SIU HNH HC

TOMAS ALVIRA LUIS CLAVELL TOMAS MELENDO

Nguyn tc (ting Ty Ban Nha): METAFISICA do Tomas Alvira, Luis Clavell, Tomas Melendo 1981 Bn ting Anh METAPHYSICS do Fr. Luis Supan 1991 Bn ting Vit SIU HNH HC (dch t bn ting Anh) do Fr. Ngc Bo, O.P 2008

LI NI U Trong hai thp nin gn y, mt s lng ln nhng tc phm trit hc n hnh u l nhng chuyn kho v nhng kho lun, m tt nht nn coi nh sch s k v phn loi. Km theo hin tng ny l chuyn suy gim vic n hnh v s dng nhng tc phm trit hc c tm mc tng qut hn, v d nhng sch gio khoa. iu ny c th l do nhng thay i th hiu ca c gi ng i gi y dng nh h cn c thot khi li tip cn h thng qu mc v hc thut qu cao ca nhiu sch gio khoa trit hc. Mt khc, khuynh hng mun chuyn ha v mun th c li hiu mang m tnh lch s cng nh suy t v cc vn trit hc khin chng ta l l vi mt cng tc quan trng, l cung ng cho nhng ai mun i vo lnh vc trit hc mt kin thc c bn c th c dng nh nn tng cho mt s hp th phc li nhiu nghin cu chuyn su. Quyn sch ny l mt bn gio khoa v trit hc c bn, l Siu hnh hc khoa hc v hu th, nh vn lun c hiu k t thi Permenides, Plato, Aristotle, v Thnh Thomas Aquinas cho n ngy nay. Siu hnh hc c bit c gi tr trong thi chng ta nh trit hc khai m n s siu vit ca hu th sau nhiu th k b hn ch do ch quan. Nhng nghin cu ng i v hin tng lun, hin sinh, v trit hc phn tch, thm mt ln na lm dy ln nhng vn lin quan n hu th. Mc tiu ca chng ti l trnh by cho c gi nhng nguyn tc siu hnh mt cch sng t v th t. Do , c gi c th gii quyt nhng vn trit hc nng bng m con ngi thi i chng ta phi i mt. T. ALVIRA L. CLAVELL T. MELENDO

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LI NI U DN NHP I. BN CHT SIU HNH HC 1. 2. 3. 4. Khi nim Siu hnh hc Siu hnh hc nh Khoa hc v Hu th xt nh Hu th Siu hnh hc v Tri thc Nhn loi Siu hnh hc Lin quan th no n c tin v Thn hc II. HU TH KHI IM CA SIU HNH HC 1. 2. 3. 4. Khi nim Hu th Yu tnh Cch thc Hin hu ca S vt Vic Hin hu (Esse) Vic Hin hu xt nh Hin th Mnh lit nht

5. ngha ca Esse nh ng t ni trong mt cu 6. Cc c tnh ca khi nim hu th III. NGUYN L BT-MU THUN 1. 2. 3. 4. Nguyn l u tin v Hu th Nhng ng li Din t Nguyn l Bt- Mu thun Tri thc Qui np v Nguyn l u tin S Hin nhin ca Nguyn l ny v li Bo v n nh lun chng i Nhn 5. Vai tr ca Nguyn l u tin trong Siu hnh hc 6. Nhng Nguyn l S yu khc t c s trn Nguyn l Bt-Mu thun PHN I: CU TRC SIU HNH CA HU TH I. BN TH V PH TH 1. 2. 3. 4. Bn cht Bn th v cc Ph th Vic Hin hu thuc v Bn th Phc hp Bn th v Ph th Tri thc ca ta v Bn th v Ph th II. CC PHM TR 1. 2. 3. 4. Khi nim v cc Phm tr Phn loi chn ging ti cao Phm cht Tng quan III. CU TRC HIN TH TIM NNG CA HU TH 1. 2. 3. 4. Khi nim v Hin th v Tim nng Nhng loi Hin th v Tim nng Tnh u tin ca Hin th Tng quan gia Hin th v Tim nng xt nh nhng nguyn l cu to ca Hu th 5. Vin tng Siu hnh hc v Hin th v Tim nng

6. Phm vi siu hnh ca hin th v tim nng IV. YU TNH CA MT HU TH 1. Yu tnh: cch thc hin hu ca mt bn th 2. Yu tnh ca nhng hu th vt cht 3. Yu tnh ca nhng bn th thing ling V. NGUYN L C VT HA 1. Yu tnh ca nhng hu th ch tn ti ni mi c th 2. Vic tng bi yu tnh ni nhng c vt 3. Vic n l ha yu tnh 4. Vic c vt ha cc ph th v cc bn th thing ling VI. ESSE: HIN TH TI HU CA MT BN TH 1. 2. 3. 4. Vic Hin hu l nn tng ti hu ca mi thc ti ESSE v Yu tnh phn bit nhau thc s Phc hp Yu tnh Hin hu l cu trc c bn ca nhng vt th to ESSE, xt nh Hin th, l trng tm ca Siu hnh hc Thomas VII. CH TH HIN HU C LP 1. 2. 3. 4. Khi nim v Ch th Hin hu c lp Phn bit gia Bn cht v Suppositum Vic Hin hu thuc v Suppositum Ngi v PHN II. CC SIU NGHIM I. NHNG KHA CNH SIU NGHIM CA HU TH 1. 2. 3. 4. Khi nim Siu nghim v cc Phm tr Nhng kha cnh Siu nghim ca Hu th Hu th: nn tng ca nhng c im Siu nghim Hu th v nhng c im ca n u mang tnh loi suy II. TNH N NHT CA HU TH 1. 2. 3. 4. Tnh n nht Siu nghim Nhng th loi v nhng cp ca tnh n nht Tnh a bi Nhng khi nim ny sinh t tnh n nht, v nhng khi nim i lp vi tnh n nht 5. Aliquid (another or something) III. CHN L 1. Hu th v Chn l 2. Chn l l c im siu nghim ca Hu th 3. Chn l ni tr nng con ngi IV. THIN HO 1. Bn cht ca Thin ho 2. Thin ho v Hon b 3. Thin ho v Gi tr V. CI P 1. Bn cht Ci p 2. V p v Hon b 3. Nhng cp ca V p

4. Con ngi Tri gic V p PHN III. CN NGUYN TNH I. NHN THC V TNH NHN QU CH THC 1. Kinh nghim v tnh Nhn qu 2. Nguyn l Nhn qu II. BN CHT CA CN NGUYN TNH V CC LOI CN NGUYN 1. Bn cht ca Cn nguyn tnh 2. Cn nguyn, Nguyn l, iu kin v C hi 3. Nhng loi Cn nguyn tnh III. CN NGUYN CHT LIU V CN NGUYN HNH TH 1. Bn cht Cn nguyn Cht liu 2. Cn nguyn Hnh th 3. Tng quan gia Cn nguyn Cht liu v Cn nguyn Hnh th IV. NHNG CN NGUYN TC THNH 1. Bn cht Cn nguyn Tc thnh 2. Nhng loi Cn nguyn Tc thnh V. HOT NG XT NH HIN TH CA CN NGUYN TNH TC THNH 1. Bn cht ca Hot ng 2. Nn tng ca Hot ng 3. Nhng nng lc tc ng xt nh nhng nguyn l gn cho hot ng VI. CN NGUYN CU CNH 1. 2. 3. 4. Bn cht Cn nguyn Cu cnh Nhng loi Cn nguyn Cu cnh Nguyn l v Cu cnh tnh Mc ch l Cn nguyn cho nhng cn nguyn khc VII. Cn nguyn tnh ni Thin Cha v Cn nguyn tnh ni Th to 1. Nhng gii hn ni Cn nguyn tnh Th to 2. Nhng c trng ca Cn nguyn tnh ni Cn nguyn nht 3. Tng quan gia Cn nguyn nht v nhng Cn nguyn nh

DN NHP: I. BN CHT SIU HNH HC

Con ngi lun ngc nhin v ngun gc v tr. Con ngi lm vic lin tc, i tm mt s gii thch v v tr mt th gii thch gi c l ti hu v ph qut, hoc bao trm tt c. Qua dng lch s, khai sinh nhiu trng phi. Mt s trng phi coi nn tng c bn ca thc ti chnh l mt yu t c th gn lin vi thc ti , v d vt cht, tinh thn, t tng hay chuyn ng, v nh vy cng c ngha rng mi s trong v tr u ny sinh t yu t . S khc li tha nhn s hin hu ca mt Nguyn L siu vit, vn lm nn v tr m khng phi l thnh phn ca v tr. Mt s nh t tng li cp n s hin din ca mt ngun gc v tr, ang khi nhng ngi khc li cho rng v tr n t hai hoc nhiu ngun. Nhng vn trn khng thun ty l suy l; tri li, chng nh hng rt nhiu ln i sng con ngi. V ng nhin c s khc bit gia mt bn l ngi tin rng mi s k c chnh anh ta pht sinh t vt cht l v quay v vi vt cht v bn kia l ngi tin rng mnh c Thin Cha to dng, Ngi a anh ta t h v sang hin hu. Khi u, vic nghin cu nhng vn trn to nn mt b tri thc gi l trit l, minh trit, hoc khoa hc. Sau ny, trnh ln ln vi nhiu khoa hc c th khc, khoa hc ni trn c gi l Siu hnh hc. 1. KHI NIM SIU HNH HC Ta c th nh ngha Siu hnh hc l vic nghin cu cn nguyn ti hu, nhng nguyn l u tin v ph qut nht ca thc ti. a. Cn nguyn ti hu khc bit vi nhng cn nguyn gn. V d, vic tng p sut khng kh l cn nguyn cho vic thay i kh hu; qu tim l c quan khin cho mu lu thng. Vic nghin cu nhng cn nguyn ni trn thuc v nhng khoa hc c th. Tri li, nhng cn nguyn ti hu c nh hng trn mt khung cnh, v d nh mt nh lnh o chnh tr nh hng ln ton th t nc ca ng, hay c mun ca mt con ngi i tm hnh phc i vi ton th hot ng nhn linh ca anh ta. Khoa Siu hnh hc xt n cn nguyn ti hu tuyt i ca v tr. N c gng tm ra cn nguyn , nghin cu v bn cht v hot ng ca cn nguyn ni trn, v v Thin Cha l cn nguyn ti hu ca mi s, nn hin nhin Ngi cng l ch chnh yu ca Siu hnh hc. b. Siu hnh hc cng nghin cu nhng nguyn l u tin v ph qut nht ca thc ti. Bn cnh nhng cn nguyn nh hng ln nhng hiu qu ca chng bn ngoi, cn c nhng yu t ni ti ni chnh cc hiu qu, kin to nn chng v nh hng n cch thc hin hu v hot ng ca chng. Cc yu t thng c gi l cc nguyn l; chng hn, nhng nguyn t l cc nguyn l nht nh cho phn t, xc nh bn cht v nhng c im ca cc phn t; ni cc sinh th, cc t bo hot ng nh nhng nguyn l cho c th. Nhng Siu hnh hc i tm nhng nguyn l u tin v ph qut nht, tc l nhng nguyn l m v c bn to nn mi s. Bt c ai xt mt iu g nh nguyn l ni ti u tin ca mi s, ngi cp n lnh vc siu hnh. 2. SIU HNH HC NH KHOA HC V HU TH XT NH HU TH Mi khoa hc u c i tng nghin cu ring vn l mt kha cnh ca thc ti m n lu n. Chng hn, sinh vt hc nghin cu th gii cc sinh th, ton hc nghin cu nhng kha cnh lng tnh ca s vt. Ta cn phn bit i tng cht liu (material object) vi i tng hnh th (formal object) ca mt khoa hc; iu trc c coi l ch ca mt khoa hc v n l tng s nhng g c nghin cu, ang khi iu sau l kha cnh ca i tng cht liu m khoa hc ch n. Chng hn i tng cht liu ca sinh hc l tt c mi sinh th, nhng i tng hnh th ca n li gii hn i tng nghin cu, v khoa hc ny ch din tin vic nghin cu t khi im l s sng. Tng t th, i tng cht liu ca y hc l c th con ngi, nhng i tng hnh th ca n l c th con ngi trong mc l ch th ca sc khe hoc bnh tt. Siu hnh hc nghin cu hu th xt nh hu th, nhng c im v cn nguyn ca hu th

Cc khoa hc c th c i tng nghin cu l mt s kha cnh chuyn bit ca thc ti. Tuy nhin, cn c mt khoa hc no khc nghin cu ton b thc ti bng cch ch trng n kha cnh chung nht ca mi s: l, mi s u hin hu, n l thc. Kha cnh chung c gi thit bi bt c loi tri gic c th no. Chng hn khi mt nh thc vt hc nghin cu v xp loi cc loi, ng ta bit rng c nhng cy, bit rng chng l nhng hu th; khi nim hu th hin n trc bt c khi nim v mt loi thc vt no. Ta cn gii thch vic nh sau: i) Hu th: y l mt thut ng siu hnh tng ng vi iu c gi l s vt (thing) trong ngn ng thng thng. Hu th m ch th g c, hay mt iu g c vic hin hu (hin th hin hu = act of being). Mt cy l mt hu th, ging nh mt con chim, mt ngi, mt vin kim cng u l hu th; nhng ang khi t ng con chim ni n mt bn cht c th hay mt cch thc hin hu, th hu th li din t s kin l c con chim (Ens, L.t Being). ii) Xt nh hu th: trong cun gii thch sch Siu hnh hc ca Aristotle, Thnh Thomas Aquinas ni: Nhng khoa hc khc, vn lin h n nhng hu th c th, cng xt n hu th (v mi i tng nghin cu ca cc khoa hc cng u l hu th); tuy nhin, chng khng nghin cu hu th xt nh hu th, m ch nh mt loi hu th c th no , v d, con s hay hng k, ngn la hay th g tng t1. V th, c th ni rng i tng cht liu (i tng chung) ca Siu hnh hc l thc ti trong ton tnh ca n, v mi s vt, bt k bn tnh ra sao u l hu th. Mt khc, i tng hnh th (i tng ring) ca n l hu th xt nh hu th (being as being) hoc hu th xt nguyn n l th (being as such). Ni rng i tng cht liu ca Siu hnh hc bao gm tt c thc ti, khng c ngha rng Siu hnh hc l tng s cc khoa hc c th khc bit nhau. cng khng phi l s tng hp mi khoa hc c th (nh ch trng ca mt s trit gia phi thc chng lun) (positivist philosophers). Siu hnh hc l mt khoa hc ring bit, v n nghin cu mt kha cnh c th ca thc ti ph hp vi Siu hnh hc, ng thi cng c cc khoa hc khc gi thit l s hin hu ca cc s vt. iii) c im v cn nguyn ca hu th: Khi chn i tng nghin cu, mi khoa hc phi nghin cu nhng c tnh ca i tng v tt c nhng g lin quan ti i tng bt c cch no. ang khi mn vt l nghin cu kt qu ca nhng c im vt l ni vt th, chng hn nh khi lng hoc nng lng ca chng, th Siu hnh hc nghin cu nhng c im ca hu th theo mc chng l nhng hu th. Vy cng vic ca Siu hnh hc cng cn l khm ph nhng kha cnh ca hu th xt nguyn n l th (being as such) (v d, chn l), cng nh nhng kha cnh khng thuc v hu th xt nh hu th (chng hn vt cht hay bn cht vt th). Hn na, bt c khoa hc no cng u nghin cu mt loi cc s vt ring bit v nhng cn nguyn ring ca chng, v tri thc khng th hon b tr phi nm bt c nhng cn nguyn. Do Siu hnh hc phi nghin cu cn nguyn ca mi hu th trong mc chng l hu th: iu ny l mt trong nhng phm vi chnh ca Siu hnh hc khi nghin cu i tng ring ca mnh. Cng nh y khoa nghin cu nhng cn nguyn v sc khe th l (v d vic dinh dng, kh hu, v sinh), th Siu hnh hc dn chng ta n cn nguyn vic hin hu ni mi s vt tc l Thng , xt nh ng To Ha. Mt khi tin b trong vic hiu bit nhng vn siu hnh khc nhau, chng ta s cng thy r l nhng c im c bn nht ca th gii thc t l thuc vo chn l nn tng ny l mi vt u hin hu: rng chng l nhng hu th. Vic hin hu l c im nn tng nht ca mi s vt, v mi hon b hay c tnh ca chng, trc khi l mt iu g, th trc ht phi hin hu . y l iu kin s yu m mi vt u phi l thuc vo. V Siu hnh hc l khoa hc i tm yu t cn bn nht ca thc ti, nn nht thit n phi nhm n vic hin hu nh i tng nghin cu nn tng ca mnh. Mt vi trng phi t tng trit hc chn nhng kha cnh khc ca thc ti nh i tng ca Siu hnh hc. Chng hn, thuyt duy sinh (vitalism) coi s sng l i tng; thuyt hin sinh (existentialism) li coi l cuc hin sinh ca con ngi; thuyt duy tm (idealism) coi l t tng con ngi; thuyt duy s (historicism) li coi l tin b ca lch s. Kant ch trng cc iu kin ca tri thc khoa hc nh i tng trit hc ca ng (criticism). Tuy nhin, tt c nhng trit gia ny khng bao gi trnh khi c vic nghin cu v hu th; iu h lm l gii hn hu th vo mt i tng c th v hn ch no . Ngun gc lch s ca khoa hc v hu th K t thi cc trit gia u tin, khoa hc v hu th c hiu nh mt tri thc ph qut c mc tiu l khm ph nhng yu t s yu (primary elements) ca thc ti. Tuy nhin, yu t ny lun c ng ha vi mt yu t vt cht no (nh la, kh hoc nc), cho n khi Parmenides ln u tin

ni n hu th nh kha cnh nn tng ca thc ti. ng ni: hu th th hin hu v v th th khng hin hu, l cch thc thuyt phc (v n i theo Chn L) (Fr. II. V.3). Tuy khng hon ton coi thng hc thuyt ca Parmenides, cc trit gia v sau li ch n nhng kha cnh trit l khc. Tuy nhin, khi Aristotle vo cuc, th hu th u tin tr thnh i tng ca khoa Siu hnh hc. Nhng danh hiu gn cho khoa Siu hnh hc Siu hnh hc c gn nhiu danh xng, ty theo nhng kha cnh m ngi ta mun nhn mnh. Aristotle gi l nht Trit hc, v n nghin cu nhng cn nguyn v nguyn l u tin ca thc ti. Danh xng ny din t xc ng a v trung tm ca Siu hnh hc trong trit hc, v n cng khin cho Siu hnh hc khc bit vi nhng ngnh tri thc khc m Aristotle gi l nh Trit hc. Siu hnh hc l nht khng phi v n c sm v mt bin nin. N l nht bi v c tnh u tin ng nhin trong trit hc xt nh ton khi, v trong tng quan vi nhng khoa hc khc. Danh xng bn ngn ng Ty phng Metaphysics (m c ch c ngha l vt qu Vt l (Physics) c Andronicus ngi x Rhodes ghp vo ni n nhng tc phm ca Aristotle v nht Trit hc, v n c xp sau cun sch ca Aristotle v vt l. Danh xng din t ng mc bn cht ca khoa hc ny, v n vt qua khung cnh thc ti vt cht c nghin cu trong khoa vt l. Sang th k XVII, Christian Wolff gi mn hc ny l Ontology (Hu th lun), mt thut ng pht nguyn t ting Hy lp c ngha l vic nghin cu v hu th. Cc trit gia duy l a dng thut ng Hu th lun thay v Siu hnh hc. Du sao, Hu th lun cng din t cng mt i tng ca Siu hnh hc. 3. SIU HNH HC V TRI THC NHN LOI Siu hnh hc v tri thc t pht Mi ngi u c mt tri thc tng qut v thc ti, th c nh nh sng l tr t nhin. H bit mnh mun ni g khi cp n hu th, chn l, hay thin ho. H c mt tri thc no v bn cht con ngi, v v khc bit gia nhng thc ti bn th v ph th. Hn th na, mi ngi cn c th nhn bit Thng l nht Cn nguyn ca v tr, ng gn gi v hng dn vn s i n cng ch. Chng ta gi loi tri thc ny l tri thc t pht, cng lin quan ti nhng ti c nghin cu bi Siu hnh hc. iu ny khng c g phi ngc nhin, v con ngi t nhin c khuynh hng tm hiu v v tr, v vai tr ca mnh trong v tr, ngun gc v tr vv Do , ta cng d hiu ti sao loi tri thc ny c gi l Siu hnh hc t pht hoc Siu hnh hc t nhin ca tr tu con ngi2. Tuy nhin, iu ny khng xa b nhu cu v mt khoa Siu hnh hc c khai trin thnh mt khoa hc, bi nhiu l do: v tri thc t pht th thng khng hon b v thiu chnh xc; v c l n khng chc chn v sng t trong mt s kha cnh; sau cng, v n chu nh hng bi cc thc h u thng trong mt s khung cnh vn ha, hoc c nhiu ngi chp nhn. Ngoi ra, cn ghi nhn rng nhng xc tn lun l ca mi con ngi u c nh hng quyt nh n tri thc ca ngi v cc vn Siu hnh hc. Kinh nghim cho thy rng, mt khi nhng c nhn mt i s chn chn v mt lun l, th h cng mt lun nhng xc tn tr thc nn tng, do ri vo thi hoi nghi trc chn l. Chng hn, h b dn n thuyt v tri lin quan n tri thc m ngi ta c v Thng , v b dn n thuyt tng i lin quan n nhng i hi ca lut lun l. Rt cuc, con ngi t tn mnh nh trung tm ca ton th v tr. y chnh l l do tim n ng sau mt s h thng trit hc i nghch trit vi chn l, chng hn thuyt Mc xt, thuyt v tri, v thuyt duy tm: nhng thuyt trn u l nhng c cu l thuyt xy dng trn mt s thi c bn sai lc i vi cuc sng con ngi. V l mt khoa hc, Siu hnh hc phn no chu nh hng bi i sng lun l ca cc trit gia trong cuc. nh hng ny cng r rng trong nhng im chnh m cc vn k thut chuyn mn hn ty thuc vo. Vai tr dn dt ca Siu hnh hc i vi cc khoa hc khc V Siu hnh hc bn n nhng vn ht sc nn tng ca tri thc nhn loi, v v i tng nghin cu ca n bao trm ln ton th thc ti, nn ng nhin cc khoa hc c th, mt cch no , u ty thuc vo Siu hnh hc. i tng nghin cu ca mi khoa hc c th l mt loi hu th c th. Chnh v th m nhng nguyn l siu hnh, nhng c im ca hu th, v mt s khi nim nn tng khc v thc ti cng c phn nh cch no trong khu vc nghin cu chuyn bit ca mt khoa hc c th. Nhng nguyn l c cc khoa hc c th tip nhn v, d khng hin nhin c

chng khm ph, vn c cc khoa hc s dng khi cn thit. V d, khi cc nh vt l tin hnh th nghim v nng lc ca vt th trong hot ng l ha ca chng, h s dng n nguyn l nhn qu, vi tt c nhng hm ca nguyn l . Trong n lc tm hiu thu o i tng nghin cu ca mnh, cc nh khoa hc thc nghim thng quay v vi cc vn trit hc. Do ta khng ngc nhin khi thy mt s nh vt l ng i, nh Heisenberg, Einstein, Planck, De Broglie, Bohr, v Schrodinger, cng vit nhng thin kho lun v cc ti Siu hnh hc. Toan tnh ca nhng khoa hc c th mun t s c lp tuyt i khi bt c tri thc siu hnh no (y l hu qu ca thuyt thc chng) s khng bao gi t c hon ton. Nh vy c th thy rng Siu hnh hc gi mt vai tr dn dt so vi cc khoa hc c th khc, v n l nh im ca tri thc nhn loi trong lnh vc t nhin. Vai tr ny c gi ng n l minh trit (sapiential), v khn ngoan (wisdom) c vai tr ring l iu khin tri thc v hot ng ca con ngi nh vo nhng nguyn l u tin v mc ch ti hu ca con ngi. 4. SIU HNH HC LIN QUAN TH NO N C TIN V THN HC Vt ra ngoi v bn trn tri thc t pht cng nh tri thc khoa hc, cn c mt th tri thc thuc lnh vc siu nhin. Tri thc ny pht sinh t Mc Khi ca Thin Cha. y l loi tri thc cao siu, v n hon b ha mi tri thc ca nhn loi, hng dn tri thc nhn loi n mc tiu siu nhin ca con ngi. c tin h tr Trit hc Mt s chn l siu hnh, cho d c th c con ngi nhn bit cch t nhin, vn c Thin Cha mc khi. Bn cnh vic by t nhng mu nhim siu nhin cho con ngi, mc khi ca Thin Cha cng cn cho con ngi nhn bit c nhng chn l ch lc ti hu v v tr, v con ngi, v v chnh Thin Cha nhng chn l kin to nn i tng nghin cu ca Siu hnh hc. V mc ti nguyn t, con ngi tht kh m bit c nhng chn l trn l ht sc cn thit cho i sng lun l vi mt s chc chn tuyt i, khng cht sai lm. V th, Thin Cha mc khi cho con ngi nhng chn l nh : to dng mi s t h v (ex nihilo), Thin Cha quan phng, tnh thing ling v bt t ca linh hn con ngi, s hin hu v bn cht ca mt Thin Cha chn tht, lut lun l v mc ch vnh cu ca con ngi, v thm ch c danh xng ring bit ca Thin Cha nh ng Hng Hu (God as the Subsisting Act of Being: I am who am). Vi s tr gip ca Mc Khi, Siu hnh hc c c c nhy vt ngoi thng, c nht v nh trong lch s t tng loi ngi. Cc Kit hu thi u thng ngc nhin trc s kin ny l ngay mt a tr hc hi v nhng chn l c tin cch s si cng c c nhng cu tr li su sc v xc ng trc nhng vn ln thch tm tr con ngi, cn hn c nhng trit gia Hy lp. Nhng tm ti ca tr tu lin quan n ci xu, au kh ca con ngi, s cht, t do, ngha cuc sng, v s thin ho ca th gii, c c nhng cu tr li y v trit nh c tin Kit gio. Nh nhng cng trnh ca cc Gio ph v Tin s Gio hi, c tin b khng ch trong Thn hc Kit gio, nhng cn trong li hiu trit hc v nhng chn l t nhin c mc khi. S khai trin ny v sau c gi l Trit hc Kit gio: gi l Kit gio khng phi nh vo ni dung ni ti ca n cng nh cch thc chng minh hp l vn nm n trong phm vi t nhin, nhng ng hn l v n c khai trin di s khi hng v dn dt ca c tin Kit gio3. S kin cc chn l t nhin m Siu hnh hc nghin cu, c mc khi, khng h khin cho Siu hnh hc l d tha trong t cch mt khoa hc. Tri li, iu cng thi thc Siu hnh hc nhn bit su sc hn cc chn l , v Thin Cha mc khi cc chn l ct cho con ngi khm ph chng su xa hn na nh tr tu con ngi, v nhn c s bi dng tr thc nh cc chn l . Trit hc phc v c tin Nh L tr phc v c tin, th Siu hnh hc cng c dng nh mt cng c khoa hc ca Thn hc. Mt khi Siu hnh hc c hon b ha nh s hng dn bi c tin, th n li tr thnh mt cng c c gi tr c th hiu tt hn na nhng mu nhim siu nhin kin to nn ni dung ca khoa Thn hc. a) Tri thc thuc lnh vc siu nhin gi thit tri thc thuc lnh vc t nhin. L do l v n sng khng thay th t nhin, nhng nng cao t nhin. Chng hn chnh vic nghin cu n sng v nhng

nhn c ph bm, i ta phi bit rng linh hn con ngi l thing ling, t yu tnh l t do v hng v Thin Cha, ng l cng ch ca con ngi. Trong Kit hc, khi ni rng c Gisu Kit l ngi tht, th cng i ta phi hiu cho ng th no l bn cht con ngi. Nu hiu ti li v mt thn hc, ta cn phi bit n nhng nng lc ca con ngi, c bit l ch v nhng am m, v phi c mt tri thc ng mc v bn cht iu thin ho v ci xu. Sau cng, i vi vic nghin cu Cha Ba Ngi v mu nhim Nhp Th, tri thc ca ta v khi nim bn tnh v ngi v l iu kin cn thit. (Ni Thin Cha, c ba ngi v Thin Cha vi mt bn tnh Thin Cha; c Gisu Kit l mt Ngi V Ngi V Thin Cha trong hai bn tnh, bn tnh Thin Cha v bn tnh nhn loi). Hn na, tht kh m c c mt tri thc ng mc v nhng chn l c Thin Cha mc khi, nu nh trc khng c mt tri thc t nhin su sc. b) Mt khi coi nh tri thc siu hnh, Thn hc s khng t n tm mc mt khoa hc, v ri vo sai lm cng nh hm h. Mt tri thc ch c coi l c tnh khoa hc khi ni dung ca n c din t mt cch c trt t, cn c v chnh xc, iu to nn mt ton khi gn b. V phi s dng n tri thc t nhin v thc ti, nn Thn hc tr nn mt khoa hc mt khi tri thc tin vn c phong ph ha bi mt khoa hc dng c, m trong trng hp ny, chnh l Siu hnh hc. Siu hnh hc em li mt s chnh xc cn thit hiu c ngha nhng thut ng n t tri thc t pht. Hn na, nhng li gii thch sai lm v tn iu trong dng lch s buc Thn hc phi i tm s chnh xc v thut ng v khi nim t quan im Siu hnh hc. Do , khng th no b qua nhng g c c nh n lc trn, m li khng gp nguy c ri vo cng nhng sai lm trc . V d, nhng thut ng nh bin i bn th (transubstantiation), ngi hip (hypostatic union), v cht liu v hnh th ca b tch (matter and form of the sacraments), th khng th c thay th d dng, v chng din t r rng ngha xc thc ca c tin, nh m c th trnh c nhng sai lm v mt c tin. Ngoi ra, Siu hnh hc l cn thit hiu c nhng li din t tn iu c hun quyn Gio hi ngh. Thnh Gio hong Pi X, trong thng ip Doctoris Angelici (ngy 29 thng 6 nm 1914) ni: Nu nhng nguyn l (khoa Siu hnh hc ca thnh Thomas Aquinas) m b loi b hay b mo m, th nht thit dn n hu qu l nhng ai nghin cu cc thnh khoa s kh nm bt c ngha nhng ngn t c hun quyn Gio hi s dng din t nhng tn iu c Thin Cha mc khi. Do , chng ti c mong rng mi gio s trit hc v thn hc nn cnh gic rng nu khng i theo bc ng ca thnh Thomas, nht l trong nhng vn siu hnh, t s gy ra nhng thit hi nng n. Sau cng, chng ta cng phi ghi nh rng nhng kinh Tin Knh s dng rt nhiu thut ng chnh xc, nhng thut ng ch c th hiu c tt hn nh s tr gip ca tri thc Siu hnh hc xt nh dng cu4.

SCH C THM PLATO, Republic, V. 474b ff; VII, 514a ff. ARISTOTLE, Metaphysica, I, ch. 1-2; II, 1; VI, 1; XI, 3. SAINT THOMAS AQUINAS, In Metaph., Prooem; I, lect. 2; II, 2; III, 4-6; IV, 1,4 and 5; VI, 1; XI, 1, 3 and 7; In Boeth. De Trinitate, lect. 2, q.1. L. DE RAEYMAEKER, Filosofia del ser, Gredos, Madrid 1968.

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CHNG II: HU TH - KHI IM CA SIU HNH HC

Trc khi cp n nhng ch khc, chng ta cn c mt ci nhn khi qut s khi v mt s khi nim siu hnh nn tng, nh hu th, vic hin hu, yu tnh, tn ti. V hu th l i tng ca Siu hnh hc, cho nn mi vn cn phi c gii quyt cn c vo ngha hu th. Do tin vn ta phi am tng v ngha hu th. 1. KHI NIM HU TH Hu th l ci hin hu (Being is that which is = Ens est id quod est). Khng th nh ngha hu th theo ngha cht c, v mt nh ngha cn n nhng khi nim bao qut hn. V d, mt chic xe hi c th c nh ngha l mt c xe c gn mt dng chuyn ch. Nhng nh ngha hu th, ngi ta cn n mt khi nim tng qut hn bao gm c hu th. Tuy nhin, khng th c c khi nim no theo kiu , v hu th bao trm mi thc ti. Do ta ch c th gii thch hu th l ci hin hu, ci tn ti, hoc ci c thc (that which is real). Chng hn mt con ngi, mt con chim, mt chic my bay, tt c u l hu th. Ni cht ch, thut ng hu th khng c cng ngha vi thut ng s vt (thing). (Being pht sinh t ng t to be (esse). Khi nim hu th khng phi l mt khi nim n thun; n hm vic kt hp gia mt ch th (a subject = id quod) v mt hin th (an act = est). C hai yu t can d vo khi nim ny: mt vt no vn hin hu, v chnh vic hin hu ca s vt . Vt no nm vai tr mt ch th, c ngha l mt thc ti c th m s hin hu (esse) thuc v (ging nh ch th ca vic ci l con ngi ang ci). Tuy nhin, hai yu t trn li to nn ch mt n v: mt yu t (ens) bao hm s hin din ca mt yu t khc. Khi chng ta ni n hu th, mc nhin chng ta ni n hin hu ca n, mc d chng ta khng a ra li phn on n c hoc mt iu g c. Cng vy, khi chng ta nghe thy nguyn ng t c chng ta cng bao hm ch th ca n, hoc chng ta khm ph ra s vng mt ca ch th hnh vi . C th tm tt nh sau: 1) Hu th (ens) ch yu ni v s vt hin hu: hu th m ch s vt trong mc n ang c vic hin hu (hin th hin hu = act of being = esse). 2) Tip n, hu th cng c ngha l s hin hu (esse) ca s vt , v mt s vt ch c th hin hu nu nh n chim hu vic hin hu. 3) Do , hu th lin quan ti mt vt no vn hin hu trong thc t. Cn phn bit hu th thc t (real being) vi hu th thuc tr (being of reason), v hu th thuc tr l hu th trong mc n l mt th g ch tn ti ni tr tu con ngi, chng hn nh nhng tnh cch gi tng trong mt cun tiu thuyt, hay nhng c im tng tng do tr v (fantasies) ca ngi ta to nn. D nhin, nhng khi nim c mt tnh thc hu nht nh, h ti chuyn chng c suy tng bi quan nng tr tu ca chng ta. Chng thun ty l nhng khi nim hoc nhng thc ti tm tr khng h c s tn ti no bn ngoi tr tu con ngi. Khi chng ta ni rng mt iu g l thc, chng ta mun phn bit n khi mt hu th thuc tr; do , mt con ngi c thc th khng phi l sn phm ca tr v, nhng l mt ai tn ti bng xng bng tht. 2. YU TNH CCH THC HIN HU CA S VT Mi s vt th hin hu, v ng thi, chng cng l mt iu g (something). Mi s vt th khc vi nhng s vt khc do bn cht ca n, bn cht t n vo mt loi nht nh (nh loi = specifies). Khi c hi mt s vt l g, chng ta thng tr li rng n l mt cun sch, mt ci bn, mt con ch hay mt th g . Nhng danh t din t s vt l g (what), c ngha l yu tnh ca s vt: n cho ta bit v nhng s vt, bt k nhng phm tnh ph th kh bin c th no. V d, mt con th khng ch thun ty l mt tp hp nhng phm tnh khc bit; ng hn, n c mt s thng nht ni ti,

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hoc mt kiu ht nhn m t xut pht nhng phm tnh ni trn. Ht nhn ny c tr tu ta nm bt, ri n lt tr tu li din t iu qua nh ngha hn t con . Do , yu tnh c th c nh ngha nh iu khin cho mt vt l chnh n (Therefore, essence can be defined as that which makes a thing to be what it is). Mi s vt u c vic hin hu, nh chng ta gi cc s vt l nhng hu th (beings = entia). Tuy nhin, r rng l mi s vt u c yu tnh ring ca n, nh n c mt danh xng khc vi danh xng ca mi s vt khc. Nh yu tnh m mt ngi l con ngi, nc l nc, ch khng phi l bt c th g hin din trong th gii vt cht. Do hai nguyn l cu to u hin din ni mi thc ti trong v tr l: chnh vic hin hu (esse) v cch thc hin hu (essentia trong ting Latinh). Chng l hai thnh t khn thit v bt kh phn ly ca mi hu th tn ti trong v tr. 3. VIC HIN HU (ESSE) Gi y chng ta xem xt yu t chnh ca hu th, l hin th ca n: hin hu (to be = esse). ngha ca hin hu th qu r rng vi mi ngi, khng cn n mt trc gic c bit no c. Chng ta hy xem xt mt s kha cnh ca esse xt nh mt hin th (esse is an act) a) Tin vn esse l mt hin th, tc l mt hon b ca mi thc ti (esse is an act, that is, a perfection of all reality). Thut ng hin th c dng trong Siu hnh hc m ch bt c hon b hoc mt c im no ca mt s vt. Do , n khng thun ty c s dng ni v nhng hot ng (vic nhn hoc bc i chng hn)1. Theo ngha ny, mt hoa hng trng l mt bng hoa c mu trng nh mt hin th em li cho hoa hng mt s hon b loi bit. Cng vy, hin hu p dng cho nhng s vt, cng ni ln mt hon b c thc, nh hon b s sng ni cc sinh vt. Tuy nhin, trong trng hp esse, chng ta cp n mt hon b c bit. b) Esse l mt hin th ph qut (Esse is a universal act), c ngha l n thuc v mi s vt. Esse khng tuyt i thuc v mt loi thc ti c th no, v nu khng c esse, th cng chng c s vt no c. Khi chng ta ni v bt c iu g, trc ht chng ta bit rng n hin hu: con chim hin hu, vng hin hu, m my hin hu. c) Esse cng l mt hin th ton din: n bao trm mi tnh cht s vt (Esse is also a total act: it encompasses all that a thing is). ang khi nhng hin th khc ch lin h n mt phn hoc mt vi kha cnh ca hu th, th esse l mt hon b bao gm tt c nhng g m mt s vt c c. Chng hn, hin th c sch th khng din t ton b hon b ca ngi ang c sch, nhng esse l hin th ca mi mt v ca mi thnh phn ca mt s vt. Nu mt cy hin hu, c ngha l ton th cy hin hu vi mi kha cnh v mi thnh phn ca n mu sc, hnh th, s sng, s pht trin ca n tm li, mi th ni n u chia s esse ca cy. Do , esse bao trm ton b mt s vt. d) Esse l mt hin th cu to v c bn nht ca mi hon b, v nh c n th cc s vt mi hin hu (Esse is a constituent act, and the most radical or basic of all perfections because it is that by which things are) . Nh yu tnh l iu khin cho mt vt l th ny th kia (s t, con ngi), th esse l ci khin cho cc s vt c hin hu. Ta c th xt iu ny qua nhiu gc . (i) Esse l iu chung nht trong mi hin th (Esse is the most common of all acts). iu khin cho mi vt hin hu th khng h ti nhng nguyn l khin chng khc bit (yu tnh ca chng), nhng chnh xc h ti hin th m qua mi s vt u nh nhau, tc l chng c vic hin hu. (ii) Esse th t bn cht c trc bt c hin th no khc (Esse is by nature prior to any other act). Bt c hot ng hoc c im no u gi thit mt ch th hin hu c lp hot ng bm vo, vy m esse c gi nh bi mi hot ng cng nh mi ch th, v nu khng c esse, th chng c chi hin hu. Nh vy, esse khng phi l mt hin th ny sinh t yu tnh cc s vt; ng ra n l iu khin cho cc s vt hin hu. (iii) Chng ta phi loi b mi th khc kt lun rng esse l hin th cu to (We have to conclude, by exclusion, that esse is the constituent act). Khng mt c im vt l hoc sinh hc no ca cc hu th nng lng, cu trc phn t hoc nguyn t ca chng li khin cho cc s vt hin hu, v mi c im trn nu mun to nn nhng hiu qu ca chng th tin vn phi hin hu .

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Tm li, esse l vic hin hu u tin v thm hu nht em li mi hon b cho ch th, ngay t bn trong (esse is the first and innermost act of being which confers on the subject, from within, all of its perfections). Sau y l nhng trch dn t cc tc phm ca thnh Thomas Aquinas v esse : Esse th hon b nht trong tt c (), n l hin th vt trn mi hin th () v l hon b vt trn mi hon b (De Potentia, q.7, a.2, ad 9). Chnh esse l hon b nht trong mi s, v i chiu vi mi s n l hin th; v khng g l thc hu tr phi trong mc n hin hu. Do , chnh esse lm cho mi s c thc hu, ngay c nhng hnh th cng vy (d l hnh th bn th hay ph th) (Summa Theologiae, I, q.4, a.1, ad 3). Esse th thm hu nht trong mi s vt v gn b su xa nht ni mi s vt, v n c vai tr kin to (role of form) (hin th, mt iu g nh hnh hay thc hu ho) i vi tt c mi s c trong mt s vt (Summa Theologiae, q.8, a.1).

4. VIC HIN HU (ESSE) XT NH HIN TH MNH LIT NHT Vic hin hu th thuc v mi s vt nh hin th u tin v l ngun cho mi hon b khc. Tuy nhin, khi quan st th gii chung quanh, chng ta thy rng c nhiu s vt ht sc a dng trong v tr; do chng ta phi kt lun rng vic hin hu khng phi l mt th g ng nht ni mi s vt: bi v c khc bit ni mi s vt. Nt c trng ny khng gii hn vo nguyn esse ; n cn c nhn thy ni nhng phm cht v nhiu hin th khc. C ngha l nhng hon b c nhng ch th ca chng chim hu nhiu cp khc nhau. V d, nh sng c tm thy trong nhiu cp mnh yu khc nhau; tng t th, hnh vi hiu bit hoc c mun c th c thc thi vi cng mnh hn hay yu hn ni cng mt c nhn hay ni nhiu con ngi khc nhau, hoc ni nhng hu th c tr nng thuc nhiu bn cht khc nhau (con ngi, thin thn, Thin Cha). a) Vic hin hu c cc hu th khc bit nhau chim hu trong nhiu cp khc bit nhau, i t nhng thc ti km hon b nht ln n tn Thin Cha (The act of being is possessed in different degrees of intensity by different beings, ranging from the most imperfect realities all the way to God). Hin nhin l c mt phm trt hu th trong v tr: khi i t th gii khong vt, c tip ni bng nhiu hnh thc s sng, cho n hon b ln lao nht l hon b ca Thin Cha. Phn tch n cng, khc bit v cc hon b bt ngun t nhng cch thc chim hu vic hin hu: v ngun mch mi hon b ca mt s vt chnh l esse ca n, nhng cp chim hu cc hon b trn th phn nh nhng mc cng trong vic hin hu3. Thin Cha chim hu esse trong tt c vin mn v cng ca n. Do Ngi c mi hon b. Nu nh Ngi thiu mt hon b no th Ngi khng c esse trong tt c vin mn ca n, nhng phi chu s gii hn. Mt khc, cc th to chim hu esse km hn, v chng cng bt ton th cng c t esse hn; chng hng mt cp km hn trong vic thng d vo hin hu. Ta khng nn ngh rng mi hon b khc (v d, s sng, hiu bit) th c thm vo esse4. Khng phi l chuyn nhng sinh th hin hu, ri vt xa v bn trn hin hu, chng c thm s sng; ng hn, cch thc hin hu ca chng h ti chuyn ang sng (living), v sinh ng, tc l sng, l mt cp hin hu cao hn. b) Do s khng chun khi ta coi esse nh mt thuc tnh m h v bt nh thuc v mi s vt xt nh hon b km ci nht ca chng (Hence, it would be incorrect to consider esse as a vague and indeterminate attribute which would belong to all things as their least perfection). Mt s trit gia hiu esse l mt khi nim ngho nn nht, v cho rng n b qua mi c im khin cho cc s vt khc bit nhau. i vi h, esse l mt khi nim ht sc tru tng v trng rng, mt khi nim c th p dng cho mi th (ngoi din ti a) v xt v mt thc hnh n khng c ni dung (ni hm ti thiu), v ch ni ln mt im ti thiu mi s vt phi c l thc t. Li hiu v esse nh trn l mt li tip cn lun l hn l siu hnh, v n ngn cn vic hiu esse nh l hin th ca s vt, c chim hu theo nhng cch thc khc nhau, v c chim hu cch hon b nht ni Thin Cha. Li nhn xt esse theo kiu lun l hin nhin pht sinh do nhng trit gia duy l, c bit l Wolff v Leibniz. Tuy nhin, ngay c Scotus v Suarez trc cng coi esse nh khi nim ht

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sc bt nh m ni dung ca n th ng nht vi yu tnh kh th (possible essence). Nh vy, chng khin cho hu th (ens) v yu tnh ng nht vi nhau, v coi yu tnh nh mt yu t trung lp i vi vic hin hu (esse), th l gin lc yu tnh vo nguyn kh tnh hin hu. i theo tuyn t tng ny, Wolff nh ngha hu th nh ci c th tn ti, ngha l ci m s tn ti ca n l khng mu thun5. Do , ng phn chia hu th thnh kh th (possible) v thc t (real); u tin ca hu th thuc v hu th kh th, v hu th thc t khng hn g hu th kh th c a vo hin th6. Mt trong nhng thiu st ch yu trong lp trng ny l nh sau: t tng thm nhp hay ng ha hu th, v khi nim hu th cc k bt nh ny ch tn ti trong tr c con ngi, nh kt qu ca vic tru xut lun l (logical abstraction). Do , n khng phi l mt esse thc t nhng ch l mt esse theo khi nim. Trong thuyt duy l, kh tnh (possibility) c hiu nh c im khng-mu thun ca mt khi nim, c ngha l, kh tnh ca hu th c suy tng hoc c quan nim bi tr nng. c) Hin hu (to be) (esse) th khng hon ton ng ngha vi tn ti(to exist); esse din t mt hin th, ang khi tn ti ch c ngha rng mt s vt ang c (To be (esse) is not exactly the same as to exist; esse expresses an act, whereas to exist simply indicates that a thing is factually there). Khi qu quyt mt s vt tn ti, chng ta mun ni rng n l thc, rng n khng phi l h v, rng n ang . Tuy nhin, esse ni n mt iu g bn trong nhiu hn, ch khng thun ty ni n s kin c ni thc ti, ng hn n l hon b thm su ca mt s vt v l ngun mch cho mi hon b khc. Tn ti khng din t iu g khc hn l kha cnh bn ngoi ca esse n l mt hiu qu ca esse. V mt hu th c esse, nn n thc s , c a ra khi h v, v n tn ti. Do , tn ti l hiu qu ca vic c esse. Coi esse nh tn ti l mt hiu qu lun l ca vic ng nht hu th (ens) vi yu tnh kh th, phn cch khi vic hin hu. Nh vy, ny sinh hai th gii: th gii tng c lm nn bi nhng yu tnh tru tng hay t tng thun ty, v th gii cc thc ti c s tn ti thc s. Th gii thc ti khng hn g mt bn sao ca th gii t tng, v n khng thm g vo vic kin to hu th hc ca cc s vt. Nh Kant ni, khi nim v 100 ng gilders tht th chng khc g khi nim 100 ng gilders kh th7. S phn bit gia mt bn l yu tnh tng hoc tru tng, v mt bn l tn ti ch thc, lm ny sinh nhng h ly nghim trng trong nhiu vn trit hc quan trng. c bit trong lnh vc nhn thc, iu ny dn n vic phn cch trit tr nng con ngi khi cc gic quan: yu tnh tr thnh i tng ca t tng thun ty, ang khi tn ti thc t th kin to nn i tng c nm bt bi gic quan (iu ny cng lm ny sinh nhng quan im cc k sai lm l duy l v duy nghim hoc thc chng; trong trng hp ca Lebniz, n lm ny sinh s i lp gia cc chn l lun l (logical truths) v cc chn l thc t (factual truths). H qu khc ca quan im ny l c gng chng t s hin hu ca Cn Nguyn Nht khi i t idea v Thin Cha (ch hu th lun = ontologism): Thin Cha l yu tnh duy nht vn bao gm s tn ti ni cc thuc tnh ca yu tnh, do Thin Cha hin hu. Lun chng ny kt lun v mt Thin Cha ch tn ti trong tr c. 5. NGHA CA ESSE NH NG T NI TRONG MT CU Chng ta thy hn t esse ch yu din t hin th hoc hon b c bn nht ca mi hu th vic hin hu ca n (actus essendi)8. V s kin ny ta c th ni rng Phr hin hu, hoc Ti hin hu, hoc nhng hu th hin hu. Tuy nhin, thay v ni Phr hin hu, chng ta thng ni Phr tn ti, mc d hin hu khng hon ton ng nht vi tn ti, nh ni trn. Bn cnh vic din t ngha chnh yu ny, esse cn lin tc xut hin nh mt ng t trong mi ngn ng. Thc vy, n to nn thnh phn ca mi phn on bng cch ni kt ch t (subject) vi thuc t (predicate), v mt phn on lun c ngha rng mt iu g l hoc khng l, d ni n thun hay theo mt ngha ring bit no. iu ny l r rng trong Anh ng, chng hn khi ta ni, This law is incomplete, hoc Tomorrow is Sunday. Tuy nhin, nhng ln khc, n ch l mc nhin, nh khi ta ni, John jogs every morning hoc Ice melts. Trong nhng v d sau, ng t to be khng xut hin r rng, mc d ta c th a ra nhng li din t tng ng, nh John is a man who goes jogging every morning, hoc Ice is a subtance which melts. Trong vn phm, iu ny c qui chiu v vai tr ca ng t to be nh mt ng t ni (linking verb or copula):

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a)To be ni ln vic phc hp gia ch t v thuc t hin din trong bt c phn on no ny sinh bi tr tu. V d, trong cu, That horse is speedy, is ni kt thuc t speedy vi ch t horse. Trong trng hp ny, ng t ch thun ty nm vai tr ni kt hai hn t ca phn on hay mnh . Chc nng u tin ny ca esse nh copula c din ra trong cp lun l hc; n ch ni kt hai phn ca mt cu, - ngay c nhng ch t v thuc t vn khng c tht hoc trong thc t chng khng thc s ph hp vi nhau. V d, mnh , Man is irrational l mt phn on gi to; ng t is ni kt ch t vi thuc t, nhng mnh li khng tng ng vi thc ti. b) To be c th cho thy mt hon b no thc s ang gn b ni mt ch th, nh khi ta ni v cy bt ch mu en: That pencil is black, cho thy rng phm cht c th (mu en) thc s thuc v cy vit ch. c) Ngoi ra, to be trong mt mnh hoc phn on c ngha rng vic gn mt thuc t cho ch t th phn nh trung thc chn l tc l iu c khng nh trong mt mnh phi l tht. Trong vai tr ny ca esse, chng ta chm n chn l v s gi tr: do , ni rng mt iu g l khng tht, chng ta ni n th khng (it is not, hoc nu mt mnh no khng ph hp vi thc ti, ta ni rng n l gi tr. Thng thng, ba ngha trn c ni kt ni mi phn on. V d khi ta ni, The earth is round, t is va c ngha rng chng ta ang to nn mt phc hp trong pht biu bng cch ni kt thuc t round vi ch t earth; rng roundness thc s thuc v tri t; v pht biu ny l tht. ngha lun l cng nh vn phm ca esse ty thuc vo ngha chnh ca n nh hin th. Nh ta quan st trn, esse l hin th cu to hoc hon b lm ny sinh mi hon b tip theo. Do , pht biu rng mt hon b nm mt ch t, chng ta s dng ng t esse. 6. CC C TNH CA KHI NIM HU TH Ta bn v hu th, khi im ca Siu hnh hc, v mt vi nt trong hin th cu to ca n, tc l esse ca n. hon tt quan st khi u v i tng ca Siu hnh hc, gi y chng ta tm hiu nhng c im ca khi nim hu th (ens). u tin ca khi nim hu th trong nhn thc nhn loi u tin thc s ca esse i vi nhng hon b khc ca cc s vt, lm ny sinh u tin ca khi nim hu th trong lnh vc nhn thc. Mi i tng ca nhn thc chng ta, trc bt c iu g khc, u c tri gic l hin hu, v do tr nng chng ta tin vn bit n nh mt iu g ang hin hu, nh hu th. V l do ny, khi nim hu th mc nhin hm cha trong mi khi nim khc ca tr nng. Ai ny u hiu rng mt cy v mt con nga l nhng s vt ang hin hu v chng chim hu vic hin hu mt cch c th no ; ngi y nhn bit chng nh nhng hu th ang hin hu, vi mt yu tnh xc nh. Do , nhng yu t cu to ca hu th, m chng ta gii thch, th hin din ni mi nhn thc ca tr c chng ta, khng h phn cch. Khi nim hu th l u tin trong mi khi nim m tr nng chng ta th c. Trc khi hiu chi tit th no l mt s vt v u l nhng hon b c trng ca n, th tin vn ta bit rng s vt y hin hu, c ngha rng, n l mt iu g . C c tri thc s khi ny, dn dn chng ta th c li hiu bit tt hn v thc ti nh kinh nghim ca mnh. Nh vy, ngay trc khi mt a tr c th phn bit nhng vt chung quanh mnh, n bit rng chng hin hu; iu ny l tri gic u tin ca n, din ra vo lc bt u c nhn thc tr tu. Ta khng th hiu c bt c iu g, tr phi trc ht hiu rng n hin hu. Tuy nhin, ngi ta khng c ngh rng iu ny ch l mt nhn thc khi u; con ngi ni kt mi kha cnh ca thc ti m hn bit c trong cuc i vo lnh vc hu th, cch ny hay cch khc. y l nhng g chng ta hiu khi ta ni rng mi nhn thc u c gii kt hoc c thu gn vo hu th. Khi nim ca ta v hu th th khi u cn bt ton, v dn dn chng ta hon thin khi nim ny nh kinh nghim, khi ta bit c nhiu hu th hn v nhiu cch thc hin hu hn (Our notion of being is initially imperfect, and we gradually perfect this notion through experience, as we come to know more beings and diverse manners of being). Mt tin b tng t cng din ra trong mi lnh vc tri thc. Chng hn, mt sinh vin khoa Thc vt hc c sn mt tri thc v i sng thc vt, nhng ch nh

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kinh nghim v quan st rng ri hn th anh ta mi c c tri thc su sc hn v ngha ca thc vt. Cng vy, tri thc ca ta v hu th tr nn su sc v rng ri hn khi ta khm ph c nhiu c im cng nh nhiu cch thc hin hu khc nhau. Siu hnh hc c gng hon tt cng tc ny trong cp khoa hc. Hu th khng phi mt khi nim v ging Ging l mt khi nim c p dng ng u v bt nh cho nhiu s vt khc nhau v n ch ni ln nhng c im vn l chung cho tt c nhng s vt v b st nhng tnh cht lm cho chng khc nhau. Khi nim ng vt chng hn, l mt khi nim v ging, c p dng khng phn bit cho mi hu th c i sng cm gic (v d, ngi, nga, ch). i t khi nim ging, t nh ng vt, n mt khi nim c th hn, t nh ngi, chng ta cn thm vo khi nim ng vt nhng kha cnh sai bit mi vn khng hm cha trong ging, c th l nhng khc bit m chng ta b i to nn mt khi nim v ging (v d c l tnh hoc nhng c im phn bit ca nhiu loi ng vt khc nhau). Khi nim hu th khng phi l mt ging, v khng c yu t khc bit no c th thm vo , m li khng hm cha sn trong (The notion of being is not a genus, since no differentiating elements can be added to it, which would not already be contained in it). Khi nim ng vt khng bao hm nhng khc bit c th phn bit mt ng vt khi ng vt khc. Tuy nhin, khi nim ens khng ch ni n nhng g cc s vt c chung vi nhau, nhng cng cn ni n nhng kha cnh khc bit ca chng; nhng kha cnh khc bit cng hin hu, v do cng bao hm trong khi nim ens. Mt s khi nim v ging t c nh tru xut th c mt ngoi din ln hn (chng bao gm nhiu i tng hn) ty theo mc chng bao gm rt t nhng c im nm trong ni dung ca chng (ni hm ca chng). Chng hn, vt th c p dng cho nhiu s vt hn l rn (solid), v khi nim rn thm vo mt c im mi, l s kt cu n nh cc thnh phn. Cc nhc c bao gm nhc c dy, nhc c hi, v nhc c g, l nhng loi xc nh hn. Tuy nhin, khi nim hu th li bao trm mi s: n c ngoi din ti a cng nh ni dung khi nim hay ni hm ti a (The notion of being, however, encompasses everything: it has maximum extension as well as maximum notional content or comprehension). Ens khng ch bao gm mi thc ti trong th gii ni chung, nhng cng cn biu th chng, vi tt c mi c im n l ca chng. Tuy nhin, mi nhn t xc nh cng nh nhng cch thc hin hu u c m ch trong ens theo mt cch thc khng sai bit v c phn no ln ln. Do , nu chng ta mun lm cho mt thc ti c th c nhn bit, th ta khng th ni trng rng l mt hu th. Chng ta cng phi nu r rng cch thc hin hu c th ca n (yu tnh ca n), bng cch ni rng l mt quyn sch, hay mt cy vit, chng hn. c im duy nht ny ca khi nim ens ny sinh t s kin l danh t ens c ly ra t esse, vn l hon b trn ht mi hon b, v mi nhn t khc vn n nh n th ch l nhng cch thc hin hu. Mt khi nim ens ch thun tru tng v v ging th tn ti trong u c cc trit gia nghin cu v nhng thc ti siu hnh nh th chng l nhng khi nim lun l. Nh vy, theo Scotus v Suarez, chng ta nhn bit nhng hu th c bit tn ti nh tr nng ca ta, ri sau chng ta tru xut bn cht chung ca chng, qua t ti yu tnh ca chng. Sau cng, chng ta i n mt ging ti cao, vn l tru tng nht v tch bit khi kinh nghim, v iu ny c gi thit l ens. y l khi nim v ens m ni dung ca n khng cn l hu th thc t, nhng l tng tng qut nht v hu th, c tha k bi thuyt duy l. iu ny gii thch ti sao Siu hnh hc, nh ch thuyt duy l hiu v n, b coi l mt khoa hc khng c lin quan g n kinh nghim v th gii thc t. Hu th: mt khi nim loi suy V qu a bit v phong ph trong ni dung, nn khi nim ens l loi suy, c ngha l, n c gn cho mi s vt theo mt ngha phn th nh nhau v phn th khc nhau (the notion of ens is analogical, that is, it is attributed to all things in a sense which is partly the same and partly different). Chng hn, hiu l mt khi nim loi suy v Thin Cha, cc thin thn, v con ngi u c coi l hiu, nhng tt c lm iu theo nhng cch thc khc nhau vi nhng chiu su tri thc khc nhau. Thin ho cng l mt khi nim loi suy v mc ch ca hnh ng v phng th t ti n u l thin ho, mc d khng theo cng mt cch; cng vy, mt s ti nguyn vt cht v s chnh trc lun l ca mt hnh vi nhn c u tt c, nhng chng khng tt theo cng mt cch. Esse l hon b c kh nng c chim hu theo nhiu cch kh th nht, v mi s vt trong v tr u c esse, nhng theo nhiu

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cch khc nhau. Do , v hu th (ens) l mt khi nim ly ra t esse (vic hin hu), nn n c p dng cho cc s vt mt cch loi suy. c im ny ca khi nim hu th (ens) c tm quan trng ln lao trong vic nghin cu mi vn siu hnh. V d, bn th v cc ph th, hin th v tim nng, cc th to v Thin Cha ng To Ha, l nhng thc ti cc k khc bit, nhng tt c u l hu th theo cch loi suy. Do , tt c chng c th c nghin cu bi cng mt khoa hc m khng phi loi b nhng khc bit thc s ni chng. Loi suy l mt nt c trng chnh ca phng php siu hnh. Aristotle khm ph ra bn cht loi suy ca hu th. Trc ng, hu th ch c xt cch n (univocally), nh Parmenides dy. Nu hu th phi c hiu theo cch n ngha, th khi mi thc ti u c coi l hin hu theo cng mt cch, m sau cng s dn n thuyt nht nguyn (monism). Mi s u nht lot c coi l mt (identically one); do , khng c khc bit gia Thin Cha v cc th to (phim thn). Tuy nhin, khi dng khi nim loi suy v hu th, chng ta c th ni v Thin Cha v cc th to nh nhng hu th, ng thi vn gi s cch bit v bin gia cc khi nim . Nh cch loi suy, hu th th to dn ta n vic nhn bit hu th thn thing v cc hon b ca hu th ny. l l do ti sao vn ny chim phn quan trng nht i vi Siu hnh hc v thn hc. Tng quan gia hu th v nhng khi nim khc S phong ph ca khi nim hu th cng c phn nh ni nhng khi nim din t nhng li hin hu c th (c gi l cc phm tr) v ni nhng khi nim khc, c gi l nhng khi nim siu nghim, ni ln nhng kha cnh chung ca mi hu th. a) a s cc khi nim u gii hn khi nim hu th vo mt cch hin hu chuyn bit (specific mode of being); chng ni ln mt yu tnh m nh mt iu g l chnh n ch khng phi l s vt khc. Chng hn, kim cng m ch mt khong vt vi mt bn cht hay mt cch hin hu khc vi bn cht ca bt c s vt no khc, v nhn c qui chiu v mt tp qun hot ng i nghch vi nt xu. Trong nhm khi nim mnh mng ny chng ta c th ly ra mt s khi nim rng hn, m ch nhng cch hin hu c bn nht m mi thc ti c th c qui vo . Nhng ging ti cao ny ca thc ti c gi l nhng phm tr m c th l bn th v cc loi ph th khc nhau. Sau ny chng ta s nghin cu chng chi tit hn. b) Cng c mt s khi nim ni ln nhng c im ca hu th xt nguyn n (trong mc n l hu th), v do , c th p dng cho mi vt. Chng hn, v hin hu l mt hon b hay mt thin ho, nn mi s, trong mc n hin hu, u c mt loi thin ho v c th hp dn nhng th to khc v hon thin chng. Hn na, nhng s vt l kh tri v l thc nh esse ca chng, v tr nng nhn bit chn l khi n nm bt vic hin hu ca s vt. Do , thin ho v chn l l nhng c im thuc v bt c iu g hin hu. Nhng khi nim ny c gi l nhng khi nim siu nghim, v chng khng gii hn hu th vo mt li hin hu c th no; ng hn chng siu vit mi kha cnh hin hu c th. Nh chng, ta c th nu ln mt s kha cnh hon b ph hp vi vic hin hu, vn khng c din t minh nhin trong thut ng hu th. Chng gip ta th c mt ci nhn su sc hn v y hn v thc ti. Phn hai ca tp sch ny bn v nhng c im siu nghim ca hu th.

SCH C THM

PARMENIDES, Sobre la naturaleza, Fr. I-II (Diels-Kranz 28B 1 and 2). ARISTOTLE, Metaphysica, V, ch. 7; Vi, 2 and 4; VII, 1; XI, 8. SAINT THOMAS AQUINAS, In I perih, lect. 5; Quodl., IX, q.2, a.3; De ente et essentia c1; In V Metaph., lect 9; De verit., q.1; a.1. E. GILSON, Ralisme thomiste et critique de la connaissance, Vrin, Paris 1947.

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CHNG III: NGUYN L BT - MU - THUN

C mt s yu t s yu hoc nn tng ni tri thc con ngi, c dng lm c bn cho mi chn l khc. Cng nh hu th l khi nim u tin ca tr nng chng ta, c hm cha trong bt c khi nim no, th cng c mt phn on ng nhin l u tin, v c gi thit bi mi phn on khc. Phn on u tin ny c pht biu nh sau: Khng th (mt vt) va c li va khng trong cng mt lc v theo cng mt phng din. Khi chng ta khng nh rng mt s vt ang trong mt cch thc ring bit, chng ta gi nh rng khng th no cng mt s vt va trong cch thc ny li va trong cch thc khc. Nu chng ta ni rng vic gip tha nhn l iu tt, chng ta bit rng l iu tt th khng ng ngha vi khng l iu tt. V nguyn l c bn ny lin h n hu th - cho d n c dng trong mi lnh vc tri thc con ngi nn Siu hnh hc, vn l khoa hc v hu th xt nguyn n l th, c nhim v nghin cu v ni ln ngha y ca nguyn l . Khi nghin cu chn l ti thng ny, chng ta tm hiu mt trong nhng c trng hin nhin v nn tng nht ca hu th. 1. NGUYN L U TIN V HU TH

Phn on u tin c gi l nguyn l bt mu - thun, v n din t iu kin c bn nht ca cc s vt, ngha l chng khng th t mu-thun vi chnh mnh (The first judgment is called the principle of non-contradiction because it expresses the most basic condition of things, namely, that they cannot be self-contradictory). Nguyn l ny da trn c s hu th, v din t s vng bn ca hu th cng nh chuyn n i nghch vi v th (non-being = non-ens). Chng ta bit n con ngi ny, ngn ni kia, con vt n, nhn bit mi th nh iu g hin hu, nh mt hu th. Tip n, chng ta i ti tng v s ph nh hu th, hoc l v th, c quan nim khng phi nh s h v thun ty, nhng nh mt v th tng i v gii hn. Chng hn, chng ta ghi nhn rng con ch ny l mt hu th, nhng n li khng phi l con ch khc. Nh vy, khi nhn bit nhng hu th c th, chng ta cng to nn khi nim ph nh u tin v th (non-being). Khi chng ta nm bt mt v th no ni cc s vt, vn ny sinh t s gii hn ca mi s vt, chng ta hiu rng mt hu th khng th va c li va khng trong cng mt lc v theo cng mt ngha. Nh vy, nguyn l bt-mu thun din t s bt tng thch trit gia hu th v v th, vn t nn tng trn s kin ny l vic hin hu lin quan n mt hon b c thc ni mi mt hu th, i nghch tuyt i vi chuyn thiu vng hon b . Chng ta ni trong cng mt lc, v chng hn, khng c g mu thun trong trng hp nhng chic l ca mt cy c mu xanh mt ma trong nm, v mu nu hoc trong ma khc. Chng ta cng ni thm trong cng mt ngha hay trong cng mt phng din, bi v khng h mu thun i vi mt con ngi rt thng tho mt s vn , nhng li dt nt v nhng vn khc. Hin nhin l nguyn l trn c mt tm quan trng nn tng, khng ch trong tri thc t pht v khoa hc, nhng cn trong lnh vc hot ng ca con ngi, v n l iu kin u tin ca chn l trong bt c phn on no. 2. NHNG CCH DIN T NGUYN L BT-MU- THUN Trc ht, nguyn l u tin l mt phn on lin quan n thc ti. Do , nhng li din t su xa hn v nguyn l ny l nhng li din t c bn cht siu hnh, ngha l nhng din t trc tip lin quan n esse ca cc s vt. V d: mt vt khng th cng lc va c li va khng1, v khng th no mt vt hin hu v ng lc li khng hin hu2. Chng ta khng ch ni rng iu t mu thun th khng th tng tng c, v nguyn l bt-mu-thun l qui lut ti thng ca thc ti, ch khng ch l mt nh l hay nh ca tr tu dng gii thch thc ti. Nh vy, iu m chng ta thc s khng nh vi nguyn l ny chnh l: hu th th khng t mu thun vi chnh mnh. Tuy nhin, v tr nng ca chng ta c gng nhn bit thc ti nh n l, nn nguyn l u tin v hu th, theo mt cch thc phi sinh, cng l mt qui lut ca t tng: n cng l qui lut u tin ca lun l hc3. Do , chng ta cng c th tm thy nhng cng thc khc ca nguyn l u tin mang bn cht lun l, v lin h nhiu hn n tri thc ca ta v hu th. V d: chng ta khng th va khng nh

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va ph nh mt iu g v cng mt ch th trong cng mt lc v theo cng mt ngha, hoc nhng mnh mu thun v cng mt ch th th khng th ng lc l xc thc. Tr tu l ch th cho nguyn l bt mu thun. N khng th nhn bit hu th nh t mu thun, chnh xc l v hu th khng th t mu thun. D nhin, chng ta c th t mu thun vi chnh mnh khi suy ngh hoc ni nng, nhng iu ny ch xy ra khi chng ta lc xa thc ti do s khim khuyt trong vic suy lun. Khi mt ai ch cho ta thy ta mc phi sai st no, ta c khuynh hng sa li cho ng. Du sao, mc d chng ta c th qu quyt mt iu g mu thun, th n khng th no hiu c (it cannot possibly be understood). 3. TRI THC QUI NP V NGUYN L U TIN Mt cch t nhin v t pht, nguyn l bt mu- thun c mi ngi nhn bit qua kinh nghim. N l per se notum omnibus (t thn hin minh cho mi ngi). D nhin, n khng phi l mt phn on bm sinh, c tr tu chim hu trc khi bt u c tri thc thc s, hay l mt loi khung sn tr tu c np sn hiu c thc ti. din t c phn on ny, trc ht chng ta phi bit c nhng hn t ca n (hu th v v th). Chng l nhng khi nim m chng ta ch nm bt khi tr nng, thng qua nhng gic quan, hiu c thc ti bn ngoi v nhn bit nhiu hu th khc bit; v d, t giy ny, mt hu th phn bit khi ci my ch kia, phn bit khi khng giy (v th). V nhng iu trn l hai khi nim u tin m chng ta thnh lp, mi ngi nht nh phi nhn bit ngay qui lut bt mu-thun . D nhin, vo lc khi s tri thc, nguyn l ny khng c din t trong cng thc ph qut ca n khng th no mt s vt va c li va khng. Tuy nhin, n c nhn bit vi tm mc y , v ai ny u hnh ng ph hp vi n. Chng hn, ngay c mt a tr cng bit r rng n th chng ging vi khng n, v n c x ph hp vi tri thc . 4. TNH HIN MINH CA NGUYN L NY V LI BO V N NH LUN CHNG I NHN V l phn on u tin, nguyn l ny khng th c chng minh nh nhng chn l khc i trc n. Tuy nhin, chuyn khng th chng minh n, u phi l mt du hiu bt ton; ng hn, chng ta cn ni rng l mt du hiu ca s hon b. Khi mt chn l t mnh hin minh, th khng cn v cng khng th chng minh n. Ch c iu g khng trc tip hin minh mi i bng chng. Bn cnh , nu mi qu quyt u cn c chng minh nh n nhng khng nh khc, hn chng ta s chng bao gi t c mt s chn l t mnh hin minh. Nh vy th tri thc con ngi s khng c c s ti hu. Bo v nguyn l u tin chng li nhng ai ph nhn n Mc d chn l ca nguyn l bt mu-thun khng th c chng minh bng cch dng n nhng chn l hin minh khc (m thc ra lm g c th no nh vy), n vn c th c chng minh cch gin tip qua vic t r rng bt c ai ph nhn n u khng c g chc chn c. Tt nhin, mt lun chng kiu l hu dng, nhng n khng phi l mt bng chng cht ngha. Ngoi ra, s chc chn hoc gi tr tuyt i ca nguyn l bt mu-thun khng da trn nhng l chng gin tip nh th, nhng da trn tri gic t pht ca chng ta v hu th. Tuy nhin, ta c th s lc mt vi lun chng loi , nh c ghi trong sch Siu hnh hc ca Aristotle: a) Mun ph nhn nguyn l ny, ngi ta phi chi b mi ngha ca ngn ng. Nu hn t ngi li cng y nh l khng-phi ngi, th qu thc n chng cn ngha g c. T no cng m ch mi s v, do , li cng chng ni ln bt c iu g. Nh vy, mi thng tin v hiu bit gia nhng con ngi l khng kh thi. Do , bt c khi no c ai ni ln mt t, th ngi cng bit n nguyn l bt - mu-thun, v chc chn anh ta mun t phi c mt ngha mt iu no xc nh v phn bit vi iu i nghch vi n. Bng khng, ngi khng th ni nng r rng c (Cf. Metaphysic, IV, ch. 4). b) Phc ha nhng hiu qu ti hu t lun chng ad hominem ni trn, Aristotle qu quyt rng h ai chi b nguyn l u tin ny u c x nh loi thc vt, v ngay c nhng con vt cng di chuyn t mt mc tiu m chng a chung hn nhng th khc, chng hn khi chng i kim mi (cf. Ibidem).

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c) Ngoi ra, ph nhn nguyn l ny cng c ngha l chp nhn n, v khi bc b n, mt ngi cng nhn bit rng khng nh v ph nh th khng cng ngha. Nu mt ngi ch trng rng nguyn l bt - mu-thun l sai (false), th anh ta tha nhn rng ng (true) v sai l khng ng ngha (the same), do cng chp nhn ng ci nguyn l m anh ta mun kh tr (Cf. Metaphysics, XI, ch.5). Thuyt tng i nh mt kt qu ca vic ph nh nguyn l u tin D l hin minh, nguyn l bt mu-thun trn thc t vn b ph nhn bi nhiu trng phi t tng thi thng c (Heraclitus, Phi Ngy Bin, Phi Hoi Nghi) v, trong mt hnh thc trit v hu nhiu hn na ni thi i mi, bi mt s hnh thc trit hc bin chng (Marxism)4 v thuyt tng i duy s (historicist ralativism). Nhng hc thuyt trn gin lc thc ti vo nguyn vic thay i hoc bin dch: khng c iu g hin hu, mi s u thay i; khng c khc bit hoc i nghch gia hu th v v th. Lm nh vy, nhng hc thuyt trn ph nhn bn cht vng bn ca s vt, v ph nhn tnh vng bn ca vic hin hu cng vi nhng c tnh ca n. Do vy, khng c im chc chn no qui chiu, v khng c nguyn l t chn l tuyt i. H ch trng rng nhng hc thuyt i nghch nhau th c gi tr ngang nhau: mt pht biu th khng xc thc hn iu i nghch vi n. V khng th no t nn tng mi s trn h v (nothing), nn mt khi ph nhn hu th, th chnh con ngi c coi nh nn tng duy nht cho chn l5. Nn tng cn ct ca thc ti cng chnh l vic qui chiu n v mi c nhn: hin hu ca s vt c gin lc vo vic chng hin-hu-cho-ti, gin lc vo li s dng c th ca mi c nhn. Chng hn, nhng thc ti nh hn nhn v x hi khng c bn cht ring, cng chng c nhng qui lut iu hnh chng; ng hn, chng l thuc vo ngha m con ngi t gn cho chng. Nh vy, mi vic ph nhn nguyn l bt mu- thun qua dng lch s u c nh du bng mt ch thuyt tng i ch quan, tn cng i sng con ngi trn nhng lnh vc l thuyt v thc hnh. Tm quan trng ca nguyn l u tin s sng t hn trong lnh vc i sng lun l, v vic ph nhn nguyn l u tin ny cng ph hy lun s phn bit gia iu thin v iu c. Nh vy, nguyn l u tin trong lnh vc hnh ng ca con ngi lm lnh v lnh d b loi b. ng lc v chun mc c x ca con ngi s ch cn l ti mun lm iu ny, m khng l g n nhng chun mc lun l khch quan. 5. VAI TR CA NGUYN L U TIN TRONG SIU HNH HC V l qui lut ti thng v hu th, nguyn l bt mu-thun nm vai tr ch o trong ton b tri thc ca con ngi, c l thuyt ln thc hnh, bi l n dn dt chng ta trnh nhng khim khuyt trong tri thc v hot ng ca ta. Chng hn, Thin Cha s t mu thun vi chnh mnh, nu nh Ngi l ng v bin m li phi chu s bin ha qua dng lch s (nh Hegel ch trng); do , chng ta phi bc gi thuyt trn. Cng vy, tht l v l khi coi v tr nh vt cht t sinh (nh Marx ch trng), v s l chuyn mu thun nu c iu g li l cn nguyn ca chnh mnh. Nguyn l u tin kch thch tri thc siu hnh theo mt hng c bit, v n din t c im c bn ca hu th. Nguyn l bt mu-thun gip chng ta khm ph cu trc bn trong ca cc hu th cng nh cn nguyn ca chng. V d, khi chng ta phn tch bn cht thing ling ca nhng hnh vi nhn linh trong vic hiu bit v c mun, chng ta cm thy cn phi kt lun rng nguyn l cho nhng hnh vi (linh hn con ngi) cng phi l thing ling, v s l chuyn v l khi mt ch th vt cht li pht sinh nhng hnh vi thing ling. Cng vy, trong thn hc t nhin, hin hu gii hn ca mi s vt trong v tr s dn chng ta n kt lun rng c Thin Cha, v s l chuyn mu thun nu nh v tr c c mi c tnh ca nhng g c to nn m li khng c mt cn nguyn no. Chuyn hin hu (act of being) ca cc s vt l iu buc tr nng chng ta phi t n mt tri thc rng ln v su sc hn v thc ti m khng ri vo nhng mu thun. Tr nng chng ta nm bt phn cn li ca tri thc nh vo nguyn l bt mu-thun. V cng nh mi khi nim khc c bao hm trong khi nim ens, nhng li khng c nm bt t khi nim qua ng li phn tch hoc din dch, th cng vy, nguyn l u tin cng tim tng (implied) ni mi phn on, nhng phn cn li ca tri thc con ngi li khng th c din dch t . Ni cch cht ch, chng ta i n tri thc, khng phi l khi i t nguyn l bt mu-thun, nhng ng hn l nh din tin ph hp vi nguyn l . Nu ch nh nguyn phn on u tin ny, m khng bit c nhng cch thc hin hu khc do kinh nghim em li cho ta, th chng ta khng th tin b trong tri thc. Do , nguyn l bt mu-thun hu nh lun lun c dng cch mc nhin v gin tip, hu loi b nhng g l hm h, v dn tr tu chng ta n nhng gii php ng n.

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Mc d vai tr ca nguyn l u tin ch c hiu dn dn trong qu trnh nghin cu, nhng ta cng c th hiu i cht khi nhn thy rng cc trit gia tin b trong tri thc ca mnh ra sao, bi l h c dn dt bi nhu cu phng bt c mu thun no. Heraclitus, ngi tin phong ca ch thuyt tng i, ch trng rng thc ti l thun ty thay i hay bin dch, do ng ta ph nhn nguyn l bt mu-thun. i vi ng, khng g hin hu: mi s u thay i. V phn mnh, Parmenides mun ti lp chn l v hu th, i lp li vic gii th thc ti m Heraclitus ch trng. ng c mt pht biu thi danh: hu th th hin hu, cn v th th khng hin hu. Tuy nhin, v hiu nguyn l ny trong mt cung cch cng ngc, khng uyn chuyn, ng ph nhn bt c v th no, k c v th tng i. Do , ng ni rng mi hn ch, tng bi hoc bin i u l iu khng th. ng kt lun rng thc ti l mt hu th n l, ng b, bt bin. Plato khai trin mt nn Siu hnh hc tha nhn thc ti khuyt php (privation) v khng nh rng th gii kh gic thng d vo th gii Tng. Do , ng phi bao hm v tr gii hn trong phm vi hu th. Tuy nhin, chnh Aristotle mi l ngi nhn mnh n ngha thc t ca v th tng i c tm thy ni cc s vt, khi ng khm ph mt nguyn l hn ch c tht, c th l tim nng (potency). Do , ng nh thc nguyn l bt mu-thun mt cch sc so hn : mt vt khng th va c li va khng trong cng mt lc v theo cng mt ngha (Something cannot be and not be at the same time and in the same sense). 6. NHNG NGUYN L S YU KHC T C S TRN NGUYN L BT MU-THUN Gi y chng ta xt n nhng nguyn l s yu khc c lin h cht ch vi nguyn l u tin. a) Nguyn l kh tam (nguyn l loi tr ci th ba = principle of excluded middle). Nguyn l ny pht biu rng khng c trung gian gia hu th v v th, hoc khng c trung gian gia khng nh v ph nh. Phn on ny c ngha rng mt s vt th c hoc khng c, ch khng cn kiu no khc na, v do n cng gin lc vo nguyn l bt mu-thun. Khng th c iu g trung gian, bi l khng th va c li va khng trong cng mt lc. Nguyn l ny thng c s dng trong l lun, theo cng thc, mi mnh th nht thit phi l thc hay l gi. Mc d hin hu trong tim nng (being in potency) c th c coi nh im trung gian gia hu th v v th, nhng thc ra l n nm gia hin hu trong hin th (being in act) v khng hin hu trong hin th (not being in act) hoc tuyt i v th (absolute non- being). Nguyn l ny c gi tr i vi tim nng: khng g c th va trong hin th va trong tim nng cng mt lc, v theo cng mt ngha; khng c trung gian gia hin hu trong tim nng v khng hin hu trong tim nng. b) Nguyn l ng nht. Nguyn l ny pht biu rng hu th l hu th (being is being), hoc bt c iu g c, cng chnh l n (whatever is, is what it is), hoc hu th th hin hu, cn v th th khng hin hu (being is, and non-being is not). Mc d Aristotle cng nh thnh Thomas u khng ni n nguyn l ng nht nh mt nguyn l s yu, nhiu tc gi Tn-Kinh vin nu ln iu , v hu nh lun gin lc n vo nguyn l bt mu-thun. Nhiu khi, nhng nguyn l khc cng c hm cha trong cc nguyn l nn tng ni trn. V d, nguyn l nhn qu (principle of causality) (mi hiu qu u c cn nguyn hay nhng g bt u hin hu th phi c to thnh) v nguyn l cu cnh (principle of finality) (mi tc nhn u hot ng v mt mc tiu). Ni cht ch, nhng nguyn l trn khng phi l nhng nguyn l u tin, v chng lin h n nhng khi nim hn hp hn, v i sau nhng khi nim ens v non-ens (c bit nhng khi nim v cn nguyn, hiu qu, v mc ch). Do , chng gi thit nguyn l bt mu-thun, v chng c mt phm vi hn hp hn.

SCH C THM ARISTOTLE, Metaphysica, IV, ch. 3-8; XI, 4-6; SAINT THOMAS AQUINAS, In Metaph., IV lect. 517; XI, 4-6; S.th., I-II, q.94, a.2. GARRIGOU-LAGRANGE, Le sens commun, la philosophie de ltre et les formules dogmatiques, Beauchesne, Paris 1909. MANSER, La esencia del tomismo, C.S.I.C. Madrid 1953. L. ELDERS, Le premier principe de la vie intellective, in <<Revue Thomiste>> 62 (1962), pp. 571-586. P.C.COURTES, Cohrence de ltre et Premier Principe selon Saint Thomas dAquin, in <<Revue Thomiste>>, 70 (1970), pp. 387-423.

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PHN I : CU TRC SIU HNH CA HU TH. CHNG I: BN TH V PH TH

Sau khi xem xt bn cht v khi nim v hu th cng nh v nhiu thc ti c lin h cht ch vi hu th, gi y chng ta nghin cu nhiu cch thc hin hu nh nhng khi nim c bn trn soi sng. Trong s nhng cch thc hin hu, chng ta nhn thy c bn th v nhiu ph th, nhng th kin to nn nhng cch thc hin hu nn tng ca mi th to.

1. BN CHT BN TH V CC PH TH S lc hai cch thc hin hu Sau khi ghi nhn mt s bin i su sc hn, qua mt s vt khng cn l n na (nhng thay i bn th, chng hn mt c th sng ng cht i, hay vic bin i mt thnh t ho hc sang mt thnh t khc), chng ta cng thng ghi nhn nhng thay i ph th, qua mt vt ch thay i nhng kha cnh th yu, m khng mt i bn cht ca mnh. Chng hn, khi nc thay i nhit th n vn cn l nc; cng vy, mt con ngi cng vn tip tc l con ngi , ngoi tr mt s bin cch trong tnh trng cm xc hoc sc kho ca anh ta. Nhng thay i ph th cho thy ni nhng s vt c mt th nn bn vng bn th v mt s nhng hon b th yu c th i thay, tc l nhng ph th (the presence in things of both a stable, permanent substratum the substance and certain secondary changeable perfections, which are the accidents). Chng ta nhn thy c s khc bit r rng gia hai cch thc hin hu khi ta quan st thy ni mi hu th c mt ht nhn bn th chu nh hng bi nhiu bin thi ph th. V d, mt cy si l mt ch th n l vi nhiu c tnh th yu, nh mu sc, hnh dng l cy, vic sp xp nhng cnh, chiu caovv Vic miu t vn tt trn cho ta hiu rng mi con ngi u t pht c mt tri thc nht nh v yu tnh bn th v cc ph th, cho d mi ch l mt tri thc ht sc phin din. Ngi ta c th ni v vic thay i bn th ca mt lut l no , hay ch l mt vn ph th. Chng ta cng c th qui chiu n nhng bn th ha hc v cc c im ca chng, cc c im chnh l mt dng ph th c th. Gi y chng ta cn xc nh chnh xc hn na bn cht cc thc ti trn t c mt tri thc su sc hn v cc c im ca chng cng nh nhng tng quan h tng ca chng.

Bn th Bn th l yu t quan trng nht ni mi s vt, v chng ta thy n c hai kha cnh c bn. a) Trc ht, bn th l ch th hoc th nn cng ng cc ph th. Do , bn th l ci ng di (that which stands beneath). b) Vai tr trn ca bn th cng da trn bn cht ca bn th nh mt th g lp hu (something subsistent). iu ny c ngha l n khng hin hu ni mt th g khc, nhng hin hu t thn (is by itself), i nghch vi nhng ph th, vn cn n s h tr ca mt iu g khc, tc l bn th, m tn ti. Mt con ngi, mt con c, v mt con gu chng hn, u l nhng bn th, bi v chng t mnh ng vng hoc c s hin hu ring, phn bit khi hin hu ca bt c iu g khc. Tuy nhin, mu trng hay kch c hoc hnh dng, l nhng thc ti ph th vn i hi mt ch th c sn. Cu nh ngha v bn th c rt ra t c im th hai ny: bn th l thc ti, t yu tnh hay bn cht th hin hu t thn, ch khng hin hu ni mt ch th no khc (substance is that reality to whose essence or nature it is proper to be by itself and not in another subject). Nh vy, mt con ch l mt bn th, v xt theo bn cht, n c c im l t mnh ng vng, ngha l mt c th phn bit khi nhng c th khc cng nh mi trng chung quanh1. Cu nh ngha trn tht hu l khi pht biu rng bn th l ci m yu tnh hoc bn cht ca n th ph hp , thay v trc tip ni rng l mt hu th vn hin hu t thn. Trong phn nghin

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cu trn v hu th, chng ta thy rng esse c gin lc vo mt cch thc hin hu chuyn bit l nh bi yu tnh. V d, mt hu th loi bit l mt con ngi nh vo bn cht hoc yu tnh nhn loi ca ngi , vn em li cho anh ta mt cch thc hin hu chuyn bit, khc vi hin hu ca cc s vt khc. Nh cng mt bn cht , ngi ny l ch th c kh nng ng c lp (mt bn th)2. Tri li, cc ph th lun lun c tm thy ni mt s vt no . Do vy, khng th c mt mu trng lp hu, ng ra chng ta phi ni v mt bc tng trng, mt chic xe trng hoc mt chic o trng Ni cht ch, s d mt s vt l mt bn th ch khng phi l mt ph th, l nh yu tnh ca n hn l nh vo chuyn hin hu ca n. Do vy, trong cu nh ngha v bn th, cn phi nu ln yu tnh, v n chnh l nguyn l a dng ha hin hu. Do , chng ta c th thy c l do ti sao hn t yu tnh i khi c dng tng ng vi bn th. Yu tnh xc nh mt cch thc hin hu ca mt s vt, v bn th khng l g khc hn mt cch thc hin hu m lc ny chnh l s lp hu. Tuy nhin, yu tnh v bn th khng hon ton ng ngha vi nhau. C hai u lin quan n cng mt thc ti, nhng yu tnh ni ln thc ti trong mc n kin to nn mt cch thc hin hu c th hoc xc nh, qua thc ti nm trong mt loi nht nh (v d con ngi, con ch, tri cy), ang khi hn t bn th nhn mnh n vic c mt th nn cho cc ph th v vic n tip nhn chuyn hin hu nh l hin th ring ca n. Aristotle phn bit bn th s yu vi bn th th yu. Mt bn th s yu l mt bn th c bit vn tn ti trong thc t, ni mt hu th n l: v d bn th ca con nga ny, ca a tr kia, ca cy n, hay, mt cch tng qut hn, bn th ca mt iu g (hoc aliquid). Bn th th yu l khi nim ph qut hay tru tng v yu tnh ca bn th s yu. Nh vy, chng ta c th ni n nhng bn th chim , ngi, sodium, v carbon. Li hiu chuyn bit ny th da trn s kin l nh yu tnh m mt bn th s yu c th tn ti c lp, ng thi thuc v mt loi no .

Cc ph th Chng ta miu t cc ph th nh nhng hon b gn b vo mt ch th n l bn vng, v nh nhng xc nh th yu hoc ny sinh t ht nhn trung tm ca mt s vt. Do , c trng c bn ca chng l vic ph thuc vo bn th. V l do , mt ph th thng c nh ngha nh mt thc ti m theo yu tnh th ph hp vi vic hin hu ni mt s vt khc, nh trong ch th ca n (a reality to whose essence it is proper to be in something else, as in its subject). im c trng nht ca bn th l lp hu (to subsist), ang khi iu c trng nht ca mi ph th l hin hu ni ci khc (esse in or inesse). Bn th c mt bn cht hay yu tnh c c hin hu c lp, v iu t ch th vo mt loi (within a species). Cng vy, mi ph th u c yu tnh ring ca mnh, khin cho n khc bit vi nhng ph th khc, v n phi l thuc vo s hin hu ca mt ch th. V d, mu sc th c mt yu tnh phn bit khi yu tnh ca nhit , nhng du sao khng ci no c th ng lp hu. ng ra, c hai u hin hu trong bn th no . Cc ph th th khc bit nhau rt nhiu, nhng chng ta c th phn loi chng thnh bn nhm, chiu theo ngun gc ca chng: a) Nhng ph th thuc v loi (accidents which belong to the species): chng l nhng ph th ny sinh t nhng nguyn l loi bit ca yu tnh mt s vt, do chng l nhng c im chung cho mi c th thuc cng mt loi (v d, hnh dng ca mt con nga, nhng kh nng hiu bit v c mun ni con ngi); b) Nhng ph th lun gn lin vi mi c th (accidents which are inseparable from each individual): nhng ph th ny sinh t chuyn yu tnh hin din cch chuyn bit ni mt c th no , chng hn cao hoc thp, p hoc khng p, l mt ngi n ng hay mt ngi n b tt c nhng iu trn l nhng c im c th c mt nn tng vng bn ni ch th ca chng; c) Nhng ph th c th tch bit khi mi c th (accidents which are separable from each individual): nhng ph th ny, chng hn vic ngi hoc ng, bc i hoc nghin cu, th ny sinh t nhng nguyn l ni ti ca ch th chng, nhng chng ch nh hng n ch th mt cch thong qua;

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d) Nhng ph th ny sinh t nhn t ngoi lai (accidents which stem from an external agent): mt s trong nhng ph th c th l mnh lit, tc l, chng c p t trn ch th i nghch vi xu hng bnh thng ca bn cht (v d, cn bnh do virus); nhng th khc, tri li, c th hu ch cho ch th n nhn chng (v d vic gio dc nhn c t mt ngi khc). Nhng ph th siu hnh v lun l ng trn quan im Siu hnh hc, tc l xt n s hin hu ca cc s vt, th khng c trung gian gia bn th v cc ph th: bt c thc ti no cng u hin hu hoc t thn hoc ni vt khc. Nh vy, khng ngc nhin khi ta thy mt s c im quan trng ca con ngi, nh tr nng v ch, li c k vo s nhng ph th, v chng khng t mnh lp hu, m ch hin hu ni con ngi l ch th ca chng. Du hiu phn bit ca ph th khng phi ch chng khng quan trng my v do c th tuyt i b qua. c trng phn bit ph th chnh l vic chng phi gn vo mt th g hin hu. Thc ra c nhng ph th rt quan trng, chng hn vic c mun; v c nhng th khc km quan trng hn, chng hn vic ngi mt ch. Tuy nhin, trong lun l hc, v nhng ph th thuc nhm th nht nu trn c gn mt cch khn thit cho mi c th ca mt loi, nn chng mang mt danh hiu c bit, chnh xc hn: nhng ph th ring, hoc nhng c im. Nh vy, hn t ph th c dnh cho ba loi ph th kia, c th c tm thy hoc khng tm thy ni mt c th ca mt loi no . Do vy, ng trn quan im lun l hc, ngi ta c th coi nhng c im nh nhng thc ti cch no nm gia bn th v ph th. Theo li ni thng thng, hn t ph th c s dng theo mt ngha khc. N c coi nh ng ngha vi bt c th g ngoi lai v c t cn k, v ta c th b qua n. D nhin li hiu l sai lm, v cc ph th th gn b cht ch vi bn th : chng hn, i sng con ngi (nhng bn th) ph thuc rt nhiu vo thi v tp tnh lun l ca c nhn (nhng ph th).

2. VIC HIN HU THUC V BN TH Hin hu ca bn th v ph th Ni cht ch, iu hin hu ng ngha phi l iu c vic hin hu nh mt hin th thuc v chnh n, c ngha l iu g hin hu t thn, v chuyn ny ch ph hp vi bn th. Tri li, v nhng ph th khng lp hu, chng khng c hin hu (esse) theo ngha cht: ch c ch th ca chng, cch ny cch khc, mi hin hu, ph hp vi nhng ph th 3. Trng lng ca mt con nga khng hin hu t thn, c mu sc hoc hnh dng cng vy. Do , s l ng cch khi ta ni rng con nga th nng, hoc th trng, chnh xc l v l con nga c nhng ph th . Phn tch n cng, nhng ph th khng chim hu vic hin hu ca ring n; ng hn, chng ty thuc vo vic hin hu ca bn th ng lm ch th ca chng. Chng hn, mt khi trng lng 5kg ch hin din ni mt vt th c sc nng ring bit . iu ny khng c ngha rng nhng ph th chng l g c. Chng cng hin hu, c ngha rng chng l tht, theo mc chng to nn thnh phn ca mt bn th, v kin to nhng xc nh chuyn bit cho ch th . Do , cc ph th lun hm cha s bt ton, v hin hu ca chng h ti vic hin hu ni mt vt khc, chng ty thuc vo vt , v do vy l thnh phn kin to cho mt ch th no 4. Ta cng c th i ti kt lun rng cc ph th khng c vic hin hu ring ca chng, qua vic chng ta quan st vic sn sinh hay hy hoi. V sn sinh v hy hoi vic th c hoc nh mt hin hu nh hng ln iu c hin hu, nhng thut ng ny ch c p dng cho bn th. Chng hn, mu trng khng bao gi c sn sinh hay hy hoi; ng hn, cc vt th tr nn trng hay mt i mu trng nguyn thy ca mnh. Cc ph th khng bao gi c sn sinh hay hy hoi. Chng ta ch c th pht biu ng n rng cc ph th c sn sinh hay b hy hoi theo mc ch th ca chng bt u hin hu hay thi hin hu trong hin th ph hp vi cc ph th . Bn th l hu th (ens) theo ngha cht

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V vic hin hu thuc v bn th v ph th theo nhiu cch khc bit, nn chng c gi l nhng hu th theo ngha loi suy. Chng c phn ging nhau, v c hai th u hin hu; tuy nhin, ng thi chng cng c phn khc nhau, v bn th th hin hu nh vo chnh vic hin hu ca mnh, cn cc ph th ch hin hu v chng c chng bi bn th. Do , ch c bn th mi c gi l hu th ng ngha; cn cc ph th ng ra phi gi l iu g thuc v hu th. Trong cc thc ti loi suy, lun lun c mt thc ti m thut ng loi suy c p dng ch yu cho n v theo mt ngha ph hp; sau n mi c p dng cho nhng th khc v chng c lin quan n iu trn5. Chng hn, nhiu ngha khc nhau ca t do, nh t do chnh tr, t do ngn lun, t do gio dc, u hng v ngha u tin, l t do ca ch con ngi. Trong trng hp hu th, iu loi suy chnh yu (principal analogue) l bn th, cn cc ph th l nhng loi suy th yu, ch c gi l hu th v l chng c tng quan vi bn th (n ni khi bn th c ly i, th nhng ngha khc ca hu th cng bin mt). Theo ngha ny, bn th l nn tng v c s cho mi li hin hu. Cc ph th c th c gi l hu th v chng lin quan n bn th; chng c th l lng hoc phm ca bn th , hoc l bt c kha cnh xc nh no khc. 3. PHC HP BN TH V PH TH Sau khi nghin cu bn cht ca tng cch hin hu, gi y chng ta nn ch ti cch thc chng tng quan vi nhau ni mi hu th c bit. Phn bit thc s Mt bn th v cc ph th ca n th thc s phn bit nhau. Ta hiu iu ny sng t qua vic quan st nhng thay i ph th, trong mt s hon b th yu bin mt v m ng cho mt s hon b mi, cn chnh bn th li khng h i sang mt bn th mi. Ch c th c nhng thay i nh vy nu nh cc ph th khc bit thc s khi bn th m chng nh hng ti. V d, mu sc ca mt tri to l mt iu g thc s phn bit khi chnh tri to, v tri to thay i mu sc khi n chn, nhng n vn khng thi l tri to. Nhng ph th d dng thay i khng phi l nhng ph th duy nht thc s phn bit khi bn th. Mi ph th, do chnh yu tnh ca chng, th phn bit khi ch th cng ng chng. V d, tnh cch kh phn th t bn cht l ph hp vi lng tnh, ang khi bn th xt t thn phi l n nht v bt kh phn. Tng quan l mt s quy chiu v mt iu khc; tri li, bn th l iu g ng c lp. Bn th c s bn vng ca ring mnh, thc s khc bit vi s bn vng ca cc ph th v vt trn s bn vng . Bn th xc nh ngha c bn ca cc s vt v khin cho chng tr thnh chnh chng (mt bng hoa, mt con vt, mt con ngi). Tri li, cc ph th ty thuc vo ht nhn bn th, v ng lc chng kin to nn nhng kha cnh xc nh ca bn th. Tnh n nht ca vt phc hp Phn bit thc t gia bn th v cc ph th dng nh lm gim nh tnh n nht ca mt hu th c th. Thc ra, y l kt qu ny sinh t nhng l thuyt coi bn th nh mt th nn tch bit khi cc ph th, v hu nh ch t chng gn k vi nhau mt cch ri rc. Tuy nhin, cn nhn mnh rng phn bit thc t gia bn th v cc ph th khng hy hoi tnh n nht ca hu th (real distinction substance and accidents does not destroy the unity of the being). Bn th v cc ph th khng phi l nhiu hu th tp kt vi nhau to nn mt ton khi, nh kiu nhiu yu t trang tr khc nhau c phi hp to nn mt cn phng. Ch c mt hu th theo ngha cht, c th l bn th; tt c nhng g cn li u thuc bn th. Chng hn, mt cy khng ngng l mt s vt n l, mc d n c nhiu c tnh ph th. Cc ph th l nhng thc ti khng y , khng t tr c thm vo mt bn th; chng ch l nhng kha cnh xc nh ca bn th, vn b tc cho bn th, do khng lm ny sinh nhiu s vt c xp gn nhau (juxtaposed things). Tnh n nht ca vt phc hp cng tr nn hin nhin trong trng hp cc hot ng. Chng hn mt ng vt th hin nhiu hnh ng, nhng nhng hnh ng khng h ph b tnh thng nht ca ng vt. Tri li, ton b hot ng ca n to nn mt ton khi hip nht hi ha, v l ch c mt ch th n c hot ng. Trong trng hp con ngi, th khng phi tr khn hiu bit, cng khng phi ch c mun; ng hn, chnh ngi v mi hiu v c mun nh nhng nng lc tng quan n, v do mi hot ng ca ngi v u thm nhim tnh n nht ang nm n.

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Thuyt duy nghim (Empiricism) l mt trit thuyt coi bn th nh mt iu g bn vng v khng thay i nm di dng chy cc thay i ph th. Nh vy, trong quan im duy nghim v thc ti, ngi ta khng th ni ti s n nht gia bn th v cc ph th, nhng ch c th ni n mt s cn k gia nhiu s vt khc nhau. Thuyt duy nghim coi bn th nh mt th g tn ng hon ton t tng m ngi ta c th b qua. Ta cn phi nhn mnh nhiu ln rng cc ph th th thuc v bn th, v do mi thay i ph th u nh hng ln bn th, nhng ch theo cch ph th. Esse l gc r cho tnh n nht ca bn th v cc ph th Mt hu th l mt ton b no c cu to bi mt bn th v mt s ph th. Chng u l cc yu t to nn mt th thng nht (n v = unity), v khng hin hu tch bit nhau. Khng ph th no hin hu ngoi bn th ca n, v khng bn th no hin hu ngoi cc ph th ca mnh6. Tuy nhin, nhng thc ti trn nm nhiu mc khc nhau, v nhng ph th tu thuc vo s hin hu ca bn th ch khng cn cch no khc. Do , vt phc hp hin hu nh vic hin hu (act of being = actus essendi) ca bn th, trong mi ph th u c chia s. Mi s vt ch c mt vic hin hu. Nh vy, ton b thc ti bn th v ph th ca mt hu th hin hu nh mt vic hin hu n l m, ni mt cch thch hp, hin hu thuc v bn th (the entire substantial and accidental reality of a being is by virtue of a single act of being, which, properly speaking, belongs to the substance). Mt hu th c esse ph hp vi cch thc c xc nh bi yu tnh loi bit ca n, tc l yu tnh ca bn th. Hon b bn th ny, li lm ny sinh mt lot rng ri cc hon b ph th ph hp vi cch hin hu chuyn bit . Do , mi con ngi l mt hu th n l chim hu vic hin hu ph hp vi yu tnh hay bn cht nhn loi ca ngi . T cp hon b ca hu th, ny sinh nhng hon b ph th ca ngi : chng hn, mt kt cu vt th no , mt mc cm v v nhng nng lc vn ng, cng nh nhng hot ng tinh thn. Mt hu th c mt vic hin hu (actus essendi), l vic hin hu ca bn th. D khng c hin hu ring ca mnh, th cc ph th cng vn c tht, nh vic hin hu ca bn th. Tuy nhin, c mt s ngi thuc phi Thomas li ch trng cc ph th c mt hin hu ring ca chng, phn bit khi hin hu ca bn th. Nhng pht biu c khuynh hng gim nh tnh n nht trit ca mt hu th. i khi Thnh Thomas s dng nhng thut ng esse substantiale v esse accidentale. Tuy nhin, trong nhng trng hp , thut ng esse khng c ngha l actus essendi cch cht ngha; n c dng theo mt ngha tng qut hn c ngha l thc t (esse in actu); mi hu th th nht nh phi c mt s thc ti ph th phn bit khi thc ti bn th ca n, nhng hu th ch c nhng ph th ni trn nh vo mt esse n l, v esse ny ng ra thuc v bn th. Ba cch tng quan gia bn th v cc ph th a) Bn th l th nn cho cc ph th (The substance is the substratum of the accidents), khng ch theo mc bn th chng cc ph th, nhng cn theo mc n em li vic hin hu cho cc ph th. b) Bn th l cn nguyn ca cc ph th ny sinh t n. V d, hnh th (shape) ca mt con vt l hiu qu ca nhng nguyn l ct yu ca n, v v l do ny, mi c th ca cng mt loi u c hnh th ging nhau. c) Bn th c mt kh nng th ng (a passive capacity) n nhn nhng hon b m cc ph th em li cho n, nhng ph th c gi l cc hnh th ph th; v d, nhng hot ng (tc l nhng ph th) l mt loi hon b m bn th c tim nng th hin. Mi tng quan gia bn th v cc ph th dng nh l iu nghch l: mt ng, bn th l cn nguyn cho cc ph th, nhng ng thi bn th li trong tim nng tip nhn cc ph th. S nghch l ny c gii quyt ngay khi ta hiu rng bn th v cc ph th l hai nguyn l ca mt s vt i hi ln nhau v khng th tn ti tch bit nhau. Hn na, trong tng quan vi cc ph th, bn th khng l hin th v tim nng theo cng mt quan im, nhng t nhng quan im phn bit nhau. Bn th l ph th i vi nhng ph th theo mc n cho cc ph th chia s hin hu ca n, ang khi bn th li thuc tim nng (is potential) i vi cc ph th theo mc n c hon thin bi cc ph th ring ca mnh. Do , mt ngi th hin mt s hot ng, vn tun tro t tnh thc hu ni bn th ca mnh; ng thi, cng nhng hot ng li nh hng ln ngi y v em li cho ngi y hon b ln hn.

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4. TRI THC CA TA V BN TH V PH TH Cch thc chng ta nhn bit bn th v ph th c xc nh bi nhng bn cht tng ng v nhng mi tng quan h tng ca chng. Trc ht, phc hp bn th ph th c nhn bit bi tr khn da trn nn tng nhng d kin m gic quan em li (the substance-accident composite is known through the intelligence on the basis of the data provided by the senses). Nhn thc gic quan lun quy chiu trc tip v cc ph th ca mt s vt; tri li, tr khn chng ta, thng qua cc ph th, nm bt c ngun mch v nn tng ca chng, tc l bn th. D nhin, iu ny ch c th xy ra v l cc ph th khng ging nh tm mn che giu bn th: tri li, cc ph th vn m bn th. V c i tng ring l hu th, nn tr nng khng b gii hn vo chuyn nm bt nhng kha cnh ngoi bin hn ca s vt, nhng n nhn bit bt c th g hin hu, ngha l ton b hu th vi tt c nhng c tnh thc t ca hu th. Nh vy, tr nng nm bt hu th nh mt ton khi, c cu to bi bn th v cc ph th. Vic phn bit gia bn th v cc ph th ch c nm bt qua tr nng. iu ny khng th t c nh gic quan ngoi hay ni v nhng quan nng ch tri gic nhng ph th7. Trong tin trnh nhn bit hu th c bit ca mt loi, chng ta lun qua li t bn th n cc ph th, v ngc li. cho sng t hn, chng ta nn phn bit ba giai on nhn thc : a) Trc ht, iu chng ta c c l mt nhn thc cn m h v iu phc hp. Khi chng ta bt gp mt i tng cha bit c, cha quen thuc bn cht ca n, lp tc chng ta hiu rng nhng phm tnh m gic quan chng ta nm bt (v d, mu sc, hnh th, kch c) khng phi l nhng thc ti c lp nhng l mt ton b c thng nht qua vic tt c chng u thuc v mt bn th. D l giai on khi u vic nhn bit mt i tng nh th, th chng ta vn bit rng cc ph th l nhng biu l th yu ca mt ch th vn hin hu t thn, cho d chng ta khng bit c bn th thuc loi no. Nht l v hu th l iu c tr nng ta nhn bit u tin, v theo ngha cht th ch bn th mi l hu th, nn tr nng chng ta khng th nm bt cc ph th m ng thi li khng nm bt ch th ca chng. b) Tip n, t cc ph th chng ta tin n bn th. Khi m ch th ca cc ph th ch c nhn bit mt cch m h, th cc ph th, vn biu l bn th, tr nn ng li t nhin nhn bit bn th l g, tc l nhn bit yu tnh hay bn cht ca bn th. Cc ph th ca mt con ngi (hnh th, nhng hot ng) chng hn, s dn chng ta n yu tnh ca con ngi: l ng vt c l tnh. Do , c th ni c rng, khi i t nhng kha cnh bn ngoi ca mt hu th, chng ta dn d nm bt nhng kha cnh su xa, ni thn hn ca n. Chng ta thm nhp ht nhn bn th t nhng biu l ngoi bin hn. c) T bn th, chng ta quay tr li cc ph th. Mt khi chng ta khm ph yu tnh ca mt s vt, tri thc ny tr nn mt nh sng mi m hn, soi sng mi ph th ny sinh t bn th. N gip chng ta c c mt khi nim tho ng hn v mi mt ph th v v nhng mi tng quan gia chng. Chng ta khng cn nhn bit chng ch thun tu l nhng biu l b ngoi ca iu g , m bn cht cn m h i vi chng ta. ng hn, chng ta nhn bit chng nh nhng biu l ph hp cho mt cch thc hin hu ring bit. Mt khi chng ta nhn bit yu tnh ca mt con ngi chng hn, chng ta c th nm bt d dng hn na nhng ph th khc bit ca hn, v chng ta bit rng chng ny sinh t bn cht con ngi v l thuc vo bn cht . iu ny gip chng ta nm bt ngha thc t ca chng tt hn. Chng hn, chng ta c th nm bt nhiu hot ng ca con ngi nh hiu qu ca mt hot ng c suy ngh v t do, m iu ny li chnh l hiu qu ca yu tnh loi bit ca con ngi, v do , chng ta c th nm bt chng trong chiu kch thc t ca chng. Bng khng, cho d chng ta c th t c mt miu t ht sc chi tit v cc hot ng ca con ngi v thnh cng trong vic o lng nhiu kha cnh ca hnh vi nhn loi, th tri thc ca ta v nhn v vn ht sc ngho nn; thm ch chng ta cn khng th nhn ra rng con ngi c mt linh hn thing ling v bt t. Tm li, ta c th ni rng nhn thc ca ta khi u t nhng c im kh gic ca s vt, c tri gic nh nhng biu l ca mt s vt vn c hin hu. Nhng c im ny by t yu tnh cho ta, v n lt cc ph th li c coi nh ny sinh t bn th ny, bn th vn cho chng ta nh sng hiu bit v cc ph th tt hn na. D nhin, tin trnh ny khng tri qua v hon tt ngay trong mt lc. Thc vy, mt dng chy bt tn chnh l c im cho nhn thc ca ta, khi ta di ng t nhng ph th

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sang bn th, v t bn th sang nhng ph th, s dn dn th c mt tri thc su xa hn v c hai th .

SCH C THM

ARISTOTLE, Metaphysica, VII, ch. 1-6. SAINT THOMAS, In Metaph., VII, lect. 1; C.G. I, 25. R. JOLIVET, La notion de substance, (Essai historique et critique sur le dveloppement des doctrines d Aristote nos jours), Beauchesne, Paris 1929.

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CHNG II: CC PHM TR

1. KHI NIM V CC PHM TR (CATEGORIES)

Bn th v cc ph th l nhng cch thc hin hu c bn m mi thc ti u c th gin lc vo. Mc d nhng hon b ph th cho thy mt s a dng ng k, ta vn c th xp loi chng thnh 9 nhm. Bn th v 9 loi ph th kin to nn mi lp ti thng (hoc ging) ca hu th m chng ta gi l cc phm tr. Nhng phm tr ni ln nhng cch thc hin hu thc t1. V hu th c phn nh trong nhn thc v trong ngn ng, nn nhng cch thc hin hu cng c ni kt hu l i vi nhng nhm thuc t tng ng m ta c th gn cho mt s vt2. Thc t, iu ny c ngun gc Latinh l predicamenta, cng ng ngha vi hn t gc Hy lp categories. Qu vy, cun sch Aristotle vit v lun l mang ta Cc Phm tr (The Categories). Trc khi bn n tng loi phm tr, chng ta c th nu ln mt s v d soi sng. Chng hn, ta c th ni v Phr, rng anh ta l mt con ngi (bn th), rng anh ta th tt (phm cht), rng anh ta th cao (lng), rng anh ta l con ng Antn (tng quan), rng anh ta trong phng ( u), rng anh ta ngi (v th), rng anh ta c mt cy vit ch (chim hu), rng anh ta n vo lc 7 gi (khi no), rng anh ta ang vit (hot ng), rng anh ta ang kht (th ng). V bn kh v bn th, gi y chng ta s xem xt bn cht ring bit ca mi mt trong cc phm tr khc. Mt c im chung ca mi ph th l bm vo mt bn th, c ngha rng chng trong (esse in) mt ch th, vic ny khin cho chng l nhng ph th. D nhin, mi ph th u c mt yu tnh ring, qua n xc nh bn th theo mt cch thc phn bit. Chng hn, c lng ln phm u trong bn th v chia s hin hu ca bn th, nhng lng em li cho bn th trng , trng lng v khi lng, ang khi phm xc nh bn th theo nhng cch thc khc, chng hn em li cho bn th mu sc, cng, mi v nht nh. Ni cch cht ch, yu tnh ca mi mt thc ti ph th khng th nh ngha c, v chng l nhng ging ti cao, v ch c khi nim hu th mi tng qut hn chng. Bn cnh , chng l nhng thc ti hin minh trc tip, c nhn bit qua kinh nghim (v d, lng, v cc phm cht nh mu sc hay hnh th, u c nhn bit trc tip nh cc gic quan). Tuy nhin, chng c th c miu t v c minh ha bng cc v d. 2. PHN LOI CHN GING TI CAO trn chng ta xp loi cc ph th theo ngun gc ca chng. Gi y chng ta xp loi chng theo yu tnh ca chng, ngha l chiu theo nhng cch thc ring bit m chng nh hng ln bn th. a) Trc ht, c nhng ph th nh hng cch ni ti n bn th; nhm ny bao gm lng v phm, (vn xc nh bn th ni chnh n v theo mt cch thc tuyt i) v nhng tng quan, (vn xc nh bn th bng cch qui chiu n nhng th khc). Mi bn th vt th hoc vt cht u c mt lng nht nh, c t by ni trng , kch c hoc khi lng ca chng: ph th ny l chung cho mi vt th v n ny sinh t vt cht. Cc phm cht l nhng ph th khin cho bn th thuc v loi ny hay loi kia, v chng ny sinh t yu tnh ca bn th (hoc, ni cht ch hn, t hnh th ca bn th). Do , mi loi bn th u c mt s phm cht nht nh, t nh mu sc hoc hnh th nht nh, v mt s kh nng hot ng no . V chng ny sinh t hnh th, nn cc phm cht cng c tm thy ni cc bn th khng thuc vt cht, tc l ni cc bn th thing ling. Trong trng hp cc vt th, nhng phm cht nh hng ln bn th nh lng: chng hn, mu sc cn n s h tr ca mt mt phng; nhit lun lun thuc v mt th g tri rng ra. Cc mi tng quan, vn c coi nh nhng ph th ngoi lai nu xt n nhng tn im ca chng, xc nh bn th qua vic qui chiu n nhng th khc. Chng hn, tnh huynh l mi tng

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quan h tng gia cc ngi anh em. T h l tng quan thuc v mt con ngi khi qui chiu n cha m ngi . b) Tip n c nhng ph th ngoi lai, nh hng thc s ln bn th, khng phi trong v do bn th, nhng ch theo cch thc bn ngoi v qua mi tng quan ca bn th vi nhng vt th khc. V d, ni ny hoc ni kia, khng lm thay i mt con ngi t bn trong, iu m vic th c mt phm cht mi m c th lm c. Cng nh bt c ph th no khc, nhng ph th ngoi lai th ni bn th m chng nh hng ti, v nh bn th m chng c c hin hu. Nhng nn tng trc tip ca chng li l mt trong nhng ph th ni ti: chng hn, mt vt th mt ni chn, chnh xc l v n c trng , ging nh nhng vt th khc m n tip xc. u (where = ubi) l vic chim ch ca bn th : ph th ny sinh ni mt vt th bi v vt th ni ny hoc ni kia. S hin din ca mt vt th mt ni chn l mt ph th thc s nh hng ln s vt c nh ch, v n em li cho s vt mt mi tng quan vi nhng vt th khc. Tuy nhin, u khng em li mt s thay i ni ti no cho ch th; n ch xc nh ch th trong mi tng quan vi nhng bn th vt th khc gn m thi. V th (position = situs) l cch thc hin hu ca mt vt th ti mt ni chn, chng hn ngi, ng, qu, hoc khom lng. N khc bit vi u v n lin quan n vic sp xp ni ti gia cc phn ca vt th ang chim ch. Mt vt th c th nhiu v th khc nhau trong cng mt ni chn. Chim hu (possession = habitus) l ph th ny sinh khi bn th c iu g tip gip hoc st ngay bn n, (mc y phc, s dng mt cy vit, mang mt chic ng h). Theo ngha cht, ch con ngi mi c kh nng chim hu mt iu g ; nh vy, ni cch chnh xc, habitus ch dnh ring cho con ngi. Khi no (when = quando) l hon cnh thi gian ca mt bn th vt th. V vt th l vt cht, nn chng l ch th cho nhng thay i lin tc, v tri qua nhiu giai on. Vic o lng nhng thay i chnh l thi gian, v khi no m ch khonh khc chuyn bit vo bt c thi im no trong vic thay i . Do , n l mt ph th nh hng n nhng hu th vt cht trong mc chng thay i tim tin. c) Sau cng, c mt s ph th phn l ni ti v phn l ngoi lai. C v s nhng tng tc lin tc gia cc vt th kin to nn th gii vt cht; chng lm ny sinh nhng ph th hot ng v th ng. Hot ng (Action) l ph th ny sinh ni mt bn th theo mc n l nguyn l tc nhn cho s chuyn ng hoc thay i ni mt ch th khc. Chng hn, vic y mt ci bn, un si nc l nhng hot ng, khng phi xt chng ti thn, nhng xt ch chng c coi nh nhng hot ng ny sinh t mt tc nhn vn lm nguyn l cho s thay i din ra bi mt iu khc. D nhin, chnh vic thay i th thuc v nhng phm tr khc; chuyn ng ni chn thuc v ubi, vic tri rng thuc v lng, v nhng thay i nhit thuc v phm. Th ng (Passion) ny sinh ni nhng vt th theo mc chng l nhng ch th n nhn hot ng ca nhng th khc. V l mt iu g c tc ng ln, nhiu khi ch th th ng c gi l th nhn (patient). N l ph th tng ng vi hot ng v, ni mt cch cht ch, n n nhn mt tc ng din tin t vt khc. Nhng v d nu trn, chng hn vic c un nng trong trng hp ca nc, th thuc v phm tr th ng theo mc chng c gy ra bi mt tc nhn ngoi lai. Theo ngha cht, hai ph th tng ng ni trn ch c tm thy ni nhng hot ng ngoi chuyn c tc nhn em n t bn ngoi, chng hn vic un nng hoc vic ct. Tri li, nhng hot ng tinh thn th ni ti, c ngha rng chng kt thc ni cng mt nng lc m t chng pht sinh. Khi mt con ngi hiu bit hoc tng tng mt iu g chng hn, th khng c hiu qu no ny sinh bn ngoi tr nng hoc tr tng tng. C mt trt t ni cc ph th Mc d trn ta thy rng bn th l ch th ph hp cho mi ph th, v ch mnh bn th mi lp hu, th mt ph th vn c th c gi l ch th cho mt ph th khc, theo mc iu sau gn b hoc ng ti bn th thng qua iu trc. V d, mu sc l mt phm cht nh hng ln bn th vt th thng qua lng ca vt th; bn th no khng c lng th cng khng c mu sc.

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Cng vy, mt ph th c th c coi l trong tim nng i vi mt ph th khc. Chng hn, mt vt th trong sut c th c chiu sng, v bt c iu g c lng th cng c kh nng mt ni chn khc vi ni chn m lc ny n ang chim ch. Sau cng, mt s ph th c th c coi l cn nguyn cho nhng ph th khc, chng hn vic ngi cha sinh ra mt ngi con lm ny sinh nhng mi tng quan cha con, v nhn c cng bng (mt phm cht) kin to nn cn nguyn cho nhng cng vic ngay chnh. Nhng mi tng quan h tng nh vy lm ny sinh mt trt t nht nh gia cc ph th, v theo ngha ny, lng c coi l ph th u tin ca nhng bn th vt th, v mi ph th khc u bn r ni bn th nh lng. Cc ph th gn b ni nhng thc ti vt cht, c bit l lng, th c nghin cu nhiu hn trong Trit Hc v Thin Nhin. Phm cht v tng quan l hai dng ph th m Siu hnh hc nghin cu k cng hn, v nhng ph th ny c th c tm thy ni bt c bn th th to no, ch khng ring g nhng bn th vt cht. 3. PHM CHT T yu tnh, mi bn th u c cch thc hin hu ring (n thuc loi ny hay loi kia). Do nhng yu tnh ring bit ca chng, cc bn th khc nhau, ngoi v bn trn nhng yu t xc nh nn tng, cng chim hu mt s c tnh ph th b tc cho nhng nt ring bit ca chng. Chng l mt s phm cht, t nh hnh th, mu sc, cng, nhit , kh nng hot ng (hay nng lng), nhng nt c trng, v cc sc lc. Phm cht l mt ph th nh hng ni ti ln bn th ti thn, khin cho bn th hin hu theo cch ny hoc cch khc. c im ny khin cho phm khc bit vi nhng phm tr khc, v khng ph th no khc xc nh tnh cht hoc to dng cho bn th. Chng hn, lng gi gn trong vic em li trng cho bn th; cn tng quan th nh hng ln bn th qua vic quy chiu n nhng hu th khc phn bit khi n. Nhng ph th khc cn mang tnh ngoi lai nhiu hn. Lng nht thit ny sinh t vt cht, do n l ph th c bn cho th gii vt cht. Tri li, phm cht ny sinh t hnh th v c tm thy c ni bn th vt cht ln tinh thn. Phm cht v tng quan l nhng loi ph th duy nht c tm thy trong lnh vc thing ling. l l do ti sao chng c Thn hc lu c bit, v nhiu thc ti siu nhin thuc v ging ti cao ca phm cht (v d, n sng, nhn c, hng n, du n b tch). Nhng Loi Phm cht C nhiu loi phm cht khc bit nhau. C nhng phm cht tinh thn, nh ch v nhng tng; v nhng phm cht vt cht, nh s mm mi v nng lng vn ng. Mt s phm cht c th c gic quan nm bt, nh mi v v nhng m thanh. S khc khng c nhn bit nhng ch c bit n nh hiu qu ca chng, nh t tnh, sc ht, i lc ho hc. C nhng phm cht thuc v mt loi v nhng phm cht khc li c tm thy ni mt s c th, theo mt cch thc bn vng hoc thong qua. Mng rng ri cc phm cht va nu c th tm li thnh bn nhm c bn3. a) Nhng phm cht c th i thay (Alterable qualities = passibiles qualitates) l nhng phm cht nh hng ln bn th theo cch thc khin cho bn th n nhn c s thay i vt l. Nhit , mu sc v m thuc v loi phm cht ny, v nhng vt th c th c bin i theo nhng phm cht (chng tr nn m hn hoc lnh hn, thay i mu sc, m t hoc kh ro). Nm trong nhm ny, c mt s phm cht bn vng hn v mt s khc ch thong qua. Nc da t nhin ca mt con ngi kh m i thay, l v d cho nhng phm cht bn vng, ang khi mt s mc c, ch thong qua, l mt v d cho loi phm cht sau. Ni chung, cc phm cht kh bin tc ng nh kch thch cho gic quan v chng to nn i tng ring ca gic quan. b) Hnh th v dng (Shape and Figure) l nhng phm cht ca vt th vn xc nh gii hn ca lng, v em li cho lng nhng chiu kch nht nh. Mc d nhng thut ng trn thng c s dng ln ln, chng vn c nhng ngha ring bit trong Siu hnh hc. Hn t dng (figure) thng c s dng ni ln nhng ng nt t nhin ca bn th vt th, m khng thm vo mt ngoi c bit no (v d, dng ca mt con chim, ca mt con ngi). Hn t hnh th hay dng (form), tri

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li, c mt ngoi nht nh gia nhng phn ca mt s vt, khin cho s vt gy thch th; do hn t ny thng c p dng cho nhng hu th nhn to c nhng phn tht cn xng. c) Nhng nng lc hot ng (operative powers) l nhng phm cht khin cho bn th pht sinh mt s hot ng. Chng cng c gi l nhng quan nng (faculties) hoc nhng nng lc hot ng. Chng bao gm tr khn, ch, v k c, khin cho mt con ngi c kh nng hiu bit, c mun v hi nim. Nng lc di chuyn ni chn ng vt, kh nng sinh sn ca cy ci, nng lng nng ng ca nhng hu th v hn, l nhng v d khc v nhng nng lc hot ng. Chng l nhng nguyn l gn cho hot ng ca bn th. Mt s trong chng, nh ta thy, cn hon b hn na cc tp tnh hot ng t mc tiu cch tha ng. d) Nhng tp tnh (habits) l nhng phm cht n nh qua mt ch th c sp sn tt hoc xu i vi mt hon b ph hp vi bn cht (entitative habits, nh khe mnh hoc yu au, p hoc xu) hoc vi hnh vi v mc tiu (operative habits, nh nhn c hoc nt xu, hiu bit hoc dt nt). iu khin cho tp tnh khc vi nhng phm cht khc chnh l vic chng th tt hoc xu (v d sc khe th tt cho mt con ngi; mt nhn c th tt, ang khi, tri li, nt xu th xu). Do chng c mt tm nh hng ln trong lnh vc lun l, thin v c c ngha trn vn v cht ch4. Nhng tp tnh hot ng (operative habits) c th c phn loi chiu theo nhng quan nng m chng hon thin. Do , c nhng tp tnh hot ng ti tr nng (nhn thc, khn kho), ni ch (c cng bnh), trong tham dc gic quan theo mc tham dc ny chu khut phc trc tr nng v ch (c mnh m v tit ). Chng cng c th c xp loi chiu theo ngun gc. Do , c nhng tp tnh hot ng t nhin (nhng tp tnh c th c, nh ngh thut v tnh thnh tht) v nhng tp tnh hot ng siu nhin (nhng tp tnh c Thin Cha ph bm, nh nhng nhn c i thn v nhng nhn c lun l ph bm). Phm tr nhng tp tnh cng bao gm nhng sp sn (dispositions), c c im kh bt n, v chng khng bn r su ni ch th. Nhng sp sn c th d dng mt i, cho du chng c th c n nh ni ch th t tr thnh cc tp tnh. V d, mt ngi mun tr thnh nhn c c th bt u ch bng nhng sp sn tt lnh, nhng sau cng c th th c nhng tp tnh tt lnh qua vic lin l phn u c nhng sp sn tt lnh. Tng t nh vy, mt kh nng t nhin ni, thng qua vic lp i lp li, c th tr thnh ngh thut din ging vi nhng du n c bit ca mt tp tnh hay mt hon b c th c vng bn. 4. TNG QUAN V tr khng c kin to bi nhng hu th c lp khi nhau. Gia chng c c mt mng nhng mi tng quan: tng quan tng t, ty thuc, hp tc, nhn qu, ng ng, vv Tng quan l mt ph th c bn cht l mt qui chiu hoc xu hng ca mt bn th i vi mt bn th khc. ang khi nhng ph th ni ti nh lng v phm nh hng ln bn th lin quan n yu tnh ti thn bn th, th tng quan li ch l mt qui chiu n iu khc, sp t m mt ch th c i vi nhng hu th khc n. N l hin hu- hng v-ci khc (to be- towards-another) hoc hin hu hng n (esse ad aliud or esse ad). Chng hn, t h l mt ph th ni kt mt con ngi vi b m ca anh ta. Mc d n da trn s kin l mt ngi con n nhn s sng t cha m, th t h ti thn (sonship in itself) khng hn g mt mi tng quan hoc qui chiu, chng thm mt cht c trng ni ti mi m no cho ch th. Ni mi ph th c hai yu t: (i) bn cht hay yu tnh, vn xc nh cch thc c bit m n nh hng ln bn th, v (ii) s bm vo (inherence) hay hin hu trong (being in) bn th (esse in). ang khi bn cht ca nhng ph th khc li ko vic hin hu trong bn th, v chng l nhng yu t xc nh ca chnh bn th (lng l mt o lng bn th vt cht, nhng phm cht nh hng ln ch th ca chng) th tri li, tng quan khin cho bn th i ra khi chnh mnh (get out of itself), hng v ci khc; yu tnh ca n l hin hu hng v (esse ad). Do tng quan xt nh mt ph th th bt ton v yu km, v xt t thn, n ch thun ty l mt qui chiu n (reference to). Nhng yu t ca mt tng quan thc s Cc mi tng quan c th l nhng tng quan thc s hoc nhng tng quan thuc tr (real relations or relations of reason). Nhng tng quan thuc tr ch tn ti ni tr nng vo lc tr

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nng lin kt nhng s vt c lp vo vi nhau. Ni mi tng quan thc s, chng ta thy c nhng thnh t sau: a) ch th (subject), vn l ngi v hoc s vt m trong c mi lin quan; b) tn im (terminus) m ch th hng v (c hai yu t trn thng cng c gi l tn im hoc nhng cc ca mi tng quan); c) mt nn tng (basis) ca vic qui hng gia hai bn th ; v d) chnh mi tng quan hay nhp cu ni kt mt s vt vi mt s vt khc. V d trong trng hp t h, cha m l tn im, nn tng l vic sinh ra, vn kin to mi tng quan gia cha m vi ngi con, v t h chnh l s l thuc ca ngi con i vi cha m mnh. Trong nhng mi tng quan bng hu, nhng ngi bn l tn im ca mi tng quan, mi tng quan l nhp cu ni kt h li, v nn tng chnh l nhng li i x h tng nh nhng ngi bn, lm ny sinh mt s hi ha gia h. Cn phi nhn mnh n vai tr quan trng ca nn tng mi tng quan thc s. V mt mi tng quan ch yu l s qui chiu v mt iu khc, ch khng phi l mt yu t xc nh ni ti ca bn th m n gn vo, nn ni ch th nht nh mi tng quan phi c mt nn tng khc bit vi chnh n. Nn tng ny chnh l ci lm ny sinh mi tng quan. Trong trng hp t h, iu lm cho ngi con c lin quan n cha m mnh chnh l vic ngi con c sinh ra bi cha m; khng c s kin hoc nn tng , s khng c mi tng quan no gia cha m v con ci; cng vy, nu khng c nhng li c x h tng nh nhng ngi bn, cng khng th ny sinh nhng tng quan bng hu. Trit hc bin chng khng m xa g n nhu cu i phi c nn tng cho mi tng quan: v th mi thc ti u b gin lc vo mt mng nhng mi tng quan m khng h c mt ch th no. Trit hc bin chng coi s hin hu ca nhng c nhn hoc nhng ch th lp hu nh kt qu ca mt vic tru tng ha vn lm sai lc thc ti. i theo nhng tuyn ng ny, thuyt Marxism coi con ngi nh mt m nhng mi tng quan sn xut vt cht, v ch trng rng ch th thc t ca lch s khng phi l con ngi m l ton b nhng tng quan kinh t. Theo li ny, hu th (bn th, ens) b gin lc vo mt mi tng quan. Nhng ta thy rng, c c mi tng quan thc s, iu kin u tin chnh l phi c mt ch th, mt th g vn hin hu ti thn. Nu khng, th khng th c c tng quan vi th khc. Tm quan trng ca nhng mi tng quan Bt chp s hn ch ca thut ng hin hnh, nhng tng quan thc s vn c nh hng quan trng. a) Mt ng, mi hu th u to nn mt trt t phm trt ph hp vi cp hon b ca chng (all beings from a hierarchical order in accordance with their degrees of perfection). Trong trt t phm trt ny, mi th to u phi qui chiu v Thin Cha nh cn nguyn u tin v mc ch ti hu ca chng; v nhng hu th cp thp phc v nhng hu th cp cao. Do , th gii vt cht phi phc v con ngi, v n ch c c ngha y khi m, thng qua n, con ngi hng n Thin Cha. b) Tip n, nhng mi tng quan cng c mt vai tr xc nh trong lnh vc tri thc (relations also have a determining role within the realm of knowledge). Thc ti trt t c gi thit v lun c kim chng bi khoa hc, vn c mc tiu i tm nhiu mu cht ni kt nhng s vt vi nhau (v d tnh nhn qu, s tng t). c) Hn na, tng quan l mt trong nhng nn tng ca thin ho m cc th to hon thnh nh nhng hot ng ca chng (relation is one of the bases of the goodness which creatures achieve by means of their operations). Nhng s vt l thin ho ty theo mc chng c vic hin hu (thin ho s yu), nhng chng hon tt ton b hon b ph hp vi chng thng qua thin ho nh, h chuyn nh nhng hot ng m a trt t ca mi th hng n mc ch ca mnh. Chng hn, ngi l thin ho, theo ngha cht, qua vic anh ta hnh ng ph hp theo mi tng quan ca mnh vi Thin Cha.

Nhng kiu mu tng quan thc s C bao nhiu lp nn tng m chng ty thuc, th cng c by nhiu kiu mu tng quan:

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a) Nhng tng quan chiu theo s ty thuc ni hu th, ny sinh khi c mt thc ti l thuc vo mt thc ti khc. Trng hp r rng nht chnh l tng quan gia th to vi ng To Ha. Th to tip nhn hin hu t Thin Cha, v iu ny lm ny sinh mi tng quan thc s gia chng vi Thin Cha. Mt tng quan tng t ny sinh gia tri thc con ngi vi nhng i tng c nhn bit, v tri thc ca chng ta c o lng bi thc ti bn ngoi v t iu chnh theo thc ti . Trong c hai v d, mi tng quan khng mang tnh h tng. Ch c nhng tng quan t th to hng n to ha, v t tri thc hng n thc ti c nhn bit, l c thc Nhng mi tng quan ngc li ch l nhng tng quan thuc tr: Thin Cha khng l thuc vo th to, v nhng s vt th c lp khi vic con ngi nhn bit chng. b) Nhng tng quan h tng da trn hot ng v th ng, nh tng quan ca ngi con vi cha m (t h) v tng quan gia cha m vi ngi con (ph mu h), tng quan ca nh cm quyn vi cng dn (chnh quyn), v ca nhng thn dn i vi mt uy quyn (vic phc quyn). Nhng tng quan ni trn mang tnh h tng v chng bn r ni cng mt nn tng vn em li s bin thi ni c hai cc: hot ng ni cc ny v th ng ni cc kia. iu ny l gc r phn bit nhng mi tng quan ny vi nhng tng quan vn ny sinh t vic l thuc trong hin hu. Th tng quan sau th khng c tnh h tng, v trong trng hp ny, khng c s thay i thc s mt trong hai cc. c) Nhng mi tng quan chiu theo s ph hp da trn lng, phm, v trn bn th. Nhng mi tng quan da trn lng, c ny sinh bi l mt s lng tnh c dng o lng nhng th khc. Nhng mi tng quan v lng bng nhau hoc khc bit nhau, nhng mi tng quan v khong cch, l nhng v d cho loi tng quan ny. Chng hn, mt vng t ln gp i vng t khc. Nhng mi tng quan v chiu kch l nhng tng quan h tng, v bt k cc no cng u c mt lng tnh c th c o lng bi lng tnh ca ci kia. Tng t nh th, nhng tng quan da trn phm cht l nhng mi tng quan tng ng hay khc bit theo phm. V d, hai s vt c th ging nhau hoc khc nhau v trng, cng hay bt c mt phm cht no khc. Nhng mi tng quan da trn bn th l nhng tng quan ng nht hoc d bit. V d : hai git nc l nhng bn th ging nhau, hoc hai con chim, hai con ngi cng vy. Tng quan siu nghim T th k XV, thut ng tng quan siu nghim xut hin ni mt s tc phm trit hc. N c gi nh l hng v ci khc, vn c bao hm trong yu tnh ca mt iu g , v d tim nng hng v hin th, cht liu hng v hnh th, ch hng v thin ho, v tr nng hng v hin hu. iu c gi nh y khng phi l mt tng quan ph th nhng l mt tng quan ng nht vi yu tnh ca mt thc ti no . Thm ch mt s tc gi cn khng nh rng tng quan ca cc th to i vi Thin Cha phi bao hm trong loi tng quan ny, ch khng nm trong cc ph th no c. Tuy nhin, Thnh Thomas li ch trng rng l mt ph th m cc th to c nh hiu qu vic tip nhn vic hin hu t Thin Cha. Vic s dng thut ng tng quan siu nghim lm ny sinh mt kh khn nghim trng. N tng ng vi vic nhn bit thc ti mt tng quan ng nht vi ni dung tuyt i ca cc s vt, m iu ny ch l kh thi trong nhng mi tng quan ni Ba Ngi ng nht vi yu tnh Thin Cha. Ngoi ra, trong nhng v d nu (tim nng, cht liu, ch v tr nng), th dng nh khng ph hp ni v cc mi tng quan, (ngha l, v nhng mi tng quan thc t), v khng c thc ti no nu trn li l mt hu th ni ng ngha, nhng ch l mt nguyn l cu to, v do khng th l mt ch th ph hp ca mt mi tng quan. Nhng mi tng quan thuc tr Quan st thc ti mong manh ca nhng mi tng quan, ngi ta c th i n ch nhn nh rng trn thc t chng khng c thc m ch l kt qu vic so snh ni tr tu. Tuy nhin, iu ny ch din ra khi tr khn so snh nhng s vt vn khng lin quan thc s vi nhau. Chng ta c th vn tt coi nhng mi tng quan thuc tr l nhng tng quan khng c bn ngoi tr tu. Vic nghin cu loi tng quan ny s soi sng thm cho nhng tng quan thc s.

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Mi mt tng quan thuc tr u thiu mt hoc nhiu hn na nhng yu t i phi c cho mt tng quan thc s. Mt trong hai cc (hoc c hai) th khng c thc, hoc mt th c th khng thc s phn bit khi th khc, hoc mi tng quan khng c nn tng thc s ni ch th. Sau y l mt s v d v loi tng quan ni trn: a) Nhng mi tng quan gia cc khi nim (Relations among concepts), c nghin cu bi Lun l hc, nh tng quan gia loi v ging, hoc tng quan gia loi v c th. b) Tip n, c nhng mi tng quan ng nht (relations of identity), nh khi ta ni rng mt iu g ng nht vi chnh n. Trong trng hp ny, chng ta coi mt thc ti nh n l hai. Bt c iu g cng chc chn ng nht vi n, nhng iu ny khng phi l mt tng quan thc s, v ch c mt cc tn ti. c) C nhng mi tng quan vi cc cc khng thc (relations with unreal extremes). i khi chng ta lin h hai s vt, m trong t nht c mt ci khng thc, nh khi chng ta so snh hin ti vi tng lai, hoc hai bin c tng lai vi nhau, hoc hu th vi h v. d) C nhng tng quan thuc tr vn ny sinh khi khng c tng quan h tng thc s gia hai s vt (no real reciprocal relation between two things). V d, ngoi gii khng h thay i khi c con ngi nhn bit, v tc ng nhn bit th gii hn ni hu th ni tm ca con ngi. Do , i tng c nhn bit th khng bin i bi bt c tng quan no i vi ch th nhn bit; tri li, y li ny sinh mt mi tng quan thc s ca ch th i vi i tng. Nhng mi tng quan m tr nng gn cho Thin Cha i vi th to cng l nhng tng quan thuc tr. D nhin, mi th to u c mi tng quan l thuc thc s vo Thin Cha, v Ngi l ng To Ha ca chng. Tuy nhin, tng quan ngc li th khng phi l mt tng quan thc s, v Thin Cha khng phi ch th ca mt tng quan, v l do n gin l Ngi khng h c nhng ph th. Ngoi ra, nn tng gi nh cho mi tng quan sau (Thin Cha i vi th to) hot ng sng to ca Thin Cha khng phi l mt ph th phn bit khi Thin Tnh. Vic Thin Cha khng c mi tng quan thc s i vi th to, khng c ngha rng Ngi l mt hu th xa vi khng lin quan g n v tr. N ch c ngha rng hin hu ca Ngi khng h ty thuc vo v tr, v ni Ngi khng h c ph th khin cho Ngi hng v cc th to. Tuy nhin, Thin Cha hin din cch thm hu ni mi th to, em li cho chng vic hin hu. S gn gi ca Ngi th ln hn v mt thit hn s gn gi c thit lp qua mt tng quan ph th.

SCH C THM

ARISTOTLE, Metaphysica, V; Categories. SAINT THOMAS AQUINAS, In III Phys., lect. 5; In V Metaph., lect. 9. A. TRENDELENBURG, Historische Beitrage zur Philosophie, I. Geschichte der Katergorienlehre, Olms, Hildesheim, 1963. M. SCHEU, The Categories of Being in Aristotle and St. Thomas, Washington 1944, A. KREMPEL, La doctrine de la relation chez St. Thomas dAquin, Vrin, Paris 1952, S. BRETON, L<<esse in>> et l<<esse ad>> dans la mtaphysique de la relation, Angelicum, Rome 1951.

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CHNG III: CU TRC HIN TH - TIM NNG CA HU TH

Sau khi nghin cu nhiu cch thc hin hu khc nhau tm thy ni s vt, gi y chng ta kho st hai kha cnh ca thc ti, hin th v tim nng, vn c tm thy ni mi th to v gip chng ta c c nhn thc su xa hn v hu th. y chng ta xt ti mt im trung tm ca siu hnh m Thnh Thomas ly t Aristotle, nhng c nhn t mt vin tng rng hn. N c mt tm quan trng ln gip ta hiu cho ng v th gii v c th tin ln ti Thin Cha theo ngha siu hnh. 1. KHI NIM V HIN TH V TIM NNG Chng ta c c mt nhn thc s khi v hin th v tim nng nh vic phn tch chuyn ng hoc bin i. V quan nim cng ngc v hu th nh l mt v bt bin, nn Parmenides khng th gii quyt thc ti bin i, v xp n vo lnh vc thun tu bn ngoi. Trong quan im ca ng, hu th th c v v th th khng c. Do , hu th khng th n t hu th vn hin hu, cng khng th n t v th, v n l h v1. Aristotle c mt li gii thch xc thc hn v bin i, m ng coi khng phi s chuyn bin tuyt i t h khng sang hin hu, nhng nh s thay i ca mt ch th t trng thi ny sang trng thi khc (nh nc t lnh chuyn sang nc nng). Qua vic bin i, mt s vt th c mt hon b m trc y n cha chim hu. Tuy nhin, ni ch th, phi c mt kh nng chim hu phm cht ny, th c c qua vic bin i. Nhng v d ca Aristotle th sng t v n gin: con vt v mt tr em u khng bit cch gii nhng ton; tuy nhin, a tr c th hc c cch gii bi ton, cn con vt th khng. Mt khi g cha phi l mt pho tng, nhng n c kh nng tr thnh mt pho tng nh nh iu khc, ang khi nc v kh khng c kh nng . Kh nng c mt hon b c gi l tim nng (The capacity to have a perfection is called potency). khng ch l vic thiu ht mt iu g m sau ny s c th c, nhng l mt kh nng thc s ni ch th th c mt s hon b no . Thc ti tim nng vn ph li nhn ng dng ca Parmenides v hu th, l mt ng gp quan trng ca Aristotle trong n lc tm hiu thc ti vic bin i. Hin th, hon b m mt ch th chim hu, th tng phn vi tim nng (Act, the perfection which a subject possesses, is contrasted to potency). Sau y l mt vi v d v hin th: chng l hnh th ca g c chm tr, nhit ca nc, v tri thc c th c. Tip n, chuyn ng hoc bin i l vic hin th ha tim tin tim nng: n l vic bin chuyn t chuyn l mt iu g trong tim nng i sang iu g trong hin th. V d, mt cy th ni ht theo tim nng, v ch qua vic tng trng th n mi tr thnh mt cy thc s. Aristotle nghin cu hin th v tim nng di hai kha cnh kha cnh vt l (ni kt vi chuyn ng hoc bin i) v kha cnh siu hnh. Theo kha cnh vt l, hin th v tim nng to nn nhng yu t gii thch s chuyn ng hoc bin i, nhng theo cch ring bit n hin hu trong hin th v hin hu trong tim nng th khng bao gi c thy hin din ng lc ni mt ch th: l mt pho tng theo hin th th i lp vi vic l pho tng theo tim nng. Di kha cnh siu hnh, hin th v tim nng c coi nh nhng nguyn l cu to n nh ca mi s vt, v tim nng , mc d tr thnh hin th, vn tip tc l ng nguyn l vi hin th tng ng ca n. Nh vy, ni mi hu th vt th, vn c cu to bi cht liu nht (tim nng) v hnh th bn th (hin th), ta thy cht liu nht cn nguyn sau khi n nhn hnh th ca n. Hin th (Act) Ni chung, hin th l bt c mt hon b no ca mt ch th (In general, act is any perfection of a subject). Ta c nhng v d sau: mu sc ca mt vt th, nhng phm cht ca mt bn th, hon b bn th ca mt hu th, nhng vic hiu bit, c mun, cm gic, Khi nim v hin th l mt khi nim s yu v hin minh. Do , ni cch cht ch, n khng th nh ngha c; n ch c th c miu t nh nhng v d v qua vic phn bit n vi tim nng. Ni v hin th, Aristotle pht biu: iu m chng ta hiu th tr nn hin minh nh vic quy np t nhng ci c th. D nhin, ngi ta khng buc phi nh ngha rt ro mi s; m ch cn dng trc gic nm bt mt s s vt nh loi suy. Hin th th tng quan vi tim nng, ging nh mt ngi ang xy vi mt ngi c kh nng xy dng, nh mt ngi ang thc vi mt ngi ang ng, nh mt ngi ang nhn vi mt ngi ang nhm mt nhng vn c kh nng nhn; nh iu g din tin t cht liu

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vi chnh cht liu, v nh iu xc tin vi iu cha c xc tin. iu trc gi l hin th, cn iu sau gi tim nng2. Tim nng (Potency) Tim nng cng c kinh nghim nhn bit trc tip nh iu c tng quan vi hin th. Trong trng hp tim nng, ta phi ghi nhn rng vic quy chiu n hin th l iu khng trnh khi, v thnh t cu to ca tim nng chnh l vic hng v mt loi hin th no . V d, th gic l tim nng nhn, v tnh di ng (movability) l kh nng i vo chuyn ng. Nhng tim nng trn c nhn bit qua nhng hin th tng ng ca chng. Mt tim nng l iu c th tip nhn mt hin th hoc c c n (A potency is that which can receive an act or already has it). Chng ta s ro qua mt s c im ca n qua miu t sau : a) Trc ht, tim nng th phn bit khi hin th (potency is distinct from act). iu ny c nhn sng t khi hin th th c th tch bit khi tim nng tng ng. V d, th gic c lc nhn thc s v c lc khng nhn; mt con vt cn nguyn kh nng di chuyn ngay lc n ang ngh ngi, cng nh trong nhng khonh khc n thc s chuyn ng. S phn bit gia hin th v tim nng, tuy th, li khng thuc v bn cht thi gian thun ty. Tim nng c th tr thnh hin thc hoc khng, nhng n lun lun l mt tim nng. Ngay khi th gic nhn thc s, th n vn khng mt i kh nng nhn, ng hn, kh nng nhn c hon thin bi chnh hnh vi nhn . Mt chic ly trng rng th c kh nng cha ng mt cht lng, v khi n thc s cha ng cht lng, th tim nng vn khng b ph hu nhng c vin mn. Do , ni cch cht ch, tim nng c miu t l kh nng c mt hin th, hay l mt ch th tip nhn (potency is characterized by being the capacity to have an act or by being a receptive subject). b) Hin th v tim nng khng phi l nhng thc ti y , nhng ch l nhng kha cnh hoc nhng nguyn l c tm thy ni cc s vt (Act and potency are not complete realities, but only aspects or principles which are found in things). Mc d chng ta c th hiu r c rng chng th phn bit nhau, chng ta vn khng th trnh by chng ni tr tng tng ca mnh, v tr tng tng lun c khuynh hng coi tim nng nh mt thc ti y , ang khi ng ra n vn ch l trng rng, ang ch i n nhn hin th ca mnh. Hn na, v i tng ph hp vi s hiu bit ca chng ta c kin to thnh hu th, nn chng ta gp mt kh khn nht nh khi c gng ni v nhng nguyn l ni ti ca n, vn khng bao gi hin din cch bit nhau. c) Tim nng lin quan vi hin th nh kiu bt ton lin quan vi hon b (Potency is to act as the imperfect is to the perfect). Theo ngha cht, hin th l mt hon b, mt b tc, mt th g xc nh. Tri li, tim nng l mt bt ton, mt kh nng i n hon b. V d, hnh dng mt pho tng l mt phm cht tch cc ca cm thch, mt hon b, mt hin th, ang khi khi cm thch cha c hnh th (shapeless) th bt ton v cn bt nh bao lu n cha c c hnh dng pho tng. Theo ngha ny, c mt i nghch r rng gia mt hin th v tim nng; v tim nng l iu cha c trong hin th. Nh vy, mt ngi mi ch c tim nng nhn bit, nhng cha thc s th hin iu , th khng bit; v bao lu khi cm thch cha c chm khc, n cha phi l mt pho tng. iu tng phn ny chng t r rng tim nng khng phi l hin th trong tnh trng mm mng hay mc nhin. d) Tuy nhin, xt ti thn, tim nng khng ch thun ty l chuyn khuyt php hin th nhng cn l kh nng thc s t n hon b (in itself potency is not a mere privation of act, but a real capacity for perfection). Chng hn, mt hn th khng nhn thy, v hn na, n cng khng c kh nng t n hin th , ang khi mt s con vt mi sinh khng nhn thy, nhng chng li c kh nng nhn. 2. NHNG LOI HIN TH V TIM NNG C nhiu loi hin th v tim nng. Nhng v d nu trn cng ni ln iu . V d, cht liu nht v bn th u l nhng tim nng, nhng theo nhiu cch khc nhau: bn th l mt ch th trong hin th nhng vn c th tip nhn thm nhng hin th ph th, ang khi cht liu l mt th nn cn bt nh m hnh th bn th s ni kt vo trong t cch hin th nht cho cht liu. Chng ta cng nu ln nhiu th hin th khc bit nhau, t nh cc ph th, hnh th bn th, vic hin hu, v ngay c chuyn ng hoc bin i, vn l mt hin th bt ton nu so vi tn im ca n, v tn im l hin th theo ngha y hn. Trong s nhng iu a bit, ta c th phn chia hin th v tim nng thnh hai i loi nh sau:

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a) C tim nng th ng (passive potency) hoc kh nng tip nhn, v tng ng vi n l hin th nht (first act) (cng gi l hin th thc th (entitative act)). b) Cng c tim nng hot ng (active potency) hoc kh nng hot ng, v tng ng vi n l hin th nh (second act), cng chnh l hot ng. Tim nng th ng v hin th nht Ni cch cht ch, c tnh siu hnh ca tim nng xt nh kh nng tip nhn mt hin th, th thuc v tim nng th ng. Tuy nhin, khng phi l mt thc ti ng b, nhng l mt thc ti c tm thy nhiu cp . Chng ta c th phn bit ba loi tim nng th ng nn tng v nhng loi hin th tng ng. a) Trc ht, c cht liu nht v hnh th bn th (prime matter and substantial form). Ni nhng bn th vt th c mt th nn ti thng, l cht liu nht, m trong hnh th bn th c tip nhn vo. Hnh th ny xc nh cht liu, v do to nn loi bn th vt th ny hoc khc, v d nh thp, nc hoc kh xy. Cht liu nht l th nn thuc tim nng ti hu, v nguyn n ch thun ty l tim nng, thun ty mt ch th tip nhn cha h c cht g l hin th ring. Hnh th bn th l hin th u tin m cht liu nht tip nhn. b) Tip n, c bn th v cc ph th. Mi bn th, d l bn th vt cht (cu to bi cht liu v hnh th) hoc thun ty thing ling, u l nhng ch th cho nhng hon b ph th, v d nhng phm cht v nhng mi tng quan. Khng ging cht liu nht, bn th l mt ch th thc s trong hin th nh bi hnh th, nhng t n vn nm trong tim nng i vi cc ph th. c) Sau cng, c yu tnh (essence (potentia essendi)), v vic hin hu (and act of being (actus essendi or esse)). n phin mnh, hnh th, d c tip nhn vo cht liu hay khng, cng ch l mt mc tham d nht nh vo vic hin hu. Nhng yu tnh ngi, ch, cy thng, v uranium, chng hn, l nhng ng li khc bit thng d vo hin hu. i vi vic hin hu, mi s u l mt tim nng tip nhn gii hn t nhng hnh th tch bit, n phc hp cht liu v hnh th, xung n nhng ph th (vn thng d vo vic hin hu qua vic chng kt hp vi bn th). Mc d chng ta s nu ln vn phn sau, nhng y cng cn ghi nhn rng ni cc hu th vt th, hnh th l hin th i vi cht liu, v n trong tim nng i vi vic hin hu (esse). Cht liu chc chn l thuc tim nng, trc ht l i vi hnh th, v sau nh hnh th i vi vic hin hu. Tim Nng Hot ng v Hin Th Nh Bn cnh tim nng th ng, cn c mt loi tim nng khc vn l mt kh nng to nn mt hon b; iu ny cng c gi l nng lc (power), c bit theo li dng ph thng. Chng hn chng ta ni n nng lc ca mt c my, hay ca mt v s quyn anh, hay ca nguyn t lc. Hin th tng ng vi tim nng ni trn l hot ng, cng c gi l hin th nh, v nhng hot ng ny sinh ni mt ch th l nh bi hin th nht ca n, vn n nh v c tnh thm su hn. Tim nng hot ng c bn cht hin th (active potency has the nature of act), v bt c iu g cng hot ng theo mc n trong hin th, ang khi ngc li, mt th g tip nhn th ng l ty theo mc n nm trong tim nng. c th em li mt hon b cho th g khc, trc ht ch th phi c c hon b , v khng ai cho th g mnh khng c. V d, nh sng hoc sc nng ch c th c cung cp bi mt iu g cng c nng lng v in hoc nhit tng ng. Tuy nhin, ni cc th to, tim nng hot ng c mt tnh th ng nht nh. l l do ti sao n c gi l tim nng (tim nng hot ng) v khng phi l hin th tuyt i. Nhng nng lc lin quan n hin th ca chng ging nh iu bt ton lin quan n hon b tng ng. Nh vy, trong tim nng hiu th km hon b hn l hiu thc s. Nhng quan nng hot ng khng lun lun trong hin th. iu ny cho thy r rng l chng tht s phn bit khi nhng hot ng ca chng.

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Chng hn, ch khng phi l hin th ca vic yu thng, nhng l nng lc em li hnh vi t do . Hn na, nhng nng lc hot ng c mt tnh th ng nht nh, theo ngha l vic chng chuyn sang hot ng th i hi nh hng ca mt iu g bn ngoi vn t chng vo iu kin hnh ng. Chng hn, tr nng cn c mt i tng kh tri v mt xung lc ca ch. Cng vy, nng lc chuyn ng ca mt con vt th gi nh vic nm bt mt thin ho kh gic v s vn hnh ca bn nng. Khng kh nng th to no li t mnh t mnh vo hin th, m khng nh n nh hng ca mt th g bn ngoi, tr phi n va l hot ng va l th ng i vi cng mt s vt, v d nhin iu l khng kh thi. Chng ta c th ni n tim nng hot ng ni Thin Cha (ton nng) theo mc Ngi l nguyn l cho vic hin hu ca mi s. Nhng v hot ng thin tnh ny khng bao gm bt c tnh th ng no hoc vic chuyn di t tim nng sang hin th, nn khng phi l mt tim nng theo ngha cht, nhng ng ra l Hin Th Thun Ty (Pure Act). Nhng hot ng v nhng nng lc hot ng tng ng ca chng u l nhng ph th (operations and their corresponding active powers are accidents). Khng c bn th th to no li ng nht vi hot ng ca n, nhng ch l cn nguyn ca hot ng. Chng hn linh hn con ngi l nguyn l cho hot ng tinh thn, nhng linh hn khng phi l chnh hot ng . Nhng hot ng ny sinh t hon b ni ti ca bn th. c bit hn na, nhng nng lc hot ng hay nhng quan nng l cc ph th thuc v phm tr phm cht; ri hot ng cng l mt ph th. Nu l mt hot ng tc ng ra bn ngoi (transitive action), ngha l mt hot ng to ra mt hiu qu bn ngoi (xy mt ngi nh, cy mt cnh ng, ca mt khc g), th n thuc v phm tr hot ng (action). Trong trng hp hot ng ni ti, vn c gi cch chuyn bit l tc ng (operation) (suy t, nhn xem, tng tng, yu thng), n thuc v ph th phm cht (quality). 3. TNH U TIN CA HIN TH Sau khi xem xt bn cht v cc loi hin th v tim nng, gi y ta c th nhn s u thng ca hin th trn tim nng t nhiu gc . a) Trc ht, hin th th u tin trn tim nng xt v mt hon b (act is prior to potency with regard to perfection). Nh thy, hin th l iu g hon b, ang khi tim nng l iu g bt ton. Mi vt th hon b xt nh n trong hin th, v bt ton theo mc n trong tim nng3. Do , tim nng phi l thuc vo hin th, v hin th kin to nn mc tiu ca tim nng. Mt kh nng chng hn, th c sp t thc thi, v nu khng c thc thi, th kh nng ch l iu v dng. V d, thn th con ngi l ch th tim nng n nhn linh hn nh hin th ca n, v phi l thuc vo linh hn. b) Hin th cng u tin trn tim nng xt v mt nhn thc (Act is also prior to potency with regard to knowledge). Bt c tim nng no cng c nhn bit thng qua hin th ca n, v tim nng chng qua l kh nng tip nhn, chim hu hin th, hoc sn sinh mt hon b. Do , cu nh ngha cho mi tim nng u bao gm chnh hin th ca tim nng , v chnh hin th khin cho tim nng phn bit khi nhng tim nng khc. Chng hn, thnh gic c nh ngha nh kh nng nm bt m thanh, v ch c nh ngha nh kh nng yu mn thin ho. S u thng ca hin th trong nhn thc th da trn bn cht ca tim nng, m tim nng chnh l kh nng i n mt hin th. c) Hin th u tin trn tim nng v mt cn nguyn (Act has causal primacy over potency). Khng iu g c th hot ng tr phi n trong hin th, v mt iu g th n nhn mt hin th theo mc n ang trong tim nng. L mt ch th th ng cho hot ng ca mt vt khc th cng tng ng vi vic n nhn mt hon b m n c kh nng th c. Hot ng l thc thi mt nh hng thc s trn mt th khc, v iu ny ch c th xy ra nu ngi ta c c hon b dng thng chia. Chng hn ch c mt vt th nng mi lm tng nhit ca nhng vt xung quanh; mt cy n ch soi sng trong mc chnh n cng sng. Tm li, iu nm trong tim nng khng th thnh thc hu nu khng nh n nh hng ca iu g trong hin th. d) Hin th cng c u tin trn tim nng v mt thi gian (Act has also a temporal primacy over potency). Ni bt c mt ch th no, tim nng u c mt u tin thi gian no trong tng quan vi hin th, v mt s vt th trong tim nng i vi bt c hon b no trc khi n thc s n nhn hon b . Tuy nhin, tim nng ny cho thy mt cn nguyn tc ng, c trc trong hin th, lm cho tim nng thnh thc hu. Trc khi mt cy t c s trng thnh y , th tin vn n phi c kh nng t ti hon b ngay khi n cn l mt ht ging. Nhng chnh ht ging cng nht thit phi l hoa

39

qu ca cy m c trc n. Tnh u tin v thi gian ca hin th i vi tim nng th da trn tnh u tin ca hin th v mt cn nguyn. V l do ny, khi Aristotle phn tch chuyn ng (hay bin i) trong thin nhin, ng thy r rng tt c nhng g i t tim nng sang hin th u i hi mt cn nguyn c trc trong hin th, v do , thy rng nh im mi thc ti s c mt Hin Th Thun Ty, khng h c cht g l tim nng, vn lm bin i mi th khc. Tm li, y l bng chng s hin hu ca Thin Cha m Thnh Thomas trnh by trong Con ng Th Nht. Ta c th thy ngay iu ny khi chng ta quan st s phc hp gia hin th v tim nng ni tt c nhng s vt ang di chuyn hoc bin i. Ta c th kt lun ch im ny bng cch qui chiu vo hin hu ni rng, hin th th hin hu, theo ngha chnh yu v ph hp, v tim nng th ch hin hu theo cch th yu (act is, in the principal and proper sense, and potency is only in a secondary way. Mt iu g c gi l hin hu trong mc n trong hin th, ch khng phi trong tim nng. Mt pho tng hin hu khi hnh dng ca n c chm khc, ch khng phi lc mi ch l mt khc g cha c hnh th. Ta c th ni nh vy m khng qui chiu v ngun gc ca tc phm iu khc: tng, l mt tng nh hnh dng (form) ca n ch khng phi nh tim nng m trong hnh dng c nhn vo, v xt ti kh nng , th cn c nhiu iu khc na (v d, mt cn phng hay mt ci bn). Hu th (ens), theo ngha cht, l hu th trong hin th. Tri li, iu g cn trong tim nng, th ch l thc t nh mi tng quan ca n vi hin th. Theo mc cn trong tim nng, mt hu th khng hin hu, nhng c th i vo hin hu (In so far as it is in potency, a being is not, but can come to be). Kh nng hin hu chc chn l mt iu g , nhng ch trong mc n c lin kt cch no vi mt hon b thc hu. Do , c hin th ln tim nng u thng d vo hin hu nhng theo mt cch loi suy v ph hp vi mt trt t ph hp (secundum prius et posterius). iu g trong hin th th c vic hin hu (act of being) cch trc tip, ang khi tnh tim nng ca cc s vt th ch l thc cch gin tip, ngha l, ch trong tng quan vi hin th4. 4. TNG QUAN GIA HIN TH V TIM NNG XT NH NHNG NGUYN L CU TO CA HU TH Hin th v tim nng l nhng nguyn l c iu hng n nhau to nn cc s vt. Khng bao gi tim nng c th ng ring trong trng thi thun ty, nhng lun lun to nn thnh phn ca mt hu th, vn l mt iu g trong hin th. Nh vy, mc d cht liu nht l mt th tim nng thun ty, n lun lun c thc hu ha bi mt hnh th bn th no . Ni nhng hu th hu hn, hin th lun ni kt vi tim nng; ch ni Thin Cha, ng l Hin Th Thun Ty, th mi tuyt i khng c tim nng. Sau y chng ta s xt n mi tng quan gia hai nguyn l ni hu th. a) Tim nng l ch th hin th c tip nhn vo (Potency is the subject in which the act is received). Kinh nghim khng vn m cho chng ta bt c hin th hoc hon b c lp no (v d, c cng chnh, mu trng, v p); ng hn, n t cho chng ta nhng hin th hoc nhng hon b c n nhn vo trong mt ch th tim nng (mt ngi cng chnh, mt hnh nh p, mt t ba mu trng). S cng chnh, v p, v mu trng l nhng khi nim ph qut c tru xut t thc ti. Khi bn n nhng loi hin th v tim nng, chng ta nhn thy rng mi loi hin th u nm trong mt ch th c tim nng (potential subject); chng hn, cht liu nht l ch th cho hnh th bn th, cn bn th li l ch th cho cc ph th. b) Hin th b gii hn bi tim nng tip nhn n (Act is limited by the potency which receives it). Mi hin th hoc hon b c tip nhn vo mt ch th u b gii hn bi kh nng ca vt cha n. D cho nc ngun sui c phong ph n u, th mt chic ly ch c th cha ng s nc sui tng ng vi sc cha ca n. Cng vy, mu trng ca mt t giy cng b gii hn bi nhng kch thc ca t giy. Mi con ngi th c tri thc ph hp vi kh nng tr tu ca mnh. Mt hin th khng b gii hn bi chnh n (an act is not limited by itself), hin th th nguyn n l hon b v khng ko theo mt bt ton no c. Nu nh n c bt ton, th l do mt th g gn lin vi n v hn ch n. iu ny l kt qu t khi nim hin th v tim nng. Mt hin th t gii hn l mt hon b vn l bt ton bi iu m qua n l mt hon b, v iu ny s l mt mu thun5. V d, nu c mt ai khn ngoan mt mc gii hn, th khng phi l chnh s khn ngoan b gii hn (v khn ngoan nguyn n ch l khn ngoan) nhng l v c khim khuyt no ni ch th.

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c) Hin th c tng bi nh tim nng (Act is multiplied through potency). iu ny c ngha rng cng mt hin th c th hin din nhiu th, v l c nhiu ch th c kh nng tip nhn n. Chng hn, hon b loi chim c tm thy ni nhiu c th v n hin din trong mt tim nng, c th l cht liu nht. Mu trng c tng bi ty theo vic c nhiu vt th mang ly cng mt mu. Hnh mt ng tin c th lp li v tn, min l c vt liu in hnh vo y. Vic tng bi lin kt mt thit vi vic gii hn. Hin th ch c th b gii hn v tng bi bi mt tim nng tip nhn. Nu mu trng c th hin hu c lp, khng phi bm vo bt c ch th no, th mu trng l duy nht, v nh vy bao gm ni n tt c hon b ca mu trng. Ngoi ra, ta cn phi ni rng hon b duy nht ng ring ri chnh l vic hin hu ng ring (subsistent act of being), l chnh Thin Cha; ni Thin Cha, esse khng b gii hn bi bt c tim nng tip nhn no; do , Thin Cha l duy nht. Theo cch loi suy, cc thin thn l nhng hnh th thun ty, khng c tip nhn bi cht liu, nn cc thin thn khng th c tng bi, nh s thy cc chng sau. d) Hin th tng quan vi tim nng ging nh iu c thng d vi iu thng d vo(Act is related to potency as that which is participated to the participant). Mi tng quan gia hin th v tim nng c th c am tng nh thut ng v thng d. Thng d l c iu g mt phn. iu ny gi thit nhng vn sau: a) C nhng ch th khc cng chim hu cng mt hon b, v khng mt th g trong chng li chim hu hon b mt cch vin mn (v d, mi vt mu trng u thng d vo mu trng); b) Ch th khng ng nht vi iu n chim hu, nhng n ch chim hu iu y; l hon b ch nh s thng d (v d, Phr khng l nhn tnh thun ty, nhng ch thng d nhn tnh). Chim hu nh thng d th i lp vi chim hu do yu tnh (Having by participation is opposed to having by essence), v iu sau th theo cch vin mn, c nht, qua vic ng nht vi yu tnh (v d, mt Thin Thn khng thng d vo loi ca mnh, nhng l chnh loi ca mnh do yu tnh; Thin Cha l hin hu do yu tnh (God is the act of being by essence). Tng quan gia hin th v tim nng l mt th tng quan thng d. Tri li, hin th thun tu l mt hin th t yu tnh. Ch th c kh nng tip nhn mt hon b l vt thng d, cn chnh hin th l iu c thng d. Nh vy, bt c iu g hin hu nh thng d, u l mt phc hp bi mt ch th thng d v mt yu t c thng d6. i vi vic hin hu, bt c hon b hay thc ti no cng l iu thng d: nh mt con ngi thng d vo bn cht nhn loi, th mi th to u thng d vo hin hu (esse), v ch mnh Thin Cha mi l hin hu ring ca Ngi (esse)7. Ta s xem xt iu ny chi tit hn khi bn ti phc hp yu tnh v vic hin hu ni mi th to. e) Vic phc hp hin th v tim nng khng ph hu tnh n nht bn th ca hu th (The composition of act and potency does not destroy the substantial unity of being). Vic phi hp nhiu thc ti vn hin hu trong hin th th khng to nn mt hu th n l v d, mt k m v con nga, hoc nhiu hn xp chng ln nhau. Tuy nhin, hin th v tim nng khng phi l nhng hu th lp hu ti thn, m ch l nhng kha cnh hoc nhng nguyn l cng tham gia vo vic hnh thnh mt hu th n l. V t bn cht, tim nng l mt kh nng n nhn mt hin th, t yu tnh phi hng v hin th, v nu khng c hin th th cng chng c tim nng, nn vic tim nng kt hip vi hin th ca n khng th lm ny sinh hai hu th. Chng hn, vic nh hnh (in-forming) cho cht liu nht bi mt nguyn l sng th ch lm nn mt sinh th. Mt vi trit gia (nh Scotus, Suarez, v Descartes) khng th hiu vic phc hp ny cch ng n v coi tim nng nh mt thc ti c thc hu ni chnh mnh, do ph hy tnh n nht ca hu th. 5. TIM NNG V KH TNH (POSSIBILITY) iu kh th l mt iu g ni kt mt thit vi tim nng. iu kh th l iu c th hin hu; iu ny c ngha l kh tnh (possibility) c thu gn vo tnh tim nng (potentiality) ca cc s vt. Trong phm vi cc to vt, mt iu g l kh th, theo mt cch tng i, nh tim nng th ng (chng hn, mt bc tng c th c sn ln v n c kh nng ch thc tip nhn mu sc). n lt iu ny li cho thy mt tim nng hot ng tng ng (kh nng ca con ngi sn bc tng).

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Ta cng c th ni v kh tnh theo mt ngha tuyt i. Theo ngha ny, mi s khng t mu thun th u l kh th8. Nn tng ti hu ca loi kh tnh ny l quyn nng tc ng ca Thin Cha ng l ton nng, c th lm ra bt c vic thng d no vo hin hu (ngha l, bt c iu g nguyn n khng bao hm s mu thun) m khng cn bt c tim nng th ng no i trc. Tuy nhin, ni chng, nhng hu th kh th l khng tht; chng ch ni Thin Cha, ng quan nim chng trong khn ngoan ca Ngi v c th to nn chng do ton nng ca Ngi. Nh vy, trc khi th gii tn ti, iu l kh th, khng do bt c mt tim nng th ng no c trc, v ch l h v, nhng ch do quyn nng hot ng ca Thin Cha. Nhng khuynh hng trit hc duy l coi cc hu th nh nhng yu tnh m trc ht trong trng thi kh tnh (khng t mu thun) v tip n i vo hin hu, c ngha l, bt u hng s tn ti thc hu. Theo cch ny, iu g l kh th th hng tnh thc hu ca mnh. Sai lm ny loi b s phn bit thc s gia hin th v tim nng ni to vt, v tim nng cn c hiu nh kh tnh thun ty (ch khng nh nguyn l thc t ca s vt) v hin th c hiu nh kin tnh (facticity), nh trng thi thc ti ca kh th. Ngoi ra, nh chng ta ghi nhn, kh tnh c thuyt duy l hiu theo ngha kh nim tnh (conceivability). Tm quan trng ln lao m thuyt ny gn cho nhng s vt kh th, nh tng phn vi tn ti thc hu ca chng, chnh l phn nh gi tr m thuyt ny gn cho t tng con ngi, vn c cng tc kin to iu g l kh th.

6. PHM VI SIU HNH CA HIN TH V TIM NNG Nh thy, hin th v tim nng khi u xut hin nh nhng nguyn l kin to nn thc ti chuyn ng hoc bin i. V sau, chng cng c coi nh nhng nguyn l cu to n nh ca cc bn th (bn th ph th, cht liu hnh th, yu tnh vic hin hu). Hin th v tim nng siu vit phm vi th gii kh bin v vt cht, v m rng ti lnh vc tinh thn. Khng th to no li c chm chc khi vic tng hp , v chnh iu ny thc s khin cho mt th to khc bit vi ng To Ho, iu hu hn khc bit vi iu v bin. Tuy nhin, s tng phn gia Hin Th Thun Tu vi mt hu th c tng hp bi hin th v tim nng th khng c hiu theo ngha loi tr kh nng cc th to i ln cng Thin Cha. Tri li, chnh v l cc hu th th to c c hin th, v m rng ht mc nhng g chng th hin, th chng l phn nh cho hin th v bin ca Cn Nguyn Nht ca chng. Phc hp hin th tim nng l mt c trng mun thu c biu l trong vic nghin cu bt c kha cnh no ca hu th hu hn. Cn c vo tnh u tin ca hin th, phc hp nh vy lun lun m ch s lp hu ca Hin Th Thun Ty Ca Hu Th, l chnh Thin Cha. Do , ta khng ngc nhin khi thy hc thuyt v hin th v tim nng chim mt ch ng quan trng trong Siu hnh hc ca Thnh Thomas. Qua sut cc tc phm ca ngi, Thnh Thomas trnh by hc thuyt ny qua nhiu cng thc khc nhau ngy cng hon b v gn b vi nhau hn.

SCH C THM

ARISTOTLE, Metaphysica, IX, ch. 9. SAINT THOMAS AQUINAS, In IX Meteph., lect. 7. A. FARGES, Thorie fondamentale de Iacte et de la puissance du moteur et du mobile, Paris 1893. E. BERTI, Genesi e sviluppo della dottrina della potenza e dellatto in Aristotlele, in <<Studia Patavina>> 5 (1958), pp. 477-505. C. GIACON, Atto e potenza, La Scuola, Brescia 1947. J. STALLMACH, Dynamis und Energeia, Anton Hain, Meisemheim am Glan 1959. G. MATTIUSSI, Le XXIV tesi della filosofia di S. Tommaso di Aquino, 2nd ed., Roma 1947. N. MAURICE- DENIS, Ltre en puissance daprs Aristotle et S.T. dAquin, 1922.

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CHNG IV: YU TNH CA MT HU TH

Sau khi nghin cu v hin th v tim nng, gi y chng ta c th xem xt k cng hn v ht nhn ca hu th. Mt trong nhng phm tr, bn th, l c s v nn tng cho mi th khc, v do , cng l c s cho hu th c bit. Tuy nhin, bn th khng phi l mt iu g n thun: n c phc hp bi hai nguyn l, yu tnh v esse, vn c tng quan vi nhau nh tim nng v hin th1 Yu tnh l danh xng gn cho tim nng trc tip v ring bit ca vic hin hu, cng vi hin th kin to nn bn th, em li cho bn th mt cch thc hin hu loi bit. Sau ny chng ta s nghin cu nhng c im ca vic hin hu. Cn gi y chng ta nghin cu v yu tnh, v tm hiu xem n hin din th no ni cc bn th vt th v cc bn th thing ling. 1. YU TNH: CCH THC HIN HU CA MT BN TH C hai nguyn l c bn ni cc th to : hin hu ca chng, khin cho tt c c gi l hu th, v yu tnh ca chng, xc nh chng thuc loi hu th no. Nh vy, yu tnh c nh ngha nh iu m qua mt s vt l chnh n (that by which a thing is what it is). Nh thy khi nghin cu bn th v ph th, ch bn th mi c yu tnh theo ngha cht. Tt nhin theo ngha rng th yu tnh m ch kh nng hin hu theo cch ny hoc cch khc. Tuy nhin, ni cch cht ch, ch c th g ng c lp mi hin hu, tc l th g hin hu ti thn (bn th). Nh hn t ens c p dng theo ngha tuyt i v ph hp cho mt mnh bn th, v p dng cho cc ph th mt cch th yu, phi sinh, th cng vy, yu tnh thc s ph hp vi bn th, v ch ph hp vi nhng ph th theo mt cch thc no , v t mt quan im nht nh2. Nh vy, khi chng ta ni trng v yu tnh ca mt vt no , m khng c xc nh thm iu g, th c ngha l chng ta ni n yu tnh ca bn th , ch khng ni n yu tnh cc ph th ca n. Mi s vt c xp vo mt ging v mt loi do yu tnh tng ng ca chng, chnh xc l v nhng khi nim trn thu gom nhng i tng c mt cch thc hin hu ging nhau. Chng hn, con ch, con mo v con cp u thuc v ging ng vt, v yu tnh ca chng khin cho chng c mt cp hin hu tng ng. Khng tnh n nhng c trng ring bit ca mi loi, tt c chng u l nhng sinh vt c nhn thc gic quan. Nhng nt c trng thuc v khi nim yu tnh V l s chuyn bit ha cch thc hin hu ca mt s vt, nn yu tnh lm ny sinh mt chui nhng c im c bn gip chng ta d hiu hn na v yu tnh. Nhng c im trn lm pht sinh mt b thut ng qui chiu v cng mt thc ti, trong khi vn khc bit xt theo kha cnh ca thc ti ang c xem xt. Tuy nhin, i khi chng c dng ln ln vi nhau. a) Xt nh nguyn l ca nhng tc ng, yu tnh c gi l bn cht (As principle of operations, the essence is called nature). Mt th to hot ng mt cch ring (ch khng khc i c) v l n c s hin hu theo mt cch thc nht nh no , c n nh bi yu tnh ca n. Do , mi bn cht u c loi hot ng chuyn bit tng ng. V d, suy t v yu thng th thuc bn cht con ngi, bi v chng l nhng hot ng ny sinh t chnh bn cht con ngi. b) Theo mc yu tnh c din t qua mt nh ngha, n c gi l nim tnh (quiddity) (quidditas or whatness) (Insofar as the essence is signified by a definition, it is called quiddity (quidditas or whatness). Cu nh ngha din t mt s vt l ci g (what), vn phn bit n vi mi s vt khc v iu ny ng l yu tnh ca n. Chng hn, khi chng ta mun ni n yu tnh ca con ngi, chng ta nh ngha ngi l mt ng vt c l tnh (rational animal)3. c) Theo mc yu tnh c nhn bit, n c th c qui chiu n nhiu c th; v l do ny, n c gi l mt ph nim (Insofar as the essence is known, it can be referred to many individuals; for this reason it is called a universal). Yu tnh ch hin din thc s ni nhng s vt c th. Tuy nhin, gt sang mt bn nhng c trng thuc v mi s vt n l, li hiu bit ca chng ta ch xt n yu tnh nh mt th g ph qut, c th gn cho mi c th c cng mt cch thc hin hu. Cn c vo cch thc hin hu m yu tnh ca con nga ny c c ni tr tu con ngi, n (yu tnh) tr thnh mt ph nim c th p dng cho mi con nga.

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Li nhn xt lun l v yu tnh nh vy, c ngha rng yu tnh xt nh mt ph nim, chnh l iu m ta gi l bn th th cp (secondary substance). d) Hn t yu tnh, mc d c th c dng theo bt c ngha no k trn, vn nhn mnh n mi tng quan ca n vi vic hin hu. N m ch nguyn l m trong vic hin hu ca mt s vt c n nhn, v qua n c thu gn vo mt hnh th nht nh : n c gi l yu tnh theo mc s vt c c vic hin hu trong n v qua n4. 2. YU TNH CA NHNG HU TH VT CHT Cu nh ngha v mi s vt kh hoi (corruptible thing) u hm cha mt yu t cht liu v mt yu t hnh th. V d, khng th nh ngha mt loi ng vt hoc cy ci nu khng qui chiu n cht liu v hnh th ca n, v s phc hp hnh cht, vn c nghin cu trong phn Trit hc v Thin nhin, nht thit phi hin din trong loi bn th ny. Chng hn, ta d nhn thy rng bt c cu nh ngha no v con ngi m khng nhc n cht liu v hnh th ca con ngi, tc l thn th hoc linh hn ca con ngi, th u lm bin dng bn cht thc s ca con ngi. S l sai lm khi nh ngha con ngi nh mt hn (nh Plato lm), hoc ph nhn thc ti hnh th bn th ca n bng cch ni rng con ngi l vt cht thun ty. D nhin, cht liu v hnh th, vn c hm cha trong cu nh ngha v yu tnh, th khng bao gm nhng c im ring bit hin din ni mi c th. Cu nh ngha v con ngi khng ni n chiu cao, trng lng, hay mu sc thn th ca c nhn, nhng ch cho thy rng mi con ngi u c mt linh hn v mt thn th c nhng c trng tng t nh nhng c trng ca cc ngi khc5. Hnh th: hin th ca cht liu Hai yu t cu to ca yu tnh, tc l cht liu v hnh th, th tng quan vi nhau nh tim nng vi hin th. Mc phc hp ny l c trng cho mi hu th vt cht, c th tri qua vic sinh sn v hy hoi tc l nhng bin i su sc m qua mt hu th thi l chnh mnh, v tr nn mt s vt khc. Ch th ca nhng thay i ni trn l mt tim nng m trc ht thng d vo mt hin th, v tip n li thng d vo mt hin th khc. Khng phi bt c loi hin th no cng u can d y, nhng l mt hin th khin cho ch th tr thnh mt loi s vt hoc mt c th mi trong cng mt loi (v d mt con ngi, mt con nga, hay mt ming thp). Ch th ny l cht liu nht (prime matter), c mt hin th nht tng ng, gi l hnh th bn th (substantial form) (trong bi cnh ny, hnh th bn th c gi l hin th nht tng phn vi nhng hot ng, c gi l nhng hin th nh, v tng phn vi vic hin hu m ta s thy, vn l hin th ti hu ca mt hu th). Cht liu nht l tim nng th ng thun ty, mt kh nng tip nhn mt hin th (Prime matter is pure passive potency, a mere capacity to receive an act). N khng c chng bi bt c mt hin th no trc (chng hn, tim nng di chuyn c chng bi hnh th bn th, vn l hin th nht), nhng ch bi hin th m n tip nhn, tc l hnh th bn th. V l do ny, cht liu m khng mang bt c hnh th bn th no th khng bao gi c thc. V mi thc ti u hin hu mt cch no nh mt hin th, nn mt tim nng thun tu khng c ni kt vi mt nguyn l thc t s l mt tim nng khng-tn ti (non- existent potency); n l h v (nothing). V l kh nng thun ty n nhn hin th, cht liu t n ch l bt nh (As pure capacity for act, matter is of itself indeterminate). Ton b thc ti ca n cng nh tnh xc nh u n vi n t hnh th, v v l do ny, n th c mt li hin hu ring bit khi tip nhn mt hnh th bn th mi. Nh vy, cht liu vn phc hp nn thn th con ngi (xng v tht) th c cu hnh khc bit ni mt con ngi ang sng v ni mt thn xc khng cn sng. Hnh th l hin th nht, nh hng ln cht liu cu to nn bn th (The form is the first act which affects matter so as to constitute the substance). Nh hnh th bn th, cht liu c hin hu v tr nn thnh phn ca mt kiu bn th. Cht liu v hnh th khng hin hu ring bit. Khng c hnh th, cht liu chng l g c. Cng vy, trong trng hp nhng bn th vt th, hnh th khng th hin hu m khng c cht liu, v cp hon b ca n khng cho php n hin hu cch c lp, nhng i hi mt tim nng, mt ch th chng n.

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C cht liu ln hnh th u khng phi l nhng hu th, nhng ch l nhng nguyn l ca s vt. Do , ch c s phc hp gia cht liu v hnh th mi l ci ng c lp khi n c thc hu ho qua vic hin hu. S u tin ca hnh th trn cht liu Trong hai yu t cu to nn yu tnh ca cc hu th vt th, yu t quan trng hn chnh l hnh th, v cht liu, nguyn t n, ch l tim nng thun tu v phi hng v hnh th bn th, tc l hin th. Yu t xc nh ca yu tnh, vn em li cho n mt yu tnh c th ch khng phi bt k mt yu tnh no khc, chnh l hnh th, vn xc nh cht liu tr thnh kiu vt cht ny (mt thn th con ngi, mt ci cy, mt khong vt) vi nhng phm cht chuyn bit. trn, chng ta ni rng hu th, qua yu tnh, c thu gn vo mt li hin hu nht nh. Gi y, chng ta c th em li mt ngha chnh xc hn cho chn l ny ty theo mc lin quan n nhng bn th vt cht. Hnh th bn th, xt nh nguyn l xc nh ca yu tnh, chnh l th g gii hn hoc thu gn vic hin hu. V phn mnh, cht liu gii hn hnh th vo mt s hon cnh xc nh no , v theo ngha ny, c th c coi nh gii hn vic hin hu. Hnh th l nguyn l hin hu (esse) ca mt s vt (ens): forma est principium essendi, or forma dat esse6. Cht liu chia s esse nh bi hnh th, tu theo mc n c tr thnh thc hu (actual) nh hnh th. Do , v sinh sn l vic th c mt vic hin hu mi (via ad esse) v hu hoi l vic mt i vic hin hu (via ad non-esse), nn phc hp gia cht liu v hnh th s b ph hy mt khi chng b mt i hnh th bn th, m t c c vic hin hu7, v chng c pht sinh khi chng tip nhn mt hnh th mi. Chng hn, nhng sinh th b tan r khi hn ca chng tch ri khi thn th ca chng. Tuy nhin, cn phi ghi nhn rng ni nhng bn th vt th, hnh th khng c c vic hin hu ni chnh mnh (ti thn = act of being in itself), nhng ch theo mc n em li tnh thc hu (actuality) cho cht liu. Yu tnh y , c phc hp bi cht liu v hnh th, mi chnh l th g c c vic hin hu (esse), ch khng phi nhng nguyn l cu to ng ri rc. V d, con nga hin hu, ch khng phi hnh th hoc cht liu ca n hin hu ri rc. Trng hp hnh th bn th ca con ngi th khc. V l thing ling, linh hn con ngi c esse nh mt iu g ca ring mnh. ang khi , ni nhng hu th vt th, esse ch thuc v vt phc hp, v esse n vi phc hp l nh hnh th, cn ni con ngi th esse thuc v linh hn, chnh linh hn cho php cht liu c chia s vo . Tnh n Nht Ca Yu Tnh Mi tng quan gia cht liu v hnh th xt nh tim nng i vi hin th gii thch l do ti sao yu tnh ca vt phc hp li l n nht, mc d n c lm nn t hai yu t. S kt hp gia tim nng vi hin th tng ng ca n to nn mt n v siu hnh (metaphysical unity) thuc cp cao hn vic t hi thun ty (mere aggregation). iu sau l s n nht c lm nn bi mt s s vt c thc, tng quan vi nhau theo mt cch thc no . S n nht ni ti ca mt con vt, chng hn, th mnh m hn s n nht ca mt sn phm th cng. V l do , nhng nguyn l siu hnh vn ch yu kin to nn mt con vt th khng th no phn la nhau m li khng gy nn s h hoi, tc l mt s bin i bn cht. Tri li, nhng thnh phn kin to ca mt n v t hi th c th phn la nhau m khng ph hy bn cht ca ton b hay ca cc thnh phn. Chnh hnh th em li tnh n nht cho yu tnh (it is the form which gives unity to the essence), v n l mt hin th vt thng hon cnh bt nh ca cht liu. N lm c chuyn bng cch em li cho cht liu mt cp hin hu nht nh, nh tt c mi thnh phn ca cht liu c ni kt vi nhau. Nhng yu t khc bit vn to nn mt vt th hu c chng hn, th c ni kt vi nhau theo mc chng l thnh phn ca mt n v ln hn (tc l mt cy hoc mt con vt) vn pht sinh t hnh th. Do , khi hnh th ny b tch ri khi chng qua vic h hoi hoc ci cht, th vt th cng tan nt theo v mt i s n nht. Hn na, vt phc hp ch c mt hnh th bn th duy nht (the composite has only one substantial form). Cp hin hu ca mi s vt th c xc nh bi hnh th bn th. Nu cng mt s vt li c nhiu hn mt hnh th bn th, th ng lc n thuc v nhiu loi khc nhau. Mt hnh th bn th n l em li cho vt phc hp mi hon b ca n trn cp bn th. Chng hn nh vo cng mt

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hnh th bn th, con ngi c mt thn th, l mt sinh th, v l mt con ngi. Nu chng ta ng l c nhiu hnh th bn th ph thuc, chng ta s ph hy tnh n nht bn th ca vt phc hp. V d, ni con ngi, bn cnh ngi v con ngi, cn c mt thn th (vn cng l mt bn th) v mt ng vt. Gii php khc l cng nhn rng ch c hnh th u tin trong nhng hnh th mi em li hin hu cp bn th cho cht liu, cn nhng hnh th khc ch nh hng ln cht liu theo cch ph th8. Nhng nu iu ny l thc, th lc s khc bit gia cy ci v ng vt, v gia nhiu loi khc nhau trong ging , s ch cn l nhng khc bit ph th m thi. Khng c mt trung gian gip cho cht liu v hnh th ni kt vi nhau (there is no medium or intermediary by which matter and form are united to one another). S kt hp ca chng l mt kt hp trc tip gia tim nng v hin th ca tim nng 9. Tnh n nht ca yu tnh b tn hi khi vic kt hp ny c quan nim theo kiu trung gian, v khi cht liu khng c hiu nh tim nng thun ty, nhng nh mt thc ti no vn hin hu trong thc t. Trong trng hp con ngi chng hn, sai lm ny dn ti vic coi thn th v linh hn l hai bn th ring bit, c lp, v kh lng tng tc vi nhau10. 3. YU TNH NI BN TH THING LING Tnh u tin ca hnh th trn cht liu xt nh nguyn l hin hu (principium essendi) gip chng ta hiu c ti sao c mt s kiu hnh th hin hu m khng cn n cht liu (nhng bn th thing ling). Cht liu l dnh cho hnh th, ch khng cn cch khc. Nh c tin, chng ta bit rng ngoi linh hn con ngi, m nhng tc ng cho thy tnh thing ling ca n, mc d t bn cht n vn hng v mt thn th, th cn c nhng th to hon ton l thing ling, tc l cc thin thn11. Yu tnh ca mt bn th thun ty thing ling th n thun, hon ton ng nht vi hnh th ca mnh, tip nhn vic hin hu ti thn nh mt iu g ca ring mnh. Tuy nhin, vic khng c s phc hp ni yu tnh ca nhng bn th khng hm rng nhng th to thing ling th hon ton n thun, v ch mt mnh Thin Cha mi tuyt i n thun. Nh mi th to, cc tinh thn thun ty cng c phc hp t nht gia yu tnh v vic hin hu, v cc v c cch thc hin hu gii hn. Cc v l nhng th to, v nu khng c s phc hp , th cc v hon ton ng nht vi Esse Lp hu (Subsistent Esse), m yu tnh cng chnh l vic hin hu. Thnh Thomas gii thch nh sau: Nu c mt s hnh th no khng c tip nhn vo cht liu, th mi loi hnh th chc chn s l n thun chiu theo mc n khng c cht liu. Tuy nhin, v bt c hnh th no cng u gii hn vic hin hu, nn khng mt hnh th no l vic hin hu; ng hn, mi th trong chng l mt iu g chim hu vic hin hu (esse)12. Bn cnh , mi thin thn u th hin nhng hot ng (nhn bit v yu mn) vn thc s phn bit khi vic hin hu v bn th ca cc v. Do , ni cc v cng c s ni kt gia bn th v cc ph th.

SCH C THM ARISTOTLE, Physica, I, ch.7-9; Met., VII, ch.3; XII, 1-5. SAINT THOMAS AQUINAS, In I Phys., lect. 12-15; In VII Met., lect 2; In XII Met., lect. 1-4; De Ente et Essentia. E. GILSON, Ltre et lessence, Vrin, Paris 1962.

3 The notion of essence in phenomenology (Husserl) is nearer to this notion (as quidditas). Nevertheless, in phenomenology, an essence is neither a metaphysical reality nor a concept; it is rather a meaningful unit of thought that ones consciousness forms when describing reality. 6 Cf. St. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Contra Gentiles, Bk. I, ch. 27.

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CHNG V: NGUYN L C TH HO
(THE PRINCIPLE OF INDIVIDUATION)

1. YU TNH CA NHNG HU TH CH TN TI NI MI C TH (THE ESSENCE OF BEING EXISTS ONLY IN AN INDIVIDUATED WAY) Chng ta hiu rng nhng loi ph qut th khng hin hu c lp; ta ch thy c nhng c th c th quanh mnh. C nhiu c th trong cng mt loi, nhng chng li phn bit nhau. Chng s hu cng mt yu tnh loi bit, c cng mt cp hin hu vn em li cho chng mt nt tng t nhau, nhng yu tnh li c nhng c trng ring ca n ni mi mt c th trong chng. Nh vy, cc yu tnh th khng tn ti nh mt iu g tng qut v tru tng; ng hn, chng c c th ha (individualized) ni mi phn t ca cng mt loi. Nhn loi th khng hin hu c lp; m ch c nhng con ngi c bit mi hin hu. Siu hnh c gng gii thch lm cch no yu tnh lun ng nht v loi m vn thc s khc bit theo s ng cc hu th c bit1. Nh ta thy, hin th c tng bi nh bi tim nng. Bc u, ta c th ni rng trong lnh vc yu tnh ca cc hu th vt th, cht liu chnh l nguyn l lm tng bi cc hnh th (in the realm of the essence of corporeal beings, matter is the principle which multiplies the forms). Hnh th to nn s tng t v loi ni cc s vt, v n xc nh mt cp hin hu chung, cp ny khin cho mi con ngi l ngi, v mi con ch l ch. Mt khc, v l ch th tip nhn ly hnh th, nn cht liu khin cho vic c nhiu ci nm trong cng mt cp hin hu l kh thi. Nh cht liu, c th c nhiu con ngi, nhiu con ch, nhiu bng hng, nhiu ming thch anh. Bn cnh vic tng bi hnh th, cht liu cn c th ha hoc n l ha hnh th (aside from multiplying the form, matter also individuates or singularizes it). Nhng c th ca mt loi khng ch l nhiu, nhng chng cn khc bit nhau, nh kinh nghim cho ta bit. C th ni rng vic c nhiu c th trong mt loi m cht liu em li, th c mt cng hiu hng ngang, tri vi cng hiu c sn sinh bi hnh th, vn mang li mt phm trt hng dc cc th to c nhng cp hon b hn km trong hin hu. Do , vic c nhiu c th do cht liu em li th nm trong gii hn c xc nh bi hnh th ca loi. Khi xt n tin trnh c th ha, ta c th phn bit hai kha cnh, vn lun lun gn b vi nhau ni thc ti, xt theo hai vai tr m tim nng nm gi i vi hin th : vic tng bi v vic n l ha (multiplication and singularization). 2. VIC TNG BI YU TNH NI NHNG C TH Vic c nhiu c th trong cng mt loi cho ta thy rng yu tnh ca chng c phc hp t hai yu t, lin quan vi nhau nh tim nng v hin th. Nh thy, hin th thun ty bt c cp no th nht thit phi l duy nht. Do , mt yu tnh gm nn bi hnh th m thi (hin th trong lnh vc yu tnh) th khng c tng bi thnh nhiu c th khc bit nhau, nhng c c th ha ni chnh mnh m thi. Do , chnh cht liu m trong hnh th ca loi c tip nhn vo, (cht liu ) khin cho vic c nhiu c th trong cng mt loi l kh thi (it is matter, in which the form of the species is received, that makes the existence of many individuals of the same species possible). V l do ny, c th ni rng cht liu l nguyn l u tin cho s tng bi loi theo s lng, trong mc n l ch th trong hnh th ca loi c chng v c tng bi ln2. Dng loi suy minh ha iu ny, ta hy xt xem iu g xy ra trong trng hp mt khun plastic hoc mt hnh th (hnh th ph th) ca mt bc tng. Ta c th to ra nhiu bn sao vi iu kin l c nhng phn vt liu ring bit ( cm thch hoc plastic) m trong hnh th c in vo. Nhng bn sao th ng nht vi nhau xt theo hnh th, v ch phn bit nhau theo s lng v l hnh th c nhn vo nhng phn cht liu phn bit nhau.

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D nhin, tnh song hnh trn gia hnh th bn th v nhng hnh th ph th s b gii hn v khng hon ton thch ng, v cm thch hoc nha do th t bn thn chng trong hin th, v chng trong tim nng i vi nhng hnh th ph th mi, ang khi cht liu nht th nguyn n khng l g c nu nh b tch ri khi bn th m n c th ha. Do , nh ta thy lc ny, hnh th bn th mt cch no cng nm mt vai tr trong vic c th ha cho loi. 3. VIC N L HA YU TNH C s a dng ln ni nhng s vt ca cng mt loi. Nhng c th ca mt loi th hon b theo nhng cp khc nhau; chng c nhng phm cht v nhng nng lc hot ng, nhng kh nng c khai trin theo nhiu cp . Ngoi ra, khng mt vt g trong chng li mc trn tnh thc hu ph hp vi loi. Chng hn, nhng con ngi c nhng cp thng minh khc nhau; mt s l n ng v s khc l ph n; mt s thin v suy t, ang khi s khc li hng v nhng chuyn thc hnh. Hon b ca loi ngi ch hin din phn no ni mi c nhn, do , mi c nhn u c c trng ring ca mnh nhng thiu mt nhng c trng khc cng thuc v cng mt loi. Vic c th ha khng ch c ngha l nhng c th c khc nhau trong cch thc s hu mt hon b chung; n cng cn c ngha rng mt c im vn c th c chia s bi nhiu vt th c ghi du bng tnh n l qua vic n l ci ny hoc ci kia. Chng hn, mu trng ni chung c c th ha (mu trng ny) khi mt mt bng c sn trng. Nh vy, mt bng tc ng nh mt nguyn l c th ha cho hnh th mu trng; n l mt yu t tim nng tip nhn mu trng v, qua vic , th n l ha mu trng. Chng ta cn ghi nhn rng, ni cch cht ch, iu c c th ha, khng phi l hu th (v y chnh l mt c th ti thn), nhng l hnh th chung (common form), mt c trng c nhiu ci cng chia s. Nh chng ta thy, gc r cho vic tng bi v, do , cho vic c th ha yu tnh, chnh l cht liu. Tuy nhin, cht liu c th ha yu tnh theo mc cht liu l n l, c ngha l, ch theo mc n c loi bit ha nh ph th lng. Do , mi ni rng nguyn l c th ha l cht liu c lng (quantified matter = materia quantitate signata)3. Phi tnh n chuyn lng ti thn bao gm t th, l th t cc phn trong ton b : lng l ci c t th (quantity in itself includes position, which is the order of parts in the whole: quantity is that which has position. Do , nhiu ng nt c th c nm bt, ngay c khi chng c xt nguyn ni chng (ch khng phi ni mt ch th tng bi chng v lm cho chng thnh n l), v t th tng i khc bit ca cc thnh phn ca chng, m t bn cht thuc v mt ng nt, th c nhiu ng nt4 Lng khin cho cht liu hin din nhiu thnh phn khc bit, em li cho cht liu mt chiu kch tri rng v khin cho phn cht liu ny khc vi phn kia. Nhng mnh khc nhau ca cht liu c lng nh vy c th ha hnh th bn th, gii hn hnh th n l hnh th ca cht liu ny ch khng phi ca cht liu kia. Mc d nguyn l u tin ca n l cht liu, vic c th ha vn i hi n s can thip ca hnh th bn th v lng. Cht liu lm cng vic n l ha bi v n chu nh hng bi lng, nhng lng l mt ph th ch c n nhn bi mt hu th hon b, ngha l n ny sinh t cht liu trong mc cht liu c hnh th lm cho thc hu. Do , tin trnh c th ha c th c phn thnh ba giai on, khng k tc nhau theo thi gian nhng l ng thi. C nh hng h tng gia nhng yu t : cht liu, lng, v hnh th bn th : 1) Khi thc hu ha cht liu, hnh th bn th ca mt hu th vt th cng lm cho ph th lng ny sinh ni cht liu, v lng kin to vt th nh vy; 2) Khi lng em li chiu kch cho cht liu, th n khin cho nhng phn ny ni cht liu phn bit khi nhng phn khc, khin cho cht liu tr thnh c th5. Nh nhng chiu kch c th ca n, lng gii hn cht liu ch cn l cht liu ny, phn bit khi mi cht liu khc. 3) Cht liu, mt khi c n l ha nh lng, th cng c th ha hnh th ca loi. Phn tch n cng, cht liu l nguyn l tng bi ca loi, theo mc n l mt ch th ph hp n nhn hnh th bn th, vn l hin th ring ca n; n n l ha hnh th theo mc n c n l ha nh cng hiu ca lng. Nhng v iu ny i hi phi c s thc hu ha trc ca cht liu nh bi hnh th (m t bn cht l phi i trc cht liu), nn thnh Thomas tm lc vn ny

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bng cch ni rng tnh vt th c c nh hnh th, vic c th ha ny sinh nh cht liu (given the corporeity by virtue of the form, individuation arises on account of the matter6.

4. VIC C TH HA CC PH TH V CC BN TH THING LING (THE INDIVIDUATION OF ACCIDENTS AND OF SPIRITUAL SUBSTANCES) Cc ph th c c th ha nh bn th ca chng (Accidents are individuated by their substance) Thut ng c th khng nhng p dng cho cc bn th, m cn cho cc ph th na. C th th phn bit khi iu ph qut hoc tru tng. Theo ngha ny, hin nhin l khng c mt xc nh ph th no ca mt ch th li l mt bn cht ph qut. Mu sc, trng lng v kch c u l nhng thc ti n l. Cn phi lu rng cc ph th th c c th ha, khng phi do cht liu nht, nhng do chnh ch th ca chng, m lc ny thc s trong hin th (bn th) (accidents are individuated, not by prime matter, but by their own subject, which is already in act (the substance), cng ging nh chuyn cc hnh th bn th c c th ha bi cht liu nht vn l ch th ring ca chng7. R rng l nguyn l c th ha th lun l tim nng c tc dng tng bi v gii hn hon b c tip nhn. Nh vy, chnh bn th, v l ch th ring ca cc ph th, nn c th ha chng. Chng hn, cng ch l mt tri thc thi nhng li c khc i (diversified) v th c nhng c im n l ty theo nhng ch th chim hu n; ri, mt vt rn v mt cht lng th chu nh hng khc nhau bi cng mt nhit mi trng chung quanh, nhit c mt cng ring bit ni ci ny v c cng khc ni ci kia. Tuy nhin, trong bi cnh c th ha, lng c mt c im chuyn bit vn phn bit n khi cc ph th khc : nh lng, tt c cc ph th vt cht cn li c gn vo bn th. Do , mi ph th khc u c tng bi theo mc chng chu nh hng bi lng. V d, hai mu trng c cng cng phm tnh bng nhau ch c th c tng bi v l chng c tip nhn vo nhiu thnh phn khc nhau ca cht liu, v ta khng th tng tng c chuyn tr phi u c ta t chng hai ni khc bit nhau. Vic cc ph th bm vo bn th nh lng th c tm quan trng ln lao xt t quan im thn hc, v n gip ta hiu cch lm th no cc ph th vn trong hnh Thnh Th (eucharistic species) li l c bit. Mc d mt i ch th ring bnh v ru cc ph th vn tip tc l c bit qua vic bm vo lng. Cc hnh th lp hu l nhng c th ti thn (Subsistent forms are individual in themselves) Ni th gii tinh thn, vic c th ha hin nhin l khng ny sinh t cht liu. Tuy nhin, iu ny khng ngn cn nhng tinh thn thun ty tr thnh nhng c th, bng khng th tt c ch cn l nhng thc ti tru tng. V khng th c tip nhn vo cht liu vn tng bi hnh th, nn mi hnh th thin thn ng nhin l mt yu tnh c bit vn mc trn loi ca mnh (each angelic form is automatically an individual essence which exhausts its entire species), tc l, khng c nhng c th khc ca cng mt loi, v nhng hon b ca mi hnh th thin thn th hin din y ni yu tnh c bit. Aristotle ni rng nhng vt no khng c cht liu u l nhng c th mt cch tuyt i v cn c (those things which have no matter are all absolutely and essentially individuals)8. Sau cng, Thin Cha khc vi mi th to ch Ngi chnh l Hin Th Thun Ty (Pure Act). Esse ca Ngi l mt hon b khng c tip nhn vo bt c mt tim nng no vn gii hn n. Thin Cha l mt c th bi l Ngi c tnh v bin : Hin th ch b gii hn bi l n c tip nhn vo mt th g phn bit, mt tim nng vn hn ch n. Tuy nhin, ni yu tnh Thin Cha, khng c g c tip nhn vo bt c iu g, v hin th ca Ngi chnh l bn cht t hu thn thing ca Ngi, v iu ny khng xy ra ni bt c th to no. V mi thc ti ngoi Thin Cha u phi n nhn vic hin hu (do hin hu y b gii hn). Yu tnh Thin Cha th phn bit khi mi yu tnh khc, v yu tnh Ngi khng c tip nhn vo bt c mt iu g khc9.

SCH C THM ARISTOTLE, Metaphysica, VIII, ch. 6; De Caelo, I, ch. 9. SAINT THOMAS AQUINAS, De Principio Individuationis; De Natura Materiae.

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3 The commentators of St. Thomas Aquinas had various interpretations regarding the nature of the materia quantitale signata. Cajetan, and later on John of St. Thomas, identified the principle of individuation with matter inasmuch as it is the root of quantity; this mean that what causes individuation is matter in potency, that is, still devoid of the actuality of quantity. (Cf. Comm, in Summa Theo., I, q. 29, a. 1). Sylvester de Ferraris rejected that interpretation due to the obvious divergence from St. Thomas doctrine and affirmed together with John Capreolus that the materia quantitate signata is not prime matter alone but matter that is already with the accident quantity (cf. Comm. In Summa Contra Gentiles, Lib. I. c.21). 6 De Natura Materiae, ch 3. Scotus, Ockham, and Suarez denied that matter could be the principle of individuation. Scotus made the haecceitas the individuating principle; by haecceitas, he meant the ultimate reality in the scale of formalities which gives the specific nature of the thing its being this, that is, its individual, thus denying the reality of the specific nature. Suarez, following the nominalist tradition, affirmed that any entity is by it self the principle of individuation. (Disp. Metaph., disp. 5, sect. 6, no. 1). Among modern philosophers, Leibniz devoted special attention to this question. His solution followed the line of thinking of his mentor Thomasius, and fully coincided with the positions of Ockham and Suarez. 8 Metaphysica, lib. VIII, c.6, 1045b 23.

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CHNG VI: ESSE : HIN TH TI HU CA MT HU TH

(ESSE: THE ULTIMATE ACT OF A BEING)

1. VIC HIN HU L NN TNG TI HU CA MI THC TI (THE ACT OF BEING IS THE ULTIMATE FOUNDATION OF ALL REALITY) Vic c nhiu th to cho ta bit c nhiu mc hon b. Nhng, ng thi, chuyn cng cho ta bit c mt hon b vn l chung cho mi hu th, l esse. Esse siu vit bt c hon b no khc v, theo cch loi suy, n hin din ni mi mt hon b. Mi hin th u gi nh v t by esse, cho d l theo nhiu cch khc nhau : s sng, mt mu sc, mt nhn c, tt c u chia s vic hin hu theo nhiu cp khc nhau. Chuyn cng chia s vic hin hu nh th, i km vi vic hin hu c chim hu v biu l theo nhiu cch khc nhau, tt c din t s kin ny l mi th to u phc hp t mt hin th (esse), vn bao gm ht mi hon b ca chng, v mt tim nng (essence), vn gii hn esse vo mt cp nht nh. Esse (actus essendi) l mt hin th bao gm mi hon b Cng nh mi ngi chim hu mt hnh th bn th (hin th trn cp yu tnh), tc iu khin cho anh ta l con ngi, th mi s vt cng c mt hin th (esse) nh tt c chng u l hu th. Nu hnh th bn th con ngi m hin din tch bit khi nhng con ngi c th, th hn n s hm cha tt mc mi hon b m nhng c nhn ch c c cch gii hn, tc l v con s v cng . Thc ra, nu ta thy hnh th bn th c b gii hn, th l do tim nng tip nhn hnh th v gii hn hnh th. Tng t th, vic hin hu ca th to, vn l hnh nh cho esse ca Thin Cha, cng b gii hn bi mt tim nng (yu tnh) vn gii hn cp hon b ca vic hin hu . Tuy nhin, c mt khc bit quan trng gia esse v cc hon b khc ca mt hu th (hnh th bn th v cc hnh th ph th). Nu c mt hin th no khc tn ti tch bit khi mi tim nng, th n phi c c hon b thuc v cch thc hin hu ca mnh (v d, mt nhn tnh lp hu (subsistent humanity) hn phi l mt con ngi vin mn), nhng li khng chim hu c bt c iu hon b no khc thuc v ring nhng loi khc. Tri li, vic hin hu, nguyn t n, bao gm cc hon b, khng ch hon b ca mt loi c th, nhng ca mi loi c v c th c. Esse l mt hin th theo ngha y nht Nh vy, c th thy rng vic hin hu l mt hin th theo ngha y v thch hp, v nguyn n khng bao hm bt c mt gii hn no (the act of being is an act in the full and proper sense, since it does not of itself include any limitation). Tri li, nhng hin th khc l nhng cch thc hin hu c th, do ch l tim nng nu em so vi vic hin hu. Theo ngha ny, chng c vic hin hu, khng phi cch tuyt i, nhng ch theo cch thc ring bit. Do , c th ni rng chng gii hn esse, ging nh tim nng gii hn hin th ca mnh1. V esse chim hu y nht cc c im ca hin th, nn n c th ng c lp khi bt c tim nng no. Do , chng ta c th hiu c l do ti sao, v mt siu hnh, Thin Cha c th c coi l Vic Hin hu thun ty (pure Act of Being), Ngi chim hu cch vin mn v tuyt i mi hon b hin din ni cc th to. Vic Hin hu thun ty ny th vt xa mi hon b ca c v tr. Phn tch n cng, esse c th c miu t thch ng nh hin th ti hu ca mt hu th (ens) (ultimate act of a being (ens), v mi vt v mi mt hon b hoc hin th ca chng u ch l nhng cch thc hin hu hoc nhng hnh th vn chim hu hin th c bn mt cch hn ch (tc l nh s thng d), m nu khng c hin th , th cng chng c s vt no. Esse l hin th ca mi th hin th khc ni mt hu th, v esse thc hu ha bt c hon b no khc, khin cho c hon b . V d, hot ng ca con ngi, vn l hin th nh, c nn tng ni nhng nng lc hot ng, nhng nng lc kin to nn hin th nht trong lnh vc ph th. Cng vi nhng hon b ph th khc, nhng nng lc c c tnh thc hu l nh hnh th bn th, hnh

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th l hin th nht ca yu tnh. Tuy nhin, ton b hon b ca yu tnh li bt ngun t esse, do esse c gi ng n l hin th ti hu v hin th ca tt c mi hin th khc ni mt hu th.

2. ESSE V YU TNH PHN BIT NHAU THC S V l hin th cho yu tnh, nn vic hin hu nht thit phi phn bit khi yu tnh, v bt c tim nng no cng u thc s phn bit (distinct) khi hin th ca n. Trong dng lch s, s phn bit ny b phn i kch lit bi mt s nh kinh vin duy hnh thc, thm ch mt s trong cn nu ln Thnh Thomas ng h cho lp trng ca h. Tuy nhin, cc tc phm ca Thnh Tin S Thin Thn lun lm chng cho s phn bit ch thc. Ngoi ra, vic thiu mt s phn bit nh vy s khin cho hc thuyt ca ngi l khng th hiu c2. Chng ta ch cn a ra ba lun chng gip ta hiu r hn l do ti sao yu tnh v vic hin hu li phn bit nhau. 1) Lun chng th nht da trn s gii hn tm thy ni cc th to (limitation found in creatures). Mi th to chim hu hon b ca esse ch mt phn, xt c v ngoi din (c ngha l n khng phi l iu duy nht), ln cng (tnh thc hu ca n b gii hn). Xt v kha cnh ngoi din, ta d nhn thy rng bn cnh bt c mt hu th no, cn c nhng hu th khc na; do , khng mt hu th th to no mc trn hon b vic hin hu. Hn na, xt v mt cng , khng mt th to no chim hu cc hon b ti mc kh d ti a. Do , cho d mt ngi c th thng minh n u, th vn lun c th tm c mt ngi khc c tr khn cn vt tri hn (cao nhn tt hu cao nhn tr). Thin ho ca mt th to lun phi thua km thin ho ca th to khc hon b hn; thin ho ca mt cy th ln hn thin ho ca mt loi khong vt; thin ho ca thin thn th ln hn thin ho ca con ngi; v thin ho ca Thin Cha th cao trng v bin hn thin ho ca mi th to gp chung li. Do , nhng hu th th to th khng ng nht vi esse ca chng: chng c vic hin hu nh s thng d, tc l khng theo cch thc vin mn, y . Nh thy, vic chim hu mt hon b theo li thng d (participated perfection) th lun i c hai nguyn l: vt thng d (participant), hoc ch th tip nhn hon b, ng thi cng gii hn n, v nguyn l kia l chnh hin th hay hon b c thng d (participated perfection). Trong trng hp ny, hin th l esse, cn yu tnh l tim nng tip nhn esse. 2) Lun chng th hai da trn vic c nhiu hu th th to (multiplicity of created beings). Vic c nhiu th to hin nhin cho thy rng chng c phc hp t yu tnh v vic hin hu. Nu c iu g tn ti m yu tnh ca n li ng nht vi vic hin hu, th nht nh n phi l duy nht v tuyt i (necessarily be one and simply). Nht l, v l khng th no mt hin th c tng bi tr phi n c ni kt vi mt th g phn bit khi n, chng hn mt loi c tng bi ni nhng c th v l hnh th bn th hin din ni nhiu phn cht liu khc bit nhau. Hon b ca vic hin hu qu thc c tng bi ni nhiu c th. Tuy nhin, khng th no c c chuyn trn tr phi esse c ni kt vi mt tim nng (tc l yu tnh) thc s phn bit khi n. 3) Lun chng ba da vo s tng t tm thy ni cc hu th (similarity found among beings). Nu hai hoc nhiu hn na cc s vt tng t nhau, th phi c mt iu g ni chng to nn tnh cch ng dng (conformity), ng thi cng c mt iu g lm cho chng khc bit. Hin nhin, ngun mch cho tnh cch tng t ca chng phi thc s phn bit khi ngun mch ca tnh khc bit ni chng. Ta thy rng mi th to u c vic hin hu, v nh vy chng tng t vi nhau v im ny. Tri li, chng khc bit nhau l do yu tnh ca chng, vn gii hn vic hin hu theo nhiu cch. Do , yu tnh v vic hin hu th thc s phn bit nhau. S phn bit thc s ny l nn tng cho vic th to hon ton l thuc vo ng To Ha (This real distinction is the basis of the total dependence of creatures on the Creator)

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Mc d vn ta bn y thng c thu gn vo b nhng tranh lun lin quan n cc trng phi t tng khc nhau3, th vn l iu ch li v lm ni bt mt vn quan trng khi ta tm hiu nhng mi tng quan gia mt th to v Thin Cha. Thc vy, phn bit thc s gia yu tnh v vic hin hu gip cho chng ta c c li hiu ng n chuyn mt th to l thuc cch no vo ng To Ha, v bn cht s l thuc ny, v v s hin din thn mt ca Thin Cha ni hu th th to. Ch mnh Thin Cha l Hin Th Thun Ty (Pure Act) hay Hon B khng gii hn, hin hu c lp ni chnh Ngi. Tri li, cc th to th b gii hn, c c vic hin hu n nhn t Thin Cha. Do , nht nh chng phi phc hp t hin th v tim nng. M iu ny ch c th xy ra nu nh yu tnh v vic hin hu (nhng nguyn l cu to duy nht tri rng trn mi to vt) thc s phn bit nhau. Ni khc i, tnh hu hn ca mt th to xt v mt siu hnh s khng th c gii thch nh vic hin th t gii hn mnh. Nu s phn bit gia yu tnh v vic hin hu l khng c thc, th cng cuc sng to ca Thin Cha chng li mt vt tch no ni hin hu ca th to. Th to cho thy n bt ngun t h v, n ngho nn v hu hn, chnh xc l do n thc s phc hp t yu tnh v vic hin hu (The creature reveals its origin from nothingness, its indigence and its finitude, precisely through its real composition of essence and the act of being), do vic hin hu khng c hm cha ni yu tnh mt cch khn thit. Ngoi ra, iu trn cn gii thch bn cht chuyn l thuc, vn ni kt cc th to vi Cn Nguyn ca mnh. Ton th th to l thuc vo Thin Cha nh Nguyn L y nht v trit (The whole of creation depends on God as its fullest and radical Principle). im gp g gia th to v To Ha chnh l vic hin hu (esse), m c im chuyn bit ca n l cho thy rng thc ti hu hn phi l thuc hon ton vo ng Hng Hu (Subsistent Act of Being). Nh nu, vic th to l thuc vo To Ha phi: l Trit (Radical): mi cng hiu u ty thuc vo cn nguyn ca mnh v l n c to nn bi cn nguyn . Cng hiu ring bit trc tip ni hot ng ca Thin Cha trong vic sng to v bo tn chnh l esse ca mi th to, cng l hnh nh (likeness) ca esse ni Thin Cha. V esse l hin th ca mi hin th khc ni th to, nn s l thuc ca th to vo Thin Cha l trit ; nu khng c vic hin hu th cng chng c iu g c. l Ton din v bao gm mi s (Total and all comprehensive): s l thuc ny ta rng n mi mt v tt c mi hon b ca vt phc hp (bn th, cc phm cht, cc nng lc v hot ng), tt c chng u nm trong tim nng i vi vic hin hu. Thit thn nht hoc ni ti nht (closest or most intrinsic): v vic hin hu l iu su thm nht ni mi s vt4. S hin din ca Thin Cha ni cc th to thng qua vic hin hu th thn mt hn chnh s hin din ca th to ni bn thn n. Sau cng, v l hin th ca yu tnh, esse to nn mt nn tng cho nhiu cp khn thit trong hin hu c tm thy ni cc vt th to (as the act of the essence, esse provides a basis for the different degrees of necessity in being found in created things) , tc l chuyn mt s th to th kh hoi v s khc th bt hoi. Nu esse khng phi l nguyn l thc s ca cc th to, m ch l iu g bn ngoi (n t Thin Cha), th mi vt u l bt tt nh nhau. Nu th th cc thin thn, linh hn con ngi, cc ng vt u c cng mt cp khn thit trong hin hu, v tt c u n t Thin Cha v khng h khc bit nhau, v l tt c u c to dng. Tuy nhin, v esse l mt hin th, nn n c n nh bi yu tnh chng n, do vy n b gii hn bi nhng iu kin ca yu tnh ny. C nhng yu tnh l thing ling v bt t (cc thin thn v linh hn con ngi); do bn cht chng n nhn t Thin Cha nn, mt khi c to dng, nhng yu tnh trn c mi hin hu. Cn nhng hu th khc khng c c s vng bn ; v l do ny, chng c gi l nhng hu th kh hoi (corruptible).

3. PHC HP YU TNH - HIN HU L CU TRC C BN CA NHNG VT TH TO Ta thng nghe ni rng phc hp yu tnh hin hu th thuc lnh vc siu nghim, v n nht thit hin din ni mi hu th th to, d chng l vt cht hay tinh thn. Phc hp ny hn nh th to v mt siu hnh, v n l gc r cho tnh hu hn ca th to. N cng l ngun cn cho nhng phc hp khc tm thy ni nhng thc ti hu hn, tc l phc hp gia hin hu v hot ng, gia bn th v

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ph th. Chnh v cc th to c esse b gii hn bi yu tnh, nn chng c th tip nhn thm nhng hon b khc, vn tch ly thm cho chng thng qua cc ph th, v c bit l qua nhng hot ng. Yu tnh v hin hu l hai nguyn l khng th phn ly ca hu th (Essence and act of being are two inseparable principles of beings) Cu trc siu hnh ca yu tnh v hin hu khng c hiu nh kt qu ca vic thu gp hai thc ti y v hon b5. Chng l hai nguyn l siu hnh kt hp li lm nn mt hu th n l (single being), v tng quan vi nhau nh tim nng vi hin th. Yu tnh l tim nng i vi vic hin hu, v n khng th hin din c lp khi vic hin hu. y chng ta chm n mt tim nng khng th phn ly khi hin th ca n; ng hn, n lun lun ni kt vi hin th . Mt mi ty thuc gn gi nht s ni kt hai nguyn l li. Nhng hu th tn ti m chng ta nhn thy l phc hp t yu tnh v hin hu; chng khng bao gi ch nguyn l yu tnh hoc nguyn l hin hu. Yu tnh ch hin din nh vic hin hu bi v, khi cha c esse, n cha l g c, ngoi tr trong tr tu ca ng To Ha, y n khng phi l mt th to, nhng chnh l yu tnh sng to6. Qua vic to dng, Thin Cha to ra nhng hu th t h v, c ngha l Ngi to nn vic hin hu b gii hn bi chnh yu tnh ca n. Ngi khng sn sinh hai s vt ring bit trc ri sau mi ni kt chng li vi nhau, nhng Ngi lm nn mt s vt n l hu hn, phc hp t tim nng (yu tnh) v hin th (esse). Vic hin hu ni cc s vt vt cht Esse ca mi hu th l mt hin th i vi yu tnh, tng t nh kiu hnh th l hin th i vi cht liu. C hai hin th, esse v hnh th bn th, c c s vin mn ca mnh b gii hn bi cc ch th tip nhn chng. Tuy nhin, c s khc bit nn tng: hnh th xc nh cht liu, a cht liu v cch thc hin hu ring mnh; cn vic hin hu th khng xc nh hnh th, nhng c xc nh bi hnh th (the form determines matter, drawing it to its own mode of being; the act of being, however, does not determine the form, but is determined by it). Cht liu nht th hon ton bt nh (completely indeterminate), v n cha c mt cht g l thc hu (actuality) v nh vy, hnh th xc nh n, khin cho n l cht liu ca loi ny hay loi kia. Tri li, vic hin hu th khng thiu tnh thc hu; n bao gm mi hin th mt cch tri vt. Do , hnh th xc nh esse theo ngha i lp vi ngha m trong n xc nh cht liu. Hnh th xc nh esse bng cch gii hn tnh thc hu ca esse, nhng li xc nh cht liu bng cch em li cho cht liu tnh thc hu (actuality). 4. ESSE, XT NH HIN TH, L HT NHN CA SIU HNH HC THOMAS Esse xt nh hin th ti hu, v vic n phc hp vi yu tnh, vn l c trng cho mi th to, l mt trong nhng ti nn tng nht trong Siu hnh hc v thn hc ca thnh Thomas Aquinas. Ta nhn thy iu ny trong li gii quyt cho v s vn , vn kh hiu nu nh vic hin hu (esse) khng c coi nh hin th ti hu ca ens. Vn tt, chng ta c th nu ln mt s vn nh sau: 1. Bn cht siu hnh ca Thin Cha. V mt Siu hnh hc, Thin Cha c c im duy mnh Ngi l Esse Subsistens (the Subsistent Act of Being), l Vic Hin Hu Thun Ty, tc l hin hu t thn khng h b gii hn bi bt c yu tnh no. Yu tnh ca Ngi cng chnh l hin hu ca Ngi. 2. Phn bit gia Thin Cha v cc th to. Cc th to th trit phn bit khi ng To Ha bi l chng c phc hp gia yu tnh v hin hu, phc hp nh hng ln mi hu th th to, v kin to nn cn nguyn v gc r cho mi th khc bit v sau. 3. Th to c nt tng t vi Thin Cha v s nhn bit ng To Ha. Qua vic khm ph rng hin th kin to ni ti ca th to l esse, vn tng t vi hin hu ca Thin Cha, chng ta hiu c rng nhng s vt phn nh hon b ca Thin Cha, v qua chng th chng ta c c mt tri thc no v Cn Nguyn ca chng. 4. Mi hu th u l thuc tuyt i vo Thin Cha. V l tim nng hin hu (potentia essendi = potency of being), yu tnh ko theo vic th to lun l thuc vo Thin Cha, ng l Esse do yu tnh, l cn nguyn sng to v duy tr esse m cc th to chim hu qua vic thng d.

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5. C s khc bit gia cc th to thing ling v cc th to vt cht. Cu trc gia yu tnh v actus essendi gip chng ta hiu c tnh cch hu hn ca cc th to thing ling, cc th to ny cng phi chu s phc hp siu hnh ni trn. Tuy nhin, chng ta ng thi cng bit c rng cc th to khc bit vi nhng bn th vt th, v nhng th sau cn thm mt ln phc hp gia cht liu v hnh th. Khi nim actus essendi c mt tm quan trng ln n nu ta l l n s dn n nhiu sai lm siu hnh. Vic chi b esse nh hin th ca yu tnh th bt u trong thuyt hnh thc (formalism) ca mt s nh kinh vin sau thnh Thomas. Yu tnh khng cn c coi nh potentia essendi, nhng nh mt iu g c mt tnh t tr nht nh. V khng coi esse nh mt hin th ni ti ca ens, tri li mun coi n nh mt iu g bn ngoi (mt trng thi m thi, ny sinh t hot ng ca TC, m khng c hiu qu no trong cu trc ca chnh thc ti th to), yu tnh nm mt gi tr qu l. Thay v coi yu tnh nh mt iu g phi hng ti esse, cc trit gia duy hnh thc t esse l thuc vo yu tnh, v nh vy yu tnh tr nn thnh t c bn ca to vt. Rt khi vic hin hu, th khi yu tnh ch cn c xc nh nh ni dung tru tng hoc tnh kh tri ca n, v iu ny to nn mt tha t mu m cho bt c nn Siu hnh hc no mun t t tng u tin trc hu th. Khng kh nhn thy l do ti sao nn trit hc v yu tnh (philosophy of essence) li c tip ni bi mt nn Siu hnh hc ni ti (immanentist philosophy). V trong th gii yu tnh, esse ch c coi nh mt iu c thm vo t bn ngoi, nn rt cuc esse b thay th bi hnh vi ca l tr, vn em li tnh kh tri cho cc yu tnh, v tha nhn chng l thc ti duy nht c nhn bit bi nhng ngi theo thuyt ni ti, tc l, mt thc ti c suy tng (a thought reality).

SCH C THM SAINT THOMAS AQUINAS, Summa contra gentiles, I. ch. 70; II, ch. 53; Quodlibetum, III, q.1,a.1; VIII, a.un; De spir. Creat., a.1; De subst. sep., ch. 6. C. FABRO, La nozione metafisica di partecipazione, S.E.I., Torino 1960. F. INCIARTE, Forma formarum, Alber, Freiburg 1970. H. BECK, El ser como acto, EUNSA, Pamplona 1968. B. LAKEBRINK, Klassische Metaphysik, Rombach, Freiburg 1967. A. L. GONZALEZ, Ser y participacion, EUNSA, Pamplona 1979.

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CHNG VII: CH TH HIN HU C LP

(THE SUBSISTING SUBJECT) Trn y, chng ta i vo mt phn tch nhng yu t cu to thc ti, nhng mc tiu ca chng ta l nhn bit trn vn hn na v i tng Siu hnh hc, tc l hu th. Ging nh mi tri thc t nhin, Siu hnh hc bt u bng vic xem xt nhng s vt th to, vn l hu hn v phc hp. Do , khi bn v nhng thnh t khc nhau ca thc ti th to (bn th v cc ph th, cht liu v hnh th, yu tnh v hin hu), ta lun coi chng l nhng nguyn l ca hu th. Gi y, ta c th lm mt nghin cu v hu th c xt trong tnh n nht phc tp ca n, xt nh mt ton b c phc hp bi nhng nguyn l nu trn, hoc pht biu bng nhng thut ng chnh xc hn, nh mt ton b hin hu c lp, v phn tch n cng, tt c nhng nguyn l trn u gn b vi nhau v c thc hu nh bi mt hin th n l, c th l, vic hin hu. Khng kh nhn ra rng nu Siu hnh hc khng lin tc qui chiu v hu th nh mt phc hp v mt n v hin hu c lp (nh mt thc ti ton b), th n s lc mt i tng ring ca mnh v li chn la tr thnh mt khoa hc c th. Nh vy, n khng cn xem xt nhng s vt nh chng ang hin hu, trong tnh thng nht phc hp ca chng, nhng ch trong nhng kha cnh tng phn (yu tnh, hot ng, hoc phm cht ca chng).

1. KHI NIM V CH TH HIN HU C LP Trong Siu hnh hc, danh t ch th hin hu c lp hay lp hu c ngha l hu th c th vi tt c nhng hon b ca n (in metaphysics, the name subsisting subject or suppositum designates the particular being with all of its perfections)1. Nh vy, cc ch th hin hu c lp l nhng thc ti c bit c xt trong ton tnh ca chng, c c im phn bit l s hin hu c lp (subsistence), c ngha l vic chim hu ni ti s hin hu khin cho mi s vt l thc hu trong ton th ca n. Suppositum l hu th trong ngha trn vn. Nu nh bn th c gi l hu th theo ngha hp, bi l n tip nhn vic hin hu ni chnh mnh, th hn t hu th li cng va vn vi suppositum, v bn th th to chng bao gi hin hu m khng c ph th. Ton th, c phc hp t bn th v cc ph th, mi thc s hin hu chng bao gi mt mnh bn th hoc nguyn cc ph th li hin hu ring bit. D nhin, bt c iu g cng c th c gi l hu th, trong mc n l c thc cch no (cht liu, hnh th, bn th, cc ph th). Tuy nhin, suppositum l hu th trong ngha ph hp nht, c ngha rng n l th g hin hu c lp, tn ti ni chnh mnh nh mt iu g y hon b, v phn bit khi bt c thc ti no khc (suppositum is being in the most proper sense, that is, it is what subsists, what exists in itself as something complete and finished and distinct from any other reality). Nh bit, y khng phi l cht liu, cng chng phi l hnh th ng tch bit, cng khng phi l bn th tch ri khi cc ph th, cng chng phi vic hin hu (ni cc th to) phn cch khi yu tnh, nhng l ton th ny sinh t vic kt hp cc yu t trn. iu ni n y l mt ton th ch khng phi ch thun ty l chuyn gp li, v nhng thnh t khc ca ch th lp hu th nm trong tim nng i vi vic hin hu n l, v hin hu kiu ny chnh l nn tng cho tnh n nht ca ton th.

Nhng c im ca ch th hin hu c lp Chng ta c th nh ngha ch th hin hu c lp l mt ton b c th hin hu c lp nh mt vic hin hu n l, do hin hu ny khng th c chia s vi c th khc (individual whole which subsists by virtue of a single act of being and which, therefore, cannot be shared with another). Nhng im ni bt ca suppositum l: Tnh c th (its individuality): ch c nhng s vt n l mi thc s tn ti. Khng yu tnh tru tng no c coi l mt ch th hin hu c lp, v yu tnh loi khng th t mnh tip nhn vic hin hu.

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 S hin hu c lp (subsistence): khng phi bt c iu g l c bit cng u hin hu c lp. Chng hn, cc ph th l c bit, nhng chng khng c hin hu ca ring mnh. Cng vy, nhng phn vt cht ca mt bn th, v d bn tay hoc u, u khng c hin hu cho ring mnh. L c bit (to be individual) v l mt c th (to be an individual) khng hon ton ng ngha vi nhau. L c bit, c ngha l i lp vi vic l ph qut, v n p dng cho c bn th ln ph th; tuy nhin, l mt c th li i c s hin hu c lp, v do n cng l mt suppositum. Tnh khng th thng chia (incommunicability or unsharedness): do bi tnh cch c th v hin hu c lp ca mnh, ch th hin hu c lp khng th c chia s bi nhng th khc. ang khi mt hnh th bn th hoc hnh th ph th c nhiu ch th khc nhau thng d, th suppositum li khng phi nh vy, v n tn ti nh mt iu g c nht v phn bit khi cc ch th khc. iu ny i khi c gi l tnh bt kh thng chia, nhng chuyn khng c ngha rng bn th ny th khng lin h g n nhng bn th khc. Nhng yu t lm nn suppositum Chng ta nhn thy rng ch nhng c th hon b mi tn ti t bn cht. em phn tch, chng ta khm ph thm nhng yu t lm nn nhng n v ring l . Ch th hin hu c lp c phc hp t : 1) vic hin hu (act of being), yu t cu to c bn em li s hin hu c lp cho ch th; 2) yu tnh (esse), m ni nhng hu th vt cht li c phc hp t cht liu v hnh th; 3) nhng ph th, l nhng hin th hon tt s hon b ca yu tnh. Nh bit, c mt trt t no gia nhng yu t trn. Vic hin hu th trc tip thc hu ha yu tnh, v nh yu tnh m thc hu ha cc ph th. Nhng danh xng m ch n ch th hin hu c lp Nh trong trng hp yu tnh, trng hp ch th hin hu c lp, ngi ta cng dng nhiu danh xng m ch n. Chng khc bit ty theo c im m chng nhn mnh: n c gi l ton b (whole = totum) tng phn vi mi thnh phn kin to nn n; n c gi l c th (concrete) (pht sinh t quasi congregatum), v ni quyn th to, ch th hin hu c lp ny c to nn t nhiu yu t ni kt li (v theo ngha ny th n cng c gi l vt phc hp (composite)). n l vt n l v c bit (singular and individual), nhng hn t trn p dng cho iu g ng c lp, v n nht thit phi l c bit v n l, khng phn bit ni mnh, nhng li phn bit khi nhng th khc; n l lp hu (suppositum or hypostasis), v c th chng (sub-positum = placed beneath) mt bn cht v mt s ph th vn ch c th gn cho n m thi, do , n l ch th ti hu ca thuc tnh. V d, ni cch cht ch, nhng hot ng ph hp vi con ngi c gn cho ch th thc s ng c lp (chng hn, Dng hoc Loan). Ch th l hn t thng c dng theo mc ch ny. n cng l bn th s yu (primary substance). Hn t ny i khi c hon chuyn vi suppositum, v bn th c bit th nht thit phi bao gm nhng ph th. Tuy nhin, bn th s yu i khi ch ni n yu tnh c bit cng vi vic hin hu ca n, m khng ni g n cc ph th. 2. PHN BIT GIA BN CHT V SUPPOSITUM Yu tnh, v nht l hnh th, em li cho ton b c th mt li hin hu ging nh li hin hu ca nhng c th khc, do t c th vo mt loi nht nh. Nh yu tnh chung hoc bn tnh, nhng con ngi to nn thnh phn ca nhn loi. V l nguyn l ni ti cho s tng t (similarity) cp loi, yu tnh c th tng phn vi suppositum hoc c th, vn l mt thc ti khng chia s (phn bit v phn chia khi mi c th khc). Do , tng quan gia suppositum v bn cht ca n khng phi l mi tng quan tn ti gia hai nguyn l ca hu th; ng hn, n l mt mi tng quan ko theo mt s phn bit thc t; suppositum phn bit khi bn cht ca n cng ging nh kiu ton b khc bit vi cc thnh phn (the relation between suppositum and its nature is not that which exists between two principles of being; rather, it is one that entails a real distinction; the suppositum is distinct from its nature in the same way a whole is different from one of its parts2).

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S phn bit thc t gia bn cht v suppositum c th xt theo hai cch : a) ni mi c th, c mt s phn bit gia yu tnh c c bit ha (individuated essence) vi ton b ch th lp hu; b) mi c th u phn bit khi bn cht chung ca loi (vn c coi nh mt hon b ph qut m mi c th u chia s, v gt b nhng c im ring t).

3. VIC HIN HU THUC V SUPPOSITUM Hin th kin to khin cho suppositum thnh thc t, chnh l esse. iu ph hp nht vi c th chnh l chuyn ng c lp, v n ch l hiu qu ca vic hin hu3. Tuy nhin, ngi ta khng th coi thng yu tnh trong lc gii thch s hin hu c lp ca mt ch th, v mt hu th ch tip nhn esse nu nh n c c mt yu tnh c th ng bit lp; c ngha rng, n phi l mt yu tnh bn th, ch khng phi ch l mt yu tnh ph th. Chng hn nh con ngi c th tip nhn vic hin hu vo chnh mnh v tr thnh mt suppositum v hn chim hu bn cht nhn loi, mt yu tnh c hiu l c th hin hu c lp ti thn (v nh vy c ngha l khng bm vo ni mt vt no khc, nh trong trng hp cc ph th). Tuy nhin, bn cht loi ca mt s vt th khng th hin hu c lp tr phi n to nn thnh phn ca mt ch th lp hu (c th). Do s khng chun khi ta ni rng vic hin hu th thuc v bn cht; thc ra n ch thuc v suppositum. Tuy nhin, v esse nh hng ln ton th nh bi yu tnh, nn chng ta c th ni rng esse thuc v suppositum nh bn cht hoc yu tnh bn th (esse belongs to the suppositum through the nature or substantial essence). Bn cht em li cho ton th ci kh nng hin hu c lp, mc d trn thc t chnh ton th mi hin hu c lp, nh vic hin hu. Esse l gc r cho tnh n nht ca vt phc hp V esse l hin th ti hu ca mt hu th, vn em li tnh thc hu (actuality) cho mi mt yu t ca hu th (cc yu t ch l tim nng i vi esse), nn nhng thnh phn ny c ni kt vi nhau theo mc chng c thc hu (are made actual) nh hin th kin to , v qui chiu v hin th . Do , s hon ton c l khi ni rng vic hin hu l c bn cho tnh n nht ca suppositum (the act of being is the basis of the unity of the suppositum)4. Khng phn no ca ton th, ng ri rc, li c esse ca ring mnh; s d n c hin hu, l nh esse ca vt phc hp. Ty theo mc cc thnh phn ca ton th c esse, chng phi l mt th n nht (unity), v ch c mt vic hin hu n l mi khin chng l c thc. Chng hn, cht liu khng hin hu c lp khi hnh th; ng ra, c cht liu ln hnh th mi lp hu nh vic hin hu c tip nhn vo chng. Nhng hot ng cng ch l mt s din t tnh thc hu m mt hu th c c nh esse ca n, v ta cng c th ni nh vy v nhng bin i ph th khc. Bt chp vic c nhiu ph th, ta vn d nhn ra tnh n nht ca suppositum nu nh ta thy rng khng mt ph th no li c vic hin hu ring ca mnh. Mi ph th u chia s cng mt vic hin hu ca bn th. Mi hon b ca mt hu th u phi qui chiu vo suppositum. Ta thy rng ton b tnh thc hu ca mt hu th c nn tng ti hu ni hon b l vic hin hu ca n. V suppositum ng nhin l c s (seat) ca vic hin hu, nn mi hon b ca suppositum, d thuc loi no, cng u phi c gn cho suppositum xt nh ch th ring ca chng. c bit, cc hot ng phi c gn cho ch th hin hu c lp. Do s khng chun khi ni rng bn tay vit, rng tr nng nhn thc, hoc ch yu thng. Trong mi trng hp, ton th con ngi hot ng thng qua nhng nng lc ca mnh. Ch c th g lp hu mi c th hot ng (Only that which subsists can act). Cng c th ni thm rng cch thc (manner) hot ng ca mt c th phi i theo bn cht ca n, bn cht chnh l ci xc nh cch thc hin hu ca n. Do , c th ni rng hot ng th thuc v lp hu, ph hp vi hnh th v bn cht vn nh loi cho nhng hot ng ca c th . Nh vy, ch nhng c th mi hot ng, v ch c chng mi tn ti. Tuy nhin, c mt s tng t nht nh gia cc hot ng ca cc phn t thuc mt loi, v tt c u chia s mt bn cht chung. Con ngi th suy ngh v ci; loi ch th sa. iu ny cng gii thch l do ti sao khng mt c th no li c th hot ng vt qu gii hn thuc loi ca mnh.

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Vic tha nhn mt c th nh mt ton b lp hu ring, em li nn tng siu hnh gip ta trnh c bt c hnh thc nh nguyn no (gia vt cht v tinh thn, gia nhng gic quan v tr khn), cng nh vic phn chia cc s vt thnh nhng ngn t ng m trong tnh n nht ca ton b b phng hi. Hc thuyt ny cng ph nhn tnh hp l (validity) ca nhng trit thuyt coi ci ph qut nh thc ti c bn (nh thuyt ca Hegel, thuyt duy s, x hi v Marxism), do ht ly c th, khin cho n mt i ngha siu hnh. Actus essendi, xt nh hin th n l ca suppositum, khng cho php gin lc hu th vo nguyn mt mi tng quan hoc chui tng quan trong cng mt lp hoc cng mt phm tr, nh nhng h thng trit hc ni trn ch trng. 4. NGI V5 Khi nim v ngi v ng vi Boethius, thnh Thomas Aquinas nh ngha mt ngi v l mt bn th c bit c bn cht l tnh (an individual substance of a rational nature = individua substantia rationalis naturae)6. Mt ngi v l mt kiu mu c th ca suppositum : l mt suppositum chim hu bn cht thing ling. Ngi v l danh xng dng ch nhng hu th hon b nht vn tn ti, tc l Thin Cha, cc thin thn, con ngi. V mi hon b u ny sinh t esse, nn nt tuyt vi ca nhng bn th ni trn l ch chim c trn vn vic hin hu (God as Esse Subsistens), hoc mt cp thng d cao vo esse m cc thin thn v con ngi c c. Phn tch rt ro, l mt ngi v, c ngha l chim hu s tng t vi esse ca Thin Cha mt cch tri vt hn, v l tinh thn; iu c ngha l c c vic hin hu mnh lit hn. Li chia s cao qu hn trong vic hin hu s d kh thi l nh cp hon b cao hn ca bn cht vn tip nhn esse, c t l ni mt s hnh vi m ch ngi v mi c th to c. Chng hn cc thin thn v con ngi c kh nng th hin mt s hnh ng tng t nh nhng hnh ng thuc v Thin Cha, nh hiu bit v yu thng. Sau cng, ton b phm gi ca ngi v, hon b ln lao c bit trong nhng hot ng ca ngi v, th c gc r trong nt phong ph ca hin hu ngi v (the entire dignity of the person, the special greater perfection of his operations, is rooted in the richness of his act of being). Chnh vic hin hu khin cho anh ta l mt ngi v, v to nn c s cho tnh c nht tm l ca anh ta (vic t thc, tnh yu thing ling, vv) v ca gi tr lun l v x hi ca anh ta. Do , khng phi thc hoc ch t do, cng khng phi trch nhim hoc nhng mi tng quan lin-ngi v c th to nn mt ngi v. Tt c nhng hon b trn ch thun ty l nhng ph th, c c l nh vic hin hu, vn l ht nhn thc s duy nht ca ngi v tnh (personality)7. Ngoi ra, v suppositum c vic hin hu n l, nn s n nht ni ti ca suppositum loi b bt c s phn bit no gia c th v ngi v trong trng hp cc th to c l tnh (by virtue of its single act of being, the suppositums intrinsic unity rules out any distinction between the individual and the person in the case of rational creatures). Vic c vt ha th bao gm ton ph yu tnh ca con ngi (entire spectrum of the human essence), (bao gm nhng kha cnh vt cht v tinh thn ca con ngi). Hin hu ca linh hn thc hu ha thn th, v kin to nn gc r cho mi hot ng ca ngi v8.

Mt s c trng ca ngi v V l hnh nh ca Thin Cha, nn ngi v c mt phm gi cao qu c biu l qua nhiu hon b. Sau y l mt s nhng hon b ni bt nht m mt ngi v c c: a) T do (Freedom) : ch c cc ngi v mi lm ch nhng hnh vi ca ring mnh, v bn cht l tnh khin cho cc ngi v c kh nng nhn bit mc ch ti hu ng mc v iu hng bn thn v mc ch . Cc ngi v lm ch trn nhng hnh vi ring ca mnh; chng khng hon ton b ng (moved) nh nhng th to khc, nhng t mnh hnh ng (act of themselves)9. Gn lin vi t do l quyn c c nhng phng tin cn thit t mc ch ti hu (v d, quyn t hu), v kh nng tun th lut l v ngha v.

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b) Bn phn (Responsibility) : v con ngi l t do, nn anh ta c th la chn vic iu hng bn thn v cng ch ca mnh (Thin Cha) hoc khng lm nh vy, do khin cho mnh ng c thng hoc chu pht. Nhng c nhn, khng phi nhng cng on x hi, l nhng ch th ca bn phn; do , cng trng hoc nhng bt xng, nhn c hoc nt xu, lun lun c gn cho c nhn ch khng phi cho tp th. Khng ai c th trnh n cc hu qu cng vic ca mnh, vn l nhng g ny sinh t ht nhn su thm ca ngi v, m ch Thin Cha v chnh ngi v mi bit r. c) Tnh thn hu hoc tnh yu v v li (Friendship or benevolent love): v c phm gi c bit, nn ch mnh ngi v mi c th c yu nguyn v mnh, ch khng phi c yu nh l mt phng tin t mt mc tiu khc. Hn na, ch c hu th linh tnh mi nhn bit nhng hu th khc nh cc ngi v, m mnh c th t by mt tnh yu v v li i vi nhng ngi v . d) Kh nng iu hng mi hot ng ca mnh v Thin Cha : v con ngi c kh nng hng v mc tiu sau cng ca mnh, nn mi hnh ng t do ca con ngi u nm trong phm vi lun l bt c hnh vi no ca con ngi th ni cho cng cng hng n hoc xa la mc tiu ny (Thin Cha). Do , mi hot ng ca con ngi lun lun c mt gi tr siu vit. Mt s hm thn hc Vic nhn bit tha ng v thc ti ngi v v mi tng quan ca ngi v vi bn tnh c p dng rng ri trong phm vi Thn hc. Chng hn, khi nim siu hnh v ngi v em li mt cng c hu ch nghin cu tn iu Thin Cha Ba Ngi. N cng soi sng i cht v mu nhim Nhp Th : qu vy, hai bn tnh ca c Kit, nhn tnh v thin tnh, c kt hip trong mt ngi v l Ngi Li, v ni c Kit ch c mt vic hin hu, vic hin hu thuc v Thin Cha. V l do ny, c Trinh N Maria l Thin Cha Thnh Mu, v Ngi l M ca c Gisu Kit, ni Ngi ch c mt ngi v (Ngi Li Thin Cha). Cng cn ghi nhn rng nhng hot ng nhn tnh ca c Kit bt ngun t bn tnh nhn loi ca Ngi nh nguyn l, cho d chnh ngi v ca Ngi mi th hin nhng hnh vi , v ch th cho mi hot ng chnh l ngi v. Mi tng quan gia ngi v v bn tnh cng gip ta hiu c thc ti v ti nguyn t nh mt ti thuc bn tnh nh hng ln mi c nhn, v n c truyn t cha m sang con ci ra sao.

SCH C THM

SAINT THOMAS AQUINAS, S. th., III, q.2; De unione Verbi Incarnati; Quodl; II, a.4. U. DEGLINNOCENTI, II problema della persona nel pensiero di S. Tommaso, P.U. Lateranense, Rome 1967.

2 The distinction between nature and suppositum is of paramount importance in theology. St. Thomas Aquinas made use of this doctrine to express with precision the mystery of the Incarnation: the human nature of Christ-despite its being singular and its full perfection as nature-cannot be a suppositum, for it does not include in itself the act of being.

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PHN II : CC SIU NGHIM. CHNG I: NHNG KHA CNH SIU NGHIM CA HU TH

Sau khi xem xt nhng nguyn l cu to ca hu th xt nguyn n (mc phc hp v cu trc ni ti), Siu hnh hc cng phi nghin cu mt s kha cnh nht thit ny sinh t hu th nhng c im siu nghim : tnh n nht, tnh chn thc, tnh thin ho v ci p. l nhng c im hin din ni mi hu th trong chng mc n hin hu d l To Ha hay th to, bn th hay ph th, hin th hay tim nng V l ny, vic nghin cu nhng c im siu nghim ca hu th chim mt ch c bit trong Siu hnh hc. Nghin cu ny c gc gc t Trit hc Kinh vin hi u th k XIII. Kho lun u tin v nhng siu nghim c bit n l cun Summa de bono (1236) ca Philip, nhng chnh thnh Thomas mi l ngi nghin cu vn ny xuyn sut nht. nhiu on trong b sch ca Aristotle (corpus Aristotelicum) tc gi ni n nhng vn siu nghim, nhng khng a vo mt nghin cu c h thng. 1. NHNG KHI NIM SIU NGHIM V CC PHM TR Chng ta thy c rt nhiu s vt khc nhau quanh ta, v d nhng cy ci, nh ca, sch v, con ngi. Thot nhn, chng ta thy nhiu th trong chng thng khng my tng quan vi nhng th khc. Tuy nhin, tt c chng li c iu g chung vi nhau: tt c mi s vt trn u hin hu, theo cch ny hoc cch khc; tt c chng u l hu th. Nh bit, tnh thc th (entity) ca mt s vt (hin hu thc t ca n) l iu m chng ta nm bt ngay khi chng ta bit n n. Hu th l thc ti u tin m tr khn ta hiu v tt c nhng tri thc khc u phi gii kt v . iu m u tin tr nng chng ta quan nim nh mt khi nim hin minh nht, v tt c nhng khi nim khc u qui v , chnh l khi nim hu th. Do , mi khi nim khc ca tr nng u c th c bng cch gn thm vo khi nim hu th1. Tuy nhin, d khng nh thc r rng khi nim hu th mi khi chng ta nhn bit mt iu g, chng ta vn tri gic bt c thc ti no nh mt iu g lin quan ti hu th. Con ngi, con nga, cy ci chng hn, tt c u l nhng cch thc hin hu nht nh; chng l nhng loi hu th. Yu tnh v vic hin hu, mu trng, kch thc v nhng kiu cch hoc nhng n nh khc ca hu th, tt c l nhng nguyn l cu to ca cc hu th (constituent principles of beings). Cha m l nhng cn nguyn ca nhng hu th mi, v cc con tr l nhng cng hiu ca nhng hu th trc . Chng ta c th tip tc a ra nhiu v d kiu . Mi s vt chung quanh ta u l mt hu th ti thn, hoc l mt kha cnh hoc c trng ca hu th. Do , khi nim hu th xm nhp bt c loi tri thc no m ta th c, ging nh cch thc m tng v s sng soi sng tt c nhng khi nim ca nh sinh hc. Chng ta tuyt i khng th bit c bt c hon b no xa l vi hu th, v tch ri hu th th ch l h v. Tuy nhin, con ngi khng mc trn tnh cch a dng phong ph ca cc s vt trong ch mt khi nim m thi. Tht cha nu ta ni rng s vt ny hin hu; chng ta phi thm mt iu g , chng hn l mt con ngi hoc con nga, hoc n th tt. Chng ta phi tin ln trong vic tri thc thc ti, vi s tr gip ca kinh nghim, chnh xc l qua vic nhn din nhng tng lp hu th, v qua vic din t nhng c im ca hu th ny hoc hu th kia. Mt khc, ta khng th thm vo khi nim hu th mt iu g xa l vi bn cht ca hu th, theo kiu mt khc bit c thm vo mt ging, nh mt ph th thm vo bn th, v bt c mt bn cht no th ch yu vn l hu th2. Do , nhng khi nim no khc vi khi nim hu th th khng biu th mt iu g bn ngoi hu th; ng hn, chng to nn mt cch thc chuyn bit nhng c im ca hu th, tc l nhng thc ti m khi nim hu th cha ni ln r rng. V d, con bo l mt hu th, mt kiu hin hu. Khi chng ta ni ln t con bo, chng ta ni ln mt th g cha c ni ln r rng trong khi nim hu th. Cng nh vy khi ta ni mt s vt l tt, l thc hoc l p. Chng ta tin b trong tri thc v hu th theo hai cch a) Bng cch nm bt nhng khi nim phm tr din t nhng cch thc hin hu ring bit (by grasping categorical notions which express particular modes of being) . Sau y l nhng v d v chng: hin hu t thn (bn th) v hin hu ti tha (nhng ph th); l ln hoc nh (lng), l p hoc khng p (phm). Do , mc d mi vt tn ti u c th c gi l hu th, th mt khi nim phm tr ch ni n mt loi s vt nht nh, v loi tr nhng th khc, nhng th cng l hu th nh vy. N

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m ch mt li hin hu ring bit, v c nhiu cp hin hu lm ny sinh nhiu cch thc hin hu; ri tip n, nhng cch thc hin hu khc nhau li lm ny sinh nhng danh xng ca nhiu ging, nhiu lp s vt khc nhau. Chng hn khi nim bn th khng thm vo khi nim hu th mt khc bit g mi xt theo esse (mt bn th cng l mt hu th); ng hn, n din t mt li hin hu c bit, c th l hin hu t thn (being by itself = ens per se). V trng hp nhng ging ti cao khc ca cc s vt th cng vy3. Ni tm li, mi mt phm tr u ni n mt yu tnh no ca mt s vt (v d, ngi, s t, nga, mu trng). Hin nhin, nhng iu khng ng nht vi hu th; nhng ng hn chng l nhng li hin hu vn loi tr ln nhau: bt c iu g l mt bn th th khng l mt ph th, lng th khng phi l phm cht hoc tng quan, v n khng phi l nhng c im ph th no khc. Nhng khi nim trn c gi l thuc phm tr (categorical) bi v chng ri vo nhng phm tr, vn l nhng lp hoc nhng ging ti cao m tt c thc ti th to u c xp loi theo . b) Qua vic th c nhng khi nim siu vit m ch nhng kha cnh thuc v hu th xt nh hu th (by acquiring trancendental notions which designate aspects belonging to being as being). Nhng khi nim ny din t mt s nhng c im i theo hu th ni chung, tc l nhng c im thuc v mi s vt (khng ch thuc v bn th, hoc v phm hoc v bt c mt kiu thc ti c th no). Thin ho, ci p v n nht, nh chng ta s thy, vn nm trong nhng khi nim siu vit, c gn cho bt c iu g gi c l hu th; chng c cng mt vin tng ph qut nh khi nim hu th. V l do ny, chng c gi l siu nghim, chng siu vit (transcend) lnh vc cc phm tr. Nh vy, thin ho th khng phi l mt iu g gii hn vo bn th; v n cng c tm thy ni mi phm tr khc (nh phm cht, lng, hot ng; theo mc chng hin hu, chng l thin ho)4. 2. NHNG KHA CNH SIU NGHIM CA HU TH C bao nhiu khi nim siu vit, v chng l g? iu g c th gn cho mi hu th xt nh hu th? A) Xt mt hu th ti thn, c ngha l khng so snh hoc lin h n vi hu th no khc, chng ta c th ni rng bt c hu th no cng l mt s vt n l, c ngha rng, n l mt. (1) Theo cch tch cc, khng a vo bt c ph nh no, th chng ta hiu rng nhng c im duy nht chung cho bt c iu g tn ti chnh l chuyn c mt yu tnh m nh n tn ti cch ny hoc cch khc. iu ny l mt th g thuc v mi thc ti th to. Hu th khng bao gi c tm thy trong trng thi tru tng: iu m chng ta nhn thy l nhng cy, nhng con nga, nhng ht kim cng, v con ngi, chng hn, mi mt th trong chng u c mt li hin hu ring bit, ny sinh t yu tnh ca n. Vic gii hn mi hu th vo mt cch thc hin hu nht nh nh vy l iu m hn t trit hc s vt (res = thing) mun biu th. Tuy nhin, s vt v hu th th khng hon ton ng ngha vi nhau; danh t hu th (ens) c ly ra t vic hin hu (esse), ang khi danh t s vt din t nim tnh hoc yu tnh ca ens (quiddity = essence of the ens)5. C ngha l vic n b gii hn vo mt cp v cch hin hu c th v chuyn bit. (2) Theo ngha tiu cc, tc l bng cch ph nh vic phn chia ni ti, chng ta c th ni rng mi mt hu th u c tnh n nht (unity). Mi vt u l mt; n c mt s n nht no . Nu n mt i s n nht ny bng vic b phn chia, th qua n thi khng cn l hu th ny, v s tr thnh mt iu g khc. B) Xt mt hu th trong tng quan vi nhng hu th khc, chng ta c th thy rng n c hai thuc tnh i lp, tc l n phn bit khi mi hu th khc, ng thi vn ph hp vi mt s s vt no . (1) Trong quan im phn bit gia cc hu th, chng ta c th ni rng mi mt hu th u l mt iu g (something = aliquid). Khi thy c nhiu hu th, lp tc chng ta hiu rng mi mt hu th th khc vi mi hu th khc. Vic phn cch hoc phn chia , vn c biu hin trong vic phn bit mt hu th khi hu th khc, s lm ny sinh iu siu nghim m chng ta quan tm y. Ta hiu Mt iu g khng phi nh mt khi nim i lp vi h v, nhng theo mt ngha chuyn bit hn v hu th l mt iu g khc (another something = aliud quid), c ngha l, mt bn cht khc. N ty thuc vo nhng khi nim v hu th (ens) v v s n nht; thay v nhn mnh n vic khng c phn chia ni ti ni hu th, n nhn mnh n chuyn hu th ny phn bit v tch bit khi mi hu th khc. Hu th ny th khc i vi hu th kia.

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(2) Vic mt hu th ph hp vi nhng s vt khc ch c xt trong mi tng quan vi iu g vn bao trn hu th xt nguyn n (v do , mi hu th), ni r ra l trong mi tng quan vi linh hn. Linh hn mt cch no l mi vt (somehow all things) (quoddammodo omnia) do tnh ph qut ca cc i tng tr nng v ch. Ba siu nghim sau cng verum, bonum, pulchrum ny sinh t mi tng quan ny. Xt theo vic ph hp vi tr nng, hu th l thc (verum), theo ngha l hu th v ch c hu th mi l i tng ca hnh vi hiu bit. Xt trong mi tng quan vi ch, mi hu th c c im l thin ho (bonum); c ngha rng, l mt iu g c th c yu thch v li ko tham dc ch hng v n. Sau cng, chiu theo s ph hp ca hu th vi linh hn thng qua s tng tc ca tri thc v tham dc, th v p (pulchrum) l c im ca mi hu th, c ngha l, hu th to nn mt vui thch (pleasure) nht nh khi n c nm bt. Ci p thng c nh ngha nh iu khin ngi ta c vui khi nm bt n. Theo , chng ta c su khi nim siu nghim i km theo khi nim hu th : s vt (thing = res), n nht (unity = unum), mt iu g (something = aliquid), chn thc (truth = verum), thin ho (goodness = bonum), v v p (beauty = pulchrum). Bn trong chng th c bn hn v p dng cho c Thin Cha ln th to; l n nht, chn thc, thin ho v p. Trong nhng on sau, chng ta c bit xt ti nhng im . S vt hay mt iu g l nhng siu nghim xt theo mc cc th to c lin quan ti (chng p dng cho mi th to), nhng khng c p dng cho Thin Cha theo ngha cht. a) S vt (res) khng din t mt c im ca hu th xt nguyn n, nhng ch l danh xng ph hp vi mt hu th khi xt n mt nguyn l cu to khc (yu tnh) ca mi s vt th to. Do , ni cht ch, khi nim s vt khng p dng cho Thin Cha, ng l Esse Subsistens, vic hin hu ca Ngi th khng c n nhn vo mt yu tnh6. Nhng, trong trng hp cc th to, danh xng s vt cho thy vic nhn mnh hn (nu so snh vi danh xng hu th) n s phc hp v s hn ch m yu tnh t vo vic hin hu. Ngoi ra, hn t Latinh res l ngun gc ca hn t reality (thc ti). Khi nim thc ti th tru tng v c gii kt vo khi nim hu th: mt iu g l thc bi v n hin hu. Du sao, hn t l thc (real) i khi c dng ni r rng mt hu th th khng phi l mt hu th thuc tr, nhng ng hn n l ngoi tr (extra-mental). N cng c ngha mt iu g i nghch vi iu g ch l b ngoi. Hn na, hn t s vt (thing) lin h thng c dng ni n nhng ch th khng c l tr, hoc nhng bn th v hn, phn bit vi cc ngi v. Trong nhng l thuyt siu hnh theo hng duy l, hn t thc ti c mt ngha chuyn bit: c thc (real) ni ln phm vi s kin hoc tn ti (factual or existential) i lp vi kh tnh (possibility) hoc yu tnh. Nh vy, ton b Siu hnh hc c tp trung vo lnh vc kh tnh lun l cc yu tnh, v hu th c th c gin lc vo nguyn trng thi extra causas7, c ngha l gin lc vo chuyn t s vt bn ngoi nhng cn nguyn. b) Theo mt ngha nht nh, cng c th p dng khi nim aliquid cho Thin Cha. Thc vy, Thin Cha l ng khc tuyt vi, siu vit th gii mt cch v bin (God is, in fact, the Other par excellence, infinitely superior and transcendent to the world). Tuy nhin, vic p dng hn t ny cho Thin Cha ko theo mi nguy him l khin cho con ngi hoc v tr tr thnh im qui chiu tuyt i, cn Thin Cha li tr nn mt iu g tng i, (v Thin Cha c gi l ci khc trong tng quan vi v tr). Khi nim aliquid thc s ph hp vi hu th th to, c nhiu th. Tuy nhin, tnh n nht, chn thc, thin ho v v p, l nhng c im ny sinh t esse v chng c gin lc vo esse. Nhng cp ca cc kha cnh ni th to th tng ng vi nhng cp esse c thng d, ng thi s vin mn ca chn l v thin ho ni Thin Cha cng ny sinh t s vin mn ni vic hin hu ca Ngi. 3. HU TH : NN TNG NHNG C IM SIU NGHIM

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Nhng siu nghim xt nh nhng kha cnh ca hu th Cc siu nghim l nhng thc ti hay ch thun ty l nhng khi nim? Chng ta cn phi ni rng chng l c hai. L nhng s vt thc t, chng tuyt i ng nht vi hu th. Tnh n nht, chn thc, thin ho v nhng siu nghim khc, khng l nhng thc ti phn bit khi hu th nhng ch l nhng kha cnh hoc nhng c im ca hu th. Nh vy, chng l nhng c im chung ca mi hu th. Cng nh ton b nhng c th ca mt loi u c nhng c im chung nht nh v chng thuc v cng mt loi (con ngi c hiu bit v c mun, s t l loi hu nh, tuyt th mu trng), th tt c mi s vt u l thin ho v chn thc v c c tnh n nht nh bi vic hin hu ca chng. Trong vn ny, cn phi lm sng t hai iu. Trc ht, nhng c im, theo ngha chuyn bit hn, ny sinh t yu tnh ca loi. Mt khc, nhng siu nghim th ny sinh t vic hin hu, v do c th gn cho bt c iu g tn ti cch no . Tip n, nhng c im l nhng ph th; chng hn mu trng l mt iu g gn lin vi tuyt, v ch l mt ph th c bit cho mi con ngi. Tuy nhin, nhng siu nghim khng phi l nhng ph th, nhng chng ng nht vi chnh ch th. Do , khi chng ta ni rng hu th l thin ho, rng n c s n nht, chng ta khng thm bt c mt iu g thc t (mt bn th, mt phm cht, mt tng quan thc s). Chng ta ch din t mt kha cnh thuc v hu th nguyn bi chuyn n c hin hu. V mi hu th th hin hu, n l thin ho v c s n nht. Hu th, thin ho v chn thc l nhng thc ti ng nht. iu ny thng c din t qua li ni ens et unum (et bonum, et verum) convertuntur : tc l hu th, tnh n nht v tt c siu nghim khc u c th hon chuyn cho nhau hay c gi tr tng ng nhau. S ng ng ny c t l khi ta c th p dng mt siu nghim cho ci khc. Chng hn, chng ta c th ni rng mi hu th l thin ho, n nht v chn thc. Tuy nhin, chng ta khng bao gi nn ni mi hu th u l ng vt, hoc mi hu th l mt cy. Ngoi ra, hn t hu th v cc siu nghim khc c th hon i vai tr xt nh ch t hoc thuc t trong mt cu. Chng ta c th ni rng bt c iu thin ho no, xt theo mc n l thin ho, u l mt hu th. Nhng chng ta cng c th ni rng bt c hu th no, xt trong mc n l hu th, u l thin ho. Vic hon i ny l mt du ch cho thy s ng nht thc s ca cc khi nim siu vit.

Nhng khi nim siu nghim l nhng khi nim phn bit khi khi nim hu th (The transcendentals are notions distinct from that of being) Tuy nhin, cng tm hiu ta cng thy rng, nhng khi nim siu nghim khng ng ngha vi khi nim hu th, v chng biu l r rng nhng kha cnh vn khng c ni n r rng qua khi nim hu th. Mc d chng c th hon i nh thuc t ca cng mt ch t, chng vn l nhng khi nim phn bit (the transcendental notions are not synonymous with the notion of being, since they explicitly express aspects which are not expressly signified by the notion of being. Though they are interchangeable as predicates of the same subject, they are distinct notions). Nhng siu nghim thm nhng nt mi vo khi nim hu th, khng phi v chng thm nhng thc ti mi vo hu th, nhng ng hn l do cch thc chng ta nhn bit thc ti. Chng ta gi cng mt s vt l hu th v l n c vic hin hu, v chng ta gi n l thc bi l n c th c nhn bit; chng ta gi n l thin ho v n l ng c mong, v chng ta gi n l n nht v n c tnh n nht ni ti. Mt iu g tng t xy ra khi chng ta ni v nhng hon b ca Thin Cha. Ni Thin Cha, ng tuyt i n thun, mi s u l ng nht, hin hu ca Ngi th ng nht vi chnh hot ng ca Ngi, tr tu ca Ngi th ng nht vi mun ca Ngi; chng khng phi l nhng quyn nng ring bit, nhng l chnh Esse ca Thin Cha. Tuy nhin, khi chng ta ni rng Thin Cha l ng Cao c, V bin, hoc Khn ngoan, mc d chng ta ni n cng mt thc ti, th nhng u phm li c tc dng khin chng ta hiu c nhiu kha cnh cc hon b v bin ca Thin Cha. V d khc: khi chng ta ni rng mi mt tinh thn u l bt t, th chng ta t thm tri thc ca chng ta v nhng bn th thing ling; d trn thc t, tnh bt t ca nhng tinh thn chng phi l mt iu g phn bit khi tnh thing ling ca chng v c thm vo tnh thing ling . Vy nhng khi nim siu nghim khc nhau c thm iu g cho tri thc ca ta?

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1) Nhng khi nim unum v aliquid thm vo khi nim hu th mt s ph nh. Unum th loi b vic phn chia ni ti ni mt hu th , ang khi aliquid ph nh vic ng nht mt vt vi nhng vt khc. Do , chng khng thc s thm mt iu g nhng ch din t nhng c im mt hu th c v chnh n, nh khi chng ta ni v con chut chi m, (blind mole) (v nhng con chut chi th khng c th gic). 2) Chn thc, thin ho v p th ch thm mi tng quan thuc tr vo khi nim hu th. Khi ni rng hon b ca hu th tr thnh i tng ca tr khn v ca ch, chng ta khng qu quyt rng hu th th thc s hng v nhng nng lc hoc thc s ty thuc vo chng. Tri li l khc. Tr khn v ch c iu hng v chn l v thin ho, v chng ty thuc vo nhng iu c th hot ng. Do vy, nhng nng lc th thc s tng quan vi hu th xt nh chn tht v thin ho; tuy nhin, chn l v thin ho li khng ty thuc vo tri thc hoc tham dc ca chng ta, v nhng s vt l thc v l tt ty theo mc chng c esse, ch khng phi theo mc chng c ta nhn bit hoc c mun. Do , chnh chn l v thin ho l thc o tr khn v ch ca chng ta, ch khng phi ngc li. 3) Nh thy, khi nim res hay s vt th khng thm mt iu g thc t vo chnh hu th. Ni cch cht ch, s vt ch lin quan n hu th th to, ch nh n theo mc n c mt yu tnh, v yu tnh l thnh t khn thit cho bt c thc ti th to v hu hn no. V nhng siu nghim l nhng khi nim phn bit khi khi nim hu th, nn chng rt c gi tr cho tri thc chng ta. Chng gip chng ta hiu tt hn v s phong ph ca esse vn c cc th to chia s v c biu hin qua nhiu kha cnh. Nh vy, chng ta c th t ti tri thc cng nh vic nh gi ln hn na v thc ti c Thin Cha to nn, trong c chng ta. Nhng khi nim siu nghim cng gip chng ta c c ci nhn tt hn v nhng hon b ca Thin Cha : Thin Cha l Esse Lp hu, Chn l v Thin ho Lp hu, n nht v V p Lp hu. 4. HU TH V NHNG C IM CA N U MANG TNH LOI SUY Ta thy rng hu th c dng lm thuc t cho nhiu ch th theo cch loi suy. Mt nghin cu chi tit v loi suy th thuc v Lun l hc. Tuy nhin, chng ta cng c gng hiu c hu th v cc khi nim siu nghim khc c qui chiu cch loi suy th no cho thc ti, v loi suy ny t c s th no trn vic hin hu m cc hu th chia s theo nhiu cp khc nhau. Cng mt hn t c qui gn cch loi suy cho hai thc ti khi n c qui gn (attributed) cho mi thc ti m theo mt cch th c phn ging nhau, ng thi li c phn khc nhau (One and the same term is analogically attributed to two realities whenever it is attributed to each of them in a way which is partially the same and partially different). y l trng hp hn t hu th. Hn t ny c gn cho bt c th g vn hin hu, nhng khng p dng cho mi th theo cng mt cch. Nh trong bt c trng hp p dng thuc t no khc, nn tng ti hu ca loi suy nm trong nhng thc ti m hn t loi suy ni n : chng c phn ging nhau, li cng c phn khc nhau. Do , hu th c gn cho Thin Cha v cho cc th to theo cch loi suy, v c s tng t no gia th to v ng To ha, nhng vn c mt s khc bit cng rt sng t: Thin Cha v cc th to u hin hu (tng t), nhng Thin Cha hin hu do yu tnh, ang khi cc th to hin hu qua vic thng d (khc bit nhau). Ngay trong lnh vc cc phm tr, hu th c qui gn cch loi suy cho bn th v cc ph th. C hai th u hin hu v, do , c th c gi l cc hu th (tng t); tuy nhin, bn th hin hu t thn, ang khi cc ph th lun lun hin hu ni mt vt no khc, c th l ni mt bn th (khc bit). Nn tng cho vic thch dng loi suy hn t hu th chnh l vic hin hu, v mi th u c th gi l hu th ty theo mc n c esse (The basis of the analogical predication of being is the act of being, since anything can be called beingto the very extent that it has esse). Esse c chim hu do yu tnh hoc do vic thng d, bi chnh bn th hoc ni bn th (by the substance or in the substance), cch thc hu hoc ch trong tim nng, v trong trng hp cc th to, esse lun l mt iu g c n nhn t Thin Cha, ng chnh l Subsisting Esse. D cho mi tng quan ca mt vt i vi esse c l th no, th n vn c th c gi l mt hu th. Bn th c gi l hu th cch trn vn hn, v n c esse t thn; cn lng, cc phm cht, nhng mi tng quan v cc ph th khc c th c gi l nhng hu th t y hn, v chng n nhn vic hin hu ca chng ni bn th. Do , gc r siu hnh cho vic loi suy chnh l chuyn thng d vo vic hin hu, m Thin Cha th chim hu cch y v do yu tnh, cn cc th to th chim hu theo nhiu loi cng v theo cp phc hp khc nhau (gia hin th v tim nng, gia bn th v cc ph th).

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Kiu loi suy ny cng p dng cho nhng siu nghim khc, vn thc s ng nht vi hu th v nn tng ca chng chnh l vic hin hu (This type of also applies to the other transcendentals, which are really identical with being and have the act of being as their basis). Khng th p dng co bng tnh n nht, chn thc v thin ho cho Thin Cha v cc th to, hoc cho nhng hu th hon b hn v hon b km. Chng c gn cho tt c theo cng cch thc nh esse, tc l, chiu theo nhng cp thng d vo cc hon b . Thin Cha l Thin ho, Chn thc v n nht v bin, ang khi cc th to th c nhng hon b mt cch gii hn. V trong gii th to, nhng bn th thing ling th c thin ho, chn l v n nht (v tt c l n thun) nhiu hn nhng bn th vt cht. iu ny s r rng hn khi chng ta nghin cu ring v mi siu nghim.

SCH C THM

SAINT THOMAS AQUINAS, De veritate, q.1, a.1. K. BARTHLEIN, Die Transzendentalienlehre im der alten Ontologie, I:Die Transzendentalienlehre im Corpus Aristotlelicum, de Gruyter, Berlin-N.York 1972. B. MONTAIGNES, La doctrine de lanalogie selon St. Thomas, Publ. Univ., Louvain 1963. G. SCHULEMANN, Die Lehre von den Transzendentalien in der scholatischen Philosophie, Leipzig 1929.

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CHNG II: TNH N NHT CA HU TH

1. TNH N NHT SIU NGHIM

Gi y, ta xt ti tnh n nht ca hu th, iu ny khng hm rng ch c mt hu th duy nht, nhng c ngha rng bt c iu g tn ti th t ni thn l khng phn chia, c ngha rng n c mt tnh n nht no . Cc s vt c s c kt ni ti theo nhiu cp khc nhau. Tnh n nht ca mt bn th, ca mt gia nh, ca mt x hi dn s, v tnh n nht ca mt sn phm m ngh, th khng hon ton nh nhau. Tuy nhin, kinh nghim chung cho thy rng mi mt hu th l n nht chiu theo mc n l mt hu th. Vic ph hy tnh n nht, qua s phn chia ni ti, nht nh phi dn n vic trit tiu hu th. Nu mt chic xe hi b tho tung, n s khng cn l chic xe na; khi mi phn ca chic xe b tch ri, kh m coi l mt chic xe hi na. Nu thn th con ngi b tch ri, th tnh n nht bn th ca con ngi b ph hy, v linh hn s thi chng cn to-hnh (in-form) cho thn th, v ngi v phi cht i. Cng vy, khi linh hn b tch la khi thn th, th tnh n nht sinh ng ca c th bin mt : cc m t bo s tan r, nhng chi th s mt i tnh n nht tng khin chng tr thnh mt ton b n l. Tnh n nht lun gn lin vi hu th. l l do ti sao nhng con vt, nhng ngi v, v nhng x hi thuc nhiu loi ht sc khc bit, kin quyt bo v tnh n nht ca mnh; v s sng cn ca chng rt bp bnh. Chng ta cn phn bit tnh n nht siu nghim (transcendental), vn thuc v mi hu th, vi tnh n nht theo lng (quantitative unity)1. Tnh n nht theo lng l cng hiu ca cht liu, v l ngun gc ca nhng con s, vn ny sinh t vic phn chia n ra. Chng hn khi chng ta ct mt ming thch anh, chng ta s c 2, 3 hoc nhiu hn na nhng mnh tch bit, vn ny sinh t vic phn chia bn th c lng. V tnh n nht theo lng ny sinh t ph th lng, nn n ch c tm thy ni nhng bn th vt th. Nh vy, hin nhin n khng phi l mt siu nghim. Vic nghin cu loi n nht ny th khng thuc Siu hnh hc, nhng thuc v Trit Hc Thin Nhin hay V Tr Hc. Hu th v n nht Tnh n nht siu nghim chnh l tnh khng phn chia ca mt hu th (undividedness of a being). Qua khi nim ny, chng ta chng thm iu g thc t cho cc s vt, m ch l ph nhn vic phn chia ni ti, tc l vic khng phn chia m mi hu th c ni mnh nh esse ca n. Tng t nh vy, khi chng ta gi mt con chut chi l m, chng ta khng thm iu g vo t ng , v chut chi th t bn cht u c kh nng nhn. Tuy nhin, trong tri thc ca ta, khi nim v n nht li bc l hu th xa xi hn na; n cho thy s thiu vng vic phn chia ni ti ni bt c thc ti no. Do , hin nhin l chng ta nm bt hu th trc khi chng ta nm bt tnh n nht. Chng hn, ch sau khi lm cch no bit c mt cy v thy n phn bit khi nhng vt khc, chng ta mi hiu rng n l mt, c ngha rng, n t thn l mt hu th, hay mt cy, v phn bit khi nhng th khc. Tnh n nht bo v, khng nh v t by thc ti ca hu th. Tnh n nht lun c hiu nh mt iu g thuc v hu th, nh mt kha cnh ca hu th. Hu th v tnh n nht, xt trn thc t, ch l cng mt th. Do , cng ging nh hu th, tnh n nht t nn tng trn vic hin hu (Being and unity are in reality one and the same thing. Consequently, just like being (ens) unity is based on the act of being. Khi vic hin hu ca mt s vt cng cao trng hn, th n cng l mt hu th hn (more a being) (hon b hn) (more perfect) v c tnh n nht ln lao hn. Trong trng hp Thin Cha, iu ny l mt chn l hin minh. Thin Cha l T Hu (Subsisting Esse), v bin, v do th tuyt i hon b. ng lc Ngi cng l ng Tuyt i n Nht (supremely One); ni Ngi khng h c mt kiu phc hp no, d ch l phc hp gia yu tnh v esse, gia bn th v cc ph th, gia cht liu v hnh th, hoc gia cc nng lc hot ng v cc hot ng. Hu th tuyt i n nht v n thun cng c hon b ti a v v bin. Trong phm vi cc th to cng c mt iu g tng t nh vy. Nht l, cc th to cao qu hn th cng c s n nht cao c hn (nobler creatures also possess greater unity). Cc tinh thn thun ty th n thun hn, n nht hn so vi con ngi v cc th to vt cht khc2. Chng hn, yu tnh ca

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mt thin thn th n thun v hon ton n nht; ni ngi khng h c phc hp gia cht liu v hnh th. u cng t phc hp, cng c vic hin hu nhiu hn. Trong lnh vc cc ph th cng vy. Chng hn, hot ng ca mt con ngi c coi l hon b hn nu nh n cng c thng nht hoc lin lc vi nhau hn (more unified or integrated), c ngha l theo mc nhng nng lc khc bit ca ngi cng chu l thuc vo tr hiu v ch ca ngi , v theo mc tt c nhng hot ng ca ngi c hng v mt i tng n l ti cao. 2. NHNG TH LOI V NHNG CP CA TNH N NHT Vic c nhiu cp hin hu lm ny sinh nhiu lp n nht khc nhau. n nht hon b nht phi l tnh n nht n thun (unity of simplicity): tc l tnh n nht ca mt hu th khng h c nhng phn hoc nhiu nguyn l v yu t cu to. Tnh n nht ny ch c ni Thin Cha. Tri li, cc th to c cp n nht thp hn, vn ko theo vic c nhiu yu t. N c gi l tnh n nht phc hp (unity of composition). Trong s cc hu th gii hn, nhng cp n nht ty thuc vo cp phc hp tm thy ni chng. Do chng ta c th phn bit ba loi n nht : n nht bn th, n nht ph th, v n nht tng quan (hoc n nht trt t) (substantial unity, accidental unity, and relational unity (or unity of order). Trong trng hp n nht bn th, chng ta cn phn bit tnh n nht ca cc th to tinh thn thun ty vi tnh n nht ca cc th to phc hp t cht liu v hnh th. a) Cc th to tinh thn thun ty (cc thin thn) l nhng hu th gn nht vi tnh n thun ca Thin Cha (Purely spiritual creatures (angels) are the being which get closest to the simplicity of God). Trn cp bn th, cc v ch phc hp t yu tnh v vic hin hu. V vic hin hu c tip nhn bi hnh th thing ling ca cc thin thn, nn ni mi thin thn c mt th phc hp no . Nhng cch thc hin hu loi bit ca thin thn, tc yu tnh thin thn, th khng c phn chia thnh nhiu c th; ch c mt thin thn trong mi loi, v ngi mc trn mi hon b thuc v loi . Hn na, yu tnh thin thn l thing ling, nn khng th b phn chia hoc tch ri. Thin thn khng bao gi l kh phn (theo hin th cng nh theo tim nng). Cp n nht cao c hn ca thin thn cng t hin ni hnh vi ca thin thn. Chng hn, mt thin thn cho thy tnh n thun ln lao trong nhng hot ng tr thc ca ngi. Ngi hiu bit hn tr tu con ngi, v hiu bit mt cch tt hn, qua mt tin trnh nhn thc khng h suy l, nn khng cn phi c nhng gic quan, cng khng cn n vic tru xut, hoc vic i chiu cc tng. b) Mt cp n nht thp hn c tm thy ni cc hu th vt cht (A lower degree of unity is found in material beings). Trc ht, cc hu th vt th th c cu trc phc tp hn. Ngoi vic c phc hp t yu tnh v vic hin hu, yu tnh ca chng cn cn n vt cht hin hu c lp. l l do ti sao nhng s vt vt cht th kh hoi (corruptible or perishable); khi cht liu khng cn cng ng ni hnh th, th s ny sinh vic hnh th phi tch ri cht liu, v hu th bin mt. Hn na, v chng chim hu ph th lng, nn chng l kh phn. Nhng thnh phn tri rng c th b tch ri nhau, ph v ton b s vt. c) Tnh n nht ca bn th v mt ph th th km hn tnh n nht gia nhng nguyn l ca bn th (The unity of the substance and an accident is less than the unity between the principles of the substance). Vic kt hp gia nhng nguyn l siu hnh l yu tnh v vic hin hu, cht liu v hnh th, s lm ny sinh tnh n nht cht ch, khng th no b ph v m li khng hy b chnh hu th. Nu linh hn b tch ri khi thn th, th con ngi s cht. Vic kt hp gia bn th v mt ph th (mt ngi da en) em li tnh n nht thuc hng ng thp hn, v hin hu ca ch th khng ty thuc vo vic n kt hp vi ph th; khi mt con ngi tr nn ti mt hoc mt, ngi vn khng thi l mt ngi. Nh ghi nhn khi bn v vic hin hu, ba loi phc hp trn tip nhn tnh n nht ca chng t esse, vn l hin th ti hu, trit m mi hon b ca vt phc hp u chia s vo y. d) Mt kiu n nht khc l n nht tng quan hoc n nht ca trt t, vn da trn ph th tng quan (Another type of unity is relational unity or unity of order, which is bases on the accident relation). Mt i qun, mt gia nh, mt x hi dn s chng hn, u l nhng n v c tng quan. Mt n nht ca trt t c to nn t cc bn th, nhng n li khng c mt hnh th bn th ca ring mnh. Hnh th ca n chnh l mi tng quan gia cc phn khc nhau ca n; ni khc i, n h ti nhng mi tng quan ni kt cc c th li vi nhau. Chng hn, nhng mi tng quan gia cha m v con ci, hp cng nhng mi tng quan anh em, to nn gia nh. Ngun gc ca nhng x hi trn cng

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nh nn tng ca chng chnh l s tham gia ca mi chi th kin to vo cng mt mc tiu n l. V d, chc nng ca gia nh l vic bo tn loi ngi; c cu ca n v nhng mi tng quan gia cc phn t u pht sinh t y. n nht hi t (Aggregate unity), vn ny sinh t vic tp hp cc yu t m khng c trt t h tng (mt ng gch), th cng ging nh n nht tng quan. n nht gia cn nguyn v hiu qu, v n nht gia mt tc nhn v cng c ca tc nhn (chng hn s n nht gia ngi ti x v chic xe ca mnh), v nhng th tng t, th cng tng t nh s n nht theo trt t. 3. TNH A BI Tnh a bi (multiplicity = multitudo) th i lp vi tnh n nht ging nh kiu iu g c phn chia th i lp vi iu khng c phn chia: cc s vt th a bi theo mc chng c phn chia khi nhau (Multiplicity (multitudo) is opposed to unity in the same way that what is divided is opposed to the undivided: things are multiple inasmuch as they are divided from one another). Xt v mt th t chng ta nm bt th khi nim phn chia phi i sau khi nim hu th v v-th, v n cho thy s khc bit gia chng. iu u tin chng ta nm bt l mt hu th (mt con ngi hoc mt con ch); tip n, chng ta ghi nhn rng hu th ny th khc vi nhng hu th khc (hu th ny th khng l hu th khc). Nhn thc v phn cch (separation) v phn bit (distinction) ni cc hu th ny sinh t iu trn. Tip n chng ta hiu c s n nht ca mi hu th nh vic chng khng b phn chia t bn trong, hay thiu vng s phn cch ni ti. Nh vy, tnh a bi li thm mt ph nh na, c ngha l, s thiu vng tnh n nht gia nhiu hu th. Chng c gi l nhiu, mc d ni mi ci u c s n nht ni ti. Chng ta c th tm tt trong mt s tin trnh nm bt nhng khi nim siu hnh trn nh sau: hu th, v th, phn chia (hu th ny khng phi l hu th kia), tnh n nht (hoc ph nhn vic phn chia ni ti), tnh a bi (hoc ph nhn s ng nht gia nhiu c th). Tnh a bi c kin to bi nhiu hu th vn l n nht. Tnh a bi ca cc s vt c ngha rng chng khng phi l mt s vt n l, rng khng c s n nht hon b. Do , chng ta c th thy rng khi nim v a bi hoc s nhiu th l thuc vo khi nim n nht, ch khng cn cch no khc (that the notion of multiplicity or multitude depends on the notion of unity, and not the other way around): tnh n nht li ko theo vic ph nh, khng phi l ph nh a bi, m l ph nh vic phn chia. Bng khng th khi nim hu th l thuc vo khi nim a bi. Do , nhiu s vt khng th to nn mt a bi tr phi mi ci trong chng u c s n nht no . Mt tp th (collective) khng loi tr c th; ng hn, mt cng ng s vt nht thit phi i sau vic hin hu ca mi s vt. Khng th c tnh a bi nu trc khng c c s n nht ni ti ni cc thnh phn, v nht l li ph hy n nht vi mc ch to nn tnh tp hp. Do , i lp vi thuyt tp sn ca Marxism, cn phi ch trng rng x hi ch l thc ty theo mc n thng d vo hin hu ca mi c nhn, v do , thng d vo tnh n nht ca c nhn. iu m x hi thm vo cho tnh n nht c th chnh l mi tng quan trt t gia nhiu thnh phn khc nhau ca n. Khi nim a bi th i sau tnh n nht v do phi c bao hm cch no trong s cc siu nghim, mc d a bi ch c tm thy trong lnh vc hu th th to (ch mnh Thin Cha va l n Nht va l Duy Nht = only God is both One and Unique). Tuy nhin, a bi th khng qui chiu vo tnh n nht ch bng vic ph nhn n nht (Multitude, however, does not refer to unity solely by negating it). Vic n phi l thuc tnh n nht l mnh lit n bt c a bi no cng u c mt tnh n nht no , v nhng th g hin hu th u l n nht cch no . Do , nhiu phn to nn tnh n nht ca mt vt phc hp, hoc lm ny sinh tnh n nht tng quan. Nhiu c th l n nht trong loi; nhng loi khc bit nhau thuc v cng mt ging, v nhng c th ca nhiu ging khc nhau li c chung vic hin hu, chng thng d vo hin hu theo nhiu cp khc bit. Do , tnh a bi lun lun m ch mt tnh n nht no , nhng khng din t iu trn vn (multiplicity always signifies a certain unity, but does not completely express it). V tr l mt v d. S ng cc hu th lm nn v tr, c phn no phn nh tnh n nht ni hin hu ca chng v ni Cn Nguyn ca chng, mc d ch theo cch bt ton. Trong mt cch thc a bi v b phn chia, v tr cho thy mt s tng t no vi hon b v tn, cc k n thun ca Thin Cha. V l do ny, trong t cch mt tnh n nht bt ton v mt hon b gii hn, tnh a bi mi gi chng ta xt n Tnh n Nht hon b v s Hon Ho v gii hn, l chnh Thin Cha3.

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a bi siu nghim khc bit vi a bi theo lng cng mt cch thc m tnh n nht siu nghim khc bit vi tnh n nht theo lng. S nhiu vt cht hoc theo lng ny sinh t tnh n nht vn l ngun gc cho cc con s, v cng nh nhng con s, n l thuc vo vic phc hp cht liu v hnh th; n ch c tm thy ni cc th to vt th. Tri li, tnh a bi siu nghim hoc theo hnh th th rng ln hn v bao trm mi hu th th to d l thing ling hay vt cht. Loi a bi sau nh vy i hi mi yu t phc hp nn n phi l n nht cch ni ti. N ny sinh t vic phn chia c thc gia mi s vt, to nn a bi, v khng nm trong bt c ging xc nh no, nhng nm trong nhng siu nghim. 4. NHNG KHI NIM PHI SINH T TNH N NHT, V NHNG KHI NIM I LP VI TNH N NHT Tnh ng nht, tnh tng ng v tng t (Identity, equality and similarity) l nhng tng quan ny sinh t tnh n nht. Trong mt cuc giao tip bnh thng, c s du di nhiu hn trong cch dng nhng thut ng trn. Tuy nhin, trong trit hc, nhng thut ng c nhng ngha chnh xc : a) Mi khi c tnh n nht ni bn th, th cng c s ng nht (When there is unity in substance, there is identity). D nhin, theo ngha cht, tnh ng nht c ngha l s trng hp ca mt s vt vi chnh n. Tuy nhin, theo mt ngha rng hn, n c ngha l s ng dng (conformity) gia nhiu s vt phn bit vi nhau trong mc chng c mt iu g l chung (chng hn mt ging hay loi). Theo ngha rng hn nh vy, c th ni rng con nga ny v con nga kia l ng nht trong loi. b) Khi c tnh n nht lin quan n ph th lng, th c s tng ng (When there is unity as regards the accident quantity, there is equality). iu ny l ng theo ngha ring (chng hn, hai cy ln tng ng nhau) hoc theo ngha m rng vn p dng cho lng s v nng lc hoc hon b (v d, hai con ngi khe mnh hoc khn ngoan tng ng nhau). c) Khi c tnh n nht lin quan n vic chim hu mt phm cht, th c s tng t (When there is unity as regards the possession of a quality, there is similarity). Hai con ngi c th tng t hoc ging nhau v c hai u c s khn kho, hoc c cng mt mu da, hay mt tnh kh chung no . Tnh a dng, khc bit v phn bit (Diversity, difference and distinction) l nhng tng quan i lp vi tnh n nht. a) Khi c tnh a bi lin quan n cc yu tnh, th c s a dng (Where there is multitude as regards essences, there is diversity), vn i lp vi tnh ng nht. Do , ta ni rng mt con ch v mt con ngi th thuc nhng bn cht a dng. b) Khc bit l mt kiu a dng. Cc s vt l khc bit khi chng khc nhau theo mt ngha v ng dng vi nhau theo ngha khc. Chng hn, Phr v Gioan c th ging nhau theo ngha c hai u l k s; tuy nhin, h c th khc nhau v mt ngi l k s hng hi cn ngi kia l k s dn s. c) S phn bit l ph nhn tnh cch ng nht. N c th qui chiu vo bn th v cc nguyn l cu to ca bn th, hoc qui chiu vo lng hay tng quan. Chng hn, chng ta ni rng bn cht con ngi th phn bit khi bn cht ca con ch, rng cht liu th phn bit khi hnh th, rng s 4 th phn bit khi s 3, hoc nhng tn im ca mt tng quan c thc th thc s phn bit nhau. Hn t ny c p dng c bit cho nhng nguyn l cu to ca mt s vt, vn phn bit nhau, cho d chng khng tch bit nhau. Do , chng ta ni v s phn bit thc t gia yu tnh v vic hin hu, hoc gia cht liu v hnh th. Nhng phn bit thuc tr, tri li, l nhng phn bit m tr khn chng ta to ra gia nhng kha cnh vn thc s ng nht vi nhau (v d, phn bit gia hu th v chn thc). Thut ng phn bit (distinct) (trong ting Latinh l alius) thng qui chiu v suppositum, tri li, a dng lun lun qui chiu v mt s phn bit ni bn cht, tc l mt s khc bit. Do , Cc ngi v trong Cha Ba Ngi th thc s phn bit (really distinct) (Kinh Tin Knh ca thnh Athanase pht biu : alia est enim persona Patris, alia Filii, alia Spiritus Sancti), nhng cc ngi v khng a dng, cng chng khc bit, v mi ngi v u l Thin Cha, tc l, mi ngi v u ng nht vi bn tnh Thin Cha.

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5. ALIQUID (ANOTHER OR SOMETHING) Chng ta thy rng iu khc (another = aliquid) th tng ng vi mt iu g khc (aliud quid). N din t s phn bit mt hu th vi nhng hu th khc: ngi ny th khc ngi kia. Khi chng ta ni ngi ny l khc, chng ta qui chiu v tnh n nht ca ngi , nhng l trong mi tng quan vi nhng s vt khc, theo mc tnh n nht li ko theo s khng phn chia ni ti cng nh vic tch bit khi nhng vt khc. Do , siu nghim ny c gii kt vo tnh n nht v lm cho ngha ca iu sau c r rng hn. Aliquid cng c th tng ng vi iu g (something), v theo ngha ny th iu g m ch rng hu th th hon ton i lp vi v th tuyt i (h v). Do , chng ta ni : trc y chng ta khng c bt c iu g, by gi chng ta c iu g . Sau cng, iu g cng c th ni ln yu tnh c bit xt nh n c nhn bit cch bt nh. Chng hn, chng ta c th ni: C iu g xy ra ni y. Theo ngha ny, th n li gn gi hn na vi siu nghim res (thing) (s vt).

SCH C THM ARISTOTLE, Metaphysica, Bk. V, V and X. SAINT THOMAS AQUINAS, in Metaph., lib. IV, V and X. JOHN OF SAINT THOMAS, Cursus theologicus, I, q.11, disp. 11. L. OEING-HANHOFF, Ens et unum convertuntur. Stellung und Gehalt des Grundsatzes in der Philosophie des hl. Thomas von Aquin, Aschendorffsche Verlagsbuchhandlung, Munster 1953.

CHNG III : CHN L

1. HU TH V CHN L Chn l l iu g ch yu c gn cho nhng phn on ca tr tu. Chng hn, chng ta ni rng mt con ngi ni ln s tht, hoc mt mnh l tht. Chn l thuc v nhng hot ng ca tr khn no ph hp vi thc ti v din t thc ti cch trung thc. Mt phn on l thc khi n qu quyt mt iu no tn ti m trn thc t iu c tn ti, hoc khi n pht biu rng mt iu g khng hin hu, m trn thc t iu khng hin hu. Tuy nhin, chn l ca tr hiu ty thuc vo hu th (truth of the understanding depends on being). Nu tr nng l thc khi n ph hp vi thc ti, th hin nhin tnh thc hu hoc s hin hu ca cc s vt cng nh kh nng chng c tr khn nm bt phi c gi nh bi chn l, tnh thc hu l nn tng v thc o chn l. Ni khc i, tr nng s khng chn thc trong hnh vi nhn bit nu nh nhng s vt khng c ni mnh s tht ca ring chng, tc l chn l hu th lun (ontological truth). Theo ngha ny, thnh Thomas ni rng veritas supra ens fundatur (chn l th t nn tng trn hu th)1; hoc nhng li ca thnh Augustine: Bt c iu g l chn thc, u chn thc theo mc n l hu th2. 2. CHN L L C IM SIU NGHIM CA HU TH Nh vy, nn tng ca chn l lun l (chn l v mt nhn thc) chnh l chn l hu th lun, hoc chn l vn thuc v hu th xt nguyn n. Chn l th ng nht vi hu th. Tuy nhin, n thm vo hu th mt mi tng quan ph hp vi mt tr nng c kh nng nhn bit n (Truth is identical with being. However, it adds to being a relation of conformity with an intellect capable of knowing it). Cng ging nh tnh n nht v tnh thin ho, n l mt c im siu nghim ca hu th. ang khi tnh thin ho thm vo cho hu th kha cnh ng c mong, th chn l thm vo cho hu th mt qui chiu v tr nng. Chn l ni cc s vt : chn l hu th lun (The truth of things: ontological truth) Hu th l chn thc trong mc n l kh tri (Being is true insofar as it is intelligible), tc l, trong mc n c kh nng tr thnh i tng cho mt hnh vi hiu bit chn thc. Hu th c tnh kh tri ty theo mc n c vic hin hu, v y l gc r ca ton b tnh kh tri. iu g hin hu th c th c nhn bit; iu g khng hin hu th cng khng th c nhn bit.

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V l do , ens et verum convertuntur, hu th v chn l l tng ng nhau. Ty theo mc m mi s vt c c hin hu th n c th c nhn bit Chn l, cng nh tnh thin ho, c th c hon chuyn vi hu th3. Do , nhng hu th cng hon b th t thn li cng kh tri hn, cng nh mt nh sng cng mnh m hn th cng khin cho d nhn thy hn na. Tuy nhin, v tr nng ca con ngi l bt ton, nn iu m t thn l kh tri nht (yu tnh ca Thin Cha) li cng kh hiu cho chng ta. Chng ta c kinh nghim tng t v mt tri v s sng ca n lm chng ta la mt. T iu trn, ta kt lun rng mi s vt th kh tri theo mc n l thc hu (actual), ch khng phi theo mc n cn trong tim nng (potential). Nhng s vt c hiu bit nh cc hin th ca chng; c bit hn na l qua vic hin hu, qua hnh th bn th v cc ph th ca chng (nhng hnh th ph th). Tri li, tim nng ch c th c hiu trong mi tng quan ca n vi hin th (chng ta nhn thy rng Phr c th chy, ch do vic ta nhn bit c hnh vi chy); cht liu ch c th c hiu ty theo mc n l ch th tim nng n nhn ly hnh th (chng ta nhn bit cht liu nht ca nhng bn th vt th ty theo mc n l vt cht vng, bc hoc mt iu g ). Chn l qui chiu v Thin Cha v qui chiu v tr tu con ngi (Truth in reference to God and in reference to mans mind) Gi y chng ta c th tin thm mt bc, v khng nh c rng nhng s vt l chn thc theo nhiu cch, ty thuc vo vic chng qui chiu v tr nng Thin Cha hay qui chiu v tr nng con ngi (things are true in different ways depending on whether they are referred to Gods intellect or to the human intellect). Nhng s vt th khng c gi l thc tr phi chng ph hp vi mt tr nng Nhng s vt t nhin c nh v gia hai tr nng khc nhau, v chng c gi l thc theo hai ngha khc nhau, ty thuc vo vic chng ph hp vi mt trong hai tr nng . Chiu theo vic ph hp vi tr nng Thin Cha, chng l thc theo mc chng hon tt iu m chng c tr tu ca Thin Cha hng dn n Lin quan n tr nng con ngi, chng l thc khi chng c th khi ln mt li hiu chn thc, v nhng s vt b coi l gi khi b ngoi ca chng khng ph hp vi yu tnh ca chng hay cch thc m chng hin hu4. Chnh trong ngha ny m chng ta ni rng mt ming kim loi ging nh vng th trn thc t ch l vng gi. Hai li qui chiu trn ko theo nhng h qu sau : a) Chn l ca nhng s vt l nn tng v mc o tr nng con ngi (The truth of things is the basis and measure of the human intellect): nhng s vt t nhin, m t tr nng chng ta ly ra nhn thc ca mnh, th o lng tr nng chng ta. Nh thnh Thomas pht biu, bt c hu th no cng c nhn bit theo mc n l thc hu, v do tnh thc hu ca mi s vt l mt kiu nh sng nm bn trong hu th 5. nh sng bn trong (m ni cho cng cng ch l vic hin hu) chnh l iu khin cho n l thc v kh tri. Do , mi tng quan gia cc hu th vi tr nng con ngi ch l mi tng quan thuc tr; nhng s vt khng c thm mt mi tng quan mi (thc s) no khi chng c con ngi hiu bit. S chn thc ca chng khng ty thuc vo chuyn con ngi c nhn bit chng hay khng; tri li, tr nng ca chng ta c mt s l thuc thc t vo chn l hu th lun. Chn l c gn cho nhng s vt, khi qui chiu v tr nng con ngi, th cch no l ngu tr (accidental) cho cc s vt , v chng vn tn ti t thn (ni yu tnh ca chng) cho d khng h c tr nng con ngi. Nhng chn l c gn cho nhng s vt qui chiu v tr nng ca Thin Cha th khng th tch bit khi chng, v s hin hu c lp ca chng phi l thuc vo tr nng ca Thin Cha, vn em li cho chng vic hin hu6. Do , hu th khng th c gin lc vo tnh kh tri ca n dnh cho con ngi : hu th khng hon ton y chang nh n c hiu bit, hoc c tri gic, nh Berkeley tuyn b (esse est percipi) (Being cannot, therefore, be reduced to its intelligibility for man: being is not the same as being understood). Nhng nn trit hc duy ni ti th coi tnh kh tri nh nn tng ca hu th, do nhn mi vt theo cch hon ton khc. Chng hn, thuyt duy tm xt nhng s vt ch trong mc chng l nhng i tng nhn thc m thi. Nhng i tng ni thuyt duy tm th khng c ngha mt s vt bn ngoi tr nng con ngi, ng hn, l s vt nh c trnh by trong tr nng. Tm li, i vi thuyt duy tm, chn l khng cn phi l s ph hp gia tr nng vi s vt, ng ra, n l s ph hp vi i tng ca mnh, nh vy cng chng khc g ni rng tr nng nhn bit chnh mnh. b) Chn l ca nhng hu th th to th t nn tng ni Tr Nng Thin Cha (The truth of created beings is based on Gods Intellect). Cc th to c mt mi tng quan l thuc thc s vo Tr Nng sng to ca Thin Cha. Cc s vt c o lng bi Tr Nng Thin Cha, trong Tr Nng mi th to hin din, nh nhng th cng hin din ni tr tu ca th th cng. Ni khc i, chn l ca s

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vt th c sp t trc ni Tr Tu Thin Cha, vn l cn nguyn gng mu ca chng. Do , m rng trc chn l ca s vt cng chnh l chu khut phc trc Thin Cha. Thnh Thomas tm tt hc thuyt ny nh sau : 1) Tr Nng Thin Cha xc nh (o lng) mi s vt, nhng li khng b bt c s vt no xc nh mensurans non mensuratus; 2) Nhng s vt t nhin xc nh (tr tu con ngi) v, n lt mnh, li c xc nh hoc c o lng (bi Tr Nng Thin Cha) mensurans et mensurata; 3) Tr nng ca chng ta c xc nh bi nhng s vt, v khng o lng s vt) mensuratus, non mensurans7. 3. CHN L NI TR NNG CON NGI Chn l ca tr nng con ngi, hay chn l lun l, l s ph hp gia tr nng vi thc ti: adaequatio rei et intellectus. Chng ta c th pht biu xc thc rng Phr ang chy, nu nh chuyn ny thc s xy ra, phn on ca chng ta s l gi nu nh Phr ang ng yn ti ch. Theo ngha cht, s gi tr ch c th ny sinh ni tr nng con ngi (nh mt khim khuyt), v hu th, xt nguyn n th lun lun l tht. Ta d coi iu g l gi v mt hu th lun nu nh iu dn n sai lm, ging nh trng hp tin gi. Tuy nhin, ni chnh bn thn n, tin gi cng tht s l n, v n c nhng iu kin thit yu c hiu mt cch ng n. Tnh gi tr hu th lun ca n ch l ngu tr, bi v chuyn khng da trn hin hu ca n, nhng da trn s tng t ca n i vi nhng s vt khc. Tr nng con ngi th t thn hng v chn l (The human intellect is of itself directed towards the truth), v n c kh nng nhn bit nhng s vt xt nh nhng hu th, iu ny th cc ng vt khng th lm c. Tuy nhin, s ph hp gia tr nng vi hu th, th cui cng li da trn vic hin hu ca c tr nng ln s vt (The conformity of the intellect with being, however, is ultimately based on the act of being of both intellect and things). y khng phi l mt s ph hp n thun gia nhng s vt tng t nhau vn cng mt cp (hai thc ti ca cng mt loi : chng hn hai con ngi hoc hai con nga), nhng l s ph hp gia iu bn trn (vic hin hu) v iu bn di (tr nng), hay l s ph hp gia mt hnh nh c phn chiu trong mt tm gng v i vt to nn n, hoc l gia mt con trin v mt du m n in trn thi sp. Khi tr nng l tht, n khng tr thnh s vt c nhn bit, theo mt th l. Tr nng ch ph hp vi s vt bng hnh ng (theo ph th) do thng d vo vic hin hu ca s vt mt cch nht nh, gi l theo hng (intentional). Kh nng ph hp nh vy th ny sinh t vic hin hu ca cc s vt c nhn bit (nu chng khng tn ti th chng khng th c hiu bit) v ny sinh t vic hin hu ca chnh tr nng (nhng hu th khng c tr nng th khng c nhn thc tr tu c). Do , cn phi ch trng rng kh nng ca tr nng trong vic nhn bit chn l, hoc vic m rng ti hu th, th khng phi mt iu g xa l vi hu th, nh th n l mt th g tin thin ca tinh thn con ngi. N l mt iu g ny sinh t vic hin hu, vn l nn tng cho chn l. Thuyt ch quan (subjectivism) khng t nn tng chn l trn hu th, nhng trn vic hin hu-cho- ti (being-for-me) (tc l, cch thc m ti nhn hu th, hoc cch thc n hin din cho thc ca ti). Aristotle phi bc sai lm (m cc nh Ngy bin vn ch trng) nh sau: V khng phi chng ti ngh rng bn trng m bn thc s l trng; ng hn l v thc s bn trng, nn khi chng ti khng nh iu , l chng ti ni ln chn l (Metaphysica, Bk. IX, ch. 10, 1051b). Heidegger nhn mnh rng chn l l apphansis : ch l b ngoi hoc li biu l cho thc ca con ngi8. Nhng ngi khc li i theo trit hc phn tch (chng hn Strawson), ni v chn l nh l s d tha (truth as redundance): nh vy chn l c gin lc vo ngha chung c hai hoc nhiu ngi hn na hiu v mt vn c th m h sn sng ng 9.

SCH C THM

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SAINT THOMAS AQUINAS, De veritate q.1; S. th., q.16, a.1. ARISTOTLE, Metaphysica, Bk. VI, and IX. J. GARCIA LOPEZ Doctrina de Santo Tomas sobre la verdad, EUNSA, Pamplona 1967. M. GRABMANN, Der gottliche Grund der menschlichen Wahrheitserkenntnis nach Augustin und Thomas von Aquin, Aschendorff, Munster 1924. J. PIEPER, El descubrimiento de la realidad (part II: <<La verdad de las cosas>>), Rialp, Madrid 1974. G. SOHNGEN, Sein und Gegenstand. Das scholastische Axiom <<ens et verbum convertuntur>> als Fundament metaphysischer und theologischer Spekulation, Aschendorffsche Verlagsbuchhandlung, Munster 1930.

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CHNG IV: THIN HO

1. BN CHT THIN HO

Hu th v thin ho (goodness) Chng ta thng dng n khi nim thin ho trong cuc sng thng nht. Nhng s vt c mt s hu dng no th c gi l tt (mt ngh tt, mt cng c tt). Chng ta cng ni rng mt iu g l tt cho sc khe chng ta hoc cho vic th gin hay cho mt hot ng no . Chng ta cng dng thut ng ny cho nhng s vt ta lm xong v c c s hon b (v d mt bc tranh tuyt, mt bi th hay). Chng ta ni v nhng s vt vt cht nh goods (hng ha), v chng ta cng dng thut ng ny trong lnh vc vn ha, o c v trong tri thc khoa hc. Chng ta mun ni g khi gi nhiu s vt khc nhau l tt? Ni cho cng, chng ta qui chiu v hin hu ca cc s vt v bt c iu g bo v hoc duy tr hin hu hoc bn cht ca chng. Hot ng, sng, t hon thin, tt mt li, hu th, u l tt. Thin ho ca mi vt l hin hu ph hp vi bn cht ca n. Do , nhng ci xu l nhng khuyt php i nghch vi hon b t nhin ca cc s vt, c ngha l i nghch vi s sng, hot ng, nhn bit (bnh tt, ci cht, dt nt, ti li). Do , tin vn chng ta c th ni rng hu th v thin ho c th hon chuyn hoc tng ng vi nhau (ens et bonum convertuntur) (being and goodness are interchangeable or equivalent). Thin ho khng phi l mt thc ti phn bit khi hu th : bt c iu g hin hu, u l tt1. S vt l tt theo mc chng c esse. Chng c s thin ho bao nhiu l ty ch chng c vic hin hu. Gi tr ni ti hoc s hon b ca nhng hu th th c gc r ni vic hin hu cng nh ni yu tnh ca chng. Do , mt iu g s l tt chiu theo esse ca n : n l mt thin ho tim nng nu nh esse ca n l trong tim nng; n l mt thin ho c thng d nu nh esse ca n l c thng d. V trong trng hp ca Esse Subsistens (Thin Cha), th l s thin ho ti thng. Mi mt hu th trong mc n hin hu u l tt. Do , Yu tnh Thin Cha l chnh thin ho, nhng y khng phi l trng hp ca nhng th khc. Thin Cha l thin ho do yu tnh, ang khi nhng vt khc l thin ho do vic thng d. Mi s vt l thin ho chiu theo tnh thc hu ca n. Do , v duy mnh Thin Cha mi l vic hin hu ring ca Ngi, nn ch mnh Ngi mi l thin ho ring ca Ngi2. Thin ho l hu th theo mc n ng c mun (The good is being insofar as it is desirable) Vy thin ho thm iu g cho hu th ? iu ny gip chng ta xc nh chnh xc bn cht ca thin ho, c ngha l, kha cnh c trng cho khi nim ny, mt kha cnh mc nhin trong khi nim hu th, ch c tr nng nm bt cch r rng nh khi nim thin ho. Thin ho thm vo hu th tnh cch ng c mong cho mt tham dc (Goodness adds to being its desirability to an appetite). iu m thin ho din t, chnh l : s hon b ca s vt th ng c mong, ng yu, c th c nh gi bi kh nng m mt s th to c c, khng ch nhn bit hu th (tnh kh tri), nhng cng cn c mun n (tnh ng c ao). Ni khc i, hu th c gi l tt chiu theo vic n ng c mong, theo cng cch thc mt vt l tht chiu theo mc n l kh tri. L thin ho, h chuyn mt s vt th ng c mong; l l do ti sao Aristotle ni rng thin ho l iu m mi th u thch (Bonum est quod omnia appetunt). Tuy nhin, r rng l bt c iu g cng ng c mong chiu theo mc n hon b, v mi s vt u c mun hon b. Nhng mt iu g l hon b chiu theo mc n l thc hu. Do , r rng mt iu g s l tt chiu theo mc n l mt hu th, v esse l tnh thc hu ca mi s vt, nh thy trn. Hin nhin l thin ho v hu th th thc ra ch l mt, nhng vi mt im khc bit, l khi nim thin ho th thm vo kha cnh ng c mong, m khi nim hu th cha din t3. Cn ghi nhn rng thin ho ca cc s vt, kh nng chng lm pht sinh tnh yu hoc gi tr ni ti, th l thuc vo vic hin hu ch khng phi vo s c mun ca con ngi. Thin ho th khng phi l c mun c khi ln ni chng ta, nhng l mt hon b lm ny sinh s c mun. Nhng s vt th khng thin ho v l chng ta c mun chng, ng ra, chng ta c mun chng v chng l thin ho (Things are not good because we want them; rather, we want them insofar as they are good) 4. Do , con ngi c khuynh hng chn la nhng dng c hon b hn hoc nhng g m h thy ph hp nht

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i vi mt mc ch. V l ny, nhng thc ti cao qu nht (Thin Cha, nhng hu th tinh thn) khi ln mt tnh yu mnh m hn, mt khi nhng th c nhn bit. Thin ho l mt iu g khch quan; n khng l thuc vo kin hoc c mun ca a s. Mc d thin ho l iu m mi th c mun, th n l thin ho khng phi v l mi th c mun n; ng hn, n c c mun bi cc th to, chnh l theo mc n l hon b hoc l mt hu th. Cng nh trong trng hp chn l, thin ho thm vo hu th mt mi tng quan thuc tr qui chiu vo nng lc tham dc m, ni cho cng, chnh l ch, (v ch c ch mi nm bt kha cnh chnh yu ca thin ho hin din ni cc s vt). Tuy nhin, mi tng quan gia nhng thin ho th to vi mun ca Thin Cha th phn bit khi nhng mi tng quan ca chng i vi mun ca th to (ca con ngi hoc ca thin thn). Cc th to c mun hoc yu thng nhng s vt ty theo mc chng l tt. Tuy nhin, Thin Cha khng c mun nhng s vt nguyn v l chng l thin ho (nh th Ngi l thuc vo mt s vt cao cp hn); ng hn, Ngi ban cho chng s hin hu v thin ho bi v Ngi yu chng; tnh yu ca Thin Cha chnh l cn bn cho thin ho ni cc th to5. D nhin, iu ny khng c ngha rng thin ho th i trc hin hu. Nu tnh yu Thin Cha c trc hin hu v s thin ho ca nhng thc ti th to, th l v tnh yu Thin Cha l Ipsum Esse Subsistens, l hon b vin mn. Thin Cha nht thit phi yu mn Hin Hu hon b tuyt mc, thin ho ti cao ca Ngi. Qua lng rng lng hoc qua s phong ph trn y ni tnh yu Ngi, Thin Cha to dng nn v tr, vn hm cha hnh nh v Esse ca Thin Cha. Thin Cha yu thng cc th to, do , lm cho th to nn thin ho ty theo vic chng phn nh Hin Hu ca Ngi, trong mc m vic hin hu ca chng chnh l mt thng d vo Esse ca Thin Cha. 2. THIN HO V HON B trn, chng ta thy rng thin ho xt nh mt c im siu nghim ca hu th th biu l kh nng ca mi hu th tr nn i tng ca mt quan nng tinh thn l ch. Ta cn ghi nh, ch di chuyn v i tng ca n ch khi no i tng c c mt cp hon b nht nh. Nu nh khi nim hon b khng th tch ri khi khi nim thin ho, th khi nim v cc thin ho cng ng bn lun nhiu hn na. Khi nim hon b Mt iu g l hon b chiu theo vic n trong hin th, v bt c tim nng no hin din ni mt hu th u khin cho n bt ton. Do , ci g l hon b th cng ng ngha vi hin hu trong hin th. Do , mi hu th, qua chuyn c c vic hin hu, u c gi l hon b, (c ngha rng, n l thin ho). V khi chng ta ni v Thin Cha - vic Hin Hu Thun Ty - chng ta kt lun rng Ngi l Hon B Ti Cao v y Thin Ho. Cc th to c gi l thin ho, nhng theo mt ngha hn ch v chng ch c s hon b, chng khng chim hu s hon b trong vin mn, bi v ngay trong lc hin hu th chng vn c tnh tim nng (potentiality). Cho d mt th to b gii hn bi tim nng ca yu tnh, n vn c th c coi l hon b theo ngha n chim hu mt cp hon b tng ng vi bn cht loi ca n. Do , chng ta ni rng mt s vt l hon b nu nh n khng thiu th hon b thuc bn cht ca n; tm li, s y cng hm hon b (completeness connotes perfection). iu ni trn c Aristotle v thnh Thomas tm tt nh sau : Mt iu g c gi l y hay hon b theo ba vin tng khc nhau (i) i vi nhng chiu kch ca n (quantitas continua): nh vy, mt bng hng l hon b nu nh cnh ca n th cn xng cch t nhin; (ii) i vi nng lc hot ng ca n (quantitas virtutis):chng hn, theo ngha ny, mt con nga chy nhanh l hon b; (iii) i vi vic t c mc tiu ca n (consecutio finis): chng hn, theo ngha ny, mt ngi t c s khn ngoan l hon b. Sau cng, iu l hon b th c gi nh vy nu nh n c th hon b ha nhng hu th khc. iu ny c bit l ng i vi nhng hu th tinh thn - con ngi v cc thin thn vn c kh nng thng ban cho nhng th khc hon b ring ca mnh. Cc Loi Thin Ho

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Da trn ngha ca hon ho v s tng ng gia iu thin ho v iu hon b, ta c ba loi thin ho : a) Bt c iu g hin hu u l thin ho (Every thing which is is good) : iu ny c nhn bit nh thin ho hu th lun (ontological), hoc thin ho xt nh mt c im siu nghim ca hu th (bonum transcendentale). Mi hu th, trong mc n c c vic hin hu, u c mt cp hon b, v do , cng c mt cp thin ho. b) iu g t ti mc ch, th thin ho (That which reaches its end, is good). iu ny l ngha y ca iu thin ho. Ngay c trong ngn ng thng thng, khi mt ngi khng cn k vi nhng pht biu ca mnh, th t ng tt (thin ho) cng c nhng ngi khc hiu theo ngha . Do , mt s vt l bonum simpliciter (tc l thin ho, khng c thm mt s nh gi no khc), nu nh n t y mc tiu; tri li hn t bonum secundum quid (tc l thin ho theo mt ngha no ) th ch qui chiu n mt thin ho hu th lun ca mt s vt. Chng hn, khi chng ta ni n mt vn ng vin chy tc tt, chng ta hiu rng anh ta chy nhanh, chng ta khng tin vn qui chiu hnh vi chy ca anh ta. Mc tiu ca mt vn ng vin nc rt l t mc n trong mt thi gian ngn nht c th, hu chin thng trong cuc ua; nu anh ta lm c chuyn , th s hon tt thm cho anh ta mt thin ho no , bi v n hon thin ha anh ta. Trong i sng lun l, mt con ngi l thin ho nu nh ngi iu hng bn thn v mc tiu sau cng (Thin Cha), nh thc hnh cc nhn c lun l. Thnh Thomas thng qu quyt rng ch ni Thin Cha mi c s ng nht hon ho gia Hin Hu v l thin ho (Being and being good), v Thin Cha khng c mc ch no ngoi chnh Ngi; Ngi l Hon B v bin n khng c iu g bn ngoi yu tnh Thin Cha c th hon b Ngi thm. Tri li, cc th to khng th ni l thin ho ch chuyn hin hu : mt con ngi xu xa (evil) th tt nhin c gi l xu xa (simpliciter) bi v anh ta c i sng tho th m khng hng ti mc tiu sau cng ca mnh; anh ta l thin ho ch secundum quid, theo mc anh ta c s hin hu. Thin ho cng l kt qu ca chuyn t c iu m ta gi l mc ch ni ti, nh vic th c nhng hon b ph hp vi bn cht c th quantitas continua v quantitas virtutis nh nu trn. Chng hn, lng tnh chiu kch ca mt a tr th hng v mc ch ca n vn ni ti ni chnh a tr, c ngha l, vic pht trin v th l ph hp vi mt ngi ln; theo ngha ny chng ta ni rng mt ngi ln th hon b hn mt a tr. Cng vy, xt ti nhng nng lc hot ng ca con ngi (theo th l hoc theo tinh thn), chng ta gi mt ngi l nh phu thut tt v ngi c c tri thc v nhng k nng i hi cho vic thc hin gii phu thin ngh. c) iu g qung b s thin ho th cng l thin ho (That which spreads goodness is good). Chng ta thy rng iu g l hon b th c kh nng thng chuyn s hon b cho nhng th khc. Mt hu th thc s hon b s lan truyn s thin ho ca mnh theo mc n l hon b. Thnh Thomas ni: V cng nh chiu soi th tt hn l ch l sng ln, cho nn cng l tt hn nu lm cho ngi ta nhn bit chn l m mnh chim nim, hn l ch chim nim nhng chn l thi6. y l ngha n sau phng chm Bonum est diffusivum sui, s thin ho th c khuynh hng tun tro mnh ra hoc chia s chnh mnh (mt cch khn thit ni cc th to vt cht v theo mt kiu t do ni cc th to thing ling). Thin Cha l thin ho ti cao theo ngha ny, v Ngi l ngun mch t mi thin ho tun tro n tt c v tr th to. M cch th yu, v l thuc vo Thin Cha, con ngi cng c gi l thin ho khi h quan tm n thin ho ca ngi khc mt cch tch cc. Do , khi cc th to thng chia thin ho ca mnh, chng cng tr nn ging Thin Cha. Aristotle cn i n ch ni rng cch thc hon b nht m qua cc ng vt c th bt chc Thin Cha chnh l lm cho loi ca n c bn vng qua vic sinh sn (De Anima). Ni loi ngi, hon b cao c nht h ti vic chia s thin ho thing ling; lm nh vy, h bt chc Thin Cha cch vin mn hn.

3. THIN HO V GI TR Gi tr (value) theo ngha thng thng th khng b gii hn bi nhng hm kinh t cht ngha; n c th c hon chuyn vi thin ho. Chng hn tnh thn hu nhiu khi c gi l mt thin ho; ri nhng ln khc n c gi l mt gi tr. Tng t th, mt cng trnh ngh thut c th c gi l thin ho hay l c gi tr. Dante hiu theo ngha ny khi ng miu t Thin Cha nh gi tr tin khi v khn t (the primary and ineffable value)7.

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T vng gi tr c dng theo mt ngha chuyn bit trong trit hc cn i, c bit l trong thuyt gi l Hin Tng Lun v Gi Tr. Max Scheler, l ngi tiu biu nht cho trit thuyt ny, mun loi b thin ho xt nh i tng ca o c Hc, v thay th n bng t Gi tr8. Mc d ti ny thuc v lnh vc Trit Hc Lun L, tng cng nn ghi nhn vn tt v n y soi sng nhng g xy ra, nu nh gi tr phi b tch la khi hu th, hoc khi thin ho. V Scheler coi esse ch nh s kin tn ti (mere fact of existing), nn ng ph nhn chuyn n l nn tng cho tnh lun l. Thc ra, ng ph bnh nhng nn o c kinh in v vic ng ha thin ho vi hu th. ng bin lun nh sau : nu qu l th, th ti sao vic n trm li b coi l xu? Scheler ni n vn b ngoi ny, v ng ta khng bit c rng hu th tin vn cng bao gm s hon b, ch khng ch l s kin hin hu. Nh vy, mc d vic n trm cng c mt thc ti tnh no , v nh th th n phi chim hu mt cp thin ho no , th du sao n ch l thin ho secundum quid. Tuy nhin, hnh vi l xu simpliciter, v n khng c c thin ho do vic n trm . i vi Scheler, c bn ca tnh lun l l gi tr, vn khng xut pht t thin ho (hoc hu th). y l mt iu g thun ty thuc tng, v l mt a priori, c lp khi mi kinh nghim. kt thc nghin cu v c im siu nghim bonum, chng ta cn nu ln ci xu (evil) nh khuyt php thin ho, v vun xi vn thin ho lun l (thin ho ca nhng th to t do trong tng quan vi mc ch ti hu). Tuy nhin, nhng vn ny s c xt cn k trong o c hc. Siu hnh hc c cng tc l phi nghin cu thin ho trong chng mc n l c im ca hu th, do n cng to nn tng cho hc thuyt v lun l.

SCH C THM ARISTOTLE, Nicomachaen Ethics, Bk. I. SAINT THOMAS AQUINAS, S. th., I, qq. 5 and 6; De veritate, q. 21. ST. AUGUSTINE, Confessions, Bk. VII. JOHN OF ST. THOMAS, Cursus theologicus, I, q. 6. A. KASTIL, Die Frage nach der Erkenntnis des Guten bei Aristotleles und Thomas, Akad. Wiss., Wien 1900. H. LUCKEY, Die Bestimmung von <<gut>> und <<bose>> bei Thomas von Aquin, Oncken, Kassel 1930. J. PIEPER, El descubrimiento de la realidad, (part I: <<:a realidad y el bien>>, Rialp, Madrid 1974.

7 Ibid., a.2. 7 Dante Alighieri, The Divine Comedy. Paradise, ch. 10, 3.

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CHNG V: CI P
1. BN CHT CI P Chng ta gi mt iu g l thin ho v n c lin quan n quan nng tham dc ca con ngi : mt s vt s l thin ho nu nh n chim hu s hon b cng nh kh nng hon b ha nhng th khc. Hn na, chng ta gi iu l tht v n ph hp vi tr nng con ngi, theo mc n l kh tri (knowable). Hn th, thc ti cn lin h vi linh hn chng ta theo cch th ba. Khi nhng s vt c nhn bit, tnh chn thc v thin ho ca chng em li vui thch v hi lng (pleasure and delight) cho con ngi nm bt c chng. Chng ta qui chiu v c trng ny ca nhng s vt khi ta ni rng mt iu g l p. nh ngha ci p (beauty = pulchrum) khng phi l iu d dng. Thnh Thomas miu t ci p nh nhng hiu qu ca n, khi ngi ni rng ci p l ci m h nhn thy l thch (= gy d chu khi nm bt n) (the beautiful is that which is pleasing to behold)1. Ci p l mt hon b siu nghim pht sinh t vic hin hu ca cc s vt, v s phong ph cng nh cc dng khc nhau ca ci p th ny sinh t nhiu cp v cch thc hin hu. Nh vy, v p ti cao ca Thin Cha th hon ton khc bit vi v p hu hn ca cc th to. Tuy nhin, ngay trong lnh vc cc th to, chng ta cng thy c nhng cp v p khc nhau, tng t nh nhng cp khc nhau v n nht v thin ho. C mt ci p kh tri (intelligible beauty) vn thuc ring v i sng tinh thn, v mt ci p kh gic (sense-perceptible) thuc tm mc thp km hn. Ci p kh tri th lin kt vi chn l v thin ho lun l mt cch khn thit. Nh vy, xu x (ugliness) (thiu vng ci p) l c trng ca sai lm, dt nt, tt xu v ti li. Hn na, c mt ci p t nhin (natural beauty), vn ny sinh t bn cht ca s vt, v mt ci p nhn to (artificial beauty), c tm thy ni nhng cng trnh do con ngi lm nn (mc tiu ca ngh thut hay m ngh, l lm ra nhng s vt p). V p ca nhng s vt c nm bt nh nhng nng lc nhn thc : nh cc gic quan (c bit th gic v thnh gic), nh tr khn, hay nh c hai th cng hp tc. Ni khc i, n lin quan n nhn thc. Tuy nhin, vic nm bt iu g p em li thm cho nhn thc s vui thch hoc hi lng vn ny sinh t tri thc (the apprehension of the beautiful adds to simple knowledge the pleasure or delight which results from that knowledge). Mt s vt l p nu nh vic nm bt n v mt tr tu hoc gic quan khin ngi ta vui thch. Vic miu t nht nho v mt bin c, nht nh s khng to ni c gi mt vui thch ging nh vui thch c to nn bi mt miu t tuyt vi c vit ln bi mt vn s chuyn nghip hoc mt thi s thi danh. Do , ci p thm mt iu g vo nhn thc thun ty. Ci p v thin ho Ci p c th c coi nh mt kiu chuyn bit ca thin ho, v n l i tng cho mt xu hng t nhin no (tham dc) vn c tha mn qua vic chim ngng iu g p (Beauty can be considered as a special type of goodness, since it is the object of a certain natural tendency (appetite) that is set at rest by the contemplation of the beautiful). N l mt loi ring ca thin ho, khc bit nhng loi thin ho khc. Mi s vt thin ho u lm ny sinh nim vui khi ta t c n; tuy nhin, nhng s vt p li lm ny sinh mt s hi lng c bit ch nguyn bng vic chng c nhn bit. Chng hn, chng ta hy xt n mt cnh ng c rao bn. Nu n l l tng cho vic trng la m, th mt ch trang tri la m thnh vng nht nh phi n xem n, ng ta t ht tm t vo , v tm mi cch mua cho bng c. Nh vy, vic th c mnh t tr nn mc tiu ca ng ta, v ng ta tin hnh nhng cuc thng lng cn thit cho n khi t c mnh t . Tuy nhin, c th xy ra l mt ngi no i qua cnh ng v cm thy phn chn trc cnh quan m mnh t em li, mc d ngi ny khng h c nh mua ly mnh t. Ngi trc coi cnh ng nh mc tiu hoc nh mt iu thin ho no , do vy bt u tm cch chim hu cnh ng. Ngi sau coi cnh ng nh mt iu g p , do vy ch nhn ngm cnh ng thi cng c tha mn ri. iu g p s khin tham dc nhp cuc. Chnh tham dc lm ny sinh nim vui hoc hi lng khi thng lm nt thm m. S hi lng l thuc vo chuyn chim ngng (contemplation), hoc nhn bit i tng, ch khng phi chim hu i tng. l l do ti sao thnh Thomas, qui chiu vo v p siu nghim, cho rng ci p cho thy ni cc s vt c mt trng hp (concurrence) nht nh gia vic hiu bit v c mun. iu g p th khin ta vui thch (cho ch hoc tham dc gic quan) theo mc n c nhn bit (bi tr nng hoc cc gic quan). Nn tng ca ci p

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Mc d vic chim ngng mt vt p lun lun c i km bng s hi lng, th ci p li khng phi l chnh s vui thch hoc hi lng, nhng ng ra l nhng c im m ngi ta vui thch nm bt. Thnh Augustine vit: Ti t hi s vt l p v chng lm vui thch, hay chng lm vui thch v chng p . D nhin, cu tr li phi l nhng s vt lm vui lng ti nh v p ca chng2. Ging nh thin ho khng phi l mt thuc tnh ny sinh t mun ca ch th c mun n, nhng ng ra l mt hon b ca i tng c c mun, th cng vy nhng s vt vn c p, d c hay khng nhng con ngi bit thng thc v p ca chng. Cng nh trong trng hp thin ho v n nht, nhng c im khin mt iu g l p, ni cho cng, th ny sinh t vic hin hu ca n (the characteristics which make something beautiful arise, in the final analysis, from its act of being). V l do ny, Thin Cha, ng l Esse vin mn, cng l V p ti thng v tuyt i.

2. V P V HON B Nu nh nn tng ca v p l vic hin hu, th nht thit n phi tng ng v hon chuyn c vi hin hu. Tuy nhin, khi nghin cu v thin ho nh mt c im siu nghim ca hu th, chng ta buc phi xt n nhng kha cnh khc ca iu p . Qu thc nhng s vt, ch nguyn vic chng hin hu, l chim hu mt hon b, tc l esse. y chnh l nn tng ca ci p, nhng n khng l kha cnh duy nht ca ci p. Mt iu g l p theo ngha y nht (simpliciter) nu nh n chim hu mi hon b tng ng vi bn cht ca n (Something is beautiful in the fullest sense (simpliciter) if it posesses all the perfections that correspond to its own nature). V d, chng ta ni rng con linh dng l mt con vt p theo mc n c c s hi ha v hon b ph hp vi bn cht ca n (chng ta gi iu ny l pulchrum simpliciter) v khng ch v n c c vic hin hu (pulchrum secundum quid)3. ngha chnh yu ny ca v p c biu l qua mt s c im lm ny sinh ngay mt vui thch v thm m. Thnh Thomas nu ln ba im nn tng ca v p : 1) Trc ht l mt s hi ha hoc cn xng no ni chnh i tng cng nh i vi mi trng chung quanh n. S cn xng (proportion) khng loi b s bin cch (variety); n khng c ngha l mt s n iu hoc thiu vng nhng hnh th hay ng nt. Ta c nhiu v d, t vic sp xp tuyt vi ca v tr trong ton tnh ca n, vn lm hi lng c gic quan ln tr nng, cho n ca iu ca mt bn nhc c in hay t chc hi ha ca mt c th sinh ng. 2) Mt yu t khc ca vt p, chnh l tnh ton bch hay y (integrity or completeness) ca i tng i vi nhng hon b c yu cu bi hnh th bn th hoc bi nhng hnh th ph th ca n. Mt s vt p th y , khng ch theo ngha chnh ca t, nhng cn theo ngha l nhn c s trau chut (finishing touch) khin mt vt trung bnh hay mt cng trnh tm tm bin thnh mt cng trnh ngh thut cng phu. 3) c im th ba l tnh sng t (clarity), va theo ngha vt cht va theo ngha tinh thn. i vi tr nng, sng t c ngha l tnh kh tri, chn tht, hin hu. Trong trng hp th gic, sng t c ngha l nh sng, mu sc, sng, tnh chan ha. Trong trng hp thnh gic, n c ngha l s sp t hay phc hp nhng m thanh khin cho vic nghe chng c th v hn. Ba c im trn th trong mi trng hp u mang mt v khc nhau, nhng chng vn hin din cch no ni vt no l p simpliciter4. C ba kha cnh trn ca v p, to nn nn tng khch quan cho m hc; m hc l mt dng nhn thc phn bit khi siu hnh, nhng li vn gn lin vi siu hnh qua khi nim v pulchrum simpliciter. Do , chng ta c th ni rng nhng g c s hi ha, y v sng t th u p v mt khch quan, tuy nhin khng ng nhin c ngha rng n tha mn tt c mi th hiu m hc. 3. NHNG CP CA V P V p ca Thin Cha, vn l duy nht v tuyt i n thun, th c phn nh ni cc th to theo nhiu cp khc nhau. V chng ch thng phn vo vic hin hu, nn cc th to ch chim hu

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mt v p hn ch. Khng mt th g trong chng chim hu v p n tuyt mc (in its entirety); ng hn, mi th ch c c v p ph hp vi cch thc hin hu ring ca n, cch thc ny c xc nh bi hnh th. Gi y chng ta xem xt ring bit hai khu vc chnh trong th gii th to, tc l th gii tinh thn v th gii ca nhng hu th vt cht, phn tch xem lm sao c th tm thy v p ni cc th gii . a) Nhng bn th tinh thn, m hnh th ca chng khng b gii hn bi vt cht, th c c v p trn vn thuc v cp v cch thc hin hu ca chng (Spiritual substances, whose forms are not limited by matter, have the full beauty which pertains to their degree and mode of being). Ty theo mc mt thin thn c esse, th ngi l thin ho v p. Do , c mt cp ni v p ca nhng tinh thn thun ty, tc l vic phn nh trung thc phm trt c kin to bi nhng cp hin hu ca cc ngi (pulchrum secundum quid). V p simpliciter ca cc thin thn th ng nht vi v p secundum quid ca cc ngi. S d nh vy l v mi v thin thn u l mt loi ni chnh mnh, v c c tt c mi hon b (quantitas virtutis) ph hp vi bn cht ca mnh trong mc kh d ti a. Chng ta cng c th nhn xt v p ca mt thin thn i vi cu cnh siu vit ca ngi (Thin Cha), m ngi t c (attains) qua nhng hnh vi t do ca mnh. y c v p thc s simpliciter ca mt thin thn, v nh nu, v p ca ngi ph hp vi bn tnh th c gii kt vo v p secundum quid ca ngi. Nhng c im ca v p simpliciter (hi ha, ton bch, v sng t) b thin thn lm mt i v phm ti, iu ny tch ri thin thn khi cu cnh ti hu ca mnh. b) Trong lnh vc cc hu th vt cht, v p c tnh cch vn vt hn (Within the realm of material beings, beauty is more fragmentary and scattered), v cp ny, chuyn hnh th bn th b gii hn bi cht liu s ngn cn mi c th chim hu ton b nhng hon b loi ca mnh. Khng hu th vt cht no biu l v p n ht mc, ngay c v p vn thuc v ging hay loi ca mnh cng vy, v ni nhiu c th khc bit, hnh th bn th chu nh hng bi nhiu hnh th ph th, c thch nghi theo bn cht ca n nhiu cp . Ngoi ra, bt c mt c th no u kh m p trong mi kha cnh c. Mt con nga c th c mt hnh dng ht sc p v c th trnh din v duyn dng gy sng st trong cuc ua vt ro, nhng mu sc ca n li cn thiu st nhiu. Mt bi th c th c nhng t tng rt gi , nhng vn cn c nhng vn th cha hon chnh. Ging nh cc hu th tinh thn, cc bn th vt cht cng c nhng cp v p secundum quid, ph hp vi cp hin hu ca chng. Xt v v p secundum quid, th nhng loi no hon b hn ng nhin phi p hn. Tuy nhin, i vi v p simpliciter, mt c th ca mt loi km hn c th p hn mt c th khc thuc loi cao cp hn. V d, mt bng hng c hnh dng hon ho th cn p hn mt con nga d dng. iu bn trn ch qui chiu v nhng hon b ni thn ca cc hu th thing ling v vt cht ni bn cht ca chng. Tuy nhin, c mt cp v p cao hn vn c th c khi mt hu th iu hng bn thn mnh v cu cnh siu vit ca mnh (Thin Cha) (which is attained when a being directs itself towards its transcendent end (God)). Qu vy, iu ny to nn tt nh ca v p, v vic th c cu cnh siu vit phi l tt nh ca hon b. c bit trong trng hp con ngi, v p ca th xc b lu m trc v p c th c qua nhng hnh vi t do dn ta n Thin Cha. Do , khi chng ta ni n nt xu x ca ti li, chng ta khng ch dng mt kiu ni bng, tri li, chng ta cp n s ri rc v ti tm c tht ny sinh ni mt linh hn t do phm ti. Vic ri rc v ci xu nh vy th vt qua bt c ci xu no ny sinh t vic bin d th l. 4. CON NGI TRI GIC V P Mc d mi s vt u l thin ho ni chnh mnh, th mt s li c hi cho con ngi, v d mt s bn th c cht c. Trong trng hp v p cng tng t nh vy. Mi th to u c v p ring ca mnh, vn ph hp hn km vi hon b ca mnh. Tuy nhin, cho con ngi c hi lng bi v p ca cc s vt, phi c mt s cn xng gia nhng kh nng nhn bit ca con ngi v v p m con ngi nm bt (for man to be delighted by the beauty of things, there has to be a certain proportion between his knowing powers and the beauty which he apprehends). Chnh vic ph hp nh vy vi i tng s to nn s hi lng qua vic lm cho nhn thc ca con ngi v i tng c d dng t c v tng xng hn. Nhng kh nng ca chng ta, c Thin Cha to nn nhn bit hu th, c vui sng khi chim ngng iu g l hon b.

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Nhu cu i c s cn xng , tin vn ny sinh t bn cht c thn th ca ta v t nhn thc gic quan. l l do ti sao c nhng kha cnh ca v p li vut khi (elude) mt s ngi, ging nh c nhng chn l m mt s ngi khng ti no hiu c. cng l l do ti sao mt gio dc m hc li thng l cn thit c th tri gic c v p ca mt s ngh phm. iu ny hu nh khng nh s kin v p l mt thuc tnh (attribute) ca cc s vt. Mc d tnh ch quan ca con ngi i khi thng th trong ngh thut (c bit trong thi by gi), th v p ca mt i tng vn khng l thuc vo iu m mi ngi yu thch hoc da vo s thch ca mi ngi, tc l da vo nhng g m bt c ai cho l p. Bng khng s chng c ngha g khi ni n v p hoc xu x. C kinh nghim thng nht v kinh nghim thm m u cho thy rng v p t nhin, cng ging nh v p ny sinh t hnh vi ca con ngi, th vt trn con ngi (natural beauty, as well as the beauty arising from human activity, transcends man) v t c s trn bn cht ca s vt. Do , c th xy ra l mt con ngi c th c th hiu sai lch v ngh thut, hay c kh nng thng thc hoc sng to nhng s vt p. Vic nghin cu cch thc con ngi to ra v p trong nhng sng to ca mnh th khng lin h n Siu hnh hc nhng thuc v l thuyt m hc hay ngh thut. Cng vic ca Siu hnh hc cng khng phi l gii quyt vn ti sao ngi ta khng th cm nhn v p. l ni dung dnh cho Tm l hc v M hc. Ta ch cn lu mt s im sau: a) V v p m ta tri gic l mt phc hp, nn ch th nhn bit c th ch nhiu hn ti mt li biu l c th ca n. Nu ngi b nhiu bi mt kha cnh b ngoi m thi, hn anh ta s nh gi n qu mc, do khng th nhn ra gi tr ch thc ni v p ca ton khi. S sng t trong li trnh by, s phong ph ca cc hnh nh, hay tit nhp ca mt din t i khi khin ngi ta thn phc mt hc thuyt sai lm, v coi n l p ngay trong kha cnh ngha ca n. b) Ngoi ra, nhng tp qun th c c cng khin cho nhng nng lc tinh thn ca con ngi ph hp vi mt s i tng hn l vi nhng i tng khc. Do , vic gio dc khin cho mt vi ngi c kh nng hn trong vic nm bt mt s kha cnh ca v p; cng vy, c nhng ngi c th thu thp nhng chn l ton hc hoc gi tr ca mt s hnh vi nhn c mt cch d dng hn. Nhng tp qun nh vy l nhng l do ng ng sau chuyn cc phong cch ngh thut c mi bin ng.

SCH C THM PLATO, Hippias Major; Phaedo. ST. ALBERT THE GREAT, Summa de bono. ST. THOMAS AQUINAS, S. th., 1, q.5, a.4; De divinis nominibus, ch. 4. E. DE BRUYNE, Estudios de esttica medieval, Gredos, Madrid 1959. E. GILSON, Les arts du beau, Vrin, Paris 1963. G. POLTNER, Schonheit, Herder, Wein 1978.

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PHN III : CN NGUYN TNH. CHNG I: NHN THC V TNH NHN QU CH THC
Sau khi nghin cu cu trc ni ti ca hu th, v nhng kha cnh siu nghim ca n, gi y chng ta ch n kha cnh khc ca mt s vt, theo mc n nh hng n hin hu ca mt ci khc : l kha cnh nhn qu. Chng ta c th miu t tnh nhn qu (causality) nh mt mt nng ng ca hu th m, thng qua vic hin hu, c kh nng thng chia nhng hon b ca mnh v c th to nn nhng s vt mi. Nghin cu v tnh nhn qu trong bn dng ca n cn nguyn cht liu, hnh th, tc thnh v cu cnh gip chng ta c c mt tm nhn v trt t trong hon v v v tnh n nht ni ti ca n. Sau cng, n dn chng ta n vic nhn bit Cn Nguyn ti hu ca v tr, v nhn bit tng quan gia Cn Nguyn ti hu vi nhng cn nguyn th yu. C th chng ta i ti cui hnh trnh siu hnh : thng qua nhn thc ca ta v th to, chng c hin hu v c duy tr bi Thin Cha, chng ta li quay v vi ng To Ha. 1. KINH NGHIM V TNH NHN QU Nhng khi nim v cn nguyn v hiu qu nm trong s nhng khi nim m chng ta s dng rt nhiu trong i sng tri thc. Hng ngy, chng ta tri gic nhng hu th vn th hin mt s tc ng, v nhng hu th c tc ng ti. V d, mt hn ri xung nc v to nn mt lot nhng gn sng ng tm; mt tri lm m nhng vt th phi ra trc tia nng ca n; con ngi to nn th ngh phm. C hnh vi thc hnh cng nh hot ng khoa hc ca chng ta u da trn mt xc tn rng nhng s vt th thc s l thuc vo nhau. Tuy nhin, trong dng lch s, mt s trit gia li chi b kinh nghim ht sc hin nhin , v tuyn b rng nh hng ca cn nguyn th ch thun ty l vic ni tip cc hin tng xt v thi hiu (a chronological succession of phenomena). Sai lm buc phi dn n vic chi b lun kh th ca tri thc khoa hc ng n1. V trn thc t, khoa hc l mt tri thc chc chn thng qua nhng nguyn nhn, nn mt khi chi b tnh nhn qu, khoa hc nht nh dn n mt s hnh thc hoi nghi thuyt. Ta chng cn phi c nhng th nghim chuyn bit mi nhn thy s hin minh ca tnh nhn qu. i sng ca chng ta y ry nhng kinh nghim m trong tnh nhn qu c t l : i vi kinh nghim bn ngoi, chng ta quan st thy nh hng h tng ca cc s vt bn ngoi chng ta; l mt nh hng m ta d dng phn bit khi chuyn ch l gn gi theo thi gian. Khng ai ngh n chuyn cng b rng ba to nn bn ch v l bn lun lun i sau ba trong chui s m. Cng chng c ai cho rng m sinh ra ngy, hay ma xun sinh ra ma h, mc d cc gi gic hoc cc ma lun lun tip ni nhau nh vy. Qu vy, chng ta bit rng ngun gc cn nguyn thc s ca nhng tip ni trn chnh l s vn hnh nh k ca tri t quanh mt tri. i vi kinh nghim ni ti ca chng ta, mi c nhn cng nhn thy rng mnh l cn nguyn ca nhng hot ng, nh vic vung cnh tay, bc i hay yn, cm nghim mt sc mnh kin hiu ca ch vt trn nhng nng lc ni ti khc. Bt c khi no chng ta mun, chng ta c th hi nim nhng hnh vi qu kh, tng tng nhng s vt, hoc tp suy lun. Ri cng c kinh nghim ln ln va ni ti va ngoi lai v tnh nhn qu. Chng ta thc v hot ng ca mnh tc ng ln nhng s vt khc, ng thi cng thc v nh hng m mi trng chung quanh tc ng ln chng ta. Chng hn, chng ta c th lm khun mt s vt, ch dy mt s ngi, v li cun h qua gng sng ca chng ta. Hn na, la lm nng bng bn tay gn ngn la, v mi trng vn ha cng nh hng ln cc tng ca chng ta. Nhng v d nu trn c bit qui chiu v cn nguyn tc thnh, l iu m chng ta vn dng t ng cn nguyn m ch. Tuy nhin, chng ta cng quen thuc vi nhng kiu cn nguyn khc (m cn nguyn c hiu l bt c iu g nh hng n s hin hu ca mt iu g khc, theo bt c cch no). V d, nhng hnh vi t do ca chng ta khin ta c c cm nghim c bit v cn nguyn cu cnh, cng nh cm nghim v cn nguyn tc thnh : chng ta lun lun c mt s ng lc hnh ng, v chnh l iu khin chng ta th hin nhng nng lc ca mnh. Cn cn nguyn cht liu v hnh th th cng hin minh ni nhiu s vt vn ny sinh t s vic ni kt hai nguyn l : con ngi tn ti nh vic kt hp gia thn th vi linh hn; mt bc tng c c mt khi hnh dng ca n c tc vo mt khi .

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Bn cht kinh nghim v tnh nhn qu S tn ti ca tnh nhn qu ni th gii l mt chn l hin minh (per se nota), khng cn phi chng minh. iu chng ta cn lm, l nghin cu n v kho st nn tng ca n. Nn tng ny pht sinh do hu th (ens), hu th c th lm cn nguyn (to cause) v l n c vic hin hu (esse)2. Mt li hiu thng thng v tnh nhn qu i hi trc phi nhn bit mt s hu th, v tnh nhn qu l mt tin trnh ny sinh t mt s s vt (c gi l cn nguyn), v nh hng ln nhng s vt khc (gi l hiu qu). i khi, u tin chng ta nhn bit mt s hiu qu ny sinh ni mt bn th (v d, bnh tt), v ch khi chng ta mi bt u nhn bit v nhng cn nguyn tng ng ca chng (v d, mt con vi trng). Vic nghin cu tnh nhn qu li dn chng ta v lnh vc hu th, vn l trng tm ca Siu hnh hc. Du sao, s kin chng ta nhn bit tnh nhn qu khng c ngha rng chng ta hiu bit tng tn v n. Chng ta bit c nhng cn nguyn, v chng ta cng bit th no l mt cn nguyn, nhng iu khng cho chng ta mt nhn thc hon ho v nhng cn nguyn. Vi chng ta, i din vi tnh nhn qu, th phn no cng ging nh i din vi hu th. y, chng ta i din vi mt thc ti ht sc su sc, nhng s bt ton ni nhn thc ca ta ngn cn chng ta nm bt ton b tnh kh tri ca n.

2. NGUYN L NHN QU Khi thc v tnh nhn qu, chng ta khng nm bt nhng khi nim cn nguyn v hiu qu tch bit nhau; ng hn, chng ta hiu rng chng hon ton gn b vi nhau. Chng lin h vi nhau n chng ta khng ti no hiu c iu ny m li khng nh n iu kia. Bt c iu g l cn nguyn, cng phi l mt cn nguyn ca mt iu g , v mt hiu qu th nht thit i phi c mt cn nguyn lm ngun gc. Trn quan im hu th lun, lun lun c mt mi tng quan l thuc thc s (real relation) gia hiu qu i vi nhng cn nguyn ca chng. Tuy nhin, tng quan gia cn nguyn vi hiu qu th ch l mt tng quan thuc tr (relation of reason). Nu cn nguyn khng c bt c i thay hoc th c mt hon b no qua vic sn sinh hiu qu ca mnh (chng hn, trng hp Thin Cha trong tng quan vi v tr), th hin nhin l cn nguyn khng tng quan vi hiu qu. S ty thuc cn nguyn hiu qu gia cc s vt c th c din t cch ph qut qua iu gi c l nguyn l nhn qu. Tuy nhin, cn ghi nhn rng y chng ta ch ni v cn nguyn tnh tc thnh, m theo mt ngha, chnh l hnh thc cn nguyn c bn nht. Nh thy, nhng cn nguyn cht liu v hnh th th t nn tng trn cn nguyn tc thnh vn lun lun siu vit hiu qu. Cn v cn nguyn cu cnh, th n cng ni kt vi cn nguyn tc nhn (tc thnh), nhng chng ta s ni n iu v sau. Mt s nh thc v nguyn l nhn qu i khi nguyn l nhn qu c nh thc (formulated) theo mt li m phm vi ca n b gii hn vo lnh vc hn ch ca hu th th to. Cng c nhng li nh thc ph thng hn v nguyn l . Tuy nhin, tt c chng u din t iu kin c bn l mi hiu qu u cn n mt cn nguyn lm nn tng (a causal basis)3. a) Bt c iu g, h bt u hin hu, u c mt cn nguyn (Everything which begins to be has a cause). Nguyn l ny c th p dng cho bt c hon b no ca s vt c bt u trong thi gian. Hin nhin l mt iu g thiu mt mt hin th nht nh th khng th em hin th li cho chnh mnh, nhng phi nhn c nh hng ca mt iu g khc sn c hin th . Chng hn, mt iu g khng c mu , th ch tr thnh nu nh c mt nng lc tc ng c kh nng lm cho n thnh . (Mt nng lc tc ng nh vy thng bn ngoi ch th, chng hn nh cy c. Tuy nhin, i khi n li ngay bn trong, chng hn nh vic tng mu ni mt ngi ang mt. Du sao, trong bt c trng hp no, n lun lun phn bit khi tim nng th ng m n a vo hin th nh nh hng ca mnh).

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Nguyn l ny cn p dng nhiu hn na trong trng hp nhng th bt u hin hu theo ngha tuyt i, tc l, hin hu nh mt bn th. y, li cng hin nhin l bt c iu g khng lun lun hin hu, v bt u hin hu, th cn n mt cn nguyn cho vic hin hu ca n4. y khng phi l nh thc ph qut v tuyt i nht ca nguyn l nhn qu. Nu v tr lun lun tn ti, c ngha l, nu n khng c bt u trong thi gian (mt iu m chng ta nh c tin thy rng sai lm, nhng xt v mt trit hc th khng phi l khng th), th du sao n vn c c gy nn (tc l c cn nguyn). Tnh cch bt n, hu hn v hin hu hn ch lun lun i hi phi c mt Cn Nguyn. b) Bt c iu g chuyn ng, u c lay chuyn bi mt iu g khc (anything which moves is moved by something else). V mt lch s, y l nh thc u tin ca nguyn l nhn qu, c Aristotle ra, v ta tm thy n trong cun Physics ca ng (Bk. VII, ch. 1, 241b 24). Theo mt ngha tng qut, chng ta c th s dng hn t vn ng hay chuyn ng cho bt c vic chuyn bin no t tim nng sang hin th, hoc t v th sang hu th. Sc minh chng ca nh thc ny nm ch hon ton khng th gin lc hin th vo tim nng v chuyn khng th no mt tim nng li c th em n cho mnh tnh thc hu c. Vic p dng nghim chnh nguyn l ny gip Aristotle khm ph s hin hu ca Nht Bin Cn (First Mover), vn l Hin Th Thun Ty (Pure Act) l cn nguyn u tin v cn nht cho vn ng ni cc s vt. c) Mi vt bt tt u i hi mt cn nguyn (Everything contingent requires a cause). Theo ngha rng, bt c iu g c th hot ng khc i theo mt c th no , u c gi l bt tt (v d, bt c hnh vi no khng lun lun t ti mc tiu ca n, hay bt c hon b no khng ng nhin c i hi bi yu tnh). i vi hu th, bt c iu g m ni n c tim nng thi hin hu, u gi l bt tt. D nhin, iu ny c gii hn vo trng hp nhng th to vt cht, chng l kh hy bi v chng c phc hp t cht liu v hnh th. V mi iu bt tt ti thn c th hin hu hoc khng hin hu, v nu nh trong thc t n hin hu, th phi c mt cn nguyn cho vic thc hu . Nu cn nguyn l mt iu g t n l bt tt, khi chng ta cn phi i xa hn na tm cho ra mt cn nguyn tng ng. Chng ta phi tip tc tm ti cho n khi tm c mt hu th khn thit tuyt i (tc l, mt hu th vn khng th khng hin hu). Qu thc, y l tin trnh m thnh Thomas Aquinas i theo trong con ng th ba, dn n kt lun rng Thin Cha l Hu Th Khn Thit. d) Nu mt iu g chim hu mt hon b khng ny sinh t yu tnh ca mnh, th hon b phi n t mt cn nguyn ngoi lai (If something possesses a perfection which is not derived from its essence, that perfection must come from an external cause)5. Mi hu th u c nhng hon b ty thuc vo bn cht ca n; do , con ngi theo bn cht l thng minh, v c nhng cn xng ring bit v mt thn th. V nhng hon b trn thuc v bn cht con ngi, nn chng ta khng th i tm cn nguyn ca chng bn ngoi yu tnh con ngi. Mt ngi c th thng minh hn hoc km thng minh so vi ngi khc, nhng iu ny c th c gii thch m khng phi ni n mt cn nguyn ngoi lai. Tuy nhin, nhng hon b no m mt s vt c c khng ch do yu tnh ca n m thi, th chng (nhng hon b ) phi c to nn bi mt tc nhn phn bit vi s vt . Chng hn, nhn thc ca con ngi, mc d mt phn l do bn cht con ngi, vn ny sinh t mt tc nhn hoc cn nguyn bn ngoi, c th l thy gio hoc bt c vic c sch no. nh thc trn v nguyn l nhn qu c mt ngha quan trng khi p dng cho vic hin hu. N c th c coi nh nh thc hon b v ph qut nht ca nguyn l . Trong phn mt ca sch ny, ta nhn mnh rng esse xt nh mt hon b th khng nht thit thuc v mt yu tnh. Do , n phi bt ngun t mt cn nguyn bn ngoi thc s phn bit khi yu tnh. Esse khng th ny sinh t yu tnh v l yu tnh l mt nguyn l lm pht sinh khc bit ni cc c th : yu tnh ca mt s vt l iu lm cho n l chnh n (what it is), v khc bit vi nhng s vt khc. Tri li, vic hin hu (actus essendi) l nguyn l cho s n nht hoc tng t ni mi s vt v mi hu th u c vic hin hu; tt c u thng d vo , cho d yu tnh mi vt c th no. Ta ch c th kt lun nh sau : vic hin hu ca mt s vt phi ny sinh t mt cn nguyn, v cn nguyn ny th khc bit vi yu tnh ca s vt . Ta cng thy hin nhin l vic hin hu c tm thy trong v tr theo nhiu mc khc nhau, lm ny sinh phm trt cc hu th. Tnh a bi v hu hn ca cc hu th cho thy rng khng mt hu th n c no chim hu esse ht mc, nhng ch mt phn; c ngha l, qua vic thng d. Nu vic hin hu c chim hu bi cc s vt ch nh vic thng d, th n phi hin din mt hu th c c iu y nht; Hu Th l Thin Cha. y l nn tng cho con ng th t ca thnh Thomas chng minh s hin hu ca Thin Cha6.

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Cn ghi nhn rng khi nim thng d khng nht thit ko theo khi nim nhn qu. Do , cng thc tt c nhng g hin hu nh thng d u c to nn bi iu hin hu do yu tnh cn phi c cn nhc. Hin nhin, chng ta khng th quan nim mt mu vng ng bit lp nh cn nguyn ca mu sc vng ta thy c vng cng nh cc s vt mu vng. Cng thc ny ch ng khi chng ta qui chiu n hon b ca vic hin hu (esse); v nhng hon b siu nghim c th hon i vi hu th. Do , ph hp hn, ta nn pht biu cng thc trn nh sau : iu g c esse nh thng d, th c to nn bi iu g c esse do yu tnh. Ta thy rng nhng s vt m esse ca chng khng thuc v yu tnh, th chng phi nhn c esse t mt cn nguyn ngoi lai. Chng c vic hin hu ch mt phn, ch khng bao gi c y . Hon cnh hin hu ca mi s vt nh vy i phi c mt cn nguyn ngoi lai vn chim hu vic hin hu do yu tnh (tc l, yu tnh ca hu th cng chnh l hin hu), v chnh l Thin Cha. Tt c nhng li nh thc v nguyn l nhn qu u cho ta thy r rng khng iu g c th l cn nguyn cho chnh mnh (nothing can be the cause of itself), v n cn phi ban cho chnh mnh vic hin hu m hin hu, v iu ny hm cha rng n va hin hu li va khng hin hu trong cng mt lc, m iu ny th ngc li vi nguyn l bt mu thun. Do , khi chng ta bit rng mt s vt b gii hn, lp tc chng ta qui kt rng n c to thnh, v c to thnh bi mt nguyn l siu vit n. Nguyn l nhn qu (cn nguyn tc thnh) nht thit dn ta ti mt hu th khc (hiu qu c c nhng hon b ca mnh ab alio, tc l n nhn t hu th khc). Nguyn l nhn qu cng a n mt h lun quan trng : khng iu g c th to nn mt hiu qu vt trn chnh n (nothing can produce an effect superior to itself) (hoc mt iu g km hn th khng th to nn mt iu g cao c hn, hoc khng iu g c th cho i ci m mnh khng c). Nht nh phi c mt cn nguyn gii thch ngun gc ca mt hon b m mt hu th chim hu nhng li khng t mnh c c. Nu cn nguyn c gi thit li khng c hon b m chng ta quan st thy ni hiu qu, th n khng phi l cn nguyn ch thc. Kt qu mi nh vy th tuyt i n t h v, m khng iu g li n t h v. Chn l ny hon ton i lp vi quan im ca trit hc duy vt, vn coi vt cht (hnh thc cn nguyn thp nht) nh nguyn l cu to v tr cng nh mi hon b ca n. Phm vi nguyn l nhn qu Nguyn l nhn qu r rng l thuc vo nguyn l u tin ca Siu hnh hc (tc l nguyn l bt mu thun). Nh bit, nhng khi nim v cn nguyn v hiu qu u bao hm khi nim hu th. Tuy nhin, khi nim hu th xt nguyn n th khng bao hm khi nim c to thnh hoc khi nim to thnh (the notion of being as such does not imply either the notion of being caused or the notion of causing). c to thnh bi ci khc, iu ny khng phi l mt c im ca hu th xt nguyn n; bi nu th th mi hu th u phi c to thnh7, v chng ta bit rng Thin Cha, ng l Esse do yu tnh, th khng c to thnh. Hn na, vic to dng, vn l vic to thnh u tin m ton th v tr phi l thuc vo, th khng phi l hnh vi nht thit ca Thin Cha, nhng ch l kt qu ca vic Thin Cha t do chn la. Nu Thin Cha khng c mun to dng, th chng c nhng cn nguyn, cng chng c nhng hiu qu; tuy nhin, vn c hu th, tc l hu th Thin Cha, vn l v bin v cha ng mi hon b ca cc th to theo cch thc tri vt v cng. Mt th to th khng l mt hiu qu theo mc n l mt hu th, nhng theo mc n khng hin hu y , c ngha l, v n c mt vic hin hu khim khuyt, hu hn v b hn ch (A creature is not an effect insofar as it is a being, but precisely to the extent that it is not fully being, that is, by having a deficient, finite and limited act of being). S vin mn ca hin hu (Thin Cha) th hon ton i lp vi vic c to thnh, v bt c hiu qu no u nht thit l mt iu g bt ton v khim khuyt. Do , mc d hu th xt nguyn n khng bao hm vic c to thnh, th hu th hu hn nht nh i phi c to thnh. Cho d mi tng quan vi cn nguyn khng phi l mt thnh phn trong cu nh ngha v mt s vt c to thnh (xt trong mc n l hu th), th chuyn vn l mt th g ny sinh t yu tnh ca n (trong mc n l mt hu th hu hn). S kin mt s vt c vic hin hu do thng d, s dn ta ti kt lun rng n c to nn bi ci khc. Do , khng th c mt hu th kiu m khng c to dng, cng nh khng mt ngi no c th tn ti m li khng c kh nng ci8. Nguyn l nhn qu khng th c din dch (deduced) t khi nim hu th. N c khm ph theo li qui np nh kinh nghim ca ta, kinh nghim khin ta ghi nhn s hn ch v tnh hu hn ca bt c hiu qu no. Khi chng ta thc v s bt ton trong cu trc ni mi vt th to, th tnh nhn qu

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cung cp cho chng ta mt li tip cn t nhin bit c Thin Cha nh Cn Nguyn Nht v Hon B Tuyt i. Nm con ng m thnh Thomas Aquinas ra chng minh s hin hu ca Thin Cha c khi im t kinh nghim ca ta v tnh nhn qu. iu ny hin nhin l mt trong nhng con ng an ton nht b tc vo nhim v t nhin khng trnh khi ca ta, l nhn bit Thin Cha. Tch ri nguyn l nhn qu khi kinh nghim, v coi n nh mt nguyn l tin thin p dng cho hu th xt nguyn n, (chuyn ny) khin mt s trit gia duy l em p dng nguyn l nhn qu khng h phn bit cho c th to ln To Ha. Do , h coi Thin Cha l Cn Nguyn ca Chnh Mnh (the Cause of Himself (Causa Sui)9, hn l Cn Nguyn khng c to thnh (Uncaused Cause). Chp nhn nhng suy on nh vy, cc trit gia khc (nh Hegel) coi Cn Nguyn Nht l thuc vo cc hiu qu ca mnh (Thin Cha l thuc vo cc th to) v tuyn b rng Thin Cha s khng phi l Thin Cha nu nh Ngi khng to nn v tr. SCH C THM ARISTOTLE, Physica, Bk.I and II; Metaphysica, Bk.I,IV and V. SAINT THOMAS AQUINAS, In II physic., lect. 5-6 and 10-11; In I metaph., lect.4; V, lect. 1-4; De potentia, qq.1 and 3-5; De principiis naturae. JOHN OF ST. THOMAS, Cursus philosophicus, Phil. Natur., p. I., qq. 10-13. R.LAVERDIERE, Le principe de causalit, Vrin, Paris 1969.

3 It must be noted that to say merely that every effect demands a cause is a tautology, since the notion of effect includes necessarily that of the cause. Such a formulation is equivalent to saying what is caused is caused.

CHNG II: BN CHT CN NGUYN TNH V CC LOI CN NGUYN

1. BN CHT CN NGUYN TNH Mt cn nguyn c th c nh ngha nh iu vn nh hng thc s v tch cc n mt s vt, khin cho s vt l thuc mnh cch no (that which really and positively influences a thing, making this thing dependent upon it in some way)1. Sau y l mt s nhn xt cn bn nht chng ta c c sau khi xem xt nhng khi nim cn nguyn v hiu qu: a) Vic hiu qu l thuc vo cn nguyn v mt hin hu l phn tng ng (counterpart) vi chuyn cn nguyn c nh hng thc s trn hiu qu (The effects dependence on the cause as regards the act of being is the counterpart of the real influence of the cause on the effect). Mt cn nguyn l mt cn nguyn trong mc hiu qu khng th hin hu nu khng c cn nguyn. Chng hn, mt cn nh khng th ng vng nu khng c nhng vt liu lm nn n cng nh khng c mt s sp xp ph hp cc yu t ni trn. Chng bao gi cn nh thc s tn ti nu nh khng c cng trnh ca nhng con ngi xy nn cn nh , cho d cng trnh ny trc tip nh hng nhiu hn n vic a cn nh vo hin hu hn l n chnh vic thc hu ca n. Hai li nh hng n hiu qu nh vy gip chng ta c th nh ngha mt cn nguyn nh bt c iu g m mt th g l thuc vo v mt hin hu hoc v chuyn n i vo hin hu. b) S phn bit thc s gia cn nguyn v hiu qu l iu hin nhin (The real distinction between the cause and the effect is evident), v chuyn mt s vt l thuc vo mt s vt khc nht thit hm rng hin hu ca chng thc s phn bit nhau. c) Cn nguyn th u tin so vi hiu qu (The primacy of the cause with respect to the effect): mi cn nguyn, t bn cht, phi u tin trn hiu qu ca n, v hon b m cn nguyn em li hoc sn xut ra ni hiu qu th trc ht phi hin din ni cn nguyn cch no . Trong nhiu trng hp, s u tin theo bn cht ny cng ko theo vic c trc theo thi gian. Chng hn, cha m phi c trc con ci, v mt nh iu khc phi c trc bc tng m ng ta lm nn. Xt theo chnh hot ng ca cn nguyn, th hiu qu v cn nguyn ca n c tng quan vi nhau v ng thi vi nhau. Cn nguyn l

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mt cn nguyn khi n lm cng vic to thnh; cn hiu qu l mt hiu qu vo lc n c to thnh (The cause is a cause when it is causing; the effect is an effect at the time it is being caused). 2. CN NGUYN, NGUYN L, IU KIN V C HI Kha cnh quan yu nht ca bn cht mt cn nguyn chnh l nh hng tch cc ca n trn hin hu ca hiu qu v s l thuc tng ng ca hiu qu vo n. y chnh l iu phn bit mt cn nguyn vi nhng thc ti tng t khc (chng hn mt nguyn l, mt iu kin, hoc mt c hi) vn khng lun lun c mt nh hng tch cc trn hiu qu. a) Mt nguyn l l ci m t mt s vt khc ny sinh bt k cch no (A principle is that from which some other thing arises in any way whatsoever). Do , mi cn nguyn u l mt nguyn l, nhng khng phi mi nguyn l u l mt cn nguyn. Thut ng nguyn l ni n mt s bt u hay mt trt t, nhng khng nht thit bao hm bt c nh hng tch cc no trn hin hu ca bt c th g ny sinh t . Mt im cng c coi nh l nguyn l (tc l, s khi u) ca mt hng k, nhng li ni u ca mt din t c coi nh khi u hay nguyn l cho ton th din t, v ngi cm c c coi nh khi u hoc nguyn l cho cuc diu binh. Mc du vy, khng mt th g trong nhng th ni trn li l cn nguyn cho iu xy ra sau n. Nh vy, mt cn nguyn l mt loi nguyn l, can d n s l thuc ca hiu qu vo ngun gc ca n. Thn hc dy rng c nhng mi tng quan nhim xut ni Ba Ngi Thin Cha nhng khng h ko theo tnh nhn qu cht no. Mc du Cha Con nhim xut t Cha Cha, th Ngi cng khng c coi l l thuc vo Cha Cha, v vic bao hm mt s bt ton trong vic hin hu ca Ngi Li. Do vy, Thin Cha Cha l nguyn l cho Cha Con v c hai l nguyn l cho Cha Thnh Thn; tuy nhin, Cha Cha khng c coi nh Cn Nguyn ca Cha Con v c Cha Cha v Cha Con cng khng c coi nh Cn Nguyn ca Cha Thnh Thn. Bn cnh loi nguyn l ny vn c gi l mt nguyn l tch cc, cng cn c mt nguyn l tiu cc, l khuyt php (privation): vic thiu mt mt hon b c th c coi nh nguyn l cho vic th c mt hon b. Khi thnh Thomas ni v nhng nguyn l ca cc hu th vt th, ngi bao hm khuyt php vi cht liu v hnh th, xc nh hai iu sau l nhng cn nguyn, ang khi vic khuyt php ch l mt nguyn l. b) Mt iu kin l mt iu i phi c (tin quyt), hoc mt s xp xp khn thit khin cho cn nguyn tnh xy ra c (A condition is a prerequisite or necessary disposition in order to make causality take place). N l mt iu g thun ty h tr khin cho hnh ng ca mt cn nguyn xy ra c hoc cn tr khng cho xy ra. Nh vy, mt iu kin th khng mang tnh nhn qu2. iu kin thi tit thun li chng hn, l mt iu kin cc lc s tranh ti, nhng u phi l cn nguyn. Mt s iu kin l khn thit nhng khng (v d, mt ngi phi vo trong i Hc c c mt bng cp), ang khi nhng iu kin khc va khn thit li va (v d, ln thin ng, mt ngi phi cht trong tnh trng n sng). Nhng iu kin khn thit thng c gi l nhng iu kin khng c khng c (conditions sine qua non). Cng c nhng iu kin khc vn ch h tr hoc ph hp, nhng khng quan trng (v d, vic c mt cun sch c ngh c th qua mt kha hc). c) Mt c hi l mt iu g m s hin din ca n s h tr cho hnh ng ca mt cn nguyn (An occasion is something whose presence favors the action of a cause) : n ging nh mt hon cnh thun li mc du khng quan trng cho tnh cn nguyn din ra. Mt ngy nng p l c hi tt i do, nhng khng phi l cn nguyn, cng khng phi l iu kin quan trng i vi hnh vi . Chi vi bn xu c th l mt c hi i n li sng i bi, nhng cn nguyn ca i sng v lun lun l ch ca c nhn. Mc du s phn bit gia mt cn nguyn v cc thc ti tng t khc l r rng, vn cn c s ln ln gia chng trong dng lch s. Chng hn, c mt s trit gia gin lc nh hng h tng ca cc th to vo nguyn c hi cho hnh ng ca Thin Cha, m h coi mi l cn nguyn ch thc duy nht (nhm Ch C Hi)3. Nhng ngi khc li coi mi tng quan k tip nhau nh mt mi lin h nhn qu, v do p dng tin sai (false axiom) post hoc, ergo propter hoc (n xy ra sau iu , do vy n din ra v iu ), vn to nn nhiu loi trit thuyt duy s (Hegel, Comte, Marx).

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3. NHNG LOI CN NGUYN CHNH V nt c trng ca tnh nhn qu l s l thuc ca hiu qu vo cn nguyn xt v mt hin hu, chng ta c th phn loi cn nguyn chiu theo nhng cch thc m vic ph thuc thc s xy ra (v d, s l thuc trong hin hu). Trc ht, chng ta c th thy rng c mt s l thuc ca hiu qu vo nhng nguyn l cu to ni ti ca n. Nu mt iu g mt i cht liu m n c lm nn t , hoc mt i hnh th t vo cht liu , th n s khng cn l chnh n na. Nh vy, s hin hu ca mt pho tng l thuc vo cht liu t n c lm nn v l thuc vo hnh th vn to dng cho n. Do , chng ta thy c hai loi cn nguyn , cn nguyn cht liu (material cause) v cn nguyn hnh th (formal cause), vn hin din ni mi hu th vt th. Hn na, hin hu ca mt hiu qu th cng l thuc vo hai nguyn l ngoi lai, c th l cn nguyn tc thnh (efficient cause) v cn nguyn cu cnh (final cause). Mt iu g trong tim nng th ch c th tr nn thc hu nh vo mt hu th khc hin hu trong hin th. Khi g khng th t mnh bin thnh chic gh, n cn mt hnh vi ca mt tc nhn ngoi lai khin cho kh nng n tr thnh ci gh c hin thc. n lt mnh, tc nhn lun lun hot ng v mt mc ch no , v nu loi b mc ch th c hnh ng cng nh hiu qu t u khng din ra c. Nu mt ngi th khng c lm mt ci gh hoc mt ci bn, th nhng ni tht khng hn g nhng kh tnh thun ty. Tm li, cht liu m t mt iu g c lm nn, l mt cn nguyn (cn nguyn cht liu); v hnh th ni ti ca s vt vn thc hu ha cht liu, l mt cn nguyn (cn nguyn hnh th); nguyn l ly ra hnh th t cht liu, l mt cn nguyn (cn nguyn tc thnh); v, sau cng, mc ch m tc nhn hng n, cng l mt cn nguyn (cn nguyn cu cnh) (In short, the matter from which something is made is a cause (material cause); the intrinsic form of the thing, which actualizes that matter, is a cause (formal cause); the principle which draws out the form from matter is a cause (efficient cause); and, finally, the goal towards which the agent tends is a cause (final cause)). Cc loi cn nguyn khc u c th gin lc vo bn loi cn nguyn va nu. Cn nguyn tnh ca mt bn th i vi nhng ph th ring ca n chnh l cn nguyn tnh cht liu v, mt mc no cng l cn nguyn tnh tc thnh, nhng l t nhiu quan im khc nhau. nh hng nhn qu ca vic hin hu trn yu tnh c th ni kt vi nh hng ca hnh th trn cht liu. Ngc li, cn nguyn tnh ca mt dng c l mt kiu cn nguyn tc thnh. Cn nguyn tnh ca nhng nguyn mu (models or prototypes), m mt ngh s m phng trong lc to nn nhng tc phm ca mnh, chnh l cn nguyn tnh hnh th hoc cu cnh. nh hng cn nguyn tnh ca Thin Cha trn th to l kiu cn nguyn tnh tc thnh hon b nht.

Nhng cn nguyn per se v nhng cn nguyn per accidens Bn cnh nhng cn nguyn theo ngha cht, hoc nhng cn nguyn per se (t thn), cn c mt s cn nguyn ngu tr, l cn nguyn per accidens (do ngu tr). Cn nguyn tnh ngu tr (Accidental Causality) din ra khi hiu qu c to nn th nm bn ngoi mc ch chuyn bit ca mt hnh vi. Chng hn, vic nghin cu l cn nguyn per se ca tri thc, v cng l cn nguyn per accidens ca mt gii thng hn lm. Hiu qu ngu tr ny c th din tin theo hai cch c bn: v pha cn nguyn, v v pha hiu qu. a) Trong trng hp th nht, mt cn nguyn ngu tr l bt c iu g ni kt vi mt cn nguyn per se nhng li khng bao hm ni bn cht ca n trong t cch mt cn nguyn (In the first case, an accidental cause is anything which is joined to a per se cause but is not included within its nature as a cause). Mt cn nguyn per accidens t n khng lm nn vic hin hu ca hiu qu, nhng ch ni kt ngoi ti vi cn nguyn chnh. Chng hn, nu cng mt ngi va l nhc s va l kin trc s, th vic o luyn v m nhc ch l cn nguyn per accidens ca nhng cn nh m ng ta xy dng. Tng t th, nhng hnh vi xu ca mt Kit hu trong cng vic ngh nghip ca h khng c li cho Gio Hi Cng gio, hoc li cho nhn v trong t cch mt ngi Cng gio, v vic anh ta c ra ti ch l ph th i vi cn nguyn chnh ca nhng khim khuyt ngh nghip ca anh ta. Thng thng, vic phn bit ny khng c nhn nh r rng trong cuc sng thng nht ca con ngi.

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b) V pha hiu qu, c mt cn nguyn tnh per accidens khi hiu qu chnh ca mt cn nguyn c i km bi mt hiu qu khc m, ni cch cht ch, khng ny sinh do nng lc ca cn nguyn ni trn (On the part of effect, there is a per accidens causality whenever the proper effect of a cause is accompanied by another effect which is not, strictly speaking, due to the power of the given cause). C ba trng hp chnh ca loi ny : vic ct i mt tr ngi, mt cng hiu th cp tnh c, v mt s trng hp tm thi. (i) Trng hp th nht, thng c gi l trng hp removens prohibens, bao gm vic tho g mt iu g vn ngn cn cng hiu, sao cho cn nguyn c th t n cng ch t nhin v chuyn bit ca n. Chng hn mt con ngi ct t mt si dy ang buc cy n, th l cn nguyn per accidens cho vic nh ri cy n, ang khi cn nguyn chnh l vic li ko nhau gia cy n v tri t do lc hp dn (gravitational force). Tng t nh vy, ti nguyn t cng l cn nguyn per accidens ca ci cht v ca nhng hu qu khc ng nhin ny sinh t vic chim hu mt bn tnh nhn loi, nhng iu (ci cht) b ngn cn bi tnh trng cng chnh ban u, lc Thin Cha to nn bn tnh nhn loi. Bi l bn cht ca thn xc l kh hy, nn ci cht l nh mnh t nhin ca mi con ngi. Tuy nhin, Thin Cha ban cho con ngi trong tnh trng cng chnh ban u mt lot nhng c n (cng thm vo n sng) vn ngn cn mt s hu qu ca vic chim hu bn tnh nhn loi. Qua vic ph hy tnh trng cng chnh ban u, ti tr nn cn nguyn per accidens cho nhng hu qu t nhin . Cn ghi nhn rng bt c khi no nhng hiu qu ngu tr nht thit ny sinh t hot ng ca mt cn nguyn per accidens, th chng u c th gn cho cn nguyn , mc du cn nguyn per accidens khng trc tip sn sinh chng theo ngha cht. y l trng hp ca v d cy n nu trn. Cng vy, khi ngi ng u mt nh trng khng phn i vic thu mt gio s i theo hc thuyt sai lm tai hi (mc du ng ta c kh nng lm chuyn ), th ng ta phi chu trch nhim v nhng tai hi trong vic o to cc sinh vin. (ii) Trng hp th hai l trng hp ca nhng hiu qu th yu tnh c (fortuitous secondary effects). iu ny ny sinh khi hiu qu ph hp cho mt nguyn nhn li c i km bi mt hiu qu khc khng nht thit i phi c do nh hng cn nguyn tnh ca n. Nu mt ngi lm rung tm thy kho tng chn giu trong lc lm rung, th vic khm ph khng th c coi nh hiu qu ring ca hnh vi ngi , nhng ch nh mt iu g xy ra trong trng hp c th, ch khng xy ra trong nhiu trng hp tng t khc. (iii) Theo mt ngha km cht hn, chng ta cng c th ni ti cn nguyn tnh per accidens trong trng hp th ba, tc l cn nguyn tnh ca s trng hp nht thi (temporal coincidence). Trong trng hp ny, khng c mi lin h thc t gia hai hiu qu, nhng ch l s trng hp nht thi c dng nh nn tng cho ai ngh rng c mt mi lin h thc s. Loi cn nguyn tnh ngu tr ny thng c hiu lm nh cn nguyn tnh ng ngha. Chng hn nh vic khai trin nhng khoa hc thc nghim li trng hp vi s suy thoi r rng trong Siu hnh hc, nn mt s ngi tuyn b rng vic suy thoi nhng nghin cu trit hc chnh l cn nguyn lm ny sinh cc khoa hc. Nghin cu v cn nguyn tnh per accidens c mt p dng rng ri trong Thn hc Lun l. Nh bt c s d no, ti li khng c mt cn nguyn per se. Hiu qu ring ca cn nguyn tnh ni ti nhn lun lun l mt iu g tch cc, mt iu g l thin ho ni chnh mnh (v d, kim c ca ci vt cht trong mt v cp; vic tha mn tham dc gic quan trong vic n ung); tuy nhin, thin ho c la chn thiu mt trt t ng phi c i vi mc tiu sau cng ca con ngi; do , n tr nn s d v mt lun l.

SCH C THM

P.

TH. DE REGNON, La mtaphysique des causes selon Saint Thomas et Albert le Grand, Paris 1906. GARIN, Le problme de la causalit et Saint Thomas Aquin, Paris 1958.

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1 Neo-positivist philosophers - represented by B. Russell - replaced the notion of cause with that of function which can be expressed mathematically. Russell said: There is no doubt that the continuous appearance of the old law of causality in philosophers books is due to the fact that many of them are not familiar with the notion of function. (Mysticism and Logic, London 1918, p.194). This affirmation is understandable in the context of neo-positivist doctrine, which reduces metaphysics to formal logic.

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CHNG III: CN NGUYN CHT LIU V CN NGUYN HNH TH

Cht liu v hnh th, xt nh nhng nguyn l ni ti ca mi thc ti vt th, c nghin cu rng ri trong Trit Hc v Thin Nhin. Chng cng c nghin cu phn no trong Siu hnh hc khi nghin cu v yu tnh nhng hu th vt cht. Nhng thnh t ny gi y phi c phn tch t quan im nh hng cn nguyn tnh ca chng. Gi y chng ta phi xem xt ngha m trong mi th u l mt cn nguyn, do , ta xt n cc loi cn nguyn cht liu v cn nguyn hnh th, cng nh cng hiu ring ca mi th.

1. BN CHT CN NGUYN TNH CHT LIU Bt c th g m t n hoc bng n mt iu g c to nn, u l cn nguyn cht liu (ex qua et in qua aliquid fit) (Anything out of which and of which something is made is a material cause)1. Do chng ta ni rng mt ci gh c lm t g, hoc mt pho tng c lm bng ng; g v ng l nhng cn nguyn cht liu ca mi th tng ng. Chng ta cng thy rng hnh th ph th lm cho ng tr thnh mt pho tng, hoc g thnh chic gh, l mt iu g nh hng ln ng hoc g; n bm vo ni nhng cht liu vn hot ng nh nhng ch th ca nhng hnh th ph th tng ng. em so snh vi nhng loi cn nguyn khc, mt cn nguyn cht liu c th c coi nh : a) mt nguyn l tim nng th ng, b) vn tn ti ni cng hiu, c) bt nh. a) Trc ht, l mt nguyn l tim nng th ng (a passive potential principle). Bn loi cn nguyn trn l nhng nguyn l, v hiu qu m chng lm ny sinh th phn no n t mi th trong chng, mc d mi th mt cch. Cn nguyn cht liu l mt tim nng th ng hm cha hiu qu theo kiu mt tim nng hm cha hin th (The material cause is a passive potency that contains the effect in the way a potency contains its act), c ngha l, mt cch bt ton ch l kh nng. Chng hn, mt khi cm thch, th c kh nng nhn c hnh th mt pho tng qua tc ng ca nh iu khc. Hnh th ny c th coi l c rt ra (educed) (c a vo hin th) t tim nng ca cht liu (cm thch) v chnh cm thch c kh nng cho chuyn . b) N cng l mt nguyn l vn tn ti ni hiu qu (It is also a principle which remains within the effect). Mt cch no th iu ny c th c coi nh hu qu cho tnh cch trn. V l mt tim nng th ng, cht liu ng vai tr mt ch th n nhn hnh th. Cng nh chnh hnh th, cht liu vn nm hiu qu nh mt iu g ni ti vi hiu qu, v c cht liu ln hnh th u l nhng nguyn l cu thnh hiu qu. Cn c vo hai c im trn (mt ngun tim nng v mt ch th), Aristotle nh ngha cn nguyn cht liu nh iu m t n, xt nh mt yu t cu thnh, mt iu g c sn sinh (that from which, as a constituent, something is generated) (Aristotle, Metaphysica, Bk. II, ch.2, 1013a). c) Cht liu cng l bt nh (Matter is also indeterminate) : y l mt nt c trng khc ca cn nguyn cht liu, ng thi cng gn b cht ch vi vic l mt tim nng th ng. V l mt iu g cn trong tim nng, cht liu l bt ton, bt nh v m ra trc nhiu kh th khc nhau. Bn cht bt nh ny ca cht liu c gi b bi hnh th vn thc hu ha mt trong nhng kh tnh . Chng hn bao lu mt khi cm thch mi ch c chm tr theo tim nng, th n c th n nhn nhiu hnh dng khc nhau, v nh vy c th tr thnh bt c mt pho tng no. Cm thch cn bt nh i vi chng. iu cng ng i vi g c lm thnh nhiu kiu g khc nhau, hoc i vi ng c ch to thnh bn nc, ci chung, hoc mt th g trang tr. Nhng loi cn nguyn tnh cht liu khc nhau Nhng nt c trng ca cn nguyn tnh cht liu c tm thy theo nhiu cch. Trc ht chng ta c th phn bit hai kiu cn nguyn cht liu theo ngha cht : cht liu nht v cht liu nh. a) Cht liu nht (Prime Matter) c nhng c trng ca mt cn nguyn cht liu theo ngha y nht. N l mt ch th vn cn li ni mi thay i bn th m trong mt hnh th bn th mi c n nhn vo. N l mt tim nng th ng thun ty, ni n cha c mt hin th hoc hot ng no. Do , n rt bt ton v khng th tn ti tr phi c thc hu ha bi mt hnh th no vn phn bit khi n. N cng l bt nh (indeterminate) v do , c th l mt thnh t (component) ca bt k loi hu th vt th no: cu hnh ca n l thuc vo hnh th bn th m n tip nhn. N l mt

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nguyn l hay cn nguyn cho mi hu th vt th bi v, nh thy, ng lp hu, nhng hnh th bn th khng thing ling cn c s n ca mt tim nng phn bit, tim nng chnh l cht liu nht. c tnh cn nguyn ca cht liu nht c th thy r khi ta quan st thy rng nhng th to ch c th to ra mt hiu qu cht liu bng cch tc ng ln mt cht liu nht nh no m trong hiu qu kia c trc cch no . b) Cht liu nh (secondary matter) cng chnh l bn th, vn th hin cn nguyn tnh cht liu i vi nhng hnh th ph th m n c kh nng tip nhn. Trong trng hp tm king, cht liu nht l cn nguyn cht liu cho vic n l king. Nhng chnh king, xt nh mt thc ti ng ring, chnh l cn nguyn cht liu cho nhiu ph th khc nhau, chng hn mu sc hoc hnh th. Bn th c gi l cht liu nh bi v n gi nh cht liu nht. V khi nim cht liu ko theo s bt ton, hoc l ch th cho mt hin th, v nh vy l trong tim nng i vi hin th, nn bt c iu g c nhng c im nh vy u c th c gi l mt cn nguyn cht liu, mc d thut ng ny nhiu khi ch c p dng theo mt ngha khng cht ch. Do , chng ta c th gi cc bn th tinh thn l cn nguyn cht liu i vi cc ph th ca chng, v cc bn th c hon thin bi cc ph th . Thm ch chng ta c th ni n cc ph th nh nhng cn nguyn cht liu trong mc chng sp t bn th (trong vai tr ch th gn ca nhng ph th khc) (bn th) tr thnh ch th ca nhng hon b ph th khc na, chng hn nh lng i vi mu sc, hoc nh tr khn i vi nhng tp tnh hoc nhng hot ng tr tu. 2. CN NGUYN HNH TH Mt cn nguyn hnh th l mt hin th hon b ni ti nh mt s vt l bt c iu g, trong lnh vc bn th cng nh ph th (A formal cause is an intrinsic act of perfection by which a thing is whatever it is, either in the realm of substance or of accidents). iu khin cho mt con ngi l ngi, ni c th l linh hn con ngi, chnh l mt hnh th, v nhng g khin cho con ngi l trng (mu da ca anh ta) hoc khin cho con ngi l nng (lng ca anh ta), hoc khin cho anh ta l tt (nhn c), vv u l hnh th c. Bt c hnh th no cng l cn nguyn i vi cht liu m n nh dng (in-forms), v n em li cho cht liu tnh thc hu ca mt cch hin hu xc nh. Hnh th m nu khng c n th mt hu th khng l g c, (hnh th ) s c gi l hnh th bn th (substantial form). Nhng hnh th no nh hng ln hu th thc hu bng cch em li cho n nhng xc nh th c gi l nhng hnh th ph th (accidental forms). Hnh th bn th em li cho mt vt cch thc hin hu c bn, khin cho n l mt bn th : mt ngi l mt con ngi v do anh ta hin hu, nh c linh hn. Tri li, hnh th ph th ch em li cho mt bn th nhng cu hnh th yu, m hin nhin ch c th nh hng ln mt vt no vn l mt bn th ri. Hnh th bn th l hin th ca cht liu nht, cht liu ny l ch th tip nhn hnh th bn th. Nhng hnh th ph th nh cch (modify) cho bn th cng ng chng (cht liu nh). Cn nguyn tnh Gng mu (Exemplary Causality) Cn nguyn Gng mu chim mt tm quan trng c bit, n l mu mc hng dn mt tc nhn thi hnh cng vic ca mnh. Trong nhng hot ng ngh thut, th cng, k thut hoc nhng hot ng tng t, n c quan nim trong tr tu ca tc nhn, hay mt hnh nh bn ngoi gip ngi ngu hng, nhng th n nh loi cng nh c im ca hiu qu s c. Tc nhn hng n vic to dng cho mt cht liu c th (cht liu nh), chiu theo mt dng mu c quan nim trc. Theo mc ny, cn nguyn gng mu tng ng vi cn nguyn hnh th ni ti, mc d n lun nm bn ngoi mt khch vt. Nhn thy rng Thin Nhin trong ton tnh ca n th khng khc g mt cng trnh ngh thut ca ng To Ha, chng ta phi kt lun rng trong Tr ca Thin Cha phi c nhng tng mu hoc nhng kiu dng ca mi s vt th to, cng nh mt ngh s c ni tr ca mnh nhng kiu mu cho cc tc phm ca ng ta. Cn nguyn tnh gng mu c tm thy ni mi tin trnh kin to: tuy nhin, n khng c coi l loi cn nguyn th nm, nhng phi c coi l mt loi cn nguyn hnh th v nh mt iu kin quan yu cho mt tc nhn thc s tr thnh mt cn nguyn (Exemplary causality is found in all causal processes: however, it should be seen, not as a fifth kind of cause, but as type of formal cause and as an essential condition for an agent to be really a cause). Nht na, khng tc nhn no c th to nn mt hiu

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qu m n khng chim hu sn ni chnh bn cht ca mnh, mc d n c th chim hu hiu qu theo mt cch khc (khng ai cho iu g mnh khng c). Nh vy, mi cn nguyn tc nhn cn xng v ph hp (khng phi l nhng cn nguyn per accidens) th cng l cn nguyn gng mu cho nhng hiu qu ca n. iu ny din ra theo hai kiu : a) Nhng cn nguyn t nhin (Natural causes) chim hu mt hon b m chng thng chia theo cch t nhin. Mt c th sng chng hn, thng chuyn loi ca mnh, ch khng th to nn mt hiu qu no vt ln trn hon b thc th ca n2. D nhin, nhng cn nguyn t nhin c th sn sinh nhng hiu qu cao hn khi chng tc ng nh nhng dng c ca nhng cn nguyn cao cp hn. Cc nguyn t vt l v ha hc ca c th chng hn, lm pht sinh hot ng ca s sng, v chng tc ng trong mt l thuc nng ng vo linh hn. b) Nhng cn nguyn tr tu (Intelligent causes), theo cch hng hoc tinh thn, chim hu hon b m chng sn xut ra : hon b ny l gng mu hay kiu mu c quan nim bi tc nhn tr tu. Kiu mu c gn vo mt cht liu no (trong trng hp tc nhn th to) hoc tuyt i c to dng (trong trng hp Thin Cha, ng l Nht Cn Nguyn). 3. TNG QUAN GIA CN NGUYN CHT LIU V CN NGUYN HNH TH Nh thy, chng ta c th din t mi tng quan gia cht liu v hnh th tng ng ca n bng cch pht biu rng cht liu l tim nng i vi hnh th, v hnh th l hin th ca cht liu (matter is potency with respect to form, and form is the act of matter). Gi y chng ta cn kho st xem chng l nhng cn nguyn h tng ca cc hu th vt th ra sao. D nhin, khi nghin cu vn ny, chng ta vn trong lnh vc cc bn th vt th, v ch chng mi c cn nguyn cht liu theo ngha cht. Cht liu v hnh th l nhng cn nguyn ca mt bn th vt th (Matter and form are causes of a corporeal substance) S l thuc cht ch ca mt bn th vt th vo nhng nguyn l ni ti ca n s cho ta thy r rng cht liu v hnh th l nhng cn nguyn ca ton b bn th ni mt hu th vt th. Mt hu th vt th l thuc vo cht liu nht v hnh th bn th ca mnh v mt hin hu v v cp loi bit trong n c vic hin hu (A corporeal being depends on its prime matter and on its substantial form for its act of being and for the specific degree in which it has the act of being). Do , nu ta ly i cht liu hoc hnh th, th nhng s vt thi hin hu, cn nu c mt s thay i hnh th bn th, th n tr nn mt loi bn th khc. Chng hn, d nhin khng mt con vt no hin hu c lp ngoi thn xc n v n s khng cn l chnh n na khi n mt i hnh th bn th ca mnh. C th ni n iu g tng t i vi s tng tc cht ch gia bn th (cn nguyn cht liu) v cc ph th ca n. cho mt hon b ph th c tn ti, phi c bn th ph hp (cht liu nh) v cng l vic hnh th ph th n nh bn th. Chng hn, cc gic quan l nhng hnh th ph th ch c ni cc ng vt. Xt v yu cu th yu, chng hn chng ta lu rng vic bc hi l mt c im ca cc bn th lng, chng ta ni l l mt hnh th ph th ring bit ca cc cht lng, cho d khng phi mi cht lng u bc hi. Cht liu v hnh th l nhng cn nguyn h tng Cng nh mt hu th khng th hin hu c lp bn ngoi nhng thnh t ni ti ca n, th cht liu v hnh th bn th ca nhng bn th vt th cng khng th tn ti tch ri nhau. Chng c tnh nhn qu h tng. Cht liu c coi l cn nguyn ca hnh th trong mc hnh th khng hin hu, ngoi tr ni cht liu. Tng t nh vy, hnh th l cn nguyn ca cht liu theo ngha l cht liu khng c mt tnh thc hu no tr phi nh hnh th3. Nh vy, mt cch no , cht liu l cn nguyn ca hnh th, v hnh th l cn nguyn ca cht liu, mc d nhng vai tr cn nguyn tng ng ca chng th phn bit nhau : a) Trong trng hp cht liu nht v hnh th bn th, hnh th l cn nguyn ca cht liu trong mc n em li cho cht liu mt s t chc loi bit v lm cho cht liu hin hu (the form is the cause of matter insofar as it gives it a specific organization and confers being on it), tc l, theo mc n em li cho vt phc hp vic hin hu m nh c cht liu v bn th mi hin hu c lp c.

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Cht liu, tri li, khng em li hin hu cho hnh th, nhng ch cng ng n (Matter, in contrast, does not give being to the form, but only supports it). Ni cc bn th vt cht, hnh th v l bt ton nn khng th thng d vic hin hu tr phi n c n nhn bi mt cht liu no . T quan im ny, ta thy cht liu lm cho hnh th c hin hu, v nh vy l to nn n (causes it). V l chng nm nhng vai tr khc bit nhau trong vic cu to hu th, nn cn phi ni rng cht liu l do hnh th v v hnh th, ch khng cn cch no khc (matter is by the form and for the sake of the form, and not the other way around)4. iu ny cng gip chng ta thy c l do ti sao cc hnh th tinh thn, vn hon b hn cc hnh th vt th, li c th tn ti m khng cn phi c tip nhn vo trong cht liu (cc thin thn) hoc tn ti c lp khi vt cht m chng to hnh (linh hn con ngi). V nh hnh th m cht liu n nhn hin hu xc nh v thc hu (tc l c gii hn vo mt cch hin hu loi bit), v khng cn kiu no khc, nn khng c g li ngn cn mt s hnh th no tip nhn esse ni chng ch khng phi ni mt ch th phn bit khi chng. V mt cn nguyn khng l thuc vo hiu qu, ngc li l ng khc5. b) Nhng vai tr lm cn nguyn h tng gia bn th v cc hnh th ph th c mt s nt c trng tng t nh nhng c trng ca cht liu nht v hnh th bn th. Trong c hai trng hp, hnh th l mt hin th v lm cho cht liu tng ng ca n c thc hu. Nhng ang khi hnh th bn th lm cho mt iu g hin hu theo ngha tuyt i v c ch th l tim nng thun ty, th hnh th ph th li khng lm cho mt iu g hin hu tuyt i, nhng ch l hin hu theo kiu ny kiu kia, tc l theo cch th yu (v d c mt lng, mt phm cht), v ch th ca n l mt hu th thc hu ri (bn th). Hn na, cc ph th hin hu nh vic hin hu ca bn th, cho d cc ph th c em li mt s nh cch (modifications) mi m cho bn th. Do , bi l iu km u tin th tn ti v iu u tin hn, nn cht liu (cht liu nht) tn ti v hnh th bn th; ang khi tri li, hnh th ph th tn ti v s hon b ca ch th (cht liu nh) (matter (that is, prime matter) therefore exists for the sake of the substantial form; while on the contrary, the accidental form exists for the sake of the perfection of the subject (secondary matter))6.

SCH C THM

J. GOHEEN, The Problem of Matter and Form in <<De ente et essentia>> of Thomas Aquinas, Cambridge (Mass) 1940, I. HUSIK, Matter and Form in Aristotle, Berlin 1912.

6 St. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, I,q.77, a.6,c.

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CHNG IV: NHNG CN NGUYN TC THNH

Nhng cn nguyn ni ti tm thy ni cc th to i hi hot ng ca mt tc nhn bn ngoi. V cht liu v hnh th l hai nguyn l phn bit khi nhau, nn chng khng th em li s hnh thnh mt s vt; chng cn n mt cn nguyn ngoi lai rp ni chng li vi nhau. Ngoi ra, kinh nghim cho thy rng mt hu th vt th ch c c mt hnh th bn th hoc ph th mi, nh bi mt nguyn l thc hu bn ngoi, c vai tr l gip cho cht liu th c mt hnh th mi. ng trn quan im ny, cn nguyn tc thnh th t bn cht l c trc cc cn nguyn cht liu v hnh th. Nhng cn nguyn ny (cht liu v hnh th) khng th thi trin nh hng cn nguyn ca mnh ln mt th g khc nu khng c nh hng trc ca cn nguyn tc thnh. Do , ch nghin cu nguyn cht liu v hnh th m thi l cha ; v th ng nhin ta phi xt n cn nguyn tc thnh. 1. BN CHT CN NGUYN TC THNH Mt cn nguyn tc thnh hay tc nhn l nguyn l c bn hoc ngun gc cho bt c hot ng no khin cho mt vt hin hu, hoc hin hu mt cch no (An efficient or agent cause is that primary principle or origin of any act which makes a thing to be, or to be in a certain way). Ni cc hu th vt th, cn nguyn tc thnh lun lun hot ng qua vic bin i mt cht liu no ( nh) rt ra mt hnh th mi t . Do vy, c th gi l cn nguyn lm bin i (bin cn = causa movens). Cn nguyn tc thnh l cn nguyn cho cn nguyn tnh ca cht liu v hnh th, v qua hot ng ca mnh, n khin cho cht liu n nhn hnh th v lm cho hnh th c gn vo cht liu1. Trong trng hp nhng cn nguyn th to, tc nhn lun i hi mt tim nng da vo m thi trin hot ng ca mnh, hoc ni theo kiu khc, i hi mt ch th m n tc ng ln t mt hiu qu mi. Nh bit, ch mnh Thin Cha mi to thnh m khng cn n bt c mt thc ti no c trc, v Ngi lm nn ton b hiu qu. Nhng c im ca cn nguyn tc thnh Sau y l mt s c im ca cn nguyn tc thnh: a) Khng ging nh nhng cn nguyn cht liu v hnh th, cn nguyn tc thnh l mt nguyn l bn ngoi hiu qu (is a principle extrinsic to the effect). N em li cho hiu qu mt vic hin hu thc s phn bit khi hin hu ca n, cho d esse qu thc ny sinh t n (cn nguyn tc thnh). Tri li, nhng cn nguyn cht liu v hnh th khng h c mt vic hin hu no khc ngoi hin hu ca vt phc hp m trong chng tn ti. b) Cn nguyn tc thnh thng chia cho ch th s hon b khin cho ch th l mt hiu qu ca tc nhn (The efficient cause imparts to the subject the perfection which makes it an effect of the agent), mt hon b m tc nhn buc phi c. Chng hn, mt thy gio l cn nguyn tc thnh cho tri thc ca hc sinh, v ng ta em li cho hc sinh mt phn tri thc mnh c sn2. V phng din ny, nh thy trn, cn nguyn tc thnh lun l mt cn nguyn gng mu (exemplary cause), v khng ai c th cho ngi khc mt hon b m chnh mnh khng c. Do , ch hu th thc hu mi c th em li tnh thc hu cho mt hiu qu, v n ch c th lm nh vy theo mc bn thn n cng c thc (actual) (every agent acts insofar as it is in act). c) Hiu qu lun c trc cch no ni cn nguyn ca n (The effect always pre-exists in its cause in some way). Hon b c thng chuyn c th c tm thy ni cn nguyn theo mt cch thc tri hn hoc t nht cng bng nh vy. Chng hn, mt con ngi c th sinh ra mt con ngi khc. Lm nng mt vt th khc, th vt th gy nng cng phi c mt nhit cao hn. Do , khi mt tc nhn hot ng, n lun lun to nn mt iu g ging vi mnh (when an agent acts, it always produces something like itself). S ging nhau khng qui chiu vo bt c hon b no khc, nhng vo hon b m nh tc nhn hot ng trong trng hp ny. Chng hn, la khng lm nng theo mc n sng lng thc s, nhng theo mc n l nng thc s. Sn xut mt hiu qu c ngha l em li cho cht liu mt hnh th vn ging nh hnh th m cn nguyn chim hu. V hnh th ny c th c chim hu theo hai li, cch t nhin (theo bn tnh) hoc theo tr tu, nn s ging nhau ca hiu qu c th qui chiu theo hai th . Mt con nga con cng ging nh con nga m

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nu xt v hnh th c c hai m con chim hu theo cch t nhin. Tuy nhin, mt nh th th khng ging nh nh kin trc, nhng li ging nh kiu dng m nh kin trc quan nim trong u c ca mnh. Hn na, nguyn l m nh mt iu g hot ng trong lc to nn mt hiu qu, chnh l hnh th ca n (the principle by virtue of which something acts in producing an effect is its form), ch khng phi l cht liu, v chnh nh hnh th m n thnh thc hu. iu ny l ng c trong trng hp bn th ln ph th: 1) Hot ng loi bit ca mt bn th ny sinh t hnh th bn th ca n v t nhng nng lc hot ng ca hnh th. Nu mt con ngi c th suy ngh v c mun, th l v con ngi c linh hn, linh hn ny gm c tr nng v ch. 2) Nhng hon b c th c trong quyn hot ng th ny sinh t nhng tp tnh hot ng. Do , ch con ngi no c c tri thc v k nng ca kin trc s mi c th ha kiu nhng ngi nh. 2. NHNG LOI CN NGUYN TC THNH C nhng cn nguyn per se v per accidens (mt s phn bit ta nu trn). C mt cn nguyn nht (cn nguyn tnh ca Thin Cha) phn bit vi cc cn nguyn nh (cn nguyn tnh ca cc th to), m chng ta s nghin cu chi tit sau ny. Bn cnh nhng cn nguyn li c nhng kiu cn nguyn tc thnh khc. Cn nguyn ton phn v cn nguyn tng phn (Total cause and partial cause) Do phm vi nh hng ca chng, nhng cn nguyn tc thnh c th l ton phn hay tng phn. Mt cn nguyn ton phn l cn nguyn y ca hiu qu trong bt c lnh vc no, ang khi cn nguyn tng phn ch sn sinh mt phn ca hiu qu (A total cause is the complete cause of the effect in any given order, whereas a partial cause only produces a portion of it). V l ny, nhng cn nguyn tng phn th lun lun phi hp vi nhau. Chng hn, mi mt con nga trong mt i l cn nguyn tng phn cho chuyn ng ca chic xe hoc ci cy. Nhng con ngi l nhng cn nguyn tng phn ca ha bnh trong x hi, v ha bnh c kin to nh thin ca nhng c nhn. Cn nguyn ph qut v cn nguyn c th Vic xp loi ny qui chiu n tm mc bao trm hay ngoi din ca nh hng cn nguyn hoc mt b nhng hiu qu phn bit theo loi m n m rng ti. Mt cn nguyn l ph qut nu nh n m rng n mt lot nhng kt qu phn bit nhau v loi; cn nu n gii hn vo mt loi hiu qu m thi, th l mt cn nguyn c th (A cause is universal if it extends to a series of specifically distinct results; it is particular if it is restricted to a single type of effects). Theo ngha cht, th ch mnh Thin Cha mi l cn nguyn ph qut, v ch mnh Ngi mi l cn nguyn tc thnh, to dng v gn gi mi loi th to c tn ti. Tuy nhin, theo mt ngha rng hn, mt cn nguyn l ph qut nu nh tnh hu hiu tc to ca n m rng n mi hiu qu khc loi nhau trong mt khung cnh nht nh. Chng hn, trong lc xy dng mt ta nh, ngi kin trc s l mt cn nguyn ph qut i vi nhiu tc nhn khc (cc th mc, th n, th ng nc), h cng nhau lm vic xy dng cng trnh. Theo mt ngha khc, mt cn nguyn ph qut l mt cn nguyn to nn mt hiu qu t mt quan im ph qut hn (a universal cause is a cause which produces a given effect from a more universal point of view). Chng hn, Thin Cha lm nn mi s t gc ph qut nht v hu th. Theo ngha ny, mt cn nguyn c th l mt cn nguyn lm nn cng hiu ca mnh t mt quan im hn ch hn (A particular cause, in this sense, is a cause which achieves its effects from a more limited point of view). Chng hn, mt con ngi to nn mt cn phng theo mc l mt cn phng, ch khng theo ngha l mt hu th. Mt cn nguyn cng c tnh thc hu (tc l cng hon b), th nng lc tc ng ca n cng ln hn, v trng nh hng ca n cng rng ri hn. Khi i ln trong phm trt hay nhng cp hin hu trong v tr, chng ta cng thy r nh hng tc to ln hn. nh hng tc to (causal influence) ca cy ci th i xa hn nh hng ca nhng s vt v hn. Trong trng hp con ngi, thng qua tr nng ca mnh, anh ta to nn mt di hiu qu rng ri m ta khng th quan nim c trong th gii ca nhng sinh vt cp thp hn v trong th gii nhng s vt v hn, v nhng th sau ny c iu hng cch cng ngc v mt loi hiu qu nht nh. Thin Cha, ng l Hin Th Hon B tuyt i, do Ngi l nh im cho cn nguyn tnh tc thnh, v cng siu vit trn mi nh hng tc to ca cc th to, v cng cng nh ngoi din.

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Cn nguyn n ngha v cn nguyn loi suy Vic xp loi cc cn nguyn nh vy th qui chiu v mc hiu qu ging vi cn nguyn ca n. Mt cn nguyn n ngha to nn mt hiu qu cng loi vi mnh (A univocal cause produces an effect of the same species as itself). La sinh ra la, mt cy sinh ra mt cy khc. Mt cn nguyn loi suy to nn mt hiu qu thuc v loi khc v km hn n, mc d vn lun lun c mt iu g ging vi n (An analogical cause produces an effect of a different and lower species than itself, although there is always some likeness to itself). Thin Cha l cn nguyn loi suy cho mi th to : vic hin hu m Ngi ban cho chng c kt qu l vic ging Thin Cha, v l mt s tham d vo hin th m Ngi c do yu tnh. Tuy nhin, v vic hin hu ca cc th to b gii hn do yu tnh, nn esse ca th to th v cng khc bit so vi esse ca Thin Cha. Con ngi l mt cn nguyn loi suy cho cc sn phm m anh ta lm ra (chic ging, bi th, chic xe), v nhng th thuc v mt loi khc vi con ngi. Nhng s vt nhn to l mt hnh nh gim nh ca tinh thn con ngi, v nhng hnh th ca chng (c nhn vo trong cht liu) cng ging nh nhng hnh th tinh thn m ngi th quan nim c th to nn tc phm ca mnh. Ton b hot ng t nhin ca th to th mang tnh n ngha, v n b gii hn vo mt loi hiu qu nht nh : hiu qu th thuc v cng mt loi vi tc nhn, do hnh th bn th hoc hnh th ph th. Tuy nhin, hot ng ny sinh t tinh thn th ch mang tnh loi suy. Mt con ngi chiu theo bn tnh th sinh ra mt con ngi khc, nhng di s hng dn ca ch v tr nng ca mnh, th anh ta lm nn nhiu hiu qu ht sc a dng. Cn nguyn chnh v cn nguyn dng c Chng ta nhn mnh rng cn nguyn tc thnh th lun lun vt trn nhng hiu qu ca n. Tuy nhin, kinh nghim cho thy rng c mt s hiu qu li vt ln trn hon b ca nhng cn nguyn to nn chng. V d, con dao ca nh phu thut phc hi c sc khe cho mt bnh nhn; vic ni kt nhiu m thanh c pht ra li c th gip ngi ta truyn t t tng ca mnh cho mt ngi khc. Ta d dng thy rng tnh hiu qu ln lao ca nhng cn nguyn trn ny sinh t s kin chng c dng nh nhng cng c bi mt cn nguyn no cao cp hn. Mt cn nguyn dng c l mt cn nguyn to nn mt hiu qu khng do hnh th ring ca n, nhng l da vo vn ng m tc nhn chnh a vo n. Tri li, mt cn nguyn chnh l mt cn nguyn tc ng do chnh nng lc ca mnh (An instrumental cause is a cause which produces an effect not by virtue of its own form, but on account of the motion or moverment conferred on it by a principle agent. A principal cause, in contrast, is a cause which acts by its own power). Cn phn bit gia hai hiu qu ca mt cn nguyn dng c, mt ci ny sinh t hnh th ring ca dng c (hiu qu ring = proper effect), v ci khc ny sinh t nh hng ca cn nguyn chnh (hiu qu dng c = instrumental effect). Chng hn, hiu qu ring ca mt cy c v l s chuyn ti mu v ln tm vi b; tuy nhin, hiu qu dng c ca n li l phong cnh c in vo tm vi b bi k nng ca ngi ha s, ng ny mi l cn nguyn chnh. Hot ng ca dng c xt nh mt dng c th khng khc vi hot ng ca tc nhn chnh3 (The action of the instrument as an instrument is not different from the action of the principal agent), v nng lc vn nm thng trc ni tc nhn chnh th c th c cch chng qua bi dng c theo mc n c tc ng bi tc nhn chnh. Mt ha s ti nng lun c kh nng to nn mt kit tc, nhng chic c sn ch lm c chuyn mt khi n c ngh s kia s dng. Do , hiu qu ca hot ng dng c ng ra phi gn cho tc nhn chnh hn l cho dng c (Consequently, the effect of the instrumental action has to be attributed to the agent rather than to the instrument). Ni cch cht ch, cc php l khng c gn cho cc thnh nhng l gn cho Thin Cha, cng nh mt tc phm vn chng khng gn cho ngi th k nh my, nhng cho chnh tc gi. Tuy vy, hin nhin l t c nhng hiu qu nht nh, tc nhn cn n nhng dng c thch hp. Chng hn, ct mt vt g , cn phi c mt dng c sc v cng. Cn ghi nh rng dng c to nn hiu qu dng c ca mnh nh hiu qu ring ca n (One should keep in mind that the instrument achieves the instrumental effect through its proper effect). Mt khi ci ca mt i sc bn, n khng cn ph hp ct v khng th c s dng trong vic ch tc ni tht. Cn nguyn tnh dng c c tm quan trng ng k khng nhng trong i sng thng nht, nhng cn trong chiu kch siu nhin ca i sng con ngi trong tng quan vi Thin

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Cha, ng s dng nhng hot ng t nhin ca th to nh nhng dng c t c nhng hiu qu siu nhin. iu ny gii thch ti sao cn nguyn tnh dng c li c bn n rt nhiu trong mn Thn Hc. Cn nguyn khn thit v cn nguyn bt tt Vic phn loi ny qui chiu n cch thc mt cn nguyn tc thnh to nn hiu qu ca mnh. Mt cn nguyn khn thit lun to c hiu qu ring ca mnh: cn mt cn nguyn khng lun lun to nn hiu qu ring ca mnh th ch l mt cn nguyn bt tt (A necessary cause always and unfailingly produces its proper effect: a cause which does not always produce its proper effect is a contingent cause). Ni cc bn th vt th, s bt ton hoc tnh bt tt m ta ni n, th ny sinh t cht liu. Cht liu ca mt vt c th lm suy yu tnh thc hu ca hnh th n tnh hiu qu tc thnh ca n c th b khim khuyt. Cht liu cng c th lm suy yu tim nng th ng ca mt ch th, lm cho n b mt i kh nng t nhin n nhn nh hng ca tc nhn. Mt ngn la c th l v dng trong vic t nng mt vt bn cnh v hai l do : c th n khng nng (kh nng tc ng khim khuyt), hoc v vt bn cnh qu m t (tim nng th ng khim khuyt). Do , hiu qu t nhin ca mt bn th vt th th mang tnh bt tt (the natural effectiveness of a material substance is contingent). Hiu qu ca n ch c sn xut hu ht thi gian, c ngha l khi no chng khng b ngn cn bi mt trong nhng l do nu trn. Do , hiu qu t nhin ca vic sinh sn l mt sinh vt mi, nhng nhiu khi li b h i4. Tri li, khng th c s khim khuyt ni hot ng t nhin khng ch ca cc th to tinh thn (in the non-voluntary natural activity of spiritual creatures). Chng hn, thin thn khng bao gi c th sai lm khi cc v nhn bit mt vt no . Theo ngha ny, tnh khn thit nhn qu (causal necessity) l mt du hiu cho s hon b, ang khi tnh bt tt cho thy tnh thc hu ht sc mong manh ca nhng hu th vt th. Theo ngha ny, hin nhin tnh khn thit th khng i lp vi t do nhng i lp vi s bt ton hoc khim khuyt. Trong s nhng cn nguyn t do, Thin Cha to nn cc hiu qu ca Ngi khng bao gi sai st, nu nh Ngi mun chuyn . Do vy, theo ngha ny, Ngi l mt cn nguyn khn thit. Tri li, cc th to th khng lun lun to c hiu qu ca chng, do chng l nhng cn nguyn bt tt. Mt khc, trc khi c s chim hu thc t mc ch cui cng, hot ng t do ca nhng th to tinh thn c th b khim khuyt bi chnh t do ca chng (prior to the actual possession of the last end, the free activity of spiritual creatures is defectible by virtue of their freedom). y l mt tnh bt tt khng ny sinh t cht liu, nhng ny sinh t tnh hu hn gn b vi mt th to. Con ngi v thin thn c th tht bi trong vic t n mc ch ti hu ca mnh thng qua hot ng t do ca mnh, chnh xc l v t do ca nhng th l bt ton nu so vi t do ca Thin Cha.

Cn nguyn tt nh v cn nguyn t do Mt cn nguyn tt nh l mt cn nguyn sn xut hiu qu ring ca mnh do sc lcni bn cht ca n (A determined cause is a cause which produces its proper effect as the result of the mere vitality of its nature). Nhng cn nguyn ny i khi cng c gi l nhng cn nguyn khn thit, trong mt ngha sai bit khc. Chng hn, mt cy t pht to nn hoa v tri. Do , nu khng c bt c cn tr no, th nhng cn nguyn nht thit phi to nn nhng hiu qu ca chng v khng bao gi c th hot ng khc i. Tri li, mt cn nguyn t do l mt cn nguyn sn xut ra hiu qu ca mnh vi s ch ng trn hot ng ring ca mnh, do c th sn xut ra hiu qu hoc khng, ty theo quyt nh ca cn nguyn (a free cause is a cause which produces its effect with mastery over its own operation, thus being able to produce it or not, by virtue of its own decision). Chng hn, mt con ngi c th quyt nh i do hoc khng i do. Nhng cn nguyn t do lm ch trn mc tiu m chng tm kim, v chng nhn bit mc tiu v quyt nh hng ti mc tiu 5. Cc hiu qu ca nhng cn nguyn tt nh th c phn no tn-ti-trc (somehow pre-exist) ni nhng cn nguyn tng ng n vn ng ca cn nguyn cho php ngi ta on trc c hiu qu ca chng. Vic nghin cu bn cht mt c th sinh vt s gip cho mt ngi bit c n s hot

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ng sau ra sao, tt nhin phi tnh n tnh bt tt ca n. Tri li, nhng cn nguyn t do th khng nht nh hng ti mt mc ch. Chng c th hot ng, cng c th khng hot ng, v hot ng theo cch ny hoc cch khc. Tri thc v bn cht ca chng khng gip ngi ta nhn trc c nhng hiu qu ca chng. iu ny l tht trong trng hp hot ng ca con ngi v thin thn, v hot ng ca Thin Cha i vi th gii th to.

SCH C THM

J. CAPREOLUS, Defensiones theologiae, lib. IV, dist. 1, q.1. M. DUMMET & A.FLEW, Can an Effect Precede Its Cause?, Aristotlelian Society Proceedings, Suppl. Vol 28 (1954). G.JALBERT, Ncessit et contingence chez Saint Thomas dAquin, Ottawa 1961.

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CHNG V: HOT NG XT NH HIN TH CA CN NGUYN TC THNH

Khng nh nhng cn nguyn cht liu v hnh th, vn th hin nh hng cu to ring do nguyn s kin hin hu, cn nguyn tc thnh th to khng ch hu hiu nh vic hin hu, nhng cn thng qua mt iu g thm vo bn th ca n, c th l s tc ng. Nh vy, cn nguyn tnh tc thnh l ph th cho mt bn th1. Chng ta cn ghi nh rng nhng cn nguyn cht liu v hnh th khng phi l nhng hu th ti thn, nhng ch l nhng nguyn l ca hu th. Tri li, cn nguyn tc thnh chnh l mt bn th. Do , nh hng cn nguyn tc thnh phi ny sinh t mt nguyn l no ni ti ni n, nguyn l trc tip nht chnh l ph th hot ng, m iu ny li ny sinh t tim nng tc ng ca cn nguyn tc thnh. Kinh nghim thng thng cho ta thy mi s vt u c th hot ng, v qua nhng hot ng th chng cho thy hon b ni ti ca chng v em li mt hon b tng t cho nhng vt khc. S phong ph bn trong ca mt hu th c din t qua mt chui nhng hnh ng, v nhng hnh ng chnh l du hiu cho thy hon b ring ca hu th . Vic din t hon b ni ti ra bn ngoi nh vy th i t cp hot ng ht sc bt ton v kh ghi nhn ca nhng s vt v hn cho n hot ng hon ho tuyt i ca Thin Cha. Tuy nhin, trong trng hp Thin Cha, hot ng ca Ngi khng phi l mt iu g thm vo bn th ca Ngi; hot ng cng ng nht vi Hu Th ca Ngi. Hot ng c nhiu hm . Nh hot ng th cc th to t c mc ch, th c mi tng quan vi nhau (do pht sinh mt trt t gia chng), ng thi hon thin bn thn cng nh nhng th khc. V s vt cng hon b theo mc chng chim hu tnh thc hu ln lao hn, nn nhng hu th th to c coi l cao trng hn khi chng th hin mt hot ng m qua chng phn nh nhng hon b ca Thin Cha cch y hn. Ta cn ghi nhn rng y chng ta qui chiu n hot ng tt p v ng n, v do l thc s hon b. Nhng hot ng v dng, tho th, nguy hi hoc xu xa khng phi l mt hot ng (a doing = agere) cho bng ph hoi ( an undoing = deagere; v d, ti li). Hot ng no khin cho mt iu g mt i thin ho th mang tnh tiu cc hn l tch cc, v ni cho ng mc, n khng em li mt s tng tin v hon b. ng hn, n gim thiu hon b bi v n ngn cn tc nhn t ti mc ch ca mnh. D nhin mt tn trm thin ngh c chng t k nng o chch ca mnh qua vic n trm y, nhng thc ra ch l phm thm nhng ti c mi m thi. Theo ngha ny, ngi ta c th ni n tnh thc hu ln lao hn v ti ngh ca anh ta xt nh mt tn trm. Tuy nhin, v iu ny khin anh ta d sa lm iu c, nn ng l tch la anh ta khi Thin Cha. Do , thay v hon thin ha, n thc s lm hi anh ta. 1. BN CHT HOT NG Hot ng l lm cho mt iu g thnh thc hu (To act is to make something actual); l hon tt bt c mt hnh vi no. Mt ngi xy dng mt con ng hay mt ngi nh th hot ng; iu ny cng xy ra cho mt ngi ang vit mt l th hay ang thai nghn mt tng. Kt qu sau cng (con ng, ci nh, l th, tng) l hiu qu ca cn nguyn tnh tc thnh. Hot ng hay tc ng l hin th m qua mt tc nhn hon tt hiu qu . Theo ngha thng thng th hot ng (action) v tc ng (operation) thng c dng chung vi nhau. Tuy nhin, siu hnh s dng chng theo mt ngha chuyn bit phn bit hai loi hot ng : a) Nhng hot ng pht sinh t mt tc nhn v nh hng ti mt i tng bn ngoi no bng cch chuyn ha n (chng hn soi sng hoc ct t), u l nhng hot ng ngoi chuyn (transient actions). Chng n gin c gi l nhng hot ng theo ngha k thut. Aristotle s dng hn t poiesis (???????) t ng t ????? (lm ra = to make) ni n loi hot ng ny. Ting Latinh l facere, ting Anh l to make. b) Tri li, nhng hot ng no to nn mt hiu qu khng ch ni mt vt bn ngoi nhng cn ni chnh tc nhn qua vic hon thin n (hiu bit, nghe nhc, nghin cu, yu ng) u l nhng tc ng ni ti (immanent operations). Theo ngha k thut, chng c gi n gin l nhng tc ng. Aristotle dng hn t praxis(??????)2, phi sinh t ????????; ting Latinh l agere; v ting Anh l to do hay to act.

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Mt hot ng c c trng l ngoi chuyn v hon thin iu g bn ngoi tc nhn, ang khi mt tc ng th hon thin chnh ch th c tc ng 3. Mt hot ng ngoi chuyn ny sinh t tc nhn n th g tip nhn hot ng . N l mt hot ng ny sinh t mt hu th nhng li nh hng n ci khc. Do , theo ngha cht, n l mt hon b ca hiu qu hn l ca cn nguyn. Tri li, v mt tc ng kt thc ni chnh tc nhn, nn bt c theo ngha no, th cng l mt hon b ca tc nhn. Mi hot ng c trng ca i sng cm gic hoc tinh thn u l mt tc ng ni ti. Theo ngha cht ch hn, mt hiu qu l kt qu ca mt hot ng ngoi chuyn (transitive). Cho d nhng tc ng ni ti sn sinh mt hiu qu khc bit vi chnh tc ng (v d, nhng khi nim l sn phm ca nhn thc n thun), th n lc ny cng khng i ra ngoi tc nhn. Do , thay v ni n cn nguyn tnh tc thnh trong trng hp ny, ta nn ni n mt tin trnh bn trong din ra ni mt ch th, c phn no ging vi s lu xut mt ph th t mt bn th (somewhat like the emanation of an accident from a substance) (theo ngha ny, chng ta c th ni rng mt con ngi vui hng, hoc l lun, hoc quan nim mt tng no , u l hot ng c). Tuy nhin, trong mc m nhng hot ng ny ko theo vic di chuyn t tim nng sang hin th, th lc thc s c cn nguyn tnh; nguyn l vn ng y chnh l linh hn, hoc ni n gin th bn cht c coi nh nguyn l cho cc tc ng. Nhng hot ng ngoi chuyn l kt qu ca hon b ni ti ni cc s vt, v thng l kt qu ca nhng tc ng ni ti ca chng (Transient actions are the result of the intrinsic perfection of things, and oftentimes, of their immanent operations). Chng hn, ch c ngi no hiu bit (hot ng ni ti) mi c th dy ngi khc (hot ng ngoi chuyn). Cng vy, ch c c th sng ng mi c th truyn sinh (sinh sn). Trong lnh vc siu nhin, ch ngi no c i sng siu nhin (thnh thin) mi c th lm vic tng (hot ng bn ngoi). Cng vy, Thin Cha to dng v tr v trang im cho n bng nhng hon b, v Ngi l Hng Hu, Khn Ngoan v Yu Thng (ni Thin Cha, mi u phm ny u ng nht vi nhau). Do , nhng tc ng ni ti khng lin quan ti bn thn, nhng ng hn l i vi hon b ni ti ca cc s vt. Hot ng ni ti phi hng v mc ch sau cng (nhn bit v yu mn Thin Cha), v n tr nn tho th khi hng v th to nh mc ch sau cng. Mt khi ch th t c hon b ni ti ca mnh (hin hu, bn cht, hot ng) mt cch c trt t, th n c th em li nhng hon b nh vy cho nhng th khc, chuyn c coi nh kt qu ca tnh thc hu ca n. 2. NN TNG HOT NG V hot ng c ngha l em li mt tnh thc hu ring theo cch no , nn bt c tc nhn no cng hnh ng theo mc n l thc hu (any agent acts to the extent that it is actual). Vic Hin hu (esse): ngun mch ti hu cho hot ng V esse l ngun mch cho tnh thc hu ca bt c hin th no ni bn th, nn n cng l gc r v nn tng ti hu cho nhng tc ng ca bn th. Theo ngha ny, ta phi ni rng hot ng i theo sau hoc l kt qu ca vic hin hu (operari sequitur esse), v n ny sinh t hon b ti hu v trit nht ca mt bn th, tc l t vic hin hu ca bn th 4. Do , cc s vt cho thy mt hot ng rng ln hn v hu hiu hn theo mc chng cng c s thng d ln hn vo esse. Bt c iu g u hot ng theo mc n l thc hu; do , nu mt s vt cng c t vic hin hu, th cng km hot ng. iu ny l hin nhin trong trng hp cht liu nht, v n khng h c bt c nng lc hot ng no, v n nm v tr cui cng trong s cc hu th5.

Bn cht xt nh nguyn l loi bit ca cc tc ng (Nature as the specific principle of operations)

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Th to khng l vic hin hu thun ty; chng c esse vn b gii hn bi yu tnh ng ra tip nhn esse. Hnh th bn th xc nh mc hon b ca nhng s vt hu hn v khin cho chng hin hu cch ny hay cch khc. Do , hnh th, vn l nguyn l nh loi cho vt phc hp, tr thnh nguyn l nh loi cho cc tc ng (the specifying principle of the composite, becomes the specifying principle of operations); n n nh cch thc s vt hot ng. Cch thc bt c iu g hot ng th i theo cch thc n hin hu, v cp kh nng hot ng ca s vt c n nh bi cp hon b ca hnh th trong hin hu. Mt con vt khng th suy ngh, v mt hn khng th cm nhn, bi v chng khng chim hu nhng hnh th bn th ph hp m nh c th c nhng hot ng suy ngh hoc cm nhn. Do , bn th c t by ch yu qua hot ng ca n. Ting h cho thy s hin din ca con nga; ting sa cho thy s hin din ca con ch; nhng tc ng t v hu cho thy tnh cch thing ling ni bn cht con ngi. Tuy nhin, cho d vic hin hu v bn cht l nhng nguyn l cho bt c hot ng no ca th to, th cng ch c ch th mi thc s hot ng (even though the act of being and nature are principles of any creatures activity, it is the subject that really acts). Khng phi esse cng chng phi yu tnh hot ng; ng hn, chnh l hu th c phc hp bi esse v yu tnh mi hot ng. y cng vy, chng ta nhn thy c vic p dng nguyn l hot ng i sau vic hin hu. Hot ng th thuc v vt phc hp, y nh esse cng thuc v vt phc hp, v ch c iu g hin hu mi hot ng6. Do yu tnh ca chng, ch nhng hu th c l tnh mi c th lm ra nhng tc phm ngh thut. Khi nhng hu th sn xut cc tc phm (v d, khi mt nh vn vit mt cun tiu thuyt), th chng th hin nhng nng lc m xt v mt bn cht th ph hp t hiu qu ny (k c, tr khn, v tr tng tng quan nim; tc phm, cy vit hoc my ch vit n ln t giy). Tuy nhin, tc gi ca cng trnh l ton b con ngi (tiu thuyt gia) ch khng phi ch l tr tu hoc c tng tng ca ng ta. ng ta chu trch nhim v nh hng phc li hoc tai hi m nhng trang vit ca mnh c th nh hng ti c gi. 3. NHNG NNG LC TC NG XT NH NHNG NGUYN L GN CA HOT NG Cho d mi c th u c mt hnh th bn th n l, n vn c th a ra nhiu tc ng khc loi nhau. iu ny cho thy rng hnh th bn th khng phi l nguyn l duy nht hoc tc thi cho hot ng ca c th. Mt con ngi suy ngh, yu thng, nhn ngm, tng tng, chy, v th hin nhiu hot ng. V nhng th l nhng hot ng hon ton khc loi nhau, nn nht nh chng khng th ny sinh trc tip t mt nguyn l n l. Bng khng, con ngi s lin tc a ra th hot ng kh d, v linh hn ca anh ta lun hin din ni anh ta. Nh vy, ta phi kt lun rng hnh th bn th khng l cn nguyn c nhn hot ng mi lc : khi ch th hot ng, th n hot ng nh vo nhng kh nng cn c a vo hin th mi khi ch th hot ng. Nhng nguyn l trc tip cho hot ng l nhng nng lc tc ng hoc nhng quan nng, vn a kh nng vo hin th t tnh thc hu ca hnh th bn th (The immediate principle of activity are the operative powers or faculties, which draw their own capacity to act from the actuality of the subsatntial form). Trong mi tc ng ca mnh, hnh th bn th s dng mt hoc nhiu hn na nhng quan nng chuyn bit nh nguyn l gn cho mt tc ng. Mt c nhn nhn c nh th gic, nghe c nh thnh gic, v dng mt chui nhng nng lc vn ng chi th thao hay v mt chn dung. Nhng quan nng ny ng nhin ny sinh t hnh th bn th, cho d chng khng hon ton ng nht vi hnh th bn th . Chng hn, vic chim hu mt linh hn nht thit ko theo s hin din ca mt tr nng v mt ch. S phn bit gia yu tnh v cc quan nng ca n cng d c nhn thy trong trng hp con ngi. Nhng nng lc ca linh hn th c iu hng n nhau v nh hng ln nhau. Bt c con ngi no cng thy c rng anh ta ch hc hnh khi anh ta mun hc ( ch t tr nng vo hot ng). Anh ta cng hiu rng nhng vic giao du thng xuyn vi bn b s gip anh bit knh trng h hn (tri thc nui dng tnh yu). Nhng gic quan ni, chng hn tr tng tng v k c, gi nh hot ng ca nhng gic quan ngoi. Nhng tham dc gic quan, nh i v kht, th ny sinh nh kt qu ca vic nhn thc mt i tng tt p cho con ngi. Vic tc ng ln nhau gia nhng hot ng v cm tnh, hay nh hng h tng gia cc nng lc, s khng th din ra nu nh nhng nng lc hon ton ng nht vi yu tnh linh hn. Nhng nng lc hot ng v mi hot ng u l ph th

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V nhng nng lc hot ng khng ng nht vi bn th, nn hin nhin chng ch l nhng ph th, v iu ny cng ng cho mi th hot ng. y l iu c trng ca nhng hu th thng d vo esse: khng th to no li l chnh hot ng ca mnh (no creature is its own activity). Duy mnh tc ng ca Thin Cha mi ng nht vi vic hin hu thn thing ca Ngi. S phc hp gia esse v yu tnh, m y l c trng cho mi th to, ko theo mt s phc hp (v phn bit khn thit) gia hin hu v hot ng trong lnh vc nng ng. Khng c s ng nht gia esse v tc ng ni bt c bn th th to no, v iu ny l c trng dnh ring cho Thin Cha7. Ch mnh Hin Th Thun Ty mi khng l tim nng i vi cc hot ng ca mnh; mi c nhng hot ng hon ton ng nht vi bn th ca mnh. Tri li, cc th to phi c hon thin ha qua hot ng ca mnh, tng t cch m nh mt vt cha tip nhn mt iu g khc bit vi mnh, hay nh mt tim nng tip nhn hin th ca mnh. Kinh nghim thng thng cho thy c s phn bit gia hin hu v hot ng : a) hin hu ca mi vt l n nht, ang khi tc ng ca n l a phng; b) hot ng th khng bao gi lin tc trong thi gian, nhng ng ra l thong qua; tri li, vic hin hu v ch th ca n th thng xuyn v n nh; c) nu hin hu m ng nht vi hot ng, th mt con ngi s khng cn l con ngi khi anh ta i ng hoc khi anh ta cn l mt hi nhi. Tuy nhin, c mt vi tro lu t tng trit hc hin i coi esse ca cc s vt nh mt iu g ng nht vi cc tc ng ca chng, do khin cho iu sau (cc tc ng) tr thnh ht nhn ca cc s vt v l ngun mch cho ton b hon b ca chng. Theo quan im ny, con ngi khng phi l mt th to tip nhn esse ca mnh t Thin Cha, nhng ng hn l kt qu ca vic t sn (self- production) (mt sn phm ca t tng i vi Hegel; ca nhn thc gic quan i vi Feuerbach; ca hot ng kinh t i vi Marx). Nhng trit thuyt ny mun gn cho con ngi mt hon b ch thuc v mt mnh Thin Cha. Vic coi hot ng ca th to l nguyn l cho hin hu ca n (Making the creatures activity the principle of its own being) (nh trong thuyt duy tm v thuyt Marxism) lm o ln trt t to vt khi cho rng con ngi l ch nhn tuyt i ca vic hin hu cng nh nh mnh ca mnh. Tuy nhin, chuyn nhn thc rng hot ng ny sinh t vic hin hu ca cc s vt, s cho ta bit rng nhng tc ng ca ta phi ph hp vi mt chun mc siu vit. Khng phi lc no chng ta cng c th lm bt c iu g mnh mun, v chng ta hot ng theo mc chng ta hin hu (khng g c th hot ng vt qu gii hn ca loi mnh), v do chng ta hot ng v mt mc ch vn o lng cng vic ca ta v xc nh chng l tt hoc xu. Mt tc nhn c th hot ng ph hp vi hon b kh th cho loi ca mnh hoc theo cch km hon ho hn, nhng ni cho cng, trong hot ng ca mnh, khng tc nhn no c th vt qu cp hon b ph hp vi loi ca mnh.

SCH C THM

J. DE FINANCE, Etre et agir dans la philosophie de Saint Thomas, Univ. Gregoriana, Rome, 2nd ed. 1960. A. MARC, Dialctica de la afirmacion, Gredbs, Madrid 1964. M.D PHILIPPE, Lactivit artistique. Philosophie du faire, Beauchesne, Paris 1970.

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CHNG VI: CN NGUYN CU CNH

Ta thy rng mt th to khng l mt tc nhn ch bng hin hu, v n cn phi a cn nguyn tnh tc thnh ca mnh vo hin th. Vy m, cn nguyn tnh ny cng chng phi l l do sau cng cho s tn ti ring ca mnh; n phi qui chiu n mt nguyn l khc, l cn nguyn cu cnh. Kinh nghim thng thng cho thy mi hot ng ca th to u c mt nh hng xc nh. Trong lc hot ng, chng hng v mt i tng no , v i tng ny, mt cch no , chnh l cn nguyn cho hot ng . Chng hn, cy ci c mt chu k sng lun lun hng v vic sn sinh ra hoa qu, lm ny sinh nhng cy mi. ng vt cng hng v mt i tng vn l mc tiu cho hot ng ca chng. Con ngi hot ng v mt s mc tiu m mnh mong hon thnh; bng khng th con ngi s khng hot ng, v s nhn thy hot ng ca mnh l v dng. Do , vic phn tch cn nguyn tnh tc thnh cn phi c b tc bng vic nghin cu v cu cnh tnh, mt nguyn l ch thc cho hot ng ca th to. 1. BN CHT CN NGUYN CU CNH Cn nguyn cu cnh l iu m v n mt iu g xy ra (id cuius gratia aliquid fit); ni khc i, n l iu quyt nh tc nhn hot ng (it is what determines the agent to act), hoc mc tiu m tc nhn hng n qua nhng tc ng ca mnh. Chng hn, mt ngi th mc thao tc trn g lm nn mt ci bn; mt ngi cha hnh ngh nui v con gia nh; v cc thnh phn ca mt c th hot ng mt cch chnh xc bo v sc khe ca ton thn. Nhng im phn bit mt cn nguyn cu cnh Nh nu trong trng hp nhng cn nguyn khc, gi y chng ta nu ln mt s c im ca cn nguyn cu cnh bit r hn bn cht ca n. a) Trc ht, mt cn nguyn cu cnh th tc ng bng cch thu ht (a final cause causes by way of attraction). y chnh l im khin cho cn nguyn cu cnh khc bit nhng loi cn nguyn khc. Cht liu v hnh th thi trin cn nguyn tnh ca mnh qua vic phi hp vi nhau nh tim nng v hin th; mt tc nhn hot ng bng cch em li mt hnh th mi cho cht liu. Mt cn nguyn cu cnh th hin cn nguyn tnh ca n bng cch li cun mt tc nhn n vi n, khin cho mt loi tham dc hoc xu hng t nhin vn hnh, v qua thc hu ha nhng nng lc hot ng ca cn nguyn tc thnh. Do , im c bit ca cn nguyn cu cnh chnh l vic li cun, hp dn (What is therefore proper to the final causes is to attract). b) Hn na, mt cn nguyn cu cnh li cun theo mc n l mt iu g thin ho (a final cause attracts insofar as it is something good). Mt mc ch l mt iu g khin cho nng lc tham dc c du li, hoc tha mn mt khuynh hng no . Chng hn, vic ham mun hiu bit s ngui i khi tri thc c th c, v iu ny l mc tiu ca ham mun . Tn im cho bt c xu hng no chnh l mt hon b cho ch th, v n l mt hin th m ch th ang trong tim nng hng ti; v l do ny, n l mt iu g thin ho. Mt mc ch li cun v l n l thin ho, v v l thin ho nn n c th hon thin nhng th khc (An end attracts precisely because it is good and as such, it can perfect others). iu ny l gc r cho tnh cch ng c mong ca n, vn vn hnh hot ng ca mt tc nhn, v tc nhn i tm hon b ca mnh. Ni khc i, mt mc ch, hoc iu m mt tc nhn hng n th nht thit l mt iu g ph hp vi n, v n ch vn ng t c iu y khi iu ny l mt iu g thch hp. V iu ph hp cho mt ngi cng chnh l thin ho ca ngi y, cho nn mi tc nhn u hot ng v thin ho1 c) Sau cng, mt mc ch l mt nguyn l to hiu qu ch thc (an end is true causal principle). Bt c iu g nh hng tch cc ln vic hin hu ca mt iu g , u l mt cn nguyn. Hn na, hiu qu th thc s l thuc vo mc ch, v tc nhn khng khi no hot ng m khng c cn nguyn cu cnh, do khng th c hiu qu nu khng c cn nguyn cu cnh. 2. NHNG LOI CN NGUYN CU CNH Mt mc ch c th mang nhiu dng khc nhau, ty theo kha cnh c xem xt. Mt ngi bt u cuc hnh trnh th c th nhm nhiu mc ch: thnh ph m ngi ny hng ti chnh l mc ch ca hnh trnh; kt thc mt s cng chuyn l mc ch khin cho ngi ny lm cuc hnh trnh; hn

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na, ngi xc tin nhiu cuc thng tho vi mc ch l c ng cho cng ty ca mnh, m iu ny s tng cng tnh trng ti chnh ca gia nh anh ta. Cn c vo nhng khc bit nu trn, ta c th xt cn nguyn cu cnh theo nhiu li. Mc ch nt ti v mc ch siu vit Kt qu t nhin ca mt hot ng chnh l mc ch ni ti ca hot ng (The natural result of an action is the intrinsic end of that action). Theo ngha ny, vic tng nhit nhng vt bn cnh chnh l mc ch cho hot ng hm nng ca la. Mc ch vic sinh sn ni loi ng vt chnh l hnh th bn th mi c rt ra t vic sinh sn ; mc ch cng vic ca mt ngi th mc l ci bn, c sn xut qua hot ng ca ngi ny. Mc ch ni ti cng c gi l finis operis, hoc mc ch ca chnh cng vic, v n l sn phm ca hnh vi c th hin. i tng m mt hnh vi hng v l mc ch siu vit ca n (The objective towards which an action is directed is its transcendent end). Chng hn, mt con ch i n mt ni v n cm thy rng n c th ngh m hoc tm c thc n n cn; trong trng hp ny, s ngh ngi hoc bi dng chnh l mc ch siu vit cho cc hot ng ca con ch. Trong trng hp nhng tc nhn c tr tu c t do, mc ch siu vit thng l kt qu ca chn la t do ni tc nhn. Chng hn, mt ngi c th i tm danh vng hoc uy tn nh mc ch nhng cng vic hng ngy ca mnh. Trong khoa Lun L, mc ch ny c gi l finis operantis, hoc mc ch ca tc nhn, i nghch vi mc ch ni ti ca hnh vi, tc l ca finis operis. Mc ch sau cng v nhng mc ch gn Trong mt chui nhng cn nguyn cu cnh l thuc, mc ch sau cng chnh l iu m v n mi mc ch khc c tm kim trong mt bi cnh nht nh; tri li, mt mc ch gn l mt mc ch vn c tm kim hu t c mt mc ch xa xi hn (the last end is that for the sake of which all the other ends are sought in a given context; a proximate end, in contrast, is an end which is sought with a view to some further end). Vic vn hi ha bnh m chin tranh cp i chnh l cn nguyn cu cnh ca mt o qun, v nhng cuc chin thng l t l nhng mc ch gn hng ti chin thng chung cuc. Theo ngha tuyt i, mc ch sau cng ca mi th to chnh l Thin Cha, v duy mnh Ngi mi l Esse do yu tnh v Thin Ho V Bin. V cc s vt c nng lc li cun (l mc ch) theo mc chng l thin ho, nn ch iu g hon ton l thin ho bi chnh mnh mi c th l Mc ch sau cng, m mi mc ch u phi l thuc vo . Nh s thy trong phn lun l, cc th to t do, vn t nhin hng v thin ho ti thng, th qua vic lm dng t do c th chn la mt cch tho th iu g khc hn l Thin Cha, coi nh mc ch sau cng cho nhng hnh vi ca mnh. Thin ho hay mc ch thch ng, thin ho lm vui thch v thin ho hu dng (Honorable good or end, pleasurable good and useful good) Vic sp loi ny c nghin cu chi tit trong khoa o c Hc. y chng ta ch nh ngha nhng kha cnh thin ho lm ny sinh nhng loi cu cnh tnh tng ng. a) Mt thin ho hay mc ch thch ng l iu c c mun v chnh n(An honorable good or end is one which is desired for its own sake), theo mc n l thin ho cho ch th ang c mun n. b) Mt thin ho lm vui thch cng chnh l thin ho thch ng theo mc n khin cho c mun c ngui ngoai v to nn nim vui (A pleasurable good is the same honorable good insofar as it sets desire at rest and produces joy), ny sinh t vic chim hu thin ho. c) Mt thin ho hu dng l iu c c mun nh mt phng tin (A useful good is one which is desired as a means); n khng c c mun ni chnh mnh nhng l t ti thin ho thch ng hoc gy vui thch. Chng hn, mt v thuc l mt thin ho hu dng, v n khng c c mun ni chnh n, nhng l to c sc khe cho c th. Tri thc v nhn c l nhng thin ho thch ng v chng

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hon thin ha ch th ca mnh. Vic tha mn m mt nhn c em li, v tri thc trong mc n tha mn tnh hiu hc ca mt ngi, l nhng thin ho gy vui thch. Mc ch c kin to v mc ch c chim hu (Produced end and possessed end) Mt s hot ng to nn mt vt m trc cha c; chng to nn mc ch ca chng (factivae finis). Tuy nhin, nhng hot ng khc li khng to nn mt iu g mi, m ch t tc nhn vo tng quan vi mt thc ti c sn (adeptivae finis). Khi mt ngh s sng to tc phm ca mnh ni mt trung gian nht nh, ng ta thc hu ha mt mc ch m mnh c trong u; ng ta l tc gi cho mc ch c th . Tuy nhin, khi mt ngi yu mt ngi khc, anh ta khng to nn ngi mnh yu, nhng ch hp nht chnh mnh vi ngi kia nh mt hnh vi ca ch. Trong trng hp trc, vic to nn mc ch cho thy s hon b ca tc nhn em li cho iu khc mt s hon b ca chnh n. Chng hn, v yu thng cc th to, Thin Cha to dng nn chng v ban cho chng thin ho. Tuy nhin, trong trng hp sau li l iu tri nghch. Mt con ngi mun chim hu nhng ca ci vt cht cho thy tnh bt ton ca mnh, hoc nhu cu cn c hon thin ha bi mt iu g bn ngoi, v do cho thy hn bt ton. Th to hng v Thin Cha hu tha mn c mun hnh phc gn lin vi bn cht ca mnh. Chng hng ti Ngi khng nh mt mc ch m chng to nn, nhng nh mt iu g hon thin hn m chng phi t n thng qua nhng hnh vi ca mnh. Thng thng, mt tc nhn c coi l c mun mc ch m mnh cha chim hu, ng thi iu cng b tc cho tnh bt ton ca ngi ; ang khi anh ta c coi l yu mn mc ch mnh i tm ch v t by hon b ca mnh t chnh thin ho hoc qung i. Theo ngha ny, Thin Cha hnh ng do yu thng ch khng phi do c mun. Tri li, cc th to hot ng v nhng thin ho c c mun, cho d chng cng thng chuyn thin ho ca mnh cho nhng th khc v khng phi lc no cng i tm hon b ca ring mnh. Khi chng hot ng mt cch v v li, chng cng nn ging Thin Cha hn. 3. NGUYN L CU CNH TNH S hin din ca cu cnh tnh c khm ph d dng nht trong trng hp cc tc nhn t do, nhng cng cn ni mi hu th trong mc chng l cn nguyn : mi tc nhn u hot ng v mt mc ch (every agent acts for the sake of an end)2. iu ny c t by trong trt t v s u n c th quan st c trong cc hot ng ca thin nhin : ngi ta c th thy c cng nhng hiu qu ny sinh t cng nhng cn nguyn vi s chc chn, v ghi nhn rng nhng cn nguyn c iu hng t nhng kt qu nht nh, nhng kt qu chnh l nhng mc ch ring ca chng. Nhng hu th t do, cng nh nhng tc nhn hot ng mt cch khn thit, u hot ng t c mc ch ca chng; bng khng th chng khng hot ng g c. Ngoi ra, nu mt tc nhn khng hng v mt hiu qu xc nh, th anh ta s lun dng dng vi mi hiu qu kh d. Th nhng ngi no i tm nhiu s vt vi s dng dng th chng thnh cng vi bt c iu g. Do vy, t mt tc nhn dng dng vi nhng chn la, s chng c hiu qu no, tr phi anh ta c mt iu g n nh n mt hiu qu. Nh vy, khng th no anh ta hot ng c. Do , mi tc nhn u hng n mt hiu qu xc nh no , v iu ny c gi l mc ch ca tc nhn3. Hot ng t mt mc ch khng bao hm chuyn nhn bit n nh mt mc ch. N ch c ngha mt s iu hng chnh xc trong nhng hnh vi ca tc nhn. Trong hnh vi t do, tn im ca hot ng c nhn bit trc, v thc thi cn nguyn tnh cu cnh ca mnh theo mc n tc ng ln ch sau lc c tr khn nhn bit. Tuy nhin, ngay c nhng hu th khng c tr khn v nhng th khng c tri thc, u hot ng v mt mc ch v hng n mt iu g chuyn bit, cho d chng khng thc v chuyn . Trong trng hp nhng s vt hin nhin hot ng v mt mc ch, chng ta ni rng xu hng ca tc nhn hng v mc ch. V, nu n t c iu ny, th c th ni l t c mc ch ca mnh; nhng nu n khng t c iu ny, th n cng khng t c mc ch hng ti nh r trong trng hp y s hot ng v vn sc khe. Xt v im ny, khng h c khc bit, cho d hu th hng n mt mc ch c l mt hu th c nhn thc hay khng. V ch ngm (target) chnh l mc ch cho c ngi bn cung ln vn ng ca mi tn. Nh vy l, mi khuynh hng ca mi tc nhn u hng ti mt mc ch xc nh4. Cu cnh tnh trong hot ng t nhin

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S tn ti ca mt cn nguyn cu cnh ni nhng tin trnh khng t do c th c nhn ra t vic ch quan st thin nhin. a) Trc ht, c mt trt t ni ti ni hot ng ca thin nhin (an internal order in the activity of nature). Hin nhin l ni mi tin trnh hng n mt mc ch, nhng giai on sau tip ni nhng giai on trc v mc ch . Mc ch l cn c cho trt t (The end is the cause of order). Khng g gii thch ti sao mt s bin c li i theo mt s bin c khc cch tun t, tr ra s tn ti ca mt mc ch chung cho ton th tin trnh. Mi tin trnh t nhin u theo mt trt t chnh xc : mt tr em tri qua nhiu giai on khc nhau trc khi t ti s trng thnh hon ton nh mt con ngi; con bm tri qua nhiu giai on y nh vy : su, bm, trng thnh; cy ci to ra qu nh vic th phn. S tn ti ca cu cnh tnh cng c xc minh ni thin nhin thng qua vic kho st cu trc nhng s vt t nhin. Ni mt c th sinh vt chng hn, mi c quan u c chc nng ring (rng nhai, phi th, mt nhn). Ni nhng s vt v hn, th kh nhn ra cu cnh tnh, bi l khng c i sng cng c ngha l km hon b hn. Tuy nhin, r rng nhng bn th v hn th c dnh cho nhng sinh vt, to nn thc phm duy tr cc sinh th5. b) Tnh u n ni cc tin trnh t nhin cho thy chng hng v mt mc ch (Regularity in natural processes reveals that these lend towards an end). Tri li, vic thiu vng cu cnh tnh c l r ni hin tng hn n (chaotic phenomena) v ni nhng vt xy ra do tnh c. S trng hp gia nhng iu kin mi trng thun li cho vic pht trin i sng con ngi, ng vt v cy ci, ni ln s tn ti ca cu cnh tnh ni nhng tin trnh kh hu. Mt cn ma l, mt cuc ng t hay vic c gi lnh th lm thit hi ma mng mt cch ngu nhin hoc e da n s tn vong ca mt s ng vt. Tuy nhin, xt trong mt vin tng rng ri hn, nhng hin tng kh quyn, nhng hnh thnh a cht v nhng bin i theo ma hoc theo a d v nhit h tr s sng cn ca cc sinh th, v c iu hng v iu . S vng bn c th c nhn thy ni tin trnh sinh sn t nhin cng l mt bng chng khc cho thy s tn ti ca cu cnh tnh trong thin nhin, khin cho vic bo tn cc loi t nhin l iu kh thi : b ci sinh b con, nga m sinh nga con, v cy ci sinh hoa tri theo loi ca mnh. c) Tri li, vic c nhng ci xu th l, cng hm cha s hin din ca mt mc ch ni hot ng t nhin (The existence of physical evils also implies, by contrast, the presence of an end in natural activity). Nu nhng hnh vi khng hng n nhng mc tiu chuyn bit, th khng ai c th ni cho ng v bt c iu xu no, cng chng th ni v s tht bi trong vic t n mt mc ch, v mt iu g l xu trong mc n khng t c hon b m n hng ti. Vic c nhng con ci d dng trong sinh sn t nhin chng hn, l mt s khng nh rng c mt mc ch (con ci hoc mm cy c kin to bnh thng), m khng c mc ch th vic sinh ra khim khuyt khng c coi l mt ci xu th l. Vic c nhng khim khuyt t nhin hoc nhng din tin tnh c u khng i nghch li cu cnh tnh. Chng ch cho thy tnh bt tt ni nhng tc nhn t nhin, tc l khng phi lc no cng t ti mc ch ca mnh. Vy chng ta cn bit rng, ni mi s vt u c mt khuynh hng t nhin hot ng ph hp vi mt mc tiu xc nh. Mc tiu ny lun l tnh thc hu kh d ln nht hoc hon b ln nht ni mt ging. Nh vy, chng ta c th ni rng mc ch trc tip ca mi hu th l s hon b cho loi ca n (immediate end of every being is the perfection of its species). Mi tin trnh vt l v ha hc ni mt con vt u hng ti vic chim hu v duy tr hnh th bn th ca mnh, ct n ng mt i, nhng ng hn, t c s trng thnh xa hn na trong mi tim nng ca n. iu ny l ng vi mi s vt. Hn na, mi th to, qua vic hng ti s hon b theo loi ca mnh, th hng ti vic ngy cng ging Thin Cha hn ty theo mc chng tham d vic hin hu. Thm vo nhng mc ch th yu tng quan vi s hi ha ca v tr, th mc ch ca mt hn , ca bin khi, ni non hay bt c iu g khc, chnh l tn vinh Thin Cha bng cch tiu biu cho V p v Thin Ho ca Ngi. Xu hng m chng ta ang ni n c gi l xu hng t nhin (tham dc) hng v mt mc ch (the natural tendency (appetite) towards an end), v n ny sinh t nhng nguyn l ni bn cht ca mt s vt ch khng do vic nhn bit chnh mc ch. y chnh l ngun gc cho tnh khn thit c trng ca n. Xu hng hoc tham dc ny sinh t vic nhn bit, mnh danh l tham dc c khu gi (elicited), v n l nng lc hot ng (c n nh hng v mt mc ch trong trng hp cc tham dc gic quan, nhng t do trong trng hp tham dc tr tu hoc ch)6.

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Cu cnh tnh ni hot ng t do Nhng hu th c tr tu hng n mc ch ca mnh mt cch c bit. Chng nhn bit mc ch nh mt mc ch, nh mt hng cho nhng quan nng ca mnh, do chng lm ch trn nhng hnh vi lin quan n mc ch . Con ngi c th t ngh cho mnh mc tiu ny mc tiu kia, v iu hng ton b hnh vi ca mnh th c iu . Chng hn, mt ngi th mc c th quyt nh ng mt chic bn, v th hin ton b nhng hot ng sn xut chic bn (ct v bo nhng ming g, rp ni nhiu thnh phn, nh bng sn phm). Cng ny sinh chui hot ng tng t khi mt con ngi quyt nh xy dng mt gia nh, theo ui mt ngh nghip hoc thit lp mt cng ty thng mi. Tuy nhin, nhng vn ny c nghin cu chi tit trong Tm l hc v o c hc. Cu cnh tnh t nhin i hi mt tr nng sp t Ta thy rng cu cnh tnh ni hot ng t nhin l mt s kin c th dng kinh nghim quan st c. Gi y, cho hot ng ca mt tc nhn t c mc ch, th hot ng y phi tng xng vi mc ch , v iu ny khng th c hon thnh nu khng c s tr gip ca mt tr nng nhn bit mc ch v bn cht kh tri (ratio) ca mc ch, cng nh s ph hp ca mc ch i vi nhng g ang hng v mc ch . Bng khng, vic hot ng ph hp vi mc ch c th tr thnh chuyn may ri (mt iu g m kinh nghim thng thng vn tin tng th). Tr nng vn a ra vic sp xp trc t ti mc ch th i khi c lin kt vi tc nhn hoc bin cn (mover), nh trong trng hp con ngi i vi nhng hnh vi ca mnh, v i khi li tch bit, nh trng hp mi tn hng ti im bn, khng nh vo chuyn tr nng ni kt vi mi tn, nhng nh vo tr nng ca ngi bn cung nhm n iu 7. V cc th to khng c nhn thc khng th t iu hng v mc ch ca mnh xt nh mt hiu qu ca vic nm bt n, nn chng phi c iu hng v mc ch nh bi tr tu cao trng hn chng (Since creatures which lack knowledge cannot direct themselves toward their end as a consequence of apprehending it, they must be directed towards it by some higher intelligence). Trt t v cu cnh tnh ca v tr to nn mt trong nhng cch thc hu hiu nht th c mt tri thc v Thin Cha xt nh Tr Tu an bi ti cao. Qu vy, l con ng hay c s dng nht c c mt tri thc t nhin v Thin Cha8. 4. MC CH L CN NGUYN TRN MI CN NGUYN Mc ch l nht trong bn cn nguyn, hoc l iu kin tin quyt khn thit cho nhng loi cn nguyn tnh khc. Nh bit, mc ch l cn nguyn cho cn nguyn tnh ca tc nhn, v n khin cho cn nguyn tnh to nn hiu qu. Tng t th, n khin cho cht liu thnh cn nguyn cht liu v hnh th thnh cn nguyn hnh th, v cht liu khng tip nhn hnh th tr phi l v mt mc ch (tc l, to nn mt hu th mi hoc mt hon b ph th mi), v hnh th tc ng ln cht liu cng v cng mt mc ch . iu ny gii thch ti sao mc ch c gi l cn nguyn ca cc cn nguyn (causa causarum), v n l cn nguyn cho cn nguyn tnh ca mi cn nguyn9. Chng hn, nu mt kin trc s quyt nh xy mt cn nh (cn nguyn cu cnh), th chnh nh ng lc ny m ng ta bt u hnh ng (cn nguyn tnh tc thnh) v thc hin s thit k cho kin trc mi (cn nguyn hnh th), v trong quan im v cu trc cho ngi nh, ng ta chn la mt s vt liu (cn nguyn cht liu). Nhng ngi nh khng phi l mt vic bo v chng li thi tit xu v l chng c nhng bc tng v mt mi nh. ng hn, chng phi c nhng bc tng v mt mi nh bo v khi ci nng v ci lnh. Ta cng gp iu ni nhng s kin hoc hin tng trong thin nhin. Chng hn, xng con ngi khng nng thn th v l chng tnh c l chc chn; ng hn, b xng l chc chn bi v l chng c mc tiu l nng thn mnh. Cho d mc ch l iu c t ti sau cng ni hiu qu hon tt, th n vn l iu tc ng u tin theo th t hng. Do , ngi ta thng ni rng mc ch l iu hin hu sau cng trong thi hnh v trc ht trong hng. Khng iu g khi s hnh ng tr phi n c hng n mc ch do hnh th t nhin ca n (qua tham dc hoc c mun ca n) hay do vic tr tu nm bt mc ch. Tuy nhin, xu hng ny tr thnh hin thc v ch t n mc tiu sau khi cn nguyn tc thnh hot ng v nhng cn nguyn cht liu v hnh th (ty trng hp i hi) sm nhng vai tr ca chng10. Mt con ngi khng khi s vic hc hnh ca mnh tr phi anh ta c thc gic bi mt c mun t nhin hiu bit cng nh bo m cho mnh mt cuc sng d chu (u tin trong hng). Kt qu ca hot ng ny, tc l tri thc v khoa hc, ch c th c sau nhiu nm mit mi hc hi (cui cng trong thc hin).

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Vic ni kt gia cc cn nguyn Vai tr ch lc ca mc ch, v vic cc cn nguyn khc l thuc vo , tt c cho thy mi dy ni kt bn loi cn nguyn : mc ch thc gic tc nhn, tc nhn rt ra hnh th, v hnh th thc hu ha cht liu (the end moves the agent, the agent educes the form, and the form actualizes matter). Khng th quan nim bn cn nguyn nh nhng yu t cn k nhau hoc tch bit nhau; chng th hin cn nguyn tnh ca mnh bng cch i theo mt trt t nht nh m ta c th tm tt nh sau : a) i vi nhng cn nguyn ngoi lai (extrinsic causes), tc nhn l cn nguyn ca mc ch xt t quan im vic hon tt hoc th c, v mc ch th t c nh nhng hot ng ca tc nhn. Tuy nhin, cn nguyn tc thnh khng khin cho mc ch thnh mc ch, v cng chng to nn cn nguyn tnh ca mc ch. Nh thy, l l ng sau tnh ng c mong ca mc ch chnh l s thin ho ca n, hoc s kin n l mt hon b. Do , tc nhn khng khin cho mc ch tr thnh mc ch (l thin ho), nhng ch lm cng vic th c thin ho m mc ch gi nh. Theo ngha ny, tc nhn c thc gic bi mc ch (n l mt bin cn th bin (it is a moved mover: movens motum) ang khi mc ch khng c thc gic bi bt c iu g (trong ging ca n, n l mt bin cn bt th bin (within its genus, it is an unmoved mover: movens immobile). b) i vi nhng cn nguyn ni ti (intrinsic causes), nh bit, hnh th v cht liu l nhng cn nguyn h tng xt v mt hin hu. Hnh th thc hu ha cht liu v em li cho n vic hin hu, v cht liu n hnh th nh tim nng n hin th. c) Cn nguyn ngoi lai l cn nguyn cho nhng cn nguyn ni ti (Extrinsic causes are causes of intrinsic causes). Cht liu v hnh th (nhng cn nguyn ni ti) khng to nn mt phc hp tr phi c hot ng ca tc nhn, v tc nhn cng khng hot ng tr phi hng v mt mc ch (nhng cn nguyn ngoi lai). Mi lin h h tng gia nhng cn nguyn c mt tm quan trng ln lao trong lnh vc i sng tinh thn. Vai tr dn dt ca cn nguyn cu cnh l du hiu cho thy tnh cch tri vt ca ch (m i tng ring ca n l thin ho) i vi nhng quan nng khc nhau ca con ngi. Ngoi ra, trong lnh vc cn nguyn tnh tc thnh, ch t do l cn nguyn hon ho nht, v n chim hu vic lm ch trn mc ch. V l ny, ta c th ni rng ch cc hu th thing ling mi khng b thc gic bi nhng th khc, nhng ng ra t vn ng mnh, v chng mi l nhng tc nhn theo ngha cht ch nht ca thut ng. V mc ch l cn nguyn ca trt t, nn hin nhin mt s sai lch khi mc ch vn c iu ng trc s lm o ln mi dy tht kt nhng cn nguyn, ngn cn vic th hin cn nguyn tnh. Tht bi trong vic th c mc ch l tht bi tuyt i cho tin trnh tc thnh. Do , nng lc tc thnh m Thin Cha ban cho con ngi b thng tn ton din, v tr nn kh cn v ti li, ti li chnh l s tho th i vi mc ch sau cng.

SCH C THM ARISTOTLE, Metaphysica, Bk. V, ch.2; Bk. XII, ch.7 and 10; Nicomachean Ethics, Bk. I, ch.2,5 and 9; De Caelo, Bk. I, ch.4; Physica, Bk. II, ch.4. SAINT THOMAS AQUINAS, Summa theologiae, I-II, q.1; Summa contra gentiles, Bk III.

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CHNG VII: CN NGUYN TNH NI THIN CHA V CN NGUYN TNH NI TH TO

Chng ta xt ti mi lin h tht kt nhiu loi cn nguyn khc nhau, nh hng m nhng cn nguyn tc ng ln nhau, v cch thc m cn nguyn cu cnh v cn nguyn tc thnh tc ng ln nhng cn nguyn cht liu v hnh th. Chng ta thy r rng nhng cn nguyn khng phi l cc thc ti ring bit, c lp : mt s cn nguyn phi l thuc vo nhng cn nguyn khc. Ngay trong lnh vc cn nguyn tnh tc thnh, th vn c s ty thuc ln nhau gia cc cn nguyn. Chng hn, mc d mt dng c th chc chn l cn nguyn cho hiu qu ca n, nhng dng c ny li hon ton n nhn tnh cch hu hiu t cn nguyn chnh. S hp dn v trng lc gia cc hnh tinh chng hn, xc nh qu o ca mt trng; n lt mnh, mt trng li c nh hng trn nhng con sng i dng, ri nhng con sng i dng li to nn vic si mn b bin hoc ngay c vic sp l t. Ngoi vic cn nguyn cp di l thuc vo cn nguyn cp trn, cn c vic mi cn nguyn u chu l thuc trit vo Thin Cha, ng l Nht Cn Nguyn v l cn nguyn tc thnh chnh yu cho mi th cn nguyn tnh ni th to. Gi y chng ta xt n nhng c trng ca Nht Cn Nguyn v mi tng quan ca cn nguyn ny vi nhng tc nhn th to. 1. NHNG GII HN NI CN NGUYN TNH TH TO Bin dch v cc hnh th kin to nn i tng ring ca cn nguyn tnh tc thnh ni th to (Becoming and forms constitute the proper object of the efficient causality of creatures). Hot ng ca mt tc nhn th to l cn nguyn khin cho hiu qu i vo hin hu (fieri); tuy nhin, n khng to nn hin hu ca hiu qu xt nguyn th (The action of a created agent is the cause of the coming into being (fieri) of the effect; however; it does not produce the being of the effect as such). N thc s dn n vic to ra mt thc ti mi, (trong trng hp sinh hay dit) hoc vic th c mt cch thc hin hu mi ni mt hu th ang tn ti (trong nhng bin i ph th). Tuy nhin, mt khi hot ng ca tc nhn t nhin ngng li, th hiu qu vn tn ti, iu cho thy hiu qu th c lp thc s khi cn nguyn to nn n. Chng hn, khi mt kin trc s xy mt cn nh, ng ta em li cho nhng vt liu ang tn ti mt hnh th ph th mi, khin chng ph hp cho vic c ng. Bng cch ny, ng thc s th hin hu hiu vic xy dng cn nh hoc a n vo hin hu (becoming). Tuy nhin, mt khi vic xy dng hon tt, th cn nh vn hin hu nh bi mt s nguyn l m gi y khng cn l thuc vo ngi xy dng cht no na. Trong trng hp mt ng vt mi c b m sinh ra th cng vy. Tn im ring ca cn nguyn tnh th to, trong tin trnh sinh v dit, chnh l hnh th, v n l hin th nht ca mt bn th vt th. Trong trng hp cc bin i ph th, th tn im l mt ph th mi ca bn th. Hiu qu ring ca cn nguyn tnh ni cc th to lun lun l vic rt ra mt hnh th (The proper effect of the causality of creatures is always the eduction of a form). Chng ta c th thy r iu ny, nu nh ta nh li rng mt bn th l mt cn nguyn trong mc n thc s nh hng ln hiu qu ca n, hay ni khc i, trong mc hiu qu khng th tn ti nu nh cn nguyn b xa b. Tuy vy, hin nhin l iu g mt i khi mt cn nguyn tc thnh th to b ly i, th chnh l tin trnh to-hnh (in-forming) mt cht liu no hay l vic sn xut mt hnh th mi, m y chnh l ch cho nh hng ca tc nhn chm dt. Cn thc ti ca hiu qu, vn tip tc hin hu, th khng b kh tr. Do , tc nhn th to khng phi l cn nguyn duy nht hoc tuyt i cho hiu qu ca n; ng hn, n l cn nguyn cho vic sn xut hiu qu (Consequently, the created agent is not the sole or the absolute cause of its effect; rather, it is the cause of the production of the effect). Vic sn sinh (generation), vn l kiu mu cn nguyn tnh su sc nht ca cc s vt vt cht, phi c coi nh mt via in esse hay l con ng qua mt hiu qu din ra (comes to be), c th l qua vic n nhn mt hnh th bn th mi. Do , khi hot ng ca tc nhn trong vic sn sinh b rt i, th vic chuyn bin t tim nng sang hin th, tc l chuyn i vo vic hin hu (fieri) ca con vt c sinh ra, cng ngng li, nhng chnh hnh th (m nh con vt c sinh ra c vic hin hu), vn khng ngng li. Do , khi hot ng ca tc nhn trong vic sn sinh ngng li, th hin hu ca cc s vt c sn xut vn cn, nhng vic bin dch ca chng th chm dt1.

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Cc th to l nhng cn nguyn c th cho cc hiu qu ca chng Tnh hu hn ca nhng cn nguyn th to s hin ln r rng khi ta xt n cch thc m chng hot ng : a) Nhng tc nhn t nhin lun lun hot ng bng cch bin i mt iu g (Natural agents always act by transforming something). C trong trng hp bin i ph th cng nh sn xut ra mt hu th mi, cc th to u ch hot ng bng cch lm bin i mt thc ti vn hin hu. b) Do , trong lc hot ng, nhng cn nguyn th to u gi nh mt khch th hin hu trc (Hence, in their activity, created causes presuppose a preexisting object). Nu chng to nn mt s bin i ph th, th chng cn n mt ch th ang thc s hin hu, s chu nh hng do vic bin i ny. Nu chng sn sinh mt bn th mi, th chng vn cn n cht liu nht t c th rt ra hnh th bn th mi, ang khi tc b th hnh th trc y ca n. La sinh ra la ni bn th vt cht khc; cy ci ny sinh t ht ging, vi s tr gip ca mt s yu t m mi trng vt cht chung quanh em li cho chng. Nhng con vt sinh ra cc con nh nh bi chnh thn th ca mnh. c) Cn nguyn tnh tc thnh ca nhng hu th hu hn s b hn ch bi kh nng hot ng ca chng v bi nhng iu kin ca ch th m chng tc ng ln (The efficient causality of finite beings is limited by their own active capacity and by the conditions of the subject on which they act). Hin nhin l ngi ta khng th sn sinh nhiu hon b hn nhng g m mnh chim hu (khng ai c th chuyn trao tri thc m mnh khng c, cng khng th sinh ra mt hnh th bn th no khc bit vi hnh th bn th ca mnh). Ngoi ra, nng lc tc thnh ca mt cn nguyn s b gii hn bi tnh tim nng ca cht liu m n bin i hoc nh hng ln. Cho d mt nh khoa hc c thng thi n u, th ng ta cng khng bao gi c th chuyn trao tri thc nhiu hn nhng g m cc sinh vin ca ng c th thu thp. Cng vy, k nng ca nh iu khc cng b gim thiu bi cht lng ti ca khi cm thch m ng ta ang chm khc. d) Do , vic hin hu ca cc hiu qu ca chng khng phi l hiu qu trc tip v ring bit ca cn nguyn tnh ni cc th to (Consequently, the act of being of their effects is not the immediate and proper effect of the causality of creatures). Cn nguyn tnh ca mt th to khng th gii thch hiu qu trong ton tnh ca mnh; n ch c th gii thch mt s hon b ca hiu qu, m cn nguyn tc thnh c th em n, v ch th, do hon cnh ring ca mnh, c th n nhn. Do , khng cn nguyn th to no li sn xut ton b hin hu cho hiu qu ca n. Ngay trong trng hp sinh sn, th n cng khng to ra hin hu t h v tuyt i (from absolute non-being = from nothingness); ng hn, n sn xut s vt ny t mt iu g cha tng l s vt ny. iu ny gii thch ti sao mt cy mi li sinh ra t ht ging. iu m cn nguyn th to nh hng ngay tc khc v trc tip n, chnh l cch thc hin hu ca hiu qu (the effects manner of being), (xt nh mt bn th hoc mt ph th), hn l chnh vic hin hu. Ni cht ch, nh hng cn nguyn ca n kt thc ni hnh th. Chng hn, mt con nga khng phi l cn nguyn trc tip vic hin hu ca nga con, nhng ch l cn nguyn trc tip ca chuyn l mt nga con (A horse, for instance, is the immediate cause, not of the colts being (its having the act of being), but of its being a colt). iu ny khng c ngha rng cn nguyn th to th khng nh hng n hin hu ca hiu qu (nu chng vy th n khng cn l mt cn nguyn thc s na). N thc s nh hng, nhng theo mt cch thc gin tip, c ngha l nh hnh th, vn l hiu qu ring ca n. Khng th to no c th l mt cn nguyn cho hu th xt nguyn n (being as such), v hot ng ca n lun gi nh mt iu g vn hin hu hoc c c vic hin hu (esse). Nhng tc nhn th to khng phi l cn nguyn cho vic hin hu xt nguyn n, nhng l cn nguyn cho vic n l ci ny tc l thnh mt con ngi, hoc c mu trng vv. Vic hin hu, xt nguyn n, th khng gi nh iu g c, v khng g c th tn ti t trc m li bn ngoi hin hu xt nguyn n. Nh hot ng ca cc th to, hu th ny, hoc cch thc hin hu ca s vt ny c sn xut; v t mt hu th c trc, th hu th mi ny hoc mt cch thc hin hu mi ca n xut hin2. Do , cn phi ni rng trong mi tng quan vi vic hin hu, nhng cn nguyn th to lun l nhng cn nguyn c th; ni khc i, chng t c hiu qu khng phi theo mc hiu qu l hu th, nhng ch theo mc hiu qu l mt loi hu th c th. Ngoi ra, mi vt u hot ng theo mc n l thc hu (trong hin th = actual), v v cc th to c mt vic hin hu b hn ch (chng khng l vic hin hu thun ty), nn nht thit chng phi to nn nhng hiu qu b gii hn trong phm vi hu th lun ca chng.

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Cn nguyn tnh th to i hi mt cn nguyn nht vn l cn nguyn cho vic hin hu Tm tt nhng kt lun ca hai phn trn, chng ta c th ni rng cn nguyn tnh tc thnh ca th to th khng gii thch s hin hu ca mt hiu qu. Chng ta cn nhn mnh n s kin l n ch m rng ti vic hiu qu i vo hin hu hoc vic bin dch ca hiu qu. ng thi, chng ta cng nhn mnh rng cn nguyn th to l mt cn nguyn ch thc. Do , ni rng mt s vt th to lm nn mt bn th mi th hon ton hp l. Cho d hnh th l mc ch cho vic sinh sn, th hiu qu cng vn l mt bn th mi. Nhng ta cng thy hin nhin l bn th mi ny khng ch pht sinh t nng lc hot ng ca tc nhn, nhng cng cn ny sinh t tim nng th ng sn c ca cht liu (ex materia). Do , mi cn nguyn tnh ca cc th to nht nh phi gi thit vic hin hu (all causality of creatures necessarily demands the act of being that is presupposed). Cn nguyn cho vic hin hu (esse) l Thin Cha, Subsistent Esse, cn nguyn Nht v Ph Qut, tri li, cc hu th khc u ch l nhng cn nguyn nh. Ch cn nguyn tnh ni Thin Cha mi c c esse nh i tng ring ca mnh. Thin Cha c vic hin hu nh i tng ring cho cn nguyn tnh ca Ngi, c trong lnh vc to dng ln bo tn mi s vt trong hin hu. To dng l em li vic hin hu cho cc th to t h v. Ni Thin Cha, to dng l mt hot ng ng-vnh-cu (co- eternal) v l mt vi Ngi (ab aeterno), nhng t quan im ca con ngi, to dng xy ra trong thi gian. Chuyn hot ng ca Thin Cha ko di trong thi gian c coi nh vic bo tn, m vic ny khng thc s phn bit khi vic to dng3. Kt qu l, nu Thin Cha khng to dng, th chng c g tn ti; cn nhn theo gc bo tn (cng chnh l vic to dng thi), th mi vt s ri vo h v nu nh Thin Cha khng cn gi gn nhng iu Ngi to dng chng tip tc hin hu. em li vic hin hu ex nihilo l chuyn ch mnh Thin Cha mi lm c, v ch mnh Thin Cha mi l Hng Hu (Subsisting Act of Being) cng nh ch mnh Ngi mi l Cn Nguyn ph qut v ton nng. Ta hy tm tt li nh sau : a) Ngi l Hng Hu v Hin Hu t yu tnh (He is the Subsisting Act of Being and Being by essence). Ch mnh Hu Th Tuyt i v V Hn, Hin Hu Vin Mn, mi c th c vic hin hu ca th to nh hiu qu ring ca mnh. Tri li, mt cch hin hu c th, vi mt esse hn ch v c thng d, th khng th c nng lc t n bt c iu g vt trn cch thc hin hu hn ch ca n. b) Ngi l ton nng (He is omnipotent). Ta thy rng cc th to gi thit mt th nn (substratum) no chng tc ng ln. Trong mc th nn ny cch xa hn km vi hin th n phi t n, th i phi c mt cn nguyn tc thnh c nng lc hn km a tim nng sang hin th. Chng hn, lm cho mt thi thp c chy , th cn phi c mt nhit nng ln hn iu g lm chy mt mnh g, v so vi thp th g c tim nng gn gi nhiu hn vi vic bc chy. V vic hin hu khng gi thit bt c iu g, nn cn phi c mt quyn nng v hn to nn chuyn . Khng ch n gin l chuyn ni kt gia hin th vi tim nng, nhng l s vt qua vc thm v tn (infinite chasm) gia h v v hin hu. Ton nng l mt thuc tnh ca ring mnh Thin Cha, v ch mnh Ngi mi l Hin Th Thun Ty (Pure Act) khng h b gii hn bi bt c yu tnh no. c) Ngi l cn nguyn ph qut duy nht (He is only universal cause). Vic hin hu l hiu qu ph qut nht, v n bao trm mi hon b ca v tr theo c ngoi din ln cng . N bao gm nhng hon b ca mi hu th (ngoi din) v mi cp hon b (cng ). Do , khng cn nguyn c th no li lm cho c ngay vic hin hu; ng hn, esse l hiu qu ring ca cn nguyn u tin v ph qut nht, l chnh Thin Cha, ng c mi hon b trong vin mn. Nh vy, duy mnh Thin Cha l tc nhn em li hin hu (per modum dantis esse), ch khng ch l ng lm chuyn ng hoc bin i (per modum moventis et alterantis)4. iu ny khng c ngha rng Thin Cha lin tc to dng t h v. ng hn, n c ngha rng trong hnh ng to dng ca Ngi, Thin Cha to dng mi hin hu ang thc hu hoc ch l kh th -. Hnh ng ny khng nhng lm ny sinh nhng hu th m Thin Cha to dng t thu ban u,

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m cn lm ny sinh tt c nhng g xy n qua nhng thay i t nhin hoc nhn to theo dng thi gian. 2. NHNG C TRNG CA CN NGUYN TNH NI CN NGUYN NHT Nhng hn t Cn Nguyn Nht (Thin Cha) v nhng cn nguyn nh (cc th to) cng tng ng vi nhng hn t thng dng khc : cn nguyn ca hin hu (esse) v cn nguyn ca bin dch (fieri); cn nguyn ph qut v cn nguyn c th; cn nguyn siu vit v cn nguyn thuc phm tr (cause of being (esse) and cause of becoming (fieri); universal cause and particular cause; transcendental cause and predicamental cause). Cn nguyn ca vic hin hu l cn nguyn nht v bt c cn nguyn no khc cng u gi thit cn nguyn , cng ging nh hin hu l iu kin tin quyt cho mi hiu qu khc5. N l mt cn nguyn ph qut tuyt i v n bao trm tt c v mi mt hon b th to, ang khi nhng tc nhn c th ch nh hng ti mt loi hiu qu m thi. N l mt cn nguyn siu vit cng v l do , v hiu qu ring ca n, hin hu, vt trn mi phm tr; tri li, nhng cn nguyn thuc phm tr ch to ra nhng cch thc hin hu nht nh. Tri ngc vi nhng cn nguyn nh, Cn Nguyn Nht c th c din t qua cc c trng sau : a) l cn nguyn ca loi xt nguyn th (It is the cause of the species as such), ang khi nhng cn nguyn nh ch thng chuyn chng. Chng hn, mt con ngi khng th l cn nguyn cho nhn tnh xt nh nhn tnh, hoc cho mi hon b thuc v bn cht , v khi anh ta s l cn nguyn cho mi ngi, v nh vy cng l cn nguyn cho chnh mnh, l chuyn khng th xy ra. Nhng, ni cho ng con ngi c bit ny l cn nguyn cho con ngi c bit kia. Gi y, con ngi ny tn ti v nhn tnh hin din ni cht liu ny. Nh vy, con ngi ny khng th l cn nguyn cho con ngi, tr phi theo ngha anh ta l cn nguyn ca mt hnh th con ngi i vo trong cht liu ny. Vic ny c ngha l tr nn nguyn l sinh sn mt con ngi c bit Vy, phi c mt cn nguyn tc nhn ring cho chnh loi ngi; Cn nguyn ny chnh l Thin Cha6 b) cng l cn nguyn ca cht liu, (It is also the cause of matter) ang khi cc th to ch lm ny sinh nhng thay i lin tc v hnh th. Nh thy, trong lc sn sinh mt hiu qu mi no bt k, cc th to u gi thit mt ch th c trc, m trong trng hp sinh sn phi l cht liu. Cht liu, vn l th nn ti hu cho mi bin i bn th, chnh l hiu qu ring cho cn nguyn tnh ca cn nguyn ti cao. c) cng l cn nguyn ph qut nht (It is the most universal cause), tri ngc vi cc th to vn ch l nhng cn nguyn c th. Khi hot ng bng cch lm bin i, mi cn nguyn nh to nn mt loi nhng hiu qu c th, m nht thit phi gi nh hot ng ca mt cn nguyn ph qut. Nh cc binh s khng th lm g cho chin thng chung cuc ca qun i nu khng c mt k hoch tng qut m v tng tin liu cng nh nhng v kh n dc do v tng ny cung cp, th th to cng khng th tn ti hay hot ng, v do cng chng to nn nhng hiu qu ring, nu nh khng c nh hng ca Cn Nguyn Nht, vn em li vic hin hu cho c cn nguyn ln ch th c bin i. d) l mt cn nguyn t yu tnh (It is a cause by essence), ang khi cc th to ch l nhng cn nguyn nh vic thng d. Mt iu g s c mt hon b do yu tnh khi n chim hu hon b ny trong vin mn. Tri li, hon b ch l thng d nu nh ch th ch chim hu n phn no v theo cch gii hn. V mi vt u hot ng theo mc n l thc hu, nn ch th g l Hin Th Thun Ty hoc Hng Hu mi c th hot ng v tc to do yu tnh (Since everything acts insofar as it is actual, only that which is Pure Act or Subsisting Act of Being can act and cause by essence). Tuy nhin, bt c th to no m nht thit c vic hin hu b gii hn bi yu tnh ca mnh, th ch c th l cn nguyn do thng d, tc l nh vo chuyn nhn c vic hin hu v ph hp vi cp n (vic hin hu) c chim hu. Do , ch mnh Thin Cha mi c quyn nng tc to khng b gii hn (God alone has causal power in an unlimited way), v v l do ny th ch mnh Ngi mi c th to nn nhng s vt t h v (sng to chng) bng cch ban cho chng vic hin hu. Cc th to ch chim hu mt kh nng tc to hu hn v nht nh, tng xng vi cp chng thng d vic hin hu. Ngoi ra, c c nhng hiu qu ring, chng phi gi thit hot ng sng to ca Thin Cha vn em li vic hin hu cho nhng hiu qu .

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Cc th to lm nn nhng hiu qu ring, vn ch l nhng xc nh s hin hu theo mc chng c Thin Cha bo tn (Creatures produce their proper effects, which are only determinations of being, insofar as they are conserved by God). iu g l mt loi s vt no do yu tnh, th s l cn nguyn ring ca nhng g hin hu do thng d. Nh vy, la l cn nguyn cho tt c nhng g b t chy. Vy, duy mnh Thin Cha l Hin Hu do yu tnh, ang khi nhng hu th khc ch hin hu nh thng d, v ch ni Thin Cha th Esse mi ng nht vi yu tnh ca Ngi. Do , vic hin hu (esse) ca mi s vt tn ti u l hiu qu ring ca Thin Cha. V nh vy, nhng g a mt iu no vo thc hu, th ch lm iu nh quyn nng Thin Cha7.

3. TNG QUAN GIA CN NGUYN NHT V NHNG CN NGUYN NH Nh ta thy, hin hu v cn nguyn tnh ca cc th to th hon ton t nn tng ni Thin Cha, ng l Cn Nguyn Nht v l Cn Nguyn t yu tnh. iu ny ko theo mi tng quan hon ton l thuc, ch khng ch l s trng hp song hnh trong quyn nng ca Thin Cha v nng lc ca th to phi hp to nn mt hiu qu n l. minh ha mi tng quan gia cn nguyn tnh tc thnh ca Thin Cha v ca th to, ta c th nhc li mi tng quan gia cn nguyn chnh v cn nguyn dng c, thay v tng quan gia hai cn nguyn tng phn vn bn ngoi nhau c ni kt li t c mt kt qu (nh hai con nga cng hp sc ko mt chic xe). Cng nh mt chic c sn th khng th t mnh hon tt mt bc tranh, th mt th to cng khng c hin hu ca mnh cng nh kh nng hot ng nu nh khng l thuc vo Thin Cha. Tuy nhin, ta cn lm sng t thm v vn ny: a) Mt cn nguyn dng c th to th thc s ch l thuc tc nhn trong phng din hot ng ca dng c, ang khi th to phi l thuc vo Thin Cha ngay c v mt hin hu ca mnh. b) Mt th to chim hu mt hnh th bn th v nhng nng lc hot ng nht nh vn nh hng thc s ln n mt cch thng xuyn; nhng th ny l gc r cho hot ng ni vt th, n trong hot ng t nhin, hot ng ca nhng cn nguyn nh th tng ng vi cn nguyn ca chng. Tuy nhin, ni mt dng c, thm vo hnh th ca n, m qua n c th to nn nhng hiu qu khng theo t cch dng c, th cng cn c mt nng lc mi, hin din cch ngoi chuyn (transient manner), c th to nn mt hiu qu khng cn xng vi cn nguyn dng c. Nh vy, theo ngha cht hn, cc th to c gi l nhng dng c khi m chng c Thin Cha s dng to nn nhng hiu qu vt qu nhng kh nng ca chng, c bit trong lnh vc n sng. Chng c gi l nhng cn nguyn nh khi chng hot ng trong lnh vc t nhin. Vic nhng cn nguyn nh phi l thuc hon ton vo Cn Nguyn Nht s ko theo ba h qu sau : a) So snh vi cn nguyn nh, Cn Nguyn Nht c mt nh hng ln hn v thc ti ca hiu qu (Compared with the secondary cause, the First Cause has a greater influence on the reality of the effect). Tng t nh vy, vic v tranh th ng ra phi c gn cho ngi ngh s hn l cho chic c v hoc a mu m ngi ngh s dng. Trong trng hp nhng cn nguyn tc nhn c tn ti trt t, th nhng cn nguyn ph thuc s hot ng nh nng lc ca cn nguyn th nht. Trong trt t nhng cn nguyn tc nhn, Thin Cha l cn nguyn nht do , mi cn nguyn tc nhn thp hn u hot ng nh quyn nng ca Ngi. Cn nguyn chnh ca mt hot ng l cn nguyn m nh nng lc ca n mt hot ng c th hin, hn l chnh th g hot ng; nh vy, hot ng tun tro mt cch cht ngha hn t tc nhn chnh hn l t dng c. Do , so snh vi cc cn nguyn tc nhn nh, Thin Cha cng l cn nguyn chnh hn na cho mi hot ng8. b) C Cn Nguyn Nht v cc cn nguyn nh u l nhng cn nguyn ton vn cho hiu qu theo phm vi ca mi th (Both the First Cause and secondary causes are total causes of the effect in their own respective order), v hiu qu th hon ton c sn xut t mi th trong chng, ch khng phi mt phn theo ci ny v mt phn theo ci khc. Cng mt hiu qu th khng c gn cho mt cn nguyn t nhin v cho quyn lc Thin Cha theo kiu mt phn do Thin Cha lm, cn phn kia do tc nhn t nhin; ng ra, hiu qu th c sn xut ton din bi c hai th, theo nhng cch thc khc nhau, ging nh cng mt hiu qu th hon ton c gn cho dng c, ng thi cng hon ton c gn cho cn nguyn chnh9.

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Nh thy, hiu qu ring v tng xng ca mt cn nguyn nh l hnh th (bn th hay ph th), v cc th to c c mt cp thng d c th vo vic hin hu nh hnh th. Tuy nhin, hiu qu ring trc tip ca Thin Cha l vic hin hu ca mi s vt, v nh vic hin hu, quyn nng ca Ngi nh hng ln mi hon b ca th to. Cn nguyn tnh ca Thin Cha th bao trm tt c, v chuyn ny sinh t bn cht c bit ca esse, xt nh hin th vt trn mi hin th, v hon b vt trn mi hon b ca bn th th to. V bt c th to no cng nh mi s trong n u chia s vic hin hu ca n th mi hu th, trong ton tnh ca mnh, u phi n t cn nguyn nht v hon b10. Do , vic Quan Phng ca Thin Cha bao gm mi th g tn ti trong v tr. N khng ch bao gm nhng loi ph qut m cn tng c th, khng ch bao gm hot ng khn thit hoc c sp t trc ni cc hu th cp thp nhng cn l nhng tc ng t do ca cc th to thing ling. N khng ch m rng n nhng hot ng quyt nh nht ca cc th to t do (nhng ngi lm bin i dng lch s) nhng cn m rng n nhng hot ng thng nht dng nh khng my quan trng, v c hai loi hot ng u chia s tnh thc hu ca esse ni ngi v th hin chng. Vic hin hu ny l hiu qu trc tip ca cn nguyn tnh tc thnh ca Thin Cha. c) Vic cc cn nguyn nh phi l thuc vo Thin Cha, th khng lm gim st tnh hu hiu tc to ca th to; ng hn n em li nn tng cho tnh hu hiu ca hot ng ni th to (The subordination of secondary causes to God does not diminish the causal efficacy of creatures; rather it provides the basis for the efficacy of their activity). Hot ng ca Thin Cha lm tng thm v tng cng tnh hiu qu ca nhng cn nguyn ph thuc ty theo mc chng cng gn b nhiu hn na vi Thin Cha, v mt s l thuc ln hn v mt cn nguyn cng ko theo vic thng d ln hn vo ngun mch ca nng lc tc ng. iu ny c phn no ging nh trng hp mt sinh vin tuyt i theo s hng dn ca gio s dn dt anh trong vic hc hnh, hay l trng hp hc vic ca mt con ngi thc lm iu g m mt ngh s ti nng dy cho anh. C hai u tri nghim hiu qu ln hn trong hot ng ca mnh. Nhng cn nguyn nh c tnh hiu qu ca ring mnh, nhng hin nhin chng c c nng lc l nh vic chng l thuc vo nhng cn nguyn cao cp hn. Chng hn, mt vin s quan qun i c uy quyn trn nhng ngi thuc h l nh vo quyn bnh c giao cho ng ta bi nhng s quan cao cp hn trong qun i; mt li c lm i thay hnh dng khi cm thch nh vo vn ng ny sinh t nh ngh s truyn n li c . Do , nng lc ca mt tc nhn thp km hn th ty thuc vo nng lc ca tc nhn cp cao hn, ty theo mc tc nhn cp cao hn em li cho tc nhn cp thp hn nng lc , m nh vy tc nhn cp thp hot ng, hoc tc nhn cao cp duy tr, hoc thm ch p dng tc nhn cp thp vo hot ng11. V Thin Cha khng nhng ban nng lc tc ng cho nhng cn nguyn nh, m cn duy tr chng trong hin hu, v em p dng chng vo nhng hiu qu ca chng, nn tnh hiu qu ca chng c tng bi ty theo vic chng cng ph thuc hn vo hot ng ca Thin Cha. ngha ln lao ca thc ti su xa ny c th c nhn thy trong sinh hot thc hnh, c bit trong lnh vc t do ca con ngi. Vic suy phc lut l ca Thin Cha th khng h lm gim st phm cht cc hot ng ca con ngi. Tri li, iu ny cn lm cho chng c mnh m hn v em li cho chng tnh hiu qu vt ln trn nhng tiu chun t nhin.

SCH C THM SAINT THOMAS AQUINAS, De potentia, q.3, a.7 and 8; Summa contra gentiles, Bk. III, ch.65-70. J.M. ARTOLA, Creacion y participacion, Publicaciones de la Institucion Aquinas, Madrid 1963.

4 St. Thomas Aquinas, In IV Metaphysicorum, lect. 3.

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