Cơ sở lý thuyết biến dạng dẻo kim loại

Hc vin k thut Qun s
======================

inh b Tr

C s L thuyt
bin dng do kim loi

H Ni 2-2000

Su tm bi: www.daihoc.com.vn


3
Li ni u
Gia cng kim loi bng p lc l mt ngnh c bn trong sn xut c kh.
Cng ngh gia cng kim loi bng p lc cho php to ra cc sn phm c hnh
dng kch thc phc tp, nht l cho t chc kim loi c cht lng v c tnh
tt v cho nng sut cao, gi thnh h. Cng ngh gia cng p lc hin i ang
c chuyn giao vo Vit Nam, nh cng ngh sn xut khung v v t xe my,
cng ngh sn xut chi tit ph tng phc v ni a ha cc sn phm c kh.
Cc cng ngh gia cng kim loi bng p lc c xy dng trn c s l
thuyt bin dng do kim loi, khoa hc nghin cu c s bin dng vi m v cc
thuc tnh bin dng ca vt liu, nghin cu tnh ton trng ng sut v bin
dng di tc dng ca ngoi lc nhm khai thc ht tim nng bin dng do
ca vt liu, ti u cng ngh, xc nh c quy trnh cng ngh bin dng
do hp l nht.
Cun sch C s l thuyt bin dng do kim loi c bin son vi
cc ni dung sau:
Cc chng 1, 2, 3 gii thiu l thuyt bin dng do vt l, nghin cu
cc quy lut bin dng ca vt liu t cu trc v bn cht vt liu.
Cc chng 4, 5, 6 gii thiu l thuyt v bin dng, ng sut, iu kin
do nhm mc tiu tnh ton bi ton do.
Chng 7 gii thiu tng hp thuc tnh do v tr lc bin dng ca vt
liu, to iu kin khai thc ht tnh nng do ca chng.
Cui sch c cc cu hi dng n tp.
Sch c bin son theo chng trnh ging dy i hc chuyn ngnh
cng ngh gia cng p lc v chuyn ngnh ch to V kh - n ti Hc vin K
thut qun s. Sch dng lm sch gio khoa cho sinh vin v lm sch tham
kho cho cc k s chuyn ngnh.
Rt mong c s ng gp kin ca cc bn c.
Xin chn thnh cm n.
Tc gi

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Mc lc

Mc lc
Li ni u
M u Khi qut v gia cng p lc
1.1. Vai tr v s pht trin ca chuyn ngnh GCAL
1.2. i tng nghin cu c bn ca mn hc l thuyt bin
dng do v gia cng p lc kim loi
1.3. ng dng k thut bin dng to hnh trong sn xut quc
phng
Trang

Chng 1 C ch bin dng do v Qu trnh Vt
l- Ho hc khi Bin dng do
2.1. Khi nim v bin dng do
2.2. C ch bin dng do : Trt v s chuyn ng ca lch
2.3. Bin dng do n tinh th v a tinh th
2.4. Ho bn khi bin dng do ngui v ng cong bin
dng
2.5. Bin dng do nhit cao- Hi phc v kt tinh li-
phn loi
2.6. Chuyn bin pha khi bin dng do
2.7. Hiu ng nhit khi bin dng do
2.8. Bin dng do khi c pha lng v BDD kim loi lng
2.9. nh hng ca iu kin bin dng do n s thay i
tnh cht ca kim loi
2.10. Cc hin tng:T bin-mi ca kim loi

Chng 3. Ma st tip xc trong gia cng p lc S


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phn b khng u ca ng sut v bin dng
3.1. Khi nim v ma st v vai tr ma st trong gia cng p lc
3.2. C ch sinh ra ma st kh
3.3. Bi trn v nh hng ca chng n lc ma st
3.4. Cc nh lut v ma st v ng dng
3.5. Cc yu t nh hng n ma st v h s ma st. Cch xc
nh h s ma st
3.6. S phn b khng u ca ng sut v bin dng
3.7. nh hng ca phn ngoi vng bin dng n trng thi
ng sut v bin dng
3.8. nh lut tr lc nh nht
3.9. Cc hin tng sinh ra khi bin dng khng u
3.10. ng sut d

Chng IV Trng thi ng sut
4.1. Khi nim chung
4.2. Trng thi ng sut ti mt im
4.3. ng sut php chnh
4.4. Tenx ng sut
4.5. lp cu ng sut
4.6. ng sut tip chnh
4.7. ng sut 8 mt
4.8. Vng Mo ng sut
4.9. Phng trnh vi phn cn bng tnh lc trng thi ng sut
khi
4.10 Trng thi ng sut i xng trc v trng thi phng

Chng V Bin dng v tc bin dng


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5.1. Khi nim bin dng do nh v tc bin dng
5.2. Thnh phn ca chuyn v v bin dng ca phn t
5.3. Tnh lin tc ca bin dng
5.4. Tc chuyn v v tc bin dng
5.5. Bin dng ng nht v khng ng nht
Chng VI iu kin do v phn tch qu trnh
bin dng do
6.1. iu kin chy do Treska-Saint-Vnant
6.2. iu kin do nng lng von Misses
6.3. ngha vt l v hnh hc ca iu kin do
6.4. iu kin do trong trng thi ng sut phng v i xng
trc
6.5. nh hng ca gi tr ng sut chnh trung gian
6.6. Quan h gia ng sut v bin dng khi bin dng
6.7. Phn tch s c hc ca ng sut v bin dng

Chng VII Tr lc bin dng v Tnh do ca vt
liu kim loi
7.1. Mt s thuc tnh bin dng ca vt liu
7.2. Khi nim v tr lc bin dng v tnh do ca vt liu
7.3. nh hng ca thnh phn ho hc n tr lc bin dng
v tnh do ca kim loi
7.4. nh hng ca t chc kim loi
7.5. nh hng ca nhit n tnh do v tr lc bin dng
7.6. nh hng ca tc bin dng n tnh do v tr lc
bin dng
7.7. nh hng ca trng thi ng sut n tr lc bin dng
7.8. Trng thi siu do ca vt liu


8
Cu hi n tp
Ti liu tham kho


9
M u
Khi qut v gia cng p lc kim loi
I. vai tr v s pht trin ca chuyn ngnh GCAL
Cng ngh GCAL c t rt lu i, nhng mi n vi th k nay mi
c pht trin, chnh l nh c s pht trin ca l thuyt bin dng do v l
thuyt gia cng p lc. L thuyt bin dng do v gia cng p lc kim loi da
trn c s c hc mi trng lin tc, c hc vt rn bin dng, l thuyt do, kim
loi hc vt l, i s tuyn tnh. Ngy nay, ang c mt cuc cch mng v bin
dng to hnh. Cc thnh tu ln ca c hc vt rn bin dng, ton hc, k thut
m phng to cho l thuyt v cng ngh GCAL mt sc mnh mi. Ta c th
xc nh c cng ngh bin dng ti u, s dng ht kh nng bin dng ca
vt liu, tn dng ngun nng lng v nht l nh s dng k thut m phng
a ngnh GCAL gii quyt cng ngh to hnh khng cn ch th, mt giai on
tn ph tin ca ch to khun th nghim v chi ph nguyn vt liu th
nghim.
Phng php Cng ngh Gia cng kim loi bng p lc, hay Cng ngh
Bin dng to hnh l mt phng php cng ngh, va l cng ngh chun b -
to phi cho cng ngh c kh va l cng ngh to hnh sn phm cui cng,
khng nhng cho php to ra hnh dng, kch thc sn phm m cn cho sn
phm kim loi mt cht lng cao v cc tnh cht c - l - ho, tit kim nguyn
vt liu, v cho nng sut lao ng cao, t h gi thnh sn phm. L dng
cng ngh duy nht cng mt lc bin i Hnh dng Kch thc v T chc kim
loi, nn chng c ng dng khi yu cu cht lng sn phm cao. Trong iu
kin bin dng v x l nhit nht nh, t chc kim loi thay i: ph b t chc
c, to t chc th, lm nh ht tinh th, to tctua, ph v v lm phn tn cc
ht tp cht... nh lm tng tnh bn, dai va p, kh nng chu mi, chu va
p, tng tui th sn phm. Sn phm ca Cng ngh p lc rt a dng, gia
cng nhiu loi vt liu. C th to ra trng thi siu do, gia cng vi bin dng
ln hoc gia cng cc vt liu kh bin dng.

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Cng ngh gia cng kim loi bng p lc l thc o trnh pht trin
ca mt nn cng nghip quc gia.
Cc cng ngh gia cng p lc kinh in, nh Cn- Ko-p-Rn-Dp,
chim trn 80% tng sn lng cc sn phm kim loi v hp kim, ang tip tc
hon thin cng ngh, bo m nng sut cht lng sn phm. Ngnh gia cng
p lc cn m ra mt s hng nghin cu mi v phng php cng ngh mi:
1. Pht trin l thuyt bin dng do, ng dng cc thnh tu khoa hc k
thut mi vo gii bi ton l thuyt gia cng p lc. a cc phng php ton
mi, quan trong nht l a phng php s (nh phng php phn t hu hn,
phng php bin phn, phng php phn t bin) kt hp s dng my tnh in
t vo vic gii bi ton bin dng do. T c th m phng trng thi ng
sut v bin dng, m phng qu trnh chy do ca vt liu, quan st c chiu
su bn trong ca qu trnh bin dng m iu khin chng. a tnh ton ti u
gii bi ton cng ngh to hnh v khun, bo m tn dng ht tnh nng thit
b. Nh phng php s ng dng trong bin dng to hnh gii quyt bi ton
bin dng ln, a nhiu yu t thc vo trong qu trnh gii bi ton bin dng.
Xy dng nhiu m hnh thuc tnh vt liu v nht l vt liu bn cao, vt liu
composit, thch ng cc vt liu mi c a vo s dng.
Kt hp cc yu t bin dng tc ng bin i t chc bn trong vt liu
vi x l nhit to ra vt liu c t chc kim tng c bn cao, cng ngh
ny thnh mt cng ngh sn xut hng lot ln, nh tit kim rt nhiu vt
liu, nht l vt liu xy dng. Cng bng hng cng ngh tc ng bng c
nhit to hiu ng siu do hoc tctua, lm vt liu c tnh do c bit, dng
bin dng to hnh cc chi tit c nhiu thnh vch mng, hnh dng phc tp.
2. ng dng CAD/CAM/CIM trong cc khu sn xut
ng dng cng ngh thng tin tin hnh Thit k cng ngh, thit b, v khun,
nh tr gip ca cc phn mm c kh ch to my v cc phn mm chuyn
dng v thit k bin dng to hnh thit k nhanh chng cc b khun dp
phc tp, c th nhanh chng thay i kt cu, mu m, nng sut tng hng trm

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ln. Trc y, mi sn phm mi u phi qua khu sn xut th, phi thit k
v ch to khun, gia cng th, sau dp th v kim tra cn cn chnh sa khun
v ch to li khun... ng dng phn mm thit k v k thut m phng, c kh
nng kim tra nh gi chnh xc v hnh dng kch thc, v bn, tin
cy ca cng ngh v khun, thay cho vic sn xut th tn km.
Hin nay, nhiu my iu khin theo chng trnh s CNC ang c s
dng gia cng cc khun mu dng trong GCAL, nh thit b ny, cng vic
gia cng cc b mt phc tp c x l nhanh chng, chnh xc. c cc
chng trnh lin kt sau khi thit k xong khun, c th m ho, chuyn ngay
sang iu khin my CNC gia cng, khng cn giai on lp trnh ring. V vy,
lin kt khu thit k v ch to khun lm mt.
Mt khc, ng dng h thng iu khin t ng, cc mch cng sut cao, to
ra cc khi mch iu khin cc my GCAL, ng thi c nhiu dy chuyn
sn xut t ng vi s iu khin ca trung tm my tnh.
3. To ra cc phng php gia cng c bit: ngoi cc phng php
cng ngh bit nh gia cng bng nng lng cao, gia cng cc vt liu bt,
bimtan,... ngy nay ang pht trin cng ngh sn xut chi tit t p vt liu ht,
ta c th nhn c cc sn phm vi thnh phn bt k, phn b thnh phn ti
cc vng khc nhautuy theo iu kin chu ti cua sn phm, l cc vt liu
composit mi. Mt phng php gia cng cc vt liu kh bin dng, cu to
bng cc thnh phn (cu t c bit) bng cng ngh p bn lng. Cng ngh
ny cn nung nng chy vt liu nn, cn thnh phn tng bn, gia c hoc thnh
phn c thuc tnh c bit khc vn trng thi ht rn, sau vo khun v
a vo p. T ta c vt liu c tnh nng c bit theo yu cu.
T cc vn nu trn, khoa hc v k thut GCAL ca th gii c rt
nhiu bin i, nhiu phng php tnh ton mi, cng ngh hin i xut hin,
gii quyt cc nhim v sn xut mt cch nhanh chng v hiu qu kinh t
cao. Mt khc, i hi con ngi c trnh khoa hc k thut cao, c hiu bit
su rng v kin thc c bn v kin thc chuyn ngnh, c trnh tin hc tt.

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II. Vai tr ca l thuyt bin dng do trong cng
ngh gia cng p lc
Mn khoa hc bin dng do v gia cng p lc ny c th nghin cu t
nhiu mt khc nhau:
1. V mt c hc bin dng do : Bng phng php ton hc nghin cu
trng thi ng sut v bin dng trong vt th bin dng, xc nh quan h gia
ng sut v bin dng. T , xc nh iu kin lc cn thit chuyn t trng thi
n hi sang trng thi do. Kt qu nghin cu cho phng php tnh ton lc v
cng bin dng, lm c s cho vic phn tch ng sut v bin dng.
2. V mt vt l qu trnh bin dng kim loi : Nghin cu bng thc
nghim v l thuyt c ch bin dng to hnh kim loi, xc nh s nh hng
ca cc yu t n qu trnh bin dng. C ngha l nghin cu cc c trng vt
l ca bin dng do kim loi, s nh hng ca nhit , mc bin dng, tc
bin dng v dng ca trng thi ng sut i vi qu trnh bin dng do, xc
nh quan h vt l ca bin dng do, ng thi nghin cu nh hng ca ma
st v cc yu t khc n qu trnh bin dng. Kt qu nghin cu cho php xc
nh iu kin ti u phn b ng sut v bin dng ng iu.
3. V mt vt l - ho hc: Nghin cu cc vn quan h gia bin dng
do kim loi vi thnh phn ho hc v trng thi pha ca vt liu. T tm ra s
nh hng ca cc yu t c nhit n thuc tnh bin dng, to iu kin t
bin dng do nhiu nht v xc nh hp l ch bin dng cho vt liu kh
bin dng do.
Nhng do rt nhiu yu t tc ng, l thuyt ton hc gia cng p lc kim
loi khng th gii quyt ht mi vn sn xut thc t nu ra. Chnh v vy,
mn khoa hc ny cn cn n cc thc nghim, cc tng kt kinh nghim sn
xut thc t, t tm ra cc quy lut st thc.
Bit rng, tnh do l yu t trng thi ca vt cht, chng quan h vi cc
iu kin ca bin dng: s c hc ca bin dng, nhit , tc , mc
bin dng v cc iu kin bn ngoi nh ma st, mi trng.

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V vy, trng tm nghin cu ca L thuyt bin dng do vt l l:
1. Nghin cu tc ng iu kin nhit v c hc n s bin dng to
hnh kim loi, nghin cu nh hng ca iu kin nhit , ma st xc lp
mt ch cng ngh bin dng ti u.
2. Nghin cu s nh hng ca gia cng bin dng n cc tnh cht c
hc - vt l - ho hc ca kim loi t khai thc ht tim nng ca vt liu
nhm thu c sn phm c cht lng cao v cc tnh nng.
3. Nghin cu cc phng php bin dng to hnh xc lp mi quan
h ti u gia kch thc hnh dng ca phi v sn phm, bo m iu kin kim
loi bin dng ln nht, hp l nht, chnh xc kch thc tt nht.
4. Nghin cu tr lc bin dng ca vt liu, lc v cng bin dng c th s
dng ht c cng sut thit b. Bo m trong iu kin nng sut cao, cht
lng sn phm tt, tiu hao nguyn liu v nng lng t.
III. ng dng k thut bin dng to hnh trong sn xut
quc phng
Cc sn phm v kh n l dng sn phm yu cu cao v cht lng.
Chng chu tc dng ca p lc xung n, chu tc dng nhit cao, chu va p
mnh..., nn i hi s dng cng ngh bin dng to hnh.
Cng ngh rn: dng trong sn xut phi cc loi nng pho, nng sng.
Cng ngh dp khi dng trong sn xut cc chi tit ca pho, dp u
n, dp v mt s loi ng c loa pht n phn lc.
Cng ngh dp vut dng trong sn xut cc loi v liu n cc c.
Cng ngh mit p dng ch to cc ng thnh mng chu p lc ln lm
v ng c tn la.
Cng ngh p bn lng dng p cc thn cnh tn la.
Do v kh n s dng cc vt liu c th, thng tnh nng bin dng
do km, nn, cn xc nh chnh xc cc ch cng ngh gia cng. Nh nng
pho thng dng thp hp kim ha tt bn cao 38XH2M. Thp ny c dn
nhit km, khi gia cng i hi xc nh chnh xc ch bin dng, ng thi

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bo m ch nung v lm ngui. Xc nh c ch cng ngh ng v hp
l phi trn c s nghin cu gii bi ton tng hp v xc nh tnh nng vt liu,
gii bi ton ng sut bin dng, xc nh iu kin bin dng, tc bin dng
ti u, khai thc c tim nng bin dng ca vt liu.
Trong sn xut cc loi tu, un v tu, dp cc chi tit lp trn tu cng
cn s dng cng ngh gia cng p lc.
Trong sn xut cc loi xe qun s, cng ngh dp tm dng trong dp v
xe, cng ngh dp khi dng sn xut cc loi bnh rng, cc trc xon trong xe
tng, xe thit gip.
Nh vy, nghin cu sn xut quc phng, cn t trng tm vo nghin
cu qu trnh bin dng to hnh, c ngha l da trn cc c s l thuyt v bin
dng do kim loi.

IV. Nguyn tc thit lp ch cng ngh
Nh trn nu, nh bin dng do ph v t chc c, hn gn cc
khuyt tt do c, to t chc kim loi mi tt hn. C ngha l Bin dng do
tc ng vo bn trong vt liu kim loi, lm thay i trng thi t chc pha v
cu trc ht theo mt ch c nhit. Nh vy, cn tc ng mt t s rn nht
nh ( trn 4~8).
Trong cc phng php bin dng do, dng chy ca kim loi l khng
ng u, phn b ng sut v bin dng l khng u, t ta c cc tnh
nng c l ho khng u ti cc vng khc nhau. i vi cc sn phm thng
dng, nh hng ca bin dng khng u v tnh nng khng u c th b
qua. Nhng i vi cc sn phm qun s, yu cu cht lng cao v ng u
hoc yu cu bo m cht lng cao ti cc vng ch nh, vic nghin cu phn
b ng sut v bin dng l quan trng. T l thuyt, nghin cu dng chy theo
3 chiu xc nh ch to hnh v iu khin tnh nng ca vt liu.
Cc thng s cng ngh ch yu cn xc nh l: lc, tc gia cng v tc
bin dng, ma st tip sc, bin dng, nhit .

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- Trc ht cn nhn dng vt liu. lm c s tnh ton, cn xc nh
c m hnh vt liu trong iu kin bin dng. Cng ngh bin dng da trn
c s kh nng bin dng ca vt liu trong iu kin nhit - tc bin dng.
Nh vy, cn da trn gii hn chy ca vt liu v tnh do ca chng c th
tng bin dng m khng gy ra ph hu vt liu. Cn xc nh thuc tnh bin
dng l n do, n do l tng, n nht... vi vic s dng m hnh tnh ton
cho ph hp.
- Trn c s l thuyt bin dng do, xc nh ch bin dng cho tng
bc hoc tng nguyn cng, cho s bc l t nht v cho t s rn l tt nht.
Mt khc, nh hng ca bin dng do n tnh cht vt l v c hc ca vt liu
lin h cht vi cc yu t cng ngh ti cc nguyn cng cui cng to ra sn
phm. Nh vy cn x l ng mi quan h v tnh k tha v tnh ci bin ca t
chc tnh cht vt liu.
- Nghin cu s chy do ca kim loi cn bit trc cc c trng c hc
ca vt liu, t tnh ton cc thng s bin dng; c ngha l, khng th thit
lp quy trnh cng ngh bin dng khi cha bit kh nng chy do ca chng.
Cc thuc tnh c hc c xc nh bng th ko n, trong iu kin nhit ,
bin dng v tc bin dng ph hp vi iu kin gia cng.
- L thuyt chy do 2 chiu cho php phn tch s phn b ng sut v bin
dng trong bin dng ca phi, nhng cha tch hp c s tc ng , nn
ch c th xc nh cc thng s cng ngh trung bnh. Bin dng do ch c th
sy ra khi tho mn iu kin do nht nh. Tu theo iu kin bin dng, cn
chn iu kin do Von Misses hay Treska-St.Vnant. Trn c s trng phn b
cng ng sut v iu kin do, ta c th bit c s bin dng do ca cc
vng khc nhau v phn tch c s bin dng khng u , tm c lc bin
dng cn thit. Trc y phng php li ng trt l phng php cho php
thy c s bin dng khng u ti cc vng.
- Nay nh s pht trin ca ton hc, c th gii h phng trnh vi phn o
hm ring bng phng php s, phng php phn t hu hn, nn ta c th phn
tch c s phn b kh chnh xc ca trng ng sut v bin dng. Trc y,

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nghin cu trng tc bin dng cng rt kh, nay nh phng php PTHH,
gii bi ton Lagrange, cng c th phn tch trng phn b tc bin dng,
thy c vc t bin dng ti cc im...
- S bin dng trt ca trn b mt tip xc chu nh hng rt ln ca ma
st tip xc, s nh hng ca ma st tip xc b lan truyn vo bn trong bin
dng, cng lm cho s bin dng khng u tng. Mt khc, ma st tip xc ngn
cn kim loi in y lng khun, lm tng k mi mn mt lng khun, tng
tr lc bin dng. Ngy nay tm li gii chnh xc cho bi ton bin dng do,
quan h rt cht vi vic tm ng quy lut tc dng ca ma st tip xc. H s
ma st c th coi l t l gia ng sut tip trn b mt tip xc vi ng sut tip
ln nht, hay l cosin ca gc thot ca ng trt trn mt tip xc.
- S c hc bin dng cng c tc ng rt ln trong xc nh ch cng
ngh. Dng chy do l s chuyn dch theo cc hng ca kim loi. Dng chy
do kim loi c to ra do s dch chuyn ca dng c so vi phi v dng chy
do dch chuyn do kim loi khng nn c, do s trng thi ng sut quyt
nh v hng chy cn theo nh lut tr lc nh nht. S dng phn t biu
din trng thi ng sut ng thi c th dng phn t khi biu din trng thi
bin dng ca mt im.
- Bin dng v hiu ng nhit : Khi bin dng do, mt lng cng bin
dng chuyn thnh nhit. Nhit lng sinh ra ph thuc nhiu yu t, ch yu do
ni ma st, do t chc v cu trc kim loi. Do hiu ng nhit, lm kim loi
chuyn trng thi pha, lm thay i tnh do ca vt liu.
- Tc bin dng: Khi tc bin dng tng, gii hn chy tng v tr lc
bin dng tng. Tnh do ca vt liu cn ph thuc tc bin dng, mt s vt
liu nhy cm i vi tc bin dng, nn khi xc nh cng ngh cn xc nh
thuc tnh do ca vt liu trong iu kin tc bin dng tng ng.

17
Chng 1
C ch bin dng do kim loi v
qu trnh vt l - ho hc khi bin dng do

1.1. Khi nim v bin dng do
1.1.1. Bin dng n hi v do ca kim loi
Trong kim loi, cc nguyn t (in) tn ti lc tc dng tng h, gm cc
lc y v lc ko. Ti mt nhit nht nh chng dao ng quanh v tr cn
bng. Nh vy, vt th tn ti vi mt hnh dng kch thc nht nh. Theo quan
im nng lng, cc nguyn t tn ti v tr nng lng t do thp nht, tu
thuc cu trc tinh th. Cc nguyn t mng tinh th lp phng th tm (LPTT)
c nng lng t do cao hn, trong khi mng lp phng din tm (LPDT),
nng lng t do thp hn.
Di tc dng ca ngoi lc hoc nhit , lm thay i th nng ca nguyn

Hnh 1.1 Biu th nng gia cc nguyn t


18
t, cc nguyn t ri khi v tr cn bng. Ta c th nhn thy thng qua s
thay i kch thc ca vt th. Lc cng ln, nhit cng cao, th nng cng
tng. Nu nng lng lm nguyn t cch xa nhau, khi nng lng khng vt
qua mt gi tr nht nh, ngng ln nht, sau khi thi lc hoc gim nhit, cc
nguyn t quay v v tr ban u.
S dch chuyn ca cc nguyn t to ra s bin dng.
Ngi ta chia ra cc kiu bin dng : bin dng n hi, bin dng do, ph
hu.
Vt th di tc dng ngoi lc b bin dng. Nu sau khi ct ti bin dng b
mt i, vt th tr v hnh dng kch thc ban u, nh khi cha b tc dng lc,
ta gi bin dng l bin dng n hi.
Bin dng n hi ph thuc hai yu t lc v nhit , ta c th biu din:

t
M
R

+ =
(1.1)
trong : M
R
- h s n hi
- h s dn n nhit
t- gia s bin i nhit
Gii phng trnh trn khng n gin, v gi tr bin dng n hi cn
chu nh hng ca nhiu yu t khc, nh v t chc kim loi: dung dch rn
hay hn hp c hc.
Khi tng nng lng t do ca nguyn t vt qua mt gii hn, nguyn t
kim loi chuyn di sang mt v tr mi xa hn v n nh hn, khng tr v v tr
cn bng c khi thi lc tc dng. Tng s dch chuyn ca cc nguyn t sang v
tr mi to nn mt bin dng d, hay mt s thay i hnh dng v kch thc
vt th, gi l bin dng do, hay bin dng d. to nn s dch chuyn sang
v tr mi khng gy nn s ph hu cc mi lin kt, phi bo m trong qu
trnh cc nguyn t dch chuyn khong cch gia cc nguyn t khng c vt
qu kch thc vng lc tc dng tng h ko gia cc nguyn t (hnh 1.1). Khi
ct ti, bin dng sau khi bin dng do, cc nguyn t c xu th chim v tr cn

19
bng mi, thit lp li mi quan h v lin kt gia cc nguyn t. Nhng bin
dng do khng lm thay i th tch ca vt th bin dng.
1.1.2. Ph hu
Ph hu l ngoi s thay i hnh dng v kch thc ca vt th di tc
dng ca ngoi lc, sau khi ct ti chng khng cn gi nguyn lin kt ban u
gia cc nguyn t hoc cc phn. Ph hu l nt, gy, v mi lin kt gia cc
nguyn t do ng sut ko gy nn.
Cn phn bit khi nim bin dng do v ph hu.
1.2. C ch bin dng do - Trt v s chuyn ng ca lch
1.2.1. Bin dng do n tinh th
a. Trt v c ch bin dng trt.
Bin dng do kim loi c thc hin bng cch trt hoc song tinh, l
mt qu trnh chuyn dch song song tng i, khng ng thi gia hai phn
(lp) rt nh ca mng tinh th. Qu trnh trt xy ra t t theo mt mt v
phng nht nh v u tin cho nhng mt v phng c gc nh hng vi
ngoi lc thun li, sao cho ng sut tip ln nht trn mt v phng ln hn
mt gi tr gii hn.

Hnh 1.2
Trt gia
cc mt tinh th

Trt l mt qu trnh chuyn ng tng i gia hai phn tinh th, y
s chuyn dch tng i bao hm mt lot mt hoc lp mng to thnh di
trt, nhng vng trung gian gia cc mt trt khng c bin dng. Thc
nghim cho thy, khong cch gia cc mt trt c gi tr khong 1m, trong
khi khong cch gia cc lp nguyn t khong 1 - 10 m. Trt xy ra trn


20
mt vng, to thnh mt mt, chiu dy ca mt bng ng knh nguyn t. Mt
ny c gi l mt trt, mt ny lun song song vi mt tinh th. Trt ch xy
ra trn mt s mt v phng tinh th nht nh. Trn phng v mt tinh th ny
thng c mt nguyn t dy c nht hay trn c lc lin kt gia cc
nguyn t l ln nht, so vi mt v phng khc. Trt phi khc phc lc tc
dng tng h gia cc mt tinh th ( gia cc nguyn t trn 2 mt nguyn t).
Phng trt l phng c khong cch gia cc nguyn t l nh nht.
Trt xy ra di tc dng ca ng sut tip, sao cho cc dy nguyn t
trong qu trnh trt vn gi c mi lin kt. Nu khng cn mi lin kt ,
bin dng do s dn n ph hu. Bt k mt kiu mng tinh th no, trt xy ra
trn mt mt trt v theo mt s phng trt nht nh. Tng hp mt trt -
phng trt c gi l h trt.
Bng 1.1
Mng Mt trt Phng trt Vect BERGET S h trt
LP tm mt {111} <110> a/2<110> 4x3=12

LP tm khi
{110}
{112}
{123}

<111>

a/2<111>
6x2= 12
12x1=12
24x1=24
Su phng
xp cht
{0001}
{1011}
> < 0 2 11
<1100>

a<110>
1x3 =3
6x1 =6

Hnh 1.3 Mt trt v phng trt, biu Schmid

21
Kt qu ca trt lm xut hin s bin i hnh dng tinh th, xut hin cc
gii trt trn b mt v lm thay i tnh cht vt l ca vt liu (nht l tnh cht
c hc). Mt h trt tham gia qu trnh bin dng khi ng sut tip sinh ra do
ngoi lc tc dng trn mt trt v phng trt vt qu mt gi tr ng sut
tip gii hn ph thuc vo kt cu vt liu v nhit . Theo Schmid ng sut
tip tc dng ln phng trt trong mt mt trt c tnh theo cng thc:
cos . cos
S
F
0
= (1.2)
H trt c hot ng khi:
=. Cos.Cos =
C
(1.3)
trong : = F/S
o

- gc gia phng ca lc v phng tinh th;
- gc gia phng ca lc v mt tinh th.
S
0
- din tch mt ct ban u ca mu.
Trong trng hp chung, h trt hot ng khi ng sut tip tc ng ln
hn gi tr ng sut tip ti hn ph thuc cu trc tinh th, nhit v sch
ca vt liu. Vt liu c dng mng lp phng din tm c
C
nh hn ca vt
liu c mng lp phng th tm. Vt liu cng sch, ht cng nh, gii hn n
hi cng nh, th
C
cng nh.

Hnh 1.4. ng sut tip gii
hn ph thuc kiu mng v
nhit


22
Bng 1.2 cho s liu v ng sut trt ti hn ph thuc cu trc vt liu,
sch ca mt s kim loi nguyn cht nhit thng.
Bng 1.2
Kim loi sch % Mt trt Phng trt
S
C,
MN/m
2

Ag 99,999 {111} <110> 0,38
Al 99,994 {111} <110> 0,8
Cu 99,98 {111} <110> 0,5
Fe 99,96 {110}
{112}
<111> 28
Mo Sch {110}
{112}
<111> 73
Zn 99,96
99,999
{0001}
{0001}
<1120>
<1120>
0,96
0,18
Cd 99,96 {0001} <1120> 0,58
Ti 99,9990 {1010} <1120> 14

Gi tr ng sut ti hn bin i theo nhit v sch ca Niken c ghi
bng 1.3.
Vi tinh th bc c sch 99,999; 99,97 v 99,93% , cc gi tr ca ng
sut tip ti hn nhit thng l 0,48; 0,73; v 1,9 MN/m
2
.
Bng 1.3
Nhit
S
C,
MN/m
2
vi sch, %
0
K 99,9 99,98
20 - 9-11
180-195 13,6 7,5-8,5
290-300 10,4 3,3-7,5
508 9,7 -

Trong mt s nghin cu, a ra cng thc tnh ng sut trt ti hn ph
thuc thnh phn, vi n tinh th mng lp phng din tm.

23

. . k
dC
d
n C
=
(1.4)
trong :
C
-

ng sut trt ti hn, MN/m
2
; C - nng nguyn t; k -
hng s;
dC
da
.
a
1
=
; a - hng s mng; n = 2 , h s thc nghim.
Bin dng do trt c th xc nh theo gi tr ca vct Berget:

p
= . b.x (1.5)
trong : - mt lch;
b - vect Berget;
x - dch chuyn trung bnh ca lch.

b.Trt do chuyn ng ca lch
1. Lc PAIER-NABARRO
Nu c 2 mt tinh th ( mt trt) khc nhau, h l khong cch gia cc mt
nguyn t, b l vc t BERGET . Khi lp nguyn t chuyn dch mt khong
cch x cn tc dng mt ng sut tip l :

b
x
.
b
x
sin .
c c

2 2
=
; (1.6)
trong :
C
- ng sut cho php trt ca vt liu.
Thy rng, nu nguyn t bin dng chuyn dch mt on x, s cho lng
bin dng n hi ln nht l
h
x
. Vy, mun nguyn t dch chuyn th gi tr
ng sut trt phi t ti gi tr l:
;
h
x
. G =
(1.7)
Ti na chu k u ca bin dng vi x<<b :
b
x .
.
h
x
. G
c

2
= =
(1.8)

24
Vy
h .
b . G
c
2
= (1.9)
Do tnh cht ca hng s mng nn:
b h , vy
C
=G/ 2 (1.10)
Thay vo biu thc u ta c:
b
x
sin .
h .
b G
2
2
=
(1.11)
l biu thc tnh ng sut
trt PAIER-NABARRO. Ta c th
dng biu thc ny tnh gn ng
s x lch mng tinh th quanh trc
lch mng.

2. Tnh cht bin dng
Bin dng do sy ra khi s dch
chuyn khng thun nghch ca cc
khuyt tt mng: l chuyn dch
ca cc lch mng.
Lng dch chuyn tng i
gia 2 phn ca mng tinh th , l
kt qu ca dch chuyn tch lu
i

ca 1 lch khi lch chuyn dch
qua ht tinh th (hnh 1.6). C ngha
n chuyn dch 1 khong cch bng
vect BERGET b.
chuyn v
i
( i vi lch trn
on x
i
, t l vi khong cch t i
x
i
/L, trong L l chiu di ca mng
tinh th.

Hnh 1.5. Biu quan h lc, nng
lng v chuyn v

25
Vy 1 <
L
x
i
;
b
L
x
. b
i
i
< =
do , =
i
=
L
b
. x
i
;
N : s lng lch tham gia chuyn dch
Bin dng trt v m

= =
i
x .
L . h
b
h
(1.12)
Ta c th thay gi tr chuyn dch trung bnh ca 1 lch

=
i
i
x
N
x

Vi gi tr b = h = 1
Vy ta c bin dng ring l :
= b. N. x (1.13)
N c th c trng cho mt lch, bng hng s ng lch, ct trong mt
n v din tch trong mt mt tinh th.
Vy tc bin dng c th tnh bng vi phn bin dng gc :

T .
A
o
e V V
V . N . b
dt
d
=
=
(1.14)
trong : V - tc trung bnh ca chuyn ng lch, khng vt qu
tc truyn m;
V
0
- tc thuyn m thanh trong vt liu;
A - hng s;
- ng sut tip do ngoi lc tc ng;
T - nhit (tuyt i) ca vt liu.


26

Hnh 1.6. Lch ng

Ch phn bit chuyn ng ca lch theo phng vung gc vi trc lch
v phng song song vi trc lch.
Trong thc t c nhiu dng x lch mng. S trt c th sy ra mt phn
mt trt ny hay mt phn ca mt trt khc. Khi chng to nn mt bc
gia chng hay gi l bc nhy, nu chng c cng mt hng, cng mt gi tr
vc t BERGET.
Vy, nng lng ca bc c tnh bng G. b
2
.
S trt ca lch trong mt trt thng i theo ng zich zc. Trong mng
LPDT phng d trt nht l <110> v vc t Berget bng a/2<110>. Nu cu
trc nh m hnh hnh 1. 7 th mt dy c l {111} v phng trt l b
1
= a/2
[101].
Nh vy lch s chuyn ng theo 2 giai on:
b
2
= a/6 [211] b
3
= [112] [211] [112]

27

3. Nng lng v tnh n hi ca lch
Nng lng lch xon: T trc tm lch
xon r
0
, gi th cch tm mt khong r vi
chiu rng b (vect BERGET b), bin dng
to nn do trng ng sut ca lch xon
dn n lm x lch vng xon c v lm
dch chuyn mt khong b/2 . Bin dng ti
c ly r ca lch xon AB bng
r
b
2
, ng
sut to ra bin dng bng G.
r
b
2
,
dch chuyn tuyt i l do lc tc dng t 0 n P.
Nng lng bin dng bng
1
2
P l . .
trong :
1
2
P - gi tr lc trung bnh.
Mt nng lng bin dng ( nng lng trong 1 n v th tch) :
. .
l . F
l
. P
V
l
. P

2
1
2
1
2
1
= = (1.15)
trong : - ng sut tc dng;
- bin dng
V - th tch V= F.L

Vy mt nng lng l
. )
r
b
.( G
r
b
.
r
b
. G
2
2 2
1
2 2 2
1

= (1.16)

Hnh 1.7 Vect chuyn v


28

Hnh 1.8. Nng lng n hi lch ng
v xon

Ta c th xc nh nng lng ti mt vnh khn c chiu dy dr, vi bn
knh trong l r, bn knh ngoi r+dr , vi lng bin dng ca "xi lanh" l
r
b
2
. Th tch ca "xi lanh" vi 1 n v chiu cao l 2.r.dr .

4. Lc tc dng gia cc lch:
Nng lng ring ca lch th nht l E
1
;
Nng lng ring ca lch th hai l E
2
;
Nng lng tc ng gia 2 lch l E
3
; E
3
c tnh nh sau :

= dA ). U . T ( E
2 1 3
2
1
(1.17)
trong : A - din tch b mt trt; T
1
- lc tc dng; U
2
- dch chuyn
ca b mt trt; E
3
- cng ca ngoi lc.

= dA ). U . T ( W
2 1
(1.18)
Gi thit : lch ca 1 n v chiu di vi phng trt x, khi trn n v
chiu di chu lc tc dng l :
) U . T (
A
W
x
W
F
2 1
= = =
(1.19)


29
Nu trong mt trt phng trt tc dng mt lc vi cng sut lch b, ta
s c quan h MOTTA-NABARRO :
F = . b (1.20)
Trng hp gia cc lch bin song song vi vect Berget b
E = E
1
+ E
2
+ E
3

Trong trng hp T
1
=
xy
; U
2
= b th :

= dA . b . E
xy
3
(1.21)
. b . dA . b .
x A
E
x
E
F
xy xy

= = = =
3 3
(1.22)
Nu T
1
=
xx
, U
2
= b ;
Vy :
= dA . b . E
xx
3
(1.23)
F
y
=
xx
. b ; (1.24)
trong :
xx
,
xy
l ng sut tip theo phng x v xy.
Vy ta c th xc nh gi tr lc :

2 2 2
2 2 2
1 2
) y x (
) y x ( x
.
) ( .
Gb
F
x
+
=

(1.25a)
2 2 2
2 2 2
3
1 2
) y x (
) y x ( y
.
) ( .
Gb
F
y
+
+
=

(1.25b)
Biu din bng to cc :
F
r
= F
x
.Cos + F
y
.Sin = .
r
.
) ( .
b . G 1
1 2
2

(1.26a)
F
= F
y
.Cos + F
x
.Sin = .
r
sin
.
) ( .
b . G

2
1 2
2
(1.26b)
Nng lng bin dng c xc nh bng cng thc :
dr . r . . )
r
b
.( G
2
2 2
1
2
(1.27)

30
Nng lng ton b ca lch xon c xc nh :

= =
= =
r
dr
.
b . G
dr . r . . )
r
b
.( G E
n xo
4
2
2 2
1
2
2

0
2
4 r
R
ln .
.
b . G
= (1.28)
5. Nng lng lch ng ( bin) :
Nng lng ca lch ng cng c tnh nh lch xon. c im ring l
chng khng i xng: 1/2 chu lc nn, 1/2 chu lc ko.
tnh ton ta s dng m hnh bin dng phng.
W=0 ;

du
dz
dv
dz
= = 0.
Gi thit c ng sut php tc dng theo trc x v y, vy ng sut tip
xy
v
yx
tc dng dc theo trc x mt phng vung gc vi trc y (hoc ngc li ).

r
R
ln
) (
Gb
E
n bi

1 4
2
(1.29)
Gi tr nng lng ln hn lch xon 1/(1- ) =1.4

( )
=
+
+
=
+
=
+
=
) (
Gb
D
y x
y x
D
;
) y x (
y x
D
;
) y x (
y x
D
y
x xy
y
y x

1 2
3
2 2 2
2 2
2 2 2
2 2
2
2 2
2
(1.30)
Ta thy
xy
i du ti v tr gia khi x<y v y<x.

31

6. Tng
tc gia cc lch :
Trong trng hp mt loi lch phn b ti v tr khc nhau theo phng ca
mt trt, chng c th y hoc ko nhau, th d tng tc gia 2 lch D v O
trong mt AB v EF.
Nu OC<<CD, vy lch O y D; lc ny D v O c th coi nm trn cng
mt mt trt.

Hnh 1.10
Tng tc gia cc
lch

Nu OC >>CD, lch O ko lch D; kt qu c th lm cho D v O nm trn
mt ng gia 2 blc ht.

Hnh 1.9 ng sut vng lch


32
Lc tc dng tng h trong lch bin l khng i xng.
7. S co ko ca cc ng lch
Nng lng ca lch xon phn b nh trong mt vt hnh ng di L c bn
knh ngoi R bn knh trong r
0
:
0
2
0
2
1 4
4
r
R
ln .
) (
L
. Gb E
r
R
ln .
L
. Gb E
n bi
n xo

=
=
(1.31)

Khi 2 lch ho trn nhau chng c
th nm theo ng thng, cc thnh
phn vung gc vi vect BERGET
hoc dng bc. Trong trng hp hn
hp ng vect BERGET v cc lch
thnh phn vung gc vi nhau, nn
gia cc lch thnh phn khng c lc
tc ng n hi. Nng lng lch hn
hp bng tng nng lng ring ca
tng lch thnh phn.

Cng sut ca lch bin l b.Sin , ca lch xon l b.Cos :
]. cos . [
r
R
ln .
) (
L
. Gb
] cos . b sin . b .[
r
R
ln .
L
. G E
hnhp

2
0
2
2 2 2 2
0
1
1 4
1 4
=
= +
=
(1.32)
l gc gia vec t BERGET vi trc ca lch hn hp.
Tc chuyn ng ca lch

T
E
e ). ( f v
= (1.33)

Hnh 1.11 Bin dng n hi
quanh lch xon


33
trong : E - nng lng tch cc (ca LiF : 1,2.10
-19
j, 0,7 tV).
c. S hnh thnh lch
Trong n tinh th, lch hnh thnh trong qu trnh kt tinh v trong qu trnh
bin dng do. Trong qu trnh kt tinh, c th hnh thnh cc phn tinh th c
nh hng khc nhau. Hnh 1.12 biu din 2 blc tinh th c nh hng khc
nhau. Gia chng hnh thnh cc lch. S hnh thnh lch c th sy ra trong qu
trnh ln ln ca tinh th. Chng ln ln bng cch xp cc khi phn t theo m
hnh xon v to lch xon, do nguyn l nng lng nh nht.

Hnh 1.12 Lch hnh
thnh gia cc blc tinh
th

Hnh 1.13 Ngun lch Prng-Rit v qu trnh hnh thnh lch


34
Khi mt trc lch b ngm 2 u, chu tc dng ca ng sut tip , trc lch
b un cong v thnh hnh trc lch c dng cung (h1.13). Sau khi chu un, di
tc dng ca ng sut tip, cung lch hnh thnh vng lch v trc lch thng li
xut hin nh lc u. Nh vy, sau mt qu trnh chu ng sut tip, lch chuyn
ng v hnh thnh cc vng lch, c nh vy, cc vng lch ln lt hnh thnh
v kt qu ta c cc vng lch "ng tm".
Lch chuyn ng vi tc nht nh, gi tr ca chng ph thuc vo ng
sut tip tc dng v nhit . Thc nghim kim loi nguyn cht cho bit, vi
tc bin dng nh, ng sut tip tc dng nh, s chuyn ng ca lch ph
thuc s gia ng nhit ca cc nguyn t. Khi tng ng sut, nh hng ca giao
ng nhit n s chuyn ng ca lch gim.
Tc chuyn ng ca lch c th xc nh bng cng thc:

T
A
o lch
e v v

=
(1.34)
Trong : v
lch
- tc chuyn ng ca lch; v
o
- tc m trong vt liu
nghin cu; A - hng s vt liu; - ng sut tip tc dng; T - nhit tuyt i.
Nh vy, ng sut tip tc dng tng lm tng cng tng tc chuyn
ng ca lch, tc chuyn ng ca lch ln nht c th t n tc truyn
m trong vt th.

2. Song tinh
Song tinh cng c thc hin nh s trt theo mt mt v phng tinh
th nht nh, trong trng hp nhit thp, tc bin dng ln. S trt xy
ra song song nh tnh tin mt ln ca cc mt tinh th vi khong trt t l vi
khong cch gia mt tinh th vi vi mt song tinh, kt qu tinh th bin dng
tr nn i xng gng vi phn tinh th khng bin dng, qua mt song tinh.
c im bin dng song tinh: Dch chuyn cc nguyn t t l vi khong cch
mt song tinh, cng xa mt song tinh, dch chuyn cng ln, nhng, khng qu 1
khong cch nguyn t. Bin dng do do song tinh rt nh.

35
Song tinh sy ra vi tc ln trn mt v phng nht nh, ng thi lm
thay i nh hng ca tinh th. Song tinh sy ra khi bin dng trt kh khn.
Song tinh c xc nh bng mt song tinh, phng song tinh v t sut
song tinh. Cng nh trt, song tinh cng tn ti cc h song tinh. H ny ph
thuc cu trc vt liu.
Bng 1.1
Cu trc mng Mt
tinh th
Phng song
tinh
T sut song
tinh
LP tm mt {111} <112> 0.707
LP tm khi {112} <111> 0.707
Su phng xp
cht
{102} <101> <0.150

Hnh 1.12. Song tinh
Khi bin dng theo c ch song tinh, cng nh trng hp trt, song tinh
sy ra khi ng sut tip t n mt gi tr ti hn, ng sut ny thay i theo cu
trc tinh th v nhit . Trong mng lp phng th tm, song tinh l kiu bin
dng ch yu nhit thp. Trong h mng lp phng din tm, ca song tinh
lun ln hn ca trt, nn thng khng thy song tinh mng ny.


36

Trong h mng su mt xp cht,
t sut song tinh rt nh. Song tinh
l phng thc bin dng do ch yu
ca cc kim loi theo h mng ny.
Cc mt song tinh quan st c l
nhng mt n, cc mt ct nhau ti
mt phn gii ca nn hay song tinh
vi b mt mu. Ti phn gii song
tinh do s hnh thnh nn kt kiu pha
cng sinh gia cc nguyn t nn v
nguyn t song tinh. c
trng ny phn gii song
tinh dn n nng lng
lin kt thp hn so vi
trng hp khng cng sinh.
V vy song tinh trong cu
trc kim loi mt i rt kh
khn v phi nung ln nhit
cao. T l nng lng trn
n v b mt vi bin pha
cng sinh c ngha l song
tinh vi nng lng b mt
n v i vi b mt thng
thng khng pha cng sinh
cng nh th xc sut to nn
song tinh cng ln, v chng
cng n nh.
i vi ng t s l

Hnh 1.13 Quan h
c
song tinh v
nhit , Tc nhit chuyn t song
tinh sang trt

Hnh 1.14 S trt ca cc nguyn t khi song
tinh

37
0,05; nhm l 0,2. Nh vy c ngha l vic thy song tinh ng d hn nhm.
C ch song tinh bin dng rt hp v chng c dng ng m khng dng di
nh trt. Trong mt s kim loi mng lp phng th tm hoc su mt xp cht
song tinh th hin nh nhng di rt mnh. Vi ng La tng, s xut hin song
tinh bin dng thy ngay khi mi v nh bng trc khi tm thc. Trong cc hp
kim d nng chy nh thic, km, cat mi, ch, nhit sinh ra trong qu trnh mi v
nh bng to song tinh v lm kt tinh li song tinh.
Trong trng hp cn quan st, nghin cu song tinh ca cc kim loi ny
phi dng phng php ct, mi mu, nh bng ho hc v in ho. Song tinh
khng bao gi ct qua phn gii ht, i khi kt thc bn trong ht, n khng n
c ti phn gii ht. Lc ng sut to song tinh c th li to ra c song
tinh th hai bn cnh, bt u ngay phn phn gii .

3. Trt phc tp
Trong kim loi lp phng din tm, c mt s mt trt v phng trt.
Tu mc bin dng, phng v gia lc v mt trt thay i, rt c th xy ra
s trt h trt mi, m khng gy ra ph hu. Bt u t mt mc bin
dng no , xy ra c hai h trt tc dng tng h vi nhau, mt trt mi ct
mt trt c. l hin tng trt song song. Trt song song khin lm tng
tr lc bin dng. im giao gia hai mt trt l ch to nn l hng hay vt
nt t vi v chnh sinh ra v lm ph hoi vt liu.

4. C ch khuych tn:
Bin dng do cn tun theo c ch khuych tn. C ch khuych tn bao
gm qu trnh khuych tn v qu trnh t khuych tn. S dch chuyn ca cc
nguyn t c th thc hin bng cch dn dn thay in vo nhng ch trng
trong mng tinh th. S dch chuyn ny c tnh la chn, c ngha l dch chuyn
theo hng c ng sut tip ln nht, c cng ln nht. Khi nhit tng, do

38
dao ng nhit, nguyn t ri v tr cn bng ban u n mt v tr mi. S
chuyn di cc nguyn t c th theo hai c ch c bn:
a. C ch xen k: Cc nguyn t nh, di tc dng ca nhit v ng sut, c
th dch chuyn t l hng ny ca mng sang l hng khc (nh C,H,O,M...).
b. C ch thay th: i vi cc nguyn t cn li, chng c th dch chuyn
bng cch thay th cc nguyn t trn nt mng - Nu trn mng c nhiu nt
khuyt, qu trnh khuych tn theo c ch ny cng thun li. Khi nhit cao,
di tc dng ca trng thi ng sut 3 chiu khng u, cc nguyn t s dch
chuyn theo phng gradien ng sut ln nht, t v tr cn bng ny sang v tr
cn bng khc n nh hn. S chuyn di nh hng khng thun nghch cc
nguyn t l s bin dng, l tnh do nhit ca vt liu.
C ch bin dng
khuych tn l c ch bin
dng duy nht i vi vt th
phi tinh th, cht lng nht,
nh trong trng hp p kim
loi bn lng, khi vt liu
nhit nng chy. i vi
vt th kt tinh, c hai c
ch bin dng cng tn ti
v tng tc vi nhau. Trong
ni b tinh th hp kim dng
dung dch rn xen k, nguyn
t cc cht tan to ra nhng
trng ng sut quanh n.
Trng ng sut ny tc
ng vi trng ng ng sut
ca lch v trng thi ng
sut; kt qu lm cc nguyn

Hnh 1.15. C ch bin dng khuych tn


39
t cht tan tp trung li, hoc y khi trng lch, sinh ra hin tng khuych
tn v gim s lng l khuyt trong mng tinh th. Khi bin dng do, di tc
dng ca trng ng sut, lch chuyn dch lm thay i nng cht tan trong
mng. Trong mt vi tinh th ca kim loi, to nn mt s cn bng mi. Xung
quanh lch hnh thnh mt nhm nguyn t, c thnh phn khc thnh phn ca
mng. Khi lch dch chuyn, nhm nguyn t ny c xu hng dch chuyn theo
lch, lm cc nguyn t cht tan khuych tn vo kim loi. S dch chuyn ny
khng thun nghch, nn lm nng lng bn trong mt i. Do c cc nhm
nguyn t ny, tc dch chuyn ca lch gim.
Lc cn dch chuyn lch b nhm nguyn t cht tan bao vy do tc
bin dng do quyt nh. Nu tc chuyn ca lch nh hn tc khuych
tn ca cht tan to thnh nhm nguyn t, th s tn ti ca nhm nguyn t ny
khng nh hng n lc dch chuyn lch, nn cng khng nh hng n lc
to bin dng. Nu tc dch chuyn lch ln hn tc khuych tn ca nhm
nguyn t cht tan, do nhm nguyn t quanh lch bm theo, nn cn phi c lc
ln hn mi lm lch chuyn ng. Trong trng hp mng c nhiu l hng v
b x lch nh trn mt phn gii ht, th qu trnh khuych tn cng mnh.
Thng phn gii cc blc v cc ht, c nhiu cc l hng , nn y rt kh
to nn lch chuyn ng. Do vy, ch c th do khuych tn dch chuyn
nguyn t to nn bin dng do. Mt khc, c ch khuych tn bin dng do ch
c th sinh ra phn gii ht c tc dng ca ng sut trt. Ni chung, do nh
hng ca dao ng nhit, nguyn t khuych tn c th theo phng bt k.
Nhng di tc dng ca ng sut, s khuych tn ca cc nguyn t c tnh nh
hng. Trong kim loi cng nghip, hnh dng ca ht tinh th khng theo quy
tc. Do s nh hng ca mt gh gh ca ht bn cnh lm ngng qu trnh
khuych tn. Nhng sau khi thi bin dng trt, b mt gh gh b gim bt,
di tc dng ca ng sut d, c th lm khi phc li qu trnh bin dng do
khuych tn.

40
1.3. Bin dng do ngui a tinh th:
"a tinh th" l vt th kt tinh, gm nhiu ht tinh th a cnh, trong mi
ht c s sp xp nguyn t theo trt t quy lut, b mt ht hay cn gi l phn
gii ht c cu trc phi tinh th. Mi mt ht c mt nh hng ring. Do ht
tinh th rt nh, vt th bao gm rt nhiu ht, nn theo xc sut vt liu a tinh
th c tnh ng hng. S bin dng do trong a tinh th, trc ht l s bin
dng trong ni b cc ht v sau l s chuyn dch tng i gia cc ht. S
bin dng trong mt ht cng theo c ch ni trn: trt - song tinh, nh bin
dng do n tinh th (h.1.16a).
Nhng v tn ti phn gii ht, nn c mt s c im bin dng ring. Do
mt trt cc ht ring l ca a tinh th c nh hng bt k trong khng gian,
khi c tc dng ca ngoi lc, c th c s mt trt s ht ny c nh hng
thun li cho s trt nn xy ra trt, cn mt trt c nh hng khng thun
li cho s trt cc ht khc s khng trt. Ni cch khc, di tc dng ca
ngoi lc, khng phi l tt c cc ht u c th tham gia qu trtnh trt bin
dng. C ht bin dng do, c ht bin dng n hi, c ht dch chuyn. Khi
ko nn n, nh hng thun li nht cho cc ht bin dng do u tin l
cc mt trt v phng trt lm vi lc mt gc 45
0
. Do trt tin hnh
phng chu tc dng ca ng sut tip ln nht, nn ta c th quan st ng
trt xut hin trn b mt ca vt liu bin dng c nh bng.

Hnh 1. 16a. Trt trong ht

Hnh 1.16b Bin dng quay trong a tinh th

41
Ngoi lc bin dng tng, ng sut tip tc ng ln mt trt v phng
trt tng. Khi chng t gi tr cn thit bin dng do lm cho ht tinh th
trt. Sau lan truyn dn sang cc ht khc, lm tng s ht tham gia bin
dng. Ti thi im ny to nn gii hn chy khi ko nn. S nh hng khc
nhau ca cc mt trt, phng trt v hng trt khc nhau ca cc ht cn k
dn n s tc ng tng h gia cc ht. Nh vy, mt phn cc b trn b
mt ca ht, ng sut tc dng tng ln, to nn tc ng b tr cho s hnh thnh
v chuyn ng ca lch. Mt khc, lc c th to thnh mt ngu lc, lm
quay ht (h.1.16b). Kt qu l, nh hng ca mt v phng tinh th thay i,
c th c li cho vic trt ca ht tinh th b quay. Tng bin dng theo chiu
ko di tc dng ca ng sut ln hn gii hn chy, khin tinh th b ko di
theo phng bin dng mnh nht, l iu kin to nn t chc th trong
kim loi.
S quay ca ht dn n s hnh thnh t chc tctua, phng kt tinh ca
kim loi c xu hng quay sao cho chng song song vi nhau. bin dng do
tng ln, s khc bit theo phng v ca ht bin dng gim. Cc mt trt c xu
th trng vi phng chy ln nht ca kim loi. iu dn n khi lng bin
dng tng ln, xut hin s nh hng ca trc kt tinh ca ht a tinh th. l
tctua bin dng. Tctua lm tng tnh d hng ca tinh th.
Bin dng do a tinh th cng c th tun theo c ch khuych tn nh
hng cc nguyn t tp cht. Cc nguyn t tp cht lm thay i cc b thng
s mng v nh nu trn, chng tp trung quanh trng lch, v tc ng vo s
chuyn ng ca lch. Cc tp cht khc c th to khuyt tt im ngn tr s
chyn ng ca lch, lm tng qu trnh ho bn. Bin dng do do khuych tn
cng nh trt lm thay i hnh dng kch thc ht. Nht l vng bin ht.
bin gii ht c mt lp qu , c chiu dy khong 4-5 khong cch nguyn t,
khng c sp xp nh trong tinh th. S sp xp khng trt t phn gii ht l
do s tc ng tng h ca cc nguyn t gia cc ht. B mt a cnh gh gh.
Trn lp nguyn t phn gii ht c nhiu tp cht nn tnh cht c l ho ca

42
phn gii ht khc vi phn tinh th bn trong ht. Do khng c sp xp trt t,
theo quy lut nn cc nguyn t khng trng thi nhit ng hc thp nht.
Chnh v vy, tnh di chuyn tt hn so vi nguyn t bn trong ht. S
chuyn ng tng i cn t nng lng hn hay cn ng sut tip nh hn. Kh
nng dch chuyn tng i b mt ht khng ln so vi bn trong ht (v do
chuyn ng ca lch). S dch chuyn ca cc nguyn t trn phn gii ht kh
khn hn, v s tn ti ca tp cht v s sp xp khng quy lut.
Ch yu s bin dng phn gii ht
theo c ch khuych tn. Khi tng nhit ,
bn phn gii ht gim, nht l khi nhit
gn nhit nng chy, lc lin kt ti
phn gii ht gim, bin dng trc ht do
trt tng i gia cc ht.
Khi bin dng gia cc ht tinh th xy
ra phn gii hn, thng gy ra vt nt t
vi, sau pht trin thnh vt nt th i v
dn n ph hu a tinh th. Trong trng
hp c cc nguyn t hp kim, lm tng lc
lin kt gia cc nguyn t trn phn gii
ht v gim cc khuyt tt mng, bn phn gii ht tng. Mun bin dng
phn gii ht, cn tc dng mt ngoi lc ln hn.
S chuyn dch tng i gia cc ht tinh th c th theo cc dng khc
nhau. Khi hai ht trt tng i c th km theo s ph v lin kt gia cc ht.
a s s ph v ny khng hi phc c. Tng mc bin dng to thnh vt
v dn. Do tn ti qu trnh kt tinh li, cng c th hi phc li mi lin kt b
ph hoi gia cc ht. Trong qu trnh bin dng do nhit cc b tng, lm mt
s tp cht tan vo nhau. Khi ngui chng li tit ra phn gii ht. Do tc dng
tng h gia cc pha lm vt nt t vi cc b c hn gn li. Ht cng nh, s
lan truyn bin dng vo trong tinh th d dng hn, s quay ca ht tinh th t
hn. Nu phn gii ht c ho bn bng cc nguyn t hp kim, bin dng

Hnh 1.17 bn bn trong
ht (2) v phn gii ht (1)

43
cng s sy ra nhiu bn trong tinh th, bin dng do phn gii ht khng ng
k. Nhng nu phn gii ht c cc hp cht d nng chy, hoc b qu nhit,
bin dng do phn gii ht rt d dng lm tng nhanh qu trnh ph hu.
S nh hng khc nhau ca cc mt trt trong ht a tinh th v s khc
nhau v gi tr bin dng n hi v bin dng do ca cc ht ring bit dn n
s xut hin ng sut d loi 2 khi ct ti, ng sut d loi 2 l ng sut tc ng
gia cc ht. C ch to ng sut d loi 2 nh sau: Thnh phn bin dng n
hi trong cc ht theo hng cc mt trt u tin nh hn so vi cc mt trt c
nh hng khng u tin. Khi ct ti, s thay i n hi kch thc ca cc ht
c nh hng mt trt u tin ln hn s thay i n hi kch thc ca cc
ht c nh hng mt trt khng u tin. Nhng sau khi thi lc tc dng, bin
dng vt a tinh th l nh nhau. Kt qu to nn ng sut d trn cc ht. Mt s
ht gi li mt phn ng sut xut hin khi t ti, mt s ht khc chu ng sut
c du ngc vi du ca ng sut sinh ra khi t ti.

1.4. Ho bn khi bin dng do ngui v ng cong bin
Dng
1.4.1. Hin tng bin cng ngui
Bin dng do kim loi lm thay i t chc v tnh cht c - l - ho ca vt
liu. Khi tng bin dng lm tng cc ch tiu c hc chng bin dng: tng
gii hn n hi, tng gii hn t l, tng gii hn chy v tng gii hn bn.
ng thi bin dng do lm gim cc ch tiu do: dn di t i, co tht
t i, dai va chm, tng in tr, gim kh nng chng n mn, gim t tnh
trong vt liu t. Tng hp tt c cc hin tng lin quan n tnh cht c l ho
thay i trong qu trnh bin dng do vt liu gi l bin cng. Do bin cng,
lm ng sut chy tng. ng sut chy tng theo tng ca bin dng. Trn
th ng cong bin cng gc tip tuyn ca ng cong vi trc bin dng c
gi l h s bin cng. H s bin cng do tnh cht ca mng, c tnh sp xp
ca mng, t chc ca kim loi v tc bin dng quyt nh.

44
a. nh hng ca tnh cht ca mng
Cc ng cong bin cng ca cc kim loi khc nhau biu din hnh di
y.

Hnh 1.19 ng cong bin cng
ca Latn

Bin cng trong kim loi mng lp phng din tm (LPDT) ln hn bin
cng ca mng su mt. Do mng tinh th LPDM c mt s nhm mt bt din
nn sinh ra song trt, tng ng nhit nng ca cc nguyn t, hn na do c
song trt tc dng ct nhau, to khuyt tt, nn c h s bin cng ln hn
trng hp trt n gin. Tu theo tng ca tp cht (NTHK) h s bin cng
gim. Nguyn nhn ch yu do tc dng ngc, kh nhau gia s x lch mng
gy ra xung quanh mt trt v s x lch do cc nguyn t tp cht gy ra. Kt
qu lm bin cng gim. i vi mng lp phng din tm , s x lch mng
do cc nguyn t tp cht gy ra lm tng h s trt c th tham gia trt, ng
thi lm qu trnh song trt gim, v vy bin cng gim.

Hnh 1.18. Quan h ng sut v bin
dng ca mt s vt liu


45
b. nh hng ca c tnh sp xp ca cc nguyn t trong mng
c tnh sp xp ca cc nguyn t trong mng thng quyt nh nhit
v iu kin nhit luyn. Th d, hp cht ho hc xen k 400
0
C thng c
mng lp phng din tm. V nguyn t vng v ng to thnh dung dch rn
khng trt t, chng nm cc v tr khc nhau khng theo mt th t quy lut.
Khi ti nhit cao chng gi nguyn cu trc.
Hnh 1.20. ch r ng cong ko ca Au - Cu
trng thi sp xp c trt t, ng 1, sau khi
325
0
C, gi nhit 240 gi v trng thi v trt t,
ng 2, ti 800
0
C. Trong trng hp trng thi
sp xp khng trt t lm tng gii hn chy, nhng
gim h s bin cng. Vic tng gii hn chy c
th gii thch nh sau: cc nguyn t cho vo trong
mng tinh th lm mng x lch.
Mng khng trt t b x lch nhiu hn mng
trt t. ng thi c th gi nh, khi dung dch rn
khng trt t sinh ra x lch mng ln, s ngn cn s chuyn dch ca cc mt
trt kh d, c ngha ngn cn song trt. Song trt b hn ch khin h s bin
cng gim.
c. nh hng ca t chc kim loi a tinh th
a tinh th l mt vt th bao gm nhiu ht tinh th. Mi mt ht gm cc
nguyn t cng loi hoc cc nguyn t khc loi to dung dch rn. Gia cc ht
c phn gii ht, cu trc v tnh cht ca phn gii ht khc vi cu trc v tnh
cht trong ni b ht. Cc cht phn gii ht thng khng tan vo trong ht.
Tt c cc tp cht ngoi vo v cc cht d nng chy thng kt tinh sau; s
phn b cc cht trn b mt ca ht a tinh th v thnh phn ti cc mt khc
nhau do iu kin kt tinh, iu kin gia cng trc, ln ht quyt nh . T
chc ca a tinh th quyt nh n qu trnh bin cng ngui. c im ca t
chc a tinh th l cc ht khng u, nh hng khc nhau, tnh cht v cu trc

Hnh 1.20 Biu ko
hp kim Au-Cu

46
ca ht v phn gii ht khc nhau. khng ng u ht cng ln, nh hng
ca cc ht cng sai khc, cu trc v tnh cht gia ht v phn gii ht cng
khc nhau lm tng s phn b ng sut v bin dng cng khc nhau nn bin
cng cng khc.
d. nh hng ca tc bin dng
tng ca tc bin dng cng ln, bin cng cng tng. Khi bin
dng tc cao, c th lm cho qu trnh trt xy ra mt s mt trt, lm
x lch mng tng, nn bin cng tng. Nhng trong iu kin nhit
khc nhau, tc bin dng vt qu gi tr nht nh, lc xy ra mt s hin
tng mu thun nhau trong qu trnh bin dng: qu trnh bin cng v qu trnh
kh bin cng. Kt qu l bin cng thc sau khi bin dng khc nhau.
1.4.2. c im bin cng ngui
Hin tng bin cng ngui trong qu trnh bin dng do c cc c im
sau:
a. Thay i hnh dng ca ht tinh th:

Trong qu trnh bin dng bin dng tng, ht cng b ko di theo hng
bin dng ko chnh. Ban u, ht c dng a cnh v kch thc ba chiu khng
sai khc ln, bin dng tng ln, ht pht trin thnh dng di. Cc ht b ph v
thnh cc blc nh, cc tp cht cng b ph v v ko di. kt qu cc tp cht c
hnh ging dng si. l c s cho vic hnh thnh t chc th ca kim loi sau
ny.

Hnh 1.21. Tinh th trc v
sau bin dng do ngi

47
b. Thay i nh hng ca cc ht
a tinh th gm cc ht c nh hng khc nhau to nn. Trong qu trnh
bin dng, trc kt tinh ca cc ht c xu hng quay trng vi phng bin
dng. Trong trng hp bin dng ngui ln (cn, ko) phi hp qu trnh nhit
luyn ta c th c vt liu c tnh nh hng to thnh cc tctua. Th d, nh
trong ch to cc tm thp bin th, ngi ta c th to loi tctua theo ba chiu.
c. Th nng tng ln v sinh ra ng sut d:
Trong qu trnh bin dng, ht tinh th b x lch, khin th nng tng v ng
sut d tng.
d. Ph v ht v phn gii ht.
Di tc dng ca ng sut d tip, cc mt trt, di trt b ph v, bin
dng cng ln, mc ph v cng ln. S ph v ca phn gii ht lm thay i
din tch phn gii ht. Do s ph v ht v phn gii ht c khin bn v tnh
do ca kim loi gim.
e. Thay i tnh cht c l ho ca vt liu
bin dng tng, lm cc ch tiu do ca vt liu ( nh dn di, co
tht, dai, va p ) gim, cc ch tiu bn tng, bin dng tng, ng sut thc
tng. Do s ph hu bn trong ht v phn gii ht lm kh nng chng n mn
gim v mt s tnh cht ho hc khc cng thay i. bin dng tng, do bin
cng ngui, kim loi dn mt i tnh do. Khi tng bin dng t mt gi tr
nht nh, khng th tip tc gia cng bin dng cn phi dng trung gian. Mt
khc, vt liu sau bin cng ngui c mt s tnh cht nht nh cng cn phi
qua .

1.4.3. ng cong bin cng - ng cong ng sut bin dng
ng cong bin cng l ng biu din quan h ca ng sut tc dng
ln vt bin dng vi bin dng, trong iu kin trng thi ng sut n.
Do ng sut gy ra bin dng ph thuc nhiu yu t, nh nhit , tc
bin dng, nn ng cong bin cng c xc nh cho tng kim loi v hp kim

48
trong tng iu kin nhit - tc bin dng c th. ng sut gy bin dng
do quan h vi ln v hng tc bin dng trong trng thi ng sut n,
khi bin dng iu kin nhit - tc c gi l ng sut chy, biu din
bng
S
.
xc nh
S
bng thc nghim cn to ra iu kin bin dng bo m
bin dng phn b u trn ton th tch vt bin dng vi trng thi ng sut n.
Mun vy ta dng thc nghim ko hoc nn xc nh ng cong bin cng.
Nu tha nhn trng thi ng sut trong trng hp l trng thi n, th ng
sut chy c xc nh bng t s gia lc bin dng vi din tch mt ct ngang
thc ca mu th ti thi im bin dng.
Khi thc nghim ko trng thi ng sut ng tn ti ch n thi im xut
hin c tht. Sau khi xut hin c tht, khng cn trng thi ng sut ng m
xut hin trng thi ng sut khi. Xy dng ng cong bin cng on sau
khi xut hin c tht l rt kh, ta cn dng cch gn ng.
Khi dng phng php nn trong gii hn bin dng do khng c hn ch
gi tr bin dng khi xc nh gii hn chy, nhng cn phi trnh nh hng ca
ma st tip sc, cng l mt vic kh khn.
Nh vy, ngi ta thng dng th nghim ko xc nh ng cong thc,
thit lp quan h ng sut v bin dng. T ta c th xc nh ng sut theo
bin dng hoc ngc li. Theo quan h ng sut v bin dng khi bin dng do,
ta c th s dng quan h tuyn tnh gia cng ng sut v cng bin
dng :

i
= E.
i
(1.35A)
trong :
i
- cng ng sut

i
- cng bin dng.
Trong quan h gia cng ng sut v cng bin dng c ngha ln,
chng ch ph thuc vo vt liu, khng ph thuc vo trng thi ng sut. Nh
vy, ta c th dng mt trng thi ng sut vi cch t ti gin n (ko n, nn
n,chu ct chu xon thun tu...), tm gi tr cng ng sut
i
v cng

49
bin dng
i
, t xy dng quan h hm s gia
i
v
i
. Nh quan h hm s
ny, ta c th s dng trong trng hp trng thi ng sut phc tp.
Khi ko n :
1
= ;
2
=
3
= 0 ;

1
= ;

2
=
3
= -/2 ;
Vy :
i
= ;
i
=

; (1.35B)
Do , khi thc nghim xc nh c quan h gia v , chnh l
quan h hm s gia
i
v
i
.
a. ng cong ng sut vt l:
Khi ko n, ta xy dng quan h gia ngoi lc P v dn di l.
Ta thy ng cong gm 4 on.
I. Giai on bin dng n hi
II. Giai on chy
III. Giai on bin dng do
IV. Giai on ph hu.
Cc vt liu do c biu ko c trng nh sau :
Gii hn t l
tl
l gii hn quan h S-BD hon ton t l thun;
Gii hn n hi
h
l gii hn bo m phc hi hon ton kch thc mu
ban u sau khi thi lc tc dng;
Gii hn chy l gii hn vt liu bt u
bin dng do;
Gii hn bn l gii hn vt liu bt u
bin dng khng u, trn mu xut hin c
tht, l gi tr c coi gii hn vt liu bt
u ph hu.
Bin dng ca mu ko khng u. Cho
chiu di quy c l l
0
, din tch tit din
ngang l A
0
, chiu di mu th ti thi im
bt k l l, din tch mt ct ngang l A.

Hnh 1.22. Biu th ko


50
Vy ng sut v bin dng quy c ti thi im bt k c xc nh l:
.
A
A A
;
l
l
;
A
P
0
0
0 0
= = =
(1.36)
T ta c th xy dng ng cong quan h : = f() v = f(). Do l
0
v
A
0
l gi tr chiu di v din tch tit din mu ban u, l hng s, nn ng
cong ging ng P = f(l).
Nhng, mu khi b ko ngoi s bin dng theo chiu trc, cn c bin dng
theo hng knh, lm din tch tit din co hp li. V vy, gi tr ng sut =
P/A
0
khng phn nh ng gi tr ng sut thc t ti thi im bt k. V vy ta
gi ng cong ng sut trn gi l ng cong quy c. ng cong c
dng trong sc bn vt liu v kt cu, do n biu din quan h ng sut v bin
dng nh.

b. Biu ko nn thc
Trong gii bi ton do, ta dng cc phng trnh vt l, tnh bin dng qua
ng sut, hoc t ng sut tm bin dng. Mun vy, trc ht phi dng thc
nghim tm quan h hm s gia cng ng sut
i
vi cng bin dng
i
.
Thng thng xc nh cc thuc tnh c hc ca vt liu ngi ta dng
th nghim ko n hoc nn n. Kt qu ta c th thit lp quan h gia lc tc
dng P v dn di tng i l =l
n
- l
0
; ng thi xc nh c h s co tht
n
n
F
F F
=
0
.
Ta cng c th xc nh 1 biu tng ng quan h gia bin dng v ng
sut: = f(); trong , =P/F
0
v l h s dn di tng i. Trong min n
hi, vt liu thc khng c quan h tuyn tnh tuyt i. V vy, ngi ta a
thm cc ch tiu nh:
0.001
;
0,003
;
0,005
; cc ch s biu din gii hn n hi
c xc nh ti dn di cho php tng ng. Cng nh vy, cc vt liu c
tnh do km, khng c thm chy nn gii hn chy khng r nn cng c

51
dng gii hn chy quy c:
0,2
; y ch s cng biu din ng sut tng ng
vi bin dng 0,2%.
c th so snh cc s liu thc nghim ca vt liu ti bt k c s thc
nghim no, ngoi phn bo m chnh xc ca thit b, cn tun th tiu
chun v kch thc mu. C 2 loi chiu di mu theo yu cu : l
0
=10d v l
0
=5d;
tng ng c t l:
. F , l ; F , l
0 0 0 0
56 5 3 11 = = (1.37)
Do h s bin dng tng i chu nh hng ca chiu di mu, nn nhiu
trng hp phi xc nh v so snh 2 ch tiu
5
v
10
tng ng vi l
0
=5d v
l
0
=10d. Thng thng mu ngn chu nh hng ca ng sut ko ti 2 u kp
nhiu nn bin dng ln hn, v c s bin dng tng i ln hn.
Biu ng sut bin dng ni trn, vi
0
F
P
= , gi l biu vt l hay biu
quy c. V trong qu trnh ko tit din ngang F
0
lun thay i, do c
gi tr khng hon ton nh tnh trn. Do , trong thc t, ngi ta dng biu
ko n thc vi =
P
F
; y F l din tch mt ct mu ti tng thi im
bin dng.

d. Bin dng thc v bin dng tng i
Trong bi ton n -Do ngi ta dng 2 cch biu din bin dng:
dn di tng i :
%
dl
) dl (
% .
l
l l
100 100
0
0

=
= (1.38)

trong : l
0
- chiu di ban u ca mu th;
l - chiu di mu sau bin dng;
dl - chiu di on mu
(dl) - bin dng ca on mu.

52
Bin dng thc (loga) :
0
l
l
ln = . (1.39)
Trong gia cng p lc, bin dng ln, cch biu din trn khng phn nh
tnh hnh bin dng thc ca vt liu. Thc t, trong qu trnh bin dng, di
mu l
0
lun thay i tng dn t l
0
,l
1
,l
2
,...,l
n-1
,l
n
. Nh vy, c th coi tng bin
dng t l
0
n l
n
l tp hp ca cc giai on bin dng tng i nh:
.
l
l l
.....
l
l l
l
l l
l
l l
n
n
1
1 2
2
2 3
1
1 2
0
0 1
+ +
= (1.40)
Ta c th thay tng ca chiu di ca mi on l dl. Vy tng bin
dng l :

o
n
l
l
l
l
ln
l
dl
n
= =
(1.41)
phn nh tnh trng thc t ca bin dng ca vt th, chnh v vy, c
gi l bin dng thc hoc bin dng loga.
Trong gii bi ton bin dng do ln, s dng bin dng thc biu din
mi cho kt qu hp l, v :
+ Bin dng tng i khng biu din chnh xc s bin dng thc t, mc
bin dng cng ln sai s cng ln.
Khai trin cng thc bin dng tng i theo Taylo ta c:

...
! ! !
) ln(
l
l l l
ln
l
l
ln
+ + =
= + =
+
= =
4 3 2
0
0 0
0
4
1
3
1
2
1
1

(1.42)
Ta thy, khi bin dng cn rt nh, gn bng ; bin dng cng ln, sai
khc cng ln. Nu bin dng nh hn 10%, , sai s nh. Cng v vy , khi
bin dng tng i nh hn 10%, gi l bi ton bin dng nh, bin dng tng
i >10% c gi l bi ton bin dng ln.
bin dng thc c th cng

53
=
1
+
2
+
3
+... (1.43)
bin dng tng i khng th cng :

1
+
2
+
3
+.... (1.44)
V vy, trong gii bi ton
bin dng ln, ngi ta phi
dng bin dng thc , kt qu
bi ton chnh xc hn. Nhng,
nu bi ton bin dng khng
ln, <10%, c th dng bin
dng t i tnh ton
phc tp v d c li gii.
Mt bin php khc l s
dng phng php gii gn
ng. giai on xc nh
thnh phn ng sut, c th
dng gi tr ca bin dng
tng i. Khi xc nh thnh
phn bin dng, dng bin
dng thc, gip cho bi ton tm thnh phn bin dng chnh xc hn, tnh ton d
dng hn.

4. Cc dng ng cong S-BD hay ng cong bin cng
Nh trn nu, trong bin dng do ln , thng thng dng ch tiu bin
dng thc ng gi kh nng bin dng do ca vt liu. Nh vy khng th
s dng trc tip biu ko nn xc nh quan h gia S-BD trong bin
dng do. Chnh v vy, ngi ta d trn s liu ca th nghim ko n xy
dng cc ng cong S-BD c gi l ng cong bin cng.
a. ng cong = f
1
()
b. ng cong = f
2
()

Hnh 1.23 Biu so snh gia v

,

54
c. ng cong = f
2
().
Sau khi phn tch 3 ng cong ta thy:
- Phn nh c bin dng theo chiu trc, chiu tc dng ca ng sut
chnh ln nht. Nhng n li ph thuc vo chiu di mu.
- Phn nh c bin dng thc, trong iu kin bin dng ln, nhng
i khi lm bi ton kh gii.
- Phn nh c bin dng theo 2 chiu vung gc vi lc, nhng khng
ph thuc vo chiu di mu.
Nh vy, khi bin dng nn, nn chn ng cong bin dng = f().
Khi bin dng nn ta c th xc nh
. % . % .
F
F F
%
F
F F
% .
l
l l
' 100 100 100
1
1 1
100
0
0 0
0
0
=
=
=
= (1.45)
Nh vy, h s bin dng nn ' tng ng vi bin dng nn . Nn biu
~ dng trong bin dng nn.
Trong th nghim ko n, iu kin do l
i
=
S
.
Nhng trong bin dng do, "
S
" lun bin i theo mc bin dng. Do
, ng cong bin dng thc biu din ng quan h hm s thc gia tr lc
bin dng ca vt liu
i
vi bin dng
i
.
Trong th nghim ko n vt liu do, khi xut hin c tht, trng thi ng
sut ti vng ny tr thnh trng thi S 3 chiu. Bin dng khng cn chu S
n hng, lm tng sai s tnh ton. Ngi ta tm nhiu phng php th
nghim vt liu khc :
Th nghim nn, khng gy hin tng bin dng cc b ti c tht, nhng b
nh hng ca ma st tip xc.
Th nghim xon li gy ng sut v bin dng khng u trn mt ct.
Th nghim xon ng mng li c hin tng khng n nh v thnh mng.

55
Do , chn phng php thc nghim xc nh quan h S-BD trong bin
dng do l rt quan trng. Phng php ko n vn l phng php thc
nghim c bn, thng dng, dng ly s liu xy dng cc ng cong bin
dng thc ca vt liu.
C 3 dng ng cong l thuyt ca ng cong ng sut thc.
tin trong vic a s liu vo bi ton m phng s, ngi ta a ra cc
ng cong l thuyt ca ng cong bin dng thc. Dng ng cong c th
nh hm s m .

S
= f
1
() c dng hm
S
= K
1
n1
;

S
= f
2
() c dng hm
S
= K
2
n2
;

S
= f
3
() c dng hm
S
= K
3
n3
;
Cc hm trn u l hm s m bc cao; trong K v n l cc h s, c th
xc nh qua biu thc nghim. Cc thng s , , biu din tnh do ca vt
liu. T cc ng thc nghim v sau khi bin i cc cng thc nu trn, c th
a ra cc cng thc tnh sau:

; e ) .(
; e ) .(
; e ) .(
) (
ct
ct
) (
ct
ct
) (
ct
ct
ct
ct
ct
ct
ct
ct

+
+
+
=
=
=
1
1
1
(1.46)
Trong cc ch s "ct" l cc ch tiu bn ti im xut hin c tht. Cc
quan h trn rt quan trng khi gii bi ton bin dng do.
Khi xc nh biu ng sut - bin dng bng thc nghim ko nn, l ta
xc nh quy lut quan h gia
i
v
i
trong iu kin do. ng dng c
biu ny, cn bo m iu kin t ti gin n. Nu khng bo m iu
kin ny s liu trn khng c ngha.

56

Cn bng do ca vt th l c iu kin.
i
c th coi l mt ch s so snh
s mnh yu ca ng sut gia cc trng thi ng sut khc nhau ca vt liu, mt
khc cn biu din tr lc bin dng trong qu trnh bin dng do ca vt liu.
i
cn c th

coi nh mt gi tr gii hn chy "ng" , thay i t lc bt u
bin dng do n lc vt liu ph hu.

Hnh 1.24 ng cong bin cng quan h
ngsut chy v dn di tng i = l/lo

Hnh 1.25 ng cong bin cng quan h
ng sut chy vi co tht

57
Chng 2
Tc dng ca cc yu t c nhit
v cc hin tng trong bin dng do kim loi

2.1. Bin dng do nhit cao- Hi phc v kt tinh li
Nh chng 1 nu, trong qu trnh bin dng mt b phn nng lng
c tch t trong vt liu v khin vt liu trng thi khng n nh nhit
ng. kim loi tr v trng thi n nh cn lm cho nng lng giao ng
nhit vt ngng th nng, c ngha l cc nguyn t cn mt nng lng nht
nh cho chng tr v v tr n nh nhit ng mi.
Khi nung kim loi n mt nhit nht nh, cc nguyn t trng thi
khng n nh chuyn thnh trng thi n nh, hin tng bin cng b kh,
mng tinh th tr v trng thi sp xp trt t - c quy lut, gi l qu trnh hi
phc v kt tinh li.
2.1.1. Hi phc
Khi nhit cha vt qu (0,23 0,3)T
nc
( T
nc
: nhit nng chy tuyt
i) s xut hin hin tng hi phc. Hin tng hi phc l hin tng khi
nung kim loi bin dng, chuyn ng nhit ca cc nguyn t tng, lm cho cc
nguyn t trc y b dch chuyn khi v tr cn bng, nay tr v v tr c th
nng nh hn. Kt qu ca hin tng hi phc l cc nguyn t tr v trng thi
cn bng, cc ng sut d loi 2 b kh,
gim s x lch mng, khi phc mt
phn tnh cht c hc, vt l v ho hc,
khi phc mt phn hnh dng ca ht
khng b thay i v nh hng ca ht
hnh thnh khi bin dng. Nhng cha
th khi phc s ph v ca ni b ht
v s ca phn gii ht. Khi trong kim

Hnh 2.1. Bin cng v hi phc Zn

58
loi c lng tp cht nht nh, chng lm tng nhit hi phc. ng thi
mc hi phc cng c lin quan vi thi gian gia nhit.
Hnh 2.1. cho quan h ng sut v bin dng 50% sau mi ln bin dng
nhit thng. Hnh 2.1a, biu din quan h ng sut -bin dng sau mi
khong 30 giy, ko mt ln; hnh 2.1b, sau 24 gi ko 1 ln. Thy rng, sau mi
ln ngh, vt liu c hi phc. on ging l on tng ng vi gim ca
ng sut cn thit bin dng sau mi ln ngh. Sau 30 giy ngh, ch c mt b
phn bin cng c kh. Sau 24 gi, hu ht bin cng b tr kh, hin tng
ho mm sy ra hon ton. Nhit cng cao, thi gian ho mm cng gim.
2.1.2. Kt tinh li (hnh 2.2)
Qu trnh hi phc hon ton cc tnh cht v t chc ca kim loi b bin
cng, l qu trnh kt tinh li. Qu trnh kt tinh li xy ra nhit nht
nh, thp hn nhit chuyn bin pha. Do nhit tng, lm tng nng lng
kch hot ca cc nguyn t, tng mc dch chuyn ca cc nguyn t, t
lm thay i hnh dng, kch thc ca tinh th sau bin dng.
Qu trnh kt tinh li qua hai giai on:
Giai on I: Kt tinh li ln I, trong giai on ny ch yu lm thay i ni
b ht tinh th. Bao gm qu trnh sinh mm v ln ln ca mm. Kt qu cc ht
tinh th c cu trc hon chnh thay th ton b cc ht c b ph v. Do s thay
i cu trc m hi phc li hon ton tnh nng ban u ca kim loi.
Giai on II: Kt tinh li t hp, hay kt tinh li ln II. Sau khi hon
thnh giai on I, cc ht tinh th mi nhit cao v thi gian di, mt s ht
c nng lng phn gii ht nh ln ln, l cc ht c kch thc ln. Chng
"nut" cc ht nh, bng c ch m rng phn gii ht. Kt qu tng s ht gim.
gi l kt tinh li t hp.
c im ca kt tinh li t hp:
a. Kt tinh li tp hp do dch chuyn phn gii hn.
b. Tc ln ln ca cc ht nh hn tc ln ln giai on I;

59
c. Tc di di ng ca phn gii ht ti cc v tr khc nhau khng ging
nhau, cc mt li s pht trin m rng;
d. Kch thc ht nh, tc kt tinh tp hp ln, trong mt n v th tch,
s ht cng gim v tc ln ln ca ht dn gim xung khng. Khi t n
mt lng ht nht nh, s ln ln ca ht b dng li. Nhit tng ln tc
ln ln ca ht tng.

Sau khi kt tinh li:
Cc ht tinh th li tr li dng ht c kch thc ba chiu gn bng nhau,
kh c cc khuyt tt nh lm ht t th to, khng u tr thnh ht nh v
u. Kh ng sut d loi 2 v 3, khi phc mi ch b ph hu trong ht v
phn gii ht, kh cc vt nt v l rng sinh ra trong qu trnh bin dng. Do kt
tinh li lm tng qu trnh khuych tn, lm cho thnh phn ho hc c ng
u. T khi phc c tnh cht c hc - vt l - vt l ho hc, lm tng tr
lc bin dng v tnh do.
Kt tinh li khng xy ra lp tc m tin hnh vi mt nhit nht nh.
Thng thng nhit cng cao, giao ng nhit ca cc nguyn t cng ln,
tc kt tinh li cng ln. bin dng cng ln, nng lng t do ca kim loi
cng cao, bt n nh cng ln, tc kt tinh li nhit nht nh cng
ln. Tc bin dng cng cao, nhit sinh ra do bin dng cng ln, nn nhit
tng cng cao, nn tc kt tinh li cng ln.

Hnh 2.2. Qu trnh kt tinh li ca cc tinh th
sau bin dng do ngui

60
Nhit thp nht
xy ra kt tinh gi l nhit
kt tinh li.
Nhit bt u kt
tinh li c th xc nh cho
kim loi v hp kim:
T
ktl
= (0,23 0,3)T
nc
, K
(2.1)
Nhit kt tinh li ca
mt s kim loi nguyn cht:

Bng 2.1
Kim loi Pb,Sn, Zn Al, Mg Au Cu Fe Ni To W
Nhit ,
0
C 0 150 200 270 450 620 1020 1210
Mc bin dng cng ln, nhit kt tinh li cng thp. Khi mc bin
dng nh, mc bin dng tng, nhit kt tinh li gim nhanh, sau tc
gim, nhit gim dn.
Thi gian kt tinh li cng di, nhit bt u kt tinh li gim.
Trong kim loi nguyn cht cho thm cc nguyn t to dung dch rn, lm
tng nhit kt tinh li. Th d, kt tinh li ca nhm sch (99,998%) nhit
150
0
C, sau 5 giy, nhng vi nhm 99,993% nhit l 240
0
C sau 10 pht.
Kt tinh li l mt qu trnh sinh mm v ln ln ca ht tinh th mi, kh
bin cng gia cng, chng ch xy ra khi kim loi chu mt bin dng ngui nht
nh. Gi tr bin dng gi l gi tr ti hn
gh
. Nu bin dng <
gh
, khng
c hin tng kt tinh li. bin dng ti hn khong 1,5 - 10%. Th d Fe: 6
- 10%; Al: 2-3%; Cu: 5%.

Hnh 2.3 nh hng ca bin dng v thi
gian n nhit bt u kt tinh li


61
Khi bin dng ln hn
hoc bng bin dng gii
hn, sau khi kt tinh li nhn
c ht th to. Khi tng
bin dng trn bin dng
ti hn, ln ca ht tinh th
sau kt tinh li nh dn, nu
bin dng vi rt ln trn
90%, sau khi kt tinh li ta
c ht tinh th th to, l
giai on kt tinh li ln 2.
Ta c th gii thch
ln ca ht sau kt tinh li nh l thuyt sinh mm v ln ln ca mm. Khi bin
dng nh hn bin dng gii hn, do bin dng qu nh, mi c bin dng bn
trong ht, phn gii ht cha b ph hoi, mm tinh th kt tinh li cha th hnh
thnh hoc rt t nn khng th ci bin c kch thc ht c. Khi lng bin
dng bng hoc ln hn lng bin dng gii hn, do trt do tin hnh mt s
ht, nn mm kt tinh li ch xut hin mt s ht, nn sau khi kt tinh li, s
mm t, nn ht tinh th th to. Khi tng lng bin dng, s ht tinh th tham gia
bin dng cng nhiu, kh nng to mm tinh th kt tinh li cng nhiu, do
sau kt tinh li s ht cng nhiu v tinh th cng nh. Nhng nu bin dng
rt ln, cc ht tinh th c xu hng quay, lm nh hng ca chng gn ging
nhau. Cc phn t cht tan phn gii ht b ph v v ko di, khin cc phn
gii ca ht c gn st nhau. Khi kt tinh li, chng d to thnh cc ht th to.
bin dng to tinh th th to sau kt tinh li thng phm vi 85-95%.
Qu trnh kt tinh li c th phn chia: kt tinh li sau khi bin dng ngui
v ; kt tinh li trong qu trnh gia cng bin dng nng. Kim loi, sau khi gia
cng bin cng ngui, do c bin cng, tr lc bin dng tng ln, tnh do ca
vt liu gim. Chnh v vy, trong nhiu trng hp gia cng vt liu tm, sau khi

Hnh 2.4. Quan h ln ht sau ht tinh
li vi bin dng


62
dp ngui, ngi ta khng kt tinh li mm ho, m vt liu trng thi
bin cng vt liu gi bn cao. Trong trng hp sn xut dy thp l xo
cun ngui, ngi ta cn dy c gii hn n hi, gii hn bn ln, nn sau ln
chut cui cng, khng tin hnh kt tinh li, m ch dng ram kh ng sut d.
Trong sn xut dp cc chi tit dng tm, khi cn mt lng bin dng ln,
ngi ta khng th dp 1 ln, m phi chia dp ra sau nhiu ln, gia cc giai
on l nguyn cng kt tinh li, gim tr lc bin dng, khi phc tnh do
trnh lm vt liu nt, gy.
kt tinh li v trong nhit luyn rt khc nhau: trong nhit luyn da
trn c s nhit chuyn bin pha, kt tinh li khng cn c vo nhit ,
thng nhit kt tinh li nh hn AC3.
Ngoi ra, trong qu trnh gia cng ngui, khng ch ln ca ht ch yu
l khng ch nhit kt tinh li sau gia cng v tng lng bin dng sau ln
kt tinh li trung gian cui cng. Thng biu kt tinh li c v theo quan h
gia kch thc ht, nhit v mc bin dng. Dng ca biu kt tinh li
khng thay i theo vt liu.

Khi nghin cu kt
tinh li, nhn thy khi tng
nhit , xut hin hin
tng kt tinh li ln 2, i
vi thp cacbon thp
(0,03%C), 850 - 950
0
C.
Ht tinh th sau kt tinh li
nh hn khi nhit T

< 850
0
C. C th do nhit
850 - 950
0
C c quan h
vi chuyn bin pha.
Biu kt tinh li ch

Hnh 2.5. Biu KTL quan h ln ht -
bin dng - nhit ca thp cacbon thp


63
r mi quan h gia nhit kt tinh li, ln ca ht sau khi kt tinh li vi
bin dng tng, nn trong cng ngh gia cng p lc s dng biu ny gp
kh khn. Qu trnh gia cng nng bao gi cng km theo kt tinh li, mt khc
khi xc nh quy trnh cng ngh l xc nh lng bin dng tng i ca tng
ln p, tng ln dp.. Biu kt tinh li cha xt nh hng ca lng bin dng
trc, v kch thc ca tinh th sau kt tinh li cng c quan h vi giai on gia
cng trc , c ngha l cn xt tc dng ca bin dng tch lu. Ni cch khc,
khi dp, rn hoc cn cui cng kch thc ht s nh hn rt nhiu so vi cc ln
gia cng trc .
Nhiu nh nghin cu
cho thy, s khc bit v
ln ht sau khi kt tinh li.
Trong hai trng hp xt
bin dng thc v xt bin
dng tch lu c s khc
nhau khi nhit kt tinh
li thp v khi lng bin
dng nh. S khc nhau ny
do nh hng ca ma st.
Ma st cng ln, s sai khc
cng ln.
Hin tng kt tinh li
ln 2 xut hin khi bin
dng ln, nhit kt tinh li cao v thi gian nung di. Trong trng hp ny,
cc ht tinh th c nh hng ln ln, cc ht ln hn nut ht nh, gim bt
s nng lng b mt, kt qu ta c ht th to. C th quan st thy ht tng
ln 2 khi kt tinh li nhit cao (hnh 2.4 v 2.6).
Ngoi ra, t chc kim loi v s khng u ca cc iu kin kt tinh li
cng nh hng n kch thc ht sau kt tinh li. Cc nguyn t hp kim hoc
cc tp cht tn ti phn gii ht tinh th l cc tr ngi cho qu trnh kt tinh

Hnh 2.6 Biu kt tinh li thp khng g

64
li. Th d, dy Vonfram b nung nng trong thi gian di nhit trn nhit
kt tinh li, lm ht th to v lm dy dn. Nu cho vo trong vonfram mt lng
rt nh oxyt Thori (Th0
2
) 0,7% di dng ht nh mn, phn tn, chng ngn cn
cc ht ln ln, trong qu trnh kt tinh li, nu ti mt im no c iu kin
to mm ht tinh th mi, so vi ch khc km hn, nh vy kt tinh li s bt
u t ch thun li v pht trin nhanh, kt qu cho tinh th rt th to.
Trong gia cng p lc, ln ca ht sau kt tinh li nh hng n cht
lng sn phm. Chnh v vy, khi xc nh ch cng ngh cn xt bin
dng, nhng ln gia cng u cn dng bin dng ln, nhng ln dp v p
cui cng cn dng lng bin dng nh hn tng ng bin dng ti hn,
thu c ht nh mn sau khi kt tinh li, t ta c vt liu vi bn cao,
tnh do tt.
2.1.3. Phn loi dng gia cng p lc
Trn c s nhit kt tinh li, ngi ta chia qu trnh gia cng p lc thnh
cc dng khc nhau. Ta bit, hin tng bin cng, hi phc v kt tinh li khng
nhng ph thuc iu kin bin dng, m cn ph thuc cc c tnh ca vt liu.
Trong gia cng p lc, tu theo mc bin cng ngui v qu trnh ho mm,
kt qu bin dng khc nhau. V vy, ngi ta chia thnh cc qu trnh gia cng
khc nhau.
a. Gia cng ngui. Trong qu trnh gia cng ngui, ch c th sy ra bin
dng trt, i tinh, mng tinh th b un v ph v v cc ming tinh th quay.
Trong bin dng ngui khng c khuych tn tham gia. Tc dng bin dng phn
gii ht nh, do nhit bin dng thp, bn phn gii ht cao, cu trc phn
gii ht khng c quy lut, gia cc ht c lc rng buc ln. Trong bin dng
ngui ch c hin tng bin cng ngui, khng c hin tng hi phc v kt
tinh li. Gia cng ngui c tin hnh nhit di nhit kt tinh li.
b. Gia cng khng hon ton ngui. Trong qu trnh gia cng c bin
cng ngui v hi phc, cha c qu trnh kt tinh li. Do c qu trnh hi phc
nn c th ci thin mt phn tnh cht c hc v vt l ca kim loi. Qu trnh

65
hi phc sy ra do nhit gia cng ln hn nhit thng hoc do tc bin
dng cao lm tng nhit ca vt gia cng. Gia cng khng hon ton ngui c
th tng lng bin dng m khng cn trung gian.
c. Gia cng nng. Gia cng nng l dng gia cng nhit ln hn nhit
kt tinh li v qu trnh kt tinh li c sy ra hon ton. Trong qu trnh gia
cng nng, kim loi bin dng theo c ch nh trong gia cng ngui. ng thi
do nhit cao, giao ng nhit ca cc nguyn t ln, nn bin dng cn theo
c ch khuych tn. Trong qu trnh gia cng nng, tc kt tinh li ln hn tc
bin cng, nn sau bin dng nng, khng c du vt ca bin cng ngui. T
chc kim loi sau bin dng nng l t chc sau kt tinh li.
d. Gia cng na nng. Gia cng na nng l dng gia cng ng thi sy
ra hin tng bin cng v hin tng kt tinh li, do l do no , qu trnh kt
tinh li khng sy ra hon ton. Nn c ch vt liu kt tinh li, c ch cn bin
cng, sau bin dng, c vng c t chc kt tinh li, c vng cn t chc bin
cng. Trong qu trnh bin dng, do c cc ht kt tinh li, nn lm cho bin dng
khng u, kt qu lm tnh do ca kim loi gim, tr lc bin dng tng. Nu
bn kim loi khng , c th xut hin vt nt. Bin dng na nng sy ra
phm vi nhit trn nhit bt u kt tinh li. Tc bin dng tng lm
tng kh nng sy ra bin dng na nng. Vt liu c tc kt tinh li nh cng
d sy ra trng thi
bin dng na nng. Trong thc t, cn ht sc trnh dng gia cng ny.
Nh vy, c th da vo nhit gia cng phn loi dng gia cng.
Sau khi bin dng do ngui v kt tinh li, t chc v tnh cht c - l ca
kim loi v hp kim c ci thin, nht l tr lc bin dng gim v tnh do
tng. Ni dung ny s c nghin cu chng 7.
2.2. Chuyn bin pha khi bin dng do
Trong qu trnh bin dng c sy ra chuyn bin pha. Th d, cn thp
stenit, c s phn gii stenit, bin dng do ngui hp kim nhm cng c th
sy ra s bin i pha. Mt khc ta thy, c hin tng tng tc qu trnh chuyn

66
bin pha khi nhit luyn vt liu sau bin dng. Qu trnh chuyn bin pha khi
bin dng do sy ra, c th do s thay i nhit ti hn ca cc pha trong qu
trnh bin dng, c th lin quan n ln t chc ht, ng thi c th do kt
qu chuyn bin th hnh di tc ng ca khuych tn.
Cc yu t nh hng n chuyn bin pha khi bin dng do :

2.2.1. c im lc tc dng
p lc n hoc p lc khng u theo cc hng c th lm tng qu
trnh chuyn bin pha. Trong trng hp ny, khi ng sut ln nht t ti mt
nht nh, s sy ra bin dng do. Do c bin dng do, cu trc tinh th b x
lch, kt qu lm tng qu trnh khuych tn v t khuch tn; ng thi trong
qu trnh bin dng to ra phn b ng sut khng u v s khuych tn ca cc
nguyn t cng thc y qu trnh phn b ng u ng sut. Gi tr ng sut v
mc khng u cng ln, s dch chuyn ca cc nguyn t to s phn b
ng sut ng u cng mnh. Trong dung dch rn, s khuych tn lu ng ca
cc nguyn t c th gim do s sp xp theo quy lut v phn ly nng , cho
n khi pha mi tit ra mi ngng. Trong h nhiu pha, do khuych tn lm u
ho phn b ng sut, khng nhng to nn s phn b li cc nguyn t ca cc
pha, m cn sy ra hin tng trao i nguyn t gia cc pha. Trong qu trnh
bin dng do, c th lm thay i t s gia pha v thnh phn ho hc. Kt qu
sau khi bin dng, tnh cht ca hp kim c th ci thin, bao gm bin i cc
ch tiu tr lc bin dng v ch tiu do; ng thi do s xut hin pha hoc bin
mt ca pha lm thay i tnh cht ca vt liu. Tnh cht ca ti trng cng nh
hng n qu trnh chuyn bin pha.
Th d, thp CrSi, 20
0
C chu tc dng lc nn p 1 chiu, sau , ti
nhit 1150
0
C, khi p lc nn tng dn lm tng s stenit d b phn hu v
HRc tng.
Bng 2.2

67
cng HRC
stenit %
c tnh lc,
KG/mm
2

Nhit
,

0
C
Trc BD Sau BD Trc BD Sau BD
Lc khng i
50

20

53,5

54

60

53,4
Lc bin i
t 0 n 50

20

53

54~55

60

44,6
Lc khng i
125

200

52

54

60

43,7
Lc bin i
t 0 n 125

200

52

55

60

30,1
Lc khng i
50

500

52,5

53~54

60

42,7
Lc bin i
t 0 n 50

500

52

56

60

15

Bng 2.2 cho cc gi tr rn v lng stenit d khi vt liu chu ti tnh
v ti chu k trong iu kin nhit khc nhau.
T bng ta thy, gi tr lc thay i nh hng n s phn gii pha ln
hn lc tnh.
Nhng, khi kim loi chu p lc phn b u, c th ngn cn s chuyn
pha. Th d, khi tc dng lc 3 chiu u, p = 100.000 MN/m
2
, ln mu hp kim
nhm cng ti nhit cao, ta thy, s tng cng do ho gi sy ra chm
chp hn so vi iu kin p sut khng kh bnh thng. S chm tr qu trnh
ho gi l do khi cc tinh th chu p lc 3 chiu u lm s dch chuyn ca cc
nguyn t trong mng, hay s khuych tn ca cc nguyn t gp kh khn.
2. nh hng ca mc bin dng
Ly mt si dy thp Crm, c thnh phn 1,0%C, 1,6%Cr, 0,30%Mn,
em bin dng xon, nghin cu qu trnh chuyn bin pha t stenit thnh

68
peclit, ta thy, bin dng do lm tng tc chuyn bin pha. Do bin dng xon
l bin dng khng u, bin dng tng dn t trung tm dy ra ngoi, mc
bin dng cng ln lng stenit phn gii cng nhiu.
Mt s nghin cu khc cho thy, bin dng do thc y s phn gii
dung dch rn, to nn cc ht pha
mi, nh, phn tn. S bin cng
hon ton thc y qu trnh phn
gii pha dung dch rn v qu trnh
kt tinh li sau bin dng.
Nghin cu ng lc hc phn
gii dung dch rn hp kim nhm-
silic ch ra rng: khi ram nhit
218
0
C, t trng thi hp kim
bin dng phn gii hon ton dung
dch rn sau khi ti, cn ram trong
thi gian 8 pht. ng thi, khi ram
cng nhit , cng t trng thi
phn gii hon ton cng mt hp
kim, nhng cha qua bin dng, cn ram trong thi gian 65 gi (chm hn 2500
ln).

2.2.3. nh hng ca tc bin dng
Tc bin dng nh hng n chuyn bin pha khng ging nhau. Trong
mt s trng hp, tc bin dng ln thc y chuyn bin pha, mt s trng
hp khc hn ch chuyn bin pha, c th do trong trng hp ny cha kp
chuyn bin pha. Th d, di tc dng ca ti trng tnh, bin dng hp kim
ng vi 9%Al, 4%Fe, nhit 350
0
~450
0
C, do c chuyn bin pha, nn gy ra
dn. Nhng di tc dng ca ti trong xung, kim loi khng dn, do lc ny
cha kp sy ra chuyn bin pha.

Hnh 2.7 nh hng ca p lc
bin dng n lng stenit d v
rn ca thp CrSi

69
Nh trn ni, trong qu trnh bin dng do, do mng tinh th b ph v
v x lch, tc khuych tn tng, nn nhit chuyn bin pha gim. Th d,
tc dng p lc 47.000MN/m
2
ln thp cc bon 0,9%C, xc nh c nhit ti
hn chuyn bin pha l 360
0
C, nu tc dng lc 10MN/m
2
ln vt liu ta c
nhit ti hn l 690
0
C.
Nh vy, trong thc t sn xut cn lu , khi bin dng do, kim loi
ngui dn, nu bin dng gn nhit chuyn bin pha, c th vt liu trng
thi phn gii pha, lm thay i tnh do, kim loi bin dn v nt.

2.3. Hiu ng nhit khi bin dng do
2.3.1. Khi nim v hiu ng nhit
Trong qu trnh bin dng do, kim loi hp th nhit nng. S nhit nng
, mt phn tch lu trong tinh th lm tng th nng n hi v mt phn to
thnh nhit bin dng do.
a. Th nng n hi bin dng bao gm th nng t do v entropy. Khi ct
ti, mt b phn nng lng n hi c gii phng, iu c th coi l phn
nng lng n hi, mt b phn cn tn li trong vt th di dng nhit.
b. Nhit nng bin dng do l phn nng lng c chuyn t nng
lng bin dng do thnh nhit nng. Hiu sut sinh nhit
n
c tnh bng t
s gia phn nng lng nhit c chuyn ho A
m
v tng s nng lng vt
bin dng hp th A:

n
= A
m
/A (2.2)
Hiu ng pht nhit bin dng do c th tnh nh sau:
A
m
=
n
X.A (2.3)
Trong cng iu kin, hiu sut pht nhit cng ln, tr lc bin dng cng
ln, tnh do cng ln th hiu ng nhit cng ln.
Mt s thc nghim cho bit, nhm cng di tc dng ca lc n hng
c hiu sut pht nhit l 77%, nhm k thut l 93%, thp l 84~88%, ng l
92%.

70
Trong qu trnh bin dng do, cn c vo iu kin bin dng khc nhau,
nng lng nhit c th b tiu tn ra mi trng xung quanh, ng thi c th lu
li bn trong vt th bin dng. Nu nhit lng bin dng c to ht ra mi
trng, ta gi qu trnh bin dng l qu trnh bin dng ng nhit. Nu chng
gi li ton b trong vt bin dng ta gi l qu trnh on nhit. Nhng a s cc
trng hp, ch c mt phn nng lng c lu li trong vt bin dng. Phn
nng lng ny lm tng nhit ca vt bin dng, c th dng hiu ng nhit
biu din.
Hiu ng nhit () l t s gia hiu nhit sau bin dng v trc bin
dng vi nhit trc bin dng:

t
t z
t
t t
= . (2.4)
Trong : t
s
- nhit vt liu t c sau bin dng
t
t
- nhit vt liu trc bin dng.
Khi nhit lng pht ra trong mt n v th tch cng ln v lng nhit lu
li trong vt th cng ln, th hiu ng nhit cng ln. Hiu ng nhit ca
vt bin dng do nh hng ca lng nhit pht ra khi bin dng do v nhit
lng sinh ra do ma st tip sc. Nn trong qu trnh bin dng, thi gian bin
dng ngn, thng nhit cha kp to ra ngoi mi trng, nn hiu ng nhit
c th t gi tr rt ln.
Trong cng iu kin, hiu ng nhit do nhit bin dng, tc bin
dng v mc bin dng quyt nh.
Nhit bin dng cng thp, hiu ng nhit cng ln. Nhit bin dng
cng cao, hiu ng nhit cng thp. l do khi cng mt iu kin bin dng,
nhit bin dng cng cao tr lc bin dng cng thp, nng lng cn cho mt
n v th tch bin dng cng thp.
Tc bin dng cng cao, hiu ng nhit cng cao. V khi tc bin dng
cao, nhit nng khng kp thi ra ngoi mi trng, lm nhit tng cao. Th d,
khi bin dng do hp kim nhm vi cc tc bin dng khc nhau, ta c cc
t chc khc nhau. Khi tc bin dng chm, ta c t chc kt tinh li, l

71
do qu trnh kt tinh li kp sy ra v hon thnh. Khi tc bin dng ln hn
1550 mm/s qu trnh kt tinh li khng kp sy ra. Nhng khi tc tng ln trn
3550 mm/s ta li c t chc kt tinh li. l do kt qu ca hiu ng nhit
iu kin tc bin dng cao.

2.2.2. Tc dng ca hiu ng nhit
Trong qu trnh bin dng, do sinh ra lng nhit ln, nn hiu ng nhit
khng th trnh khi gy ra nhiu nh hng .
a. Thay i tr lc bin dng
Ni chung, hiu ng nhit lm gim tr lc bin dng, c lc lm gim mt
cch r rt. Trong mt s trng hp c bit, hiu ng nhit lm tng tr lc bin
dng. l do hiu ng nhit lm vt liu chuyn sng vng c pha phn tn nh,
kh bin dng.
b. Thay i phng thc ca qu trnh bin dng. Trong qu trnh bin dng
do, do hiu ng nhit lm tng nhit , c th lm thay i phng thc bin
dng t ngui sang bin dng na nng hoc nng.
c. Thay i trng thi pha
Nu nhit bin dng nh hn nhit chuyn bin pha, do hiu ng nhit
c th lm vt liu t nhit chuyn bin pha lm pha chuyn bin.
d. Thay i tnh cht v t chc ca kim loi bin dng
Nh trn nu, do hiu ng nhit c th thay i phng thc bin dng v
lm chuyn bin pha, nn thay i iu kin bin dng v t kim loi c tnh
cht v t chc theo iu kin bin dng mi. Do hiu ng nhit khng u trn
ton vt th bin dng nn tnh cht ca vt liu sau bin dng cng khng u.
ng thi, tu hiu ng nhit khc nhau gy ra s bin i cng khc nhau. Khi
chn, ti hng lm vi hng trc 45
0
c bin dng ln, hiu sut nhit cao.
Ta cng c th quan st thy ai sng khi ta chn phi nhit thp. Di sng
chnh l ni c ng sut tip ln nht.
e. Thay i trng thi do

72
Thng thng nhit di nhit kt tinh li <0,3T
nc
, hiu sut nhit
c th lm tng tnh do:
- Khi nhit tng, khng c s phn hu pha dn;
- Khi nhit cao, nu hiu sut nhit lm pha hp cht phn gii ht c
tnh dn chuyn thnh trng thi do, trong trng hp , nhit tng hp cht
phn gii ht tr thnh do nn vt liu chuyn sang trng thi do.
C trng hp vt liu chuyn sang trng thi dn :
- Nu do tc dng ca hiu ng nhit lm tit ra pha dn;
- Do hiu ng nhit lm nng chy cc hn hp cng tinh nhit thp;
- Do hiu ng nhit, c th lm nng chy phn gii ht khi gia cng nhit
cao;
- C trng hp, khi gia cng nhit cao (0.9T
nc
) do tc dng ca hiu
ng nhit mt phn tinh th nn c th b nng chy, ng thi c th hnh thnh
dng tinh th hnh trn , ht tinh th ny cng vi tinh th nn to nn hn hp
cng tinh nhit nng chy thp. V vy gy ra hin tng dn.

2.2.3. ng dng thc t ca hiu ng nhit
Khi xy dng quy trnh cng ngh gia cng p lc, cn xt n nh hng
ca hiu ng nhit. Hiu ng nhit c th s dng nh mt tc nhn tch cc, nh
rn dp tc cao, cn tc cao, dp ngui tc cao i vi cc vt liu kh
bin dng.
Trong cn nng tc cao, cn ngui bin dng ln thp cacbon, thp hp
kim en v mu, khng cn trung gian. Do bin dng tc cao, hiu ng nhit
ln, trong kim loi bin dng sy ra hin tng kt tinh li, kh phn ln bin
cng ngui, lm tng tnh do ca vt liu, gim tr lc bin dng.
Khi dp su ng ng dy 0,15mm, dng tc bin dng chm khng th
s dng 1 bc dp; nhng khi dng tc bin dng cao, c th dng 1 bc
nguyn cng m khng gy nt.

73
Cc hp kim chu nhit, c Cr, Ni, rt kh bin dng to hnh. Nhng nu
dng bin dng tc cao bin dng, do c hiu ng nhit, tr lc bin dng
gim,tnh do tng, nn rt d bin dng.

2.4. Bin dng do khi c pha lng v bin dng do kim
loi bn lng
Cng s pht trin ca khoa hc, xut hin nhiu cng ngh mi v to hnh
kim loi trng thi lng v bn lng: c cn kim loi lng, c p, p bn lng.
Nh vy, l thuyt bin dng do kim loi th rn khng p ng yu cu pht
trin ca ngnh GCAL. Bin dng do kim loi c tn ti pha rn v pha lng c
rt nhiu u im. Cng ngh ny cho php gia cng nhiu kim loi kh bin
dng, phm vi nhit rn hp, tr lc bin dng ln. N kt hp cc u im ca
cng ngh c v cng ngh GCAL. Chnh v vy, cng ngh ny ang c
nghin cu v pht trin.
2.4.1. Pha lng xut hin trong khi bin dng do
Nguyn nhn to ra pha lng khi BDD l :
- Trong hp kim, c s nng chy ca cc nguyn t c nhit nng chy
thp hoc nng chy ca cc kim loi v tp cht phi kim.
- Trong qu trnh gia cng, xut hin cc hp kim cng tinh c nhit
nng chy thp hn nhit nng chy ca kim loi nn.
- Do kt qu ca hiu ng nhit lm tan cc pha th 2 vo pha nn.
- Do hiu ng nhit, lm cc b kim loi bin dng nng chy.
- Ti cc vng tinh th b v v x lch ln, nhit nng chy h thp,
nht l vng c ng sut tp trung v phn gii ht.
Trng thi phn b ca pha lng trong kim loi:
Trc y nhn thy rng: nu c pha lng th bin dng do khng tt.
Trong iu kin k thut hin nay, trong nhiu hp kim c thnh phn phc tp
thng gp c pha lng trong hp kim bin dng. Nh vy khng th trnh hin
tng ny trong GCAL kim loi. Thng thng pha lng tn ti di 2 trng thi:

74
a. To thnh dt kim loi bn trong ht tinh th hoc phn gii ht. Khi
git Kim loi bn trong ht tinh th gy nh hng t n tnh do ca kim loi.
Tuy c pha lng, nhng bin dng do trng thi l hp l. Khi trong hp
kim c nguyn t d nng chy nn cho vo cc nguyn t to cu ho. Th d,
trong hp kim Niken c lu hunh, chng to thnh hp cht Ni
3
S
2
. Hp cht ny
v Ni to thnh mt hn hp cng tinh, c nhit nng chy 625~650
0
C. Khi
hp kim ny kt tinh, hp cht lu hunh c xu hng phn b thnh mng ti
phn gii ht. Khi gia cng p lc hp kim ny, nung hp kim n 1100~1250
0
C,
lp mng nng chy v khuych tn vo trong ht tinh th, nn t c hi. Nu cc
dt kim loi lng phn gii ht nm ti phn gii, lm gim bn phn gii
ht, nhng nu khng c ng sut ko trn phn gii ht, th chng cng gy t
nh hng n tnh do ca kim loi.
b. Hnh thnh mng kim loi lng phn gii ht: trng hp ny rt khng
li. V chng lm gim bn phn gii ht, c th gy nt phn gii ht. Nu
dng s c hc 3 chiu nn (p chy) c th gim tc dng xu ny.

2.4.2. Cc bin php gim nh hng xu ca pha lng n bin dng
do
a. iu chnh thnh phn ho hc ca hp kim, hp kim khng to ra
hn hp cng tinh v cc tp cht c nhit nng chy thp.
b. Cho thm vo trong hp kim mt s nguyn t nhm kh pha lng, lm
tng tnh do ca hp kim.
c. Khng ch iu kin kt tinh v nhit bin dng do, bo m pha
lng khuch tn vo pha nn.
d. Dng phng php gia cng hp l, to s bin dng 3 chiu nn
tng tnh do ca kim loi.
2.4. 3. Bin dng do kim loi bn lng
Qu trnh c cn lin tc, c p, p bn lng c ng dng rng ri
trong cng nghip.

75

Qu trnh cng ngh p
bn lng:

Nu chy kim
loi trong l

Rt kim loi
lng vo khun

p kim loi lng
trn my p

Kim loi kt tinh
di p lc

Chun b khun
mu v dng c
cho bc sau

Hnh 2.8 Cng ngh p bn lng
Qu trnh c cn lin tc v c p lc l qu trnh nn p kim loi lng
kim loi lng in y lng khun v kim loi kt tinh di p lc nh. Cn p
bn lng l phng php GCAL, nung kim loi hoc lm ngui kim loi n nhit
bn lng: nm gia ng lng v ng c sau p kim loi kim loi
kt tnh di mt p lc kh ln. Nh , ta c sn phm c mn c ln v


76
tnh cht c hc cao do kim loi va kt tinh va b bin dng. Trong trng hp
ny kim loi khng c t chc c.
Ngi ta chia qu trnh cng ngh p bn lng kim loi theo cc phng n:
a. Rt kim loi nng chy vo khun, sau kim loi lng kt tinh di
p lc cao.
b. Kim loi kt tinh p lc cao v bin dng trng thi bn lng.
c. Kim loi kt tinh di p lc cao, v bin dng trng thi lng.
Trong cc phng n, khc vi c p lc, kim loi kt tinh trng thi chu
p lc v b bin dng do.
Lc p cao khi kt tinh kim loi lm cho kim loi khng b r xp, khng c
t chc th to... Kt qu ci thin t chc kim loi, t cho cht lng tt, hiu
sut cao.
Chun b kim loi cho p bn lng:
Bc cng ngh u tin l nu chy kim loi, c 2 cng ngh nu:
a. Nung kim loi ln nhit trn nhit nng chy hon ton (ng
lng), gi nhit trong mt thi gian nht nh sau rt vo khun v a vo my
p.
b.Cho kim loi rn vo khun, cho vo trong l, nung kim loi ln nhit
trn ng lng, di ng c, kim loi nng chy trng thi bn lng,
kim loi in y lng khun, sau a ra p.
Hai phng php chun b kim loi nu trn c cc u v nhc im :
u im quan trng ca phng php th nht l cu trc kim loi trong
min bn lng c khng ch bi cc iu kin kt tinh v c th bin i c
nh tc ng bn ngoi, nh khuy. Lm cho cu trc pha v thnh phn ng
u hn. Nhng, dng cch ny phi s dng lng kim loi nhiu hn s lng
kim loi chi tit cn, tnh kinh t gim.
u im c bn ca phng php th 2 l thi gian kim loi gi trng thi
lng t, bo m gi thnh phn kim loi ng yu cu. gin n ca khun t
hn, qu trnh chuyn bin v kt tinh ngn. Nu dng phng php nung cm

77
ng cho tc nung nhanh, thch ng vi phng php p bn lng cc chi tit
nh v sn xut lot nh. Trong trng hp p bn lng vt liu t hp kim loi,
cu trc bn lng ca hp kim ph thuc vo cu trc ban u, vo iu kin
nung v thi gian gi nhit.
C s l thuyt ca cng ngh p bn lng
C s l thuyt ca qu trnh nh sau:
Ta c th phn bit : u tin kim loi c rt vo khun, sau trong qu
trnh kt tinh kim loi chu p lc cao. Lc c s nh hng ca nhit trong
th tch kim loi lng khi kt tinh v p. Nhit ny quyt nh bi thi gian
c rt kim loi lng vo khun p, lc p cn thit v thi gian cn kt tinh
kim loi. Cc tham s ny ph thuc iu kin truyn nhit v to nhit khng n
nh. Ta c th dng phng trnh vi phn truyn nhit khng n nh trong vt
th kim loi: Phng trnh Fourier.
Cn xc nh thi gian ln nht cn thit rt kim loi lng in y lng
khun v thi gian p kim loi trong khun kim loi kt tinh.

2
= .
c
(2.5)
Trong : - nhit ;
- thi gian;
- h s dn nhit;
c- nhit dung;
- mt ( t trng)
Thi gian bt u kt tinh c xc nh theo quan h:

d
= (
e
,
i
,
f
, , (c), x)
trong : -
e
- nhit khun;
-
i
- nhit rt ca kim loi lng;
-
f
- Nhit kt thc kt tinh;
- - h s truyn nhit;

78
- (c)- h s dn nhit;
- x - chiu dy thnh khun.
Thi gian cn thit kt tinh hon ton v ho rn chi tit dp l mt c
trng quan trng ca phng php p lng. Khi xc nh thi gian kt thc kt
tinh
f
cn xc nh nhit kt tinh Q
o
, chng c hp ph khi nng chy v c
to ra khi kim loi chuyn t th lng sang th rn. Ta c th dng cng thc tnh
ton s chuyn dch ca mt gii hn 2 pha lng-rn theo hng vo tm vt p :

= .
(2.6)
Trong : - Chiu dy lp kim loi kt tinh;
- H s c xc nh bng cng thc sau

+
+
2
4
1 2 2 2
1
4
1 1 1 2
4
1
4
1
2
2
2
1
2
.
G
e
). ( c . .
.
G
e
). ( c . Q
.
l . m
.
o l , m o
(2.7)
Trong :
m.l
- nhit ca kim loi lng.
Mt khc trong qu trnh kt tinh, kim loi chu tc dng ca p lc cao. a
s cc kim loi khi p bn lng, nhit kim loi tng theo p lc. Tng gii hn
nhit gia cc pha : pha rn v pha lng, c th s dng cng thc ca
Clausius-Clapeyron theo biu p lc- nhit :

) V V ( T
Q
dT
dp
1 2

= (2.8)
Thc nghim vi nhm thy nhit tng 30 di p lc 500MPa.
H s truyn nhit ph thuc ng k vo p lc v nhit kim loi. H s
xc nh lng nhit Q ca kim loi truyn qua b mt A, trong thi gian .

79
.
) ( A
Q
o m

=
1
(2.9)
Ta thy khng ph thuc p lc p , n ph thuc vo tnh cht ca vt liu
lm khun, hnh dng kch thc khun.
Qu trnh kt tinh v ng c ca kim loi lng di p lc c cc c
im so vi trng hp c thng thng:
a. Cng vi tng h s truyn nhit, tc ngui cng tng, nn lm t
chc mn c, ht nh;
b. Khi lc p tng, ho tan hydro tng, to nn cc r kh micro,
c. Khi lc p tng, to nn cc l co ngt;
d. Cng vi vic tng lc p, cc vi l xp t chc nhnh cy b hn ch;
e. Ci thin vic in y lng khun v ci thin cht lng b mt chi
tit.
Cc u im ca p bn lng l ci thin cht lng, tng c tnh ca vt
dp.
iu kin quan trng v quyt nh khi p bn lng l :

min p
tb
i
V
S
+ (2.10)
Trong :
i
- thi gian p;
S - hnh trnh ca khun trn;
v
tb
- tc trung bnh ca chy;

p min
- thi gian cn thit p kim loi trong khun.
Thi gian bt u kt tinh
p
ph thuc sn phm dp, hnh dng hnh hc
ca khun v s chn cc yu t cng ngh. Mun xc nh sn phm c th
c p bn lng, cn xc nh thi gian bt u kt tinh
d
. Nh
d
ta c th xc
nh cc tham s ti thiu ca sn phm p bn lng. Gii hn trn ca cc kch
thc ca sn phm dp c thit lp nhm bo m tc dng lc nh nht. p
lc nh nht p
min
c xc nh theo :
P/A p
min
(2.11)

80
trong : P - lc nn bin dng;
A - din tch hnh chiu nm ca chi tit p.
Do tng nhit ca kim loi lng do tng p lc, cn chn nhit kt tinh
l thuyt sao cho gii hn cc pha ch dch chuyn khi p lc t gi tr p
min
, d
gim
pmin
ca nhit khi lm ngui.
Kt qu l:
d
=
m.l
+
t
+
pmin
(2.12)
Khi xc nh
pmin
cn o c nhit khun.
Khi dng p lc cao trong p bn lng, cho php ch to cc chi tit lm
bng cc hp kim c tnh c km. Tng tc kt tinh c li cho vic c mt
s hp kim c khong nhit kt tinh rng, lm gim c hi ca thin tch vng.
Tc in y lng khun dp c th c xc nh nu bit tc dch
chuyn ca chy p v v t l gia din tch mt ct ngang ca chy r
2
1
v ca
ci r
2
o
:

2
1
2
0
2
1
1
r r
vr
V
= . (2.13)
T ta c th xc nh thi gian in y lng khun

r,e
= h/v
1
(2.14)

Trong h l gii hn cc pha trong kim loi lng.
Trong trng hp thi gian bt u kt tinh theo bt ng thc 2.10 c th
biu din bng biu thc sau:

d

r,r
+
p min

hoc
min p
o
d
vr
) r r ( h
+
2
2
1
2
.

(2.15)
gii bi ton bin dng, cn xc nh m hnh thuc tnh vt liu. Trong
p bn lng c th s dng m hnh vt liu:
- tng ng xp bo ho;
- c thuc tnh do nht phi tuyn;
- theo qui lut phi Newton.
C th xy dng m hnh cho h rn-lng theo cc thng s:

81
- hm th tch theo pha rn f
m;
-
hm th tch theo pha gia lng f
l
;
- hm th tch pha gia c ho tan trong pha lng f
p
.
Gii quyt bi ton chy do vt liu xy dng cc phng trnh ca
trng ng xut v trng bin dng.

2.5. Hin tng t bin : B - Do - Tc dng sau n hi -
Vng tr ca kim loi
Tng bin dng ca vt th c th chia lm 2 phn: bin dng n hi v
bin dng do. Quan h tng i ca chng ph thuc nhiu yu t, trong c
tc bin dng, bin dng sy ra cng nhanh, phn bin dng n hi cng ln,
phn bin dng do cng nh. C th gii thch, do bin dng n hi truyn i
vi tc m trong vt th. Cn truyn lan bin dng do, do tc chuyn ng
ca lch, chu nh hng ngn cn ca cc tp cht, nn chm hn so vi ttc
truyn lan bin dng n hi.
Mt khc, s khng hon chnh trong cu trc tinh th ca ht, s bin dng
khng ging nhau gia cc ht, s to thnh ng sut d loi 2, lm thay i tnh
cht vt liu vng di gii hn n hi v vng bin dng do.
Mi hin tng khng hon ton theo quy lut n hi, gi l hin tng phi
n hi. Hin tng phi n hi ni chung, lin quan n hai nguyn nhn:
a. Nng lc ca vt liu phn tn nng lng trong qu trnh gia ti trong
vng n hi, c ngha l cha c bin dng do. Cc chi tit u lm vic vng
di gii hn n hi. C lc cn vt liu c tnh cht gim rung, gim chn - cn
ni ma st. Nhng nhiu chi tit nh phn t n hi, dng c o li cn vt liu
vi phi n hi nh nht v ni ma st t nht.
b. S thay i ni ma st c th gip xc nh cu trc v tnh cht ca vt
liu. Do s tiu tan nng lng trong qu trnh dao ng quan h vi cu trc bn
trong di tc ng ca ng sut.
Di y gii thiu v gii thch tm tt mt s hin tng thng gp:

82

2.5.1. Quan h khng tuyn tnh
gia bin dng v ng sut
Khi gia ti vt qua gii hn t l,
mi quan h tuyn tnh thc ra ch tn ti
khi tt c cc ht cn trng thi bin
dng n hi. Quan h tuyn tnh bin mt
do s xut hin bin dng do, v bin
dng do vi cng mt bin dng cn
mt ng sut ln hn so vi bin dng n
hi.

2.5.2. Hin tng sau tc dng
L hin tng mu di tc dng ca mt ti trng nh hn gii hn chy
sau mt thi gian thy xut hin bin dng ph thm. Nu ct ti vn cn lu li
mt lng bin dng nh, sau mt thi gian na mi mt i, quan st thy khi chi
tit chu lc nhit cao.
Hin tng ny c th gii thch nh sau: trng thi vi ng sut khng
ln, trong ht tinh th c mt s mt v phng tinh th thun li cho s trt xy
ra hin tng lch chuyn ng (nhy) theo s tng ca thi gian.

Hnh 2.9 Hin tng n hi
phi tuyn

83
Hin tng tng dn
bin dng khi gi ti v mt
dn khi ct ti gi l hin
tng sau tc dng n hi
xui v ngc to ra bin
dng do nhng ht yu ,
bin dng n hi cc ht
cng khc. Kt qu to ra mt
bin dng ph trn ton mu.
Khi ct ti, mu mun tr li
hnh dng ban u, cc ht
bin dng n hi tc ng
lm cc ht yu bin dng do, ng sut d to ra c du ngc vi ng sut d
ban u. Di tc dng ca ng sut d trong ht yu li xut hin s dch chuyn
ca lch theo thi gian t sinh ra bin dng do vi du ngc li. iu lm
gim gi tr ca ng sut d, v bin dng n hi ht cng, dn n gim bin
dng d trn ton a tinh th.

2.5.3. Hin tng do
Do l hin tng ng sut gim theo thi gian chu lc cn gi c nh
mt lng bin dng ca mu. Khi lng bin dng tng c nh, thi gian cht
ti cng tng, mt phn bin dng n hi chuyn thnh bin dng do. l do
trong ht bin dng, nht l trn mt trt thun li, quan st thy s chuyn ng
nh hng ca lch, khin phn bin dng n hi trong ton phn bin dng ca
ht gim, do lm gim gi tr ng sut cn thit gi c nh lng bin
dng, ph thuc lng bin dng n hi. gim ng sut t l vi gi tr ng
sut.

k
dt
d
= (2.16)

Hnh 2.10 Hin tng sau n hi, khi
ng sut khng i (a), v khi bin dng
khng i (b)

84
Trong : d - lng gim ng sut trong thi gian dt;
k - h s t l, xt nh hng ca tc do;
- ng sut trong vt th.
Xt gi tr ng sut ti thi im nghim cu so vi iu kin ban u, ta c th
vit cng thc di dng:

min
kT
o t
e + =

(2.17)
trong :
t
- ng sut ti thi im t;
o
- ng sut ti thi im ban u;
T - thi gian do;
min
- ng sut nh nht cho php.
Ta bit, d tc dng lc lu
n bao nhiu, kim loi u gi mt
lngk bin dng n hi nht nh,
nn
t
ch c th gim n mt gi tr
nht nh.
Mt s nh nghin cu cho
rng, tc do ca vt liu khng c
gi tr c nh. Chng ph thuc
thuc tnh, t chc v iu kin gia
cng trc ca kim loi. Tc bin
dng tng i trong gia cng p lc
c nh hng ln: tc bin dng
tng i cng nh, lc cn bin
dng cng nh, biu hin n hi ca kim loi cng nh. Bin dng cng d. Hnh
trn cho thy, tc bin dng tng i nh hng trong giai on u rt ln,
sau khi t n mt gi tr nht nh nh hng gim, v di gii hn, tc
bin dng tng i khng cn c nh hng n tr lc bin dng, tc gi
l tc khng. Ta bit thi gian gia cng rt ngn, nhng bin dng n hi
thc hin hon ton, tc bin dng tng i ch nh hng n bin dng do.

Hnh 2.11 ng cong do


85
Hin tng do ph thuc t chc kim loi v nhit . Do, bin dng do
thc hin theo c ch trt v khuych tn, nn nu trong kim loi c cc thnh
phn hn ch qu trnh trt v khuych tn th cng lm gim qu trnh do.
2.5.4. Hin tng b
Vt th di tc dng ca nhit cao v p lc vi ng sut nh hn gii
hn chy, ta thy, vt liu cng b bin dng do t t v c th sy ra ph hu,
hin tng gi l hin tng b.
Kim loi b di tc dng ca mi dng lc (ko, nn, un xon) v di mi tc
dng ca nhit , nhng b nhit cao rt ln. Nn kim loi lm vic nhit
cao cn phi ch , nh cc l hi, ng c nhit, cn phng chng n
hng. Qu trnh b c 3 giai on: giai on u, b n nh tc b nh, gia
on 2 b n nh vi gi tr c nh. Nu nhit v ng sut nh, giai on ny
chim thi gian chnh. Giai on 3, tng tc b v n ph hu.
Bng 2.3 cho thy cc gi tr gii hn bn thay i theo tc thc
nghim:
Bng 2.3
Tc th nghim thng Th nghim thi gian di
Kim loi

b
MPa
o
MPa
10

b
MPa
n ph hu

Brnz
45
51,5
51,5
51,5
51,5
51,5
75
16,5
16,5
16,5
16,5
16,5
37
14
14
14
14
14
40
40
35~30
25
20
16
8 ngy
1 ngy
25 ngy
45 ngy
42 ngy
110 ngy
Cu 33,4 9 7,5 30
25
<1 ngy
9 thng
Al 11,5 5,5 11,5 10
8
3 ngy
8 thng


86
Bin dng b c
th thc hin theo c
ch khuych tn. Vt
liu khng ng u,
bin dng b cng
khng u. C th ,
mt s ht, c iu
kin tt, sy ra bin
dng b. Trong khi ,
mt s ht khc li
khng sy ra. C ngha
l sy ra bin dng do
cc b. Kt qu l, sinh ra vt nt t vi ti mt ch no bn trong ht v ti
phn gii ht, t dn n ph hu vt liu.
Nn trong thit k ch to cc thit b nhit cn xc nh bin dng b gii
hn. Th d, khi thit k tuabin hi v ni hi, thng s dng bin dng b gii
hn l 0,0001%/gi hoc 0,190%/nm. ng sut b gii hn cn ph thuc nhit
lm vic, th d, i vi thp cc bon thp, nhit 450
0
C , ng sut b gii
hn l 50MPa, cn khi nhit tng ln 600
0
C, gi tr l 5 MPa.

2.5.5. Vng tr n hi
L hin tng c c trng bng cc
ng gia ti trn biu thay i lc quan h vi
bin dng khng trng vi cc ng ct ti, to nn
vng tr, xc nh phn cng sinh nhit trong qu
trnh bin dng. C th gii thch qu trnh nh
sau: Khi gia ti ln hn gii hn t l, trong ht c
nh hng thun li, xut hin phn bin dng do,
do tng bin dng ca mu, ng thi tng

Hnh 2.12 ng cong bin dng b

Hnh 2.13 Vng tr


87
ng sut so vi quan h truyn tinh. Khi ct ti gim bin dng ht
cng u tin gim bin dng n hi ht mm, sau to nn bin dng n
hi i du, khi lc ln chng li chuyn sang bin dng do. Do , giai
on cui khi ct ti cng bin dng tng theo quan h tuyn tinh khi gim
lc bin dng. Nu do qu trnh tc dng sau bin dng n hi ca ht hon ton
ct b th vng tr s khp kn. Nu cho rng trong qu trnh gia ti v ct ti xy
ra hin tng do ng sut trong ht cng, th nhn c mt lng bin dng do
sau mi chu k quan st thy khi gia ti mu ko n ng sut gn gii hn
chy.
2.5.6. Hiu ng Baosinghe
c trng: Mu lc u bin
dng qu gii hn chy, gim tr lc
bin dng( gii hn n hi, chy khi
bin dng du ngc li). iu ny
c gii thch do ht vi mt trt c
nh hng thun li khi bin dng
mu, theo chiu ngc li nhn mt
bin dng do vi mt ng sut nh
hn. Khi ct ti cc ht ny do ct b
bin dng n hi ht bn cnh c
mt bin dng n hi du ngc li, cho nn yu cu tng ng sut nh hn.

2.5.7 Din tch chy
Din tch chy trong biu ko nn l mt phn ca biu , tng
bin dng mu khng cn tng ng sut tc dng, tng ng vi gii hn chy
S

(
0.2
). Nu trong biu ko nn c s un t ngt, to nn hnh rng ca, lc
ny s xut hin 2 gii hn chy: gii hn chy trn
S
T
v gii hn chy di
S
D
.
Hin tng ny to nn mt din tch, gi l din tch chy, thng thy cc vt
liu nh hp kim mu v thp cc bon thp.

Hnh 2.14 Quan h ng sut bin
dng khi cng hng

88
Ta c th gii thch nh sau, trong mt s trng hp phn gii ht v
phn gii cc blc to nn mng c bn ln v dn. Bin dng do xy ra
trong ht v phn gii . Khi ng sut t gi tr
S
T
, nhng mng dn b ph
v, nn bin dng do tip theo khng cn ng sut ln. Gi thit khc cho rng,
nu lch b bao quanh bng cc nguyn t tp cht, lm tng tr lc bin dng
giai on u chuyn ng ca lch. Khi tng bin dng do, lch thot khi
vng bao vy ca lch, nn bin dng do
tip theo d hn, cn t ng sut hn. Do s
gim ca tr lc bin dng, nn dn n bin
dng cc b. Cc ht c nh hng ca mt
- phng trt thun li s bin dng. Gn
nhng ht ny xut hin ng sut tp trung,
to thnh vng tp trung bin dng do. Di
tc dng ca ng xut ny, thc y lan
truyn bin dng do ra ton vt bin dng.
Lng bin dng ln hn v dn n xut
hin din tch trt.
2.5.8. Ni ma st v vng tr hm
Ni ma st l kh nng hp
th nng lng giao ng ca vt
liu.
Vt liu gim rung v giao
ng cn mt ni ma st ln, ngc
li cc vt liu lm nhc c (ching,
trng, dy n...) cn ni ma st nh.
S tiu tn, hp th nng lng di
tc dng ng sut c th gy ra s
bin i nhit , t tnh, v s sp
xp li cc nguyn t.

Hnh 2.15 Gii hn chy
vdin tch chy

Hnh 2.16 Cc giai on on lch b
un khi chu ng sut . Lc

-chiu di on
lch gia 2 nt tp cht, L
N
chiu di on
lch trong ngun P-R


89
Khi nghin cu s phn tn nng lng do chuyn ng ca lch v to ra
vng tr chu k ng sut- bin dng, nu tng ng sut s c s dch chuyn
khng thun nghch ca lch, sau gim ng sut n khng( trong qu trnh
gia ti theo chu k), bin dng khng hon ton mt i. bin dng tr v
khng cn t mt ti ngc du. Nu tip tc tng ti ngc du, ta s c bin
dng ngc gi tr, n bin dng bng bin dng na chu k trc. Tip theo
ta li gim ti, cho ti trng v khng, bin dng v khng. Ta s c mt vng tr
bin dng hay vng tr ni ma st.
Khi gia ti, u tin s c mt bin dng n hi v mt phn bin dng phi
n hi. Tip theo, dao ng gim dn theo thi gian v theo mt chu k nht
nh. Cng hng ni ma st c th xut hin do dao ng ca cc on lch,
gia cc im c nh, khi bin ng sut nh,v chng khng th bt khi cc
ch gi (h2.16). Lc on lch dao ng trn mt trt nh mt dy b rung.
Hnh 2.17 biu din quan h gia ng
sut v bin dng ca lch, ta thy c
vng tr (vng gch cho), din tch
ca chng ph thuc vo lng bin
dng. S phn tn nng lng dao
ng quan h vi s tn ti ca tr lc
ca mng vi s chuyn ng ca
lch. Gi tr ca chng ph thuc tc
dch chuyn ca on lch, v c
ngha vi tn s ca lc ko. iu
kin xut hin cng hng l t l xc
nh gia lc hm v tn s dao ng ring ca on lch. Tn s dao ng ring
cng ph thuc chnh vo dao ng ca lch. Bin dng phi n hi trong iu
kin cng hng tng theo thi gian, v moun ng c th nh hn mun do
trong trng hp do n gin. Ta thy, ni ma st chnh l phn nng lng tiu
tn sau mt chu k giao ng, v cng chnh l phn din tch to bi vng tr.

Hnh 2.17 Quan h gia ng sut v
bin dng ca lch (theo hnh 2.16)

90
Chng 3
Ma st tip xc trong gia cng p lc v S phn b
khng u ca ng sut v bin dng
3.1 Khi nim v ma st v vai tr ma st trong gia cng p
lc
Khi bin dng do, kim loi bin dng lun tip xc vi dng c gia cng,
khin mt phn kim loi ti b mt tip xc trt trn b mt dng c, gia cc
mt tip xc c lc cn chng li chuyn ng trt tng i trn mt tip xc.
Kt qu to ra cp ma st tip xc cn tr qu trnh chuyn v ca cc phn t kim
loi.
Hai mt c th tip xc trc tip, cng c th tip xc mt phn. Lc ma
st ph thuc cht lng, c tnh v trng thi b mt, vo iu kin bi trn. B
mt khun v vt dp c cc cht lng khc nhau, phng, nhp nh v
bin dng khc nhau do iu kin gia cng, do cc khuyt tt dng vi m va v m
khc nhau. Trn b mt cn c th c cc tnh cht c l ho khc nhau, ng sut
trn b mt khc nhau. B mt khun v vt dp lun b thay i do cc tc ng
c hc, nh mt khun b bin dng n hi, b mt vt dp b bin dng do. B
mt cn chu nh hng ca nhit , nhit vt dp v nhit sinh ra trong
qu trnh bin dng do. Trng thi b mt cn ph thuc vt liu lm khun v
vt liu dp, c vt liu bn cao, vt liu c h s ma st thp v ngc li. B
mt c th c bi trn bng cc vt liu khc nhau: du, m, nc, pht pht
ho...cho cc gi tr ma st khc nhau.
3.1.1. Tc dng ca ma st
a. Ma st tip xc lm
tng tr lc bin dng v
cng bin dng vt liu.
Ma st kim loi trong gia
cng p lc c nh hng

Hnh 3.1 Profin b mt cc chi tit sau gia cng


91
va tch cc va tiu cc. Nh c ma st khi cn kim loi c th i vo l hnh,
khi dp gi c phi lm vt dp khng b nhn. Nhng, ma st cn tr vt liu
bin dng, trn b mt c tc dng ln, gim dn nh hng khi i vo bn trong.
Khi c ma st trn b mt xut hin mt lc ma st trn b mt c chiu ngc
chiu chuyn ng ca kim loi trn b mt tip xc kim loi - dng c. T .
lm thay i s trng thi ng sut v gy bin dng khng u. Thc vy, khi
chn khng c ma st tip xc, vi trng thi ng sut n, chi tit hnh tr, sau
khi chn chi tit gi nguyn hnh dng l hnh tr. Nhng khi c ma st tip xc,
bin dng chia thnh 3 vng r rt, vi trng thi ng sut khi khc nhau.
Nguyn nhn do tc dng ca ma st b mt c lan truyn vo su bn trong
vt th bin dng, to thnh vng kh bin dng v s bin dng khng u ti
cc vng. S bin dng khng u ph hu tnh ng nht ca vt liu v cu trc
v tnh cht, k c qu trnh bin cng v kh bin cng.
b. Ma st tip xc lm tng tr lc bin dng, do phi thm nng lng
khc phc ma st, nn lm tng tr lc bin dng, c ngha l lm tng p lc n
v v tng cng tiu hao.
c. Ma st tip xc lm tng s mi mn lng khun, tng nhit tip xc
t gim tui th khun, ng thi tng ng sut lin quan n tng lc bin
dng.
d. Ma st nh hng n trng thi b mt vt dp v lm tng tnh khng
u ca t chc v tnh cht vt dp.
e. Do ma st tip xc, phi tin hnh bi trn lm tng phc tp ca
cng ngh v tng chi ph sn xut. Ngoi vic dng cc vt liu bi trn thng
thng nh du m, cn dng phng php pht pht ho.
3.1.2. Phn loi ma st
Theo ma st hc, c th chia ma st thnh nhiu dng khc nhau, y
gii thiu mt s dng ma st thng gp trong gia cng p lc.
Ma st tnh: Khi ngoi lc khng ln khc phc lc ma st gia 2
vt lm vt chuyn ng, ma st gi l ma st tnh.

92
Ma st trt: di tc dng ca ngoi lc lm chuyn v tng i gia
cp ma st.
Ma st ln: Di tc dng cu ngoi lc
lm mt vt chuyn ng ln trn vt khc. Tr
lc ln nh hn nhiu so vi tr lc trt.

c im ma st trong bin dng do
a. Ma st trong bin dng do khc ma st
trt c hc. Khi bin dng do, b mt dng c
bin dng n hi, bn mt vt dp th bin dng do, b nn bp, c xu th ly
hnh ging ca b mt dng c. Do b mt tip xc gia phi v dng c tng
trong qu trnh bin dng do, gi tr din tch b mt tip xc t l vi lng bin
dng v ng sut php trung bnh nn. H s b mt tip xc biu din t s
gia din tch b mt c tip xc ca vt liu bin dng vi din tch c tip
xc trn b mt dng c. C cc dng: tip xc mt, tip xc ng, tip xc
im. Thc t, trong iu kin khng bi trn, b mt tip xc c th t 95%
din tch b mt ton th, khi c bi trn du khong, t l t 55%, nhng khi
bi trn m thc vt b mt tip xc thc cn 25%. Trong qu trnh bin dng
do, b mt tip xc tng.
b. Ma st gy ra mi mn, do c s c xt trt gia 2 b mt c kh, ng
thi, ma st lm tng nhit dng c. Vy xyt trn b mt kim loi sau khi
nung v trong qu trnh gia cng p lc cng c 2 tc dng: lm tng ma st b
mt. Trong bin dng ngui, vy xyt cng hn kim loi, nn lm tng khuyt tt
b mt vt dp; nhng trong bin dng nng, vy xyt mm hn so vi kim loi
bin dng, chng li c tc dng lm cht bi trn. Nhng vy xyt cng lm cht
lng b mt vt dp gim.
c. Khi bin dng do, p lc n v rt ln, trong bin dng ngui khong
500~2500MPa, cn trong bin dng nng cng t 100~500MPa, trong khi p
lc n v cao nht ca trc ch c 20~40MPa.
Hnh 2.2 Cp ma st gia
2 vt tip xc

93
d. Trong bin dng do nhit b mt gia khun v vt rn rt cao, t
1200
0
C.
S ho bn kim loi cng lm thay i ma st mt tip xc do rn b
mt vt bin dng tng, ngoi ra, khi 2 vt chuyn ng tng i, cc ht tinh
th ca vt bin dng b ko theo phng chuyn ng, lm thay i iu kin
tip xc.
Trong gia cng p lc, mt b phn b mt kim loi, di tc dng ca
iu kin bn ngoi, c tc dng hp ph cc cht, c dnh kt cc cht nh du
m. Nn ma st khng hon ton l ma st kh, thng l na kh hoc c cht
bi trn. kho st bn cht qu trnh, ta nghin cu c ch sinh ma st kh.

3.2. C ch sinh ra ma st kh
B mt chi tit sau gia cng c kh bao gi cng c nhp nh nht nh
(hnh 3.1). Khi chng tip xc vi nhau c th sy ra s tip xc theo cc trng
hp: mt li n vo mt lm hoc cc phn li tp xc vi nhau dng im.
Nhng do prfin nhp nh b mt khng ng nht, nn b mt tip xc thc
khng phi 100% . Di tc dng ca lc php tuyn, khi cp ma st dch chuyn
tng i s sy ra cc dng:
a. Phn li c cng ln s ct phn li c cng nh, lm thay i tc
trt, lm trn b mt chi tit cng hn s b chn cc ht ca chi tit
mm hn;
b. Do nhit bin dng v nhit ct lm tng nhit b mt, kt qu l
nhit vt liu ca chi tit cp bin dng c th t nhit nng
chy;
c. Do bin dng, hin tng ct v nhit lm thay i t chc b mt
tip xc;
d. Do lc tc dng ca cc nguyn t trn b mt tip xc lm thay i
trng lc.

94
Lc tc dng tng h ca cp ma st gy ra qu trnh th nht, sau
mi gy ra cc qu trnh tip theo. bn phn nh b mt do bn thn ln
ca chng quyt nh. Chnh v vy, nu 2 b mt cp ma st u cng, th 2 b
mt u b bin dng v b ct.
Trong qu trnh lin tc gia cng, b mt dng c b mi mn. Do b mt
tip xc ca cng c tc dng lin tc v trong thi gian di vi kim loi bin
dng, nht l trong iu kin nhit cao, cng lm tng mi mn ca dng
c.
Mt phn gii gia cp ma st c gi l trng ma st. Khi hai mt thc
tip xc vi nhau, trng ma st l b mt gii hn bng cc ng gii hn mt
tip xc. Trong dp khi, trng ma st l ton b mt tip xc gia lng khun
v kim loi bin dng. B mt trn tc dng ng sut tip do ma st gy ra gi
l mt tip. Nu mt vt th tt c mt tip chiu trn trng ma st, tt nhin tn
din tch hnh chiu nh hn din tch trng ma st. Nu gi F
m
l din tch
trng ma st, din tch F
t
l tng din tch hnh chiu ca mt tip trn trng
ma st, vy:
F
t
< F
m

Mt tip gia 2 vt tip xc, ni chung khng bng nhau. Vt c bn ln mt
tip nh, vt c bn nh mt tip ln. Do khun c bn cao hn kim loi
bin dng, nn chng c mt tip nh hn. Tng din tch hnh chiu ca mt tip
ca dng c trn trng ma st nh hn rt nhiu tng din tch hnh chiu ca
mt tip xc ca kim loi bin dng trn trng ma st v nh hn din tch
trng ma st F
m
. ln ca lc ma st cp ma st c th chuyn dch tng
i vi nhau do ln ca F
t
quyt nh.
Cc yu t quyt nh F
t
l:
Lc php tuyn P: lc P cng ln, cc phn nhp nho ca 2 b mt cng d
n su vo nhau, nn F
t
cng ln.
Thi gian hnh thnh cc tip im: Cc im tip xc gia cc phn nhp
nh c hnh thnh trong mt khong thi gian. Nh vy khi cp ma st trong
trng thi tnh, phn n su vo nhau gia cc mt nhm nhiu hn khi 2 b mt

95
dch chuyn. C ngha l din tch hnh chiu ca cc mt tip trn trng ma st
Ft trong trng thi tnh ln hn trong trng thi ng. iu nh hng n tc
dch chuyn ca cc vt.

Hnh 3.3 Cc
dng b mt tip
xc

nh hng ca nhit : Nhit tng, bn ca vt liu gim, F
t
tng.

nh hng ca nhm b mt: nhm b mt tng, F
t
tng, l do s
lng phn nhp nh trn n v din tch ca trng ma st tng, lm tng din
tch F
t.
.
Trong gia cng p lc, mt phn b mt tip xc b bin dng, mt phn b
ph hu, lc khc phc lc ma st gm lc n hi ca khun, lc bin dng do
ca vt liu bin dng v cc lc ct. V vy, lc ma st bin i theo cc yu t
sau:
a. Do lc php tuyn tng lm tng lc ma st. Nhng lc ma st tng c
gii hn, sau khi ma st ngoi chyn thnh ma st trong, chng t gi
tr ln nht.
b. Gim tc dch chuyn tng i ca cp ma st, lc ma st tng.
c. Tng nhm ca dng c khun lm tng ma st. Nhng khi tng
nhm n mt mc nht nh, lc ma st tng cn do tng lc hp
dn ca cc nguyn t trn b mt tip xc.
d. Tng nhit ca vt th lm tng hoc gim lc ma st do lm tng
din tch Ft, lm gim bn phn nhp nh ca b mt, lm qu trnh
n su v ct d dng, ma st gim.
Nh vy, c ch to thnh ma st kh ch yu do bin dng v ct cc nh
nhp nh b mt gy ra.


96
Cc quy lut nh hng ca cc yu t n ma st na kh cng gn ging
nh trong ma st kh. Nhng, khi tc trt tng h s ma st gim. Khi tc
trt ln, lm gim rt nhanh thi gian tip xc gia cp tip xc, ma st na
kh c th chuyn thnh ma st t. Sau khi chuyn xong nh lut chuyn ng
cht lng Newton c tc dng. Lc ny, ng sut ma st n v
t = dv/dh (3.1)
Khi p lc php tuyn tng n mt gii hn, cc cht bi trn b nn khi
mt tip xc, lm din tch ma st tip xc F
m
tng, h s ma st Coulomb tng.

3.3. Cc nh lut v ma st
3.3.1. Cc nh lut ma st chung
a. nh lut th nht: Cng ca ma st ngoi A bng tng cng ca nhit
sinh ra Q v cng cc nng lng c hp th E:
A = Q + E (3.2)
Thng cng ca ma st ngoi khng hon ton bin thnh nhit, nn nh hn A
v E >0. T s nng lng hp th v cng ca ma st ngoi l mt i lng
thay i, ph thuc vo tnh cht vt liu v iu kin ma st ngoi:
E/A = ( p, v, c) (3.3)
trong : p - p sut , v - tc trt, c - vect cc thng s ma st, tnh cht vt
liu, mi trng, nhit ...
b. nh lut th 2: Lc ma st l tng cc lc thnh phn c dng
thc y cc qu trnh c-l-ho ng vi iu kin tip xc ca cp ma st. Cc
lc ma st gm cc dng: ma st bn trong cc lp thu kh ng; ch ma st
ta thu ng; ma st trt trong cc lp gii hn; to gii trong cc lp b mt
kim loi; qu trnh dao ng n hi trong lp b mt; bin dng ca cc th tch
b mt v m; ph hoi cc kin kt khuych tn; tng tc ca trng phn t
ca cc pha rn- trng Vandecvan v trng b mt vi cc khuyt tt ca cu
trc tinh th; c ch ph hoi s tch lu cc khuyt tt v s tan r cc cu trc
th cp; cc c ch ph hoi th tch v m kim loi; tn mt nng lng ra ngoi.

97
c. nh lut th 3: Vi mt tp hp cc thng s vt liu, mi trng, nht
nh c mt vng ca tc dng c hc, trong tch phn ca t s nng lng
hp ph trn cng ca lc ma st trong ton th tch b bin dng c gi tr cc
tiu.
3.3.2. Xc nh ng sut (lc ma st) trn b mt tip xc
tnh ton ng sut tip xc gia dng c v mt kim loi tip xc, cn
xc nh ng sut tip, do ma st trn b mt tip xc gy ra. Quan h gia lc ma
st v p lc tc dng ph thuc thuc tnh v trng thi ca cp ma st. Nhiu
nh khoa hc xy dng thnh cc nh lut tnh ton:
a. M hnh lc php tuyn - nh lut ma st Culng
Trong qu trnh ma st kh, trong iu kin ca b mt tip xc ca cp
ma st nh nhau (trng thi b mt, nhit , trng thi vt l v thuc tnh kim
loi) lc ma st (lc tip tuyn T ) t l thun vi lc php tuyn:
T = . P
N
(3.4)
trong : - h s t l, gi l h s ma st lc php tuyn hay h s ma st
Culng.
P
N
- p lc php tuyn, tc dng ca dng c ln mt kim loi bin dng.
T - lc ma st,tip tuyn vi mt tip xc, c chiu ngc vi chiu chuyn
ng ca vt.
Trong qu trnh bin dng do, do b mt nhp nh ca kim loi bin dng
b nn p lm din tch tip xc thc tng. Mt khc, do hnh thnh mt tip xc
mi, cc din tch ny c iu kin ho l khc lm thay i h s ma st. Nu
phn kim loi bn trong vt th chuyn ra b mt to thnh mt tip xc mi, mt
ny c hot tnh b mt cao, c ngha c lc hp dn gia cc phn t trn din
tch tip xc, lm h s ma st tng.
b. nh lut ng sut ma st trung bnh
Lc ma st trung bnh t l lc ma st gy ra lc tip tuyn tc dng trn mt n
v din tch.
t = T / F
m
= .
N
(3.5)

98
trong :
N
- ng sut php tc dng ln trng ma st.
- h s ma st.

Nh vy, trong iu kin nht
nh, ng sut ma st t l vi ng
sut php.

Ta bit, iu kin do

k
= (0,5~0,578)
S
; trong

S
l gii hn chy kim loi
c xc nh trong th ko n.
Xt 2 cng thc trn ta thy, khi
lc ma st t gi tr ln nht, s
tip tc tng ng sut php lm h
s ma st gim. Ti thi im h s
ma st bt u gim c th coi
l gii hn tc dng ca nh lut Coulomb. Nhng thc t, t thi im h s
ma st xut hin v t l nghch vi ng sut php.
t
max
=
K
= (0,5~0,578)
S
(3.5)

S
= t
max
/
S
= (0,5~0,578) (3.6)
Trong iu kin do ng sut tip ln nht Tressca
S
= 0,5; trong iu
kin do nng lng Von Misses
S
= 0,578, lc ny ngoi ma st s chuyn
thnh ni ma st. H s ma st ln nht
S
tr thnh h s ma st gii hn chy.
Trong cng thc tnh p lc n v ca gia cng p lc, khng phn bit
a trong cng thc tnh ton hay
S
, m ch ni chung v h s ma st. Thc
t v
S
c gi tr khc nhau:
t =
N
=
S
S
(3.7)

Hnh 3.4 Quan h gia lc ma st t vi h
s ma st f
N
v ng sut php
N
trong qu
trnh ma st kh.
1. Giai on h s ma st cao; 2. Khu vc tc
dng ca ma st Coulomb; 3. Khu vc tc
dng ca lc ma st bng hng s.

99
vy: =
S

S
/
N
, cho nn nu
N
>
S
th h s ma st Coulomd nh hn h
s ma st Tresca v ngc li.
Khi
N
=
S
th 2 h s bng nhau.

c. nh lut ma st
M hnh mng gii hn
Gia mt tip xc
ca dng c v vt bin
dng thng c mt mng
mng, l cht bi trn
hoc mng xyt, c bm
dnh chc trn b mt. Vy,
ta c th gi thit, dch
chuyn tng i gia kim
loi v dng c ch c th
sy ra khi c bin dng ca
mng, vi ng sut tip:
T m = == = (3.8)
trong : m- h s ma st ca mng gii hn, 0 m 1; m = 0 c trng cho
tip xc khng ma st; m = 1 c trng cho tip xc dnh gia 2 b mt vt liu
nhit cao.
ng sut ph hu ct ca vt liu mm hn.
3.3.3. Cch chn h s ma st trong tnh ton ng sut v bin dng:
a. Trong qu trnh gia cng p lc ngui, du bi trn khng b p ra
ngoi, t < t
max
, f
N
c gi tr trung bnh.
B mt dng c nh bng
S
= 0,04~0,08
B mt b mn
S
= 0,09~0,12

Hnh 3.5 Quan h gia h s ma st na kh
vi tc trt v s chuyn t ma st kh
thnh ma st t


100
H s ma st v m ca mt s kim loi Bng 3.1
Kim loi Nhit
0
C Bi trn
m
Thp cacbon thp 20 Kh 0,25 0,5
Thp ccbon thp 950 Kh 0,45 0,3~1,0
Thp cacbon thp 20 Du 0,03 0,05
Cc loi thp khc 20 X phng 0,05 0,07
Nhm 20 Du 0,05 0,15
ng 20 Kh 0,1 0,9
ng 850 Graphit 0,25 0,2

b. Trong qu trnh gia cng p lc, du b long, d b nn p ra ngoi,
t<t
max
. Khi chut, vut, cn kim loi vi trng thi ng sut 3 chiu khc du, do
ng sut php trn mt tip xc thng nh hn gii hn chy, nn khng c kh
nng lc ma st t gi tr ln nht.
B mt dng c nh bng tt
S
= 0,08~0,12
B mt b mn
S
= 0,13~0,20
c. Trong qu trnh bin dng, ma st ca dng c ch to bng thp ln
hn ma st ca dng c ch to bng hp kim cng:

Thp
>
HKcng
>
xaphia

d. Trong qu trnh bin dng do nng t < t
max

Nu c cht bi trn = 0,20~0,25
Khng bi trn = 0,30~0,45
Trong iu kin chn nng, nu gii hn chy
S
ln hn ng sut php
N
, do chn nn lm cho ng sut tip trung bnh t vt qu gi tr ln nht
0,5~0,578. V vy thng chn
S
= const l hp l. Do h s ma st
S

thng dng trong cc cng ngh gia cng nng nh: qu trnh p chy, chn chi
tit vi H/D nh v cn th nng.
Trong gia cng p lc nng c th dng m hnh ma st mng gii hn.

101
3.4. Bi trn v nh hng ca chng n lc ma st
3.4.1. Tc dng ca cht bi trn
Nu trn b mt ma st c bi mt lp bi trn c dnh kt, c th thy:
a. Lp bi trn gi hon chnh, khng b ph hoi, trn trng ma st
khng c tip xc "kh". Nh vy, ta c iu kin ma st t. Trong trng hp
ny ma st do lc hp dn gia cc phn t cc cht bi trn gy ra. Lc hp dn
ny ngn cn cc cht im ca cht bi trn chuyn dch tng i vi nhau.
Chng theo nh lut chuyn ng ca cht lng nht Newton. Theo nh lut
ny, lc ma st t l thun vi nht v tc chuyn ng, t l nghch vi
chiu dy lp bi trn.
T = F v/h (3.7)
trong : T - lc ma st t, kG; - nht, kG.s/mm
2
; F - din tch b mt
trt, mm
2
; v - tc trt tng i, mm/s; h - chiu dy lp bi trn, mm.
nh lut trn khng thch hp vi trng hp lp bi trn dy. Theo cng
thc trn, lc ma st khng ph thuc p lc trn b mt ma st, m ph thuc
din tch trt (tip xc). Nh vy chng hon ton khc vi iu kin ma st
kh.
Trng hp na kh. Trong trng hp trn mt ma st c vng khng c
cht bi trn, c gi l iu kin ma st na kh. Trong trng hp ma st na
kh, mng bi trn khng hon ton lm gim s tip xc trc tip gia cc
phn nhp nh ca 2 mt tip xc, dng c v vt liu. Din tch F
m
trong ma st
na kh nh hn trong trng hp ma st kh. Nu trn b mt tip xc rc cht
bt d v (graphit) cng gy hiu qu tng t. Cc ht graphit in vo cc rnh
trn b mt, hoc nm xen gia 2 mt ma st, do cng lm gim din tch F
m
.
Khi trt gia 2 mt, cc ht d v, din tch F
m
gim, nn gim lc ma st.
Chiu dy ca lp bi trn, ph trn b mt ph thuc nht, hot tnh ca
cht bi trn, p lc tc dng, nhm b mt tip xc, phng php gia cng.
Hot tnh ca cht bi trn l kh nng to thnh trn b mt lp bo v bng cc
phn t phn cc. Chng quyt nh tnh bi trn ca cht bi trn v cng

102
hp ph ca mt ma st. Khi trong cht bi tr[ncos cc phn t phn cc, lm thay
i sc cng b mt ca cht bi trn, lm tng lc hp ph gia dng c (vt
dp) vi cht bi trn.
Trong gia cng p lc, mt tip xc ti bin dng chu p lc rt ln t
100MPa, nn cht bi trn thng b nn p ra ngoi trng ma st. Lc php
tuyn cng ln, nht v hot tnh ca cht bi trn cng nh th cht bi trn
b nn p ra ngoi cng nhiu. Nh vy, nu cng mt iu kin bin dng,
bn ca kim loi bin dng cng ln, th ng sut php trn b mt tip xc cng
ln, nn chn cht bi trn c nht ln. nht tng, chiu dy lp bi trn
cng tng, nhng nht cng ln lm cho hot tnh cc cht im ca cht bi
trn gim, t lm tng lc ma st. Nh vy, lc ma st tng lm chiu dy lp
bi trn tng lm lc ma st gim; mt khc, do gim hot tnh ca cc cht im
ca cht bi trn lm lc ma st tng.
Nu b mt dng c v vt bin dng c nhm ln, s ngn cn cht bi
trn b p ra, nhng mt khc li lm din tch ma st tng lm lc ma st tng.
Phng php gia cng cng nh hng n chiu dy lp bi trn. Khi
chut qua l, kim loi bin dng t kch thc ln thnh kch nh, ng thi cht
bi trn cng d b p vo nhng rnh t v v hp ph trn b mt kim loi, lm
kim loi d bin dng.
Nh vy, nht v hot tnh ca cht bi trn cng nh, cng d ph hu
lp bi trn, v ngc li. Lc php tuyn cng ln, cht bi trn b p khi mt
tip xc cng d, nn chiu dy lp bi trn cng nh, cng d ph hu lp bi
trn. nhm b mt tip xc cng ln, cht bi trn cng kh p ra v chiu dy
lp bi trn cng ln. Khi chiu bin dng ca kim loi ngc vi chiu lc ma
st, chiu dy ca lp bi trn cng nh, kh nng ph hu lp bi trn cng ln.
Cht bi trn c tc dng gim lc ma st ngoi trong gia cng p lc, lm
gim nhit dng c, kh hin tng dnh gia kim loi v dng c, nng cao
cht lng b mt chi tit gia cng. Khi lc ma st gim, c th gim tr lc bin
dng ca kim loi, t gim tng lc tc dng ca kim loi ln dng c v gim
cng tiu hao, gim mi mn dng c, nng cao tui th dng c.

103
3.4.2. Cc yu cu i vi cht bi trn
tng hiu qu ca cht bi trn, trong gia cng p lc cn chn cht bi
trn ph hp.
Cht bi trn phi c hot tnh ln;
Cht bi trn c nht, bo m bm dnh tt trn b mt dng
c v chi tit;
C kh nng nhanh chng ph ht b mt tip xc;
Cht bi trn c tnh n nh ho hc tt trong iu kin lm vic, c nhit
nng chy cao, nhit bt chy cao, sn phm chy c tnh n nh ho hc
tt.
3.4.3. Cc cht bi trn thng dng trong gia cng p lc
iu kin gia cng p lc rt a dng, nn cht bi trn cng khc nhau.
C th dng nht phn loi cht bi trn.
a. Emunxi, thuc loi cht nh tng gm cc cht du v nc ho tan. Cc
ht du to thnh cht huyn ph nm trong nc. Loi cht bi trn ny va c
tc dng bi trn, va c tc dng lm ngui v khng c tc dng n mn vt
liu. Nhng tnh n nh ho hc km, khng dng trong gia cng p lc nhit
cao. C th s dng munxi 3 thnh phn gm nc, du khong v x phng.
Nc c tc dng lm ngui, du khong v x phng c tc dng bi trn. Cht
bi trn n dng trong dp ngui, hoc gia cng nng vt liu nhm.
b. Du mazut v hn hp du. Trong trng hp lc php tuyn ln, cn, dp
ngui , chut, gim thiu kh nng cht bi trn b nn p khi b mt tip
xc, dng hn hp du, gm du ng vt, du thc vt v cc loi m. Trong
thnh phn ca m c cht hnh thnh vi lp xyt mt hp cht gn ging x
phng c bn tt v tnh do tt, chu c p lc khi gia cng.
c. Du pha cc cht iu chnh nht. tng nht cho cc loi du k
trn, c th cho thm cc cht nh paraphin, x phng. Cc cht ny tng nht,
ng thi khng gim cht lng bi trn. Khi gia cng hp him nhm, c th
dng hn hp m ng vt, pha thm 15% graphit

104
d. Du pha thm cc ph gia. tng hot tnh ca cht bi trn c th cho
vo trong du cc cht c hot tnh cao, nh graphit, bt mica, hoc hn hp m-
gaphit...Cc cht ny to nn mt lp bi trn hoc hp cht kh bn vng, ngn
cn b nn p ra ngoi mt tip xc. Di p lc cao cc cht pha thm c th
chn vo cc rnh trn b mt tip xc, lm tng tc dng bi trn. Trong p chy
nng, s dng du khong pha graphit, sau khi bi ph vo ci p, cc cht bc
hi d b chy, trn b mt cn li graphit, c tc dng bi trn v nhit cao
cng khng b ph hu. Cht n thng dng khi p chy thp khng g, thp chu
nhit.
e. Nc thu tinh. Khi gia cng p lc nng nhit cao, nh p chy thp
hoc cht kh nng chy, graphit c th sinh ra hin tng thm cc bon., nn s
dng nc thu tinh. Nc thu tinh bm trn dng c va c tc dng bi trn
va c tc dng bo v lng khun. Khi dp nng cc thp khng g, nhit gia
cng n 1000~1200
0
C, nn dng keo, sn thu tinh hoc thu tinh bt
f. Cht bi trn bt. trnh vic cht bi trn b nn p ra ngoi, thng
dng cht bi trn dng bt: bt x phng, bt MoS
2
.
g. Cht bi trn kim loi. Khi chut dy thp, c th dng cht bi trn kim
loi, bng cch ph m trn b mt phi lp ch hoc ng, c tc dng bi trn
chu p lc cao.
h. Pht pht ho. Gn y trong gia cng p lc s dng lp pht pht lm
cht bi trn. Lp ny c bm dnh trn b mt vt liu tt, bo m bi trn
tt trong iu kin b mt ma st mi c hnh thnh trong qu trnh bin dng
cng c bi trn tt.

3.5. Cc yu t nh hng n gi tr lc ma st tip xc
Cc yu t nh hng n ln ca lc ma st trn b mt tip xc n
v khi bin dng do:
3.5.1. Trng thi b mt dng c, nhm b mt cng ln, gi tr lc
ma st cng ln. Lc ma st khc nhau cn ph thuc quan h gia phng trt

105
v phng gia cng b mt dng c. Khi gia cng b mt dng c bng phng
php mi lc ma st gim n 2 ln, khi c bi trn lc ma st phng ngang gia
cng ln hn khong 20% so vi phng dc gia cng. Trn b mt tip xc kim
loi khng c bi trn v mng xyt ho quan st thy c hin tng kim loi b
dnh trn b mt dng c, iu lm tng lc ma st.
3.5.2. Trng thi b mt vt bin dng: trng thi b mt vt bin dng
c nh hng lc ban u. Sau kim loi bin dng, tnh khng ng u bin
dng gim, b mt vt bin dng mang hnh ca dng c, nn nh hng gim.
Thnh phn ho hc vt liu bin dng, qu trnh cng ngh gia cng (c, x l
b mt, nung, ..), trng thi vy xyt, nhit ...c nh hng ln n trng thi
b mt vt bin dng.
Th d, do thnh phn ho hc khc nhau, tnh cht ca lp vy xyt c
cng khc nhau, lm cho h s ma st khc nhau, chng thay i trong phm vi
0,16~0,80. Mt khc, h s ma st cn ph thuc chiu dy lp vy xyt, bn
ca lp .
3.5.3.Thnh phn ho hc ca hp kim bin dng v dng c
Trong gia cng p lc, tnh cht ca lp xyt trn b mt, lc lin kt gia lp
xyt v kim loi, tc xyt ho, dn nhit, tr lc bin dng... u ph thuc
thnh phn ho hc ca vt liu. Trong gia cng p lc, c hin tng tng tc
trn b mt gia b mt kim loi v cht bi trn. Trong ma st kh, s c xt
gia cc mt tip xc trc tip cng lin quan n thnh phn ho hc. Vt liu c
bn cao, n hi tt, nht l bn nhit, kh nng duy tr nhp nh
trong thi gian di, mi mn t, c h s ma st nh.
Thc nghim cho thy, trong phm vi nhit 1200~800
0
C, tng hm
lng cc bon trong thp, h s ma st gim.


106

3.5.4. Lc php tuyn, hay p lc n v trn mt tip xc.
Lc php tuyn, hay p lc n v trn mt tip xc c nh hng n h s
ma st, do lin quan n vic thot sn phm mi mn. Nu sn phm mi mn
c lun kh khi b mt tip xc, p lc tng lc ma st gim, nhng sn phm
cn lu li s lm tng lc ma st. Khi c bi trn, p lc n v tng,
h s ma st gim.
Nh vy trong trng hp ma
st kh, khng kh c sn
phm mi mn, nn cc sn
phm c coi l cc cht
bi trn, lc ny tr thnh ma
st na kh. S nh hng ca
p lc n v i vi h s ma
st ph thuc s hp ph cc
cht trn b mt, hp ph cc
cht bi trn, lm cho p lc
tng lm gim h s ma st.

Hnh 3.6 Quan h gia h s ma st v hm lng Ccbon

Hnh 3.7 Quan h gia p lc n v v h s
ma st

107

3.5.5.Nhit dng c v
vt bin dng.
Quan h iu kin nhit
n h s ma st rt phc
tp, do nhit nh hng
n trng thi b mt ca
dng c v vt bin dng,
n trng thi hp ph cht
bi trn v tnh cht cht bi
trn.
C 2 mt i lp: kim
loi di tc dng ca nhit to lp xyt ho lm tng ma st, ng thi, tng
nhit , b mt th gia lp xyt v kim loi tr nn nhn bng, lm gim h s
ma st. Thc nghim cho bit, nhit tiu chun, h s ma st c gim, tng
nhit ln, h s ma st tng, nht l trong khong nhit 500~800
0
C h s
ma st ln nht, t gi tr max ti 800
0
C. Tip tc tng nhit, h s ma st gim.
H s ma st khi cn thp
trn trc gang c th tnh:
= 1,05 -0,0005T,
T- nhit cn.
Thc nghim cho bit, khi
cn nng thp c hm lng
0,5~0,8% C h s ma st t gi
tr ln nht ti 700
0
C.
Ni chung, trong gia cng p
lc, phm vi nhit gia cng t
1200~900
0
C, nhit kim loi
cng cao, h s ma st cng gim.

Hnh 3.8 Quan h gia h s ma st v nhit
vt rn

Hnh 3.9 Quan h gia h s ma st v nhit
ca thp 0,5~0,8%C


108
i vi hp kim mu, nhit gia cng di 900
0
C, ng : di 750
0
C, ng
Brn di 850
0
C, hp kim nhm di 500
0
C, nhn thy, nhit cng gim h s
ma st cng nh.
Trong hnh 3.10, ng 1 biu din bin i ca h s ma st trong trng
hp khng bi trn, ng 2 c bi trn bng nitrit Bo, ng 3 bi trn bng
m graphit; hnh a,b biu din bin i ca h s ma st theo nhit ; hnh c
biu din bin i ma st theo lng bin dng nhit t = 1000
0
C.
3.5.6. nh hng ca cht bi trn
Cht bi trn c tc dng gim h s ma st v gim nhit dng c.
Bng di y cho cc gi tri h s ma st khi gia cng ng v nhm vi cc
cht bi trn khc nhau.
3.5.7. nh hng ca tc gia cng
Thc nghim cho thy, khi tng tc bin dng v tc trt gia dng
c v kim loi, h s ma st gim.
Gupkin ch r, khi chn kim loi nhm cng trn u ba nhn, ti
400
0
C h s ma st tnh l 0,32, h s ma st ng l 0,22. Ti nhit 450
0
C h
s ma st tnh l 0,38 v h s ma st ng l 0,22. C ngha l trng thi tnh
h s ma st ln hn h s ma st trng thi ng.

Hnh 3.10 Quan h gia h s ma st v lng bin dng v nhit khi
chn.


109
H s ma st ca mt s kim loi Bng 3.2
Cht bi trn H s ma st
Nhm ng
Khng bi trn 0,1 0,36
Du cng nghip 0,30 0,26
Nc 0,14 0,19
Du bin th 0,14 0,15
Glixrin 0,09 0,15
Du my C 0,07 0,12
Du nng s 9 0,04 0,11

H s ma st ca mt s kim loi hp kim khi bin dng Bng 3.3
iu kin
gia cng
H s ma st

Bi trn Nhit

Thp C HK
Nhm
HK
Mg
Kim loi
nng
HK chu
nhit

0
C V1 V2 V1 V2 V1 V2 V1 V2 V1 V2
Khng
bi trn
0,8~0,9
Tnc
0,4 0,35 0,50 0,48 0,4 0,35 0,32 0,30 0,28 0,25
Khng
bi trn
0,5~0,8
Tnc
0,45 0,40 0,48 0,45 0,38 0,32 0,34 0,32 0,26 0,22
Khng
bi trn
0,3~0,5
Tnc
0,43 0,30 0,35 0,30 0,32 0,24 0,26 0,24 0,24 0,20
Bi trn T=25
0
C 0,12~0,06

Ghi ch: V1 - Tc < 1 m/s; V2 - Tc > 1 m/s v iu kin va p. Khi
dng cht bi trn cho gia cng nng, c th dng gi tr 85~75% s liu trong
bng chn cht bi trn.
3.6 nh lut tr lc nh nht

110
Cc vn nu trn cha ch ra phng bin dng ca cc cht im ca
vt liu. Ta bit, kim loi bin dng theo phng chnh. Nhng trn mt trc, kim
loi c kh nng bin dng theo hng dng hoc m.
Khi gia cng p lc, kim loi chy theo hng tr lc nh nht.
Hay ni cch khc, kim loi khi b bin dng, hng no t ma st hn, chng
chy theo hng nhiu hn, hng no c t ma st c ngha l tr lc trn b
mt t hn. nh lut tr lc nh nht cho bit phng hng bin dng v dch
chuyn ca cc cht im khi chu tc dng ca ngoi lc. Nu khng c ma st,
hoc ma st theo cc chiu nh nhau, cc cht im kim loi trn b mt s bin
dng u theo 3 hng.
Khi bit 2 hng chnh bin dng ca vt th, hng trc th 3 bin dng
ch c th theo 1 hng. Th d, khi p chy, hnh dng kch thc ca l ci
quyt nh gi tr bin dng ca 2 hng chnh
2
,
3
. Bin dng ca hng th 3
c xc nh bng nh lut th tch khng i
1
=
2
+
3
. Hng chy kim loi
theo hng p, nh vy c th xc nh c hng bin dng.
Nu cho bit hng bin dng ca 1 phng chnh, phng th 2 b ngn
cn, th phng th 3 cng c th xc nh. Th d, chn trong khun dng rnh,
kim loi ch c th chy theo 1 phng duy nht- dc theo hng tri v phi ca
rnh.

Hnh 3.11 Kim loi trong khun

Hnh 3.12 Hng chuyn v ca cc
cht im kim loi khi chn


111
Khi 1 phng trc chnh bin dng xc nh, trn 2 phng trc chnh kim
loi c th dch chuyn t do. Th d, chn trn e phng.
Nu tit din phi l trn, sau bin dng chn ta c tit din cng trn.
Nhng nu tit din phi hnh vung, do chiu di tip xc v bin dng ca cc
im theo cc phng khc nhau l khc nhau, theo hng trc ngn hn theo
ng cho. Nn khi chn, cc cnh kim loi chy ra nhiu hn, dn dn tit
din phi tr nn trn. Nu tit din hnh ch nht ta cng thy hin tng tng
t. Do ma st trn cc ng cho ln, trn trc di ln nn, u ti hnh thnh
hnh van, sau mi thnh hnh trn.
3.7. S phn b khng u ca ng sut v bin dng
Trong bin dng do kim loi, c hin tng bin dng khng u, t
lm t chc kim loi khng u v tnh nng vt liu khng u.
Bin dng khng u do trng thi ng sut: Ta bit, trng thi ng sut ti
mt im c th hon ton xc nh bng 1 ten x ng sut. Khi qu sang
im khc, ta li c mt ten x ng sut vi cc thnh phn khc ten x trc,
k c phng trc chnh cng thay i. c ton cnh trng thi ng sut ca
c vt th bin dng, cn bit trng thi ng sut ca tt c cc im, tp hp ca
tt c cc trng thi ng sut gi l trng ng sut. Nu thu c mt trng ng
sut ng nht cng mt ten x ng sut, ta c trng thi bin dng ng nht.
Trong gia cng p lc kim loi, khng c s bin dng ng nht, d cc
gi thit khi tnh ton c ch r vt liu ng nht, ng hng v lin tc.

Hnh 3.13 Chuyn v ca cc im theo hng knh


112
Nguyn nhn c bn ca bin dng khng u - trng thi ng sut khng
u:
a. Ma st tip xc.
Nh ni trn, trong gia cng p lc, gia dng c v kim loi bin dng c
mt tip xc, mt ma st. Trn b mt tip xc, lc ma st ngn cn kim loi dch
chuyn. l lc ma st ngoi. Do tc dng ca lc ma st ngoi dn yu i khi
i vo su trong kim loi, nn to thnh vng kh bin dng, c phn gii theo
ng cho 45
0
t mp ngoi ca dng c. Do tc dng ca ma st tip xc, hnh
thnh cc vng c trng thi ng sut khc nhau, nn bin dng khc nhau.

Hnh 3.14 Bin dng khng u khi chn
b. Hnh dng vt rn H/D v t s nn h/H khng u.
Vt rn cng phc tp, t s nn cng sai khc, bin dng cng khng u. Ti
cc mt ct khc nhau, do lng nn khc nhau, iu kin do khc nhau, nn c
ch bin dng nhiu, c ch bin dng t, c ch ch c bin dng n hi. Vic
cc tit din khc nhau bin dng khc nhau gy ra ng sut ph, lm tr lc bin
dng tng.
b. Hnh dng dng c
Hnh dng dng c c th khc nhau, phng, lm ch V hoc hnh van,
hnh a tuyn (prfin tit din phi bnh rng) to nn lng nn ti cc tit din
khc nhau v t t s nn ti cc v tr khc nhau l khc nhau.


113
Nu nh vy, ti
cc vng khc nhau,
chng c s bin dng
gn nh nhau, nhng tr
s bin dng khc nhau.
d. Nhit nung
khng u hoc do gia
cng ti cc thi im
khc nhau c nhit kt
tinh li khc nhau.
Mt chi tit phc tp, khi nung chng truyn nhit trong iu kin khc
nhau, to nn nhit ti cc vng khc nhau l khc nhau. Mt chi tit di cn
vut, mt u s c vut nhit cao, u kia vut nhit thp. Khi bin
dng do nhit cao, tnh do tt hn d bin dng hn. Nhng quan trng l
nhit rn ln gia cng cui. Vng dng rn nhit cao s kt tinh li
nhit cao v ht tinh th ln, tnh cht vt liu ti vng thp. Vng dng rn
nhit thp, gn nhit Ac
3
s cho ht nh sau kt tinh li. T tnh cht
c hc sau bin dng tt hn.
e. Tnh cht ca vt liu khng u. Do kim loi gm nhiu pha, mi pha
c tnh do khc v do , di tc dng ca cng mt ngoi lc, chng s biu
hin trng thi bin dng khc nhau.

3.8. Cc hin tng sinh ra khi bin dng khng u
a. Sinh ra phnh tang trng. Theo iu kin do, kim loi bin dng khi ng
sut tip ln nht hoc cng ng sut t gi tr gii hn chy. Xt mt ct
bin dng chn, vng kim loi theo ng cho lm vi b mt mt gc 45
0
l
vng sm t iu kin do,. Nn bin dng sm nht, trong khi cc vng kia
cha kp bin dng.

Hnh 1.15 S phn b ng sut trn vt rn, chn
trn e lm
thi im bt u (a) v thi im trng ng sut

114

Vng di e, chu trng thi ng
sut nn 3 chiu, kh bin dng
nht. Vng bin trng thi ng
sut c 1 chiu tip tuyn l ko,
nn d to hnh trng v to vt
nt b mt. Do cc vng, cc lp
kim loi bin dng khc nhau, d
gy ng sut d. Lng bin dng
tng lm tng bin dng khng
u. Ta c th ly h s phnh tang trng nh gi.
b. Bin dng khng u trn b mt.
Do t s H/D ln, lng bin dng nh s gy bin dng b mt, tng gia
khng bin dng, to ra 2 tang trng ni nhau bng 1 hnh tr.
c. Hin tng mt b phn din tch mt chuyn ln b mt tip xc.
Khi bin dng khng u, b mt b hn ch khng dch chuyn do lc ma
st. Di tc dng lc b mt bn b gp khc ln mt tip xc v lm tng mt
tip xc.
Hin tng tng din tch b mt v phnh
tang trng ph thuc t s H/D v t s nn h/H.
Nu t s nn nh hn 50% ch yu do phnh tang
trng v kim loi chuyn dch ln b mt tip xc.
Khi t s nn vt qu 50% ch yu l do din
tch mt tip xc dch chuyn.
d. Vng dnh v kh bin dng.
Trong trng hp bin dng khng u,
din tch tip xc tng ch yu do mt bn dch
chuyn ln mt tip xc. Khi , khng c s trt tng i gia kim loi bin
dng v dng c. l hin tng dnh, vng kim loi gi l vng dnh.

Hnh 3.16 Cc dng tang trng khi chn

Hnh3.17 S chuyn
dch hnh thnh din tch
tip xc mi

115
Trng hp khng hon ton dnh, c vng dnh v vng trt. H s ma st cng
ln, t l H/D cng ln vng dnh cng ln.
e. nh hng ca vng ngoi. Trong trng hp nn c b, c vng bin
dng k st vng khng bin dng. Vng khng chu nn gi l vng ngoi. Do
kim loi l mt khi thng nht, bin dng s lan truyn sang vng khng "b
nn" v vng khng b nn s tc ng ngc li lm thay i trng thi ng sut
v bin dng trong bin dng.
f. ng sut ph.
ng sut ph hay ng sut d, c 3 dng. ng sut d loi I l ng sut to
cn bng gia cc phn cc lp ca vt liu. ng sut d loi II l ng sut cn
bng gia cc ht tinh th. ng sut d loi II l ng sut cn bng gia cc phn
ca mng tinh th. ng sut d bao gi cng cn lu li trong vt th sau bin
dng, lm tng tr lc bin dng, lm gim tnh do vt liu, bin i phn b ng
sut v gim tnh n nh hnh hc. Do c ng sut ph, cng vi ng sut tc
dng lm bin dng do ti cc phn, cc ht tinh th khc nhau. Mt khc, ng
sut ph c th gy ng sut tp trung, l nguyn nhn gy vt nt t vi, ph hoi
tnh hon chnh ca tinh th, to ra vt nt.
Nh vy, bo m bin dng ng u trong vng bin dng cn phi
bo m cc nguyn tc v dng cc bin php x l:
Bo m tnh ng hng ca vt liu;
Trng thi vt l ca cc cht im trong vt bin dng ng u, nht l
gii hn chy;
Lng bin dng tng i v tuyt i phi bng nhau;
Tip xc ng u gia dng c v vt bin dng;
Ma st tip xc nh hoc ma st khng gy tr lc ln.
Vic bo m bin dng du l rt kh, do phi gia cng cc chi tit c
hnh dng phc tp. Trong thit k cng ngh cn ch ng gii quyt v a ra
cc gii php nhm gim thiu nh hng ca bin dng khng u.

116
Trc ht cn thit k chnh cc khun, to iu kin phn b bin dng
u. Thng thng, cho lng bin dng khng u tp trung vo nguyn cng
gia cng th, ti nguyn cng gia cng tinh, cho bin dng u v t bo m
sau kt tinh li c t chc ht nh.
B mt khun cn c gia cng c nhn cao, b mt c bi trn v
lm ngui tt, trnh nh hng xu ca ma st;
Nung kim loi u, gi nhit ng u. i vi vt liu c dn nhit
thp, cn c quy trnh gia nhit ng, thi gian gia nhit ng u . i vi
vt rn phc tp, phi bo m gi nhit ng u ti tt c cc mt ct.
Trong thao tc quy trnh cng ngh, cn thc hin y theo quy trnh
cng ngh, lm ng cc ch cng ngh.


117
Chng 4
ng sut v trng thi ng sut
4.1. Khi nim chung
4.1.1. Cc gi thit c bn
Thuc tnh ca vt rn thc rt a dng, tu theo mc ch nghin cu c
th ch trng vo mt s thuc tnh cn thit v khng xt n cc thuc tnh
khc. V vy, trong l thuyt bin dng do cn a ra mt s gi thit, nhm n
gin ho v i vo mt s thuc tnh c bn. Trong chng ny nghin cu l
thuyt bin dng do ton hc, s dng cng c ton, nghin cu ng x ca vt
liu di tc dng ngoi lc - ng sut - bin dng.
C hc vt rn bin dng khc vi c hc vt rn ch coi vt c tnh bin
dng, c ngha l, c th thay i hnh dng, kch thc di tc dng ca ngoi
lc. L thuyt bin dng do ton hc da trn cc cc gi thuyt, khi nim v
cc quy lut ca c hc vt rn v c hc mi trng lin tc. Khi nghin cu
trng thi ng sut v trng thi bin dng ca vt liu, phi nghin cu trng thi
c trng chung cho chng. Vt liu thc l khng hon ton ng nht, th d,
khi kim loi c c t chc c vi cu trc khc nhau, nhng khi nghin cu,
c th coi vt l ng nht - cc thuc tnh vt l ging nhau ti mi im vt
cht. Trong vt th thc cng cn c nhiu khuyt tt, nh cc r kh khi c, cc
khuyt tt im trong mng..., nhng vn phi coi vt th l lin tc. C ngha l
cc thuc tnh vt l nh nhit , mt v cc thuc tnh c hc nh ng sut
bin dng lin tc t im vt cht ny sang im vt cht khc. Mt khc cng
gi thit, cc thuc tnh c hc v vt l ca vt th kim loi cng ging nhau
theo mi hng.
Nh vy, i tng nghin cu ca l thuyt bin dng do (ton hc) l
vt th c tnh lin tc, ng nht v ng hng.
i vi vt th bin dng c cu trc phc tp, cn s dng phng php
m hnh, chn kch thc i tng tho mn cc iu kin trn.


118
4.1.2. Lc khi. Lc mt
Lc l i lng vct. Lc tc dng ln mi im vt cht trong ton th tch
ca i tng l lc khi, nh lc hp dn, lc qun tnh. Cc lc ny t l vi
khi lng ring.
Lc tc dng ln mt ngoi ca i tng l lc mt, hay lc ngoi. Chng
c th l lc tp trung hoc lc phn b.
Theo nguyn l vt rn, khi ngoi lc cn bng, h im vt cht lun nm
trong trng thi cn bng, chng khng chuyn ng v khng bin dng.
trng thi n hi cn bng c th sy ra trong mi iu kin lc tc dng
ca ngoi lc khc nhau. Nhng trng thi do, cn bng ch sy ra trong iu
kin gi tr ngoi lc nht nh.
Nhng, khi gii bi ton n hi, trong iu kin bin nht nh, bi ton l
duy nht nghim. Nhng gii bi ton do, vi cng mt iu kin bin, bi ton
l a nghim.

4.1.3. ng sut
Gi thit nghin cu mt vt th chu tc dng cc lc b mt P
i
, ngoi lc
tc dng trn b mt v trong trng thi cn bng. Di tc dng ngoi lc, trong
vt th xut hin lc tng tc gia cc phn ca vt th, c gi l ni lc. C
th dng phng php mt ct nghin cu. Nu chia vt th bng mt mt ct
thnh 2 phn, sau b i mt na, th d phn bn tri. cn bng, phi xut
hin ni lc P, tc dng trn mt ct F, gi tr tng hp ca ni lc phi cn
bng vi tng gi tr ngoi lc tc dng ln din tch mt ngoi ca na vt th.
Xt mt im M trn tit din nh F ca mt ct, mt chia i vt th, chu
tc dng mt ni lc P v c vec t php tuyn n. Nh vy, c th coi trn din
tch F tc dng ni lc phn b u, v tng hp lc bng P tc dng ti tm
din tch con. Ni chung, phng ca P khng trng vi n.

119
ng sut ti mt im M l gii hn ca t l ni lc P vi din tc F
khi F tin n khng, v c k hi l S

F
P
lim S
F
0
= (4.1)
Gi tr trn cn c gi l ng sut Csi. ng sut ti mt im l i lng
vc t. c th phn vc t ng sut
thnh 2 thnh phn, thnh phn vung
gc vi mt ct gi l ng sut php,
thnh phn nm trn mt ct gi l ng
sut tip. Thng phn thnh ng sut
php v ng sut tip . ng thi
cng c th phn thnh 3 ng sut theo
to 0xyz : Sx, Sy, Sz.

4.2. Trng thi ng sut ti mt im
xc nh vec t ng sut ti 1 im bt k trong vt th, cn dng mt
ct qua im . Nhng, qua mt im c th dng rt nhiu mt ct, trn mi
mt u tc dng mt vect lc Pn. T nh lut tc dng v phn tc dng, ti
mt c phng ngc vi n, cng c th xc nh ng sut ca phng .
Tp hp mi vect ng sut, tc dng trn mi mt ct i qua im cho
trc, c gi l trng thi ng sut ti im .

Hnh 4.1 ng sut trung bnh ti M (a) v vc t ng sut (b)

Hnh 4.2 Cc thnh phn ca
vect ng sut S

120
dng mt phn khi nh, c 1 nh t ti O, 3 mt bn l 3 mt to v
song song vi trc to x y z. Cnh ca khi l v cng nh dx, dy, dz. Theo
nh ngha, nu vt b phn vt cht ngoi khi vung, th lc tc dng trn din
tch mt bn ca phn khi chnh l ni lc (ng sut).
Hnh 4.3 ng sut ton phn (a) v cc
thnh phn ca trng thi ng sut ti A (b)

C th biu din vc t ng sut tc dng ln im A thng qua cc vc t
ng sut thnh phn tc dng ln 3 mt vung gc vi nhau (Hnh 4.2). Mi ng
sut tc dng ln mt mt c phn thnh 3 thnh phn c phng v chiu
song song vi 3 trc to . Kt qu l c 3 ng sut php v 6 ng sut tip.
ng sut php c biu din
X
,

Y,

Z
.
Cc ng sut tip c biu din
xy
,
xZ
,
yx
,
yz
,
zx
,
zy
.
Cc ch s c ghi nh sau: Ch s th 1 ch chiu trc to m vc t lc
tc dng hng theo;
Ch s th 2 ch chiu trc to m vc t php tuyn ca mt c ng sut
tc dng.
Th d:
xy
ng sut tip c chiu theo trc X v nm trn mt c php tuyn
ch theo trc Y.
ng sut php dng khi nu trn tit din c php tuyn ngoi trng vi
chiu dng ca 1 trc to , lc tc ng theo chiu dng ca trc. Hay ng
sut php ko l dng, nn l m. Chiu ca ng sut tip l dng, khi ng sut

b.

a.

121
tip c xu hng lm phn t quay theo chiu kim ng h. Hnh 4.3 biu din
cc ng sut vi chiu dng.
Theo nh lut cn bng lc v mmen, c th chng minh cc ng sut tip
trn cc mt bng nhau tng i mt:

xy
=
yx
,
yz
=
zy
,
xZ
=
zx
(4.2)
Nh vy, 9 ng sut thnh phn ch c 6 ng sut c lp.
ng sut ton phn c th phn thnh cc ng sut thnh phn theo phng x,
y, z, tng ng Sx, Sy, Sz, vit di dng vec t:

Sx =
x
i +
xy
j +
xz
k
Sy =
yz
i +
y
j +
yz
k (4.3)
Sz =
zx
i +
zy
j +
z
k
C th vit cc ng sut thnh phn di dng ma trn v nhn thy y l
ma trn i xng qua ng cho.

x xy xz
yx y yz
zx zy z
(4.4a)
hay

x xy xz
y yz
z
.
. .
(4.4b)
4.3. ng sut trn mt nghing
Nu bit cc ng sut thnh phn tc dng ln 3 mt phng vung gc i
qua im kho st, c th xc nh trng thi ng sut ca im .
Qua im 0 ti gc to , dng mt phng nghing so vi h to , s
c mt t din vung 0ABC. N l php tuyn ca mt nghing ABC. Nh vy,
c th xc nh csin ch phng ca php tuyn N nh sau:

122
= =
= =
= =
n ) z , N cos( cos
m ) y , N cos( cos
l ) x , N cos( cos
z
y
x
(4.5)
Cc din tch ca khi t
din c tnh theo cng thc:
ABC l F,
0BC l F
x
,
0AC l F
y

v 0AB l F
z
.
Gi thit trn mt nghing
tc dng mt ng sut S, v c
chiu bt k nh hnh 4.4. em
chiu S trn cc trc to
c cc ng sut thnh phn
Sx, Sy, Sz. im O, hay khi t
din nm trong trng thi cn bng. C ngha l, hp lc theo cc phng bng
khng. Vy c th vit:

; F F F F S F
; F Fy F F S F
; F F F F S F
z z y zy x zy z x
z yz y x yx y y
z xz y xy x x x x
0
0
0
= =
= =
= =

(4.6)
Bit: F
x
= F . l
F
y
= F . m
F
z
= F . n
V vy
S
x
=
X
. l +
xy
m +
xz
. n
S
y
=
yx
. l +
y
.m +
yz
.n (4.7)
S
z
=
zx
. l +
zy
.m +
z
.

Hnh 4.4 ng sut trn mt nghing ABC

123
S xc nh theo cc vec t ng sut thnh phn :

2 2 2 2
z y x
S S S S + + = (4.8)
Mt khc, ng sut php trn mt nghing
N
c th xc nh theo cc ng
sut thnh phn S
x
, S
y
, S
z
:

N
= S
x
.l + S
y
.m + S
z
.n (4.9)
Nu biu din ng sut php theo cc thnh phn ca trng thi ng sut
c:
N
=
X
. l
2
+

Y
.m
2
+
Z
.n
2
+ 2
xy
. l.m+ 2
yz
.m.n +2
zx
.n.l (4.10)
ng sut tip tng nm trn mt nghing c th xc nh nh sau:

2
= S
2
-
2
N
(4.11)

Nh vy, c th xc nh c cc gi tr ca ng sut trn mt nghing bt
k. Ni cch khc, nu bit c 6 thnh phn ng sut tc dng ln mt im
trn 3 mt vung gc vi nhau, c th xc nh c trng thi ng sut ca
im . Trong , S l vc t ng sut trn mt nghing, 6 ng sut thnh phn
l thnh phn ca tenx ng sut, s c nghin cu tip sau.

4.4 ng sut php chnh
Xt cng thc tnh
N
, thy l phng trnh ca mt mt cong. Nu t
gc to v mt vct r theo phng php tuyn N ca mt nghing. Bnh
phng ca ln vc t t l nghch vi ng sut php.

N
c
r
=
2
(4.12)
Vy, csin ch phng ca vect c th biu din nh sau:
.
r
z
n ;
r
y
m ;
r
x
l = = = (4.13)
Thay cc gi tr csin ch phng vo cng thc tnh
N
, c:
c =
X
. x
2
+

Y
.y
2
+
Z
.z
2
+ 2(
xy
.xy+
yz
.yz +
zx
.zx) (4.14)

124
y l cng thc biu din phng trnh ng cong bc hai, l mt cong
ng sut Csi. Cc h s ca phng trnh l:
c,
x
,

y,

z
,
xy
,
yz
,
zx

Nu thay i phng v to x, y, z ca vect r theo cc v tr ca mt
nghing, nhn thy, u mt ca vc t r lun nm trn mt mt cong xc nh
bng biu thc trn. B mt hon ton xc nh c trng thi ng sut ca
mt im, mt gi l mt ng sut Csi.
Nhn thy, khi thay i v tr ca trc to , h s ca phng trnh thay i,
c ngha l thay i cc gi tr ca ng sut trn mt ng sut theo to kho
st. C ngha l, tu theo vic chn trc to , c th c cc phng trnh
ng cong bc hai khc nhau. Nh vy, c th chn mt h to trng vi
phng ca trc chnh ca mt cong. Trc chnh l trc trn ch c gi tr ca
ng sut php. Mt tc dng ca ng sut php chnh gi l mt chnh. Nu trc
to chn song song vi hng chnh th trn mt to tng ng ch c mt
ng sut php duy nht. ng sut php trn trc chnh c gi l ng sut php
chnh, c k hiu bng ch s 1, 2, 3, theo th t ln,
1
,

2,

3
. Gc ch
phng ca php tuyn ca mt nghing so vi trc chnh tng ng l
1
,
2
,
3

tng ng csin ch phng l, m, n. Vy ng sut php trn mt nghing c th
biu din:

N
=
1
l
2
+
2
m
2
+
3
n
2
, (4.15)
Cc thnh phn vct ng sut c th vit theo trc chnh:
S
1
=
1
l ; S
2
=
2
m

; S
3
=
3
n (4.16)
S
2
=
1
2
l
2
+
2
2
m
2
+
3
2
n
2
, (4.17)
ng sut tip c xc nh :

2
= S
2
-
2
N
=
1
2
l
2
+
2
2
m
2
+
3
2
n
2
- (
1
l
2
+
2
m
2
+
3
n
2
)
2
(4.18)
Bit, quan h gia cc csin ch phng :
l
2
+ m
2
+ n
2
= 1 (4.20)
C th suy ra :

125
1
2
3
2
3
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
1
= + +

S S S
(4.21)
(4.21) l phng trnh mt elipxit.
Trong mt trng thi ng sut nht nh,
1
,

2,

3
l cc gi tr khng i.
Biu thc trn biu din mt mt elip vi h trc to l cc ng sut php
chnh. Kho st mt vct ng sut S, thy S
1
, S
2
, S
3
l cc hnh chiu ca S trn
cc mt to . Gi tr ca vect khng thay i khi thay i h trc to , ch
thay i cc gi tr hnh chiu thnh phn. Trong h to
1
,

2,

3
gi tr ng
sut l khng i. Nh vy, mt im trn mt cu elip biu din mt trng thi
ng sut, trng thi ng sut ny c c trng ca mt tenx.
Nu 3 ng sut chnh bng nhau v cng du, elp cu tr thnh hnh cu ng
sut. Trong trng hp , ng sut ti bt k phng no u bng nhau v u
l ng sut php chnh.
Nu mt ng sut php chnh bng khng, elipxit tr thnh hnh elip. Trng
thi ng sut khi tr thnh trng thi ng sut phng. Nu 2 ng sut chnh bng
khng, hnh elp tr thnh ng thng, tng ng trng thi ng sut ng.

4.5. Tenx ng sut
Cho mt mt nghing chu tc dng ca ng sut php chnh , mt gi l
mt chnh. Gi s v tr ca mt chnh c xc nh bng cc csin ch phng l,
m, n so vi h trc to x y z, vy cng thc (4.7) c dng:
S
x
= . l =
X
. l +
xy
m +
xz
. n
S
y
= . m =
yx
.l +
y
.m +
yz
.n (4.22)
S
z
= . n =
zx
. l +
zy
.m +
z
.n
Chuyn v ta c:
(
X
-) l +
xy
m +
xz
.n = 0

yx
.l + (
y
-).m +
yz
.n = 0 (4.23)

zx
. l +
zy
.m + (
z
-)

.n = 0

126
phng trnh c nghim, nh thc ca cc h s phi bng khng, c
ngha l:

0 =

y zy zx
yz y yx
xz xy x
(4.24)
Trin khai nh thc c mt phng trnh bc ba i vi .

3
- I
1
2
- I
2
- I
3
= 0 (4.25)
trong : I
1
, I
2,
I
3
- cc bt bin th nht, th 2 v th 3 ca tenx ng sut.
Nghim ca h phng trnh trn chnh l 3 gi tr ca ng sut php
chnh
1
,
2
,
3
.
I
1
=
x
+
y
+
z
= const
I
2
=
x

y
+
y

z
+
z

x
-
zx
2
-
yz
2
-
zx
2
= const (4.26)
I
3
=
x

y

z
+ 2
xy
yz
zx
-
x

yz
2
-
y
zx
2
-
xy
2
= const.
Bt bin th 3 c th vit :
I
x xy xz
yx y yz
zx zy z
3
=
(
(
(

Bt bin th 2 c th vit:
I
x xy
yx y
x xz
zx z
y yz
zy z
2
=
(
+

(
+
(

Cc bt bin ca tenx ng sut c ngha ln, chng c trng cho trng
thi ng sut khng ph thuc vo h to biu din.
Cc bt bin trn l c trng ca trng thi ng sut, nhng cng chng
minh trng thi ng sut mang thuc tnh ca tenx.
Trn chng minh, trng thi ng sut ti mt im c biu din bng
mt mt elip cu, vi cc trc chnh l
1
,

2,

3
. Cc gi tr ng sut thay i theo
s thay i ca csin ch phng ca ng sut. Trong , ng sut chnh l khng

127
i. Xt tnh cht cc thnh phn ca trng ng sut, chng mang thuc tnh ca
mt tenx, c gi l tenx ng sut.
Tenx ng sut c vit di dng sau:
T
z zy zx
yz y yx
xz xy x

(4.27)
y l mt tenx hng hai.
Nh vy, trng thi ng sut T

ca mt im c coi l mt tenx vi cc
thnh phn l thnh phn ca trng thi ng sut.
Cng nh ma trn, tenx ng sut cng l mt tenx i xng qua ng
cho. Do c th vit:
T
z
yz y
xz xy x
. .
.

(4.28)
cng c th bin i v xc nh c mt tenx, ch c cc gi tr
trn ng cho, c ngha l tng ng biu din trng thi ng sut chnh. Trong
, cc thnh phn ng sut tip bng khng, ch c thnh phn ng sut php,
ng sut php l cc ng sut php chnh. Tenx ng sut c dng:

=
3
2
1
0
0 0
. .
. T (4.29)
C th thc hin cc ton t i vi cc tenx ng sut trong cc nghin
cu khc nhau.
Nu cc ng sut php chnh bng nhau v cng du, c mt tens cu:

. .
. T 0
0 0
0
(4.30)
C th xc nh gi tr ca ng sut chnh v v tr ca mt chnh theo tenx
ng sut trong mt h to bt k.

128
C th a ra mt khi nim v ng sut php trung bnh:

3 3
3 2 1 z y x
tb

+ +
=
+ +
= (4.31)

tb
= I
1
/3
ng sut trung bnh l mt tenx cu, hay bng 1/3 ca bt bin th nht ca
tenx ng sut.

=
tb
tb
tb
. .
. T
0
0 0
0
(4.32)

D
) (
) (
) (
T T
tb z zy zx
yz tb y yx
xz xy tb x
tb
tb
tb
z zy zx
yz y yx
xz xy x
=
=
=
=
=
0 0
0 0
0 0
0
(4.33)
Vy

D T T + =
0
(4.34)
D
c gi l tenx lch ng sut.

T
0
c gi l tenx cu.
Cng c th chng minh, tng cc thnh phn ng sut theo ng cho ca
tenx lch ng sut bng khng.
(
1
-
tb
) + (
2
-
tb
) + (
3
-
tb
) = 0 (4.35)
Nh vy mt trng thi ng sut c th dng ton t tenx biu din v gi tr
ca chng bng tng ca tenx cu v tenx lch ng sut.
Tenx cu ng sut : Tenx cu i din cho trng thi ng sut c ng sut
bng nhau mi hng. S thay i hnh dng l do ng sut tip gy ra, nn

129
di tc dng ca tenx ng sut cu, ti cc im khng c ng sut tip, nn
khng th c bin dng.
Di tc dng ca tenx cu ng sut, trn tit din bt k i qua 1 im ch
c ng sut php tc dng. Vt th thay i kch thc nh nhau ti mi hng,
nh dng dn n, th tch vt th thay i. S thay i th tch do nx cu gy ra
chnh bng s thay i th tch do c trng thi ng sut gy ra.
Tenx lch ng sut: Trong tenx lch ng sut khng cn thnh phn ng
sut bng nhau, ng sut trung bnh bng khng, nn tenx lch ng sut khng
gy thay i th tch vt th. Cc thnh phn ng sut tip ca tenx lch hon
ton bng thnh phn ng sut tip ca tenx ton th. Trng thi ng sut c
biu din bng tenx lch, l trng thi ng sut gy bin i hnh dng ca vt
th hay gy ra bin dng do.
Vic s dng tenx biu din trng thi ng sut, ng thi, chuyn tenx
ng sut thnh 2 tenx thnh phn (cu v lch), rt c ngha trong vic dng
cng c kho st bin dng vt th. c th s dng cc php bin i tenx
kho st trng thi ng sut, cho php gii cc bi ton bin dng do phc tp
bng cch phn bi ton thnh nhiu tenx thnh phn. Tt nhin, cc thuc tnh
bin dng ca vt th (gii hn chy, gii hn bn, ph hu...) cn ph thuc cc
yu t c nhit khc nghin cu trong phn bin dng do vt l.

4.6 ng sut tip cc tr
Nh trn c:
2
=
1
2
l
2
+
2
2
m
2
+
3
2
n
2
- (
1
l
2
+
2
m
2
+
3
n
2
)
2
(4.36)
v l
2
+ m
2
+ n
2
= 1 (4.37)
V vy, c th vit :
n
2
= 1 - l
2
- n
2

Thay vo cng thc tnh ng sut tip:
2
=
1
2
l
2
+
2
2
m
2
+
3
2
(1-l
2
- m
2
) - [
1
l
2
+
2
m
2
+
3
(1- l
2
- m
2
)
2
(4.38)

130
xc nh quan h gia l, m, em biu thc tnh ln lt ly o hm
ring (
2 1

; ) i vi l , m

v cho bng khng. Sau khi bin i c:
{
1
-
3
- 2[(
1
-
3
) l
2
+ (
2
-
3
) m
2
]} l = 0 ; (4.39a)
{
2
-
3
- 2[(
1
-
3
)l
2
+ (
2
-
3
)m
2
]} m

= 0 ; (4.39b)
Xt cc trng hp nghim ca phng trnh:
l = m = 0, gii phng trnh c kt qu: vy n = 1; c ngha l php
tuyn ca mt ny trng vi phng ca ng sut
3
v vung gc vi mt
1
2
,
trn mt ny ng sut tip bng khng.
a. l = 0 , t cc phng trnh trn tm c:

2
1
= m v
2
1
= n .
b. m = 0, h phng trnh trn tr thnh:
(
1
-
3
) (1- 2l
2
) = 0 .
Nu
1
-
3
0, c
2
1
= l , ng thi cng
tm c
2
1
= n . Kt qu
thu c 6 b li gii cc
trng hp khc nhau ca
csin ch phng ca cc
mt, trn c ng sut tip
l max, min (hnh 4.5).

Cc mt phng ny u song song vi mt trc to v ct 2 trc to kia
mt gc 45
0
. Kt qu c a vo trong bng di y.
Bng cc gi tr csin ch phng Bng 4.1

Hnh 4.5 Cc mt c ng sut tip cc tr

131
Nhm gi tr csin ch phng Csin
Ch phng 1 2 3 4 5 6
l 0 0
1
0
2
1

2
1

m 0
1
0
2
1

0
2
1

n
1
0 0
2
1

2
1

0
ng sut tip
0 0 0
(
2
-
3
)/2 (
1
-
3
)/2 (
1
-
2
)/2
ng sut php
3

2

1
(
2
+
3
)/2 (
1
+
3
)/2 (
1
+
2
)/2

ng thi c th biu din bng s hnh hc cc mt phng c ng sut
tip ln nht, chng to thnh tng i vung gc vi nhau.
Su mt k trn v 6 mt song song vi chng to thnh mt hnh khi 12
mt. Trn 1 trong cc mt tc dng 1 ng sut tip, nm trn 1 mt phng to
v to vi 2 trc to to thnh mt phng mt gc 45
0
.
Bng cch gii phng trnh (4.38) tm
nghim ca ng sut tip , c th xc nh
c cc gi tr ca ng sut tip:
Khi
2
1
= l ,
2
1
= m , n = 0;
12
= 1/2 (
1
-
2
) (4.40a)
Khi l = 0,
2
1
= m ,
2
1
= n ;

23
= 1/2 (
2
-
3
) (4.40b)
Khi
2
1
= l , m = 0,
2
1
= n .

31
= 1/2 (
3
-
1
) (4.40c)
Cc ch s ca ng sut tip cho bit cc ng sut php chnh no xc nh
ng sut tip v chng to vi trc chnh no thnh mt gc nghing 45
0
.

Hnh 4.6 ng sut tip c tr
nm trn cnh bt din

132
ng sut tip ni trn c gi l ng sut tip cc tr.
ng sut tip cc tr c gi tr bng na hiu ng sut php ln nht vi
ng sut php nh nht. Nu 3 ng sut php bng nhau v cng du, nh trng
thi ng sut thu tnh, hiu ca ng sut php bng khng. C ngha l trn mt
khng c ng sut tip. Tenx ng sut l tenx cu.
T hnh 4.6 thy, phng ca ng sut tip to thnh cnh ca mt bt din.
y, tng ca 3 ng sut tip chnh bng khng.

12
+
23
+
31
= 0 . (4.41)
T cng thc thy, ng sut tip chnh ln nht v gi tr tuyt i ngc du
vi 2 ng sut tip chnh khc.
C th xc nh ng sut php tc dng trn mt c ng sut tip chnh nh
sau:
T biu thc
N
=
1
l
2
+
2
m
2
+
3
n
2
,
c th thay cc gi tr csin ch phng v xc nh cc gi tr ca ng sut php:
12
= 1/2(
1
+
2
) ;
23
= 1/2(
2
+
3
) ;
31
= 1/2(
3
+
1
) (4.42)
Nh vy, ng sut php tc dng trn mt c ng sut tip cc tr bng na
tng ca 2 ng sut php chnh.
T biu thc tnh ng sut tip chnh, c th thy, nu cng tng hoc cng
gim ng sut php chnh mt lng nh nhau, gi tr ng sut tip chnh khng
i. Ni cch khc, nu cng hoc tr vo trng thi ng sut cng mt gi tr
ng sut php, khng lm thay i ng sut tip chnh.

4.7. ng sut 8 mt ( bt din)
Kho st thm mt s trng hp c bit ca trng thi ng sut, trng hp
ng sut tc dng ln cc mt c cng csin ch phng.
bit l
2
+ m
2
+ n
2
= 1,
Cho csin ch phng bng nhau, ta c:

133

3
1
= = = n m l . (4.43)
C th tm c trn mi gc ca h to mt mt tho mn iu kin nh
trn. C ngha l c mt hnh 8 mt, trn csin ch phng ca cc mt l bng
nhau.
ng sut php tc dng trn cc mt ca khi 8 mt bng:

tb
z y x

=
+ +
=
+ +
=
3 3
3 2 1
0
(4.44)

Nh vy, ng sut php 8
mt bng mt phn ba tng ng
sut php chnh hay mt phn ba
tng ng sut php trong to
bt k hay bng ng sut trung
bnh.
ng sut tip trn khi 8 mt l

2
1 3
2
3 2
2
2 1 0
3
1
) ( ) ( ) ( + + = (4.45)
Vit di dng trin khai:
) ( ) (
1 3 3 2 2 1
2
3 2 1
1 3 3 2 2 1
2
3
2
2
2
1 0
3
3
2
3
2

+ + + + =
= + + =
(4.46)
Vit trong to bt k:
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
zx yz xy x z z y y x
2 2 2 2 2 2
0
6 + + + + + = (4.47)
Biu din theo ng sut tip cc tr:

Hnh 4.7 ng sut trn khi 8 mt

134

2
31
2
23
2
12 0
3
2
+ + = . (4.48)
Nh vy, ng sut tip 8 mt bng mt phn ba cn ca tng hiu cc ng
sut chnh bnh phng, hay bng hai phn ba cn ca tng cc ng sut tip
chnh bnh phng.
Trn cc mt bin ca khi 8 mt, tc dng ng sut php nh nhau, bnh
phng ng sut ton th 8 mt p
0
bng trung bnh tng bnh phng cc ng sut
php chnh:

3
2
3
2
2
2
1 2
0
+ +
= p (4.49)
Biu din ng sut qua bt bin ca tenx lch c:

2
2
1 0
3
3
2
I I = (4.50)

2
2
0
3
2
' I = (4.51)
trong : I'
2
l bt bin bc 2 ca tenx lch ng sut.

6
2
3 1
2
3 2
2
2 1
2
) ( ) ( ) (
' I
+ +
= (4.52)
Nh vy, bnh phng ca ng sut tip 8 mt bng hai phn ba bt bin th
2 ca tenx lch ng sut.
Gi tr
2
' I gi l cng ng sut tip,
i
=
2
' I . cng c th chng
minh :

3
2
1
max
i

Gi tr ca cng ng sut tip
i
thay i ph thuc dng ca trng thi
ng sut v bin i trong phm vi :

i
= (1~1,155)
max
,
,
(4.53)
trong :
max
- ng sut tip c gi tr tuyt i ln nht.

135
Trong kho st bin dng do, ng sut tip 8 mt l cc bt bin ca tenx
ng sut, c ngha cc k quan trng. ng sut php
0
lm cho khi 8 mt b
ko (nn) u theo cc phng, nn ch lm thay i th tch, khng lm thay i
hnh dng. Ngc li, ng sut tip 8 mt
0
c tc dng lm thay i hnh dng
khi 8 mt. em gi tr ng sut tip 8 mt
0
thay bng gi tr ng sut tip ln
nht
max
=
13
. T cc biu thc(4.44), (4.46), (4.48) c th vit:

2
13
2
13
2
23
2
12
2
0
9
4
+ +
=
|
|
\
|
.
max
(4.54)
Khi thay cc gi tr ng sut tip cc tr
max
,
min
v
tb
, kt hp iu kin
theo (4.41), c ngha l
tb
= -
max
-
min
, c:

(
(
|
|
\
|
+ + =
|
|
\
|
2 2
0
1
9
8
max
min
max
min
max
.

Biu thc t gi tr nh nht khi
min
= -
max
/2 v
min
bin i t 0 n -
max
. Vy:

9
8
3
2
2
0
|
|
\
|
max
(4.55a)
C ngha, ng sut tip 8 mt c gi tr gn bng gi tr ng sut tip ln
nht ca im v c gi tr nm trong phm vi:
816 0 941 0
0
, ,
max
> >
. (4.55b)
Trong l thuyt bin dng do ngi a ra khi nim Cng ng
sut. Theo Rsi v yxinghe cng ng sut tip c tnh bng ng sut
tip 8 mt:
2
1 3
2
3 2
2
2 1 0
3
1
) ( ) ( ) ( + + = (4.56)
Theo Henchy, cng ng sut tip c tnh bng:

136
2
1 3
2
3 2
2
2 1
6
1
) ( ) ( ) (
i
+ + = (4.57)
Nh vy, cng thc Henchy ch khc cng thc tnh ca Rsi h s.
Nu bnh phng v phi ca biu thc ny, c bt bin th 2 ca tenx
lch ng sut. Khc vi ng sut tip 8 mt, cng ng sut tip l i lng
v hng.
Khc vi cng ng sut tip, cng ng sut
i
(hay ng sut tng
ng
EQV
) c nh ngha nh sau:

2
1 3
2
3 2
2
2 1
2
1
) ( ) ( ) (
i
+ + = (4.58)

2 0
3
2
3
3 ' I
i i
= = =
Cng nh cng ng sut tip, cng ng sut
i
l i lng v
hng. Khi nim cng ng sut c ngha nh l mt ng sut tc dng ln
vt th tng ng nh vt th chu tc dng 1 trng thi ng sut 3 chiu. Gi
tr ca cng ng sut cng ph thuc dng ca trng thi ng sut v thay i
trong phm vi:
) ( )
,
~ (
min max i
=
155 1
1
1 , (4.59)
trong :
max
,
min
- gi tr s hc ln nht v nh nht ca ng sut php
chnh.
Trong trng hp ko nn n, cng ng sut theo gi tr, n bng ng
sut php chnh (ko hay nn).
Khi nghin cu trng thi ng sut ca mt im, thy c 13 mt c th:
a. 3 mt chnh, trn tc dng ng sut php chnh, khng c ng sut
tip;
b. 6 mt, trn tc dng ng sut tip chnh, c ng sut php;
c. 4 mt, trn tc dng ng sut 8 mt nh nhau.


137
4.8 Vng Mo ng sut
Mt phng php biu din trng thi ng sut khng gian ti mt im bng
hnh 2 chiu do Mo a ra c th trc tip quan st mi quan h gia cc ng
sut. Vng trn Mo cho php t hp cc vect ng sut php
N
v ng sut tip
tc dng trn cc mt nghing khc nhau.
ng sut php trn mt nghing c xc nh bng cng thc:

N
=
1
l
2
+
2
m
2
+
3
n
2

Vect ng sut ti mt nghing c tnh:

N
2
+

2
=
1
2
l
2
+
2
2
m
2
+
3
2
n
2

iu kin ca csin ch phng :
l
2
+ m
2
+ n
2
= 1
Lin hp cc phng trnh v gii cc gi tr ca csin ch phng c:

) )( (
) ( ) )( (
n
) )( (
) ( ) )( (
m
) )( (
) ( ) )( (
l
N N
N N
N N
2 3 1 3
2
2 1 2
1 2 3 2
2
1 3 2
3 1 2 1
2
3 2 2

+
=

+
=

+
=
(4.60)
Da trn phng trnh ny, xy dng cc vng trn Mo trn mt phng ng
sut vi trc ng sut php
N
l trc honh v ng sut tip l trc tung.
Theo iu kin v ng sut php chnh: cho chng c cc gi tr khc nhau v
xp sao cho:

1
>
2
>
3

C th suy ra
1
-
2
> 0 v
1
-
3
>0, ng thi nhn thy l
2
cng lun
dng. V vy, t s ca v phi ca biu thc trn cng tho mn iu kin:
(
N
-
2
)(
N
-
3
) +
2
0 (4.61a)
Trong mt phng ng sut (
N
, ) quan h ny biu din cc im nm ngoi
v trn bin ca vng trn C
1
:

138

2 3 2 2 2 3 2
2 2
) ( ) (
N

= +
+
(4.61b)
Nhn thy, y l vng trn c tm nm trn trc honh cch gc mt gi tr
bng 1/2(
2
+
3
) v c bn knh bng 1/2(
2
-
3
).
Cng nh vy, xt biu thc vi m

, c (
2
-
3
) > 0 v (
2
-
1
) < 0, v
m
2
khng m. T s v phi ca cng thc m
2

tho mn bt phng trnh:
(
N
-
3
)(
N
-
1
) +
2
0 (4.62a)
Biu din cc im bn trong vng trn C
2

2 1 3 2 2 3 1
2 2
) ( ) (
N

= +
+
(4.62b)
y l vng trn c tm nm trn trc honh cch gc mt gi tr bng
1/2(
1
+
3
1
-
3
).
Xt biu thc vi n

, c (
3
-
1
) < 0 v (
3
-
2
) < 0, v n
2
khng m. T
s v phi ca cng thc n
2

tho mn bt phng trnh:
(
N
-
1
)(
N
-
2
) +
2
0 (4.63a)
biu din cc im bn ngoi vng trn C
3

2 2 1 2 2 2 1
2 2
) ( ) (
N

= +
+
(4.63b)
Nhn thy, y l vng trn c tm nm trn trc honh cch gc mt gi
tr bng 1/2(
1
+
2
1
-
2
).
Nh vy, mi im ng sut, tng ng vi cp i lng (
N
, ) trn mt
phng ng sut (
N
, ) c th c biu din trn hnh, nm trong phn gii hn
ca 3 vng trn C
1
, C
2
, C
3
.
C th xc nh cc im c trng trn mt phng ng sut, ti cc im c
ghi cc gi tr ca l,

m,

n;
1
,
2
,
3
; ng thi cng c th xc nh c gi tr
ca 3 ng sut tip chnh, ng bng gi tr ca 3 bn knh vng trn tng ng:
23
= 1/2(
2
-
3
);
31
= 1/2(
1
-
3
) ;
12
= 1/2(
1
-
2
) (4.64)

139

Cc vng trn xc nh bng biu thc trn tng ng vi cc gi tr:
l =

m =

n = 0

Hnh 4.8 Vng trn Mo ng sut

140
Cch xc nh trng thi ng sut ti mt im P nm trong vng biu din
ng sut ca mt phng (
N
, ) nh sau:
Khi bit csin ch phng l,

m,

n, c th xc nh cc gi tr (
N
, ) trn
mt nghing.
Nhn xt, P l giao im
ca 3 vng trn: vng trn
tm 0
1
bn knh l; vng trn
tm 0
2
- m; vng trn tm 0
3
-
n.
Vy, c th xc nh cc
thnh phn (
N
, ) ca vc t
ng sut i vi im P bt
k. Cch lm nh sau: v ln
lt cc vng trn i qua P v
c tm l O
1
, O
2
, O
3
. Vng
trn O
1
ct vng trn C
2
v C
3
ti K
2
v K
3
. Ni K
2
vi O
2
v K
3
vi O
3
. Bn knh
O
2
K
2
v O
3
K
3
cng lm vi trc to mt gc 2l, 2m, 2n.

4.9. Phng trnh vi phn cn bng tnh lc trng thi
ng sut khi
Xt phn t hnh hp c cc cnh dx, dy, dz c tch ra t mt vt th chu
tc dng ca h lc cn bng v bin i lin tc t im ny n im khc, c
ngha ng sut l mt hm lin tc i vi h to .
Gi thit trng thi ng sut ca im a c xc nh bng tenx ng sut:
T
a
x xy xz
yx y yz
zx zy z
(4.65)

Hnh 4.9 Vng trn Mo ten x lch ng sut

141

Tenx ng sut ti im a':

+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
=
) dz
z
( ) dy
y
( ) dx
x
(
) dz
z
( ) dy
y
( ) dx
x
(
)
z
( ) dy
y
( ) dx
x
(
T
z
z
zy
zy
zx
zx
yz
yz
y
y
yx
yx
xz
xz
xy
xy
x
x
' a
(4.66)
H lc gm cc lc b mt trn bin vt th v lc th tch bn trong vt
th. Trn mt phn t song song vi mt phng yoz, ti im c to x c ng
sut php th trn b mt song song cch mt mt khong dx s c ng sut
php l (x+dx,y,z).
Dng php bin i Taylor v b qua v cng b bc cao, c ngha l xt
trng hp bin dng b, ta c:
dx
x
) z , y , x (
) z , y , x ( ) z , y , dx x (
x
x x
+ = + (4.67)

Hnh 4.10 Cn bng ng sut ca phn t

142
Lm tng t vi cc ng sut khc c cc ng sut trn cc mt ca phn t
(Hnh 4.10).
K hiu X, Y, Z l cc thnh phn hnh chiu ca cng lc th tch ln
cc trc.
Phng trnh hnh chiu theo phng x ca cc lc tc dng ln phn t l:
0 = + +
|
\
|
+ +
|
|
\
|
+ + |
\
|
+
Xdxdydz dydz dydz
dydz dydz
x
dydz dx
x
dxdydz
x
xz xy
x
xz
xz
xy
xy
x
x

(4.68)
Cc phng trnh hnh chiu theo cc phng y, z c vit tng t sau khi
rt gn c ba phng trnh vi phn cn bng.
Trng hp b qua lc khi:

= + +
= + +
= + +
0
0
0
z y x
z y x
z y x
z
zy
zx
yz y yx
xz
xy
x
(4.69)
Trng hp xt lc th tch:

= + + +
= + + +
= + + +
0
0
0
Z
z y x
Y
z y x
X
z y x
z
zy
zx
yz y yx
xz
xy
x
(4.70)
Phng trnh (4.70) c gi l cc phng trnh cn bng Navi - Csi
(Navier - Cauchy). Dng ma trn ca cc phng trnh Navi l:
CS = - P
trong : C - ma trn ton t vi phn

143

(
=
z
;
y
;
x
C

S - - Ma trn ng sut

(
(
(
=
z zy zx
yz y yx
xz xy x
S

P - Vc t lc th tch.
P = [ X, Y, Z ]
Cc phng trnh cn bng mmen i vi trc x, y, z dn n biu thc ca
nh lut i ng ca ng sut tip:

zy yz zx xz yx xy
; ; = = =
(4.71)
Biu thc trn l iu kin cn bng i vi trng thi ng sut khi di
dng phng trnh vi phn o hm ring. Phng trnh ng vi mi im ca
vt th bin dng.
ng sut bin i bn trong vt th, trong phn t n bn ngoi ca chng.
Gi tr ca ng sut phi cn bng vi ngoi lc tc dng ln bin ca vt th,
tho mn iu kin bin. xc nh quan h gia ng sut bn trong phn t v
cng nh vi ng sut trn b mt - vi ngoi lc, c th s dng phng trnh
cn bng gia tenx ng sut v vect ng sut, ging nh khi nghin cu trng
thi ng sut trn mt nghing.
H phng trnh vi phn cn bng c 6 n s, nn cha th gii chng. Mun
gii h phng trnh trn cn s dng cc phng trnh ph khc. Mt khc, bi
ton khi vi h phng trnh nhiu n s l bi ton phc tp. Ngy nay, ngi
c th s dng phng php s kt hp vi MTT, cho php nhanh chng cho li
gii chnh xc. Trong cc bi ton thc t, ngi thng a v cc dng n
gin hn: bi ton phng, i xng trc, ng sut phng.

144
4.10 Cc Trng thi ng sut :i xng trc v trng
thi ng sut phng

4.10.1. Phn loi trng thi ng sut

Bng phn loi trng thi ng sut Bng 4.2


145

4.10.2. Trng thi ng sut n
Trng thi ng sut n l trng thi ng sut c 1 ng sut php chnh
khng bng khng, cn 2 ng sut php chnh khc bng khng.
Ten x ng sut:

0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0
1
= T (4.72a)


146
Tenx cu ng sut:

3
0 0
0
3
0
0 0
3
1
1
1
0
= T (4.72b)
Ten x lch ng sut:

3
0 0
0
3
0
0 0
3
2
1
1
1
= D (4.72c)
Cc bt bin c gi tr:
I
1
1
3
= == =

(4.73a)
I
2
= I
3
= 0 (4.73b)
ng sut tm mt:

.
,
o
o
1
1
3
2
3

=
=

(4.73c)
Mt ng sut
php v ng sut
tip ca trng thi
ng sut n c
biu din hnh
4.11.

Hnh 4.11 B mt trng thi ng sut n: ng sut php
(a), ng sut tip (b) v mt ct i qua z, ng thc l ng
sut php, ng chm gch l ng sut tip (c)

147
4.10.3. Trng thi ng sut i xng trc
Trong thc t bin dng to hnh, thng gp trng hp vt th bin dng
c hnh trn xoay. Trng thi ng sut ca chng l trng thi i xng trc. Ti
trng tc dng phn b u trn mt ngoi, mt trn xoay, hay mt i xng
quanh trc to z.
nghin cu bi ton trng thi i xng trc, thay h to cc
bng h to tr. To ca cc im c xc nh bng bn knh-vect ,
gc cc , to z.
Bng php bin i to , c th chuyn biu din phng trnh vi phn
cn bng trong to cc thnh phng trnh vi phn cn bng trong to
tr.
Xt trng thi ng sut ca phn t trong h to tr.
Tenx ng sut c th vit:

=
z
z
z
. .
. T
(4.74)
trong :
- ng sut hng knh;

- ng sut hng tip;
- ng sut
hng trc;
Trong trng thi i xng trc, cc thnh phn ca trng thi ng sut
khng ph thuc vo to gc , nh vy, o hm theo u bng khng. Mt
khc, trn mt phng i qua trc z khng c ng sut tip, v bn thn vt th i
xng v ngoi lc cng i xng qua trc z. Theo nh lut ngu lc ca ng sut
tip, c:

=
z
=
=
z
= 0. (4.75)
Nh vy, ng sut

lun l ng sut chnh,
=
2
, trc c th c
phng bt k trn mt z.
Cho nn, tenx ng sut ca trng thi ng sut i xng trc c dng:

148

=
z
z
. .
. T
0
0
(4.76)
trong c 3 ng sut php v 1 ng sut tip.

Xt trng thi cn bng
ca phn t.
Cng nh xt iu kin
cn bng ca phn t trong h
to cc, xt iu kin
cn bng ca trng thi ng
sut ca 2 im a v a'.

Tenx ng sut ti im a' :

+
+ +
=
) dz
z
( . .
.
) dz
z
( ) d (
T
z
z
z
z
0
0
(4.77)
Ch , trc c th ly bt k phng no trn mt phng qua z, nhng
bi ton n gin, thng chn mt z l mt i xng ca phn t.
C th tnh din tch cc mt bn ca phn t:
F
( mt abcd) = d dz;
F
(+d)
( mt a'b'c'd') = (+d)d dz;
F
( mt a'd'bc) = ddz;
F
z
( mt a'cdb' hay ac'd'b)= dd.

Hnh 4.12 Cc thnh phn ng sut tc dng
trn phn t trong to tr

149
Sau khi xc nh lc tc dng trn tng mt, chiu chng xung cc mt to
theo iu kin cn bng, ng thi s dng iu kin gn ng sin(d/2) =
d/2 v rt gn cc biu thc, c h phng trnh vi phn cn bng:

= + +
=
+ +
0
0

z
z
z
z
z
z
(4.78)

Bi ton to cu:
Thc t bin dng to hnh cn gp trng hp bi ton i xng trc vt th
dng cu. Trong h to ny, dng bn knh , gc v biu din to
ca mt im trong khng gian. Trong trng thi i xng trc, ng sut khng
ph thuc to , ng sut tip
v bng 0.
Sau khi chuyn i v chnh l c phng trnh vi phn cn bng trong to
cu nh sau:

Hnh 4. 13 Cn bng phn t trong bi ton i xng trc


150

= + + +
= + + +
0 3
1 1
0 2
1 1
] ctg ) ( [
] ctg ) ( [

(4.79)

4.10.4. Bi ton phng
Trng thi ng sut phng l trng thi c 2 ng sut php chnh khng
bng khng, 1 ng sut php chnh bng khng. iu kin trng thi ng sut
phng l bt bin th 3 bng khng I
3
= 0, nhng I
2
khng bng khng. Mt ng
sut php ca trng thi ng sut phng c biu din hnh 4.14b, trong trng
hp
1
> 0 (a), nu
1
< 0 du ca biu ngc li.

Hnh 4. 14 Mt ng sut php trong trng thi ng sut phng
ng sut php cng du (a), v khc du (b)

Trng thi ng sut phng v trng thi bin dng phng
Trng thi ng sut phng c c im:
Tt c cc thnh phn ng sut khng ph thuc vo 1 trc to
v cc thnh phn gi nguyn khi to thay i.
Trong cc mt phng vung gc vi trc to :
Cc thnh phn ng sut tip bng khng,
ng sut php bng khng trong trng thi ng sut phng, hoc bng na
tng 2 ng sut php khc trong trng thi bin dng phng.

151
Th d, trong trng thi ng sut phng vi mt vung gc vi trc y. Cc ng
sut
x
,
z
v
xz
=
zx
hon ton khng ph thuc vo trc y. Cc ng sut tip
xy
v
zy
,
yx
v

xy
u bng khng.
Trong trng thi ng sut phng ng sut
y
= 0.
Trong trng thi bin dng phng
y
= 1/2(
x
+
z
).
Cn phn bit trng thi ng sut phng v trng thi bin dng phng.
a. Trong trng thi ng sut phng, phng th 3 khng c ng sut
php, nhng c bin dng;
b. Trong trng thi bin dng phng, c ng sut php nhng khng c
bin dng.
Trng thi ng sut phng thng gp trong trng hp dp vut chi tit tm.
Trng thi bin dng phng c trong trng hp bin dng ng di, vut
thanh di.
Xt ng sut trn phn khi

Hnh 4.15 ng sut trn mt
nghing trong trng thi ng
sut phng

Cng thc tnh ng sut trong trng thi ng sut phng:

+
+
=

2 2
2
2 2
2 2
cos sin
sin cos
xy
y x
xy
y x y x
(4.80)
ng sut php chnh:

2
2
2 1
2 2
xy
y x y x
,

+
|
|
\
|
+
= (4.81)


152
Phng ca ng sut chnh bng:

x y
xy
,
tg

=
2
2
2 1
(4.82)
ng sut php ln nht tnh theo gi tr
1
v
2
:

2
2
2 1
2 2
xy
y x
max

+
|
|
\
|
=
= (4.83)
Tnh cc ng sut thnh phn trn mt nghing gc :

2
2
2
2 2
2
2 2
2 1
2 1 2 1
2 1 2 1
sin
sin
cos
xy
y
x
+
=
+
+
=
(4.84)
Phng trnh vi phn cn bng - bin dng phng trong to cc:

0
0
= +
= +
z x
z x
z zx
xz x
(4.85)

Phng trnh vi phn cn bng - bin dng phng trong to tr:

= + +
=
+ +
0
2
1
0
1

(4.86)


153
Chng 5
Bin dng do nh v tc bin dng
5.1. Khi nim bin dng do nh
Bin dng l s thay i hnh dng, kch thc ca vt th di tc dng ca
ngoi lc v nhit, cng l kt qu tch lu lin tc ca chuyn v v cng nh
ca cc cht im trong vt th. Di tc dng ca ngoi lc, vt th bin dng t
n hi sang do ri ph hu. Vt th bin dng n hi ch lm thay i th tch
v rt nh, trong khi bin dng do, lng bin dng rt ln. Nu lng bin
dng nh hn 10%, ta c th gi l bin dng do nh. Nu lng bin dng
trn 10% thuc bin dng do ln.
Trong khi nim ca C hc mi trng lin tc, phn bit "im" v "ht".
im c dng k hiu v tr trong khng gian bt ng. T "ht" l mt
phn t th tch rt nh hay cht im trong mi trng lin tc. Cc cht im
chuyn ng trong h to tng i, nu to ca chng thay i theo thi
gian. Khi , cc cht im di ng theo thi gian nm cc khng gian to
khc nhau. S thay i v tr trong khng gian ca cht im gi l chuyn v.
Chuyn v Lagrand. i vi vt th nghin cu l cc phn vt cht. Cn
nghin cu cc i lng v hng v i lng vect ca chng, nh mt ,
nhit , tc thay i v tr ca vt th, v s thay i cc gi tr trong qu
trnh t ht ny sang ht khc. Cc i lng ny l cc hm ca thi gian, chng
c thuc tnh ring. Chuyn v ca cc cht im trong h to cc c th
xc nh, nu bit 3 hm s sau:
x = x (X, Y, Z, t)
y = y (X, Y, Z, t) (5.1a)
z = z (X, Y, Z, t)
Biu thc 5.1a biu din chuyn v ti tng thi im t trong h to di
ng x, y, z. Ti thi im t = t
o
, cc to ca im vt cht ca im M
0
l
M
0
(X, Y, Z). Nu to ban u ca im X, Y, Z c nh, thi gian thay i,
biu thc (5.1a) biu din quy lut chuyn ng ca im nghin cu. Nu X, Y,

154
Z thay i, t c nh, biu thc biu din qu o cc im trong khng gian ti
thi im cho.
Bin chuyn v vit theo Lagrand:

=
=
=
Z - t) Z, Y, (X, z t) Z, Y, (X, w
Y - t) Z, Y, (X, y t) Z, Y, (X, v
X - t) Z, Y, (X, x t) Z, Y, (X, u
(5.1b)
Chuyn v Euler. Chuyn v v bin dng c biu din trong khng gian
quan st c nh, hay h to c nh c cha y vt cht chuyn ng:

=
=
=
t) z, y, (x, Z Z
t) z, y, (x, Y Y
t) z, y, (x, X X
(5.2.a)
C ngha l, cc to X, Y, Z l hm ca x, y, z v t. Nh vy, to x,
y, z v thi gian t l cc bin c lp, bin Euler. Cc biu din Euler cho php
theo di s chuyn v ca cc cht im n v tr ban u m n chim v tr.
Bin chuyn v vit theo Euler:

=
=
=
t) z, y, X(x, - z t) z, y, w(x,
t) z, y, X(x, - y t) z, y, v(x,
t) z, y, X(x, - x t) z, y, u(x,
(5.2.b)
Lagrand c dng trong nghin cu quy lut bin i ca cc i lng ca
cc cht im ring bit, nh p lc, tc , nhit v cc i lng khc. Cn
Euler dng nghin cu s thay i ca cc i lng ti mt im trong khng
gian. Ta cng c th chuyn i gia 2 cch biu din.
Trong ti liu ny t trng tm s dng biu din Euler, nghin cu qu
trnh bin dng do nh. Bi ton bin dng do ln, s dng biu din Lagrand,
m t qu trnh chy do ca vt liu, s c trnh by gio trnh tip sau.
Bi ton bin dng do nh yu cu gradien chuyn v phi nh hn nhiu
ln so vi n v, nh vy cc vi phn bc cao v tch ca chng c th b qua.
Nu cc gradien chuyn v nh th cc tenx bin dng v cng nh. Cch biu
din Euler trng vi cch biu din Lagrand. Ta c th dng cc khi nim v cc

155
quy lut, nh lut ca bin dng n hi kho st bi ton do. Trong nghin
cu bin dng do nh, ch nghin cu cu hnh ban u v cu hnh ang xt,
khng xt cc cu hnh bin dng i qua. Nhng khi xt bi ton bin dng ln,
khng th s dng c cc quan h chuyn v v bin dng trong bin dng n
hi, m phi i t bi ton tc dng chy vi phng php tip cn Lagrand,
hoc kt hp Euler-Lagrand. Th d, khi nghin cu chuyn v ca thanh c k
li song song vi trc to , trong biu din Lagrand, sau bin dng, cc ng
k khng b bin dng; nhng trong biu din Euler, cc ng k b bin dng.

5.2. chuyn v v bin dng ca phn t
Theo l thuyt bin dng, ngi ta cng a vo khi nim bin dng
tuyn tnh hay dn di tng i v bin dng trt (gc). Cng nh ng sut,
cc gi tr dn di tng i v bin dng trt ph thuc vo gc phng v ca
phn t. Ta cng c th xt s bin dng tuyn tnh v trt ca tt c cc phng
ca phn khi, i qua im kho st, nghin cu c trng ca bin dng. Nh
chng trc phn tch, nghin cu trng thi ng sut ca phn t khi,
cn xc nh cc c trng ca qu trnh thay i cc thnh phn ca tenx bin
dng, tc bin dng v cc tham s vt l khc, khng ph thuc vo cc gi
tr hin ti.
gii quyt bi ton bin dng, c nhiu l thuyt v bin dng: l
thuyt bin dng do nh, l thuyt bin dng do ln , l thuyt chy do, l
thuyt bin dng do hu hn... Cn xut pht t l thuyt bin dng do chung
gii cho trng hp s bin dng ti mi thi im ca qu trnh, trong bin dng
do kim loi, mt trong l thuyt thng dng l l thuyt bin dng do nh.
Gi s vt th chu tc dng ca ngoi lc, mi cht im chuyn dch t
v tr ban u sang v tr khc. Nhng, vt th bin dng lun nm trng thi cn
bng, khng c chuyn v ca vt rn. Nh vy, s chuyn v ca cc cht im
trong vt th c coi l bin dng ca vt th, t c th nghin cu quan h

156
ng sut, bin dng v tc bin dng ca chng di dng phng trnh vi
phn.
Vec t chuyn v
Trong bi ton phng, im P c to x,y, chuyn n im P' c to .
Vect chuyn v u(x,y) c th vit:
u(x,y) = u(x, y) i + v(x,y) j (5.3a)
Trong : u(x, y) v v(x,y) l hnh chiu ca vect chuyn v trong h to .
Trong khng gian 3 chiu, vect chuyn v ca P(x, y, z)
u(x,y,z) = u(x,y,z) i + v(x,y,z) j + w(x,y,z) k. (5.3b)
Ta c th xc nh cc thnh phn chuyn v ca im P theo 3 trc to u,
v, w. u(x,y,z), v(x,y,z), w(x,y,z) - l cc hnh chiu ca chuyn v trn cc trc to
.
Chuyn v l dng ma trn ct:

u
v
w

Hnh 5.1 Vec t chuyn v ca cht im P trong mt phng


157
Hnh 5.2 Bin dng ca phn t PQ di s
Xt trng hp to 2 chiu - bi ton phng (hnh 5.2).
xc nh bin dng ca ca mt on thng nh PQ, nm trn vt th,
nghing vi trc to x mt gc , c chiu di s, trong h to phng.
im P c to (x, y), im Q c to (x + x, y + y).
Theo quan h hnh hc ta c:
cos = x / s ; sin = y /s (5.4)
Trong thay i t 0 n 2.
Gi thit sau khi bin dng, on PQ chuyn n v tr P'Q', chiu di PQ b
bin dng v c chiu di mi l S.
Vy bin dng tng i ca PQ c tnh bng biu thc sau (theo cch
biu din Lagrand):
1 =
=
s
S
s
s S
PQ
PQ Q P
' '

(5.5)
Hay S = s (1 + ) (5.6)
Xt trong iu kin rt nh so vi n v << 1, cc kt qu tng ng
l thuyt bin dng nh. T hnh (5.2) ta c:
(S)
2
= (X)
2
+ (Y)
2
hay (s)
2
= (x)
2
+ (y)
2
(5.7)


158
Cc thnh phn chuyn v song song vi trc to ca im PQ
X = x + u
Q
- u
P
; Y = y + v
Q
- v
P
(5.8)

trong u
P
= u(x, y) ;

+ + =
+ + =
=
=
) y y , x x ( v v
) y y x, u(x u
; y) v(x, v
) y , x ( u u
Q
Q
P
p

(5.9)
Nh vy, nu x0 , y 0, ta c th thay cc gi tr ca u
Q
, u
P,
v
Q
, v
P
vo
biu thc (5.8) v cho xp x vi phn chuyn v bng chui Taylor v n gin ta
c:

+ + = + + =
+ + = + + =
)
y
v
( y
x
v
x y
y
v
x
x
v
y Y
y
u
y )
x
u
( x y
y
u
x
x
u
x X

1
1
(5.10)
T biu thc tm ng sut, ta c th vit:
(S)
2
= (s)
2
(1+ )
2
= (X)
2
+ (Y)
2
(5.11)
Thay (5.10) vo (5.11) v b qua cc hng thc bc cao, c gi tr thnh
phn chuyn v nh, v rt gn ta c:

)
y
v
( ) y (
y
v
y x
y
u
y x
)
x
u
( ) x ( ) ( ) s ( ) ( ) s (

2 1 2 2
2 1 2 1 1
2
2 2 2 2
+ + + +
+ + = + = +
(5.12)
Nu dng biu thc (5.7) em chia cho (s)
2
v kt hp vi (5.4) ta c th
tm c biu thc xc nh bin dng .

+ + + =
+ + + =
2 2
2 2
sin
y
v
cos sin )
x
v
y
u
( cos
x
u
)
s
y
(
y
v
s
y
s
x
)
x
v
y
u
( )
s
x
(
x
u
(5.13)

159
Phng trnh (5.13) dng xc nh bin dng ca on thng v cng nh
PQ, nm nghing mt gc so vi trc x. Trong (5.13) c o hm ring ca
chuyn v theo x v y. Ta c th nh ngha:

=
x
v
y
u
y
u
x
u
xy
y
x
(5.14)
Cc phng trnh (5.14) l cc thnh phn bin dng hay quan h gia bin
dng v chuyn v.
Vy, biu thc (5.13) c th vit:

2 2
sin cos sin cos
y xy x
+ + = (5.15)
Xt cc trng hp:
Nu gc = 0 c ngha PQ song song vi x, ta c bin dng theo x:
x
x
u
x
= ; Nu gc = 90
0
c ngha PQ song song vi y, ta c bin dng
theo y:
y
u
y
= ; cc bin dng ny do ng sut php gy nn.

Hnh 5.3 Gc vung SPR sau bin dng gc (trt)
xy

cc bin dng thng
bin dng gc

160
Bin dng
xy
l bin dng trt, do ng sut tip gy nn, biu din s thay
i gc gia hai on thng v cng nh. Xt 2 on thng PR v PS, vung gc
vi nhau v song song vi to x,y. C ngha gc gia PR v x l = 0, cn gc
gia PS v x l = 90
0
.
Xt cc thnh phn bin dng ca cc im P, R v S hnh (5.3 ).
Ta c:
u
P
= u(x, y)
v
P
= v(x, y)
u
R
= u(x + x, y)
v
R
= v(x + x, y)
u
S
= u(x, y + y)
v
S
= v(x, y

+y)
Vec t P'R' c th biu din di dng:
P'R' = (x + u
R
- u
P
)i + (v
R
- v
P
)j (5.16)
trong , khi x --> 0 , c th vit di dng:
j
x
v
x i )
x
u
( x ' R ' P
+ + = 1 (5.17)
cng nh vy, ta c:
j )
y
v
( y i
y
u
y ' S ' P
+ + = 1 (5.18)
Cc on PR v PS cn c bin dng xoay, gc gia 2 on sau bin dng l
/2 -
xy
. Bit rng, nhn v hng 2 vect n v s cho cosin ca gc gia 2
vect . Vy, ta c th vit:

xy xy xy
sin ) cos(
' S ' P
' S ' P
.
' R ' P
' R ' P

= =
2
(5.19)
Trong ,
xy
c gi tr rt nh, sao cho sin = . Nu ta em v phi ca
tch v hng trn em chia cho cc thnh phn chuyn v v b i cc gi tr
bin dng nh so vi n v (1):

161
| P'R'| = x (1 +
x
) |P'S'| = y(1 +
y
)
T ta c:

x
v
y
u
xy
+ = (5.20)
Nh vy, gi tr bin dng
xy
dng xc nh bin dng trt ca mt gc
vung c cnh song song vi cc trc to x v y, l bin dng trt trong
mt phng x,y.
Xt trong h to 3 chiu:
Xt chuyn v ca MN trong khng gian 3 chiu, sau khi chuyn v, M
chuyn n M' v N chuyn n N'. Cho u, v, w l cc thnh phn chuyn v ca
M v u', v', w' l cc thnh phn chuyn v ca N theo 3 trc to x, y, z.
Cng nh trn, cho vt th bin dng ng hng, ng u v lin tc, v
N rt gn M, nn, c th dng chuyn v ca M biu din chuyn v ca N,
trong h to 3 chiu:

+ + + =
+ + + =
+ + + =
dz
z
w
dy
y
w
dx
x
w
w w
dz
z
v
dy
y
v
dx
x
v
v v
dz
z
u
dy
y
u
dx
x
u
u u
(5.21)
Nu MN song song vi x, vy dy= dz = 0.
Cho nn:

+ =
+ =
+ =
dx
x
w
w w
dx
x
v
v v
dx
x
u
u u
(5.22)

162
nghin cu trng thi bin dng ca im M, ta xt mt phn t khi
vung, c nh ti M, c cc cnh x, y, z, nm trong h trc to 0xyz.

Di tc dng ngoi lc, mi im bin dng, phn t chuyn t khi vung
thnh khi thoi.
Trc ht, xt hnh chiu ca phn t trc v sau bin dng trn mt to
x0y. Nh hnh 5.4 ta thy, PRQS l hnh chiu ca phn t khi hp song
song vi trc to trc bin dng; P' R' Q' S' l hnh chiu ca khi sau bin
dng. im P chuyn v n P', R n R', S n S', Q n Q'.
im P c to u, v:
u = u(x,y); v = v(x,y); (5.23)
im R c to (x + x, y) chuyn v n R', c hnh chiu chuyn v
u
R
, v
R
theo phng x, y:

Hnh 5.4 Bin dng ca phn t ti M

163

+ =
+ =
dx
x
v
v v
dx
x
u
u u
R
R
(5.24)
im S(x, y + y) thnh phn chuyn v theo phng x, y:

+ =
+ =
dy
y
v
v v
dy
y
u
u u
S
S
(5.25)
Bin dng di tng i ca cnh PR di x theo phng x:

x
u
x
x ) u x dx
x
u
u (
PR
PR ' R ' P
x
=
+ +
=
= (5.26)

Bin dng di tng i ca cnh PS di y theo phng y:

y
v
x
dx ) v y y
y
v
v (
PS
PS ' S ' P
y
=
+ +
=
= (5.27)
Nh vy, bin dng ca on thng khng nhng ch c bin dng theo
chiu di, m cn c chuyn ng quay. Bin dng gc ( gc quay) t trc x sang
trc y - gc ca PS so vi phng ca trc thay i, bin dng gc c k hiu
bng vi 2 ch s xy:
xy
. Nu gc quay t trc y sang trc x, bin dng gc
c k hiu bng vi 2 ch s xy:
yx
.

Gc quay ca on PR trong mt phng x0y c tnh bng:

x
u
x
v
u x x
x
u
u
x
x
v
tg
xy
+
=
+ +
=
1
. (5.28)

164
Do bin dng rt nh,
u
x
<<1; v ta cng thy tg
xy
=
xy
;
Vy

xy
= tg
xy
=
y
u
; (5.29)
Cng nh vy, ta c gc quay ca PS trong mt x0y
yx
:

yx
= tg
yx
=
y
v
; (5.30)
Vy, nghin cu hnh chiu ca khi hp trn mt to x0y c th rt ra
cc biu thc:
Thnh phn trn mt x0y:

x
u
x
= ;
xy
=
y
u
;
yx
=
y
v
. (5.31)
Thnh phn trn mt yoz:

y
v
y
= ;
yz
=
y
w
;
zy
=
z
v
. (5.32)
Thnh phn trn mt z0x:

z
w
z
= ;
zx
=
z
u
;
xz
=
y
w
. (5.33)
Nh vy, ta c 9 thnh phn bin dng: 3 bin dng di tng i v 6 bin
dng trt tng i.

z zy zx
yz y yx
xz xy x

(5.34)
Thc t, khng nh cc thnh phn ca trng thi ng sut, cc thnh phn
trng thi bin dng gc l khng bng nhau tng i mt. C th l do trong qu
trnh vt th bin dng n trng thi cn bng, vt th chuyn v v mt tnh
i xng.

165

xy

yx
,
yz

zy ,
zx

xz
. (5.35)
Gi l tng bin dng trt trn cc mt phng to :
Trn mt x0y:

xy
=
yx
=
xy
+
yx
=
y
u
x
v
+ . (5.36)
Trn mt yoz

yz
=
zy
=
yz
+
zy
=
z
v
y
w
+ . (5.37)
Trn mt z0x

zx
=
xz
=
zx
+
xz
=
x
w
z
u
+ . (5.38)
tng ng vi trng thi ng sut, ta biu din trng thi bin dng
bng tenx, cc thnh phn bin dng trt cn phi i xng. Vy, cc thnh
phn bin dng trt c gi thit chng bng nhau, iu khng nh hng
n vic xc nh tr s bin dng v c xc nh nh sau:

= =
= =
= =
zx xz zx
yz zy yz
xy yx xy

2
1
2
1
2
1
(5.39)
Nh vy, khi tnh ton, gi tr bin dng khng c g thay i, v tng bin
dng gc khng thay i. Ta c th biu din trng thi bin dng do nh di
dng tenx:

=
z
yz y
xz xy
. .
. T
x
2
1
2
1
2
1
(5.40)


166
Nh vy ta c:

+ =
+ =
+ =
=
=
=
x
w
z
u
z
v
y
w
y
u
x
v
z
w
y
v
x
u
zx
yz
xy
z
y
x
(5.41)
6 phng trnh trn c gi l cc phng trnh hnh hc ca bin dng.
y l cc phng trnh c bn gii cc bi ton bin dng ca vt th. Hnh
thc ca tenx ng sut v tenx bin dng nh nhau, chng cng c cc c
trng ca tenx. Cc thnh phn theo ng cho l cc gi tr bin dng di hay
tuyn tnh, cc thnh phn khng nm theo ng cho l cc thnh phn bin
dng trt.
V vy, ta c th suy ra cc tnh cht ca ten x bin dng:
a. Tenx bin dng cng c th phn lm 2 tenx: tenx cu bin dng v
tenx lch bin dng:

=
0
0
0
0
0
2
1
2
1
2
1
0
0 0
2
1
2
1
2
1
0

z
yz y
xz xy
z
yz y
xz xy
. .
.
. .
.
. .
. T
x x

hay: T T D

= +
0
(5.42)

167

Trong :
Tenx cu bin dng:
=
0
0
0
0
0 0
0
. .
. T (5.43)
Bin dng trung bnh : ) (
z y x
+ + =
+
3
1
0
(5.44)
Tenx lch bin dng:
=
0
0
0
2
1
2
1
2
1

z
yz y
xz xy
. .
. D
x
(5.45)
Tenx cu bin dng, gy bin dng n hi th tnh, cn tenx lch bin
dng biu din bin dng do, do tenx lch ng sut gy ra.
b. Khi cng mt trng thi ng sut, cc gi tr bt bin khng thay i
theo h to tu chn.

x y z
E + + =
+ 1
(5.46)

2
2 2 2
4
1
E ) (
zx yz xy z y x
= + + + +
+
(5.47)

3
2 2 2
4
1
4
1
E ) (
xy z zx y yz x zx yz xy z y x
= + + + (5.48)
E
1
, E
2
, E
3
, l cc bt bin bin dng.
Cc bt bin bin dng cng c ngha nh cc bt bin ng sut.
c. i vi trng thi bin dng, ta cng c th tm c 3 trc chnh, trc
giao vi nhau. Mt vung gc vi trc chnh gi l mt chnh. Trn mt chnh
khng c bin dng trt, ch c bin dng di. Bin dng theo phng trc chnh
gi l bin dng chnh, biu din bng:
1
,
2
,
3
.
Cc bt bin bin dng:
E
1
=
1
+
2
+
3


168
E
2
=
1

2
+
2

3
+
1

3

E
3
=
1
.
2
.
3

Trong mt trng thi bin dng, ch c mt nhm bin dng chnh. Ni
chung, trong qu trnh bin dng, phng ca bin dng chnh trng vi phng
ca ng sut chnh, tng i mt.
Nu ng sut chnh:
1
>
2
>
3
th
1
>
2
>
3
. (5.49)
d. Bin dng trt ln nht l bin dng trn mt song song vi mt trc
v ct 2 trc khc cng mt gc 45
0
. Bin dng trt ln nht c biu din:
12
,
23
,
31
v c xc nh qua gi tr ca bin dng di chnh

12
= (
1
+
2
) ;
23
= (
2
+
3
);
31
= (
3
+
1
). (5.50)
Quan h gia cc bin dng trt chnh:

12
+
23
+
31
= 0. (5.51)
e. Trn mt c cng gc nghing vi trc to - mt khi bt din, cng
c bin dng 8 mt:
Bin dng di 8 mt:

0
=
tb
= 1/3(
1
+
2
+
3
); (5.52)
Khi bin dng do, ta coi th tch ca vt th khng i - nh l th tch
khng i:

0
=
tb
= 1/3(
1
+
2
+
3
) = 0; (5.53)
Bin dng trt 8 mt:

2
1 3
2
3 2
2
2 1 0
3
2
) ( ) ( ) ( + + = (5.54)
( ta cng c th vit cc biu thc trn theo h to bt k, ging nh trong
trng thi ng sut).
f. Cng bin dng hay bin dng tng ng c tnh nh sau:
Cng bin dng trt:

2
1 3
2
3 2
2
2 1 2
3
2
2 ) ( ) ( ) ( E
i
+ + = = (5.55)

169
Cng bin dng di:
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) ( E
zx yz xy x z z y y x
i i
2 2 2 2 2 2
2
1 3
2
3 2
2
2 1 2
2
3
3
2
3
2
3
2
3
1

+ + + + + =
+ + = =
=
(5.56)
g. Trong cng thc tnh gi tr bin dng 8 mt, cng bin dng di,
cng bin dng trt, ta thy hng thc trong cn ging nhau, ch khc nhau
phn h s.
Bin dng chnh di c quan h vi nhau:
Trong trng thi bin dng phng:
3
= -
1
v
2
= 0. (5.57)
Trong ko nn n
2
=
3
= - 0,5
1
. (5.58)
1
l bin dng di ln nht v gi tr tuyt i. Nu thay s trn vo cng
thc tnh bin dng 8 mt, ta cng thy: gi tr ca bin dng trt 8 mt cng
giao ng trong khong 0,816~0,941 ca bin dng trt ln nht.
h. Trng thi bin dng phng, cng nh trng thi ng sut phng: Tt c
cc thnh phn bin dng khng ph thuc vo 1 trc to , chng gi nguyn
khng i. Trong mt vung gc vi trc to , cc bin dng trt bng khng
v ng sut php bng na tng 2 ng sut php khc :
2
= 1/2(
1
+
3
).
Trong trng thi bin dng phng:
cng bin dng trt
i
bng bin dng trt chnh ln nht

i
=
1
(5.59a)
cng bin dng di
i
= 1,155
1
. (5.59b)
Trong trng hp ko nn n:
cng bin dng trt
i
= 1,155 | |
max
. (5.60a)
cng bin dng di
i
= | |
max
. (5.60b)
Trong trt thun tu:
cng bin dng trt
i
= (5.61)

170
cng bin dng di
3
=
i
(5.62)
Trong cc trng thi bin dng khc, cc gi tr nm trong khong gia ca
cc gi tr k trn. Nh vy ta c th vit:

0
= (0,816~0,914) | |
max
; (5.63a)

i
= (1~1,155) | |
max
; (5.63b)

i
= (1~1,155) | |
max
. (5.63c)
| |
max
, | |
max
l gi tr tuyt i ln nht ca bin dng trt v bin dng
di.
i. Ta cng c th dng vng trn Mo bin dng biu din mi quan h
gia cc bin dng, vi cc to l v 1/2. T vng trn Mo c th xc nh
cc bin dng chnh
1
,
2
,
3
, v cc bin dng trt ln nht.

max
=
13
=
1
-
3
,
23
=
2
-
3
,
12
=
1
-
2
Khi bin dng
do, th tch vt
bin dng khng
i, tenx bin
dng l tenx lch,
v vy trc lun
ct vng trn Mo.
Khi nghin cu
bin dng v tc
bin dng trong
bin dng do, cn
thy r cc thnh
phn bin dng u
thuc bin dng do
nh.

Hnh 5.5 Vng Mo bin dng


171
Trong khi xc nh bin dng ta b qua thnh phn o hm bc 2. Gi tr
chnh xc ca
x
phi l:

(
(
|
|
\
|
+
|
|
\
|
+
|
|
\
|
+ =
2 2 2
2
1
x
w
x
v
x
u
x
u
x
(5.64)
Nu
x
= 1%, sai s tnh ton l 0,5%, nu
x
=10%, sai s l 5%. V vy,
trong tnh ton k thut, vi bin dng do nh hn 10% ta c th coi l bin dng
do nh. T ta c th s dng cc khi nim v cc phng trnh tnh bin
dng nu trn.
j. Trong trng thi bin dng phng, c th xc nh cc bin dng chnh
theo cc gi tr bin dng theo trc to :

2 2
2 1
2 2 2
|
|
\
|
+
|
|
\
|
+
=
xy y x y x
,

(5.65)

2 2
2 2 2
|
|
\
|
+
|
|
\
|
=
xy y x
max

(5.66)
Cng nh trng thi ng sut, trng thi bin dng c th biu din bng
vng Mo, vi cc trc bin dng tuyn tnh v bin dng trt vi gi tr 1/2 .
Vi tm vng trn cch gc to l
2
y x
+
; bn knh bng
max
/2. ng thi,
nu ta bit cc gi tr bin dng ti mt im bt k, ta cng c th xc nh cc
gi tr bin dng ti mt im khc bt k trn vng Mo.

5.3 Tnh lin tc ca bin dng
T biu thc (5.66), ta thy, cc thnh phn bin dng c tnh qua 3 thnh
phn chuyn v u, v, w. Phng trnh trn phi c nghim. Cc thnh phn bin
dng khng phi tu , m gia chng phi c mi quan h. Ngha l tn ti,
cc thnh phn chuyn v n tr v lin tc cn phi tho mn iu kin nht
nh. iu kin c gi l iu kin lin tc ca bin dng. Xt trng hp

172
trng thi ng sut v trng thi bin dng phng. Th d, cc bin dng khng
ph thuc trc y, chuyn v u khng quan h vi trc x v z, v nm trong mt
vung gc vi y, nn khng c bin dng trt. Vy, h phng trnh biu din
bin dng l:

+ =
=
=
x
w
z
u
z
w
x
u
zx
z
x
(5.67)
o hm 2 ln cc phng trnh trn i vi z v x , ta c:

=
=
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
x . z
w
x
z . x
u
z
z
x

(5.68)
Cng 2 phng trnh trn :
)
x
w
z
u
(
z x
x . z
w
z . x
u
x z
z x

+ = + = +
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
(5.69)

Hng thc trong ngoc l bin dng trt, vy:
;
z x x z
xz z x

2
2
2
2
2
= + (5.70)

Cng bng cch trn ta c th thu c cc biu thc sau:

;
y x
x y
xy y
x

2
2
2
2
2
= + (5.71)
;
z y y z
yz
z
y

2
2
2
2
2
= + (5.72)

173
v:

=
|
|
\
|
+
=
|
|
\
|
+
=
|
|
\
|
+
z x y x z y
z y x z y x
y x z y x z
y
xz
yz xy
x
yz xy
xz
z
xy xy yz

2
2
2
2
2
2
(5.72a)
Nh vy, biu thc (5.70), (5.71), (5.72), (5.72a) biu din quan h gia bin
dng di tuyn tnh v bin dng trt. Nu bit bin dng di ta c th tnh c
bin dng trt v ngc li.

5.4. Tc chuyn v v tc bin dng
Trong qu trnh bin dng cc im vt cht ca vt th bin dng lun
chuyn ng sao cho khong cch gia chng thay i v km theo s bin dng.
Khong cch gia cc im vt cht thay i cng nhanh tc bin dng cng
nhanh.
Tc chuyn v ca im, l o hm ca chuyn v i vi thi gian, c
biu din bng k hiu ch c chm trn u, th d: u& , thng km theo cc ch
s ch phng hng. Chuyn v v tc chuyn v l hm ca to v thi
gian.
Tc chuyn v ng c th xc nh bng phng trnh:

=
=
=
) t , z , y , x ( w
) t , z , y , x ( v
) t , z , y , x ( u
z
y
x
&
&
&
(5.73)
Nu bin dng nh, cc thnh phn ca tc chuyn v c th biu din
bng o hm ring ca chuyn v theo thi gian :
.
t
w
w ;
t
v
v ;
t
u
u
= = = & & & (5.75)


174
Xt 2 im rt gn nhau, c bin dng cng phng, vy c th xc nh gii
hn ca t s gia hiu ca 2 tc vi khng cch gia chng khi khong
cch n 0. Gii hn c gi l tc bin dng.

x
v
y
u
;
x
u
xy x
& & &

& + = = (5.76)
Thay gi tr ca tc chuyn v vo, ta c:

= + = + =
= = =
t
)
x
v
y
u
(
t t x
v
t y
u
t
)
x
u
(
t t x
u
xy
xy
x
x
&
&
2
(5.77)
Tng t, ta c th xc nh cc gi tr tc bin dng khc.
Tc bin dng di:

= =
= =
= =
.
t z
w
;
t y
v
;
t x
u
z
z
y
y
x
x
&
&
&
&
&
&
(5.78)
Tc bin dng trt:

= + =
= + =
= + =
t z
v
x
w
t y
w
z
v
t x
v
y
u
zx
zx
yz
yz
xy
xy
& &
&
& &
&
& &
&
(5.79)
Nh vy, thnh phn ca tc bin dng bng o hm ca tc
chuyn v theo to tng ng hoc bng o hm ca tc bin dng theo
thi gian.

175

Cn phn bit tc bin dng vi tc chuyn v (hay tc chuyn
ng ca dng c bin dng), l tc ca cc cht im trong qu trnh bin
dng. Tc chuyn v bng gii hn ca s gia chuyn v trn s gia thi gian
khi s gia tin n khng. Theo phng tc dng ca dng c, chuyn v ca u
dng c bng chuyn v ca cc cht im trn mt tip xc. Ta cng c th xc
nh trng tc chuyn v, t ta xc nh c ng dng ca chuyn v
cc cht im.
Tc bin dng c xc nh nh o hm ca bin dng theo thi gian.
Th nguyn ca tc chuyn v l m/s (mm/s), cn th nguyn ca tc
bin dng l 1/s ( s
-1
).

Cc thnh phn ca tc bin dng cng c th biu din bng mt tenx
tc bin dng.

=
z
yz
.
y
xz xy x
. .
. T
&
&
& & &
&
2
1
2
1
2
1
(5.80)
Khi bin dng do, th tch vt th bin dng khng i, tenx tc bin
dng l tenx lch, tng tc bin dng theo cc hng bng khng.
;
z y x
0 = + + & & & (5.81)
Ta cng c th tm c trc chnh ca tc bin dng trn ch c tc
bin dng ng, khng c bin dng trt; tc bin dng trt chnh
31 23 12
& & & , , , tc bin dng 8 mt
0
& ; cng tc bin dng trt
&
i
,
cng tc bin dng
&
i
.


176
5.5. Bin dng ng nht
Trong cc phng trnh (5.41) cc thnh phn bin dng do nh ca mt
phn t khi song song vi trc to l hm tuyn tnh vi o hm ca chuyn
v theo to . Nu ta xt mt vng rt nh quanh 1 im, chuyn v cng coi
l hm tuyn tnh ca to . Nh vy, o hm ca chng l hng s.
Bin dng c c trng bng chuyn v l hm tuyn tnh ca to
v c gi tr khng i gi l bin dng ng nht.
Bin dng do nh ca th tch phn t c coi l ng nht. Trong mt
th tch hu hn, ta cng c th coi bin dng l ng nht, nh ko u. Nhiu
trng hp cng phi gi thuyt l bin dng ng nht, bi ton n gin v
p dng c trong thc t k thut.

5.6 nh lut bin dng th tch khng i
Khi bin dng n hi, vt th thay i hnh dng v kch thc. Nhng,
i vi vt liu kim loi, bin dng n hi ca th tch vt th c gi tr rt nh.
Nh i vi thp, di tc dng ca ng sut 200MPa, thay i ca th tch ch
khong 0,04%.
Th tch ca phn khi trc bin dng c th tnh:
V
0
= dx dy dz
sau bin dng:
V = (dx + dx)(dy + dy)(dz + dz) = V
0
(1 +
x
)(1 +
y
)(1 +
z
)
V = V - V
0
V
0
(
x
+
y
+
z
)
Bin dng th tch tng i:
= V/V =
x
+
y
+
z
=
1
+
2
+
3
= 3
0
.

0
l bin dng di tng i trung bnh.
Trong qu trnh bin dng do kim loi, th tch thay i cng rt nh.
Thc t cho bit, khi bin dng do kim loi, vt liu c, t chc kim loi c
thay i, cc r xp c hn gn, cc khuyt tt dng bt kh c kh b, nn
lm cho mt kim loi c tng ln. Ngc li, trong bin dng ngui kim

177
loi, c th dn n lm gim mt , do ph v cu trc kim loi, tng cc
khuyt tt tinh th dng l rng. Nu so snh v lng, s thay i th tch vt th
kim loi khi bin dng do rt nh, c th b qua.
Khi bin dng do kim loi, ta coi th tch ca vt th khng i - th
tch vt th trc bin dng bng th tch sau bin dng:

1
+
2
+
3
= 0;
C ngha, khi bin dng do, tng gi tr ca 3 bin dng chnh bng
khng.
Nh vy:
a. Khi bin dng do, tenx cu bin dng bng khng, nn ten x bin
dng chnh l ten x lch bin dng.
b. D trng thi bin dng nh th no, du ca mt trong cc bin dng
chnh phi ngc vi du ca 2 bin dng chnh khc. Trong , hai bin dng
chnh c du ngc nhau c gi tr tuyt i ln nht, gi l bin dng chnh ln
nht.
c. Nu bit 2 gi tr bin dng chnh, c th xc nh bin dng th 3 d
dng.


178
Chng 6
iu kin do v qu trnh bin dng do
Mt trong nhng nhim v quan trng ca l thuyt do l xc nh quan h
ng sut v bin dng khi vt liu chuyn t trng thi n hi sang trng thi do.

T j i
C ) ( f =
(6.1)
trong : C
T
- hng s.
6.1. iu kin Treska-Saint-Vnant hay iu kin ng sut
tip ln nht
Khi vt liu kim loi qu t trng thi n hi sang trng thi do, ng
sut tip ln nht trn mt nghing vi trc x v z (vung gc vi mt xz), i vi
mt s vt liu nht nh, bng gi tr ln nht ca tr lc bin dng, chng
khng ph thuc trng thi ng sut.
"Trng thi do bt u v c duy tr nu mt trong hiu ca 2 ng
sut php chnh bng gii hn chy v khng ph thuc gi tr ca ng sut
php kia". l iu kin do ng sut tip ln nht.
Trong iu kin trng thi ng sut phc tp tenx ng sut php:

3
2
1
0
0 0
. .
. T=
(6.2)
ng sut tip ln nht c cc gi tr nh sau:

=
=
=
) (
) (
) (
2 1 3
1 3 2
3 1 1
2
1
2
1
2
1

(6.3)
Trong 3 cp ng sut tip ln nht, nht nh c mt cp t gi tr ln
nht trc. Lc vt liu s chuyn t n hi sang trng thi do, hay vt liu

179
bin dng do. (Gi tr ng sut tip ln nht trong ti liu ting Anh cn c
gi l
INT
).
Trong iu kin qu t n hi sang do khi trng thi ng sut n:

0
0 0
0 0
. .
. T
=
iu kin qu t n hi sang do l : =
S
. (6.4)
Vy ng sut tip ln nht :

S max
) (
2
1
0
2
1
= = . (6.5)
Cho nn, trong iu kin trng thi ng sut phc tp, ch cn mt trong 3
ng sut tip ln nht t gi tr 1/2
S
, th kim loi bt u bin dng do
( chy).

= =
= =
= =
S
S
S

2 1 3
1 3 2
3 2 1
2
2
2
(6.6)
ngha hnh hc
Nu
1
,
2
,
3
l cc trc chnh ca to vung gc, 3 biu thc trn c th to
thnh mt mt do khng gian. Mi biu thc biu din mt cp mt phng
song song vi mt trc to . Cc mt phng ny ct 2 trc to mt khc 1
khong cch bng
S
. Do c 3 biu thc nn c 6 mt, to thnh mt lng tr
lc gic nghing vi trc to chnh
1
,
2
,
3
mt gc. Tt c cc trng thi
ng sut phc tp, mt im ta to bi 3 thnh phn ng sut chnh, nm trn
b mt ca hnh lng tr nghing , vt liu s bin dng do. Cc im to
nm trong lng tr, vt liu cn trng thi bin dng n hi. Cc im ngoi
lng tr khng c ngha (hnh 6.1).


180

Hnh 6. 2 Lc gic theo iu kin do
Treska- St.Vnant ( trong trng thi ng
sut phng)

Nh vy, iu kin cn bng do l cc thnh phn ng sut phi tho
mn mt quan h nht nh; cn trong cn bng n hi l v nh.
Ch : Trong iu kin bin dng do thc ca kim loi v hp kim, gi tr
gii hn chy
S
c thay bng tr lc bin dng trong iu kin nhit , tc
bin dng v bin cng.
Trong trng thi ng sut phng:

3
2
1
0
0 0
. .
. T = (6.7)
do
3
= 0 nn cc biu thc cn li :

Hnh 6. 1 Lng tr to thnh t
6 mt theo iu kin do Treska-
St.Vnant (6.6), gc nghing ca trc
hnh lng tr u vi cc trc to

181
=
=
=
S
S
S

1
2
2 1
(6.8)
Cc biu thc trn biu din mt lc gic vi trc to l
1
v
2
.
C th sy ra 2 trng hp:
a.
3
= 0,
1
,
2
cng du, lc ny
3
khng phi l ng sut trung gian, nn
ng sut ln nht l
1
2
hoc
2
2
. Vy iu kin do l:
|
1
| =
S
hoc |
2
| =
S
. (6.9)
nm trn ng AB, DE, BC, EF ca lc gic.
b.
3
= 0,
1
,
2
khc du. Nh vy
3
l ng sut trung gian; ng sut tip
ln nht s l
2
2 1

; iu kin do l:
|
1
-
2
| =
S
(6.10)
nm trn ng CD v EF ca lc gic.
Trong iu kin trng thi ng sut phng:

0
0
0
. .
. T
y
xy x
S

= (6.11)
ng sut chnh theo cch biu din vng trn Mo:

2
2
2
1
2 2
xy
y x y x
+
|
|
\
|

+
=
)
`
(6.12)
Theo bt bin II ca ten x ng sut

1
2
=
x
y
-
2
xy
(6.13)
a. Nu
x
y
>
2
xy

1
,
2
cng du, iu kin do l
1
=
S
, cch biu din
thng thng:


182

( )
|
|
\
|
+
= +
= +
|
|
\
|

+
+
2
2 2
2
2
2
4 4
2 2
y x
S xy y x
S xy
y x y x

(6.14)
b. Nu
x
y
<
2
xy

1
,
2
khc du, iu kin do l
1
-
2
=
S
, cch biu
din thng thng:

( )

= +
= +
|
|
\
|

2 2 2
2
2
4
2
2
S xy y x
S xy
y x

(6.15)
iu kin ny n gin nhng khng chnh xc v cha xt nh hng ca
ng sut trung gian.
iu kin do ng sut tip ln nht c th tng thch vi iu kin do
cng ng sut tip ln nht :
Khi trng thi ng sut n;
Khi trng thi ng sut khi, c ng sut trung gian bng mt trong ng sut
cc tr, hoc 3 ng sut php chnh bng nhau;
Khi trng thi ng sut phng c 2 ng sut khc khng v bng nhau (v tr
s v du).
Trong iu kin trng thi ng sut phng, ng sut php chnh trung gian
bng na tng 2 ng sut cc tr, 2 iu kin do k trn c s khc nhau ln nht.


183
6.2. iu kin do nng lng bin dng khng i
Theo l thuyt ng sut tip ln nht, xc nh iu kin do rt n gin v
d dng. Nhng, thc t cc ng sut thnh phn thng l khng bit, nn khng
th phn bit ngay th t theo ln ca ng sut, rt kh ng dng chnh xc
phng trnh do, do gy nhiu kh khn trong tnh ton.
R. Misses (1913) v sau H.Henchy, Huber(1914) a ra l thuyt do
nng lng.
" Bt k phn t kim loi no u c th chuyn t trng thi bin n
hi sang trng thi bin dng do khi cng ng sut t n 1 gi tr bng
gii hn chy
S
,

trong trng thi ng sut ko n, tng ng vi iu kin
nhit - tc bin dng v mc bin dng". C ngha l khi chuyn sang
trng thi do, cng ng sut bng gii hn chy.
(
1
-
2
)
2
+ (
2
-
3
)
2
+ (
3
-
1
)
2
= 2
S
2

hay
( ) ( ) ( )
2
1 3
2
3 2
2
2 1
2
1
+ + =
i
=
S
(6.16)
Trong to bt k, iu kin do c dng:
(
x
-
y
)
2
+(
y
-
z
)
2
+(
z
-
x
)
2

+6(
xy
2
+
yz
2
+
zx
2
) = 2
S
2
(6.17)
Do cng ng sut tip:

( ) ( ) ( ) [ ]
2
1 3
2
3 2
2
2 1
6
1
+ + = T

Vy c th vit:

3
S
T

= =const (6.18)
Biu thc trn l iu kin cng ng sut tip khng i.
C th pht biu iu kin do ny nh sau:
1. Khi bin dng do, tng bnh phng ca hiu ng sut php chnh l
mt i lng khng i, bng 2 ln bnh phng gii hn chy ca vt liu.

184
2. Khi bin dng do, tng bnh phng ca ng sut tip chnh l mt i
lng khng i, bng mt na bnh phng gii hn chy ca vt liu.
Trong cc phng trnh do,
S
khng phi l gii hn chy iu kin m
phi l ng sut chy thc khi bin dng do trng thi ko n, trong thc t,
S
c xc nh trong iu kin nhit , tc bin dng v bin dng.
Trong trng hp bin dng do ngui, khi khng xc nh c gii hn
chy m phi dng gii hn quy c
0,2
; c ngha l coi ng sut thc ngoi gii
hn chy v iu kin do :

i
=
0,2

khi tip tc tng mc bin dng, ng sut chy
S
tng do c ho bn, v
th, tng gi tr cng ng sut
i
duy tr trng thi do. Trong trng hp
bin dng do nng, vt liu khi bin dng lun trng thi kt tinh li, nn ng
sut chy c th thay th bng gii hn bn
B,
c xc nh bng th nghim
ko. V nhit cao gi tr ca gii hn chy v gii hn bn khng khc nhau
nhiu.
xc nh
S
cng c th dng kt qu th nghim nn mu cao (H/D>1),
vi iu kin gn trng thi ng sut n (bi trn tt, bn p c bit) , v cc
iu kin tc bin dng gn tc bin dng thc.
Trong trng hp thay gii hn chy
S
khi ko bng gii hn chy
S

khi bin dng trt :

i
=
S

3
S
S
= = 0,577
S
(6.19)
Vi ng sut tip 8 mt iu kin do l:

0
=
S
3
2
(6.20)
Trong trng thi do, ng sut tip 8 mt, cng ng sut tip, cng nh
cng ng sut, c gi tr nht nh.

185
C th biu din:

i
= k

3
S
k

= = 0,577
S
(6.21)

k c gi l hng s do.
C th vit iu kin do theo ng sut tip chnh:

2 2
31
2
23
2
12
2
1
S
= + + (6.22)
Khi dng iu kin nng lng c lin quan n cng ng sut tip hay
ten x lch ng sut v gii hn chy vt liu. Chnh v vy cn tho lun cc
thuc tnh vt liu.

6.3. ngha vt l ca ca iu kin do nng lng
Th nng bin dng tng A
T
bng tng th nng thay i th tch A
tt
v th
nng thay i hnh dng A
hd
.
A
T
= A
tt
+ A
hd
(6.23)
Vy th nng thay i hnh dng l :
A
hd
= A
T
- A
tt
. (6.24)
T l thuyt n hi, th nng bin dng ring c tnh bng na tch v
hng gia ten x ng sut vi ten x bin dng. Tch ny bng tng tch cc
thnh phn ng sut v cc thnh phn bin dng tng ng.
=
3
2
1
0
0 0
. .
. T
=
3
2
1
0
0 0
. .
. T
(6.25)
Vy
) ( A
T 3 3 2 2 1 1
2
1
+ + = (6.26)


186
Cc bin dng chnh c xc nh :

( ) [ ]
( ) [ ]
( ) [ ]
+ =
+ =
+ =
2 1 3 3
1 3 2 2
3 2 1 1
1
1
1

E
E
E
(6.27)
Trong : - H s Poisson.
( ) [ ] ( ) [ ]
( ) [ ]
( ) ( ) [ ]
1 3 3 2 2 1
2
3
2
2
2
1
2 1 3 3
1 3 2 2 3 2 1 1
2
2
1
2
1

+ + + + =
= + +
+ + + + =
E
}
{
E
A
T
(6.28)
Th nng n v bin dng th tch cng c tnh thng qua tenx cu ng
sut v tenx cu bin dng.
=
tb
tb
tb
. .
. T
0
0 0
0
T
tb
tb
tb
0
0 0
0 =
.
. .

Vy

( )
tb tb tb tb tb tb tb tb tt
A
2
3
2
1
= + + =
(6.29)
Ta c
tb
= + +
1
3
1 2 3
( )
v
tb
= + +
1
3
1 2 3
( ) nn

( ) [ ] ( ) [ ]
( ) [ ]
( ) ( ) [ ]
3 2 1 3 2 1
2 1 3
1 3 2 3 2 1
2
3
1
3
1

+ + + + =
= + +
+ + + + =
E
}
{
E
tb
(6.30)
v

187
( )
( )
( ) ( ) ] [
E
.
]
[
E
. )] ( [ . A
tb tb tt
2
3 2 1
2
3 2 1
3 2 1
3 2 1 3 2 1
2
6
1
2
3
1
3
1
2
1
2
1

+ + + + =
= + +
+ + + + = =
(6.31)
Th nng thay i hnh dng vt th:
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
+ +
+
=
= + +
+
=
= + + + +
+ + + + = =
] ) ( ) ( ) [(
E
) (
E
] [
E
.
] [
E
A A A
tt T bd
2
1 3
2
3 2
2
2 1
1 3 3 2 2 1
2
3
2
2
2
1
2
3 2 1
2
3 2 1
1 3 3 2 2 1
2
3
2
2
2
1
6
1
2 2 2 2 2 2
6
1
2
6
1
2
2
1

(6.32)
Thay vo iu kin do ta c:
const .
E
.
E
A
s s bd
=
+
=
+
=
2 2
3
1
2
6
1
(6.33)
Nh vy ta chng minh c iu kin do, lng th nng bin dng
n hi hnh dng ca phn t vt liu kim loi khi bin dng do trong cng
mt iu kin bin (mc , tc v nhit bin dng) bng mt hng s
khng ph thuc trng thi ng sut.
Trong trng hp trng thi ng sut n-ko hoc nn
2
=
3
= 0, vt liu
bt u bin dng do, nu
1
c gi tr bng gii hn chy
S
. Vy, th nng
bin dng n hi hnh dng ti thi im bin dng do trong trng hp ko
n:
const .
E
A
s bd
=
+
=
2
3
1

Nh trn nu, gi tr th nng bin dng khng ph thuc vo trng thi
ng sut, nh vy, v phi ca biu thc trn phi bng v phi ca biu thc. C
ngha l:
] ) ( ) ( ) [(
E E
S
2
1 3
2
3 2
2
2 1
2
6
1
6
1

+ +
+
=
+
(6.34)

188
t ta c iu kin do:
2 2
1 3
2
3 2
2
2 1
2
S
] ) ( ) ( ) [( = + + (6.35)

iu kin do Huber-Misses c cc dng :
. iu kin do nng lng ring bin i hnh dng khng i hay
iu kin do nng lng ; nh lut Henchy
A
E
const
bd s
=
+
=
1
3
2
. ;
iu kin do ng sut 8 mt khng i, nh lut Nadai

0
=
2
3

S
;
iu kin do cng ng sut tip khng i, nh lut Iliusin

(
1
-
2
)
2
+ (
2
-
3
)
2
+ (
3
-
1
)
2
= 2
S
2
.

6.4. ngha hnh hc ca iu kin do
Nu iu kin do biu din di dng
2 2
1 3
2
3 2
2
2 1
2
S
] ) ( ) ( ) [( = + + (6.36)
ta c th nhn xt: Biu thc trn l mt biu thc biu din mt mt tr c
chiu di v hn, nm trong to trc
1
,

2
,

3
vi bn knh
S
r
3
2
= . Trc
ca mt tr i qua gc to , nghing u so vi cc trc v c csin ch phng
bng
3
1
.
Nh vy, nu ng sut php chnh ca trng thi ng sut ca phn t no
ca vt th c xc nh bng mt im nm trn mt tr, th phn t nm
trong trng thi do. Do b mt theo biu thc trn l b mt gii hn ca bin
dng do theo iu kin nng lng.

189
Nu trng thi ng sut ca phn t c xc nh bng mt im nm
bn trong hnh tr, th cht im nm trng thi i hi. Cn cc im nm
ngoi hnh tr khng c ngha.
Bn knh ca hnh tr t l thun vi gii hn chy. Nu bin dng do c
bin cng, th trong qu trnh bin dng ng sut chy tng v bn knh vng trn
tng.
Chu vi mt ct ngang ca hnh tr, giao tuyn gia hnh tr v mt vung
gc vi trc hnh tr, trng thi ng sut trong tng cc ng sut php chnh
bng hng s. Trng thi ng sut ca cc im tng ng vi tenx cu ng
sut, trng thi ng sut p lc thu tnh. Vng trn c tm trng vi tm trc to
l tp hp cc im khng c trng thi ng sut p lc thu tnh, hay ch tn
ti trng thi ng sut tng ng tenx lch. ng sinh ca hnh tr, l giao
tuyn ca mt tr vi mt phng qua trc hnh tr, l tp hp cc im hnh hc
c hiu 3 ng sut php chnh bng hng s, c trng thi ng sut tng ng vi
tenx lch ng sut.
Khi mt trong 3 ng sut chnh bng khng, th d
3
= 0, ta c:
(
1
-
2
)
2
+
2
2
+
3
3
= 2
S
2

hay:
1
2

+
2
2
-
1
2
=
S
2
(6.37a)
Khi
2
= 0 hoc
1
= 0 ta tm c cc biu thc biu din cc elip tng t:

1
2

+
3
2
-
1
3
=
S
2
(6.37b)

2
2

+
3
2
-
2
3
=
S
2
(6.37c)

Ba biu thc trn xc nh mt hnh elp c tm l gc trc to nghing
mt gc 45
0
so vi cc trc to tng ng.

190

Hnh 6.3 iu kin do nng lng v ng sut tip ln nht trong trng thi
ng sut phng

Xt trng hp
2
= 0, ta c elip biu din nh hnh 6.3. Cc im
ABCDEF l cc im chung ca lc gic ni tip - c trng iu kin do ng
sut tip ln nht, vi elip - c trng iu kin do nng lng khng i.
im A, C tng ng trng thi ng sut ko 1 hng;
1
=
S
hoc
3
=
S
,
im D, F tng ng trng thi ng sut nn 1 hng;

1
= -
S
hoc
3
= -
S
,
im B tng ng trng thi ng sut ko u 2 hng;

1
=
3
=
S
,
im E tng ng trng thi ng sut nn u 2 hng;

1
=
3
= -
S
.

191
Bn im c to :
(
S
3
1
,
S
3
2
); (
S
3
2
,
S
3
1
); (
S
3
1
,
S
3
2
); (
S
3
2
,
S
3
1
)
l cc im c trng thi ng sut phng v trng thi bin dng phng, v mt
trong cc ng sut bng na tng 2 ng sut khc.
Hai im: (
S
3
1
,
S
3
1
), (
S
3
1
,
S
3
1
) tng ng vi bin dng
trt thun tu, do 2 ng sut bng nhau v gi tr tuyt i.
Nhn thy, trng thi ng sut ca 6 im trn khc bit nhau ln nht. L
thuyt nng lng khng i c gi tr ln hn l thuyt ng sut tip ln nht :

2
3
S
= 1,155
S
. (6.38)
T cc phn tch trn ta thy, trong trng thi ng sut phng, mt trong cc
ng sut bin i klhng vt qu 1,155
S
.

6.5. iu kin do trong cc trng thi ng sut
a. Trng thi ng sut phng:

y
=
xy
=
zy
= 0.
Vy thay vo iu kin do ta c :

1
2

+
3
2
-
1
3
=
S
2
(6.39a)
Trong to bt k:

x
2

+
z
2
-
x
z
+ 3
xz
2
=
S
2
(6.39b)
b. Trng thi bin dng phng:
0
2
= =
+
=
zy xy
z x
y
;

2 2 2 2 2
2 6
2
1
2
1
S xz x z x z x z z x
] ) ( [ )] ( [ ) ( = + + + + +
m ngoc ta c:

192

2 2 2
3
4
4
S xz z x
) ( = + (6.40a)
Trc y biu din :

S
k
3
1
= ,
ta t
*
S
=
3
2

vy,
*
= 2 k, hoc k = 1/2
*
.
Nn . k ) ( ) (
*
S S xz z x
2 2 2 2 2
4
3
4
4 = = = + (6.40b)
Trong to trc chnh vi trng thi bin dng phng:
k
*
S S
2
3
2
3 1
= = = . (6.40c)
Trong
1
-
3
chnh bng 2 ln gi tr ng sut tip ln nht.
k
*
S S
= = =
2
1
3
1
13
(6.40d)
Nh vy, ng sut tip ln nht ch c th t c bng

*
S S
k
2
1
3
1
= = (6.41)
c. Trng thi ng sut i xng trc
Trong trng thi ng sut i xng trc 0 = =

z

2 2 2 2 2
2 6
S z z z
) ( ) ( ) (

= + + +
Trong trng thi ng sut php chnh:

2 2
1 3
2
3 2
2
2 1
2
S
) ( ) ( ) ( = + +
Nu
ta c:
. k ) (
S z z
2 2 2 2
3 2 3 = = +

(6.42)


193
6.6. nh hng ca ng sut trung gian
Quy nh, ng sut php chnh c xp theo th t ln i s :

1
>
2
>
3
hoc
1
<
2
<
3
. (6.43)
Nh vy,
2
c gi tr nm gia ng sut php
1
v
3,
ng sut ny c
gi l ng sut chnh trung gian v c biu din bng
TG
(ng sut ny
khng phi l ng sut trung bnh
TB
=1/3(
1
+
2
+
3
)).
Trong
1
,
3
l cc ng sut ln nht v nh nht.
xc nh ng sut no l ng sut trung gian, cn xt du ng sut v
ln. Cc ng sut dng, gi tr tuyt i no ln hn l ng sut ln nht, nu
ng sut m, gi tr tuyt i nh l ng sut ln hn.
Trng hp
2
=
TG
=
1
: iu kin do s l

2 2
1 3
2
3 2
2
S
] ) ( ) [( = +
Nh vy,
1
-
3
=
S
hoc
13
= 1/2
S
.
Khi ng sut php chnh trung gian bng mt trong 2 ng sut bin, bin
dng do bt u khi hiu ca 2 ng sut bin bng ng sut chy hoc ng
sut tip chnh tng ng bng na ng sut chy.
ng sut php chnh
2
=
TG
ch c th thay i trong phm vi
1
v
2
,
trng hp ngc li, mt ng sut tr thnh ng sut trung gian, ng sut khc
thnh ng sut bin.
Trng hp
2
=
TG
= 1/2(
1
+
3
), ng sut
2
khng nhng l ng sut
trung gian m cn l ng sut trung bnh.

2
=
TG
=
TB
= 1/3(
1
+
2
+
3
) = 1/2(
1
+
3
), (6.44)
trng thi bin dng l trng thi bin dng phng.
Vy, ta c:
( )
2
3 1
2 2
1 3
2
3
3 1 2 3 1
1
2
2
3
2
2 2
S
S
] ) ( ) ( ) [(

=
= +
+
+
+


194
( )
S

3
2
3 1
= (6.45)
i vi trng hp bt k
2
=
TG
c th biu din:

S min max
S

=
=
2 1
(6.46a)
- H s bin i trong phm vi t 1 n 155 1
3
2
, = , chng t gi tr
ln nht khi trng thi bin dng phng.
Biu thc trn cng l biu thc ca iu kin do ng sut tip ln nht.
Chng c th dng xt mt cch gng ng iu kin do trong trng thi ng
sut khi. Hiu ng sut php chnh c thay bng ng sut tip chnh, ta c:

12
= 1/2
S
. (6.46b)
iu kin v du: khi gii cc bi ton thc, cn chn cc ch s ph
hp vi iu kin bi ton, bo m xc nh ng ng sut php trung gian
v ng sut php ln nht v nh nht.
Trng hp
2
= 0, v chng c th l ng sut trung gian hay ng sut
bin. Nu
1
,
3
khc du,
1
.
3
< 0 , vy
2
l ng sut trung gian. Nu
1
,
3

cng du dng,
1
.
3
> 0 , vy
2
l ng sut nh nht. Nu
1
,
3
cng du
m,
1
.
3
> 0 , vy
2
l ng sut ln nht, cng l ng sut bin.

1
-
3
=
S
, khi
1
.
3
< 0;

1
=
S
, khi
1
.
3
> 0, v |
1
| > |
3
|

3
=
S
, khi
1
.
3
> 0, v |
3
| > |
1
|
H s l hm ca cc ng sut php chnh.
Xt quan h ng sut trung gian chnh vi cc ng sut php chnh ln
nht v nh nht, ngi ta nh ngha h s nh hng ng sut trung gian:
.

195
T kho st vng trn Mo ng sut (hnh 4.6) ta thy, im B, to ng
sut
2
, ph thuc gi tr ca ng sut chnh trung gian
TG
=
2
. Gi tr ca ng
sut ny c th bin i t
3
( im A) n
1
(im C). Vy ta c th vit:
.
AC
B O
2
2
=

Khi , 0
2
B dng, nu nm bn phi gc 0
2
.

2 1
3 1 2
3 1
3 1
2
2
2
2

=
+
+

hay c th vit di dng ng sut trung gian v ng sut bin:

min max
min max TG
min max
min max
TG

=
2
2
2
(6.47)
Ta thy, khi
TG
=
max
hay
1
=
TG
,
2
=
3
= 0, th
= 1, = 1; (trng
hp ko n) khi
TG
=
min
th
= - 1; khi
2
) (
min max
TG

+
= hay
1
= ,
2
= 0,
3
= -
TG
, th
= 0, = 1,155; tng ng trng hp ct thun tu.

Nh vy,
bin thin t -1 n 1 v xc nh quan h gia cc ng sut

chnh. V th, n c trng cho trng thi ng sut do ca im - hay c trng
cho tenx lch. Do ,
khng ph thuc tenx cu.

Ta c th xc nh :

S
2
3 1
3
2
+
= (6.48)
t
2
3
2
+
=
(6.49)
Ta c th biu din quan h gia v
bng hnh 6.4.


196
Gi tr ca
xc nh quan h gia cc ng sut php chnh, c trng cho

trng thi ng sut do ca im, n khng ph thuc tenx cu ng sut m ch
ph thuc tenx lch ng sut.
Hai gi tr bin (-1, 1) tng ng
=1. Lc ny khng c nh hng ca ng
sut php trung gian, iu kin do lc
tng ng iu kin do Treska-St.Vnant.

Khi
= 0 th =1,155.
Ta cng c th dng vng trn Mo
bin dng, tng t xt nh hng ca
bin dng trung gian thng qua h s:

2
2
2 1
2 1
2

=

Theo iu kin th tch khng i:

3 1
3 1
3

+
=
(6.50)
ng thi cng c th chng minh :
.

=

6.7. Quan h gia ng sut v bin dng khi bin dng do
gii cc bi ton bin dng to hnh, kho st trng thi ng sut v trng
thi bin dng di tc dng ca ngoi lc, thit lp cc quan h tnh lc ca
ng sut v quan h bin dng v chuyn v. Tip sau nghin cu iu kin vt
liu chuyn t bin dng n hi sang bin dng do v thit lp iu kin do.
Nhng, gii bi ton tm ng sut hoc bin dng cn cn phi thit lp quan
h gia ng sut v bin dng.
6.7.1. Khi bin dng n hi

Hnh 6.4 Biu h s L

197
Trong sc bn vt liu, khi bin dng n hi, ng sut t l vi bin dng -
c xc nh bng nh lut Hook.
Trong trng hp ko nn n: = .
Trng hp trt thun tu = G.
Trong : E - Mun Young; G - Mun trt.
Trong bin dng n hi, E v G lun khng thay i. Nn quan h gia ng
sut v bin dng l quan h n tr thng nht. Quan h ny khng ph thuc
vo qu trnh t ti. Qu trnh bin dng l thun nghch, ng sut v bin dng
c th s dng lut chng cht n gin.
Ta c th vit cc quan h ng sut v bin dng theo :

[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
=
=
=
+ =
+ =
+ =
zx x z
yz yz
xy xy
y x z z
x z y y
z y x x
G
G
G
) (
E
) (
E
) (
E

1
1
1
1
1
1
(6.51)
Quan h gia , E, G :
) (
E
G
+
=
1 2

T cc phng trnh trn ta c th thu c cc biu thc:
) (
E
z y x z y x

+ +
= + +
2 1

tb tb
E

2 1
= (6.52)
Ta bit
tb
=
0
l thnh phn ca tenx cu bin dng,
tb
=
0
l thnh phn

198
tenx cu ng sut. Ngoi ra,
0
cn biu din s thay i th tch ca mt im
vt th )
V
V
(
0
3
= . V vy,

. T
E
T
. .
.
E
. .
.
0 0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2 1
0
0 0
2 1
0
0 0

(6.53)
Tenx cu ng sut t l thun vi tenx cu bin dng, v ch gy ra bin
dng th tch.
T biu thc (6.51) v (6.53) ta c:

=
=
=
=
=
=
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
0 0
0 0
0 0
zx
zx
yz
yz
xy
xy
z z
y y
x x
G
G
G
) ( G
) ( G
) ( G

(6.54)
Cc thnh phn trn cng l thnh phn ca 2 tenx lch bin dng v tenx
lch ng sut. Vy ta c th vit:

D G D
. .
. G
. .
.
z
yz y
xz xy x
z
yz y
xz xy x
2
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
=
(6.55)
Nh vy, tenx lch ng sut cng t l thun vi tenx lch bin dng.
Tenx lch ng sut ch gy thay i hnh dng vt th.

199
Ta cng c th xc nh t s:
G
zx
zx
yz
yx
xy
xy
x z
x z
z y
z y
y x
y x
2
2
2 2
= = = =

(6.56)
Vit trong trc chnh:
G 2
1 3
1 3
3 2
3 2
2 1
2 1
=

(6.57)

Hnh 6.5 Vng trn Mo ng sut

Hnh 6.6 Vng trn Mo bin dng

200
Nh vy, trong giai on bin dng n hi, vng trn Mo ng sut v vng
trn Mo bin dng l nh nhau.
T cng thc trn, ta c th chng minh quan h gia cng ng sut v
cng bin dng trong trng thi ng sut phc tp.

i
= E.
i
(6.58)
Bit rng E= 2G (1+)
Vy:

i
i
). (

+
=
1
1 3
1 3
3 2
3 2
2 1
2 1
(6.59)
Trong trng hp bin dng n hi, cng ng sut t l vi cng
bin dng di, cc thnh phn ca tenx lch ng sut t l thun vi cc thnh
phn tenx lch bin dng tng ng.
Khi bin dng n hi, sau khi d ti, vt th hon ton khi phc hnh dng
kch thc ban u. Qu trnh bin dng n hi l qu trnh thun nghch. Hnh
dng v kch thc (bin dng) ca vt th ch ph thuc v ti trng chnh ti
thi im tc dng, khng ph thuc v thi gian trc . Nh vy, ng sut v
bin dng c quan h n tr, khng ph thuc qu trnh t hay ct ti. Nhng
nu ng sut vt qua gii hn chy, quan h gia ng sut v bin dng hon
ton khc nhau khi t ti v ct ti.

6.7.2. Khi bin dng do
Cc c im ng sut bin dng trong bin dng do:
a. Sau khi vt liu chy, ng sut v bin dng khi t ti bin i theo mt
quy lut khc vi bin dng n hi, lc ny D
d
d
= >
0 .
b. Sau khi bin dng chy, qu trnh bin dng khng thun nghch. Khi
ct ti qu trnh bin dng theo mt ng khc.

201
c. Tip sau khi ct ti, ta li t ti qu trnh bin dng i theo ng va
ct ti, lc ny vt liu b bin cng, mun n hi khng thay i, nhng ng
sut chy ly gi tr mi, tng ng gi tr ti im ct ti.
d. Nu sau khi ct ti, ta t ti theo chiu ngc vi chiu ban u, vt
liu bin dng, quan h ng sut v bin dng c cng mt mun n hi, nhng
ng sut chy na chu k sau thp hn. l hiu ng Baoshinghe, bin mm
khi t ti ngc du.
c mi quan h n tr gia ng sut v bin dng, cn thit khng ch
qu trnh t ti.
Theo I-liu-sin, bo m s dng l thuyt bin dng do nh, trong qu
trnh t ti, tt c ngoi lc ngay t lc bt u t lc, phi tun theo quy lut
t ti gin n, quan h
gia ng sut v bin dng
cng theo mt quy lut.
iu kin t ti gin
n:
a. Trong qu trnh ch
c t ti khng c ct ti.
Vt th bin dng lun
trng thi ng sut phc tp.
Nu ti mi thi im bin
dng, cng ng sut ca
bt k 1 im vt cht no
i
,
u ln hn cng ng sut ca cc im ti thi im trc, l qu
trnh t ti. Bin dng khi t ti gi l bin dng do ch ng, bin dng khi
ct ti gi l bin dng do b ng.
b. Trong qu trnh t ti, trc chnh ca ng sut-bin dng lun khng
i. C ngha l: Trc chnh khng quay, trc chnh c tn theo th t 1, 2, 3 :

Hnh 6.7 Biu t ti

202

1
>
2
>
3
v
1
>
2
>
3
khng thay i. Nh vy, bin dng do trn mt ng
sut tip ln nht l kt qu tch t ca bin dng trt . Trc chnh ng sut bin
dng khng i, c ngha l lng v s gia ng sut v bin dng sy ra cng
mt phng. Hay phng ca bin dng di chnh trng vi phng ng sut
php chnh. Vng trn Mo bin dng tng t v hnh hc vi vng trn Mo
ng sut. Ta c th xc nh kt qu bin dng cui cng ti thi im t ti v
c th xy dng mi quan h thng nht gia ng sut v bin dng. iu kin
cn thit na l th tch vt th bin dng khng i.
1
+
2
+
3
=
x
+
y
+
z
= 0 (6.60)
c. Trong qu trnh t ti cc thnh phn ng sut tng t l vi nhau:
1
:
2
:
3
= C
1
: C
2
: C
3

nn t ti bt u t gc. iu kin ny hn ch lch s t ti. V ch tho mn
iu kin a, b mi p ng iu kin c. Ngc li tho mn iu kin c th 2
iu kin a v b tt nhin s tho mn.
Hnh 6.7 biu din biu ko vt liu.
S0
l im bt u chy,
S1
,
S2
...
l cc im chy ti cc thi im tip theo. Do c bin cng
S0
<
S1
<
S2
... Ta
thy, t gc 0, qua rt nhiu ng t ti khc nhau, i qua cc im A n B.
Nhng ch c mt ng thng t ti 0AB mi tho mn iu kin t ti gin
n.
Gi thit t ti tho mn iu kin t ti gin n, khi bin dng do, ng
sut v bin dng c quan h n tr. Trong mt iu kin nht nh, d vt th
trng thi ng sut no cc thnh phn ca tenx lch ng sut t l vi cc thnh
phn ca tenx lch bin dng. Ta cng c th rt ra t 2 vng trn Mo.

' G 2
1 3
1 3
3 2
3 2
2 1
2 1
=

(6.61)
Trong G' l mt h s t l ti mt thi im bin dng. G' ch ph thuc
vt liu v mc bin dng khng ph thuc trng thi ng sut.
T biu thc trn a c:

203

=
=
=
=
=
=
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
0 0
0 0
0 0
zx
zx
yz
yz
xy
xy
z z
y y
x x
' G
' G
' G
) ( ' G
) ( ' G
) ( ' G

(6.62)
Khi bin dng do, hai vng trn Mo ng sut v vng trn Mo bin dng
nh nhau
. Do
0
=
TB
= 1/3 (
x
+
y
+
z
) v iu kin th tch khng
i:
0
= 1/3 (
x
+
y
+
z
) nn phng trnh quan h vt l gia bin dng v ng
sut khi bin dng do c th vit di dng sau.
Khi bin dng do, th tch vt th bin dng khng i, nn h s 1/2 trong
biu thc trn chnh l h s Poisson (
p
= 1/2). Nh vy, Biu thc tnh bin
dng do hon ton tng t vi biu thc tnh bin dng n hi. Thay m
un n hi E bng mt h s E' v gi l mun bin dng do loi I.

=
=
=
+ =
+ =
+ =
zx zx
yz yz
xy xy
y x z z
x z y y
z y x x
' G
' G
' G
)] ( [
' G
)] ( [
' G
)] ( [
' G

1
1
1
2
1
3
1
2
1
3
1
2
1
3
1
(6.63)


204
Mt khc, khi bin dng do:
. E
) (
G
p
+
=
1 2
1

nh trn
p
=
1
2
. Ta c: G = 1/3.E. (6.64)
Trong iu kin bin dng do : G' = 1/3E'.
Biu thc tnh bin dng c th vit li:

x x y z
y y z x
z z x y
xy xy
yz yz
zx zx
E
E
E
G
G
G
= +
= +
= +
=
=
=
1 1
2
1 1
2
1 1
2
1
1
1
'
[ ( )]
'
[ ( )]
'
[ ( )]
'
'
'
(6.65)
G' c th gi l mun do th 2.
Vit biu thc trong h to chnh:

1 1 2 3
2 2 3 1
3 3 1 2
1
3
1
2
1
3
1
2
1
3
1
2
= +
= +
= +
G
G
G
'
[ ( )]
'
[ ( )]
'
[ ( )]
(6.66)
Ta c th kt lun: Trong iu kin t ti gin n, quan h gia ng
sut v bin dng khi bin dng do cng ging nh trong bin dng n hi.
Ch cn thay cc mun E, G, trong biu thc quan h ng sut v bin

205
dng ca n hi bng cc mun do E', G' b v 1/2, ta c biu thc biu
din quan h ng sut bin dng trong bin dng do.
Ta c th vit mi quan h gia cc tenx lch ng sut v tenx lch bin
dng khi bin dng do:
D
= 2G' D
, (6.67)
trong iu kin bin dng do, th tch vt th khng i
0
= 0, D
=T
.
Vy D
= 2G' T
. (6.68)
C ngha l khi bin dng do, tenx bin dng t l vi tenx lch ng sut.
Trng thi bin dng khi bin dng do ch ph thuc tenx lch ng
sut v khng ph thuc tenx cu ng sut.
Ta cng c th xc nh cng ng sut khi bin dng do thng qua
cng bin dng:

i
= E'.
i
(6.69)
trong
i
l cng bin dng khi bin dng do:

2
1 3
2
3 2
2
2 1
3
2
) ( ) ( ) (
i
+ +
=
(6.70)
Cng bin dng do
i
c trng cho mc ho bn ca vt liu. Trong
iu kin t ti gin n, cng ng sut l hm ca cng bin dng,
i

= f (
i
) , ta c th xc nh c qua cc thc nghim ko (nn). Quan h ny ph
thuc vt liu, khng ph thuc trng thi ng sut khi vt th bin dng. Nh
vy, ta c th dng bt k trng thi ng sut no, qua bin php t ti gin n,
xc nh gi tr ca
i
v
i
ti tng thi im bin dng, t ta c th thit lp
quan h hm s
i
= f (
i
). Nh ta xc nh cc thnh phn ng sut hoc
thnh phn bin dng.
Gi thit, nh thc nghim ko ta xc nh c ng cong S-BD ca vt
liu. Ti mi im, xc nh c mun E' :
E
i
i
' =
(6.71)

206
Thay vo biu thc quan h ng sut bin dng ta c:

=
=
=
+ =
+ =
+ =
zx
i
i
zx
yz
i
i
yz
xy
i
i
xy
y x z
i
i
z
x z y
i
i
y
z y x
i
i
x
)] ( [
)] ( [
)] ( [
3
3
3
2
1
2
1
2
1
(6.72)
hay

+ =
+ =
+ =
)] ( [
)] ( [
)] ( [
i
i
i
i
i
i
2 1 3 3
1 3 2 2
3 2 1 1
2
1
2
1
2
1

(6.73)
T l hiu cc ng sut v hiu cc bin dng c th vit:

i
i
zx
zx
yz
yx
xy
xy
x z
x z
z y
z y
y x
y x

2
3
2
2 2
= = = =
(6.74)
Vit trong h trc chnh:

i
i

2
3
1 3
1 3
3 2
3 2
2 1
2 1
=
. (6.75)
Vit vi ng sut trung bnh:

3 3 2 2 1 1
3
2
3
2
3
2
. . ; . . ; . .
i
i
TB
i
i
TB
i
i
TB
= = =
(6.76)

207
Biu thc trn cng c th dng xc nh ng sut v bin dng ti cc to
x, y, z bt k; nhng cn s dng thm cc biu thc:
; . . ; . . ; . .
zx
i
i
zx yz
i
i
yz xy
i
i
xy

3
1
3
1
3
1
= = = (6.77)
Khi dng cc phng trnh vt l bin dng do ni trn cn ch :
a. Cc phng trnh vt l bin dng do c xy dng trn iu kin t
ti gin n. Nu t ti khng tho mn iu kin gin n, th cc biu thc
trn khng th thit lp c. C ngha l, trong iu kin gia ti phc tp, khng
c s dng cc biu thc k trn xc nh ng sut-bin dng khi bin dng
do. Thc t tnh ton cho thy, tho mn iu kin t ti gin n rt kh, nht
l iu kin th 3 (c). ng t ti thc v t ti gin n c s khc bit. Nu
mun s dng t ti gin n, cn phi s dng iu kin gn ng. Nhng phi
bo m cc iu kin: qu trnh bin dng ch c t ti, trc chnh khng
quay, th t trc chnh khng i.
b. Ta thy c s khc bit gia cc m un n hi E v G vi mun do
E' v G'. Mun n hi l hng s ca vt liu, ta c th xc nh c bng cc
thc nghim vt liu trong iu kin nhit v tc gia ti. Cc gi tr ny ph
thuc iu kin c nhit khng ph thuc trng thi. Cc mdun do E' v G'
khng phi l hng s. Chng bin i ngay trong qu trnh bin dng do. Mi
thi im bin dng c mt gi tr. Trong vng bin dng n hi E = tg , cn
trong vng bin dng do E' = tg ' , trong ' lun thay i. Vy, ti thi
im bt u bin dng do, ta c th coi E E' v '. C ngha l, ta c th
xc nh gi tr bin dng do thng qua trng thi ng sut n hi, v c th s
dng cc quan h thc ca n hi tnh gn ng cho trng hp bin dng
do. Cc phng trnh quan h ng sut v bin dng phi da trn c s bin
dng do nh. H s t l cn ph thuc vo bin cng ca vt liu v l hm ca
bin dng.

208
L thuyt chy do c da trn c s xc lp quan h gia ng sut v tc
bin dng. Cc gi thit thit lp cc quan h nh cc gi thit s dng
khi lp cc quan h gia ng sut v bin dng.
a. Phng ca tc bin dng di chnh trng vi phng ng sut php
chnh.
b. Vng trn Mo tc bin dng c dng hnh hc nh vng trn Mo ng
sut.
c. Th tch vt th khi bin dng khng i.

.
z y x
0
3 2 1
= + + = + + & & & & & &

H s t l trong cc phng trnh cn thay k hiu G' v E' bng G'' v E''.
. ' ' E
i
i
&
=
Vy, theo l thuyt chy do, cng ng sut (ng sut chy) i vi mi
vt liu l hm s ca tc bin dng.

i i i
'. ' E ) ( & & = =

Cc phng trnh quan h ng sut v tc bin dng cng ging nh cc
phng trnh ng sut -bin dng. Khi s dng, cn thay k hiu bin dng bng
tc bin dng, thay h s t l tng ng.
' ' G
i
i
2
2
3
1 3
1 3
3 2
3 2
2 1
2 1
= =

&
& & & & & &
(6.78)
L thuyt chy do khi s dng phng trnh cn bng ng cho php gii
cc bi ton ng khi bin dng do, ng thi tnh ton sc bn theo tc bin
dng, t phng php ny ta c th gii cc bi ton chy do v t bin, ni
dung c th c trnh by ti liu khc.


209
Chng 7
Tnh do v Tr lc bin dng ca vt liu kim loi
7.1. mt s Thuc tnh bin dng ca vt liu
7.1.1. Khi nim chung
Xut hin v pht trin bin dng do l mt qu trnh phc tp, qu trnh
bin dng do thng km theo cc hin tng vt l-ho hc, hin tng to
thnh lch mng, song tinh, trt gia cc phn mng, to ra cc vt nt t vi v
th i. Nh vy, bin dng do cn ph thuc vo trng thi vt l ca vt liu.
Bin dng do l qu trnh bin i cc yu t thuc tnh v trng thi ca
vt liu. L thuyt do vt l nghin cu cc tc ng ca cc yu t c - nhit:
tc ng ca thnh phn - t chc vt liu, nhit v tc bin dng n cc
thuc tnh do v bin dng ca vt liu. gii cc bi ton v bin dng do,
ngi ta dng n 1 s gi thit nh vt th bin dng ng hng, ng nht,
lin tc c th m hnh ho v gii bi ton c d dng.
Ngoi ra, cn cn s dng mt s quy lut trong bin dng do:
-S thay i th tch tng i do bin dng n hi v t l vi ng sut
trung bnh;
- Ten x lch bin dng t l vi ten x lch ng sut, hay hng ca cc
ten x lch bin dng ng hng vi ten x ng sut; cc thnh phn ca 2 ten
x cng t l vi nhau;
-Khng c nh lut duy nht gia ng sut v bin dng, do quan h
khng ch ph thuc tnh cht vt liu, m cn ph thuc trng thi chu lc, tnh
phi tuyn l c trng ca bin dng do.
- Bi ton bin dng do cn lin kt cht vi cc thc nghim. Bin dng
do ph thuc tc bin dng, nn khi gii bi ton c bi ton bin dng tnh,
c bi ton bin dng tc cao, ng thi c bi ton tc bin dng chm (t
bin). Khi xc nh nghim ca cc bi ton cn phi s dng cc gi tr thc
nghim b xung v kim nghim cc kt qu tnh ton.

210
7.1.2. Cc loi m hnh vt liu
Trong c hc vt rn bin dng, s chy ca vt liu c xy dng da trn
quan h gia 2 tenx i xng vi tham s thi gian. Hai ten x ng sut v ten
x bin dng m t cc thuc tnh c nhit ca vt liu nh sau:

[ ]
t
t
) ( T T T
0

=
(7.1)

[ ]
t
t
) ( T T T
0

=
(7.2)
gii cc bi ton trn cn tin hnh mt lot cc thc nghim v xy dng
cc m hnh cho php m t cc thuc tnh khc nhau ca vt cht. Cc tnh cht
c bn ca vt liu c th rt ra t thc nghim th ko n mu tr, do to c
trng thi ng sut v bin dng ng nht ti phn gia mu mu trn ng
knh d
0
, vi chiu di l
0
gp 5 hoc 10 ln ng knh. Kt qu ta c biu
P-l. Dng ca biu ph thuc tnh cht vt liu, kch thc mu. c
biu ch phn nh c trng c hc vt liu, cn chuyn to thnh - .
Trong giai on n hi, quan h ng sut v bin dng tun theo nh lut
Hc tng qut:

kk j i j i j i
E E

+
=
1
(7.3)
Nhng trong gia cng p lc, trng thi ng sut nhiu chiu, nh vy, cn
xy dng mt quan h - c th c trng cho ng sut 3 chiu. Cho nn, ngi
ta tm quan h ng sut thc v bin dng, thng qua quan h cng ng sut
v cng bin dng :
i
= f(
i
). Vn ny c nghin cu mc ng
cong bin cng. Trong bin dng do, trong cc iu kin nhit v tc bin
dng khc nhau, ng x ca vt liu khc nhau. V vy, cn m hnh ho thuc
tnh ca chng t nh ra mi quan h ton hc gia ng sut v bin dng,
c th s dng trong tnh ton.
M hnh vt liu n hi tuyn tnh
M hnh bi ton n hi, ng sut hon ton t l vi bin dng :
=E. , (7.4)

211
y l m hnh dng l xo.
M hnh vt liu n nht tuyn tnh : Hnh 7.1a.
= ' d/dt (7.5)
Theo nh lut nht Newton,
m hnh c dng mt pitton dch chuyn '
trong xilanh cha y vt liu lng nht. Hnh 7.1b.
Lc cht lng chy qua l nh gia xilanh-pitton.
M hnh vt liu do l tng =
S
(7.6)
Khi vt liu chu lc di gii hn chy, khng
c bin dng, k c bin dng n hi.
M hnh nh vt dch chuyn trn mt
c ma st kh.
Hnh 7.1c.
M hnh bin dng do cng
S

M hnh vt liu bin dng do c
ho bn tuyn tnh

hoc phi tuyn.

= E .
n
(7.7)
Trong : n - h s bin cng.
M hnh ging nh mc song song hoc
ni tip mt l xo v mt vt trt trn sn. Hnh 7.1e.

M hnh vt liu n do
Vt liu bin dng n hi
h
v bin dng do
do
.
Tng bin dng =
h
+
do
. (7.8)
C th c cc trng hp nh sau: Hnh 7.1f.

Vt liu n do l tng.

212
C ngha l khi bin dng do khng km theo bin cng.
Vt liu n do bin cng tuyn tnh
= E. khi 0< <
T
(7.9)
=
T
khi >
T
(7.10)
Vt liu n do bin cng phi tuyn Hnh 7.1g.

l dng vt liu thng gp nh thp.

Chng c bin dng n hi v bin dng
do c bin cng. C th biu din bng
cng thc quan h ng sut v bin dng.
M hnh vt liu n nht Hnh 7.1h.
Trong trng hp bin dng nng, mt s vt liu c thuc tnh n nht
hoc do nht.
Trng hp m hnh ghp ni tip phn t n hi v phn t nht, tc
bin dng : = d/dt l tng ca tc bin dng n hi

h
= 1/E. d/dt v bin dng nht
do
= /'.
Vy ta c:
' dt
d
.
E dt
d

+ =
1
(7.11)
Biu thc trn tng ng m hnh n nht MAXWELL. M hnh biu din
hin tng do.
Nu mc song song phn t n hi v phn t nht, ta c mt m hnh
biu din ng sut tc dng bng tng cc ng sut thnh phn.
ng sut bin dng n hi :
h
= E. (7.12)
v ng sut bin dng nht :
nh
= '. d/dt (7.13)
ta c = E + 'd/dt (7.14)
Biu thc trn khng biu din qu trnh do, v khi =const ng sut cng
const, vt liu c tnh cht ca mi trng n hi. Nhng nu ng sut =const,
bin dng thay i theo quy lut:

213

) e (
E
t .
'
E
= 1
. (7.15)
tin dn n /E v sy ra b.
Xt tng hp tnh nht v do. Lin kt 2 phn t nht v do ta c m
hnh do-nht. Chng c c tnh mi trng nht tuyn tnh khi <
S
v c
tnh do l tng khi =
S
. Mi trng do nht cn gi l mi trng
Svedov-Binghem.

= +
S
d
dt
'
khi
S
(7.16)
Khi <
S
khng c bin dng.

M hnh cc thuc tnh vt liu compozit v vt liu khc
Khi gii cc bi ton thit k t ng, c th gp cc bi ton vi cc vt liu
lng, vt liu t, vt liu bn lng. Khi gii bi ton truyn nhit, cn dng cc
thuc tnh nhit ca vt liu.
Khi gii bi ton vi vt liu lng, hoc gi lng cn nh ngha v s dng
cc bi ton bin dng ca vt liu lng: bi ton dng chy.
Khi p vt liu bn lng, cn xc nh li m hnh thuc tnh ca vt liu,
gii bi ton cht lng.
Do nhit p nm gia ng lng v ng
c, nn cu trc vt liu gm 2 pha chnh: pha rn v
pha lng vi cc thnh phn v cu trc khc nhau. Ta
c th m hnh ho vt liu t hp nh sau: T gin
ta xc nh hm lng theo khi lng ca pha
lng v pha rn, sau xc nh hm lng theo th
tch, quan h vi mt .

) ( g
) g (
f
l R
l
l
l
l

=
1
1
1
(7.17)

Hnh 7.2. M hnh
xc nh nhit
bn lng
a
b

214
Trong : g
l
- hm lng khi lng pha lng;

l
,
R
- mt pha lng v pha rn.
Cng c th xc nh hm lng ca pha rn f
R
.
Trn c s thc nghim, xc nh quan h gia t trng hm lng cc pha
f
l
/f v f
R
/f n cc tnh cht ca vt liu. Trn c s kt qu thc nghim, xc nh
vt liu thuc m hnh cht lng Newton hay phi Newton, c thuc tnh do -
nht hay thuc tnh gi do. T xc nh cc h s cho cc biu thc tnh ton,
a vo cho my tnh.

7.1.3. Cc thuc tnh khc
Quan h qia cc h s c lit k theo bng sau:
Bng 7. 1
i lng K E G
K,E - -
( )
3
9
K E
K E

1
2 6
E
K

K,G

9
3
K G
K G ( )

1
2
3 2
3 2
K G
K G
+
|
\
|
K,

( ) 2 1 3 K

3
2
1 2
1
. . K
+
|
\

-
E,G

( )
E
G E 3 3

E
G 2
1
E,

( )
E
3 1 2

( )
E
2 1 +

G, 3
2
1
1 2
G
+
|
\

Trong bi ton do s dng cc thuc tnh c hc :
- M un n hi php tuyn E, hoc Ex, Ey, Ez;
- M un trt G, hoc Gxy, Gyz, Gxz;

215
- H s Poison ;
- H s bin dng th tch K.
M un n hi, h s v h s dn n nhit ca mt s vt liu:
Bng 7.2

Vt liu
M un n hi
E, GPa
H s Poison

,
x 10
-6
/
0
C
Tungsten 340~380 0,2 4,3
Ni ken 210 0,31 13
Thp 194~205 0,33 17
Hp kim ng 96~110 0,34 19,1~21,2
Nhm 70 0,33 23
Gang xm 83~170 0,2~0,3 9,9~12

7.2. Khi nim v tr lc bin dng v tnh do ca vt liu
7.2.1. Tnh do ca vt liu:
Tnh do ca vt liu l kh nng chu tc dng ca ngoi lc bin dng
do m khng b ph hu.
Tnh do khng ng ngha vi do. do ca vt liu l mc bin
dng do di tc dng ca ngoi lc trong iu kin nhit , tc bin dng
v trng thi ng sut nht nh m khng c ph hu. do c o bng
cc ch s do nh dn di t i, co tht t i, dai va p... Tnh do
ca vt liu khc tnh mm do ca vt liu. Tnh mm do l tnh chng li bin
dng ca kim loi. Th d, ch l kim loi c tnh do tt v tnh mm do tt.
Trong thc t, rt t kim loi c ng thi 2 thuc tnh u tt nh vy. Thp
khng g stenit trng thi ngui c th chu c bin dng ln khng b ph
hu, c ngha trong iu kin kim loi c tnh do tt. Nhng, thp li c
tnh mm do km.
Tnh do ca vt liu l hm s ca cc thuc tnh ca vt liu: thnh phn, t
chc hp kim, cu trc tinh th; ng thi cn l hm ca trng thi bin dng vt

216
liu: trng thi ng c hc, s ng u ca trng thi ng sut v bin dng;
nhit v s ng u nhit ; tc bin dng. Cao su, nha ng c tnh
do km nhng c do cao, thp khng g c tnh do tt nhit thp, chu
lc ln bin dng do nhng khng b ph hu, do thp. Thch anh di p
sut thu tnh khng b ph v, chu p lc rt ln v do rt nh. Kim loi c
tnh do nhit cao, thp c tnh do cao khi t chc nm vng t chc
stenit, c tnh do km khi vng t chc 2 pha, hoc qu nhit. Ch c tnh do
tt, do cao nhit thng, nhng di p lc thu tnh ch khng bin
dng, nu ng sut bng gii hn bn, ch b v vn.
Nghin cu tnh do v xc nh nh do ca vt liu khi gia cng p
lc l mt vic rt cn thit, trc khi xc nh ch bin dng to hnh.
7.2.2. Tr lc bin dng.
Tr lc bin dng l i lng nh gi thuc tnh chu lc ca vt liu, l
mt i lng dng xc nh lc cn thit vt liu bin dng. Tu theo iu
kin bin dng, tr lc bin dng t l thun vi gii hn chy hoc gii hn bn
vt liu.
Tr lc bin dng khng hon ton ng nht vi tnh do ca vt liu. Trong
cng mt trng thi v iu kin bin dng nht nh, tr lc bin dng t l
thun vi tnh do ca vt liu. Tr lc bin dng c xc nh bng p lc n
v ca vt liu tc dng ln dng c gia cng.
Tr lc bin dng c xc nh bng p lc n v
P = p
TB
F
p
TB
= n
S
(7.18)
trong : p
TB
- p lc n v trung bnh ln dng c;
n = n
n
v
n
bc

n
- h s xt nh hng ca trng thi ng sut, h s ny nh

hng ln n p lc n v, thng khong 0,7~0,8.
n
v
- h s xt nh hng tc bin dng
n
bc
- h s xt nh hng ca bin cng

217

S
- gii hn chy.

7.3. nh hng ca thnh phn ho hc n tr lc bin
dng v tnh do kim loi
Cc kim loi khc nhau, tr lc bin dng khc nhau, kim loi nguyn cht
c tr lc bin dng nh hn hp kim. Ni chung, kim loi nguyn cht v cc
dung dch rn ca chng c tnh do tt, cc hp cht ho hc c tnh do km.
Xt tnh do v tr lc bin dng ca thp cc bon ta thy:
Fe. Kim loi nguyn cht Fe c tnh do tt, tr lc bin dng nh, do
ln.
C%. Khi hm lng cc bon C% tng, Fe t t chc 1 pha dung dch rn,
thnh vt liu c t chc 2 pha: dung dch rn v hp cht Fe
3
C, lm tr lc bin
dng tng v tnh do
gim, cc ch tiu do
gim, n khi hm lng
C% t 0,8% (t chc
thp Peclit). Nhng khi
hm lng C% vt qu
0,8%, tnh do tip tc
gim, ch tiu do gim,
v tr lc bin dng cng
gim.
Mn%. Mangan l
nguyn t ho tan c hn
trong Ferit Fe, Khi
Mn% < 2% lm tng ch tiu do, khi Mn%>4% chng lm gim ch tiu do.
Mn% tng n 6%, tr lc bin dngj tng, nu Mn%>6%, thp tr nn dn. Mn
c th nm phn gii ht, lc ny to vi S thnh hp cht MnS
2,
c nng

Hnh 7.3 nh hng thnh phn cacbon n
tnh cht ca thp

218
chy thp, lmg gim bn phn gii ht, lm tnh do km. Nn thng hm
lng Mn trong thp khng dng qu 4%.
Si%. Silic cng gn nh Mn%. Si% lm tng bn, tng tr lc bin
dng, khi Si% tng n 2%, do c tng cht t, sau tng Si% lm do
gim. Si l nguyn t lm gim dai va p. Si% tng lm tng tr lc bin
dng.
Cr%. Crm l nguyn t lm tng tnh do v do, vi hm lng Cr%
< 2%, i dai va p tng, sau tng hm lng Cr trong thp lm dai va p
gim, Crm khng lm tng bn - tr lc bin dng.
Ni%. Niken l nguyn t tng tnh do, nhng do tng khng nhiu,
gi v lm tng dai va p, tr lc bin dng tng t. Niken tng lm nhit
ho dn ca thp tng.
Tc dng ca Cr/Ni theo mt t l nht nh, t 1/2 n 1/3 lm bn tng,
tng tnh do v dai va p, tng thm ti.
Mo% v W% vi hm lng t c tc dng ci thin ln ca ht, t
lm tng tnh do. Nu hm lng cao, chng tc dng vi Cacbon thnh Ccbt,
lm tng cng, tng tnh dn, tng tr lc bin dng, gim do.
P%. Hm lng P% t nh hng n tnh do ca thp khi gia cng nng,
nhng lm tng tnh dn khi gia cng ngui. Hm lng P>0,1~0,2% lm mt ht
tnh do.
S% trong thp c lu hunh, s to thnh sunfua st, sunfua mangan, lu
hunh khng to dung dch rn vi st. Cc sunfua ny c nhit nng chy
thp, khong 950
0
C. Nu hm lng S cao, s to thnh dng li trn phn gii
ht. Khi nung ln nhit cao, cc cht ny nng chy v lm gim lin kt ca
phn gii ht, dn n lm kim loi ph hu. Sunfua lu hunh c dng tp cht
hnh cu, chng c nhit nng chy cao, 1450
0
C, nu sunfua mangan thay cho
sunfua st, s lm tng tnh do ca thp.
Cc nguyn t khc nh Pb, Sn, Ti, Bi...khng ho tan trong st, thng phn
b phn gii ht. Khi nung chng b nng chy lm gim bn phn gii ht.

219
Cc cht kh nh hydro, xy v cc tp cht phi kim khc cng thng phn
b phn gii ht v lm gim tnh do vt liu.
C th dng cng thc kinh nghim tnh tr lc bin dng:
Re=265+(480+1,95Mn).C+20,6Mn+(0,17+0,008.C%).Mn+700P+235Si(MPa)
Cc gi tr hm lng nguyn t ho hc tnh bng phn trm.

7.4 nh hng ca t chc kim loi
T chc kim loi, do thnh phn kim loi v iu kin c nhit quyt nh, c
nh hng ln n tnh do v tr lc bin dng ca vt liu. Ni n t chc kim
loi l ni mng tinh th ca kim loi gc, tnh cht, s lng, ln v s phn
b ca cc cht hp kim v tp cht; ln, hnh dng phng kt tinh ca ht
tinh th, mc phn b ng u ca chng. bn ca phn gii ht v mt
kim loi cng ln, ln ht cng nh, hnh dng v thnh phn cng ng
u, tp cht nh mn v phn b u, kh nng trt trn cc mt v phng
trt cng ln, th vt liu c tnh do cao.
ln ht c tc dng rt ln n tnh do v tr lc bin dng kim loi v
hp kim. Khi ht nh, lc b mt tc dng cng ln, gia cc ht hn ch bin
dng nn tr lc bin dng tng. ln ht cng nh, gii hn bn tng, tr lc
bin dng tng, tnh do tng. Nu ta dng cc bin php c nhit, c th to nn
hiu ng siu do, do ca thp c th tng n hng trm %.
ln ht cng nh nhit ho dn ca vt liu cng thp.
Ht khng ng u, tr lc gia chng khc nhau, lm tr lc bin dng
tng, tnh do gim.
T chc c c c im l t chc ht th to, khng ng u, to thnh 3
vng tinh th. Gia cc ht phn b tp cht. T chc c c c trng l thin
tch nhnh cy: thin tch theo ht v theo thnh phn. Bin dng do trong iu
kin rt kh khn, dotnh do ca kim loi c t chc rt km. Chnh v vy,
khi rn chng cn chn ch bin dng ng, trnh gy ph hu vt liu. Bin
dng nng c tc dng ph v cc ht tinh th c, ph v cc tp cht phi kim

220
th to, ko di ht theo hng bin dng ln. Sau khi bin dng do nng, do tc
dng ca kt tinh li, cc ht tr nn nh mn hn, cc tp cht b ph v v phn
tn trn nn cc ht, c th to thnh t chc dng th. Thin tch thnh phn
gim do c trn u v khuych tn. Do kim loi qua bin dng do c
tnh do cao hn.
T chc th cho tnh do tt theo chiu th v tnh do km theo chiu vung
gc th. Ngc li, lm tng tr lc bin dng ko theo dc th, lm tng tr lc
ct theo chiu ngang th. Cc ch tiu do v ch tiu bn ca vt liu tng theo t
s rn F
0
/F
1
. Khi t s ny tng trn 4 ch tiu do v bn tng nhanh, v khi t s
rn trn 10, cc ch tiu bn v do tng khng ng k na.
T chc si cho php tng bn v tng do.
T chc tctua c tc dng tng tnh do. Ngi ta c th to nn thp c t
chc tctua 3D, nh ta c th tin hnh cn mng v p su (dng lm lon
bia).
T chc 1 pha, dung dch rn nh Fe(C) v Fe(C) c tnh do tt, trong ,
t chc mng lp phng din tm c tnh do cao hn, do c h s trt ln hn
t chc mng lp phng th tm.
T chc hp cht Fe
3
C c tnh do km. Hn hp c hc Peclit ctnh do
km, khi hm lng C% trong thp tng, hm lng Fe
3
C tng (Hm lng Peclit
tng) lm bn tng, do gim. Gii hn bn t gi tr max khi 100% l t
chc Pec lit. Nu hm lng cc bon tip tc tng, cacbon di dng Fe
3
C, nm
phn gii ht, lm gim tnh do tng tnh dn.
Cc pha th hnh thnh di dng cc ht nh, phn b trn nn cc ht
tinh th lm cho kim loi c tnh do tt. Nhng nu chng l cc t chc cng
tinh, li phn b trn phn gii ht, s lm gim tnh do.
C th dng cng thc kinh nghim xc nh gii hn chy vt liu:
Vi thp C% < 0,25%
S
= 88 +37Mn+*3Si+2918Ns+15,1d
1/2
MPa (7.20)
Ns l hm lng Nit tan trong dung dch rn.

221
Vi thp <0,8%
S
=52,3+2,18.
1/2
-0,4P
-1/2
-2,88d
A
-1/2
MPa (7.21)
khong cch gia cc phin Xmentit trong t chc Peclit.

7.5 nh hng ca nhit n tnh do v tr lc bin
dng
Tr lc bin dng l gi tr p lc n v gy bin dng do trong iu kin
nhit v tc bin dng nht nh. Trong bin dng ko n, tr lc bin
dng bng gii hn chy. Tng nhit , c tnh vt liu thay i. Tr lc bin
dng ( bn vt liu) gim, tnh do vt liu ( dn di t i) tng. Khi nhit
t 1000
0
C gii hn bn vt liu gim 10 ln.

Quan h gia
gi tr gii hn
chy v nhit
c th biu din
bng cng thc
sau:

p p e
t t
t t
1 2
1 2
= == =
( )
(7.22)
Trong : p
t1
- gi tr gii hn chy nhit t
1

p
t2
-

gi tr gii hn chy nhit t
2
;
- h s nhit , l hng s i vi vt liu nghin cu, nu trong
khong nhit khng c bin i ho l.

Hnh 7.4 nh hng nhit n tnh do ca thp

222
Ni chung, nhit tng, tnh do ca thp tng v tr lc bin dng gim.
i vi st c 4 vng tnh do thp, khi nhit tng:
1. t < -200
0
kim loi dn, dai va p nh. i vi vt liu lm
vic nhit thp cn xc nh vng chuyn bin dn.
2. t = 300 ~ 400
0
C vng dn xanh, do kim loi tit ra Fe
3
O;
3. t = 800 - 950
0
C vng dn nng, i vi thp cc bon, ti y c
chuyn bin pha, -> Peclit chuyn thnh stenit, hai pha c tnh do khc
nhau, lm bin dng khng u v tnh do gim; ng thi c nh hng ca
lu hunh S, to ra hp cht MnS
2
, lm gim bn phn gii ht to thnh vng
dn nng;
4. t > 1250
0
C vng qu nhit, qu nung, tnh do gim.
Cc vng c tnh do tt l vng nhit 100~ 200
0
C, do tng ng nng ca
cc nguyn t kim loi. Vng th 2 700~800
0
C, ti y c tc dng ca kt tinh
li v khuych tn lm tng tnh do. Vng th 3 ti 950~1250
0
C, kim loi nm
trong vng 1 pha, c tnh do tt.
Khi tng nhit , ng nng nhit ca cc phn t tng v tng tnh do ca
phn gii ht, ni c nhiu tp cht, tnh n nh nhit ca chng km hn ht
tinh th. Nn phn bin dng ca phn gii ht tng. Mt khc khi gia cng
nhit cao, cc vt nt t vi c gn kt, vic hnh thnh vt nt chm li, nn
tnh do tng v cn lc bin dng nh. Ni chung khi nhit gia cng trn
nhit kt tinh li, vt liu c tnh do tt. Tnh do ca cc thp khc nhau th
hin khc nhau.
Trong gia cng p lc, c th xc nh biu tnh do ca vt liu theo
nhit . T xc nh bin dng cn thit tu theo nhit ca vt rn.
Hnh 7.5 ta thy:
ng I biu din ng do i vi cc loi thp v hp kim. Khi nhit
tng, tnh do tng, n nhit 1250
0
C, tnh do gim.
ng II biu din tnh do ca thp khng g, nhit tng lm tnh do ca
kim loi v hp kim gim.

223
ng III, nhit tng n 1000
0
C tnh do tng, sau tnh do gim.
ng IV, ti nhit trung gian 1000
0
C tnh do gim, sau tng nhit
tnh do tng, in hnh l st nguyn cht.
ng V, nhit tng, tnh do khng thay i , n nhit 1250
0
C tnh
do gim hn, thp hp kim cht lng cao nh thp bi c dng ny.
Nhiu loi kim loi v hp kim gia cng p lc nhit cao, d hnh
thnh lp vy xyt, lm gim kch thc
v cht lng b mt sn phm. V vy,
vi chi tit nh v mng, phi tin hnh
gia cng nhit thp. Mt s chi tit
cn c bn b mt, gia cng nhit
cao d gy thot cacbon. Trong
trng hp ny c th gia cng nguy
hoc na nng. Nu phi gia cng
nhit cao cn nung trong kh bo v
hoc nung nhanh.
Nh vy, bin dng do nhit
cao i hi p lc n v nh hn, cho
bin dng ln hn.

7.6. nh hng ca tc bin dng
Trong gia cng p lc, tu cc dng cng ngh v thit b, kim loi bin dng
vi cc tc khc nhau: Gia cng trn cc loi my p vi tc dng c
0,1~0,5m/s; gia cng trn my ba vi tc 5~10m/s; trn my ba tc cao
20~30m/s; gia cng bng nng lng n, nng lng xung in t, tc gia
cng cao hn. Chnh v vy cn nghin cu nh hng ca tc bin dng n
tnh do v tr lc bin dng ca vt liu.

Hnh 7. 5 Quan h gia tnh do v
nhit ca mt s vt liu

224
Tc bin dng kim loi tng, tr lc bin dng tng v tnh do gim. Tc
bin dng lm gim tnh do ca nhiu vt liu nh thp bin th, thp hp
kim cao v cc hp kim ng. Cc hp kim nhm, thp kt cu cacbo v kt cu
hp kim t nhy cm vi tc bin dng. i vi vt liu c tnh do ln, c th
gia cng trng thi nng vi bt k gii tc bin dng no. nh hng ca
tc bin dng khi gia cng ngui t hn trong gia cng nng. Phm vi tc
thp c s nh hng mnh hn phm vi tc cao.
Tc bin dng tng, mt
phn nng lng chuyn thnh
nhit v lm tng nhit ca vt
liu v lm tnh do tng. Nh
vy, hiu ng ca tc bin
dng ph thuc iu kin bin
dng. Nu tc bin dng gy
tc bin cng nhanh hn tc
kh bin cng, chng s lm
gim tnh do. Ngc li, tc
dng ca hiu ng nhit lm
nhit tng, khin nhit kim
loi ri vo vng dn, lm kim
loi gim tnh do.
Nu khi bin dng, do hiu ng tc lm tng do nhanh hn bin cng,
s lm cho tr lc bin dng gim. Nu tng tc bin dng, hiu ng nhit lm
vt liu nm vng dn chuyn sang vng do, kim loi s tng tnh do. Hiu
ng nhit tc dng khi gia cng nhit cao, tng nhit , gii hn chy vt
liu gim, v gim nng lng cn cho bin dng.
Khi gia cng nhit di nhit kt tinh li, do kim loi b bin cng v
khng c qu trnh kh bin cng. Gii hn chy tng, nh hng ca tc bin
dng t, ngc li trong iu kin gia cng ngui vi tc cao, nh hng tc

Hnh 7.6. Quan h gii hn bn v gii hn
chy vi tc bin dng

225
bin dng tng, xut hin hin tng hi phc, lm gim tr lc bin dng, tnh
do tng.
Khi gia cng nhit trn nhit kt tinh li, tc bin dng tng, tc
kt tinh li gim, nh vy ng sut chy cng ln tnh do cng nh.
Tc dng ca hiu ng nhit khi thay i tc bin dng thy r trong vng
gn do v dn. Th d: L59 c tnh do thp nhit 600~700
0
C, nhng nu
hiu ng nhit lm nhit tng v ri vo vng nhit 700~800
0
C, vt liu c
tnh do tt. Nh vy, ti vng gip ranh, ch cn thay i nhit 40~50
0
C, vt
liu c th chuyn t trng thi c tnh do cao thnh vt liu c tnh do thp v
ngc la. Gia cng st k thut nhit gn 825
0
C, vi tc cao, c th
chuyn chng sang vng dn phm vi nhit 825~1000
0
C.
Thp nhit nung thp v hp kim t khi rn phm vi nhit thng
c tc kt tinh li chm, nn tng tc bin dng c th thay i c trng
bin dng: t bin dng nng thnh bin dng na nng, t lm gim tnh do,
tng gii hn chy.
nh hng tc bin dng ph thuc mc vt liu. H s ng tnh bng
gii hn chy di tc bin dng cao trn gii hn chy khi bin dng tnh ca
mt s vt liu:
CT3: 4,1; 40Cr trng thi : 2,9; trng thi ti: 2,03; thp 30CrMnSi
trng thi : 2,81, trng thi ti: 1,3.

0

&
&
ln . n
so s
+ =
(7.23)
Trong :
S
,
S0
- ng sut chy tng ng vi tc bin dng & & &
0
; n
- hng s c xc nh bng thc nghim.
Thp khng g ostenit 1Cr18Ni9Ti tc gia cng tng n 4,8 m/s gii hn
bn tng 17,5%, gii hn chy tng n 2 ln. i vi thp 40Cr tc bin dng
tng n 146 c
-1
( tc gia cng 4,4m/s), trng thi , gii hn bn tng 22%,
gii hn chy tng 35%, ( hnh 7.7).

226

Hnh 7.7 nh hng ca tc
gia cng (bin dng) n tnh
cht c hc ca thp cc bon

Trong thc t tnh ton nh hng tc bin dng n tr lc bin dng, c
th dng h s tc
c
, Gupkin a ra s liu sau:
Bng 7.3

Nhit bin dng
T l
&
&

2
1

tc bin dng
T/Tnc<0,3 T/Tnc=0,3~0,5 T/Tnc=0,5~0,7 T/Tnc>0,7
10 1,05~1,10 1,10~1,15 1,15~1,30 1,30~1,50
100 1,10~1,22 1,22~1,32 1,32~1,70 1,70~2,25
1000 1,16~1,34 1,34~1,52 1,52~2,20 2,20~3,40
T 1.10
-1
1/s
n tc va p
1,10~1,25 1,25~1,75 1,75~2,50 2,50~3,50
Ghi ch: T v Tnc Nhit gia cng v nhit nng chy ca vt liu tnh
bng nhit tuyt i.
nh hng ca tc bin dng n tnh do c nghin cu v ng dng
trong gia cng p lc tc cao v nghin cu ph hu ca vt liu di tc dng
xung n. Theo cc kt qu thc nghim, tc dng ca tc bin dng lm gim
tnh do ca vt liu. Mi vt liu c mt tc bin dng ti hn, i vi thp
trong khong 50~100m/s, nhm - 11 m/s.


227
nh hng tc bin dng n c trng do
Bng 7.4
c trng do % Vt liu Tc
Gia cng, m/s
tng

BD u

10
-4
58 37 73
0,1 60 46 70
10 69 59 71
200 74 63 75

Thp 1Cr18Ni9Ti
500 21 18 24
10
-4
26 16 52
0,2 27 18 57
10 31 22 60
140 21 10 69

Thp 40Cr ,
250 11 7,5 56
10
-4
19,5 9,6 64
10 21 12 64
80 23 18 64

Thp 40CrNiMoA
ho tt
250 11 7 42
10
-4
15 12 20
4 18 15 26
50 22 13 31

D16
ho gi
100 16 9 28

7.7. nh hng ca s c hc bin dng n tnh do
vt liu
nghin cu nh hng cc dng trng thi ng sut v bin dng n qu
trnh bin dng vt liu ngi ta dng s c hc.

228
Trng thi ng sut v bin dng c biu din bng s gm mt khi
hp vung vi cc vect vung gc vi 3 mt chnh ch c ng sut chnh v bin
dng chnh, c gi l s c hc. Chng l s phi hp ng sut chnh v
bin dng chnh. Theo iu kin th tch khng i, gi tr ca 1 bin dng chnh
s bng tng 2 bin dng chnh khc, vi du ngc li. Nh vy, mt trong cc
bin dng c gi tr tuyt i ln nht, lun c du ngc vi du ca cc bin
dng khc. iu kin bin dng ca bin dng do ph thuc s bin dng,
qu trnh bin dng ti bin dng v vng ngoi bin dng.
C 3 dng s c hc bin dng chnh:
DI: S bin dng tng ng s ko n, c 1 bin dng dng v
2 bin dng m;
DII: S bin dng c 1 bin dng bng 0 v 2 bin dng cng gi tr
tuyt i nhng khc du, tng ng trng thi trt ca bin dng phng.

DIII: S
bin dng c 1
bin dng nn ln
v 2 bin dng ko
c gi tr nh hn.
Tng ng bin
dng nn.

nh hng tc bin dng n c trng do ca vt liu
Bng 7.4
c trng do % Vt liu Tc
Gia cng, m/s
tng

BD u

Hnh 7.8 S c hc bin dng chnh

229
10
-4
58 37 73
0,1 60 46 70
10 69 59 71
200 74 63 75

Thp 1Cr18Ni9Ti
500 21 18 24
10
-4
26 16 52
0,2 27 18 57
10 31 22 60
140 21 10 69

Thp 40Cr ,
250 11 7,5 56
10
-4
19,5 9,6 64
10 21 12 64
80 23 18 64

Thp 40CrNiMoA
Ho tt
250 11 7 42
10
-4
15 12 20
4 18 15 26
50 22 13 31

D16
ho gi
100 16 9 28

Trong bin dng ko, cn c th phn thnh 2 trng hp con: ko n vi
2 bin dng nn bng nhau, ko khng n khi 2 bin dng nn khng bng nhau.
Trong bin dng nn cng vy, nn n khi 2 bin dng ko bng nhau, nn
khng n khi 2 bin dng ko khng bng nhau. S bin dng DI v DIII
thuc bin dng khi. S DII l s bin dng phng.
Trong tt c cc s bin dng, du khc nhau, do du bin dng khc nhau.
Nh vy, c 5 trng hp bin dng thuc 3 trng thi khc nhau.
kho st nh hng ca cc phng bin dng chnh, s dng h s bin
dng
:

230

2
2
3 1
3 1
2

= (7.24)
Theo nh lut th tch khng i:

2
= -(
1
+
3
)
vy:
3 1
3 1
3

+
= (7.25)
Trng thi bin dng phng
1
= -
3
, nn
= 0.
Khi ko n
1
> 0,
2
=
3
= -1/2
1
, nn = -1;
Khi nn n
3
< 0,
1
=
2
= -1/2
3
, nn = +1
Nh vy,
bin i t -1 n +1.

> 0 biu din trng thi c 2 chiu ko 1 chiu nn;

< 0 biu din trng thi c 2 chiu nn 1 chiu ko.

Trong gia cng p lc khi, trng thi bin dng cn ph thuc t l H/h.
Theo nh lut th tch khng i, ta c:
H.B.L = h.b.l
Ta cn dng cc h s sau:
H/h H s nn
B/b H s dn rng
L/l H s dn di.
Khi vt liu trng thi bin dng DI, bin dng c dn rng;
DII - bin dng c dn di khng c dn rng;
DIII - Bin dng thu hp 2 chiu ngang.
Ta cng c th s dng biu hnh 7.14 xt mi quan h ca cc h s
bin dng D vi cc h s bin dng theo cc phng.
Gi s H/h = const, l/L.b/B = const, xt biu quan h H/h, L/l, B/b, ta
thy:
H/h =l/L.b/B
Quan h gia cc h s c dng parabon.

231
Ti nh parabon ta c l/L = b/B.
Vy H/h = (l/L)
2
= (b/B)
2

C ngha l, ti y khi c 1 bin dng nn s c 2 bin dng ko u
nhau, trng hp chn.
= = l/L = b/B = (H/h)
1/2
;
Nu l/L = 1 v b/B =
1 ta c:
- ng vi iu kin
bin dng H/h , trng thi
bin dng DI, DII, DIII
chim ton b ng
cong n v cng;
- S c hc s
chuyn trng thi;
- DII l
im qu
chuyn t DI
sang DIII;
- Trng thi
DIII l chnh.
Ta cng c th dng s trng thi ng sut chnh:
ng sut n : ng sut ko n, ng sut nn n;
ng sut phng: ng sut 2 chiu ko, ng sut 2 chiu nn, ng
sut 1 chiu ko 1 chiu nn
ng sut khi : ng sut 3 chiu ko, ng sut 3 chiu nn, ng sut
2 chiu ko 1 chiu nn, ng sut 2 chiu nn 1 chiu ko.
S phng v khi c th cng tn v khc tn. Trong s cng tn, mi
ng sut cng du. Nn, c th c 2 dng s phng cng tn: 2 ng sut nn
hoc 2 ng sut ko, 2 dng s khi cng tn: 3 ng sut ko hoc 3 ng sut

Hnh 7.9 Quan h h s bin dng v s bin
dng D

232
nn. Lu trong bin dng do, khng c trng hp 3 ng sut ko (nn) bng
nhau, v l trng thi ng sut thu tnh, ch gy bin dng th tch.

Cc s khc tn gm: s phng 1 ko 1 nn, s khi c 2 dng: 2
ng sut dng 1 ng sut m v 2 ng sut m 1 ng sut dng. S ng sut
n c 2 dng. Nh vy, tn ti 9 dng s ng sut.

Hnh 7.10 S ng sut

233

By s ng sut chnh phng v khi c th phi hp vi 3 s bin
dng chnh, cho 21 trng hp s c hc bin dng. S n vi ng sut
chnh ko ch kt hp vi s khi bin dng chnh, gm 1 bin dng dng v
2 bin dng bng nhau cng du m (dng). S n vi ng sut chnh nn
ch kt hp vi s bin dng c 1 bin dng m v 2 bin dng bng nhau cng
du dng (m). Tng cng c 23 s c bin dng.
Mt s th d v s c hc bin dng trong mt s nguyn cng:
Chn khng ma st trn mt tip xc: ng sut 1 chiu nn 2, bin dng 1
chiu nn 2 chiu ko.
Khi chn c ma st trn mt tip xc:
ng sut 3 chiu nn: vng tm bin dng chn;
ng sut 1 nn 2 ko: vng bin,
S bin dng l 1 nn 2 ko.

Hnh 7.11 Phi hp s ng sut v s bin dng

234
Hnh 7.12 S bin dng chn

Dp th tch, ti giai on in y lng khun: S ng sut: 1 chiu
nn 2 chiu ko, s bin dng 1 nn 2 ko;
p chy, giai on in y khun: S ng sut 3 chiu nn, bin
dng 1 nn 2 ko hoc bin dng 2 nn 1 ko.
S c hc bin dng phn nh s tc dng lc v xc nh c trng
bin dng. Qu trnh bin dng c th so snh vi nhau nu cng mt s c
hc. Nh vy, mi s c hc bin dng c trng cho mt qu trnh bin dng.
Khi nghin cu cc nguyn cng cng ngh gia cng p lc, c th dng s c
hc phn bit v kho st. Trong mt nguyn cng, tu theo giai on bin
dng, s c hc thay i.
Th d, khi chn, t s ng sut n, n s bin dng 1 nn 2 ko
chuyn thnh s ng sut khi. Nhng, khi c ma st, trng thi ng sut thay
i v phn thnh 3 vng, lm s bin dng thay i.
S c hc bin dng xc nh c trng thay i tnh cht c l ho ca
vt liu khi bin dng.


235

Hnh 7.13 S ng sut v bin dng ti bin dng trong mt s nguyn
cng gia cng p lc

Khi chut c th cho s bin dng chnh vi 1 bin dng dng v 2 bin
dng m u nhau. Trng hp ny rt d to ra tectua v c ho bn cao.
Theo s bin dng chnh, khng kt hp s ng sut chnh, khng th
nh gi tr lc bin dng v tnh do ca vt liu trong qu trnh bin dng. Nh
s c 2 bin dng ko v khi s 2 bin dng nn, tnh do ca vt liu c
th nh nhau.
Nhn thy, tnh do v tr lc bin dng ph thuc s ng sut php
chnh.


236
Khi qu t s ng sut phng khc du qua ko n, sang cc s
cng du vi ng sut ko, tnh do ca vt liu b gim, trong qu trnh bin
dng. Ngc li, khi qu nn n sang s vi ng sut nn cng du, tnh
do ca vt liu tng. Nh vy, khi bin dng trong iu kin tng ng vi s
cng tn vi ng sut nn, tnh do kim loi lun ln hn khi s cng du vi
ng sut ko.
Ta bit, ten x ng sut c th phn lm 2, ten x cu v ten x lch. Khi ng
sut trung bnh bng khng, trng thi ng sut ch c ten x lch - ten x quyt
nh bin dng do. Khi t vo ten x lch mt ten x cu dng c cc ng sut
chnh thnh phn dng, ta thy, gi tr ng sut trung bnh cng tng, tnh do
vt liu cng gim. Khi t vo ten x lch mt ten x cu m, vi cc thnh phn
ca ng sut nn 3 chiu, tnh do tng khi gi tr tuyt i ca cc thnh phn
ten x cu tng. Ni cch khc, vai tr ca ng sut php cng t, vai tr ca ng
sut tip cng ln trong bin dng, vt liu bin dng do cng tt.
S ng sut chnh trong cc nguyn cng cng ngh gia cng p lc khc
nhau, tnh do ca vt liu kim loi trong cc nguyn cng cng khc nhau.
Nh vy, i vi vt liu kh bin dng, c th tm mt s bin dng cho tnh
do cao gia cng, nh dng dp khi, p chy hn l vut. Vt liu c tnh do
cng km, cn chn qu trnh bin dng vi s c hc cho kh nng bin dng
do cao nht.
Phng php d gy trng thi dn:
- rn t do trn e phng,
- chn trn din tch chn trong dp khi.
Phng php lm tng tnh do:
- rn trong khun n gin,
- dp khi trong cc lng khun h.
Phng php tng tnh do nht:
- dp trong khun h c hn ch dn ngang,
- dp trong khun kn, trn my rn ngang,
- dp trong khun kn, p chy...

237
Vt liu trong iu kin bin dng vi s ng sut php cng du c tr
lc bin dng ln. Trong iu kin bin dng vi trng thi ng sut phng hoc
khi vi ng sut khc du, tr lc bin dng gim. Do mi dng s ng sut
phng hoc khi u lin hp vi 3 s bin dng chnh, nn, nu khng xt
n s bin dng, khng th cho kt lun trng thi ng sut php chnh no
gy ra bin dng (bin dng ko, nn hay trt).
Xt tenx lch ng sut chnh. Cc thnh phn ca tenx lch ng sut chnh
c cng tnh cht vi tenx lch bin dng chnh l tng cc thnh phn bng
khng. C ngha l, gi tr tuyt i ng sut php chnh ln nht bng tng gi
tr 2 ng sut php cn li, ly du ngc. ng sut php chnh l thnh phn ca
tenx lch ng sut, ch c th to ra 3 dng s thnh phn chnh tenx lch
ng sut xc nh cc s bin dng chnh. C th dng ch s ng sut

nh gi. Khi
= 0, tng ng bin dng trt. Khi qu sang s ko,

gim v t gi tr nh nht khi
= -1, khi chuyn sang s nn
tng, t
gi tr max khi
=1.

Hnh 7.14 S
bin dng v h
s ng sut


238
ng sut trung gian cng c th dng nh gi c trng s thnh
phn chnh ca tenx lch.

TG
=

+
+
max min max min
2 2
(7.21)
Khi
= 0 , bin dng trt:

TG
=
+
max min
2

Khi
> 0, bin dng nn:

TG
>
+
max min
2

Khi
< 0, bin dng ko

TG
<
+
max min
2

cn c th nh gi cc gi tr c th ca ng sut chnh khi bin dng

do, kt hp gii
vi iu kin do v biu thc

max
+
min
+
TG
= 3
tb
:

max
min
;
;
=

+
+
=
+
+
+
=
+
+
S tb
S tb
TG S tb
3
3 3
3
3 3
3
3 3
2
2
2
(7.22)
Trong trng hp tenx lch ng sut
tb
= 0, mi gi tr
tng ng vi
cc gi tr thnh phn ca tenx lch ng sut chnh, biu din trong biu hnh
7.20.
Ta bit, s cc thnh phn ca tenx lch ng sut chnh hon ton
tng thch vi cc s bin dng chnh. Mt thnh phn ca tenx lch ng
sut ch lin kt vi 1 s bin dng. Th d, trong s ng sut c 1 ng sut
ko v 2 ng sut nn, vy, s bin dng cng ng c 1 bin dng ko v 2
bin dng nn. Ti phng c thnh phn ng sut chnh dng s xut hin bin

239
dng dng, phng c gi tr tuyt i ln nht ca thnh phn ng sut chnh
m s dn n mt bin dng m vi gi tr tuyt i ln nht.

Hnh 7.15 Biu ch Z

7.8. Trng thi siu do ca vt liu
Hin tng siu do c c trng bng s tng vt dn di khi th
nghim ko, trong khi , tr lc bin dng gim r rt so vi iu kin bin dng
thng. Khi bin dng siu do, c im bin dng ko l tng nhanh bin dng
giai on bin dng u (cha hnh thnh c tht). Hin tng siu do thng
gp cc hp kim cng tinh. Th d, hp kim 78% Zn v 22% Al. Mt s hp
kim c chuyn bin th hnh nh thp, chuyn bin Peclit thnh stenit, cng
quan st thy hin tng siu do.
Hiu ng siu do sy ra trong iu kin c nhit nht nh, ph thuc t
chc kim loi (kch thc ht tinh th), nhit v tc bin dng.


240
c hiu ng siu do, ht tinh th phi ng u, kch thc ht khong
1~2 m. Tu theo cc vt liu khc nhau, c th nhn c cc hiu ng siu do
khc nhau, bin dng di c hp kim t 1000%.
Nhiu nghin cu ch r, hiu ng siu do sy ra gn gia cc pha v phn
gii ht, bin dng do ch yu l bin dng gia cc ht tinh th v do s b ca
cc l trng v lch. i vi c ch bin dng do ca bin dng do, cn tng th
nng ca a tinh th do nng lng phn gii ht v nng lng khuyt tt
mng. Khi bin dng do ngui, c th ph v lm ht nh, khi lng bin dng
trn 50%. ng thi c bin dng phn gii ht, ht b ko di, lch mng c mt
ln ti phn gii ht, ng thi hnh thnh cc siu ht, cc bloc...Vic tng
th nng gia cc ht v gim kch thc ht vi vic tng kh nng chuyn ng
nhit ca cc nguyn t, lm cho bin dng phn gii ht d dng. Mt khc, do
bin dng do ngui, lm tng hot tnh ca ht, nn cng lm tng qu trnh
khuych tn. i vi vt liu gm nhiu pha, tng tnh linh hot ca phn gii
ht, lm gim nh qu trnh bin dng do phn gii ht, khi tng nhit .
Yu t nhit cng l yu t quan trng gy hiu ng siu do, khi nhit
gn nhit chuyn bin pha. bo m gi c kch thc ht nh, khi nung
vt liu n nhit siu do, cn phi nung nhanh, thng tc trn
200~300
0
C/s. Khi , kt tinh li cha kp sy ra, kch thc ht c th vn gia
nguyn nh trc khi nung.
Tc bin dng cng l yu t gy hiu ng siu do. Tc bin dng
ti u to siu do l ti im tc qu trnh bin cng bng tc kh bin
cng. Khi tc bin dng ln, bin dng gii hn gim do qu trnh ho bn
vt liu.
Khi tc bin dng nh, lm s tng th nng ca cu trc kim loi t, c
th lc qu trnh kt tinh li tng, v v vy bin dng gii hn gim.
Ta c th xc nh bin dng di u
Akp
quan h vi h s bin dng
khng u v t s m:

241

A
m
kp
m = == = ln( ) 1
1
(7.23)
m = dln/dln &
Hiu ng siu do ca mt s hp kim Bng 7.5
Hp kim
max
%
T, K
d, m
Ch s m
Al + 33% Cu 1000 680~800 1-7 0,5~0,8
Al+12%Si 117 800 - 0,5
Al+12%Si+4%Cu 100 770 - 0,4
Cu+10%Mg 262 950 -
Cu+10%Al+4%Fe 720 1070 10 0,6
Cu+38~50%Zn 300 720~1260 - 0,5
Thp Cacbon 350 970 2 0,6
Thp hp kim thp 400 1070~
1170
2 0,65
Thp khng g 26-6 1096~
1200
4~5 0,5

Mg+6%Zn+0,6%Zr 1000 540~580 0,5 0,6
Mg+33%Al 2100 670~720 0,5 0,8
Zn+22%Al 1500 470~570 0,8~4 0,5~0,7

Trng thi siu do to ra tch t pht trin bin dng vng hnh thnh c tht,
t lm tng nhanh tr lc bin dng khi tng tc bin dng. Bit rng cng
ho bn gim khi tng bin dng, nn gy ra hn ch gi tr bin dng u
trong iu kin th nghim ko thng thng. Trong iu kin siu do, quan h
ng sut chy vi tc bin dng hu nh khng ph thuc vo gi tr bin
dng, nn bin dng u tng nhanh. Ta cng thy, khi bin dng siu do, tr
lc bin dng nh hn 2~3 ln so vi iu kin bin dng bnh thng.
Vy ta c th to ra hiu ng siu do gia cng cc vt liu thnh
mng, ng, vt liu kh bin dng vi trng thi ng sut thu tnh.

242
Cu hi n tp
Phn I n tp v ton- C hc mi trng lin tc- L
thuyt n hi:
a. Ton vc t : Khng gian vc t. C s trc chun, chiu vc t?
Cc php ton vec t. Vc t n v; nguyn l tng; Trng v hng v
trng vc t?
To : Php chuyn i to ; to cong?
Cc ton t thng dng tnh vc t: o hm, ive, Rta. Cng thc
Gaus-strogratski?
b. Ma trn : nh ngha; cc php ton ; nh thc v cch tnh ?
Ma trn i xng; Ma trn nghch o.Phng php Gaus?
c. Tenx : nh ngha; To v bin i;
Cc php ton i s tenx; Du hiu tenx; o hm tenx?
Tenx i xng v tenx nghch o; tenx cu-tenx lch;
Gi tr chnh v hng chnh ca tenx hng 2 i xng?
Bt bin ten x; bt bin tenx lch?
nh l Haminhton-Kely; Cng thc Stc v Gaox-strogatski
Vi phn vc t theo vct; Trng tenx; Dng hm quan h gia 2 tenx i
xng hng hai, cc dng ph thuc?
Tenx vec t;
Phn th II : L thuyt bin dng do vt l
I. Qu trnh vt l- vt l ho hc sy ra khi bin dng do
1. C ch bin dng do n tinh th? Cc yu t nh hng n gi tr ca
ng sut tip ti hn? Mi lin h gia ng sut ti hn vi iu kin do Tresca?
ngha ca h s Shmid?
So snh tnh do v tr lc bin dng ca 2 mng lp phng din tm v lp
phng th tm? Gi th lc tc dng song song vi mt cnh ca mng, tm mt
trt v phng trt ca 2 mng ?

243
2. Bin cng. Hin tng bin cng v ho bn; cc yu t nh hng n
bin cng ngui ca kim loi; ngha thc tin v cc ng dng trong thc tin
gia cng p lc?
Bin dng nng c bin cng khng? Dng khi nim bin cng phn tch
hin tng ho bn bin dng khi dp to gn mui t? C th dng bin cng
ngui lm tng cng b mt, tng chng mi mn v tng tui th cho
tit my khng ? ti sao?
3.Hi phc-kt tinh li. Khi nim, s thay i t chc v tnh nng ca vt
liu sau bin cng ngui di tc dng ca nhit ; T chc vt liu sau gia cng
ngui v kt tinh li , nh hng ca nhit v thi gian n ht, ngha
thc tin trong cng ngh rn v dp kim loi? T chc ca vt liu kim loi sau
khi gia cng p lc nng: cho mt phi di, cn bin dng to hnh thnh trc
bc, khi gia cng phi tin hnh vut, nhit vut v thi im vut ca 2 u
phi khc nhau, lm th no gim ti a s sai lch v t chc ca vt liu 2
phn ca trc?
4. Chuyn bin pha khi gia cng p lc. Hin tng chuyn bin pha khi
gia cng p lc ; cc yu t nh hng n qu trnh chuyn bin pha; cch x l
khi vt liu c chuyn bin pha khi GCAL?
5. Bin dng do khi c pha lng. Hin tng xut hin pha lng trong
GCAL, cc yu t nh hng; khi nim p bn lng, ng dng?
6. Hiu ng nhit. Khi nim hiu sut sinh nhit v hiu ng nhit ; Cc
yu t nh hng n hiu ng nhit; ng dng ca hiu ng nhit?
7. nh hng ca s c hc. S c hc ng sut v s c hc bin
dng, cch biu din; v cc s c hc trong bin dng khi chn - vut v
p chy? nh hng ca bin dng trung gian; ngha ca ch s bin dng
;
nh hng ca ng sut trung gian?, ngha ca ch s ng sut
; quan h ca
2 ch s ni trn trong phn tch s c hc bin dng v ng sut; ngha ca
s c hc trong chn cng ngh bin dng? S ch Z , ngha ca s
trong bi ton bin dng do?

244
Phn tch s c hc bin dng v s c hc ng sut, mi quan h
gia chng theo bng ( pht cho HV); chng minh hin tng thay i s
c hc bin dng v ng sut trong qu trnh gia cng bin dng to hnh GCAL,
th d?
8. Bin dng khng u. Cc yu t nh hng n bin dng khng u
ca kim loi khi BDD,hu qu i vi t chc v tnh cht ca vt liu sau BDD,
bin php gim khng u ca bin dng;
9. Hin tng t bin. Gii thch cc hin tng n hi sau tc dng, hiu
ng Baoshinger, b do, ni ma st theo quan im bin dng do kim loi?
II. Ma st. 1. Khi nim ma st trong GCAL, s ging nhau v khc nhau
ca ma st trong c hc v trong BDD?
2. nh hng ca ma st trong bin dng do kim loi? Cc yu t nh
hng n ma st trong BDD, cc xc nh lc ma st trong BDD?
3. nh lut tr lc nh nht, ngha thc tin?
III. Tnh do v tr lc bin dng
1. Khi nim tnh do. Phn bit tnh do, do, bin dng do; khi nim
v tr lc bin dng, phn bit vi bn v gii hn bn, gii hn chy?
2. Cc yu t nh hng n tnh do ca vt liu;
nh hng ca thnh phn ho hc v t chc vt liu, tc dng ca cc
nguyn t hp kim i vi tnh do, cc tp cht v cc pha phn tn nh mn
nm trong t chc dung dch rn nh hng tt hay xu n tnh do ca vt liu?
nh hng ca nhit v tc bin dng n tnh do ca vt liu?
nh hng ca s bin dng n tnh do, ti sao di tc dng ca p
lc thu tnh vt liu c tnh do cao?
Bin dng khng u, nguyn nhn, hu qu , bin php khc phc tng
tnh do vt liu?
3. Cc yu t nh hng n tr lc bin dng ca vt liu? Ti sao ni tr lc
bin dng l tham s thuc tnh v tham s trng thi?

245
4. Gii thch quan h gia tnh do v tr lc bin dng? Ti sao 2 thuc
tnh khng ng nht nhau hoc bin i tuyn tnh vi nhau, trong khi
tnh ton l thuyt cho ng sut t l vi bin dng?
Phn th III L thuyt bin dng do ton hc
I. Trng thi ng sut:
Ni lc; ngoi lc?
ng sut, ng sut trn mt nghing v cc thnh phn;
Tenx ng sut; Tnh i xng v ngha c hc ca cc thnh phn tenx
ng sut? Ten x cu v ten x lch; ngha tc dng i vi bin dng do?
Mt cong ng sut Csi, Phng trnh mt cong v lp cu ng sut, ngha
hnh hc;
Hng chnh v ng sut php chnh; cch xc nh;
ng sut tip ln nht-cch xc nh; ng sut 8 mt v cch xc nh?
Cng ng sut? ng sut tng ng, ngha ca chng?
So snh cc c tr cc ng sut? ng sut trung bnh, ngha?
Vng trn Mo ng sut?
Trng thi ng sut phng?
Trng thi ng sut trong cc h to ?
Bi tp v Trng thi ng sut
1. Cho trng thi ng sut vit di dng tenx sau:
ij
=
1
2
3
0 0
0 0
0 0

a. Xc nh ng sut php tc dng ln mt c cosin ch phng
1
3
,
1
3
,
1
3
so vi trc to . So snh cc gi tr vi bt bin tuyn
tnh?
b. Xc nh ng sut tip trn mt ni trn v so vi bnh phng bt bin
ca ten x lch bin dng?

246
c. Tm cosin ch phng ca ng sut tip chung?
2. Trng thi ng sut ca nm trong to cc vit di dng ten x nh
sau:
ij
=
10 5 0
5 20 0
0 0 30

Cc gi tr c th nguyn N/mm
2
; Tm gi tr ng sut chnh?
Tnh cc bt bin ; Xc nh s trng thi ng sut?
3. Ten x ng sut c dng (N/mm
2
) :
ij
=
30 10 0
10 20 0
0 0 25

Tm 3 ng sut php chnh? Tm gi tr gn ng ca ng sut tip?
4. Ten x ng sut (N/mm
2
) c dng:

ij
=
5 5 15
5 10 10
15 10 15

a. Tnh vect ng sut; ng sut php, ng sut tip trn mt c cosin ch
phng :
1
6
1
3
1
2
; ; .
b. Tnh ng sut trung bnh;
c. Tnh ng sut chnh;
d. Tnh ng sut ln nht v ng sut nh nht?
e. Tnh ng sut trn khi 8 mt;
f. Tnh cng ng sut php v cng ng sut tip;
g. Tnh nng lng bin dng;
h. Tnh gi tr cc bt bin;
i. Tnh ten x cu ; ten x lch ng sut;
j. Biu din trng thi ng sut trn bng vng trn Mo;
k. Chuyn i trng thi ng sut trn sang h to tr v h to cu?

247
5. * Xy dng chng trnh-thut ton bng ngn ng PASCAL:
-Xc nh trng thi ng sut ca mt im, v elipxit biu din trng thi
ng sut, xoay hnh cu v tm cc gi tr ng sut tng ng vi cc phng v
khc nhau? Biu din bng hnh hc trng thi ng sut cu v tr?
- Tnh ton, v biu din :
+ phn t c ng sut tip ln nht, v cc vc t ng sut;
+ phn t c ng sut 8 mt, cc vc t ng sut?
+ Vng trn Mo ng sut v vng trn Mo bin dng?
6. Chng minh v Vit phng trnh vi phn cn bng theo cc dng khc
nhau :
+ Phng trnh dng vi phn ;
+ Dng ma trn; dng ch s?
+ Vit trong to tr, to cu, bi ton phng, i xng trc,?..
ngha ca phng trnh?
ngha v tc dng ca phng trnh vi phn cn bng?
II. Trng thi bin dng
Trng thi bin dng ca mt im; tenx bin dng; tenxcu-tenx lch
bin dng; Phng c trng; cc bt bin?
Cng bin dng; Tenx ch phng bin dng; Tenx tc bin
dng; Cng tc bin dng?
nh lut Hook tng qut; Cc h s n hi, h s cng?
Th nng bin dng?
Cc phng php gii bi ton n hi, cc bc gii theo chuyn v, theo
ng sut? nh l duy nht nghim?
Phng php gii bi ton phng, trong h to cc?
Phng php gii bi ton i xng trc, h to cc?

Bi tp v Trng thi bin dng
1. Tenx bin dng khng ln c dng:

248
e
ij
=
0 001 0 00075 0
0 00075 0 002 0
0 0 0 003
, ,
, ,
,

Tnh gi tr v phng ca bin dng n hi chnh?
Vit tenx ch phng bin dng?
2. Trng thi bin dng n hi ca mt im c biu din bng tenx
bin dng nh nh sau:
e
e
e
e
ij
=
1
2
3
0 0
0 0
0 0

Tnh bin dng theo phng php tuyn v tip tuyn trn mt phng vung
gc vi mt lm vi trc chnh cc gc bng nhau?
3. Mt tm di 1200mm, rng 360mm dy 5mm, chu lc ko u dc trc
n di 1440mm, khng thay i chiu rng. Tm:
ng sut chnh cui cng;
Kch thc cui cng ca tm;
Cng bin dng trung bnh?
4. Chng minh phng chnh ca tenx ng sut v phng chnh ca tenx
lch bin dng trng nhau?
5. Chng minh : t quan h D
= D
c th rt kt lun D
, D
l ging
nhau v cng c chung mt phng chnh. l mt s v hng?
6. Chng minh khi chuyn t to vung gc x,y,z sang ,, ng sut
trung bnh v bt bin ca cng ng sut :
x
+
y
+
z
=

(
x
-
y
)
2
+...6(
2
xy
+...)=(
)
2
+ ...6(
2
+...).
7. Mt chuyn v theo hng knh , trong iu kin vt liu khng nn
c, bin dng nh i xng trc ; Tnh bin dng?
Cng nh trn, nu chuyn v theo hng trc u
z
=0, nhng nu u
z
l hng s,
th kt qu nh th no?

249
8. Tng kt vit cc phng trnh c bn ca l thuyt n do bng 3 hnh
thc khc nhau?
9. Vit ma trn n hi [D] ( =D) trong cc trng hp : to cc,
to tr , to cu; trong cc bi ton phng, bi ton i xng trc?
10. Cc gi thuyt v nguyn l c bn ca l thuyt n hi - l thuyt do
v l thuyt bin dng do?
11. So snh bin dng t i v bin dng log , phm vi ng dng?
12. ng cong bin cng, ngha? ng cong bin dng thc, cch xy
dng?
13. Chng minh v vit phng trnh chuyn v v bin dng theo cc dng
khc nhau ( dng thng v dng ma trn)? Chng minh v vit cc phng trnh
tng thch v phng trnh lin tc?
14. nh lut Hc cho bi ton n hi ?
Vit cc biu thc biu din nh lut Hc trong cc iu kin khc nhau?
15. ngha ca ten x cu ( ng sut v bin dng) v ten x lch (ng
sut v bin dng) vi qu trnh bin dng do?
III. iu kin do
1. Cc thuc tnh vt liu v nh hng ca chng n phng php gii cc
bi ton do?
2. iu kin do Tresca-St.Venant: Pht biu, gii thch, phm vi ng dng?
3. iu kin do von Misses: Pht biu, gii thch, phm vi ng dng? Cc
iu kin do tng t? Chng minh cng thc iu kin do hng s nng
lng?
4. Ti sao khi xc nh iu kin do (trng thi phng hoc 3 chiu), c th
s dng gi tr gii hn chy thu c nh ko n (1 chiu)?
5. ngha hnh hc ca cc iu kin do, v biu din mt do,
cc im c trng, ch r s c hc cho cc im c trng?
6. Vit iu kin do cho cc trng hp : ng sut trong to cu, to
tr, ng sut phng, i xng trc?

250
7 Chng minh nh hng ca ng sut trung gian n gi tr ca iu kin
do Tresca v iu kin Misses? Quan h cc ng sut chnh vi ng sut ln nht
, nh nht?
8. Quan h gia ng sut v bin dng, iu kin gia ti gin n, nh lut
Hc cho bi ton do, iu kin ng dng?
9. ng cong ng sut v bin dng thc, cc loi ng cong ng sut-bin
dng, ngha v cch s dng, phn bit ng sut chy vi gii hn chy ca vt
liu?
6. Quan h gia ng sut v bin dng khi bin dng do?
IV. Phng php gii bi ton do
1. Tng kt cc phng trnh v cc biu thc dng gii bi ton do?
2. Phng php gii cc bi ton n-Do trong h to cc, h to
cc, h to tr;
3. Phn bit v ng dng cch gii bi ton n-do bin dng phng v
ng sut phng trong 3 h to ? Phm vi ng dng?
4. Tm biu thc biu din quan h gia ng sut
Y
vi to trong bi
ton chn e phng mt vt di, chiu rng b, chiu cao h, gi th nh hng ca
ma st theo quy lut tuyn tnh theo trc tm,
max
=
K
.

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Hc vin k thut Qun s

c gi l tenx lch ng sut.

- ng sut hng knh;

lun l ng sut chnh,

= ; cc bin dng ny do ng sut php gy nn.

= = = & & & (5.75)

& & &

= 0, = 1,155; tng ng trng hp ct thun tu.

bin thin t -1 n 1 v xc nh quan h gia cc ng sut

khng ph thuc tenx cu.

bng hnh 6.4.

xc nh quan h gia cc ng sut php chnh, c trng cho

- h s xt nh hng ca trng thi ng sut, h s ny nh

> 0 biu din trng thi c 2 chiu ko 1 chiu nn;

< 0 biu din trng thi c 2 chiu nn 1 chiu ko.

= 0, tng ng bin dng trt. Khi qu sang s ko,

= -1, khi chuyn sang s nn

= 0 , bin dng trt:

> 0, bin dng nn:

< 0, bin dng ko

cn c th nh gi cc gi tr c th ca ng sut chnh khi bin dng

vi iu kin do v biu thc

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