DSTT CNTTK7

I S TUYN TNH
Ngy 4 thng 3 nm 2012

Bi ging I S TUYN TNH 2
Mc lc
1 Ma trn v nh thc 5
1.1 Mt s nh ngha Cc php ton trn ma trn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.1 Mt s nh ngha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.2 Cc php ton trn ma trn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.3 Cc php bin i s cp trn ma trn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2 nh thc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2.1 nh thc cp 1, 2, 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2.2 nh thc cp n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2.3 Cc tnh cht ca nh thc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2.4 nh l Laplace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.3 Ma trn nghch o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.3.1 Ma trn nghch o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.3.2 Cch tm ma trn nghch o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.4 Hng ca ma trn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.4.1 Khi nim v hng ca ma trn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.4.2 Cch tnh hng ca ma trn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2 H phng trnh tuyn tnh 19
2.1 Khi nim tng qut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.2 H Cramer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.2.1 nh ngha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.2.2 Cng thc Cramer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.3 H phng trnh tuyn tnh tng qut. Phng php Gauss . . . . . . . . . 20
2.3.1 H phng trnh tuyn tnh tng qut. Phng php Gauss . . . . 20
2.3.2 H phng trnh tuyn tnh thun nht . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3 Khng gian vect 25
3.1 Cc khi nim c bn v khng gian vect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.1.1 nh ngha khng gian vect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.1.2 Cc v d khng gian vect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.1.3 Cch tnh cht . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.2 S ph thuc tuyn tnh v c lp tuyn tnh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.2.1 T hp tuyn tnh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.2.2 S ph thuc tuyn tnh - S c lp tuyn tnh . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.2.3 Mt s tnh cht c bn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.3 Hng ca mt h vect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.3.1 nh ngha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.3.2 Cch tnh hng ca mt h vect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.4 C s, s chiu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.4.1 nh ngha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3
MC LC
3.4.2 Ta vect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.4.3 Ma trn chuyn c s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.4.4 Quan h gia cc ta ca cng mt vect i vi cc c s khc
nhau . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.5 Khng gian vect con . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.5.1 nh ngha v v d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.5.2 Bao tuyn tnh ca mt h vect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.5.3 Khng gian con cc nghim ca h phng trnh tuyn tnh thun
nht . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4 nh x tuyn tnh 41
4.1 nh ngha v v d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.1.1 nh ngha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.1.2 Cc v d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.1.3 Cc tnh cht c bn ca nh x tuyn tnh . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4.2 Ht nhn v nh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.2.1 nh v nh ngc ca khng gian con . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.2.2 nh, ht nhn, hng v s khuyt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.2.3 n cu, ton cu, ng cu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.3 Ma trn ca nh x tuyn tnh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.3.1 Ma trn ca nh x tuyn tnh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.3.2 Biu thc ta ca nh x tuyn tnh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.3.3 Ma trn ca nh x tuyn tnh trong cc c s khc nhau . . . . . 53
4.4 Gi tr ring, vect ring ca ma trn, nh x tuyn tnh . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.4.1 Vect ring v gi tr ring ca ma trn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.4.2 Vect ring v gi tr ring ca ton t tuyn tnh . . . . . . . . . . 55
4.5 Cho ha ma trn, cho ha nh x tuyn tnh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4.5.1 iu kin cho ha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4.5.2 Cch cho ha ma trn v php bin i tuyn tnh . . . . . . . . . 58
5 Dng song tuyn tnh - Dng ton phng 63
5.1 Cc khi nim c bn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
5.1.1 Dng song tuyn tnh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
5.1.2 Dng ton phng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
5.1.3 Dng chnh tc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
5.1.4 Php i bin s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
5.2 a dng ton phng v dng chnh tc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
5.2.1 Phng php Lagrange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
5.2.2 Phng php Jacobi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
5.2.3 Lut qun tnh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Chng 1
Ma trn v nh thc
1.1 Mt s nh ngha Cc php ton trn ma trn
1.1.1 Mt s nh ngha
Ma trn cp mn(m, n N
) trn trng K (K l R hay C) l mt bng gm mn s

c sp xp thnh m dng, n ct theo mt th t nht nh.
Ma trn A cp mn c vit di dng
A =
_
_
a
11
a
12
. . . a
1n
a
21
a
22
. . . a
2n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
m1
a
m2
. . . a
mn
_
_
hay A =
_
_
_
_
_
a
11
a
12
. . . a
1n
a
21
a
22
. . . a
2n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
m1
a
m2
. . . a
mn
_
_
_
_
_
Ta cng k hiu ma trn A c m hng v n ct l A = (a
ij
)
mn
; phn t nm hng
th i, ct th j ca ma trn A c k hiu l a
ij
Tp hp cc ma trn cp mn trn K k hiu l M
mn
(K)
V d: A =
_
2 3 4
0 1 2
_
l ma trn cp 2 3
B =
_
1 i 2
0 i 5
_
l ma trn cp 2 2 vi cc phn t l cc s phc.
Ma trn cp n n c gi l ma trn vung cp n.
Ma trn cp m1 c gi l ma trn ct
A =
_
_
1
2
4
5
_
_
Ma trn cp 1 n c gi l ma trn dng.
B =
_
1 3 4 5
Ma trn khng nu mi phn t ca n u bng 0.

Ma trn n v l ma trn vung m cc phn t a
ii
= 1 cn cc phn t cn li
bng 0, k hiu I
n
I
n
=
_
_
1 0 . . . 0
0 1 . . . 0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 0 . . . 1
_
_
5
1.1. MT S NH NGHA CC PHP TON TRN MA TRN
Ma trn cho l ma trn vung m cc phn t a
ij
= 0 vi i ,= j
A =
_
_
a
11
0 . . . 0
0 a
22
. . . 0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 0 . . . a
nn
_
_
Cc ma trn vung cp n c dng
_
_
a
11
a
12
. . . a
1n
0 a
22
. . . a
2n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 0 . . . a
nn
_
_
hay
_
_
a
11
0 . . . 0
a
21
a
22
. . . 0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
n1
a
n2
. . . a
nn
_
_
c gi l ma trn tam gic trn v ma trn tam gic di.
1.1.2 Cc php ton trn ma trn
1. Ma trn bng nhau Hai ma trn A = (a
ij
)
mn
v B = (b
ij
)
mn
c gi l
bng nhau nu chng c cng cp m n, v cc v tr tng ng cng bng nhau
a
ij
= b
ij
, 1 i m, 1 j n
2. Ma trn chuyn v Cho ma trn A = (a
ij
)
mn
, ma trn chuyn v ca A k hiu l
A
T
= (b
ij
)
nm
vi
b
ij
= a
ji
A =
_
1 2 5
9 7 4
_
A
T
=
_
_
1 9
2 7
5 4
_
_
3. Nhn mt s vi mt ma trn Cho A M
mn
(K) v K
A = (a
ij
)
mn
Tnh cht:
1. 1.A = A
2. 0.A = 0
3. .0 = 0, K
4. (.A) = ()A, , K
4. Cng hai ma trn A = (a
ij
)
mn
v ma trn B = (b
ij
)
mn
cng cp mn. Khi
A +B = (a
ij
+b
ij
)
mn
V d:
A =
_
1 2 3
4 5 0
_
; B =
_
1 3 5
2 4 6
_
Khi
A +B =
_
2 5 8
6 9 6
_
Cc tnh cht
CHNG 1. MA TRN V NH THC
1. A +B = B +A
2. (A +B) +C = A + (B +C)
3. (u +v)A = uA +vA vi u, v K
4. u(A +B) = uA +uB vi u K
5. (uA +vB)
T
= uA
T
+vB
T
vi u, v K
5. Php nhn hai ma trn Cho ma trn A = (a
ij
)
mn
v B = (b
ij
)
np
. Tch ca hai
ma trn A v B l mt ma trn cp mp, k hiu A.B = (c
ik
)
mp
xc nh nh sau:
c
ik
= a
i1
b
1k
+a
i2
b
2k
+ +a
in
b
nk
=
n
j=1
a
ij
b
jk
V d: Cho hai ma trn
A =
_
_
1 2 3 4
5 6 7 8
9 10 11 12
_
_
v B =
_
_
13 14
15 16
17 18
19 20
_
_
Ta c ma trn C = A.B l ma trn cp 3 2 nh sau:
Phn t c
11
: ly cc phn t dng 1 ca ma trn A nhn tng ng vi cc phn t
ca ct 1 ca ma trn B, sau cng tt c li vi nhau.
c
11
= 1.13 + 2.15 + 3.17 + 4.19 = 170
Phn t c
12
: ly cc phn t dng 1 ca ma trn A nhn tng ng vi cc phn t
ca ct 2 ca ma trn B, sau cng tt c li vi nhau.
c
12
= 1.14 + 2.16 + 3.18 + 4.20 = 180
Tng t nh vy ta tnh c cc phn t cn li.
Vy C = A.B =
_
_
170 180
426 452
682 724
_
_
Tnh cht
1. (A.B).C = A.(B.C)
2. I.A = A
3. A(B +C) = AB +AC
4. (A +B)C = AC +BC
5. (AB)
T
= B
T
A
T
Ch : Php nhn ma trn khng c tnh giao hon.
1.1. MT S NH NGHA CC PHP TON TRN MA TRN
1.1.3 Cc php bin i s cp trn ma trn
Ta gi php bin i s cp trn ma trn l php bin i c mt trong cc dng sau:
1. h
i
h
j
(c
i
c
j
): i ch hai hng (ct) cho nhau
2. h
i
a.h
i
(c
i
a.c
i
), a ,= 0: nhn vo hng th i (ct i) vi s a ,= 0
3. h
i
h
i
+ a.h
j
(c
i
c
i
+ a.c
j
): nhn mt s a vo hng h
j
ri cng vo hng h
i
(nhn mt s a vo ct c
j
ri cng vo c
i
)
Ta dng k hiu A B ch ma trn B nhn c t A sau hu hn cc php bin i
s cp trn A.
V d: Nhn hng th 3 cho 2
_
_
1 2 4 3
0 1 5 4
0 1 5 2
_
_
h
3
2h
3
_
_
1 2 4 3
0 1 5 4
0 2 10 4
_
_
Nhn (-2) hng th 2 ri cng vo hng th 3
_
_
1 2 4 3
0 1 5 4
0 2 5 4
_
_
h
3
h
3
+(2)h
2
_
_
1 2 4 3
0 1 5 4
0 0 0 4
_
_
Ma trn bc thang l ma trn c dng
_
_
a
11
a
12
. . . . . . a
1n
0 a
22
. . . . . . a
2n
.
.
.
.
.
. a
rr
.
.
. a
rn
0 0 . . . . . . 0
0 0 . . . . . . 0
_
_
V d: Cc ma trn sau y khng c dng bc thang
_
0 0
1 2
_
;
_
1 2 3
2 1 3
_
;
_
0 1 2
1 2 3
_
;
_
_
1 2 3 4
0 1 1 2
0 2 0 3
_
_
V d: Cc ma trn sau c dng bc thang:
_
1 2
0 2
_
;
_
_
1 2 3
0 1 3
0 0 0
_
_
;
_
_
1 2 3 4
0 0 1 2
0 0 0 3
_
_
B Mi ma trn u c th a v dng bc thang nh cc php bin i s cp.
V d: Dng cc php bin i s cp a ma trn A v dng bc thang
A =
_
_
1 2 4 3
1 3 1 1
2 5 3 2
_
_
Gii:
A =
_
_
1 2 4 3
1 3 1 1
2 5 3 2
_
_
h
2
h
2
+(1)h
1
h
3
h
3
+(2)h
1
_
_
1 2 4 3
0 1 5 4
0 1 5 4
_
_
h
3
h
3
+(1)h
2
_
_
1 2 4 3
0 1 5 4
0 0 0 0
_
_
1.2 nh thc
1.2.1 nh thc cp 1, 2, 3
nh thc cp 1, 2, 3 Cho A l mt ma trn vung. nh thc ca ma trn A l mt
s c k hiu l detA hoc [A[. Ta c cc khi nim nh thc cp 1, 2 ,3 nh sau:
A l ma trn vung cp 1; A = [a
11
] th nh thc ca A l detA = a
11
.
A l ma trn vung cp 2: A =
_
a
11
a
12
a
21
a
22
_
th detA =
a
11
a
12
a
21
a
22
= a
11
a
22
a
12
a
21
A l mt ma trn cp 3
A =
_
_
a
11
a
12
a
13
a
21
a
22
a
23
a
31
a
32
a
33
_
_
th
detA =
a
11
a
12
a
13
a
21
a
22
a
23
a
31
a
32
a
33
= a
11
a
22
a
33
+a
13
a
21
a
32
+a
12
a
23
a
31
a
31
a
22
a
13
a
11
a
23
a
32
a
33
a
12
a
21
V d: Tnh nh thc ca ma trn
A =
_
_
1 2 3
4 5 6
7 8 9
_
_
1.2.2 nh thc cp n
Cho A l ma trn vung cp n. nh thc ca A c tnh bi cng thc sau:
detA = a
11
A
11
+a
12
A
12
+. . . +a
1n
A
1n
trong A
ik
= (1)
i+k
detM
ik
v M
ik
l ma trn vung cp n 1 nhn c t ma trn
A bng cch b hng th i v ct th k. i lng A
ik
gi l phn b i s ca a
ik
.
V d: Cho ma trn cp 4
A =
_
_
1 3 0 2
4 1 2 1
3 1 0 2
2 3 3 5
_
_
Phn b i s ca a
11
l (1)
1+1
1 2 1
1 0 2
3 3 5
= 7.
Phn b i s ca a
12
l (1)
1+2
4 2 1
3 0 2
2 3 5
= 1.(55).
1.2. NH THC
Phn b i s ca a
14
l (1)
1+4
4 1 2
3 1 0
2 3 3
= 1.17
nh thc ca ma trn A l:
1 3 0 2
4 1 2 1
3 1 0 2
2 3 3 5
= 1.
1 2 1
1 0 2
3 3 5
4 2 1
3 0 2
2 3 5
4 1 2
3 1 0
2 3 3
= 1.(7)3(55)2.17 = 124
nh l 1 Vi ma trn cp n 2, ta c th khai trin nh thc ca n theo mt hng
bt k hoc mt ct bt k theo cng th sau:
detA = a
i1
A
i1
+a
i2
A
i2
+. . . +a
in
A
in
( khai trin theo hng th i)
= a
1k
A
1k
+a
2k
A
2k
+. . . +a
nk
A
nk
( khai trin theo ct th k)
V d: Tnh nh thc
D =
1 3 0 2
4 1 2 1
3 1 0 2
2 3 0 5
Ta thy, ct th 3 c nhiu s 0, v vy ta c th khai trin theo ct th 3 tnh n

gin.
D = 2.(1)
2+3
1 3 2
3 1 2
2 3 5
= 2.(20) = 40
1.2.3 Cc tnh cht ca nh thc
[A[ = [A
T
[
V d: Cho ma trn
A =
_
_
1 2 3
4 5 6
7 8 0
_
_
v A
T
=
_
_
1 4 7
2 5 8
3 6 0
_
_
Khi detA = v detA
T
=
Nu ta i ch hai dng (hai ct) ca nh thc cho nhau th nh thc i du.
V d: Ta c

1 2 3
4 5 6
7 8 0
4 5 6
1 2 3
7 8 0
Nu trong mt nh thc c hai dng (hoc 2 ct) t l th nh thc bng 0.

V d:
1 2 3
2 4 6
7 8 0
= 0
nh thc khng i nu ta ly cc phn t ca mt dng (ct) nhn vi 1 s ri
cng vi cc phn t tng ng ca mt dng (ct) khc.
V d:
1 2 3
4 5 6
7 8 0
h
2
h
2
4h
1
=
h
3
h
3
7h
1
1 2 3
0 3 6
0 6 21
nh thc c ct (hng) th k c dng
a
11
. . . a
1k
+a
1k
. . . a
1n
a
21
. . . a
2k
+a
2k
. . . a
2n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
n1
. . . a
nk
+a
nk
. . . a
nn
a
11
. . . a
1k
. . . a
1n
a
21
. . . a
2k
. . . a
2n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
n1
. . . a
nk
. . . a
nn
a
11
. . . a
1k
. . . a
1n
a
21
. . . a
2k
. . . a
2n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
n1
. . . a
nk
. . . a
nn
a
11
a
12
. . . ra
1k
. . . a
1n
a
21
a
22
. . . ra
2k
. . . a
2n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
n1
a
n2
. . . ra
nk
. . . a
nn
= r.
a
11
a
12
. . . a
1k
. . . a
1n
a
21
a
22
. . . a
2k
. . . a
2n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
n1
a
n2
. . . a
nk
. . . a
nn
1.2.4 nh l Laplace
nh thc con: Cho A l ma trn vung cp n, D = detA v k l mt s nguyn
dng (1 k n). Xt k hng i
1
< i
2
< < i
k
v k ct j
1
< j
2
< < j
k
no ca
A. Cc phn t nm giao ca cc hng v cc ct to nn ma trn vung cp k
S =
_
_
a
i
1
j
1
a
i
1
j
2
. . . a
i
1
j
k
a
i
2
j
1
a
i
2
j
2
. . . a
i
2
j
k
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
i
k
j
1
a
i
k
j
2
. . . a
i
k
j
k
_
_
Ma trn S gi l ma trn vung con cp k ca ma trn A. nh thc detS gi l nh
thc con cp k ca D (v ca A)
V d:
D
3
=
a
11
a
12
a
13
a
21
a
22
a
23
a
31
a
32
a
33
c 9 nh thc con cp 1, 9 nh thc con cp 2 v 1 nh thc con cp 3.

nh thc con b Cho D l nh thc cp n. Ta gi M
ij
l nh thc con b ca
phn t a
ij
nu M
ij
l nh thc con cp n 1 nhn c t D bng cch xa i hng
th i v ct th j.
D =
a
11
a
12
a
13
a
14
a
15
a
21
a
22
a
23
a
24
a
25
a
31
a
32
a
33
a
34
a
35
a
41
a
42
a
43
a
44
a
45
a
51
a
52
a
53
a
54
a
55
Ta c nh thc con b ca a
24
l M
24
=
a
11
a
12
a
13
a
15
a
31
a
32
a
33
a
35
a
41
a
42
a
43
a
35
a
51
a
52
a
53
a
55

1.2. NH THC
nh thc con b ca nh thc con M cp k trong D l nh thc con M
thu c
bng cch xa i k dng v k ct xc nh nn nh thc con M.
V d: Cho D l nh thc cp 5. nh thc con b ca nh thc con
M =
a
12
a
14
a
15
a
22
a
24
a
25
a
52
a
54
a
55
l nh thc
M
a
31
a
33
a
41
a
43
Phn b i s ca phn t a
ij
k hiu l A
ij
= (1)
i+j
M
ij
trong M
ij
l nh
thc con b ca phn t a
ij
.
Phn b i s ca a
24
l (1)
2+4
M
24
Gi s nh thc con M c lp nn t cc phn t nm giao im ca k dng
i
1
, i
2
, . . . , i
k
v k ct j
1
, j
2
, . . . , j
k
v gi s M
l nh thc con b ca nh thc con M

trong nh thc D. Ta nh ngha phn b i s ca M trong D l:
(1)
i
1
+i
2
++i
k
+j
1
+j
2
++j
k
M
V d: Cho D l nh thc cp 5. Phn b i s ca ca nh thc con

M =
a
12
a
14
a
15
a
22
a
24
a
25
a
52
a
54
a
55
l
(1)
1+2+5+2+4+5
a
31
a
33
a
41
a
43
nh l 2 (nh l Laplace) Nu trong mt nh thc D ta ly ra k dng (hoc k ct),

1 k n 1 th tng tt c cc nh thc con cp k cha trong cc dng (hoc cc ct)
y nhn vi phn b i s ca chng bng nh thc D.
V d: Tnh nh thc
D =
2 3 0 0
4 5 0 0
6 7 1 2
2 3 2 1
Gii: Theo nh l Laplace, ta s khai trin nh thc theo 2 dng u tin. C tt c

6 nh thc con cp 2 nhn c t 2 dng u tin nhng ch c 1 nh thc con khc
0. Do ta c
D =
2 3
4 5
.(1)
1+2+1+2
1 2
2 1
= (2).(3) = 6
H qu: Nu A l ma trn tam gic th nh thc ca A bng tch cc phn t trn
ng cho chnh.
V d: Tnh nh thc
D =
2 3 0 4
0 5 3 0
0 0 1 2
0 0 0 1
= 2.5.1.1 = 10
Cch tnh nh thc
1. S dng cc tnh cht ca nh thc l trit tiu cc phn t nm di ng
cho chnh ca nh thc.
2. nh thc bng tch cc phn t trn ng cho chnh.
V d: Tnh nh thc
D =
2 1 1 0
0 1 2 1
3 1 2 3
3 1 6 2
h
3
h
3
h
1
h
2
h
2
+h
1
=
h
4
h
4
+h
1
2 1 1 0
2 0 3 1
1 0 1 3
5 0 7 2
c
1
c
2
=
1 2 1 0
0 2 3 1
0 1 1 3
0 5 7 2
h
2
h
2
2h
3
=
h
4
h
4
5h
3
1 2 1 0
0 0 1 7
0 1 1 3
0 0 2 13
h
2
h
3
=
1 2 1 0
0 1 1 3
0 0 1 7
0 0 2 13
h
4
h
4
2h
3
=
1 2 1 0
0 1 1 3
0 0 1 7
0 0 0 1
= (1).1.1.1 = 1
Bi tp: Tnh nh thc
D =
1 7 2 1
1 3 2 1
2 5 3 1
3 7 2 2
; E =
a 1 1 1
1 a 1 1
1 1 a 1
1 1 1 a
1.3 Ma trn nghch o

1.3.1 Ma trn nghch o
nh l 3 Cho 2 ma trn vung A, B cp n. Khi det(AB) = det(A).det(B)
Ma trn khng suy bin Ma trn vung A cp n l ma trn khng suy bin nu
det(A) ,= 0. Ngc li c gi l ma trn suy bin.
Ma trn nghch o A l ma trn vung cp n, nu c ma trn vung B cp n sao
cho: A.B = B.A = I( I l ma trn n v) th B l ma trn nghch o ca ma trn A,
k hiu B = A
1
Khi ta ni A l ma trn kh nghch.
Ma trn ph hp Cho ma trn vung A cp n khng suy bin. A
ij
l phn b i s
ca phn t a
ij
khi
P
A
=
_
_
A
11
A
21
. . . A
n1
A
12
A
22
. . . A
n2
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
A
1n
A
2n
. . . A
nn
_
_
l ma trn ph hp ca A.
1.3. MA TRN NGHCH O
nh l 4 A khng suy bin A l ma trn kh nghch v A
1
=
1
detA
P
A
.
1.3.2 Cch tm ma trn nghch o
Phng php dng nh thc Cho ma trn vung A cp n khng suy bin. A
ij
l
phn b i s ca phn t a
ij
khi
A
1
=
1
[A[
_
_
A
11
A
21
. . . A
n1
A
12
A
22
. . . A
n2
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
A
1n
A
2n
. . . A
nn
_
_
V d: Tm ma trn nghch o ca ma trn
A =
_
_
3 1 2
2 1 1
0 2 1
_
_
Gii: Ta c [A[ = 3
A
11
= 3, A
12
= 2, A
13
= 4
A
21
= 3, A
22
= 3, A
23
= 6
A
31
= 3, A
32
= 1, A
33
= 5
Vy A
1
=
1
3
_
_
3 3 3
2 3 1
4 6 5
_
_
Bi tp: Tm ma trn nghch o ca ma trn
B =
_
_
1 2 3
2 5 3
1 0 8
_
_
Phng php dng cc php bin i s cp tm ma trn nghch o ca ma
trn vung A cp n ta lm nh sau:
Vit k A ma trn n v I
n
Dng cc php bin i s cp trn dng a ma trn A thnh ma trn n v
Khi ta c ma trn bn cnh ma trn I
n
l ma trn nghch o ca A
V d: Dng cc php bin i s cp tm ma trn nghch o ca ma trn
A =
_
_
3 1 2
2 1 1
0 2 1
_
_
Gii:
_
_
3 1 2 1 0 0
2 1 1 0 1 0
0 2 1 0 0 1
_
_
h
1
h
1
+h
2
_
_
1 2 1 1 1 0
2 1 1 0 1 0
0 2 1 0 0 1
_
_
h
2
h
2
+2h
1
_
_
1 2 1 1 1 0
0 5 1 2 3 0
0 2 1 0 0 1
_
_
h
2
h
2
2h
3
_
_
1 2 1 1 1 0
0 1 1 2 3 2
0 2 1 0 0 1
_
_
h
3
h
3
2h
2
_
_
1 2 1 1 1 0
0 1 1 2 3 2
0 0 3 4 6 5
_
_
h
3
1
3
h
3
_
_
1 2 1 1 1 0
0 1 1 2 3 2
0 0 1 4/3 2 5/3
_
_
h
2
h
2
+h
3
h
1
h
1
h
3
_
_
1 2 0 7/3 3 5/3
0 1 0 2/3 1 1/3
0 0 1 4/3 2 5/3
_
_
h
1
h
1
2h
2
_
_
1 0 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 2/3 1 1/3
0 0 1 4/3 2 5/3
_
_
Vy A
1
=
_
_
1 1 1
2/3 1 1/3
4/3 2 5/3
_
_
Bi tp: Tm ma trn nghch o ca ma trn B =
_
_
2 7 3
3 9 4
1 5 3
_
_
Nhn xt: Mt trong nhng ng dng ca vic tm ma trn nghch o l p dng
vo vic gii phng trnh ma trn. Cho A l ma trn vung v detA ,= 0, khi
A.X = B X = A
1
.B
X.A = B X = B.A
1
V d: Tm ma trn X sao cho:
_
_
1 2 3
3 2 4
2 1 0
_
_
.X =
_
_
1 3 0
10 2 7
10 7 8
_
_
Ta c:
X =
_
_
1 2 3
3 2 4
2 1 0
_
_
1
.
_
_
1 3 0
10 2 7
10 7 8
_
_
Theo v d bn trn ta c
X =
_
_
4 3 2
8 6 5
7 5 4
_
_
.
_
_
1 3 0
10 2 7
10 7 8
_
_
=
_
_
6 4 5
2 1 2
3 3 3
_
_
1.4 Hng ca ma trn
1.4.1 Khi nim v hng ca ma trn
nh thc con: Xt ma trn cp mn. Cc phn t nm trn giao ca k hng v k
ct to nn mt ma trn vung cp k. nh thc ca n c gi l mt nh thc con
cp k.
V d: Cho ma trn
_
_
1 2 3 4 3
0 1 2 3 4
1 6 4 2 9
_
_
1.4. HNG CA MA TRN
Cc phn t nm trn giao ca hng th 2 v th 3, ct th nht v ct th 4 to nn
ma trn vung cp 2
=
_
0 3
1 2
_
Ta c det = 3
nh l 5 Nu trong ma trn A tt c cc nh thc con cp k u bng 0 th mi nh
thc cp cao hn k u bng 0.
Hng ca ma trn A l s nguyn dng r sao cho:
Trong A c mt nh thc con cp r khc 0.
Mi nh thc con cp ln hn r trong ma trn A u bng 0.
Hay ni mt cch khc, hng ca ma trn A ,= 0 chnh l cp cao nht ca nh thc con
khc khng ca n.
K hiu: rankA
Nu A = 0 th ta qui c rankA = 0
V d: Cho ma trn
A =
_
_
1 2 3 7
0 1 2 1
0 2 4 2
0 0 0 0
_
_
c nh thc con cp 2
D =
1 2
0 1
= 1 ,= 0
l nh thc con cp cao nht khc 0 ca A. V tt c cc nh thc con cp ln hn
2 u bng 0. Vy rankA = 3
Tnh cht: Cho A M
mn
(K)
1. 0 rankA minm, n
2. Nu A c mt nh thc con khc khng cp r th rankA r
3. Cho A l ma trn vung cp n. Khi , rankA = n khi v ch khi detA ,= 0
nh l 6 Hng ca ma trn khng thay i qua php chuyn v.
rankA = rankA
T
nh l 7 Hng ca ma trn khng thay i qua cc php bin i s cp trn hng hay
ct.
1.4.2 Cch tnh hng ca ma trn
Nhn xt: Nu A c dng bc thang dng (tng ng ct) th rankA bng s hng
(ct) khc khng ca A. Dng cc php bin i s cp trn dng (hay ct) a ma
trn v dng
_
_
a
11
a
12
a
13
. . . a
1r
. . . a
1n
0 a
22
a
23
. . . a
2r
. . . a
2n
0 0 a
33
. . . a
3r
. . . a
3n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. . . .
.
.
.
0 0 0 . . . a
rr
. . . a
rn
0 0 0 . . . 0 . . . 0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. . . .
.
.
.
0 0 0 . . . 0 . . . 0
_
_
Khi rankA = r
V d 1: Dng cc php bin i s cp tnh hng ca ma trn A
A =
_
_
1 2 4 3
1 3 1 1
2 5 3 2
_
_
Gii: Trc tin, ta dng cc php bin i s cp a A v dng ma trn bc thang.
A =
_
_
1 2 4 3
1 3 1 1
2 5 3 2
_
_
h
2
h
2
h
1
h
3
h
3
2h
1
_
_
1 2 4 3
0 1 5 4
0 1 5 4
_
_
h
3
h
3
h
2
_
_
1 2 4 3
0 1 5 4
0 0 0 0
_
_
Vy rankA = 2
V d 2: Dng cc php bin i s cp tnh hng ca ma trn B
B =
_
_
1 3 5
0 2 2
1 5 7
3 7 13
_
_
Bi tp
Bi 1. Cho ma trn
A =
_
_
1 2 6
3 4 5
2 3 4
_
_
a. Tm ma trn X sao cho 2A + 3X = I
b. Tm ma trn X sao cho 2A 3X = I
Bi 2. Cho cc ma trn
A =
_
1 2
3 4
_
, B =
_
2 2 3
3 0 7
_
, C =
_
1 2 3
5 4 1
_
Tnh A
2
3A; B
T
A B
T
; A(B +C); BC
T
+A
Bi 3. Tnh cc nh thc
a.
x 1 1
x
3
x
2
+x + 1
b.
sin x cos x
cos x sin x

1.4. HNG CA MA TRN
d.
2 2 1
3 4 2
5 1 3
e.
1 a bc
1 b ac
1 c ab
Bi 4. Tnh cc nh thc
a.
1 1 1 1
1 1 2 3
1 1 1 3
1 1 1 1
b.
2 1 1 1
1 1 2 3
1 1 1 3
1 1 1 1
Bi 5. Tm ma trn nghch o (nu c) ca cc ma trn sau:

a.
_
2 3
4 5
_
b.
_
_
1 3 7
2 1 2
7 1 4
_
_
c.
_
_
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0
0 0 1 1
_
_
Bi 6. Tm ma trn X sao cho
a.
_
_
3 4 6
0 1 1
2 3 4
_
_
.X =
_
_
1 1
0 1
2 2
_
_
b.X.
_
_
3 4 6
0 1 1
2 3 4
_
_
=
_
1 1 2
0 1 2
_
Bi 7. Tm ma trn nghch o ca ma trn cp n sau:
a.
_
_
1 1 1 1
0 1 1 1
0 0 1 1
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 0 0 1
_
_
b.
_
_
1 1 0 0
0 1 1 0
0 0 1 0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 0 0 1
_
_
Bi 8. Tnh hng ma trn
a.
_
_
1 1 1 1
1 1 2 3
1 1 1 3
1 1 1 1
_
_
b.
_
_
0 1 1 1
1 1 2 3
1 1 1 3
1 1 1 1
_
_
c.
_
_
3 1 1 2 1
1 1 2 4 5
1 1 3 6 9
12 2 1 2 10
_
_
d.
_
_
4 1 1 3 2
2 2 3 0 1
2 3 2 3 3
4 1 3 1 1
_
_
Bi 9. Tm hng ca ma trn theo tham s m
_
_
3 1 1 4
m 4 10 1
1 7 17 3
2 2 4 3
_
_
Bi 10. Xc nh a hng ca ma trn sau bng 2:
A =
_
_
1 a 1 2
2 1 a 5
1 10 6 1
_
_
Chng 2
H phng trnh tuyn tnh
2.1 Khi nim tng qut
H phng trnh tuyn tnh gm m phng trnh n n l h thng c dng
_
_
a
11
x
1
+a
12
x
2
+ +a
1n
x
n
= b
1
a
21
x
1
+a
22
x
2
+ +a
2n
x
n
= b
2
.....................................
a
m1
x
1
+a
m2
x
2
+ +a
mn
x
n
= b
m
(1)
Trong x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
l cc n, cc a
ij
, b
i
K (K = R hay K = C)
H trn c vit di dng: A.X = B
Trong A = (a
ij
)
mn
, X =
_
_
x
1
x
2
.
.
.
x
n
_
_
v B =
_
_
b
1
b
2
.
.
.
b
n
_
_
A c gi l ma trn h s ca h phng trnh (1).
A =
_
_
a
11
a
12
. . . a
1n
b
1
a
21
a
22
. . . a
2n
b
2
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
m1
a
m2
. . . a
mn
b
m
_
_
gi l ma trn b sung (ma trn m rng).
Ta gi mt nghim ca h phng trnh (1) l mt b n s (c
1
, c
2
, . . . , c
n
) sao cho
khi thay vo cc n x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
tng ng th hai v ca h phng trnh (1) tr
thnh cc ng nht thc.
Hai h phng trnh tuyn tnh ca n n gi l tng ng nu tp hp cc nghim
ca chng trng nhau.
2.2 H Cramer
2.2.1 nh ngha
H phng trnh Cramer l mt h n phng trnh tuyn tnh n n m nh thc ca ma
trn cc h s khc khng.
Tc l h phng trnh AX = B, trong A l ma trn vung v detA ,= 0
19
2.3. H PHNG TRNH TUYN TNH TNG QUT. PHNG PHP GAUSS
2.2.2 Cng thc Cramer
H phng trnh Cramer c duy nht nghim xc nh bi cng thc sau:
x
i
=
[A
i
[
[A[
trong A
i
l ma trn thu c t ma trn A bng cch thay ct th i bng ct B
V d 1: Gii h phng trnh sau bng phng php Cramer
_
_
x
1
+x
2
x
3
= 2
2x
1
+ 3x
2
+x
3
= 1
5x
1
+ 8x
2
+ 2x
3
= 3
Gii: Ta c ma trn m rng ca h phng trnh nh sau
A =
_
_
1 1 1 2
2 3 1 1
5 8 2 3
_
_
[A[ =
1 1 1
2 3 1
5 8 2
= 2 ,= 0, [A
1
[ =
2 1 1
1 3 1
3 8 2
= 18, [A
2
[ =
1 2 1
2 1 1
5 3 2
= 14,
[A
3
[ =
1 1 2
2 3 1
5 8 3
= 8
Vy ta c nghim ca h phng trnh
x
1
=
[A
1
[
[A[
= 9, x
2
=
[A
2
[
[A[
= 7, x
3
=
[A
3
[
[A[
= 4
V d 2: Gii h phng trnh sau bng phng php Cramer
_
_
x
1
+ 2x
2
+x
3
= 1
2x
1
+ 5x
2
+x
3
= 6
x
1
4x
2
+ 2x
3
= 2
2.3 H phng trnh tuyn tnh tng qut. Phng
php Gauss
2.3.1 H phng trnh tuyn tnh tng qut. Phng php Gauss
i vi nhng h phng trnh m s phng trnh khc s n hay s phng trnh bng
s n nhng [A[ = 0 th ta khng p dng c phng php Cramer.
nh l 8 (nh l Kronecker - Capelli) H phng trnh tuyn tnh (1) c nghim
khi v ch khi hng ca ma trn A bng hng ca ma trn b sung A.
Tc rankA = rankA
Ch :
1. Nu rankA = rankA = n (s n ca h phng trnh) th h phng trnh c
nghim duy nht
CHNG 2. H PHNG TRNH TUYN TNH
2. Nu rankA < rankA th h v nghim
3. Nu rankA = rankA = k < n th h phng trnh c v s nghim ph thuc vo
n k tham s.
Ta gi cc php bin i s cp trn h phng trnh tuyn tnh l cc php bin i
di y:
Loi 1: i ch 2 phng trnh cho nhau, cn cc phng trnh khc gi nguyn.
Loi 2: Nhn 1 s khc 0 v mt phng trnh, cn cc phng trnh cn li gi nguyn.
Loi 3: Cng vo mt phng trnh mt phng trnh khc nhn vi mt s khc 0,
cn cc phng trnh cn li gi nguyn.
Cc php bin i s cp a h phng trnh tuyn tnh thnh mt h mi tng ng.
Phng php kh Gauss: Ta thc hin cc php bin i s cp a h phng trnh
v dng bc thang (tc l ma trn h s b sung A c dng bc thang). T ta tm cc
nghim.
Nhn xt: Trong qu trnh bin i s cp trn hng ca ma trn h s b sung
(A) (khng c bin i trn ct), ta cn lu :
Nu thy c xut hin 1 hng dng
[0 0 . . . 0 [ a], a ,= 0
th kt lun ngay h v nghim.
Trong trng hp nu thy h mi d dng gii th khng nht thit phi a
v dng bc thang dng.
V d 1: Gii h phng trnh sau:
_
_
x
1
+x
2
2x
3
= 6
2x
1
+ 3x
2
7x
3
= 16
5x
1
+ 2x
2
+x
3
= 16
3x
1
x
2
+ 8x
3
= 0
Gii: Xt ma trn A
A =
_
_
1 1 2 6
2 3 7 16
5 2 1 16
3 1 8 0
_
_
h
2
h
2
2h
1
h
3
h
3
5h
1
h
4
h
4
3h
1
_
_
1 1 2 6
0 1 3 4
0 3 7 14
0 4 14 18
_
_
h
3
h
3
+3h
2
h
4
h
4
+4h
2
_
_
1 1 2 6
0 1 3 4
0 0 2 2
0 0 2 2
_
_
h
4
h
4
+h
3
_
1 1 2 6
0 1 3 4
0 0 2 2
0 0 0 0
_
_
Nh vy, ta c:
_
_
x
1
+x
2
2x
3
= 6
x
2
3x
3
= 4
2x
3
= 2
T suy ra nghim ca h phng trnh l:
_
_
x
3
= 1
x
2
= 4 + 3x
3
= 1
x
1
= 6 + 2x
3
x
2
= 3
_
_
x
1
2x
2
+ 3x
3
4x
4
= 2
3x
1
+ 3x
2
5x
3
+x
4
= 3
2x
1
+x
2
+ 2x
3
3x
4
= 5
3x
1
+ 3x
3
10x
4
= 8
_
_
x
1
+ 2x
2
3x
3
+ 5x
4
= 1
x
1
+ 3x
2
x
3
+x
4
= 2
2x
1
+ 5x
2
4x
3
+ 6x
4
= 1
Gii: Ta xt ma trn b sung
_
_
1 2 3 5 1
1 3 1 1 2
2 5 4 6 1
_
_
h
2
h
2
h
1
h
3
h
3
2h
1
_
_
1 2 3 5 1
0 1 2 4 3
0 1 2 4 3
_
_
h
3
h
3
h
2
_
_
1 2 3 5 1
0 1 2 4 3
0 0 0 0 0
_
_
Ta thy rankA = rankA = 2 < 4 nn h phng trnh c v s nghim v ph thuc vo
2 tham s.
Nu ta t x
3
= t
1
; x
4
= t
2
th nghim ca h phng trnh l:
_
_
x
1
= 1 5x
4
+ 3x
3
2x
2
= 7 13t
2
+ 7t
1
x
2
= 3 + 4x
4
2x
3
= 3 + 4t
2
2t
1
x
3
= t
1
x
4
= t
2
(t
1
, t
2
ty )
V d 4: Cho h phng trnh sau
_
_
x
1
+ 2x
2
3x
3
+ 5x
4
= 1
x
1
+ 3x
2
x
3
+x
4
= 2
2x
1
+ 5x
2
4x
3
+ 6x
4
= m
a. Tm m h phng trnh c nghim.
b. Tm m h phng trnh v nghim.
2.3.2 H phng trnh tuyn tnh thun nht
H phng trnh tuyn tnh thun nht l h phng trnh dng AX = 0(2) vi A =
(a
ij
)
mn
H ny lun c 1 nghim x
1
= x
2
= . . . = x
n
= 0 (nghim tm thng)
CHNG 2. H PHNG TRNH TUYN TNH
1. Nu rankA = n th h phng trnh (2) c nghim duy nht (nghim tm thng).
2. Nu rankA = k < n th h phng trnh (2) c v s nghim, ph thuc nk tham
s.
Gi s n k tham s ny ta k hiu l t
1
, t
2
, . . . , t
nk
.
Ln lt cho:
t
1
= 1, t
2
= 0, . . . t
nk
= 0 tm c 1 nghim k hiu X
1
t
1
= 0, t
2
= 1, . . . t
nk
2
. . .
t
1
= 0, t
2
= 0, . . . t
nk
nk
Khi X
1
, X
2
, . . . , X
nk
gi l h nghim c bn ca h thun nht.
V d 1: Tm h nghim c bn v nghim tng qut ca h phng trnh
_
_
x
1
+ 2x
2
3x
3
+ 5x
4
= 0
x
1
+ 3x
2
x
3
+x
4
= 0
2x
1
+ 5x
2
4x
3
+ 6x
4
= 0
Gii: Ta xt ma trn b sung
_
_
1 2 3 5 0
1 3 1 1 0
2 5 4 6 0
_
_
h
2
h
2
h
1
h
3
h
3
2h
1
_
_
1 2 3 5 0
0 1 2 4 0
0 1 2 4 0
_
_
h
3
h
3
h
2
_
_
1 2 3 5 0
0 1 2 4 0
0 0 0 0 0
_
_
Ta thy rankA = rankA = 2 < 4 nn h phng trnh c v s nghim v ph thuc vo
2 tham s.
Nu ta t x
3
= t
1
; x
4
= t
2
th nghim ca h phng trnh l:
_
_
x
1
= 5x
4
+ 3x
3
2x
2
= 13t
2
+ 7t
1
x
2
= 4x
4
2x
3
= 4t
2
2t
1
x
3
= t
1
x
4
= t
2
(t
1
, t
2
ty )
Cho t
1
= 1, t
2
= 0 ta c 1 nghim c bn l X
1
= (7, 2, 1, 0).
Cho t
1
= 0, t
2
= 1 ta c 1 nghim c bn l X
2
= (13, 4, 0, 1).
V d 2: Tm h nghim c bn v nghim tng qut ca h phng trnh
_
_
2x
1
+ 2x
2
+ 4x
3
3x
4
= 0
x
1
+ 3x
2
x
3
+x
4
= 0
3x
1
+ 5x
2
+ 3x
3
2x
4
= 0
Bi tp
Bi 11. Gii cc h phng trnh sau y theo qui tc Cramer
a.
_
_
7x + 2y + 3z = 15
5x 3y + 2z = 15
10x 11y + 5z = 36
c.
_
_
x
1
+x
2
5x
3
= 10
2x
1
+ 3x
3
x
4
= 10
4x
1
+ 4x
2
+ 5x
3
+ 5x
4
= 0
3x
2
+ 2x
3
= 1
Bi 12. Gii cc h phng trnh sau bng phng php Gauss
a.
_
_
2x
1
x
2
+ 3x
3
= 1
x
1
+ 2x
2
x
3
= 3
x
1
+x
2
+ 2x
3
= 4
b.
_
_
x
1
+ 2x
2
3x
3
= 1
2x
1
+ 5x
2
8x
3
= 4
3x
1
+ 8x
2
13x
3
= 7
c.
_
_
x
1
+x
2
+ 2x
3
+ 3x
4
= 1
2x
1
+ 3x
2
x
3
x
4
= 6
3x
1
x
2
x
3
2x
4
= 4
x
1
+ 2x
2
+ 3x
3
x
4
= 4
d.
_
_
x
1
3x
2
+ 2x
3
x
4
= 2
4x
1
+x
2
+ 3x
3
2x
4
= 1
2x
1
+x
2
x
3
+x
4
= 1
e.
_
_
x
1
+ 2x
2
3x
3
+ 5x
4
= 1
x
1
+ 3x
2
13x
3
+ 22x
4
= 1
3x
1
+ 5x
2
+x
3
2x
4
= 5
2x
1
+ 3x
2
+ 4x
3
7x
4
= 1
f.
_
_
2x
1
x
2
+ 5x
4
= 3
4x
1
x
2
+ 4x
3
12x
4
= 16
2x
1
5x
2
+ 7x
3
4x
4
= 36
6x
1
3x
3
+ 20x
4
= 4
g.
_
_
x
1
2x
2
+x
3
x
4
+x
5
= 0
3x
1
2x
2
x
3
+x
4
2x
5
= 1
2x
1
+x
2
x
3
+ 2x
4
3x
5
= 1
2x
1
5x
2
+x
3
2x
4
+ 2x
5
= 2
Bi 13. Gii v bin lun cc h phng trnh sau
a.
_
_
(m+ 1)x
1
+x
2
+x
3
= 1
x
1
+ (m+ 1)x
2
+x
3
= 1
x
1
+x
2
+ (m+ 1)x
3
= 1
b.
_
_
(m+ 1)x
1
+x
2
+x
3
= 1
x
1
+ (m+ 1)x
2
+x
3
= m
x
1
+x
2
+ (m+ 1)x
3
= m
2
c.
_
_
x
1
+x
2
+ (1 m)x
3
= m+ 2
(1 +m)x
1
x
2
+ 2x
3
= 0
2x
1
mx
2
+x
3
= m+ 2
d.
_
_
x
1
+x
2
+x
3
+mx
4
= 1
x
1
+x
2
+mx
3
+x
4
= 1
x
1
+mx
2
+x
3
+x
4
= 1
mx
1
+x
2
+x
3
+x
4
= 1
e.
_
_
2x
1
+x
2
+x
3
+x
4
= 1
x
1
+ 2x
2
x
3
+ 4x
4
= 2
x
1
+ 7x
2
4x
3
+ 11x
4
= m
4x
1
+ 8x
2
4x
3
+ 16x
4
= m+ 1
f.
_
_
2x
1
x
2
+x
3
2x
4
+ 3x
5
= 3
x
1
+x
2
x
3
x
4
+x
5
= 1
3x
1
+ 2x
2
+x
3
3x
4
+ 4x
5
= 6
5x
1
+ 2x
2
5x
4
+ 7x
5
= 9 m
Bi 14. Tm nghim tng qut v h nghim c bn ca cc h phng trnh sau
a.
_
2x
1
x
2
2x
3
= 0
x
1
+x
2
+x
3
= 0
b.
_
_
x
1
+ 2x
2
3x
3
= 0
2x
1
+ 5x
2
8x
3
= 0
3x
1
+ 8x
2
13x
3
= 0
c.
_
_
x
1
3x
2
+ 2x
3
x
4
= 0
4x
1
+x
2
+ 3x
3
2x
4
= 0
2x
1
+x
2
x
3
+x
4
= 0
d.
_
_
x
1
+ 2x
2
3x
3
+ 5x
4
= 0
x
1
+ 3x
2
13x
3
+ 22x
4
= 0
3x
1
+ 5x
2
+x
3
2x
4
= 0
2x
1
+ 3x
2
+ 4x
3
7x
4
= 0
Chng 3
Khng gian vect
3.1 Cc khi nim c bn v khng gian vect
3.1.1 nh ngha khng gian vect
Cho tp V ,= v trng K (K = R hay K = C).
Trn V xc nh php ton cng hai phn t, iu c ngha l vi mi phn t
x v y thuc V , c mt lut xc nh mt phn t z cng thuc V , c gi l tng ca
x v y v c k hiu l z = x +y
Trn V xc nh php ton nhn mt s vi mt phn t, ngha l vi mi phn
t k thuc K v mi phn t x thuc V , ta c mt lut xc nh phn t u thuc V sao
cho u c gi l tch ca s k v phn t x v c k hiu u = k.x
+ : V V V
(x, y) x +y
: KV V
(k, x) k.x
Hai php ton trn tha 8 tnh cht sau:
1. a +b = b +a, a, b V
2. (a +b) +c = a + (b +c), a, b, c V
3. Tn ti phn t 0 V sao cho a + 0 = 0 + a = a, a V . Phn t 0 gi l vect
khng.
4. a V , tn ti a
V sao cho a + (a
) = (a
) + a = 0. Phn t a
gi l vect i
ca a v k hiu l a.
5. k(a +b) = ka +kb
6. (k +m)a = ka +ma
7. (km)a = k(ma)
8. 1a = a
Tp V vi hai php ton tha 8 tin trn c gi l mt khng gian vect trn trng
K hay mt K-khng gian vect .
Cc phn t ca V gi l vect , cc phn t ca K gi l v hng.
25
3.2. S PH THUC TUYN TNH V C LP TUYN TNH
3.1.2 Cc v d khng gian vect
V d 1: V = R
3
= (a
1
, a
2
, a
3
)[a
i
R v K = R
Ta nh ngha hai php ton: a = (a
1
, a
2
, a
3
), b = (b
1
, b
2
, b
3
) v k R
a +b = (a
1
+b
1
, a
2
+b
2
, a
3
+b
3
)
k.a = (ka
1
, ka
2
, ka
3
)
Khi R
3
cng vi hai php ton trn l mt R-khng gian vect
Vect khng 0 = (0, 0, 0)
Vect i ca vect a = (a
1
, a
2
, a
3
) l a = (a
1
, a
2
, a
3
)
V d 2: Cho M
n
(R) l tp tt c cc ma trn vung cp n vi cc phn t trong ma
trn l cc s thc. t V = M
n
v K = R.
Trn M
n
ta xt php cng l php cng hai ma trn v php nhn l php nhn ca
mt s vi mt ma trn.
Khi M
n
(R) cng vi hai php ton trn lp thnh mt R-khng gian vect .
V d 3: Tp R
n
[x] cc a thc c bc nh hn hoc bng n vi php cng a thc v
php nhn mt s thc vi mt a thc l mt khng gian vect trn R.
3.1.3 Cch tnh cht
Cho V l mt K-khng gian vect , m, n K, x, y V
1. Vect 0 l duy nht
2. Phn t i x
ca x l duy nht
3. mx = 0 m = 0 hoc x = 0
4. (1)x = x
5. K hiu x + (y) = x y, ta c (mn)x = mx nx v m(x y) = mx my

3.2 S ph thuc tuyn tnh v c lp tuyn tnh
3.2.1 T hp tuyn tnh
Trong khng gian vect V cho cc vect x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
gi l mt h vect .
Vect y c gi l mt t hp tuyn tnh ca cc vect x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
nu tn ti cc
s k
1
, k
2
, . . . , k
n
K sao cho:
y = k
1
x
1
+k
2
x
2
+ +k
n
x
n
Hay ta ni y biu th tuyn tnh c qua h cc vect x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
V d 1: Cho h cc vect e
1
= (1, 0, 0), e
2
= (0, 1, 0), e
3
= (0, 0, 1) R
3
Khi vect y = (3, 2, 4) l mt t hp tuyn tnh ca h v:
y = 3e
1
+ 2e
2
+ 4e
3
V d 2: Vect a = (1, 2, 5) c l t hp tuyn tnh ca cc vect x = (1, 1, 1), y =
(1, 2, 3), z = (2, 1, 1) trong R
3
khng?
CHNG 3. KHNG GIAN VECT
Gii: Gi s
a = k
1
x +k
2
y +k
3
z
(1, 2, 5) = k
1
(1, 1, 1) +k
2
(1, 2, 3) +k
3
(2, 1, 1)
(1, 2, 5) = (k
1
+k
2
+ 2k
3
, k
1
+ 2k
2
+k
3
, k
1
+ 3k
2
+k
3
)
Ta c h phng trnh
_
_
k
1
+k
2
+ 2k
3
= 1
k
1
+ 2k
2
+k
3
= 2
k
1
+ 3k
2
+k
3
= 5
_
k
1
+k
2
+ 2k
3
= 1
k
2
k
3
= 1
2k
2
k
3
= 4
_
k
1
+k
2
+ 2k
3
= 1
k
2
k
3
= 1
k
2
= 3
_
k
1
= 6
k
2
= 3
k
3
= 2
Vy a = 6x + 3y + 2z
nh ngha: Cho 2 h vect trong khng gian vect V : a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
(a) v b
1
, b
2
, . . . , b
m
(b).
Ta ni h (a) biu th tuyn tnh c qua h (b) nu mi vect a
i
(i = 1, n) ca (a) u
biu th tuyn tnh c qua cc vect ca h (b).
3.2.2 S ph thuc tuyn tnh - S c lp tuyn tnh
nh ngha: H cc vect x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
c gi l ph thuc tuyn tnh nu c n s
k
1
, k
2
, . . . , k
n
khng ng thi bng 0, sao cho:
k
1
x
1
+k
2
x
2
+ +k
n
x
n
= 0
H vect x
1
= (2, 1, 0), x
2
= (1, 3, 2), x
3
= (0, 7, 4) l ph thuc tuyn tnh v:
1x
1
+ 2x
2
+ 1x
3
= (2, 1, 0) + (2, 6, 4) + (0, 7, 4) = (0, 0, 0)
nh ngha: H cc vect x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
c gi l c lp tuyn tnh nu
k
1
x
1
+k
2
x
2
+ +k
n
x
n
= 0
th k
1
= k
2
= . . . = k
n
= 0
Cho h cc vect e
1
= (1, 0, 0), e
2
= (0, 1, 0), e
3
= (0, 0, 1) c lp tuyn tnh.
Tht vy, xt k
1
e
1
+k
2
e
2
+k
3
e
3
= 0 th k
1
= k
2
= k
3
= 0
V d 1: Xt s c lp tuyn tnh ca cc vect trong R
3
x = (1, 1, 0), y = (0, 1, 1), z = (1, 0, 1)
Gii: Gi s
k
1
x +k
2
y +k
3
z = 0
k
1
(1, 1, 0) +k
2
(0, 1, 1) +k
3
(1, 0, 1) = (0, 0, 0)
_
k
1
+k
3
= 0
k
1
+k
2
= 0
k
2
+k
3
= 0
_
k
1
= 0
k
2
= 0
k
3
= 0
Vy ba vect x, y, z c lp tuyn tnh.
3.2. S PH THUC TUYN TNH V C LP TUYN TNH
V d 2: Trong khng gian R
2
, xt s c lp tuyn tnh ca hai vect a = (1, 2), b =
(3, 6).
Gi s k
1
a+k
2
b = 0 k
1
(1, 2) +k
2
(3, 6) = (0, 0) (k
1
3k
2
, 2k
1
+6k
2
) = (0, 0)
Ta c h phng trnh
_
k
1
3k
2
= 0
2k
1
+ 6k
2
= 0
H phng trnh ny c v s nghim
_
k
1
= 3k
2
k
2
R
Ta c th chn k
2
= 1, k
1
= 3 th ta c 1.a 3.b = 0 vy a, b ph thuc tuyn tnh.
V d 3: Trong khng gian R
3
[x] cc a thc c bc nh hn hoc bng 3, cho h M
gm cc a thc a
1
= 5x; a
2
= x + 3x
2
; a
3
= 2 x
3
.
Gi s k
1
a
1
+k
2
a
2
+k
3
a
3
= 0 k
1
(5x) +k
2
(x+3x
2
) +k
3
(2 x
3
) = 0 2k
3
+(5k
1
+
2k
2
)x + (3k
2
k
3
)x
2
= 0
Do ta c h phng trnh
_
_
2k
3
= 0
5k
1
+ 2k
2
= 0
3k
2
k
3
= 0
k
1
= k
2
= k
3
= 0
Vy h M c lp tuyn tnh .
3.2.3 Mt s tnh cht c bn
1. H gm mt vect x l c lp tuyn tnh khi v ch khi x ,= 0.
2. H cha vect khng lun ph thuc tuyn tnh.
3. Mt h gm 2 vect ph thuc tuyn tnh khi v ch khi 2 vect t l. Tc l
x
1
= kx
2
4. H cc vect x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
ph thuc tuyn tnh khi v ch khi c mt vect trong
h biu th tuyn tnh c qua cc vect cn li.
5. Cho h cc vect x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
m
c lp tuyn tnh . Nu ta ghp thm vo h ny
1 vect y khng biu th tuyn tnh c qua h th ta c h
x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
m
, y
cng c lp tuyn tnh .
6. Nu h vect c lp tuyn tnh th mi h con ca n cng c lp tuyn tnh.
Nu h vect c mt h con ph thuc tuyn tnh th h ph thuc tuyn tnh
nh l 9 (nh l c bn v s ph thuc tuyn tnh) Trong khng gian vect V
cho 2 h vect x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
(x) v y
1
, y
2
, . . . , y
m
(y). Nu h (x) c lp tuyn tnh v biu
th tuyn tnh c qua h (y) th n m.
3.3 Hng ca mt h vect
3.3.1 nh ngha
Trong khng gian vect V , cho h gm m vect x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
m
(x)
Ta ni h (x) c hng r nu tn ti r vect ca (x) c lp tuyn tnh v mi h gm
nhiu hn r vect u ph thuc tuyn tnh .
Khi , h con x
i
1
, x
i
2
, . . . , x
i
r
(r m) c lp tuyn tnh ca h (x) gi l h con c
lp tuyn tnh ti i ca (x).
nh l 10 Mi h con c lp tuyn tnh ti i ca mt h hu hn cc vect u c
s vect bng nhau.
Theo nh l 10 th s vect trong cc h con c lp tuyn tnh ti i ca (x) u
bng nhau. S gi l hng ca h vect cho, k hiu: rank(x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
)
Nu h gm cc vect khng th hng ca h bng 0.
Nu rank(x) < m th h cc vect (x) ph thuc tuyn tnh.
Nu rank(x) = m th h cc vect (x) c lp tuyn tnh.
Nu h (x) gm cc vect khng th hng ca h bng 0.
3.3.2 Cch tnh hng ca mt h vect
Cho ma trn A = (a
ij
)
mn
A =
_
_
a
11
a
12
. . . a
1n
a
21
a
22
. . . a
2n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
m1
a
m2
. . . a
mn
_
_
Ta coi cc hng:
A
1
= [a
11
a
12
. . . a
1n
]; A
2
= [a
21
a
22
. . . a
2n
]; ; A
m
= [a
m1
a
m2
. . . a
mn
]
nh l cc vect ca khng gian K
n
. Cc ct
A
1
=
_
_
a
11
a
21
.
.
.
a
m1
_
_
; A
2
=
_
_
a
12
a
22
.
.
.
a
m2
_
_
; ; A
n
=
_
_
a
1n
a
2n
.
.
.
a
mn
_
_
cng c th coi l cc vect ca K
m
. Cc vect trn c gi tng ng l cc vect hng
v cc vect ct.
nh l 11 Hng ca ma trn A bng hng ca cc vect hng v bng hng ca cc
vect ct.
Da vo nh l 11, ta c cch tnh hng cc vect nh sau: Gi s cn tnh hng ca
h cc vect
3.4. C S, S CHIU
a
1
= (a
11
, a
12
, ..., a
1n
)
a
2
= (a
21
, a
22
, ..., a
2n
)
...
a
m
= (a
m1
, a
m2
, ..., a
mn
)
1. Lp ma trn
A =
_
_
a
11
a
12
. . . a
1n
a
21
a
22
. . . a
2n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
m1
a
m2
. . . a
mn
_
_
2. Tnh rank(A)
3. rank(a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
m
) = rank(A)
V d: Tnh hng ca h cc vect sau a = (1, 1, 0), b = (0, 1, 1), c = (1, 0, 1), d =
(2, 1, 3).
T kt lun v s c lp tuyn tnh ca h cc vect trn.
Ta c ma trn sau:
A =
_
_
1 1 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
2 1 3
_
_
Dng cc php bin i s cp trn hng ta c rankA = 3
Do rank(a, b, c, d) = 3 < 4 (s vect ). Nh vy, h trn ph thuc tuyn tnh .
3.4 C s, s chiu
3.4.1 nh ngha
H sinh: H cc vect e
1
, e
2
, . . . , e
n
(e) c gi l h sinh (tp sinh) ca khng gian
vect V nu mi vect ca V u biu th tuyn tnh c qua h (e). Tc l, vi mi
x V , u tn ti cc s k
1
, k
2
, . . . , k
n
K sao cho
x = k
1
e
1
+k
2
e
2
+ +k
n
e
n
V d: Trong khng gian R
2
, chng minh rng A = x = (1, 1), y = (1, 0) l h sinh
ca R
2
Gii. Trong R
2
, ly ty vect z = (a, b), nu tn ti cc s thc k
1
, k
2
sao cho
k
1
x +k
2
y = z th A l tp sinh ca R
2
.
V z = (a, b) biu th tuyn tnh qua cc vect ca tp A nn ta c h phng trnh
_
k
1
+k
2
= a
k
1
= b
_
k
1
= b
k
2
= a b
H ny lun c nghim, do A l tp sinh ca R
2
.
V d: Trong khng gian R
3
, cho tp cc vect M = (2, 1, 0), (1, 1, 2), (m, 3, 4).
Vi iu kin no ca m th tp M sinh ra R
3
?
Gii. Ly vect (a, b, c) R
3
, M sinh ra R
3
th ta phi c cc s thc k
1
, k
2
, k
3
sao
cho:
(a, b, c) = k
1
x +k
2
y +k
3
z
Hay h phng trnh
_
_
2k
1
+k
2
+mk
3
= a
k
1
k
2
+ 3k
3
= b
2k
2
4k
3
= c
lun c nghim vi mi a, b, c.
T h phng trnh ta suy ra
k
3
(2m) = 2a 4b 3c
phng trnh ny c nghim vi mi a, b, c th m ,= 0.
Vy M l h sinh ca R
3
th m ,= 0
V d: Khng gian R
3
[x] c h sinh l 1, x, x
2
, x
3
. V mi a thc trong R
3
[x] u c
dng k
1
.1 +k
2
.x +k
3
.x
2
+k
3
.x
3
C s: Tp cc vect B = e
1
, e
2
, . . . , e
n
trong K-khng gian vect V c gi l mt
c s nu n tha:
1. H vect B c lp tuyn tnh.
2. B l h sinh ca V . Tc l mi vect x V u biu th tuyn tnh c qua cc
vect ca B.
x = t
1
e
1
+t
2
e
2
+ +t
n
e
n
vi mi x V
V d: H cc vect e
1
= (1, 0, 0), e
2
= (0, 1, 0), e
3
= (0, 0, 1) l c s ca R-khng gian
vect R
3
. C s ny c gi l c s chnh tc ca R
3
. Tht vy, ta c:
Ta kim tra c e
1
, e
2
, e
3
l mt h c lp tuyn tnh .
Vi mi x = (a, b, c) R
3
, ta c: x = ae
1
+be
2
+ce
3
V d: Trong R
3
, xt tp M = (1, 1, 0), (0, 1, 1), (1, 0, 1), (2, 1, 3). Chng minh rng
M khng l c s ca R
3
.
Gii. Ta chng minh h cc vect trn ph thuc tuyn tnh. Do n khng l c s
ca R
3
.
Nhn xt: Mt khng gian vect c th c nhiu c s.
Bi tp: Chng minh rng h cc vect v
1
= (0, 1, 1), v
2
= (1, 0, 1), v
3
= (1, 1, 0) cng
l mt c s ca R
3
.
nh l 12 Trong khng gian vect V , s vect trong hai c s bt k u bng nhau.
S chiu: S vect trong mt c s bt k ca K-khng gian vect V gi l s chiu
ca V v k hiu l dim(V )
Khng gian vect c c s gm hu hn cc vect gi l khng gian hu hn chiu,
khng gian c c s gm v hn cc vect gi l khng gian v hn chiu. Trong i s
tuyn tnh, chng ta thng ch xt trn khng gian hu hn chiu.
3.4. C S, S CHIU
V d:
1. Trong khng gian R
n
, h vect
e
1
= (1, 0, 0, . . . , 0)
e
2
= (0, 1, 0, . . . , 0)

e
n
= (0, 0, 0, . . . , 1)
l mt c s ca R
n
C s ny gi l c s chnh tc ca R
n
.
Tht vy, e
1
, e
2
, . . . , e
n
c lp tuyn tnh v
0 = k
1
e
1
+k
2
e
2
+ +k
n
e
n
= (k
1
, k
2
, . . . , k
n
)
Suy ra k
1
= k
2
= . . . = k
n
= 0.
Vi mi x = (x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
) R
n
, ta c
x = x
1
e
1
+x
2
e
2
+ +x
n
e
n
Nh vy mi vect ca R
n
u biu th tuyn tnh c qua h cc vect e
1
, e
2
, . . . , e
n
Ta c dimR
n
= n
2. Xt R-khng gian vect C. Ta c 1, i l c s ca C
3. Xt R-khng gian vect R[x] tp cc a thc c h s R.
R[x] l khng gian vect v hn chiu trn R.
Tht vy, gi s R[x] l khng gian hu hn chiu trn R. t n = dimR[x]
v f
1
(x), f
2
(x), . . . , f
n
(x) l mt c s ca R[x].
t k = maxdegf
1
(x), degf
2
(x), . . . , degf
n
(x)
Xt a thc x
k+1
. V f
1
(x), f
2
(x), . . . , f
n
(x) l c s nn
x
k+1
= a
1
f
1
(x) +a
2
f
2
(x) +. . . +a
n
f
n
(x)
vi a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
R
Ta thy v tri l a thc c bc k + 1, v phi l a thc c bc ti a l k (mu
thun).
Vy dimR[x] =
Bi tp: Tm mt c s ca khng gian vect R
3
[x]. T tnh s chiu ca R
3
[x].
Khng gian vect c c s gm hu hn cc vect gi l khng gian hu hn chiu,
khng gian c c s gm v hn cc vect gi l khng gian v hn chiu. Trong i s
tuyn tnh, chng ta thng ch xt trn khng gian hu hn chiu.
nh l 13 Gi s V l mt khng gian vect c dim(V ) = n, n N
. Khi
1. Mi h c nhiu hn n vect u ph thuc tuyn tnh .
2. Mi h n vect c lp tuyn tnh ca V u l mt c s ca V .
3. Mi h sinh gm n vect ca V u l c s.
4. Mi h vect c k vect (k n) c lp tuyn tnh u c th b sung thm n k
vect tr thnh mt c s ca V .
V d 1: Chng minh tp cc vect B = (1, 1, 1), (1, 0, 1), (0, 0, 1) l mt c s ca
R-khng gian R
3
Gii: Thay v kim tra h B va c lp tuyn tnh va l h sinh ca R
3
, ta c th
da vo (2) nh l trn chng minh.
Ta bit dimR
3
= 3
Do ch cn chng minh thm h 3 vect trn c lp tuyn tnh. Ta d dng kim
tra c 3 vect trn l c lp tuyn tnh do n l mt c s ca R
3
.
3.4.2 Ta vect
nh l 14 Trong khng gian vect V (dimV = n) cho c s (e), khi mi vect x c
biu th tuyn tnh duy nht qua cc vect ca (e).
Chng minh. Gi s (e) gm cc vect e
1
, e
2
, . . . , e
n
. Vi x V , gi s x c 2 s biu
th tuyn tnh qua c s (e):
x =
n
i=1
a
i
e
i
; x =
n
i=1
b
i
e
i
i=1
a
i
e
i
i=1
b
i
e
i
= 0
i=1
(a
i
b
i
)e
i
= 0
a
i
b
i
= 0, i = 1, n (do (e) l c s)
a
i
= b
i
, i = 1, n
Vy vect x c duy nht s biu th tuyn tnh qua c s ca V .
nh ngha: Trong khng gian vect V cho c s e
1
, e
2
, . . . , e
n
(e), x V l mt vect
ty . Khi x c biu th tuyn tnh duy nht qua cc vect ca (e).
Tc l x = t
1
e
1
+t
2
e
2
+ +t
n
e
n
vi mi x V
Cc s t
1
, t
2
, . . . , t
n
gi l ta ca vect x i vi c s B.
Ta vit [x]
B
=
_
_
t
1
t
2
.
.
.
t
n
_
_
hay (x)
B
= (t
1
, t
2
, . . . , t
n
)
V d: Tm ta ca vect (0, 2, 0) trong c s:
B = (1, 1, 0), (0, 1, 1), (1, 0, 1)
Gii. Gi s (0, 2, 0) = k
1
(1, 1, 0) +k
2
(0, 1, 1) +k
3
(1, 0, 1) nn ta c h phng trnh
_
_
k
1
+k
3
= 0
k
1
+k
2
= 2
k
2
+k
3
= 0
_
k
1
= 1
k
2
= 1
k
3
= 1
3.4. C S, S CHIU
Vy ta ca vect ny l
_
_
1
1
1
_
_
V d: Trong R-khng gian vect R
2
[x] cho tp M = 1, x, x
2
. Chng minh rng M
l mt c s ca R
2
[x]. Tm ta ca f(x) = (x 1)
2
i vi c s ny.
Gii: Gi s a.1 +b.x+c.x
2
= 0, y l a thc khng do cc h s a, b, c u bng
0. Vy M c lp tuyn tnh .
chng minh M l tp sinh ta ly mt a thc u = a +bx +cx
2
Ta c u = a.1 +b.x +c.x
2
, do u biu th tuyn tnh c qua cc vect ca M.
Vy M l mt c s ca R
2
[x].
Ta c f(x) = (x 1)
2
= 1 2x +x
2
= 1.1 + (2).x + 1.x
2
Vy (f)
M
= (1, 2, 1)
3.4.3 Ma trn chuyn c s
Mt khng gian vect c nhiu c s. Ta ca mt vect i vi mt c s l duy nht.
Vy khi thay c c ny bng mt c s khc th ta vect thay i nh th no?
Cho K-khng gian vect V c 2 c s: B = u
1
, u
2
, . . . , u
n
v B
= v
1
, v
2
, . . . , v
n
.
Ta biu th tuyn tnh cc vect ca h V qua cc vect ca h B, ta c:
v
1
= t
11
u
1
+t
12
u
2
+ +t
1n
u
n
v
2
= t
21
u
1
+t
22
u
2
+ +t
2n
u
n
..........................................
v
n
= t
n1
u
1
+t
n2
u
2
+ +t
nn
u
n
Khi ta c ma trn
T
BB
=
_
_
t
11
t
21
. . . t
n1
t
12
t
22
. . . t
n2
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
t
1n
t
2n
. . . t
nn
_
_
gi l ma trn chuyn c s t B sang B
.
Nu T
B
B
l ma trn chuyn c s t B
sang B th T
B
B
chnh l ma trn nghch o
ca ma trn chuyn c s t B sang B
V d: Trong R-khng gian vect R

2
cho 2 c s:
B = u
1
= (1, 0), u
2
= (0, 1) v B
= v
1
= (1, 2), v
2
= (3, 4)
Tm ma trn chuyn c s t U sang V v ma trn chuyn c s t V sang U.
Gii. Tm ma trn chuyn c s t B sang B
_
v
1
= u
1
+ 2u
2
v
2
= 3u
1
+ 4u
2
Nh vy T
BB
=
_
1 3
2 4
_
Tng t ta tm c ma trn chuyn c s t B
sang B l T
B
B
=
_
2 3/2
1 1/2
_
3.4.4 Quan h gia cc ta ca cng mt vect i vi cc
c s khc nhau
Cho vect a V . Ta ca a i vi c s B l x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
, ta ca a i vi c
s B
l y
1
, y
2
, . . . , y
n
. Khi :
[a]
B
= T
BB
[a]
B
vi [a]
B
=
_
_
x
1
x
2
.
.
.
x
n
_
_
v [a]
B
=
_
_
y
1
y
2
.
.
.
y
n
_
_
, T
BB
l ma trn chuyn c s t B sang B
.
Bi tp: Trong R-khng gian vect R
2
cho 2 c s:
U = u
1
= (1, 0), u
2
= (0, 1) v V = v
1
= (2, 1), v
2
= (3, 1)
Tm ma trn chuyn c s t U sang V v ngc li.
Tm ta ca vect x = (5, 2) i vi 2 c s trn.
3.5 Khng gian vect con
3.5.1 nh ngha v v d
Gi s V l mt K-khng gian vect , X V . Ta ni X l mt khng gian vect con ca
V khi n tha cc iu kin sau:
1. X ,=
2. x, y X : x +y X
3. x X, k K : k.x X
V d:
1. Tp 0 v V l hai khng gian vect con ca V
2. Tp A = (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) R
3
[x
1
+x
2
+x
3
= 0 l khng gian vect con ca R
3
3. Tp X = (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) R
3
[x
1
+ 3x
2
x
3
= 1 khng l khng gian con ca R
3
nh l 15 Mi khng gian con X ca mt K-khng gian vect hu hn chiu V u hu
hn chiu v c s chiu nh hn hoc bng s chiu ca V .
Chng minh. Gi s dim V = n. Khi mi c s ca X u l mt tp con c lp
tuyn tnh trong V v biu th tuyn tnh c qua c s. Do theo nh l 9 th s
vect trong c s ca X phi nh hn hoc bng n.
nh l 16 Cho X l mt tp con khc rng ca K-khng gian vect V . Khi X l
khng gian con ca V khi v ch khi
x, y X, a, b K : a.x +b.y X (3.1)
Chng minh.
3.5. KHNG GIAN VECT CON
() Gi s X l khng gian ca ca V . Khi : x, y X, a, b K do ax, by
X nn ax +by X.
() Chn a = 1, b = 1 th ta c x +y X, x, y X.
Chn b = 0 th ax X, x X
Do X l khng gian con ca V .
nh l 17 Giao ca mt h ty cc khng gian vect con ca V l mt khng gian

vect con ca V .
Chng minh.
Gi s V
i
iI
l mt h cc khng gian vect con ca V .
Ta cn chng minh: U =
iI
V
i
l khng gian con ca V .
Vi mi i I, ta c V
i
l khng gian con ca V do V
i
,= . Suy ra tn ti x
i
V
i
0 = 0.x
i
V
i
U ,=
a, b K, x, y U, ta chng minh ax +by U.
Ta c x, y V
i
, i I ax +by V
i
, i I
ax +by U.
V d: Trong R
3
xt hai tp hp sau:
U = (x, y, 0)[x, y R; V = (x, 0, z)[x, z R
Khi ta c U, V l cc khng gian vect con ca R
3
.
Ta c U V = (x, 0, 0)[x R R
3
l khng gian vect con ca R
3
U V = (x, y, z)[y = 0 hoc z = 0 khng l khng gian vect con ca R
3
nh l 18 Cho V l mt K-khng gian vect , A, B l cc khng gian vect con ca V .
Ta nh ngha
A +B = v V [v = a +b, a A, b B
Khi A +B l mt khng gian con ca V v A +B gi l khng gian tng ca hai
khng gian con A, B.
Chng minh.
x, y A +B, a, b K, ta chng minh ax +by A +B
Ta t x = x
1
+y
1
, y = x
2
+y
2
vi x
1
, y
1
A, x
2
, y
2
B, khi :
ax +by = a(x
1
+y
1
) +b(x
2
+y
2
)
= (ax
1
+bx
2
) + (ay
1
+by
2
) A +B
3.5.2 Bao tuyn tnh ca mt h vect

Cho V l mt khng gian vect , tp M = a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
cc vect ca V . Khi tp
hp tt c cc t hp tuyn tnh ca cc vect ca M l mt khng gian con ca V v
gi l bao tuyn tnh ca M hay gi l khng gian con sinh bi M, k hiu M ,
hay ta vit:
a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
:= x = k
1
a
1
+k
2
a
2
+ +k
n
a
n
[k
i
K V
Theo nh l 16, ta chng minh c a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
l khng gian con ca V .
Nhn xt :
1. Ta ni a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
l h sinh ca a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
2. Mi h con c lp tuyn tnh ti i ca cc vect a

1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
l mt c s ca
a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
3. a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
l giao ca tt c cc khng gian vect con ca V cha a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
.
V d: Trong R
3
tm mt c s v s chiu ca khng gian con sinh bi cc vect sau:
a
1
= (1, 1, 1), a
2
= (2, 3, 4), a
3
= (4, 5, 6)
Gii. Tm c s ca a
1
, a
2
, a
3
, tc l tm h con c lp tuyn tnh ti i ca h
trn.
Lp ma trn t 3 hng a
1
, a
2
, a
3
A =
_
_
1 1 1
2 3 4
4 5 6
_
_
Dng cc php bin i s cp trn hng ca A
A
h
2
h
2
2h
1
h
3
h
3
4h
1
_
_
1 1 1
0 1 2
0 1 2
_
_
h
3
h
3
h
2
_
_
1 1 1
0 1 2
0 0 0
_
_
Vy dima
1
, a
2
, a
3
= 2 v (1, 1, 1), (2, 3, 4) l mt c s ca a
1
, a
2
, a
3
Suy ra a
1
, a
2
, a
3
= (1, 1, 1), (2, 3, 4) = x
1
(1, 1, 1) +x
2
(2, 3, 4)[x
1
, x
2
R
= (x
1
+ 2x
2
, x
1
+ 3x
2
, x
1
+ 4x
2
)[x
1
, x
2
R
Bi tp: Tm c s v s chiu ca khng gian (2, 0, 1), (1, 1, 2), (1, 2, 1), (2, 1, 2)
V d: Trong R
3
cho;
U = (1, 2, 1), (2, 0, 1), V = (1, 1, 2), (2, 1, 2)
Tm c s v s chiu ca U +V
Gii.
Ta c U +V = x +y[x U, y V
= a
1
(1, 2, 1) +a
2
(2, 0, 1) +b
1
(1, 1, 2) +b
2
(2, 1, 2)[a
1
, a
2
, b
1
, b
2
R
= (1, 2, 1), (2, 0, 1), (1, 1, 2), (2, 1, 2)
C s ca U +V chnh l h con c lp tuyn tnh ti i ca 4 vect trn. Ta kim
tra c ba vect (1, 2, 1), (2, 0, 1), (1, 1, 2) l c lp tuyn tnh . Vy U + V c c s l
3 vect ny v dim(U +V ) = 3
3.5.3 Khng gian con cc nghim ca h phng trnh tuyn
tnh thun nht
Cho h phng trnh tuyn tnh thun nht gm m phng trnh v n n s
_
_
a
11
x
1
+a
12
x
2
+ +a
1n
x
n
= 0
a
21
x
1
+a
22
x
2
+ +a
2n
x
n
= 0
. . .
a
m1
x
1
+a
m2
x
2
+ +a
mn
x
n
= 0
()
hay A.X = 0
t N l tp tt c cc nghim ca h phng trnh tuyn tnh thun nht (**), khi
N l mt khng gian vect con ca R
n
Nu rankA = r < n th s chiu ca khng gian nghim N chnh l n r. C s ca
N chnh l h nghim c bn ca (**)
V d: Tm c s v s chiu ca khng gian nghim
_
_
x
1
+ 2x
2
+ 4x
3
3x
4
= 0
x
1
+ 3x
2
x
3
+x
4
= 0
2x
1
+ 5x
2
+ 3x
3
2x
4
= 0
Gii: Ta gii h phng trnh cho
Bin i ma trn cc h s b sung:
A =
_
_
1 2 4 3 0
1 3 1 1 0
2 5 3 2 0
_
_
h
2
h
1
+h
2
h
3
2h
1
+h
3
_
_
1 2 4 3 0
0 1 5 4 0
0 1 5 4 0
_
_
h
3
h
2
+h
3
_
_
1 2 4 3 0
0 1 5 4 0
0 0 0 0 0
_
_
rankA = 2 < 4 h phng trnh c v s nghim ph thuc 2 tham s l x
3
, x
4
. Ta c
x
2
= 5x
3
4x
4
x
1
= 2x
2
4x
3
+ 3x
4
= 14x
3
+ 11x
4
Vy nghim tng qut ca h l
_
_
x
1
= 14t
1
+ 11t
2
x
2
= 5t
1
4t
2
x
3
= t
1
x
4
= t
2
, t
1
, t
2
R
Cho t
1
= 1, t
2
= 0 ta c x
1
= 14, x
2
= 5, x
3
= 1, x
4
= 0, ta c vect a
1
=
(14, 5, 1, 0)
Cho t
1
= 0, t
2
= 1 ta c x
1
= 11, x
2
= 4, x
3
= 0, x
4
= 1, ta c vect a
2
=
(11, 4, 0, 1)
Vy c s ca khng gian nghim l a
1
, a
2
v s chiu ca khng gian nghim l 2.
Bi tp
Bi 15. Chng minh rng tp hp R
n
[x] cc a thc bc nh hn hoc bng n ca x vi
h s thc lp thnh mt R-khng gian vect cng vi php cng a thc v php nhn
1 s thc vi mt a thc thng thng.
Bi 16. Trong R
3
, xt xem vect u c phi l t hp tuyn tnh ca u
1
, u
2
, u
3
hay khng?
a. u = (1, 2, 1); u
1
= (0, 1, 1); u
2
= (1, 0, 1); u
3
= (1, 1, 0)
b. u = (2, 2, 1); u
1
= (2, 1, 3); u
2
= (4, 1, 2); u
3
= (6, 0, 5)
c. u = (7, 2, 15); u
1
= (2, 3, 5); u
2
= (3, 7, 8); u
3
= (1, 6, 1)
Bi 17. Tm m sao cho x l t hp tuyn tnh ca u
1
, u
2
, u
3
a. x = (5, 9, m); u
1
= (4, 4, 3); u
2
= (7, 2, 1); u
3
= (4, 6, 1)
b. x = (7, 2, m); u
1
= (2, 3, 5); u
2
= (3, 7, 8); u
3
= (1, 6, 1)
c. x = (1, 3, 5); u
1
= (3, 2, 5); u
2
= (2, 4, 7); u
3
= (5, 6, m)
Bi 18. Trong R-khng gian vect R
3
, xt s c lp tuyn tnh ca cc h vect sau:
a. x
1
= (2, 1, 1), x
2
= (1, 3, 1), x
3
= (1, 2, 0)
b. x
1
= (2, 3, 0), x
2
= (0, 1, 2), x
3
= (2, 4, 1)
4
, vi gi tr no ca m th h cc vect x
1
=
(0, 1, 1, 1), x
2
= (1, 0, 1, 1), x
3
= (1, 1, 0, 1), x
4
= (1, 1, 1, m) c lp tuyn tnh ?
3
, hy tm hng ca cc h vect sau:
a. (1, 2, 3), (0, 1, 1), (1, 3, 4)
b. (1, 3, 1, 0), (2, 0, 1, 1), (0, 1, 4, 3)
c. (1, 0, 2, 3, 1), (2, 1, 3, 2, 0), (3, 2, 5, 1, 4), (0, 1, 4, 6, 5)
Bi 21. Trong khng gian R
2
[x] cho tp N = 1, x 1, (x 1)
2
. Chng minh rng N
l mt c s ca R
2
[x]. Tm ta ca f(x) = (x + 1)
2
i vi c s ny.
3
, chng minh h vect x
1
= (1, 1, 1), x
2
=
(1, 1, , 2), x
3
= (1, 2, 3) l mt c s ca R
3
. Tm ta ca vect x = (2, 1, 9) trong c
s .
3
, cho hai h vect
B = (1, 1, 1), (1, 1, 2), (1, 2, 3)
B
= (2, 1, 1), (3, 2, 5), (1, 1, m)

a. Tm m B
l mt c s ca R
3
b. Tm ma trn chuyn c s t B sang B
c. Tm ta ca vect a = (1, 0, 0) i vi 2 c s trn.

Bi 24. Chng minh A = (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) R
3
[x
1
+x
2
+x
3
= 0 l R-khng gian vect con
ca R
3
Bi 25. Trong R
3
cho khng gian vect con F = (1, 1, 1), (2, 3, 1), (5, 1, 2). Tm mt
c s ca F v dim(F)
Bi 26. Cho h phng trnh tuyn tnh thun nht
_
x
1
+x
2
+x
3
+x
4
= 0
2x
1
+ 3x
2
x
3
+x
4
= 0
Tm c s v s chiu ca khng gian nghim
Chng 4
nh x tuyn tnh
4.1 nh ngha v v d
4.1.1 nh ngha
Cho U, V l hai khng gian vect trn K. nh x f : U V gi l mt nh x tuyn
tnh nu f tha 2 iu kin:
(i) f(a +b) = f(a) +f(b), a, b U
(ii) f(ka) = kf(a), a U, k K
Mt nh x tuyn tnh f : V V c gi l mt ton t tuyn tnh (hay php bin
i tuyn tnh) ca V .
4.1.2 Cc v d
1. nh x khng:
0 : U V
a 0(a) = 0
V
l nh x tuyn tnh
2. nh x ng nht
id : V V
a id(a) = a
l nh x tuyn tnh
3. nh x
p : R
3
R
2
(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) p(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) = (x
1
, x
2
)
l nh x tuyn tnh.
4. nh x
f : R
3
R
3
(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) f(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) = (x
1
+x
2
, x
1
+x
3
, x
3
)
l nh x tuyn tnh.
Chng minh:
41
4.1. NH NGHA V V D
x, y R
3
, ta c x = (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
), y = (y
1
, y
2
, y
3
):
f(x +y) = f(x
1
+y
1
, x
2
+y
2
, x
3
+y
3
)
= ((x
1
+y
1
) + (x
2
+y
2
), (x
1
+y
1
) + (x
3
+y
3
), x
3
+y
3
)
= ((x
1
+x
2
) + (y
1
+y
2
), (x
1
+x
3
) + (y
1
+y
3
), x
3
+y
3
)
= (x
1
+x
2
, x
1
+x
3
, x
3
) + (y
1
+y
2
, y
1
+y
3
, y
3
)
= f(x) +f(y)
x R
3
, k R ta c x = (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
)
f(kx) = f(kx
1
, kx
2
, kx
3
)
= (kx
1
+kx
2
, kx
1
+kx
3
, kx
3
)
= k.(x
1
+x
2
, x
1
+x
3
, x
3
)
= k.f(x)
4.1.3 Cc tnh cht c bn ca nh x tuyn tnh
Cho U, V l hai K-khng gian vect , f : U V l nh x tuyn tnh, khi
1. f(0
U
) = 0
V
, f(a) = f(a), a U.
2. nh x f : U V l nh x tuyn tnh khi v ch khi
f(ax +by) = a.f(x) +b.f(y), a, b K; x, y U
3. Vi mi x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
U v k
1
, k
2
, . . . , k
n
K ta c
f(k
1
x
1
+k
2
x
2
+ +k
n
x
n
) = k
1
f(x
1
) +k
2
f(x
2
) + +k
n
f(x
n
)
nh l 19 Cho f : U V l mt nh x tuyn tnh, M = x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
l mt tp
hu hn cc vect ca U. Khi :
f(M) = f(M)
Tc l nh x tuyn tnh f bin tp sinh thnh tp sinh.
Chng minh.
Ta chng minh f(M) f(M).
Ta c: f(M) = f(x
1
), f(x
2
), . . . , f(x
n
), ta cn chng minh mi phn t y
f(M) u biu th tuyn tnh c qua h f(M).
Do y f(M) nn y = f(
n
i=1
a
i
x
i
), a
i
K
y =
n
i=1
a
i
f(x
i
) (do f l nh x tuyn tnh). Hay y f(M).
Nh vy f(M) f(M)
Chng minh tng t, ta c f(M) f(M)
nh l 20 Cho f : U V l mt nh x tuyn tnh, M = x

1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
l mt tp
hu hn cc vect ca U. Khi :
CHNG 4. NH X TUYN TNH
1. Nu M ph thuc tuyn tnh th f(M) ph thuc tuyn tnh .
2. Nu f(M) c lp tuyn tnh th M c lp tuyn tnh .
Chng minh.
1. Gi s M ph thuc tuyn tnh , ta cn chng minh f(M) ph thuc tuyn tnh .
Tc l cn chng minh tn ti cc s a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
K khng ng thi bng 0 sao
cho
n
i=1
a
i
f(x
i
) = 0.
Theo gi thit th M ph thuc tuyn tnh nn c cc s a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
K khng
ng thi bng 0 sao cho
n
i=1
a
i
x
i
= 0 f(
n
i=1
a
i
x
i
= 0 hay
n
i=1
a
i
f(x
i
) = 0.
Vy f(M) ph thuc tuyn tnh .
2. Gi s f(M) c lp tuyn tnh , ta chng minh M c lp tuyn tnh .
Gi s:
n
i=1
a
i
x
i
= 0 0 = f(
n
i=1
a
i
x
i
) =
n
i=1
a
i
f(x
i
)
Do f(M) c lp tuyn tnh nn a
1
= a
2
= . . . = a
n
= 0
Vy M c lp tuyn tnh
nh l 21 nh x tuyn tnh khng lm tng hng ca mt h vect

rank(x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
) rank(f(x
1
), f(x
2
), . . . , f(x
n
))
Chng minh. Gi s f(x
i
1
), f(x
i
2
), . . . , f(x
i
k
) l h con c lp tuyn tnh ti i ca
f(x
1
), f(x
2
), . . . , f(x
n
) rank(f(x
1
), f(x
2
), . . . , f(x
n
)) = k.
Theo nh l 20 th x
i
1
, x
i
2
, . . . , x
i
k
c lp tuyn tnh .
Do rank(x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
) k
nh l 22 (nh l c bn v s xc nh nh x tuyn tnh) Cho U, V l 2 khng
gian vect trn K. Gi s e
1
, e
2
, . . . , e
n
l mt c s ca U (dimU = n), v
1
, v
2
, . . . , v
n
l
cc vect ty ca V . Khi lun tn ti duy nht 1 nh x tuyn tnh f : U V sao
cho f(e
i
) = v
i
, i = 1, n
Chng minh.
Ta nh ngha nh x f : U V nh sau:
Vi mi x U th x biu din duy nht di dng
x = x
1
e
1
+x
2
e
2
+. . . +x
n
e
n
Ta t f(x) = x
1
v
1
+x
2
v
2
+. . . +x
n
v
n
nh x f l nh x tuyn tnh. Tht vy, vi mi x = x
1
e
1
+ x
2
e
2
+ . . . + x
n
e
n
; y =
y
1
e
1
+y
2
e
2
+. . . +y
n
e
n
v vi mi a, b K
f(ax +by) = f
_
(ax
1
+by
1
)e
1
+ (ax
2
+by
2
)e
2
+. . . + (ax
n
+by
n
)e
n
_
= (ax
1
+by
1
)v
1
+ (ax
2
+by
2
)v
2
+. . . + (ax
n
+by
n
)v
n
= a(x
1
v
1
+x
2
v
2
+. . . +x
n
v
n
) +b(y
1
v
1
+y
2
v
2
+. . . +y
n
v
n
)
4.1. NH NGHA V V D
= af(x) +bf(y)
Hn na, vi mi i 1, n ta c:
f(e
1
) = f(0e
1
+ 0e
2
+. . . + 1.e
i
+. . . + 0.e
n
)
= 0v
1
+ 0v
2
+. . . + 1.v
i
+. . . + 0.v
n
= v
i
Nh vy, ta xy dng c nh x tuyn tnh tha yu cu bi.
Tip theo, chng ta s chng minh nh x l duy nht.
Gi s: g : U V l mt nh x tuyn tnh sao cho g(e
i
) = v
i
vi mi i 1, n
Ta chng minh f = g
Tht vy, vi mi x U, x = x
1
e
1
+x
2
e
2
+. . . +x
n
e
n
f(x) = f(x
1
e
1
+x
2
e
2
+. . . +x
n
e
n
)
= x
1
f(e
1
) +x
2
f(e
2
) +. . . +x
n
f(e
n
)
= x
1
v
1
+x
2
v
2
+. . . +x
n
v
n
= x
1
g(e
1
) +x
2
g(e
2
) +. . . +x
n
g(e
n
)
= g(x
1
e
1
+x
2
e
2
+. . . +x
n
e
n
) = g(x)
Vy f = g, ta c iu phi chng minh.
T nh l ny ta thy mt nh x tuyn tnh hon ton c xc nh nu nh ta
bit c nh ca mt c s ca n.
V d: Cho nh x tuyn tnh f : R
3
R
3
sao cho
f(1, 1, 0) = (0, 2, 2)
f(0, 1, 1) = (2, 0, 2)
f(1, 0, 1) = (2, 4, 6)
Tm cng thc tng qut ca f.
Gii.
Ta c e
1
= (1, 1, 0), e
2
= (0, 1, 1), e
3
= (1, 0, 1) l mt c s ca R
3
.
V dimR
3
= 3 v 3 vect trn c lp tuyn tnh.
Ly x = (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) R
3
, ta cn tm f(x) = f(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) =?
Do e
1
, e
2
, e
3
l mt c s ca R
3
, ta gi s x c s biu th tuyn tnh qua c s nh
sau:
x = a
1
e
1
+a
2
e
2
+a
3
e
3
f(x) = a
1
f(e
1
) +a
2
f(e
2
) +a
3
f(e
3
)
Ta cn tm cc gi tr a
1
, a
2
, a
3
(ph thuc v x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) c cng thc ca f.
Ta c: x = a
1
e
1
+a
2
e
2
+a
3
e
3
= a
1
(1, 1, 0) +a
2
(0, 1, 1) +a
3
(1, 0, 1) = (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
)
Do :
_
a
1
+a
3
= x
1
a
1
+a
2
= x
2
a
2
+a
3
= x
3
_
a
1
=
1
2
x
1
+
1
2
x
2
1
2
x
3
a
2
=
1
2
x
1
+
1
2
x
2
+
1
2
x
3
a
3
=
1
2
x
1
1
2
x
2
+
1
2
x
3
Khi
f(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) = f(a
1
e
1
+a
2
e
2
+a
3
e
3
)
= a
1
f(e
1
) +a
2
f(e
2
) +a
3
f(e
3
)
= a
1
(0, 2, 2) +a
2
(2, 0, 2) +a
3
(2, 4, 6)
= (2x
3
, 3x
1
x
2
+x
3
, 3x
1
x
2
+ 3x
3
)
4.2 Ht nhn v nh
4.2.1 nh v nh ngc ca khng gian con
nh l 23 Cho f : U V l mt nh x tuyn tnh , ta c:
1. Nu A l mt khng gian con ca U th f(A) l mt khng gian con ca V .
2. Nu A l mt khng gian con hu hn chiu ca U th f(A) l mt khng gian con
hu hn chiu ca V v dimf(A) dimA.
3. Nu B l khng gian con ca V th f
1
(B) l khng gian con ca U.
Chng minh.
1. Gi s A l khng gian con ca U. Ta c f(A) = f(a) V [a A
Ta c 0
V
= f(0
U
) f(A) do f(A) ,= .
y
1
= f(a
1
), y
2
= f(a
2
) f(A), k, m K, ta c:
ky
1
+my
2
= kf(a
1
) +mf(a
2
) = f(ka
1
+ma
2
) f(A)( v ka
1
+ma
2
A)
Do f(A) l khng gian con ca V .
2. Gi s a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
m
l mt c s ca A, hay ta c A = a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
m
. Theo
nh l 19 th f(A) = f(a
1
), f(a
2
), . . . , f(a
m
). Do f(A) hu hn chiu v
dimf(A) =rankf(a
1
), f(a
2
), . . . , f(a
m
) m = dimA.
3. Gi s B l khng gian con ca V , f
1
(B) = x U[f(x) B
Ta c 0
U
f
1
(B) v f(0
U
) = 0
V
B. Do f
1
(B) ,= .
x, y f
1
(B), k, m K ta c:
f(kx +my) = kf(x) +mf(y) B( do f(x), f(y) B)
Do kx +my f
1
(B)
Nh vy f
1
(B) l khng gian con ca U.
4.2.2 nh, ht nhn, hng v s khuyt
Cho U, V l cc K-khng gian vect , f : U V l mt nh x tuyn tnh
K hiu Kerf = x U[f(x) = 0 gi l ht nhn ca nh x tuyn tnh f
K hiu Imf = f(U) = f(x)[x U gi l nh ca nh x tuyn tnh f
S chiu ca Imf gi l hng ca nh x tuyn tnh f, k hiu rankf =dim Imf.
S chiu ca Kerf s khuyt ca f, k hiu def f = dim Kerf.
Ch : Nu v
1
, v
2
, . . . , v
m
l h sinh ca U th
rankf = dimf(U) = dimf(v
1
), f(v
2
), . . . , f(v
m
) = rankf(v
1
), f(v
2
), . . . , f(v
m
)
nh l 24 Cho f : U V l mt nh x tuyn tnh . Khi , ta c
dimImf +dimKerf = dimU
(rankf +deff = dimU)
4.2. HT NHN V NH
4.2.3 n cu, ton cu, ng cu
nh ngha: Cho U, V l cc K-khng gian vect v nh x tuyn tnh f : U V . Khi
:
f gi l n cu nu f l n nh
f gi l ton cu nu f l ton nh
f gi l ng cu nu f l song nh
nh l 25 Cho U, V l cc K-khng gian vect v nh x tuyn tnh f : U V . Khi
cc iu sau y l tng ng:
1. f l n cu.
2. Kerf = 0
3. f bin mt h c lp tuyn tnh thnh mt h c lp tuyn tnh .
4. f gi nguyn hng ca mt h cc vect .
5. f gi nguyn chiu ca mt khng gian con.
6. f bin mt c s ca U thnh mt h c lp tuyn tnh
7. rankf = dimU
Chng minh.
(1 2) Ly x Kerf bt k. Ta chng minh x = 0.
Ta c f(x) = 0 = f(0)
Do f l n nh nn x = 0.
(2 3) Gi s x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
c lp tuyn tnh , ta chng minh f(x
1
), f(x
2
), . . . , f(x
n
)
cng c lp tuyn tnh .
Gi s: a
1
f(x
1
) +a
2
f(x
2
) +. . . +a
n
f(x
n
) = 0
f(a
1
x
1
+a
2
x
2
+. . . +a
n
x
n
) = 0
a
1
x
1
+a
2
x
2
+. . . +a
n
x
n
Kerf
a
1
x
1
+a
2
x
2
+. . . +a
n
x
n
= 0
a
1
= a
2
= . . . = a
n
= 0 (v x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
c lp tuyn tnh )
(3 4) Ly x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
V . Ta chng minh rankx
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
= rankf(x
1
), f(x
2
), . . . , f(x
n
)
Gi s x
i
1
, x
i
2
, . . . , x
i
k
l h con c lp tuyn tnh ti i ca x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
(rankx
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
= k).
Theo 3., ta c f(x
i
1
), f(x
i
2
), . . . , f(x
i
k
) c lp tuyn tnh , do
rankf(x
1
), f(x
2
), . . . , f(x
n
) k = rankx
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
Theo nh l 21 (nh x tuyn tnh khng lm tng hng ca mt h vect ) ta c

iu phi chng minh.
(4 5) Gi s A l khng gian con ca U, x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
l h sinh ca A.
Ta c dimA = rankx
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
= rankf(x
1
), f(x
2
), . . . , f(x
n
) = dimf(A)
v rank f(x
1
), f(x
2
), . . . , f(x
n
) l h sinh ca f(A).
(5 6) Ly x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
l mt c s ca U, ta chng minh f(x
1
), f(x
2
), . . . , f(x
n
) c
lp tuyn tnh .
Ta c n = rankx
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
= rankf(x
1
), f(x
2
), . . . , f(x
n
)
n = dimU = dimf(U) (theo 5.)
Do dimf(U) = rankf(x
1
), f(x
2
), . . . , f(x
n
)
Vy f(x
1
), f(x
2
), . . . , f(x
n
) c lp tuyn tnh
(6 7) Ly x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
l mt c s ca U.
rankf = dimf(U) = rankf(x
1
), f(x
2
), . . . , f(x
n
) = n = dimU
(7 1) Ta c rankf +deff = dimU
deff = dimKerf = 0
Kerf = 0
x, y U : f(x) = f(y) f(x y) = 0 x y = 0 x = y
Vy f l n cu.
nh l 26 Cho U, V l cc K-khng gian vect v nh x tuyn tnh f : U V . Khi

cc iu sau y l tng ng:
1. f l ton cu.
2. Imf = V
3. f bin 1 h sinh ca U thnh mt h sinh ca V .
4. f bin c s ca U thnh mt h sinh ca V .
5. rankf = dimV
Chng minh.
(1 2) f(U) = V
(2 3) Ly x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
l mt h sinh ca U, khi f(x
1
), f(x
2
), . . . , f(x
n
) l h sinh
ca f(U) = V
(3 4) Hin nhin.
(4 5) rankf = dimImf = rankf(x
1
), f(x
2
), . . . , f(x
n
) = dimV vi x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
l
c s ca U v f(x
1
), f(x
2
), . . . , f(x
n
) l h sinh ca V .
(5 1) rankf = dimV dimf(U) = dimV . M f(U) V do f(U) = V hay f l
ton cu.
.
4.2. HT NHN V NH
Nhn xt: T cc nh l 25 v 26, ta c:
1. Nu f : U V l mt nh x tuyn tnh th
f l n cu rank f = dimU( dimV )
f l ton cu rank f = dimV ( dimU)
f l ng cu rank f = dimV = dimU
2. Tch ca cc ng cu l mt ng cu, nh x ngc ca mt ng cu l mt
ng cu.
V d: Cho f : R
3
R
4
l nh x tuyn tnh xc nh bi nh ca c s chnh tc nh
sau:
f(e
1
) = u
1
= (1, 1, 2, 2), f(e
2
) = u
2
= (2, 3, 5, 6), f(e
3
) = u
3
= (4, 5, 9, 10)
Hi f c l n cu khng?
Gii. Da vo nhn xt bn trn: f : U V l n cu rank f = dimU. Do , ta
cn tnh rank f v so snh vi dim R
3
= 3.
Ta c rankf = rankf(e
1
), f(e
2
), f(e
3
), nh vy ta s tnh hng cc vect f(e
1
), f(e
2
), f(e
3
).
Lp ma trn A m cc hng l u
1
, u
2
, u
3
ri thc hin cc php bin i s cp trn
hng ca A ta c:
A =
_
_
1 1 2 2
2 3 5 6
4 5 9 10
_
_
h
2
h
2
2h
1
h
3
h
3
4h
1
_
_
1 1 2 2
0 1 1 2
0 1 1 2
_
_
h
3
h
3
h
2
_
_
1 1 2 2
0 1 1 2
0 0 0 0
_
_
Suy ra rankf = rank(f(e
1
), f(e
2
), f(e
3
)) = rank(u
1
, u
2
, u
3
) = rankA = 2 < 3 = dimR
3
Theo nh l 25, f khng n cu.
V d: Cho f : R
3
R
2
l nh x tuyn tnh xc nh nh ca c s chnh tc nh
sau:
f(e
1
) = u
1
= (1, 1), f(e
2
) = u
2
= (1, 2), f(e
3
) = u
3
= (0, 0)
Xt tnh ton cu ca f.
Gii. Ta c:
rankf = rank(u
1
, u
2
, u
3
) = rank
_
_
1 1
1 2
0 0
_
_
= 2 = dimR
2
Theo nh l 26, th f l ton cu.
nh ngha: Hai khng gian vect U v V gi l ng cu vi nhau nu c mt ng
cu t U n V , k hiu U

= V
nh l 27 Hai K-khng gian vect hu hn chiu ng cu vi nhau khi v ch khi chng
c s chiu bng nhau.
Chng minh.
() Gi s U, V ng cu. Khi , tn ti nh x tuyn tnh f : U V l ng cu.
V f n cu nn rankf = dimU. Mt khc, do f l ton cu nn rankf = dimV .
Suy ra dimU = dimV .
() Ta c dimU = dimV , ta chng minh U

= V .
Gi u
1
, u
2
, . . . , u
n
(u) l c s ca U v v
1
, v
2
, . . . , v
n
(v) l c s ca V .
Theo nh l v s xc nh nh x tuyn tnh (nh l 22) th tn ti duy nht nh
x tuyn tnh f : U V tha f(u
i
) = v
i
, i = 1, n
V f bin c s thnh h c lp tuyn tnh nn f l n cu. Mt khc, f bin c
s thnh h sinh nn f l ton cu. Vy f l ng cu.
nh l 28 Cho f : U V l mt ng cu. Cc vect x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
c lp tuyn tnh
khi v ch khi f(x
1
), f(x
2
), . . . , f(x
n
) c lp tuyn tnh
Chng minh.
() V f l ng cu nn n l n cu do n bin h c lp tuyn tnh thnh h
c lp tuyn tnh .
() Ta c f(x
1
), f(x
2
), . . . , f(x
n
) c lp tuyn tnh . Ta cn chng minh x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
c lp tuyn tnh .
Gi s k
1
x
1
+k
2
x
2
+. . . +k
n
x
n
= 0
Khi f(k
1
x
1
+ k
2
x
2
+ . . . + k
n
x
n
) = 0 k
1
f(x
1
) + k
2
f(x
2
) + . . . + k
n
f(x
n
) = 0.
Suy ra k
1
= k
2
= . . . = k
n
= 0 .
H qu 1: Nu f l mt ng cu th hng ca h cc vect x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
bng hng
ca h cc vect f(x
1
), f(x
2
), . . . , f(x
n
)
Nhn xt: Cho V l K-khng gian vect n chiu, ta c th gi s V

= K
n
vi ng
cu:
f : V K
n
sao cho f(x) = [x]
B
, vi B l mt c s ca V .
H qu 2: Hng ca h cc vect x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
trong V bng hng ca h cc vect
ta [x
1
]
B
, [x
2
]
B
, . . . , [x
n
]
B
trong khng gian K
n
. Tc l
rankx
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
= rank
_
[x
1
]
B
[x
2
]
B
. . . [x
n
]
B
_
Nh vy, vic tm hng ca mt h vect c th tm thng qua tm hng ca ma trn
_
[x
1
]
B
[x
2
]
B
. . . [x
n
]
B
_
trong ct th i l ta ca vect x
i
trong c s B.
4.3 Ma trn ca nh x tuyn tnh
4.3.1 Ma trn ca nh x tuyn tnh
Gi s U, V l hai K-khng gian vect , dimU = n, dimV = m v nh x tuyn tnh
f : U V .
Gi s B = e
1
, e
2
, . . . , e
n
l mt c s ca U; C = f
1
, f
2
, . . . , f
m
l mt c s ca
V ;
V f(e
i
) V nn f(e
i
) biu th tuyn tnh c qua h cc vect ca C. Ta c
4.3. MA TRN CA NH X TUYN TNH
f(e
1
) = a
11
f
1
+a
12
f
2
+ +a
1m
f
m
f(e
2
) = a
21
f
1
+a
22
f
2
+ +a
2m
f
m

f(e
n
) = a
n1
f
1
+a
n2
f
2
+ +a
nm
f
m
Ma trn
A =
_
_
a
11
a
21
. . . a
n1
a
12
a
22
. . . a
n2
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
1m
a
2m
. . . a
nm
_
_
gi l ma trn ca nh x tuyn tnh f trong cp c s B, C. Ta k hiu A = A
f/
B,C
Trng hp c bit khi f l php bin i tuyn tnh ca V , f : V V v B C
th ma trn ca nh x tuyn tnh f trong cp c c B, B c gi l ma trn ca f
trong c s B v k hiu l A
f/
B
2
R
3
f(x
1
, x
2
) = (x
1
+ 2x
2
, x
1
x
2
, x
2
)
Tm ma trn ca nh x tuyn tnh f trong cp c s B, C vi cc c s B, C cho nh
sau:
B = e
1
= (1, 1), e
2
= (1, 0)
C = f
1
= (1, 1, 1), f
2
= (1, 2, 1), f
3
= (1, 3, 2)
Gii. Ta c
f(e
1
) = a
1
f
1
+a
2
f
2
+a
3
f
3
= (3, 0, 1) (4.1)
f(e
2
) = b
1
f
1
+b
2
f
2
+b
3
f
3
= (1, 1, 0) (4.2)
Theo nh ngha th ma trn ca nh x tuyn tnh f i vi cp c s B, C l A
f/
B,C
A
f/
B,C
=
_
_
a
1
b
1
a
2
b
2
a
3
b
3
_
_
Ta cn tm a
1
, a
2
, a
3
v b
1
, b
2
, b
3
. Ta c h phng trnh tuyn tnh m ma trn cc h s
b sung nh sau:
_
_
1 1 1 3 1
1 2 3 0 1
1 1 2 1 0
_
_
h
2
h
1
+h
2
h
3
h
1
+h
3
_
_
1 1 1 3 1
0 3 2 3 0
0 2 1 4 1
_
_
h
2
h
3
+h
2
_
_
1 1 1 3 1
0 1 1 1 1
0 2 1 4 1
_
_
h
3
2h
2
+h
3
_
_
1 1 1 3 1
0 1 1 1 1
0 0 1 6 3
_
_
H 4.1: a
3
= 6; a
2
= 1 a
3
= 5; a
1
= 3 a
3
+a
2
= 8
H 4.2: b
3
= 3; b
2
= 1 b
3
= 2; b
1
= 1 +b
2
b
3
= 4
Vy A
f/
B,C
=
_
_
a
1
b
1
a
2
b
2
a
3
b
3
_
_
=
_
_
8 4
5 2
6 3
_
_
3
R
3
f(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) = (x
1
+ 2x
2
x
3
, x
2
+x
3
, x
1
+x
2
2x
3
)
Tm ma trn ca f i vi c s B = (1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)
nh l 29 Hng ca nh x tuyn tnh bng hng ca ma trn ca n.
Chng minh.
Cho f : X Y l nh x tuyn tnh, B = e
1
, e
2
, . . . , e
n
l mt c s ca X,
C = f
1
, f
2
, . . . , f
m
l mt c s ca Y .
Ta c Imf = f(e
1
), f(e
2
), . . . , f(e
n
) nn s chiu ca Imf bng hng ca h cc
vect . Theo h qu 2 ca nh l 28, ta c hng ca h vect bng hng ca cc vect
ta ca n, tc bng hng ca ma trn cc vect ta
rankf(e
1
), f(e
2
), . . . , f(e
n
) = rank
_
[f(e
1
)]
C
[f(e
2
)]
C
. . . [f(e
n
)]
C
_
= rankA
4.3.2 Biu thc ta ca nh x tuyn tnh

Cho U, V l cc K-khng gian vect , B = e
1
, e
2
, . . . , e
n
l mt c s ca U; C =
f
1
, f
2
, . . . , f
m
l mt c s ca V . Cho f : U V l nh x tuyn tnh. t A = A
f/
B,C
l ma trn ca f trong cp c s B, C
Vi mi vect x U, gi s
[x]
B
=
_
_
x
1
x
2
.
.
.
x
n
_
_
v [f(x)]
C
=
_
_
y
1
y
2
.
.
.
y
m
_
_
Khi cng thc sau gi l biu thc ta ca nh x tuyn tnh f
_
_
y
1
y
2
.
.
.
y
m
_
_
= A.
_
_
x
1
x
2
.
.
.
x
n
_
_
hay [f(x)]
C
= A.[x]
B
Cch tm ht nhn v nh
Cch tm ht nhn ca mt nh x tuyn tnh f : V U.
Chn B = e
1
, e
2
, . . . , e
n
l mt c s ca U; C = f
1
, f
2
, . . . , f
m
l mt c s ca
V . Ta c [f(x)]
C
= A.[x]
B
x Kerf f(x) = 0
[f(x)]
C
=
_
_
0
0
.
.
.
0
_
_
A.[x]
B
=
_
_
0
0
.
.
.
0
_
_
()
4.3. MA TRN CA NH X TUYN TNH
Nh vy x Kerf khi v ch khi ta ca x trong c s B l nghim ca h phng
trnh tuyn tnh thun nht (*)
T tm ht nhn ca nh x tuyn tnh f : V U ta lm nh sau:
1. Tm ma trn ca nh x tuyn tnh f i vi cp c s B, C (tm A
f/
B,C
)
2. Gii h phng trnh tuyn tnh thun nht
A.
_
_
x
1
x
2
.
.
.
x
n
_
_
=
_
_
0
0
.
.
.
0
_
_
()
3. Tm cc nghim c bn ca (*). Gi s cc nghim ny l X
1
, X
2
, . . . , X
k
4. Gi x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
k
l cc vect ca V c ta trong c s B ln lt l
X
1
, X
2
, . . . , X
k
. Khi
Kerf = x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
k
Cch tm nh ca nh x f
V e
1
, e
2
, . . . , e
n
l h sinh ca U nn f(e
1
), f(e
2
), . . . , f(e
n
) l h sinh ca Imf.
Hay Imf = f(e
1
), f(e
2
), . . . , f(e
n
). Ta tm mt h con c lp tuyn tnh ti i
ca f(e
1
), f(e
2
), . . . , f(e
n
) l c s ca Imf (S vect c lp tuyn tnh ti i
bng hng ca h cc vect f(e
1
), f(e
2
), . . . , f(e
n
))
3
R
3
f(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) = (x
1
+ 2x
2
x
3
, x
2
+x
3
, x
1
+x
2
2x
3
)
Tm ht nhn v nh ca f.
Gii:
(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) Kerf f(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) = 0 (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) l nghim h phng trnh:
_
_
x
1
+ 2x
2
x
3
= 0
x
2
+x
3
= 0
x
1
+x
2
2x
3
= 0
Ta bin i ma trn h s b sung
_
_
1 2 1 0
0 1 1 0
1 1 2 0
_
_
h
3
h
1
+h
3
_
_
1 2 1 0
0 1 1 0
0 1 1 0
_
_
h
3
h
2
+h
3
_
_
1 2 1 0
0 1 1 0
0 1 1 0
_
_
H c v s nghim ph thuc 1 tham s l x
3
. Ta c:
_
_
x
3
= t
x
2
= x
3
= t
x
1
= 2x
3
+x
3
= 3x
3
= 3t
, t R
Nghim c bn ca h l (3, 1, 1)
Vy (3, 1, 1) l c s ca Kerf v dim Kerf = 1
Tm Imf
Ta tm nh ca f i vi c s chnh tc B = e
1
= (1, 0, 0), e
2
= (0, 1, 0), e
3
=
(0, 0, 1). Ta c
f(e
1
) = (1, 0, 1), f(e
2
) = (2, 1, 1), f(e
3
) = (1, 1, 2)
Imf = f(e
1
), f(e
2
), f(e
3
)
Tm h con c lp tuyn tnh ti i ca h f(e
1
), f(e
2
), f(e
3
).
Tm hng ca h cc vect f(e
1
), f(e
2
), f(e
3
)
_
_
1 0 1
2 1 1
1 1 2
_
_
f(e
1
)
f(e
2
)
f(e
3
)
h
2
2h
1
+h
2
h
3
h
1
+h
3
_
_
1 0 1
0 1 1
0 1 1
_
_
f(e
1
)
f(e
2
)
f(e
3
)
h
3
h
2
+h
3
_
_
1 0 1
0 1 1
0 0 0
_
_
f(e
1
)
f(e
2
)
f(e
3
)
Vy c s ca Imf l f(e
1
), f(e
2
)
4.3.3 Ma trn ca nh x tuyn tnh trong cc c s khc nhau
Cho U, V l cc K-khng gian vect , B = e
1
, e
2
, . . . , e
n
, B
= e
1
, e
2
, . . . , e
n
l hai
c s ca U; C = f
1
, f
2
, . . . , f
m
; C
= f
1
, f
2
, . . . , f
m
l hai c s ca V . Cho nh x
tuyn tnh f : U V , khi ta c cng thc lin h gia ma trn ca f trong cp ma
trn B
, C
vi ma trn ca f trong cp c s B, C nh sau:

A
f/
B
,C
= T
1
CC
.A
f/
B,C
.T
BB
trong T
BB
l ma trn chuyn c s t B sang B
Nu f : V V l php bin i tuyn tnh v B = e

1
, e
2
, . . . , e
n
, B
= e
1
, e
2
, . . . , e
l hai c s ca V , ta c
A
f/
B
= T
1
BB
.A
f/
B
.T
BB
4.4 Gi tr ring, vect ring ca ma trn, nh x

tuyn tnh
4.4.1 Vect ring v gi tr ring ca ma trn
nh ngha: Cho A l ma trn vung cp n, K gi l gi tr ring ca A nu nh
tn ti vect x = (x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
) ,= 0 ca K
n
sao cho
A
_
_
x
1
x
2
.
.
.
x
n
_
_
=
_
_
x
1
x
2
.
.
.
x
n
_
_
(4.3)
Khi vect x = (x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
) gi l vect ring ca ma trn A ng vi gi tr ring
T (4.3) ta c:
[A I]
_
_
x
1
x
2
.
.
.
x
n
_
_
= 0
4.4. GI TR RING, VECT RING CA MA TRN, NH X TUYN TNH
Tp tt c cc nghim ca (4.3) l khng gian vect con ca K
n
, khng gian ny gi l
khng gian con ring ca ma trn A ng vi gi tr ring . K hiu E()
Tp cc vect ring ca A ng vi gi tr ring l E() 0
Cch tm vect ring v gi tr ring
1. Tnh det(A I)
Ch : t P
A
() =det(A I) gi l a thc c trng ca ma trn A
2. Gii phng trnh P
A
() = 0
Tt c cc nghim ca phng trnh u l gi tr ring ca ma trn A
3. ng vi gi tr ring
0
(
0
l mt nghim ca phng trnh P
A
() = 0)
Ta gii h phng trnh
[A
0
I]
_
_
x
1
x
2
.
.
.
x
n
_
_
=
_
_
0
0
.
.
.
0
_
_
(4.4)
Tt c cc nghim khc 0 ca h (4.4) u l vect ring ca A ng vi gi tr ring
0
V d: Tm vect ring v gi tr ring ca ma trn A trn tp s thc R
A =
_
_
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
_
_
Gii:
1. Tm a thc c trng P
A
()
P
A
() = det(A I) =
1 1
1 1
1 1
= ()
3
+ 3 + 2
2. Tm gi tr ring
3
+ 3 + 2 = 0
( + 1)(
2
+ + 2) = 0
= 1 hoc = 2
Ta c 2 vect ring = 1, = 2
3. Tm vect ring
= 1
Ta gii h phng trnh
[A (1)I]
_
_
x
1
x
2
.
.
.
x
n
_
_
=
_
_
0
0
.
.
.
0
_
_
_
_
1 1 1 0
1 1 1 0
1 1 1 0
_
_
h
2
h
1
+h
2
h
3
h
1
+h
3
_
_
1 1 1 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
_
_
H c v s nghim ph thuc 2 tham s
_
_
x
1
= a b
x
2
= a
x
3
= b
ng vi gi tr ring = 1 ta c cc vect ring (a b, a, b) vi a, b R v
a, b khng ng thi bng 0.
= 2
Ta gii h phng trnh
[A 2.I]
_
_
x
1
x
2
.
.
.
x
n
_
_
=
_
_
0
0
.
.
.
0
_
_
_
_
2 1 1 0
1 2 1 0
1 1 2 0
_
_
h
1
h
3
_
_
1 1 2 0
1 2 1 0
2 1 1 0
_
_
h
2
h
1
+h
2
h
3
2h
1
+h
3
_
_
1 1 2 0
0 3 3 0
0 3 3 0
_
_
h
3
h
2
+h
3
_
_
1 1 2 0
0 3 3 0
0 0 0 0
_
_
H phng trnh c v s nghim ph thuc 1 tham s
_
_
x
1
= x
2
+ 2x
3
= c
x
2
= x
3
= c
x
3
= c
ng vi gi tr ring = 2 ta c cc vect ring (c, c, c) vi c R v c ,= 0
4.4.2 Vect ring v gi tr ring ca ton t tuyn tnh
nh x tuyn tnh f : V V gi l ton t tuyn tnh trn V
4.4. GI TR RING, VECT RING CA MA TRN, NH X TUYN TNH
nh ngha: Cho f : V V l ton t tuyn tnh. K gi l gi tr ring ca f nu
tn ti vect x V (x ,= 0) sao cho f(x) = x.
Khi ta ni x l mt vect ring ca f i vi gi tr ring .
Nu l gi tr ring ca f th ta k hiu
E() = x V [f(x) = x
Ta chng minh c rng E() l mt khng gian vect con ca V .
Tp E() 0 l tp tt c cc gi tr ring ca f ng vi gi tr ring
Nhn xt: Gi s ton t tuyn tnh f trn V (dimV = n) c ma trn l A trong c
s B no ca V . T cng thc
[f(x)]
B
= A.[x]
B
v cc nh ngha ca vect ring v gi tr ring ca ma trn v ton t tuyn tnh, ta
c:
1. K l gi tr ring ca f l gi tr ring ca A.
2. Nu [u]
B
=
_
_
x
1
x
2

x
n
_
_
th u l vect ring ca f ng vi gi tr ring khi v ch khi
x = (x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
) l vect ring ca A ng vi gi tr ring .
Nh vy, bi ton tm gi tr ring v vect ring ca ton t tuyn tnh f tng ng
vi vic tm gi tr ring v vect ring ca ma trn ca n trong mt c s no .
Cch tm gi tr ring v vect ring ca ton t tuyn tnh Cho f : V V l
mt ton t tuyn tnh.
B = e
1
, e
2
, . . . , e
n
l mt c s bt k ca V .
A = A
f/
B
l ma trn ca ton t tuyn tnh f trong c s B
Gi s u l vect ring ca f ng vi gi tr ring , khi ta c
f(u) = u
vi [u]
B
=
_
_
x
1
x
2
.
.
.
x
n
_
_
(ta ca u i vi c s B). Do [f(u)]
B
=
_
_
x
1
x
2
.
.
.
x
n
_
_
Hay
[f(x)]
B
= A.[u]
B
_
x
1
x
2
.
.
.
x
n
_
_
= A.
_
_
x
1
x
2
.
.
.
x
n
_
_
Ta c (x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
) l vect ring ca ma trn A ng vi gi tr ring ca A
l gi tr ring ca f l gi tr ring ca A
(x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
) l vect ring ca ma trn A ng vi gi tr ring u = x
1
e
1
+
x
2
e
2
+ +x
n
e
n
l vect ring ca f ng vi gi tr ring
4.5 Cho ha ma trn, cho ha nh x tuyn tnh
4.5.1 iu kin cho ha
nh ngha: Cho php bin i tuyn tnh f : V V , f gi l cho ha c nu tn
ti mt c s B sao cho A
f/
B
l ma trn cho.
Cho ha php bin i tuyn tnh f tc l tm c s B sao cho ma trn A
f/
B
l ma
trn cho.
nh ngha: Cho A, B l cc ma trn vung cp n. Ma trn A ng dng vi ma trn
B nu tn ti ma trn C vung cp n khng suy bin sao cho B = C
1
.A.C
Hai ma trn ng dng th c cng a thc c trng.
nh ngha: Cho ma trn vung A cp n. Ma trn A gi l cho ha c nu A ng
dng vi ma trn cho. Tc l tn ti mt ma trn T sao cho T
1
AT l ma trn cho.
V d: Ma trn
_
4 2
1 1
_
cho ha c,
_
2 0
0 3
_
=
_
1 2
1 1
_
1
_
4 2
1 1
_ _
1 2
1 1
_
Khng phi mi ma trn u cho ha c. V d ma trn
N =
_
0 0
1 0
_
khng cho ha c. V nu N cho ha c tc l N ng dng vi ma trn cho
P = S.N.S
1
,= 0. Nhng P
2
= S.N.S
1
S.N.S
1
= S.N
2
.S
1
v P
2
,= 0 do mu
thun.
Nhn xt: Php bin i tuyn tnh f cho ha c khi v ch khi A
f/
B
cho ha
c.
nh l 30 Nu php bin i tuyn tnh f c n gi tr ring khc nhau tng i mt th
n c n vect ring c lp tuyn tnh
Chng minh. Gi s Ac n gi tr ring
1
,
2
, . . . ,
n
i mt khc nhau v
1
,
2
, . . . ,
n
l cc vect ring tng ng vi cc gi tr ring . Ta chng minh
1
,
2
, . . . ,
n
c
lp tuyn tnh .
Chng minh qui np theo n.
Khi n = 1, ta c
1
,= 0 do n c lp tuyn tnh.
Gi s nh l ng cho k 1 vect . Ta chng minh nh l ng cho trng hp k
vect . Gi s ta c
a
1
1
+a
2
2
+. . . +a
k
k
= 0
trong a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
k
K. Tc ng f vo 2 v ca ng thc ta c
a
1
f(
1
) +a
2
f(
2
) +. . . +a
k
f(
k
) = a
1
1
+a
2
2
+. . . +a
k
k
= 0
4.5. CHO HA MA TRN, CHO HA NH X TUYN TNH
Nhn
k
vo ng thc th nht ri tr cho ng thc th hai, ta c
a
1
(
1
k
)
1
+a
2
(
2
k
)
2
+. . . +a
k1
(
k1
k
)
k1
= 0
Theo gi thit qui np,
1
,
2
, . . . ,
k1
c lp tuyn tnh cho nn
a
1
(
1
k
) = a
2
(
2
k
) = . . . = a
k1
(
k1
k
) = 0
Do
i
k
,= 0, (i = 1, 2, . . . , k 1) nn
a
1
= a
2
= . . . = a
k1
= 0
Thay cc gi tr ny vo ng thc u tin ta c a
k
k
= 0. V vect ring khc khng
nn a
k
= 0.
Nh vy, a
1
= a
2
= . . . = a
k1
= a
k
= 0 hay
1
,
2
, . . . ,
n
c lp tuyn tnh .
H qu:
1. Nu dimV = n v php bin i tuyn tnh f : V V c n gi tr ring i mt
khc nhau th f cho ha c.
2. Nu ma trn vung A cp n c n gi tr ring i mt khc nhau th A cho ha
c.
Chng minh. Gi
1
,
2
, . . . ,
n
l cc vect ring ng vi n gi tr ring i mt khc
nhau ca f. Theo nh l trn th h vect ny c lp tuyn tnh . V dimV ng bng
s vect c lp tuyn tnh nn h ny l c s ca V . Nh vy f v ma trn ca n trong
c s bt k ca V cho ha c.
nh l 31 Ma trn vung A cp n cho ha c nu v ch nu hai iu kin sau c
tha mn;
(i) a thc c trng ca A c n nghim (k c cc bi) trong K.
P
A
() = (1)
n
(
1
)
k
1
(
2
)
k
2
. . . (
s
)
k
s
trong
1
,
2
, . . . ,
s
l cc gi tr ring i mt khc nhau v k
1
+k
2
+. . . +k
s
= n
(ii) rank[A
i
I] = n k
i
4.5.2 Cch cho ha ma trn v php bin i tuyn tnh
Cho ha ma trn: cho ha ma trn A cp n ta lm nh sau:
1. Tm P
A
(), gii phng trnh P
A
() = 0 tm cc nghim l tt c cc gi tr ring
ca A.
Gi s ta c cc gi tr ring
1
,
2
, . . . ,
k
. Ta k hiu m
i
l s bi ca
i
(tc l
nu
1
l nghim kp th m
1
= 2, nu
j
l nghim bi 3 th m
j
= 3)
Nu m
1
+m
2
+ +m
k
< n th ma trn A khng cho ha c
Nu m
1
+m
2
+ +m
k
= n th sang bc tip theo.
2. Tm cc vect ring c lp tuyn tnh.
Vi mi i ta gii h phng trnh
[A
i
I]
_
_
x
1
x
2
.
.
.
x
n
_
_
= 0 ()
Vi mi gi tr 1 i k, h phng trnh c v s nghim v ph thuc m
i
tham
s th ma trn A cho ha c. Ngc li th khng cho ha c
Vi mi gi tr i, chn ra m
i
vect l h nghim c bn ca () l cc vect ring
ca A
Gp li ta c n vect ring c lp tuyn tnh ca A l a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
3. Lp ma trn T sao cho cc ct ca T ln lt l cc vect ring c lp tuyn tnh
a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
. Khi T
1
AT l ma trn cho c cc phn t trn ng cho chnh
l cc gi tr ring. (Nu ta xt cc gi tr ring theo th t
1
,
2
, . . . ,
k
th cc
phn t trn ng cho chnh cng theo th t
1
,
2
, . . . ,
k
)
V d: Cho ha ma trn
A =
_
_
15 18 16
9 12 8
4 4 6
_
_
Gii:
1. Tm a thc c trng P
A
()
P
A
() = det(A .I) =
15 18 16
9 12 8
4 4 6
=
3
3
2
+ 4 + 12
Gii phng trnh P
A
() = 0
3
3
2
+ 4 + 12 = 0
( + 3)( + 2)( 2) = 0
Vy ma trn A c cc vect ring l
1
= 3;
2
= 2; = 2
(theo nh l 30 th ma trn A c 3 gi tr ring khc nhau nn A cho ha c)
2. Tm cc vect ring c lp tuyn tnh
Vi
1
= 3 ta gii h phng trnh [A
1
I]X = 0
_
_
18 18 16 0
9 9 8 0
4 4 3 0
_
_
h
1
2h
2
+h
1
h
3
4
9
h
2
+h
3
_
_
0 0 0 0
9 9 8 0
0 0
5
9
0
_
_
H phng trnh c v s nghim ph thuc 1 tham s: x
3
= 0; x
2
= a; x
1
= a
Nghim tng qut ca h phng trnh (a, a, 0) vi a R
Nghim c bn ca h phng trnh l (1, 1, 0)
Chn 1 vect ring ca A ng vi gi tr ring
1
= 3 l a
1
= (1, 1, 0)
Vi
2
2
I]X = 0
_
_
17 18 16 0
9 10 8 0
4 4 4 0
_
_
h
1
2h
2
+h
1
_
_
1 2 0 0
9 10 8 0
4 4 4 0
_
_
h
2
9h
1
+h
2
h
3
4h
1
+h
3
_
_
1 2 0 0
0 8 8 0
0 4 4 0
_
_
h
2
2h
3
+h
2
_
_
1 2 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 4 4 0
_
_
3
= b; x
2
= b; x
1
=
2x
2
= 2b
Nghim tng qut ca h phng trnh (2b, b, b) vi b R
2
= 2 l a
2
= (2, 1, 1)
Vi
3
3
I]X = 0
_
_
13 18 16 0
9 14 8 0
4 4 8 0
_
_
h
1
3h
3
+h
1
_
_
1 6 8 0
9 14 8 0
4 4 8 0
_
_
h
2
9h
1
+h
2
h
3
4h
1
+h
3
_
_
1 6 8 0
0 40 80 0
0 20 40 0
_
_
h
2
2h
3
+h
2
_
_
1 6 8 0
0 0 0 0
0 20 40 0
_
_
3
= c; x
2
= 2x
3
=
2c; x
1
= 6x
2
8x
3
= 4c
Nghim tng qut ca h phng trnh (4c, 2c, c) vi c R
3
= 2 l a
3
= (4, 2, 1)
3. Lp ma trn T (c cc ct l cc vect ring a
1
, a
2
, a
3
)
T =
_
_
1 2 4
1 1 2
0 1 1
_
_
Khi ta c ma trn cho T
1
AT =
_
_
3 0 0
0 2 0
0 0 2
_
_
Ch : Nu ta xt cc gi tr ring theo cc th t khc nhau th ta s c cc ma
trn T khc nhau, khi ma trn cho cng khc nhau. i vi v d pha trn ta xt
cc gi tr ring theo th t 3; 2; 2 th ta c ma trn cho c cc phn t trn ng
cho cng theo th t 3; 2; 2 ny. Nu ta xt theo th t
i
;
j
;
k
th ma trn cho
thu c c cc phn t nm trn ng cho cng theo th t
i
;
j
;
k
Cho ha php bin i tuyn tnh Cho php bin i tuyn tnh F : V V . Ly
B l mt c s bt k ca V v dimV = n, khi ta c ma trn ca nh x tuyn tnh
l A = A
f/
B
Ta tin hnh cho ha ma trn A
f/
B
. Nu A
f/
B
l ma trn cho ha c th ta c n
vect ring c lp tuyn tnh. Chn n vect ny lp thnh mt c s ca V , khi ma
trn ca php bin i tuyn tnh trong c s va lp c chnh l ma trn cho.
Bi tp
Bi 27. Trong cc nh x sau, nh x no l nh x tuyn tnh?
a. f : R
3
R
3
, f(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) = (2x
2
x
3
, x
1
+x
3
, 3x
1
+ 2x
2
)
b. f : R
3
R
3
, f(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) = (2x
1
+x
3
, x
1
, x
2
+ 2)
Bi 28. Cho nh x tuyn tnh f : R
2
R
3
xc nh bi
f(1, 2) = (3, 1, 5); f(0, 1) = (2, 1, 1)
Hy xc nh f(x, y)
Bi 29. Cho f : R
3
R
3
l nh x tuyn tnh xc nh nh sau:
f(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) = (x
1
, x
2
, 0)
Tm ma trn ca nh x trong c s chnh tc ca R
3
Bi 30. Cho f : R
2
R
2
l nh x tuyn tnh c tnh cht
f(1, 1) = (2, 0); f(0, 1) = (3, 1)
a. Tnh f(1, 0)
b. Tm ma trn ca f trong c s chnh tc ca R
2
Bi 31. Cho f : R
3
R
3
l nh x tuyn tnh c ma trn trong c s
U = u
1
= (1, 1, 1), u
2
= (1, 1, 0), u
3
= (1, 0, 0) l A =
_
_
8 4 2
4 2 1
0 0 0
_
_
Tm f(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
)
Bi 32. Cho f : R
3
R
3
l nh x tuyn tnh xc nh bi
f(1, 0, 0) = (1, 1, 1); f(1, 1, 0) = (2, 1, 0); f(0, 1, 1) = (2, 1, 3)
a. Hy xc nh f(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
)
b. Tm c s v s chiu ca kerf
Bi 33. Tm gi tr ring v vect ring ca ma trn
a. A =
_
5 1
1 3
_
b. A =
_
_
1 1 1
1 1 0
1 0 1
_
_
c. A =
_
_
3 1 1
2 4 2
1 1 3
_
_
Bi 34. Cho ma trn A =
_
1 4
2 3
_
a. Tm tr ring v cc vect ring ca A
b. Tm ma trn kh nghch S sao cho A cho ha c, tc l ma trn S
1
AS c dng
cho.
Bi 35. Tm ma trn kh nghch S lm cho ha c cc ma trn sau:
a. A =
_
1 2
2 3
_
b. A =
_
_
3 1 1
2 4 2
1 1 3
_
_
c. A =
_
_
0 1 0
1 0 1
0 1 0
_
_
Bi 36. Tnh A
10
vi
a. A =
_
1 2
2 3
_
b. A =
_
_
3 1 1
2 4 2
1 1 3
_
_
Bi 37. Cho f : R
3
R
3
l nh x tuyn tnh xc nh nh sau:
f(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) = (z
1
+x
2
+x
3
, 2x
2
+x
3
, 2x
2
+ 3x
3
)
Tm cc tr ring v vect ring ca f
Chng 5
Dng song tuyn tnh - Dng ton
phng
5.1 Cc khi nim c bn
5.1.1 Dng song tuyn tnh
Dng song tuyn tnh ca 2n bin x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
v y
1
, y
2
, . . . , y
n
l biu thc dng:
B = a
11
x
1
y
1
+a
12
x
1
y
2
+ +a
1n
x
1
y
n
+
+a
21
x
2
y
1
+a
22
x
2
y
2
+ +a
2n
x
2
y
n
+
+ +
+a
n1
x
n
y
1
+a
n2
x
n
y
2
+ +a
nn
x
n
y
n
Nh vy
B =
n
i=1
n
j=1
a
ij
x
i
y
j
V d: Dng song tuyn tnh ca 4 bin x
1
, x
2
, y
1
, y
2
nh sau:
f(x
1
, x
2
, y
1
, y
2
) = 2x
1
y
1
3x
1
y
2
2x
2
y
1
+x
2
y
2
5.1.2 Dng ton phng
Dng ton phng ca n bin x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
l biu thc dng:
f(x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
) = a
11
x
2
1
+a
12
x
1
x
2
+ +a
1n
x
1
x
n
+
+a
21
x
2
x
1
+a
22
x
2
2
+ +a
2n
x
2
x
n
+
+ +
a
n1
x
n
x
1
+a
n2
x
n
x
2
+ +a
nn
x
2
n
f(x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
) =
n
i=1
n
j=1
a
ij
x
i
x
j
v a
ij
= a
ji
T cc h s trong dng ton phng ta lp c ma trn
A =
_
_
a
11
a
12
. . . a
1n
a
21
a
22
. . . a
2n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
n1
a
n2
. . . a
nn
_
_
63
5.2. A DNG TON PHNG V DNG CHNH TC
Ma trn A c gi l ma trn ca dng ton phng f(x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
). Ma trn ca
dng ton phng l ma trn i xng (a
ij
= a
ji
).
V d: f(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) = x
2
1
+2x
2
2
+3x
2
3
8x
1
x
2
4x
1
x
3
6x
2
x
3
l mt dng ton phng.
Ta c th vit li nh sau: f(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) = x
2
1
4x
1
x
2
2x
1
x
3
4x
2
x
1
+2x
2
2
3x
2
x
3
2x
3
x
1
3x
3
x
2
+ 3x
2
3
A =
_
_
1 4 2
4 2 3
2 3 3
_
_
Ta t X =
_
_
x
1
x
2
.
.
.
x
n
_
_
Khi dng ton phng c th c vit li nh sau f(X) = X
T
AX
5.1.3 Dng chnh tc
Dng ton phng c gi l dng chnh tc nu n c dng
f(x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
) = a
1
x
2
1
+a
2
x
2
2
+ +a
n
x
2
n
(tc l f ch gm cc bnh phng)
Nhn xt Ma trn ca dng chnh tc l ma trn cho
5.1.4 Php i bin s
Cho cc bin x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
v cc bin y
1
, y
2
, . . . , y
n
. Php bin i cc bin s x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
ti cc bin s y
1
, y
2
, . . . , y
n
nu ta c
_
_
x
1
= s
11
y
1
+s
12
y
2
+ +s
1n
y
n
x
2
= s
21
y
1
+s
22
y
2
+ +s
2n
y
n
.....................................
x
n
= s
n1
y
1
+s
n2
y
2
+ +s
nn
y
n
Ma trn cc h s
P =
_
_
s
11
s
12
. . . s
1n
s
21
s
22
. . . s
2n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
s
n1
s
n2
. . . s
nn
_
_
gi l ma trn ca php bin i bin s cho.
Ta c X = PY
5.2 a dng ton phng v dng chnh tc
5.2.1 Phng php Lagrange
Cho dng ton phng
f(x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
) =
n
i=1
n
j=1
a
ij
x
i
x
j
()
CHNG 5. DNG SONG TUYN TNH - DNG TON PHNG
vi ma trn ca dng ton phng l
A =
_
_
a
11
a
12
. . . a
1n
a
21
a
22
. . . a
2n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
n1
a
n2
. . . a
nn
_
_
1. Nu dng ton phng () c cc tt c cc a
ii
= 0, i = 1, 2, . . . , n v c mt
a
ij
,= 0(i ,= j), ta c th gi s a
12
,= 0 th ta bin i nh sau:
_
_
x
1
= y
1
y
2
x
2
= y
1
+y
2
x
i
= y
i
, i = 2, 3, . . . , n
Khi ta a () v dng
f(y
1
, y
2
, . . . , y
n
) = a
12
(y
1
y
2
)(y
1
+y
2
)+a
21
(y
1
+y
2
)(y
1
y
2
)+ = 2a
12
y
2
1
2a
12
y
2
2
+
Nh vy dng ton phng (*) c h s bnh phng khc 0.
2. Nh vy ta c th gi s dng ton phng () c t nht 1 h s ca bnh
phng khc 0, chng hn a
11
,= 0
nh l 32 Tn ti mt php bin i bin s a dng ton phng v dng
chnh tc
V d 1: Dng phng php Lagrange a dng ton phng
f(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) = x
2
1
+ 2x
2
2
7x
2
3
4x
1
x
2
+ 8x
1
x
3
v dng chnh tc.
Ta c: f(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) = x
2
1
4x
1
(x
2
2x
3
) + 2x
2
2
7x
2
3
= [x
2
1
4x
1
(x
2
2x
3
) + 4(x
2
2x
3
)
2
] 4(x
2
2x
3
)
2
+ 2x
2
2
7x
2
3
= [x
1
2(x
2
2x
3
)]
2
4(x
2
2
4x
2
x
3
+ 4x
2
3
) + 2x
2
2
7x
2
3
= (x
1
2x
2
+ 4x
3
)
2
2x
2
2
+ 16x
2
x
3
23x
2
3
= (x
1
2x
2
+ 4x
3
)
2
2(x
2
2
8x
2
x
3
) 23x
2
3
= (x
1
2x
2
+ 4x
3
)
2
2(x
2
2
8x
2
x
3
+ 16x
2
3
) + 32x
2
3
23x
2
3
= (x
1
2x
2
+ 4x
3
)
2
2(x
2
2
4x
3
)
2
+ 9x
2
3
Vy dng php i bin
y
1
= x
1
2x
2
+ 4x
3
; y
2
= x
2
2
4x
3
; y
3
= x
3
hay x
1
= y
1
+ 2y
2
+ 4y
3
; x
2
= y
1
+y
2
+ 4y
3
, x
3
= y
3
Dng ton phng c a v dng chnh tc
f(y
1
, y
2
, y
3
) = y
2
1
2y
2
2
+ 9y
2
3
V d 2: a dng ton phng v dng chnh tc
Q(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) = 2x
1
x
2
+ 2x
1
x
3
6x
2
x
3
y khng c bnh phng no. Ta lm xut hin bnh phng bng cch i bin s
nh sau
_
_
x
1
= y
1
y
2
x
2
= y
1
+y
2
x
3
= y
3
v nh vy ta c ma trn i bin s P
1
=
_
_
1 1 0
1 1 0
0 0 1
_
_
v X = P
1
.Y
Khi
Q(y
1
, y
2
, y
3
) = 2(y
1
y
2
)(y
1
+y
2
) + 2(y
1
y
2
)y
3
6(y
1
+y
2
)y
3
= 2y
2
1
2y
2
2
4y
1
y
3
8y
2
y
3
Tip theo ta bin i nh sau
Q(y
1
, y
2
, y
3
) = 2y
2
1
2y
2
2
4y
1
y
3
8y
2
y
3
= 2y
2
1
4y
1
y
3
+ 2y
2
3
2y
2
2
8y
2
y
3
2y
2
3
= 2(y
1
y
3
)
2
2y
2
2
8y
2
y
3
8y
2
3
+ 8y
2
3
2y
2
3
= 2(y
1
y
3
)
2
2(y
2
2
+ 4y
2
y
3
+ 4y
2
3
) + 6y
2
3
= 2(y
1
y
3
)
2
2(y
2
+ 2y
3
)
2
+ 6y
2
3
Ta thc hin php i bin s nh sau
_
_
t
1
= y
1
y
3
t
2
= y
2
+ 2y
3
t
3
= y
3
_
y
1
= t
1
+t
3
y
2
= t
2
2t
3
y
3
= t
3
v ta c ma trn ca php i bin s l P
2
=
_
_
1 0 1
0 1 2
0 0 1
_
_
Y = P
2
.T
Ta c dng chnh tc ca dng ton phng l
Q(t
1
, t
2
, t
3
) = 2t
2
1
2t
2
2
+ 6t
2
3
vi ma trn i bin s l P = P
1
.P
2
=
_
_
1 1 3
1 1 1
0 0 1
_
_
Vy php i bin s t x
1
, x
2
, x
3
n t
1
, t
2
, t
3
l:
_
_
x
1
= t
1
t
2
+ 3t
3
x
2
= t
1
+t
2
t
3
x
3
= t
3
Ch : Dng chnh tc c th khc nhau do ta dng cc php i bin s khc nhau
Nu ta dng php i bin s
_
_
u
1
=
2t
1
u
2
=
2t
2
u
3
= t
3
hay
_
_
t
1
=
u
1
2
t
2
=
u
2
2
t
3
= u
3
th ta c dng chnh tc l
Q(u
1
, u
2
, u
3
) = u
2
1
u
2
2
+ 6u
2
3
5.2.2 Phng php Jacobi
p dng cho cc dng ton phng m ma trn A = (a
ij
) ca n tha:
1
= a
11
,= 0,
2
=
a
11
a
12
a
21
a
22
,= 0, ,
i
=
a
11
a
12
. . . a
1i
a
21
a
22
. . . a
2i
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
i1
a
i2
. . . a
ii
,= 0, ,
n
= [A[ , = 0()
nh l 33 Nu dng ton phng bc hai tha cc iu kin (**) th c php i bin
s x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
ti cc bin s y
1
, y
2
, . . . , y
n
a Q v dng chnh tc
Q(y
1
, y
2
, . . . , y
n
) =
1
y
2
1
+

2
1
y
2
2
+ +

n
n1
y
2
n
Vi php bin i bin s
_
_
x
1
= y
1
+
21
y
2
+
31
y
3
+ +
n1
y
n
x
2
= y
2
+
32
y
3
+ +
n2
y
n
................................
x
i
= y
i
+
(i+1)i
y
i+1
+
(i+2)i
y
i+1
+ +
ni
y
n
.................................
x
n
= y
n
( )
trong cc cc h s
ij
c tnh nh sau:
ji
= (1)
i+j
D
j1,i
j1
( )
D
j1,i
l nh thc con ca [A[ c lp trn giao ca cc dng 1, 2, . . . , j 1 v cc ct
th 1, 2, . . . , i 1, i + 1, . . . , j
V d: a dng ton phng
Q(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) = 2x
2
1
2x
2
2
4x
1
x
3
8x
2
x
3
v dng chnh tc bng phng php Jacobi
Gii:
Ta c ma trn ca dng ton phng l:
A =
_
_
2 0 2
0 2 4
2 4 0
_
_
Trc ht ta c:
1
= 2 ,= 0,
2
=
2 0
0 2
= 4 ,= 0,
3
= detA = 24 ,= 0
Ta thc hin php i bin s
_
_
x
1
= y
1
+
21
y
2
+
31
y
3
x
2
= y
2
+
32
y
3
x
3
= y
3
trong
21
= (1)
2+1
D
21,1
21
=
D
1,1
1
=
0
2
= 0
(D
1,1
l giao ca hng 1 v ct 2; giao ca 1 hng v 1 ct)
31
= (1)
3+1
D
31,1
31
=
D
2,1
2
=
0 2
2 4
4
= 1
(D
2,1
l giao ca dng 1,2 v ct 2,3; giao ca 2 hng v 2 ct)
32
= (1)
3
+ 2
D
31,2
31
=
D
2,2
2
=
2 2
0 4
4
= 2
(D
2,2
l giao ca dng 1,2 v ct 1,3; giao ca 2 hng v 2 ct)
Nh vy php i bin s l
_
_
x
1
= y
1
+ 0y
2
+ 1y
3
x
2
= y
2
2y
3
x
3
= y
3
Ta a dng ton phng Q(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) = 2x
2
1
2x
2
2
4x
1
x
3
8x
2
x
3
v dng chnh
tc nh sau:
Q(y
1
, y
2
, y
3
) = 2y
2
1
2y
2
2
+ 6y
2
3
5.2.3 Lut qun tnh
Lut qun tnh Mt dng ton phng c th a v dng chnh tc bng nhiu cch
khc nhau. Tuy nhin ngi ta chng minh c nh l sau y gi l lut qun tnh ca
dng ton phng
nh l 34 Nu mt dng ton phng c a v dng chnh tc bng nhiu cch khc
nhau th cc h s dng v cc h s m trong dng chnh tc ca chng l nh nhau
ch khc nhau v cch sp xp
Dng ton phng xc nh dng Dng ton phng trn tp s thc f(x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
)
l xc nh dng khi v ch khi dng chnh tc ca n l:
f = a
1
y
2
1
+a
2
y
2
2
+ +a
n
y
2
n
vi a
i
> 0 vi i = 1, 2, . . . , n
nh l 35 (nh l Sylvester) Dng ton phng trn tp s thc f(x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
) l
xc nh dng khi v ch khi tt c cc
i
> 0, i = 1, 2, . . . , n
Bi tp
Bi 38. Tm ma trn ca cc dng ton phng sau
a. f(x
1
, x
2
) = 3x
2
1
+ 4x
1
x
2
5x
2
2
b. f(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) = x
2
1
2x
1
x
3
+ 4x
2
x
3
+ 3x
2
2
9x
2
3
Bi 39. Dng phng php Lagrange, tm php bin i tuyn tnh a dng ton
phng v dng chnh tc:
a. f(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) = 2x
2
1
+ 3x
2
2
+ 4x
2
3
2x
1
x
2
+ 4x
1
x
3
3x
2
x
3
b. f(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) = x
1
x
2
+x
2
x
3
+x
1
x
3
Bi 40. Dng phng php Jacobi a cc dng ton phng sau v dng chnh tc
a. f(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) = 3x
2
1
+ 4x
1
x
2
2x
1
x
3
+ 2x
2
2
2x
2
x
3
+ 6x
2
3
b. f(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) = x
2
1
+ 5x
2
2
+ 2x
2
3
+ 4x
1
x
2
+ 2x
1
x
3
+ 4x
2
x
3
Bi 41. Cho dng ton phng:
f(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) = 5x
2
1
+x
2
2
+mx
2
3
+ 4x
1
x
2
2x
1
x
3
2x
2
x
3
Vi gi tr no ca m th dng ton phng trn xc nh dng?
Ti liu tham kho
[1] Ng Thu Lng, Nguyn Minh Hng. Bi tp ton cao cp 2 (i s tuyn tnh).
NXBHQG TP. H Ch Minh, 2000
[2] Nguyn nh Tr (cb), T Vn nh, Nguyn H Qunh. Ton hc cao cp tp 1
(i s v hnh hc gii tch), NXB Gio dc, 1998
[3] Trn Lu Cng (cb), Nguyn nh Huy, Hunh B Ln, Nguyn B Thi, Nguyn
Quc Ln, ng Vn Vinh. Ton cao cp 2 - i s tuyn tnh, NXB Gio Dc, 2007
[4] Trn Vn Ho. i s tuyn tnh dng trong kinh t. NXB Khoa hc v k thut,
1997
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I S TUYN TNH

Ngy 4 thng 3 nm 2012

) trn trng K (K l R hay C) l mt bng gm mn s

Ma trn khng nu mi phn t ca n u bng 0.

Ta thy, ct th 3 c nhiu s 0, v vy ta c th khai trin theo ct th 3 tnh n

Nu trong mt nh thc c hai dng (hoc 2 ct) t l th nh thc bng 0.

nh thc c ct (hng) th k c dng

c 9 nh thc con cp 1, 9 nh thc con cp 2 v 1 nh thc con cp 3.

Bi ging I S TUYN TNH 11

l nh thc con b ca nh thc con M

V d: Cho D l nh thc cp 5. Phn b i s ca ca nh thc con

nh l 2 (nh l Laplace) Nu trong mt nh thc D ta ly ra k dng (hoc k ct),

Gii: Theo nh l Laplace, ta s khai trin nh thc theo 2 dng u tin. C tt c

1.3 Ma trn nghch o

Bi ging I S TUYN TNH 17

Bi 5. Tm ma trn nghch o (nu c) ca cc ma trn sau:

5. K hiu x + (y) = x y, ta c (mn)x = mx nx v m(x y) = mx my

V d: Trong R-khng gian vect R

nh l 17 Giao ca mt h ty cc khng gian vect con ca V l mt khng gian

3.5.2 Bao tuyn tnh ca mt h vect

2. Mi h con c lp tuyn tnh ti i ca cc vect a

= (2, 1, 1), (3, 2, 5), (1, 1, m)

c. Tm ta ca vect a = (1, 0, 0) i vi 2 c s trn.

nh l 20 Cho f : U V l mt nh x tuyn tnh, M = x

nh l 21 nh x tuyn tnh khng lm tng hng ca mt h vect

Theo nh l 21 (nh x tuyn tnh khng lm tng hng ca mt h vect ) ta c

nh l 26 Cho U, V l cc K-khng gian vect v nh x tuyn tnh f : U V . Khi

4.3.2 Biu thc ta ca nh x tuyn tnh

vi ma trn ca f trong cp c s B, C nh sau:

Nu f : V V l php bin i tuyn tnh v B = e

4.4 Gi tr ring, vect ring ca ma trn, nh x

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