Sng a chn C hai loi c bn: sng khi t chn tm lan truyn trong lng t, v sng mt lan truyn

n trn mt t t chn tm ngoi. C hai loi cn c chia thnh sng s cp P v th cp S. Sng P cn gi l sng nn v chng lan truyn qua nh s nn v gin ca vt liu. Cc ht ring l chuyn dch tin ri lui theo hng truyn sng. Sng P l sng a chn chuyn ng nhanh nht.

 Sng S cn gi l sng ct v kiu truyn sng ca n. Bin dng ct ngang hng truyn sng gii thch ti sao gii thch to sao sng S khng th truyn qua cht lng: v cht lng khng c sc khng i vi cc ng xut ct.

 Sng mt n trm a chn sau c sng P v S, n gm sng Love v sng Rayleigh. Sng mt c c trng l chu k di (10 n 20s) v bc sng di, t 20 n 80 km. Sng Love bt ngun t sng S ti mt t chn tm ngoi. V n chuyn ng dc theo mt t, nn ch gy nn chuyn ng t theo phng ngang. Sng Rayleigh ging sng bin, c thnh phn ch yu l chuyn ng ng.

 mnh v cng Sc mnh v nh hng ca ng t c xc nh bng hai cch: mnh l s nng lng gii phng do ng t m a chn k cho bit. Phng php xc nh mnh ca nh a chn Charles F. Richter nh ngha: mnh l logarit ca bin sng a chn cc i trn bng ghi ca a chn k tiu chun t cch chn tm ngoi 100 km.

 mnh c o theo phng php ny c gi l mnh theo thang Richter. Cc tr s mnh cc i o c xp x 8,9. Tr logarit ca mnh ni ln rng mt trn ng t cp 7 th c bin sng ln gp 10 ln mt trn ng t cp 6. Nhng trn ng t ln l nhng trn c mnh t cp 8 tr ln.

 Khc vi mnh, cng l mt s o ch quan da vo s quan st nh hng ca ng t n cc cng trnh v qua phng vn nhng ngi tri nghim. Ph bin nht c dng l thang cng Mercalli ci tin c 12 cp. Mi cp m t mt mc c th theo cm gic ca con ngi v phn ng ca cng trnh nh ca. Cng gim theo khong cch n chn tm ngoi; tuy nhin cc iu kin a cht cng nh hng n tn s v cng chn ng.

Repitition: S lp li Omission: Hin tng gin on Compression fault: t gy nn p Extention fault: t gy cng gin (m rng Hangingwall: Cnh treo Footwall Dip-Slip Fault: t gy trt theo gc cm Strike: ng phng; strike fault: t gy theo phng gc. Dip: Gc dc, gc cm, hng cm, nghing. Deformed rock layer: Lp b bin dng Jointing; cracking: khe nt Gold-bearing rock: cha vng Magnitude: Chn cp, earthquake m. : ln ng t Pinch out: S vt mng, u tht li (ca trm tch) Sequence (a tng) of sedimentary rock: Trnh t trm tch Law of original continuity: Lut v tnh lin tc nguyn thy Law of superposition: Lut xp lp tun t Surface expression of fauls: Biu hin trn mt ca cc t gy Fault; t gy Offset ridge: Sng ni b x dch do t gy

Strike slip: s trt bng, s dch chuyn ngang Dip slip fault: t gy trt theo gc cm Hypocenter: Chn tm, tm ng t Epicenter: Chn tm ngoi (im chiu ca chn tm ln mt t) Foreshock: Sc bo hiu (ng t) Aftershock: d chn Right-lateral fault: t gy ngang phi Right-lateral separation: s chuyn dch ngang phi Right-slip fault: t gy trt ngang phi Offset: s phn nhnh ngang (ca t gy) Body wave: Sng khi Primary wave: Sng ban u (sng P) Secondry wave: Sng th sinh (sng S) Shear strength: Sc trt ct Seismograph: My ghi a chn Magnitude: mnh Intensity: Cng Superposition: s xp chng Compass bearing: Gc phng v a bn

Mt s khi nim
- B mt Tri t nng ln v h xung trong qu trnh chuyn i tinh t ca s cn bng thng ng c bit l ng tnh. - B mt Tri t cn c s di chuyn ngang m xut hin nh mt phn ca chu k kin to, di chuyn thch quyn gin trn nh quyn mm

- Chu k kin to c th c n gin ha nh sau:

1) Quyn mm b chy ra magma ni ln trn v ngui i to nn i dng mi/thch quyn 2) thch quyn mi di chuyn chm chp v mt pha cch xa dn cc i to v i dng trn nh ca quyn mn nm di (seafloor spreading).

3) Khi ra ch o mng di ng ca thch quyn i dng va chm vi mt mng khc, mng nng hn, lnh hn, c hn chc xung di v b ht bi trng lc tr li quyn mm (subduction), trong khi mng ni trn, nh hn lt trn n 4) Mng b ko vo quyn mm bt u qu trnh nng chy v ht vo mantle, ch i hnh trnh khc ln b mt (Hnh 2.1). Thi gian cn hon thnh chu k ny rt di, thng trn 250 triu nm. Thi gian cn hon thnh chu k ny rt di, thng trn 250 triu nm.

Hnh 2.1 Magma t quyn mn dng ln b mt ti cc sng ni la i dng. Magma y cc mng tch ra, trng lc ko cc mng ny t ch a hnh cao. Cc mng ngui i, tng b dy chn , t trng ln hn, va chm vi mng t trng nh hn, chi xung mantle, ti y cui cng

Oceanic-continental convergence

Oceanic-oceanic convergence

Continental-continental convergence

S ti sinh v i ca vi trm km pha trn ca tri t c gi l chu k kin to. Ch Hy lp l tekton t ch kin trc v ngha l xy dng; n c cc nh a cht sa li l thut ng tectonics m t xy dng a hnh v s bin dng v vn ng trong lp ngoi ca Tri t. Trong khng gian v nhn xung v da vo chu k kin to, chng ta thy rng thch quyn ca Tri t b v thnh cc ming gi l cc mng plates. Nghin cu nhng vn ng v s tng tc ca cc mng c bit nh l kin to mng. Cc mng thch quyn ln (plates) c th ko tch ri nhau (diverge), trt qua (shear) v va chm (converge) vi nhau v l nguyn nhn trc tip ca ng t, ni la, phn xut v to ni trn Tri t.

Bn khi qut ha cc mng c bn

2.1 S pht trin ca khi nim kin to mng

Nm 1620, Francis Bacon ca Anh ch thch s tng ng ca cc ng b i ty dng Nam M v Chu Phi v gi thit rng cc lc a ny tng ni lin. Cui nhng nm 1800, nh a cht o Eduard Suess trnh by cc bng chng phong ph v lc a Gondwana, mt siu lc a c pha nam gm Nam m, Chu Phi, Nam cc, c, n v New Zealand m sau b tch ri nhau. Ngi xng thuyt tri dt lc a l nh kh tng c Alfred Wegener. Trong cun sch nm 1915, The Origin of Continenta and Oceans. Wegener gi thit rng tt c cc lc a tng kt hp trong mt siu lc a gi l Pangaea

2.2 Bng chng ban u v kin to mng

Cc nh khoa hc Tri t trong 6 thp k ca th k 20 phi i mt vi cc vn cha c gii quyt: 1) Cc nh ni la hc xc nh ng ni la bao quanh Thi Bnh dng Ring of Fire. H phn loi ni la th gii da vo hnh dng ca chng, cc kiu magma khc nhau, v cc kiu phn xut khc nhau. Nhng h khng bit v sao c s khc nhau ny, v h khng c cc gi thuyt tin cy .

2) Cc nh hi dng hc tha nhn rng cc dy

ni trn Tri t nm cc y i dng v ko di trn 65,000 km. H bit rng mc du y i dng c su trung bnh 3.7 km, nhng su ln hn 11 km tn ti trong cc rnh hp, ko di. Nhng h khng bit v sao cc yu t ny tn ti v khng c nhng gi thuyt tin cy. 3) Cc nh a cht nghin cu cc lc a v phn loi cc dy ni trn Tri t. H pht trin cc s chi tit vi bit ng khoa hc c bit m t chng. Nhng h khng bit v sao s khc nhau ny tn ti, v h khng c cc gi thuyt tin cy.

4) Cc nh a chn tha nhn rng ng t khng phn b u trn mt Tri t m ch xut hin trong cc i hp. H bit rng ng t cc su thng thng xut hin dc theo cc mt phng nghing. Nhng h khng bit v sao cc i ny tn ti, v h khng c cc gi thuyt tin cy. Mi quan st ca cc nhm khc nhau ny bt u cng xy ra vo nm 1960, khi nh a cht M Harry Hess gi thuyt rng cc y i dng tch ri ti cc dy ni la gia i dng (ridges), rng magma lp y rnh ti ch tch v hnh thnh y bin mi, v rng s tch gin v mt bn xut hin

Hnh 2.7 Bn cc tm ng t. Cc tm ny tp trung theo cc ai ko di, hp

2.3 S t ha cc ni la
Dung nham phun ln, chy ra ngoi thnh nhng khi ko di, chm dn v dng li. khi dung nham ngui cc khong vt pht trin thnh cc tinh th. Mt s tinh th to sm nht kt hp vi st vo trong cu trc nguyn t ca n. Sau khi dung nham ngui di im curie, khong 450oC, cc nguyn t trong khong vt cha st tr nn b t ha theo hng trng t tri t ti thi gian v v tr . Cc nguyn t c xp xp trong cc tinh th giu st chy nh cc kim a bn ch v cc nam chm vo thi im ca n; chng cng b nghing ti cng mt gc nh cc ng sc ca trng t. Cc trng t c o c trong cc l 3.5 t nm.

 iu th v l ch theo thi gian s o cc t xut hin ngu nhin. Cc qu trnh o tnh phn cc ca trng t chc chn lin quan vi nhng thay i trong dng cht lng giu st nhn ngoi. C ch gy o t khng xut hin bt k ti khong thi gian c th nh ngha v mt ton hc.

Hnh 2.10. Chng phn tng ca cc dng dung nham c ca basalt Colombia River l vch pha ng Grand Coulee, Washinton. Dng c nht y, v ph ln trn l cc dng tr dn.

Hnh 2.11 Mt phn thang thi cc t. Cc s o cc t trong ni la kt hp vi tui phng x xc nh t mt loi cho php thit lp thang thi gian da vo nhng o cc t.

2.4 Cc kiu t ha trn cc y bin

y ca i Ty Dng c phn thnh cc di b t ha song song th hin chiu phn cc xen k nhau. Cc di ny i xng nhau v song song vi sng ni la gia i dng. S hnh thnh cc di b t ha c gii thch: magma tim vo cc sng i dng ni m n c in du bi trng t Tri t khi n ngui li hnh thnh mi. Khi y bin/v i dng/thch quyn b y ra khi cc sng ni i dng y nh chng l nhng b phn ca hai bng ti ln chy theo cc hng ngc nhau (Hnh 2.13).

Hnh 2.12 Bn y i Ty Dng phn di t ty nam Iceland. Din tch my en b t ha ch v cc bc, mu tr8ng ch v cc nam.

Hnh 2.13 Mt ct ngang y bin phn di t

2.5 Bng chng ca kin to mng, cc y bin phn di t

Chng ta thy rng cc ca y i dng c ghi du n t tnh v chng biu l ra cc bng phn cc nh hng v cc t bc hoc nam (Hnh 2.12). Kiu t ha ny gn nh cc bng hnh phn chiu y bin gn nh song song vi cc sng ni i dng. Cc chiu rng ca y bin b t ha t l vi thi gian cho thy rng cc y bin tch gin.

ng ngon ngoo biu kin ca cc cc t

Khi cc cc t c o trong cc tui khc nhau t cc lc a khc nhau, chng ch v cc v tr cc t ton b trn mt Tri t. V sao chng khng ch v cc t bc hoc cc t nam? C hai cu tr li c th: 1) Cc cc t di chuyn quanh Tri t theo thi gian hoc 2) Cc lc a di chuyn v cc ca n mang theo cc d liu cc t c ca chng.

Vn ny c gii quyt khi cc v tr ca cc cc t b nht trong cc lc a c biu din bng th theo thi gian. Cc c tui ging nhau ch v pha cc t ging nhau. Xy dng biu cc t ny theo thi gian cung cp nhng ng ngon ngoo cc t biu kin. V d, khi cc cc t c Bc M v Chu u c v trn bn , s song song ni bt xut hin (Hnh 2.14).

Tui ca cc bn i dng
Mt trong nhng s kin gy n tng nht trong khm ph i dng mi y l tnh cht tr tui ca cc bn i dng. Cc c nht y i dng l khong 200 triu nm tui, t hn 5% tui ca Tri t bi v cc bn i dng l cc yu t tr c to ra v b ph hy lin tc Dc theo cc sng i dng, ni la ang hot ng, v y bin mi/v i dng ang hnh thnh (Hnh 2.13). Di chuyn cch xa sng ni, cc ni la y bin v cc o c hn tng dn. Cc y bin c nht c tm thy ra cc bn i dng.

Hot spot v ng i ca n. (a) Bn th hin cc o Hawaiian. Chui Emperor Seamoun ca hot spot- nui dng cc ni la. Kiu bn tui ni la kim chng s di chuyn ca mng Thi Bnh Dng. (b) Mt ct ngang biu din hot spot ti su magma dng ln qua quyn mm, thch quyn nh th magma tri cung cp cho ni la. Do mng thch quyn di chuyn nn ni la mi hnh thnh

 mt s v tr, cc hot-spot sinh magma dng ln do t trng nh hn ca n; cc plume magma ni ny i ln trn qua quyn gia, quyn mm nm trn v thch quyn. Cc hot spot c ni la hot ng b mt Tri t pha trn chng. Cc ni la ngng hot ng trn cc mng di chuyn c mang khi ngun hot spot ca chng. Qu trnh ny to nn cc ng ni la tt trn y i dng t tr nht n c nht cho thy hng di chuyn ca mng (Hnh 2.15). Ni cch khc tui ca cc ni la c tng ln theo khong cch t hot spot.

Lp ph trm tch trn y bin t rt mng n khng tn ti cc sng ni la v dy ln v pha ra i dng. y bin cng c cng c nhiu thi gian n tch t lp ph dy ca ct, bt, st v ha thch.

Hnh 2.16 Mt ct ngang thch quyn vung gc vi sng ni la. Di chuyn khi sng ni: 1) tui phng xc ca thch quyn i dng tng ln, 2) dy trm tch tch t tng ln v 3) tui ha thch trong trm tch tng ln.

Cc tm ng t phc tho cc mng

Bn cc tm ng t (Hnh 2.7) c thy nh l s lin kt cc chm phc tp. Mi tm th hin mt v tr ni m mt b phn ln ca trt qua mt b phn khc. Ly bt ni cc chm (tm) ny li, chng ta s phc tho v nh r cc mng kin to, cc mng thch quyn di ng tch bit.

Mt nhit t bn trong Tri t

Dng nhit qua cc y i dng ln nht ti cc sng ni la i dng. C s gim dn dng nhit v pha cc ra i dng ni m v i dng c hn v dy hn. Ti cc ra dng nhit gim xung khong 1/3 dng nhit cc sng ni. y l m hnh thch hp vi magma tro nn to y bin ti cc sng ni v s ngui dn ca cc y bin khi chng di chuyn khi cc tm tch gin.

S tng ln c h thng su y bin

Trn cc sng ni i dng, cc su nc i dng l tng i nng. Tuy nhin, di chuyn xa dn khi cc sng ni ny, su nc i dng tng ln c h thng vi tui y bin (Hnh 2.17). iu ny l do: 1) S ngui ca v i dng vi s gia tng t trng 2) S on xung ng tnh do trng lng ca trm tch tch t trn y bin v 3) S b sung ca cc khong vt t trng cao hn vo chn ca mng thch quyn. H su dn ca y bin vi s gia tng tui cng chng t s tn ti ca nn i dng tch gin.

S ph hp ca cc lc a
Khi cc lc a c khi phc vo cc v tr ca chng 220 triu nm (Hnh 2.19). Nhiu c im quan tm c th gii thch c. Hnh 2.18 S ph hp ca cc lc a ti ng contour su 1800 m nc, sau khi ng bn i Ty Dng

Hnh 2.19 Siu lc a Pangea cch nay 220 triu nm v siu i dng (Panthalassa)

Cc ha thch
B st lc a trng lng ln (Lystrosaurus) v ng vt bi nc ngt nh (Mesosaurus) thy c Nam M, Chu Phi v Nam cc. Chng khng c th bi c gia cc lc a, bi vy cc lc a ny chc chn c lin kt vi nhau vo thi cc loi ny sinh sng. C nhiu v d v ha thch thc vt v ng vt c tm thy trong cc ca cc lc a pha nam. Nhiu nh a cht cc nc Nam Bn cu tin chc v tri dt lc a nhiu thp k trc cc nh a cht Bc Bn cu.

Bng h lc a
Cc mng bng dy n 1-3 km v chn vi cc lc a (Hnh 2.20). Khi bng bin dng ni ti v chy, cc ng vn ng ca n c ghi nhn bi cc rnh mn. Cc rnh mn li trn cc (Hnh 2.21). Cc rnh mn ny (cc ng k sc) ch r hng di chuyn bng. Cc lc a phi gn vi nhau tuyt v bng tch t v xy dng cc khi bng h, chn vi lc a khng l

Cc m tiu san h
Cc san h hnh thnh m tiu ngy nay ch phong ph ni nhit nc duy tr khong 21oC. Nh vy, san h c gii hn cho cc khu vc khong v 30o v 30o nam. Nhng mt s cc san h ha thch hin tm thy trong vng Cc Bc. Nh vy lc a tri dt t cc v xch o ni m san h sng ti cc v cc ni m ha thch ca chng c tm thy ngy nay

Cc ch s c kh hu
V d, cc ho thch sinh vt kh hu m, nh c su v cy c, c tm thy cc v cao, v cc ha thch thc vt v ng vt kh hu lnh c nh v cc v thp. Mt ln na, cc ho thch cho thy cc lc a di chuyn.

Cc ai ni
Vic rp li cc lc a c th khi phc mt s ai ni b tch ri ra. Ngy nay, c nhng dy ni dng t ngt ti cc ra lc a; mt s c th c khi phc vo phng hng chung di hn trc y ca chng bng cch t cc lc a li gn nhau. Phn tch tng t i snh cc kim cng pht hin trong cc trm tch sng c Venezuela v Guyana Nam M vi cc ngun ni la m chng b xi mn Liberia, B bin Ng, v Ghana chu Phi

2.6 Cc lc a mi y u?

Hnh 2.19 Siu lc a Pangea cch nay 220 triu nm v siu i dng (Panthalassa)

Cc khi lc a cch nay 180 triu nm. S tch gin tch siu lc a bc (Laurasia) khi siu lc a nam (Gondwanaland). Gondwanaland cng ang c tch thnh lc a th 3.

Cc lc a cch nay 135 triu nm. Laurasia bt u tch thnh Bc M v u , Nam M ri khi chu Phi.

Cc lc a cch nay 65 triu nm. Th gii hin i bt y thnh hnh. Bc M tch khi u . Australia cha ri khi Nam Cc.

Cc lc a ngy nay. Gn mt na y i dng hin nay c to trong sut 65 triu nm qua. Kt thc tch gin laurasia v Australia di chuyn cch xa Nam Cc.

S trnh by cc qu trnh kin to mng mt phn th gii hin i. i Ty Dng ang m ra do s tch gin tch cc ti chui ni la gia i dng. Nam M di chuyn v pha ty vn hnh trn mng i dng ht chm bn di Thi Bnh Dng. S un cong xung di ca mng ht chm to ra vc hm i dng su.

Tm tt
Cc lp ngoi ca Tri t b qun li trong s phc hi ln c bit l chu k kin to. nng ni ln trn/magma dng ln t mantle, qua thch quyn, to nn cc dy ni la vy quanh th gii (cc sng i dng). S tim nhp ca magma vo cc sng ni gy ra lc tch thch quyn (y sng) trong cc mng ln b ko bi trng lc to nn cc bn i dng trong qu trnh c bit tch gin y bin

 Plate tectonics: Kin to mng (Nghin cu nhng vn ng v s tng tc ca cc mng) Seafloor spreading: Tch gin y bin Oceanic crust: V i dng Oceanic ridges; Sng ni i dng Subduction zone: i ht chm Continental drift: Tri dt lc a Collision: Va chm Supercontinent: Siu lc a Convergent plate boundary: Ranh gii mng hi t Divergent plate boundary: Ranh gii mng phn k Transform plate boundary: Ranh gii mng chuyn dng Rift: Thung lng hp gia sng ni i dng Ocean edge: ra i dng Hot spot: im nng Plume; Th magma tri Reassimilate: ti ng ha Slab pull: ko ba Ridge push: y sng Groove: rnh mn

Law of original horizontality: Lut v tnh nm ngang nguyn thy. Law of original continuity: Lut v tnh lin tc nguyn thy Law of superposition: Lut xp lp tun t Repitition: S lp li Omission: Hin tng gin on Compression fault: t gy nn p Extention fault: t gy cng gin (m rng Hangingwall: Cnh treo Footwall: Cnh nm Dip-Slip Fault: t gy trt theo gc cm Strike: ng phng; strike fault: t gy theo phng gc. Dip: Gc dc, gc cm, hng cm, nghing. Deformed rock layer: Lp b bin dng Jointing; cracking: khe nt Gold-bearing rock: cha vng Magnitude: Chn cp, earthquake m. : ln ng t Pinch out: S vt mng, u tht li (ca trm tch) Sequence (a tng) of sedimentary rock: Trnh t trm tch Surface expression of fauls: Biu hin trn mt ca cc t gy Fault; t gy Offset ridge: Sng ni b x dch do t gy