annihilation of two sea quarks produces a gluon. The result is a constant flux of gluon splits and creations colloquially known as "the sea".[83] Sea quarks are much less stable than their valence counterparts, and they typically annihilate each other within the interior of the hadron. Despite this, sea quarks can hadronize into baryonic or mesonic particles under certain circumstances.[84]
Other phases of quark matter

Under sufficiently extreme conditions, quarks may become deconfined and exist as free particles. In the course of asymptotic freedom, the strong interaction becomes weaker at higher temperatures. Eventually, color confinement would be lost and an extremely hot plasma of freely moving quarks and gluons would be formed. This theoretical phase of matter is called quarkgluon plasma.[87] The exact conditions needed to give rise to this state are unknown and have been the subject of a great deal of speculation and experimentation. A recent estimate puts the A qualitative rendering of the phase diagram of quark matter. The precise details of [85][86] needed temperature at 1.900.021012 the diagram are the subject of ongoing research. [88] kelvin. While a state of entirely free quarks and gluons has never been achieved (despite numerous attempts by CERN in the 1980s and 1990s),[89] recent experiments at the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider have yielded evidence for liquid-like quark matter exhibiting "nearly perfect" fluid motion.[90] The quarkgluon plasma would be characterized by a great increase in the number of heavier quark pairs in relation to the number of up and down quark pairs. It is believed that in the period prior to 106 seconds after the Big Bang (the quark epoch), the universe was filled with quarkgluon plasma, as the temperature was too high for hadrons to be stable.[91] Given sufficiently high baryon densities and relatively low temperaturespossibly comparable to those found in neutron starsquark matter is expected to degenerate into a Fermi liquid of weakly interacting quarks. This liquid would be characterized by a condensation of colored quark Cooper pairs, thereby breaking the local SU(3)c symmetry. Because quark Cooper pairs harbor color charge, such a phase of quark matter would be color superconductive; that is, color charge would be able to pass through it with no resistance.[92]
Quarks
189
Notes
[1] "Quark (subatomic particle)" (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 486323/ quark). Encyclopdia Britannica. . Retrieved 2008-06-29. [2] R. Nave. "Confinement of Quarks" (http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ hbase/ Particles/ quark. html#c6). HyperPhysics. Georgia State University, Department of Physics and Astronomy. . Retrieved 2008-06-29. [3] R. Nave. "Bag Model of Quark Confinement" (http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ hbase/ Particles/ qbag. html#c1). HyperPhysics. Georgia State University, Department of Physics and Astronomy. . Retrieved 2008-06-29. [4] R. Nave. "Quarks" (http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ hbase/ Particles/ quark. html). HyperPhysics. Georgia State University, Department of Physics and Astronomy. . Retrieved 2008-06-29. [5] B. Carithers, P. Grannis (1995). "Discovery of the Top Quark" (http:/ / www. slac. stanford. edu/ pubs/ beamline/ 25/ 3/ 25-3-carithers. pdf) (PDF). Beam Line (SLAC) 25 (3): 416. . Retrieved 2008-09-23. [6] E.D. Bloom et al. (1969). "High-Energy Inelastic ep Scattering at 6 and 10". Physical Review Letters 23 (16): 930934. Bibcode1969PhRvL..23..930B. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.23.930. [7] M. Breidenbach et al. (1969). "Observed Behavior of Highly Inelastic ElectronProton Scattering". Physical Review Letters 23 (16): 935939. Bibcode1969PhRvL..23..935B. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.23.935. [8] As of November 2011. [9] C. Amsler et al. (Particle Data Group) (2008). "Higgs Bosons: Theory and Searches" (http:/ / pdg. lbl. gov/ 2009/ reviews/ rpp2009-rev-higgs-boson. pdf). Physics Letters B 667 (1): 11340. Bibcode2008PhLB..667....1P. doi:10.1016/j.physletb.2008.07.018. . [10] S.S.M. Wong (1998). Introductory Nuclear Physics (2nd ed.). Wiley Interscience. p.30. ISBN0-471-23973-9. [11] K.A. Peacock (2008). The Quantum Revolution. Greenwood Publishing Group. p.125. ISBN031333448X. [12] B. Povh, C. Scholz, K. Rith, F. Zetsche (2008). Particles and Nuclei. Springer. p.98. ISBN3540793674. [13] Section 6.1. in P.C.W. Davies (1979). The Forces of Nature. Cambridge University Press. ISBN052122523X. [14] M. Munowitz (2005). Knowing. Oxford University Press. p.35. ISBN0195167376. [15] W.-M. Yao et al. (Particle Data Group) (2006). "Review of Particle Physics: Pentaquark Update" (http:/ / pdg. lbl. gov/ 2006/ reviews/ theta_b152. pdf). Journal of Physics G 33 (1): 11232. arXiv:astro-ph/0601168. Bibcode2006JPhG...33....1Y. doi:10.1088/0954-3899/33/1/001. . [16] Several research groups claimed to have proven the existence of tetraquarks and pentaquarks in the early 2000s. While the status of tetraquarks is still under debate, all known pentaquark candidates have since been established as non-existent. [17] C. Amsler et al. (Particle Data Group) (2008). "Review of Particle Physics: Pentaquarks" (http:/ / pdg. lbl. gov/ 2008/ reviews/ pentaquarks_b801. pdf). Physics Letters B 667 (1): 11340. Bibcode2008PhLB..667....1P. doi:10.1016/j.physletb.2008.07.018. . C. Amsler et al. 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References Further reading

A. Ali, G. Kramer (2011). "JETS and QCD: A historical review of the discovery of the quark and gluon jets and its impact on QCD". European Physical Journal H 36 (2): 245. Bibcode2011EPJH...36..245A. doi:10.1140/epjh/e2011-10047-1. D.J. Griffiths (2008). Introduction to Elementary Particles (2nd ed.). WileyVCH. ISBN3527406018. I.S. Hughes (1985). Elementary particles (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN0-521-26092-2. R. Oerter (2005). The Theory of Almost Everything: The Standard Model, the Unsung Triumph of Modern Physics. Pi Press. ISBN0132366789. A. Pickering (1984). Constructing Quarks: A Sociological History of Particle Physics. The University of Chicago Press. ISBN0-226-66799-5. B. Povh (1995). Particles and Nuclei: An Introduction to the Physical Concepts. SpringerVerlag. ISBN0-387-59439-6. M. Riordan (1987). The Hunting of the Quark: A true story of modern physics. Simon & Schuster. ISBN0-671-64884-5. B.A. Schumm (2004). Deep Down Things: The Breathtaking Beauty of Particle Physics. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN0-8018-7971-X.
External links
1969 Physics Nobel Prize lecture by Murray Gell-Mann (http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/ 1969/index.html) 1976 Physics Nobel Prize lecture by Burton Richter (http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/ 1976/richter-lecture.html) 1976 Physics Nobel Prize lecture by Samuel C.C. Ting (http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/ 1976/ting-lecture.html) 2008 Physics Nobel Prize lecture by Makoto Kobayashi (http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/ 2008/kobayashi-lecture.html) 2008 Physics Nobel Prize lecture by Toshihide Maskawa (http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/ laureates/2008/maskawa-lecture.html) The Top Quark And The Higgs Particle by T.A. Heppenheimer (http://books.nap.edu/openbook. php?isbn=0309048931&page=236) A description of CERN's experiment to count the families of quarks.
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Quantum Mechanics

3. The Quantum Theories

Appendix - Quantisation of Charge

forward by Max Planck.

History of Quantum Mechanics

History of Quantum Mechanics that of the electron.

Feynman diagram of gluon radiation in Quantum Chromodynamics

History of Quantum Mechanics

Date Person 1877 Ludwig Eduard Boltzmann

1887 Heinrich Hertz 1888 Johannes Rydberg

1895 Wilhelm Conrad Rntgen

1896 Antoine Henri Becquerel

1896 Pieter Zeeman

1902 Gilbert N. Lewis

1904 Richard Abegg

1905 Albert Einstein

1905 Albert Einstein

History of Quantum Mechanics

1909 Geoffrey Ingram Taylor

1911 tefan Procopiu

1913 tefan Procopiu

1915 Albert Einstein

1916 Arnold Sommerfeld

History of Quantum Mechanics

1918 Sir Ernest Rutherford

1919 Irving Langmuir

1921 Frederick Soddy and 1922

1922 Arthur Compton

1922 Otto Stern and Walther Gerlach 1923 Louis De Broglie

1924 Satyendra Nath Bose

1925 George Uhlenbeck and Samuel Goudsmit 1925 Friedrich Hund

1925 Werner Heisenberg 1925 Wolfgang Pauli

developed the Thomas-Fermi model

History of Quantum Mechanics

1927 Robert Mulliken

1927 Hermann Klaus Hugo Weyl

1928 Paul Dirac

1928 Linus Pauling

1931 John Lennard-Jones 1931 Walther Bothe and Herbert Becker

1931 Enrico Fermi

History of Quantum Mechanics

1932 Irne Joliot-Curie and Frdric Joliot

1932 James Chadwick

1932 Werner Heisenberg

1932 Mark Oliphant

1932 Carl D. Anderson 1933 Le Szilrd

1934 Enrico Fermi 1934 Enrico Fermi 1934 N.N.Semyonov

1934 Irne Joliot-Curie and Frdric Joliot-Curie 1935 Hideki Yukawa

1936 Alexandru Proca

1936 Garrett Birkhoff and John von Neumann

1939 Le Szilrd and Enrico Fermi

History of Quantum Mechanics

1942 Kan-Chang Wang 1942 Enrico Fermi

1951 Manhattan Project and 1952

1951 Felix Bloch and Edward Mills Purcell

1952 Albert W. Overhauser

History of Quantum Mechanics

1961 Clauss Jnsson

1961 Anatole Abragam

1961 Sheldon Lee Glashow

History of Quantum Mechanics

1962 Brian David Josephson, to FRS 1973

1963 Eugene P. Wigner