CHNG 1: NHNG NHN THC C BN 1.

1 Gii thiu a cht mi trung: Tri t hnh thnh cch ngy nay khong 4.5 t nm khi m my kh gia cc v sao hnh thnh cc sao s khi v cc h thng hnh tinh. S sng trn Tri t bt u khong 3 t nm v t v s cc sinh vt a dng xut hin, phn thnh v bin mt, ch li ha thch, nh du v tr ca n trong lch s Tri t. Ch cch y vi triu nm, t tin ca chng ta n nh mt giai on cho s thng tr hin din ca loi ngi. Khng nghi ng g na, mt tri ri cng s mt, chng ta cui cng cng s bin mt. Quan st trong vi triu nm vai tr ca chng ta trong lch s Tri t c th khng quan trng, nhng i vi cuc sng ca chng ta hin nay v i vi con chu chng ta, nhng tc ng n mi trng thc s ng k. V phng din a cht c th ni rng con ngi tn ti trong thi gian rt ngn ngi. V d, Khng long cai tr t lin hn 100 triu nm. Chng ta khng bit s ch ng ca chng ta s di bao lu, nhng nhng h s ho thch tha nhn rng tt c cc loi cui cng u tuyt chng. Chng ta c th hy vng rng loi ngi s li iu g hn mt s ha thch nh du thi gian ngn trong h s ny khi Homo sapien thnh vng. Vi s tin ha, hy vng rng loi ngi s nhn thc nhiu hn v mi trng v tm nhng cch sng hi ha vi hnh tinh chng ta. a cht mi trng l khoa hc a cht ng dng, mt cch c th, l vic s dng cc thng tin a cht gip con ngi gii quyt cc xung t trong s dng t, gim thiu s suy thoi mi trng v cc i ha cc kt qu c li ca vic s dng mi trng t nhin v b bin i. ng dng a cht cho cc vn ny bao gm cc nghin cu sau: 1) Cc tai bin t nhin (nh l lt, trt l t, ng t, hot ng ni la) gim thiu s tn tht sinh mng v ti sn. 2) Cnh quan la chn cc v tr, qui hoch s dng t v phn tch tc ng mi trng. 3) Cc vt liu Tri t (nh khong sn, , t) xc nh tim nng s dng ca chng nh cc ti nguyn hoc cc v tr b cht thi v cc nh hng ca chng ti sc khe con ngi. 4) Cc qu trnh thy hc ca nc ngm v nc mt nh gi cc ti nguyn nc v cc vn nhim nc. 5) Cc qu trnh a cht (nh lng ng trm tch trn y i dng, s hnh thnh ni v di chuyn nc trn v di mt t) nh gi nhng thay i cc b, khu vc v ton cu. Xem xt rng cc ng dng ny, c th xc nh a cht mi trng l mt nhnh ca khoa hc Tri t nghin cu ton b ph tng tc gia loi ngi vi mi trng vt l. Mi trng l tp hp tng th cc hon cnh bao quanh mt c th hoc mt cng ng. N bao gm ton b cc iu kin vt l nh khng kh, nc, cc kh v cc dng a hnh nh hng n s pht trin ca mt c th hoc mt cng 1

ng. N cng bao gm cc iu kin x hi v vn ha nh o c, kinh t, thm m nh hng n hnh vi ca c th hoc cng ng. Bi vy, gii thiu v a cht mi trng phi xem xt khng ch cc qu trnh Tri t, cc ti nguyn v cu trc tri t c cc nh khoa hc tri t m t m cn c x hi v vn ha nh hng n vic chng ta nhn thc v phn ng ti mi trng vt l nh th no. What is Environmental geology? Environmental geology is the study of the interaction between human activity and geological environment. It embraces geoscientific advice in planning and management of the geological environment. It also involves the prediction and forecasting of hazards and changes of the environment caused by human encroachment on geological processes.

Committee of the International Union of Geological Science (IUGS) 1.2 Nhn thc mi trng v vn ha Nhn thc mi trng gm ton b li sng m chng ta truyn t th h ny sang th h khc. khm ph cn nguyn ca iu kin hin ti, chng ta phi nhn v qu kh xem nhng th ch vn ho v x hi -chnh tr, kinh t, o c, tn gio v thm m-nh hng n cch m con ngi nhn thc v phn hi ti mi trng vt l nh th no. gii quyt cc vn mi trng nh dn s qu ng, b cht thi c hi, nng ln ton cu, v cn kit ti nguyn chng ta phi nhn v tng lai. Nu th ch x hi gp phn vo cc gii php, nhng thay i c bn m x hi hot ng c mc c nhn v t chc s l cn thit. ln ca iu chnh ny c th so snh vi ln ca cuc Cch mng Cng nghip lm thay i mi quan h gia con ngi v mi trng bng vic em li nhng nhu cu lin tc gia tng v ti nguyn v thi ra cc khi lng lin tc gia tng cht thi c hi vo mi trng. Nhng quan tm mi trng ton cu hin ti l cc vn chnh tr h trng, i hi nhng c gng hp tc t c cc nc cng nghip v pht trin. V d, chng ta khng th mong i cc Quc gia Nam M qun l rng ma nhit i tt hn nu nc M v cc nc cng nghip khc p t sc p kinh t nng n ti cc nc Nam M xut khu khi lng ln ti nguyn. Lm sao chng ta c th mong i cc nc ngho, nc pht trin tn trng mi trng khi cc nc cng nghip giu c khng mun lm iu ny? Cng rt may, s quan tm ca mi ngi v mi trng ang gia tng; nu ng vy chng ta s quan st s tin trin thc t trong vic tm kim cc gii php chnh tr cho cc vn mi trng. 1.3 o c mi trng Nm 1963 Stewart Udal cng b The Quiet Crisis, hu ht mi ngi khng nhn thy rng s cn kit ti nguyn v suy thoi mi trng l cc vn . Ngy nay chng ta nhn thc su sc iu m Udal gi l khng hong s tn ti. thc mi trng ang lm thay i cc cch sng, th ch v o c chng ta 2

Tip cn o c mi trng l s pht trin mi nht trong lch s lu di ca s tin ha o c loi ngi. o c mi trng (gm o c sinh thi v t) bao gm phm vi t do hot ng ca x hi cng nh c nhn u tranh tn ti trong mi trng y sc p. o c t ai cho rng chng ta c trch nhim khng ch i vi x hi v cc c nhn khc m cn i vi ton th mi trng, l qun hp ln hn bao gm ng vt, thc vt, t, kh quyn... Theo o c ny, chng ta l nhng cng dn v nhng ngi bo v t ai, m khng l nhng ngi chim c n. S thay i vai tr ny i hi chng ta tn trng v yu t ai ca chng ta hn l cho php nn kinh t nh ot mi s dng t. Nhn thc mi trng ang gia tng nhanh chng v chng ta hiu cc vn mi trng hn bao gi ht qui m a phng, vng, v ton cu. iu ny lm cho phm vi o c mi trng thnh ch quan tm ni bt. Cc ch quan trng trong lnh vc ny bao gm cc l do o c cho vic ra quyt nh, s mu thun chng tc v mi trng (E racism) v cng l x hi, gi tr cnh quan, quyn ca cc vt v tri v gic, v bn phn ca chng ta i vi cc th h tng lai. Nu s phn hi cc vn mi trng ca chng ta c da vo c kin thc khoa hc v cc nhn thc mi v mi quan h h hng vi Tri t, chng ta c th pht trin cc chnh sch c nhng hiu qu li ch su sc cho chnh chng ta v phn cn li ca th gii t nhin. 1.4 Khng hong mi trng Nhng nhu cu c to ra trong vic gim thiu ti nguyn do dn s gia tng, cng vi lng thi ca con ngi lin tc gia tng, to ra khng hong mi trng. Cuc khng hong l kt qu ca dn s qu mc, th ha, v cng nghip ha, kt hp vi s quan tm o c rt t v t ai v nhng th ch khng thch hp i ph vi sc p mi trng. Ngy nay cuc tn cng vo ti nguyn tip tc qui m ton cu: 1) Hoang mc ha v xi mn t i km, nhim nc v khng kh xut hin trn nhiu lc a. 2) Khai thc ti nguyn nh kim loi, than, du m bt k ni no m chng xut hin gy ra cc vn mi trng khc nhau. 3) S khai thc nc ngm v nc mt a n s mt mt v ph hy nhiu mi trng qui m ton cu. Chng ta hc c nhiu t khng hong mi trng. Chng ta bit nhiu mi quan h ca suy thoi mi trng ti vic s dng ti nguyn, Nhiu k hoch c tnh i mi v ang c pht trin tt gim bt hoc loi b cc vn mi trng; v chng ta ang to ra cc tin trnh thc s, nht l trong cc nc pht trin, trong vic gim nhiu vn mi trng nh nhim nc, v qun l cht thi c hi. V s suy thoi mi trng vt qua c h thng chnh tr v tn ngng tn gio, chng ta phi nhn xa hn cho cc nguyn nhn chnh ca iu kin hin ti. 3

Nhng gii thch tha ng hn cho l cc vn mi trng l kt qu t nhin ca pht minh nhn loi v rng chng bt u khi ln u tin loi ngi s dng cc cng c ci thin s sng ca h. Mi s i mi m rng v tr thch hp ca Homo sapient trong mt th gii kht khe v m bo rng mi ngi theo sau c thi gian d dng hn. Kiu pht trin x hi xut hin trong s i mi dn n dn s ln hn, to ra cc nhu cu ln hn v ti nguyn v cng i hi thm s i mi. ng xon c ny tip tc ti hin ti, khi c cc du hiu rng chng ta ang trong tin trnh va chm vi mi trng ca chng ta. 1.6 Cc khi nim c bn ca khoa hc mi trng Khi nim 1: Gia tng dn s Vn mi trng s 1 l s gia tng dn s. Nh sinh thi hc nhn vn ni ting Garrett Hardin pht biu rng tc ng mi trng tng th ca dn s bng tch mi ngi tc ng nhn vi dn s. Bi vy khi dn s gia tng th tc ng tng th cng phi gia tng. Khi dn s gia tng cn nhiu ti nguyn hn v, cn c vo cc cng ngh hin c ca chng ta, kt qu ph hy mi trng ln hn. V s dn s th gii gia tng theo lut s m nn nhiu nh khoa hc nhn nh rng s khng c kh nng cung cp ti nguyn v mi trng cht lng cao cho nhiu t ngi vo th k 21. Dn s gia tng qui m a phng, khu vc v ton cu lm hu ht cc vn mi trng a cht ti t thm, bao gm nhim nc ngm v nc mt, sn xut v qun l cht thi c hi; t con ngi v cc cu trc nhn sinh vo cc qu trnh t nhin (tai bin) nh l lt, trt t, phn xut ni la, v ng t Mt s nghin cu cho rng dn s hin ti cng qu sc mang d chu cho hnh tinh ny (s ngi cc i m Tri t c th gi m khng gy suy thoi mi trng) Vai tr ca gio dc l ti cao trong vn dn s. Khi mi ngi (nht l ph n) c gio dc nhiu hn, tc tng dn s c xu hng gim. Khi t l bit ch gia tng, s gia tng dn s c gim xung. Da vo s khc nhau ca cc nn vn ha, cc gi tr, v cc qui tc trong th gii ngy nay, hy vng ln nht ca chng ta kim sot dn s l thc t thng qua gio dc Khi nim 2: Tnh bn vng Tnh bn vng l mc tiu ca mi trng. Khng nghi ng g na rng chng ta ang dng ti nguyn mi trng sng nh rng, c, v s sng hoang d nhanh hn ti nguyn c b sung mt cch t nhin. Chng ta khai thc khong sn, du m v nc ngm m khng quan tm y v nhng gii hn ca chng hoc v kh nng phc hi ca chng. Kt qu l c nhng thiu ht mt s ti nguyn. Chng ta phi hc cch duy tr ti nguyn mi trng ca chng ta chng tip tc cung cp cc li ch cho mi ngi v nhng c th sng khc trn hnh tinh ny. Tnh bn vng l g ? Mt s ngi nh ngha l s m bo cho cc th h tng lai c c hi cng bng i vi cc ti nguyn m hnh tinh chng ta cung 4

cp. Nhng ngi khc cho rng tnh bn vng m ch cc kiu pht trin c th thc hin v mt kinh t v x hi m khng lm tn hi mi trng. Tnh bn vng gn lin vi kinh t ton cu bn vng vi cc thuc tnh sau: 1) Con ngi v cc c th sng khc hi ha vi cc h thng tr gip t nhin nh khng kh, nc v t (bao gm cc h sinh thi). 2) Chnh sch nng lng khng lm nhim kh quyn, gy ra nhng trng thi lo lng v kh hu nh nng ln ton cu hoc nhng ri ro khng th chp nhn c hin nay (cc quyt nh chnh tr hoc x hi) 3) K hoch s dng cc ti nguyn c th phc hi nh nc, rng, ng c, t nng nghip v ng trng khng lm cn kit cc ti nguyn hoc ph hy cc h sinh thi. 4) K hoch s dng cc ti nguyn khng th phc hi khng gy tn hi mi trng ton cu v cung cp y cho mt phn ti nguyn khng ti to ca chng ta sn c cho cc th h tng lai. 5) H thng x hi, lut php v chnh tr dnh cho kinh t ton cu bn vng v mt x hi to ra nn kinh t nh th. t c nn kinh t ton cu bn vng cn thit: 1) Pht trin chin lc kim sot dn s hiu qu. iu ny i hi gio dc ng k con ngi trong cc nc pht trin, v bit ch v gia tng dn s c quan h nghch. 2) Ti cu trc y cc chng trnh nng lng. C kin cho rng nn kinh t ton cu bn vng l khng th nu n da trn vic s dng nng lng ha thch. K hoch nng lng mi phi cn nhc khi nim chnh sch nng lng da nhiu hn vo ngun nng lng ti to (mt tri, gi). 3) xy dng k hoch kinh t, bao gm pht trin cu trc thu khuyn khch kim sot dn s v s dng thng minh ti nguyn. Tr gip ti chnh cho cc nc pht trin cng cn thit. Xy dng nhng thay i x hi, lut php, chnh tr, v gio dc vi mc ch duy tr mi trng a phng, vng v ton cu cht lng. y l li cam kt nghim tc m mi ngi trn th gii hp tc t c. Khi nim 3: Cc h thng Hiu cc h thng ca T v nhng thay i ca chng l then cht gii quyt cc vn MT. Tri t l mt h thng m v nng lng, nhng v c bn l mt h thng ng v vt liu.

H thng l mi phn xc nh ca v tr m chng ta la chn nghin cu. Cc v d v h thng l hnh tinh, ni la, bn i dng, hoc sng sui . Hu ht cc h thng cha nhng b phn cu thnh iu chnh ln nhau, cho nn nhng thay i trong mt b phn s gy ra nhng thay i trong b phn khc. Tri t l mt h thng. Tri t c th c xem l mt h thng gm 4 b phn: kh quyn (khng kh); thy quyn (nc); sinh quyn (s sng) v thch quyn (, t). S tng tc ln nhau ca cc b phn ny l nguyn nhn gy ra nhng nt c trng b mt ca Tri t ngy nay. Mi s thay i v cng hoc tn s ca cc qu trnh trong mi b phn s gy ra nhng thay i trong cc b phn khc. Tri t khng phi l h thng tnh; n l h thng ng lc, tin ha trong vt liu v nng lng thay i lin tc. ng lc nh th tha nhn rng Tri t l 5

h thng m, l mt h thng trao i nng lng vi mi trng xung quanh. iu ny thc s ng i vi nng lng, v Tri t nhn nng lng t mt tri v bc x nng lng tr li khng gian. Cng c nhng thay i vt cht cht t gia Tri t v mi trng xung quanh. Cc thin thch ri xung tri t v mt lng nh vt liu mt t thot vo khng gian di dng kh. Tuy vy, hu ht vt liu Tri t ti sinh lin tc trong h thng ny. Khi chng ta xem xt cc chu k t nhin nh chu k nc v chng ta c th hiu su hn Tri t nh l h thng ng hoc, chnh xc hn, mt s lin kt ca nhiu h thng ng. Trn ma hm nay cui cng cng tr li kh quyn, v trm tch lng ng ngy hn qua s bin thnh cng. Feedback: l s phn ng h thng ni m ngun ra (mt iu g xy ra) ca h thng l ngun vo (quay tr li h thng) gy ra s bin i. C hai kiu phn hi trong h thng, gi l m v dng. Trong phn hi m, kt qu iu ha hoc gim qu trnh xung, km theo h thng tip cn trng thi bn vng. V d dng sng duy tr rng, th tch v tc nht nh ca dong chy. Knh sng v cc b sng l mt kiu ca h thng m c gi l h thng-trng thibn vng; l, cc dng chy qua h thng ny, nhng khng c s thay i mng. Nu b rng, dung tch, tc tng ln (phn ng vi lng ma vng gia tng hoc bin i do th ha), dng chy tng ln c th xi mn cc b sng, lm cho knh sng rng ra. S m rng ny cho php dung tch nc ln hn mt ln na sng chy chm hn, nh th mt trng thi bn vng mi c thit lp.

Trong phn hi dng, thng gi l chu trnh tng lin tc (vicious cycle), u ra bin i m rng s kin ban u, n lt mnh s kin ny li m rng u vo...V d, s dng xe c trn ng thit t chu k phn hi dng vn ng bng cch ph hy thc vt trn sn. S mt thc vt s gia tng xi mn lm cho thc vt mt thm, v thc vt mt i xi mn li gia tng. Cui cng mt khu vc c nhiu phng tin giao thng c th thc vt b bc ht v tc xi mn rt cao Khi nim 4: Gii hn ti nguyn Khi nim 4 bao gm hai thc t c bn: 1) Trc ht Tri t l ni duy nht chng ta sng; 2) Th hai, cc ti nguyn ca chng ta ch c gii hn v trong c mt s ti nguyn c th phc hi, nhiu ti nguyn khng th phc hi. Bi vy, cui cng chng ta s cn ti ch qui m ln nhiu vt liu, v phn ln cc vn thi cht thi rn v lng c th c gim bt nu cht thi ny c ti ch. Ni cch khc nhiu th m by gi c xem l cht nhim c th c xem l ti nguyn...

C hai quan im chnh v ti nguyn thin nhin. 1) Mt trng phi cho rng tm ra ti nguyn khng phi l vn ln nh vic tm cch s dng chng. Chng c h tr cho l do ny l: Trc tin, s dng c hiu qu v thng minh cc vt liu l c th t c 6

Th hai, chng ta bit khai thc khong sn v nhin liu nhiu hn so vi qu kh cho nn c th tn c cc ti nguyn mi nhanh hn v khai thc cc m khong sn hm lng thp hn; v

Th ba, s ti ch ti nguyn c th gip chng ta p ng cc nhu cu ca tng lai. 2) Trng phi th hai cho rng: v c s ti nguyn hn ch khng th h tr cho s gia tng dn s theo lut s m mi mi. Thm na chng ta ang trong cuc khng hong ti nguyn v mt s l do: u tin, nhng tin b trong y hc gp phn vo s ng dn qu, Th hai, mt ci nhn khng thc t ca s tt yu v tng sn lng quc gia (GNP) gia tng lin tc da trn s li thi v ph thi, Th 3, bn cht c hn ca cc khong sn c th s dng c ca Tri t, v Th 4, ri ro gia tng ca tn tht khng th o ngc c ti mi trng l kt qu ca dn s qu mc, cht thi v nhng hot ng khai thc m ngy cng ln t c t l khong sn hu ch ngy mt t hn Khi nim 5: Thuyt ng dng Cc qu trnh vt l sa i cnh quan ngy nay ca chng ta vn hnh qua nhiu thi gian a cht. Tuy nhin, cung v tn sut ca cc qu trnh ny l thuc vo bin i t nhin v bin i do nhn to. Hiu cc qu trnh t nhin ang hnh thnh v lm bin i cc cnh quan gip chng ta suy din v lch s a cht ca cnh quan.

tng the present is the key of the past, c gi l thuyt ng dng (uniformitarialism), ln u tin c James Hutton xut vo nm 1785 v ngy nay c xem l khi nim c bn ca cc khoa hc Tri t. Thuyt ng dng cho rng cc qu trnh m chng ta quan st ngy nay cng hot ng trong qu kh. V d, Nu chng ta tm thy cc trm tch cui c vi tt c cc c im ca cui sng trn nh ni, thuyt ng dng tha nhn rng dng sng tng chy . Chng ta c th kt lun rng thung lng sng b bin i bi xm thc phn d hoc nng ln thnh nh ni, hin tng c bit nh l nghch o a hnh (inversion of topography). Hin tng ny v nhng hin tng a cht khc s kh suy lun nu thiu nguyn l ca l thuyt ng dng. Trong vic suy din v cc s kin a cht, chng ta phi xem xt cc nh hng ca hot ng nhn sinh i vi cc qu trnh Tri t t nhin. V d, trn lt sng b nh hng bi hot ng nhn sinh c th gia tng hoc gim xung ng k cng v tn xut ca trn lt. Bi vy, d bo cc nh hng phm vi di ca cc qu trnh t nhin chng ta phi c kh nng xc nh cc hot ng tng lai ca chng ta s thay i cng v tc ca n ra sao. Trong trng hp ny, the present is the key to the future. 7

Cc nh hng ca hot ng nhn sinh c th c trong mt khu vc cc b. Mt nm xi mn ti mt v tr xy dng hoc sn dc do con ngi xy dng nh cc con c ti chic cu cao tc c th vt nhiu nm xm thc t mt khu rng tng t hoc thm ch t nng nghip. Xm thc ny do s l tr ca t sau khi ph b lp thc vt. Bi vy, lm tng ln gi tr ca kin thc a cht trong qui hoch s dng t, chng ta phi s dng s hiu bit v qu trnh Tri t t nhin trong c trong lch s v d bo. Khi nim 6: Cc qu trnh a cht Tai bin Lun c cc qu trnh a cht tai bin ti con ngi. Cc tai bin t nhin ny c nhn ra v ngn nga ni c th xy ra v s e da ca chng i vi cuc sng ca con ngi v ti sn c gim thiu. Bui s khai trong lch s loi ngi, cuc u tranh ca chng ta vi cc qu trnh t nhin c th tri qua tng ngy. Tuy nhin, s ngi hoc khng tng hoc khng tp trung, cho nn nhng mt mt do tai bin khng ng k. Khi con ngi bit sn xut v duy tr u n vic cung cp thc phm dn, s gia tng v c tp trung cc b. S tp trung dn s v ti nguyn cng gia tng tc ng ca cc trn ng t v l lt theo chu k, v cc thm ha t nhin khc. Xu hng ny tip tc, cho nn rt nhiu ngi ngy nay sng cc khu vc c th b tn hi bi cc qu trnh tai bin hoc nhy cm vi tc ng bt li ca cc qu trnh nh th cc khu vc k cn Cc qu trnh tri t thng gy mt mt sinh mng hoc tn tht ti sn bao gm l lt, ng t, hot ng ni la, trt t v l bn. Cng v tn xut ca cc qu trnh ny ph thuc vo cc nhn t nh kh hu, a cht v thc vt khu vc. V d, nh hng ca dng nc nh qu trnh xm thc v bi t ph thuc vo cng ma, tn xut bo, bn cht v qui m ca thc vt v a hnh. Chng ta c th nhn ra nhiu qu trnh t nhin v d bo cc nh hng ca n bng vic xem xt cc iu kin kh hu, sinh hc v a cht. Sau khi cc nh khoa hc tri t nhn dng c cc qu trnh tai bin tim nng, h c trch nhim to ra thng tin c gi tr cho cc nh qui hoch v nhng nh ra quyt nh, ngi c th cn nhc cc cch n trnh hoc gim thiu s e da i vi cuc sng v ti sn con ngi. Khi nim 7: Nhng quan tm v thm m C qui hoch s dng t v nc nn c gng t c s cn bng gia nhng li ch kinh t v nhng bin i hu hnh t hn nh m hc. Cnh quan hin c xem l ti nguyn thin nhin, v gi tr thm m ca v tr v cnh quan trc khi thay i c th l phn quan trng ca bo co tc ng mi trng. Hu ht cc N/C v thm m cnh quan quan tm ti cnh quan duy nht cha b tc ng bi hot ng nhn sinh. Tuy nhin, hu ht chng ta hin nay sng trong mi trng th chng ta nn nh gi cc ti nguyn m quan ca cc khu vc ny. Vic nh gi c th gy cn tr tm thi cc kha cnh cung cp-v yu cu ca th ha, nhng bi v n s nhn dng cc tip cn khc cho s dng t, kt qu c th c s phc tp hn. 8

Cn bng cc cn nhc kinh t vi tiu chun cnh quan l tham vng v lc quan cng nh kh khn. Vn l, hai yu t c th c so snh da trn c s no? Mt gii php logic l th bc ca nhng la chn kinh t so snh vi th bc ca nh gi m quan. Sau s cn bng v tha hip c th c xem xt. Khi nim 8: Trch nhim ca chng ta i vi tng lai Cc hiu qu ca s dng t c chiu hng l ly tch, v bi vy chng ta phi c trch nhim i vi nhng ngi sinh sau chng ta. Nhng ngi tin s ph thuc hon ton vo mi trng gn nht ca h. Tc ng ca h n mi trng c th rt ng k khi h sn th ln v h li b sn bi cc ng vt n tht.

Mi quan h gia con ngi tin s v mi trng c th tn ti cho n khong cch nay 800.000 nm, khi t tin chng ta s dng la gy ra nhng tc ng mi trng mi. 1)Trc ht, la c kh nng tc ng n cc khu vc ln rng hoc ng c. 2) Th hai, n l qu trnh lp li, c kh nng ph hy cng mt khu vc trong khong thi gian thng xuyn hn. 3) Th 3, l qu trnh la chn, trong cc loi nht nh b hy dit mt cch cc b, trong khi mt s t ra khng li hoc phc hi nhanh t la c hng li. S xut hin ca nng nghip l v d u tin ca s dng t nhn to c kh nng lm thay i mi trng t nhin. N cng t ra thi k ca v tr b chim c lin tc nhiu hoc t hoc cc nhm v tr m m u s thay i mi trng xa hn, nh ch n nu cho khng gian sng, cc h x nguyn thy, v cc vn chn chng li d th v nhng ngi khc. Cc v tr s khai ny c th tr thnh cc khu vc u tin kinh qua nhim do cht thi hoc xi mn t, do s ph hy thc vt bn x. Bng s gia tng cung cp thc phm, nng nghip cho php pht trin dn s, ri t ai li c dn sch cho nng nghip. Hot ng ny chc chn nh hng n cn bng sinh thi khu vc khi mt s loi c thun ha hoc c trng cy v cc loi khc b loi b l nhng loi gy hi.

Nhng nghin cu hot ng nhn sinh mi y v kh nng di chuyn t v kt lun rng hot ng nhn sinh (nng nghip, th ha, v.v...) di chuyn nhiu t trong mi nm-40 n 45 Gt (1 Gt l 1 t hoc 109 ton) hn bt k qu trnh tri t no bao gm to ni (34 Gt/nm), vn chuyn trm tch sng (24Gt/nm, v bng h Pleistocen (10 Gt/nm). iu ny kt hp vi nhng thay i trng thy i vi tri t (cc i san phng, v.v...) tha nhn hot ng nhn sinh l qu trnh ng k nht to hnh dng b mt hnh tinh ny V d nc M, xem xt vng Ducktown, Tennessee. t ai xung quanh Ducktown trng ging hoang mc ca Arizona hn thc vt ti tt ca ni Blue Ridge ca ng nam nc M. Cu chuyn bt u vo nm 1843 vi vic x tm vng m t ra x tm ng Nm 1855, khong 30 cng ty chuyn qung ng bng con la trn ni ti Copper Basin v ti Ducktown. Nhng ci l ln-nhng h m di 200 mt v su 30m c xy dng tch ng khi km, st v sulfur. Rng g cng a phng b cht t cc l ny, v cc gc cy b nh ln t thnh than. 9

Cui cng tt c cy ci trn mt khu vc khong 130km2 b di chuyn. cc l to ra cc m my hi c ln theo thng bo dy n mc m nhng con la eo chung khi ng vo ngi v ng nhau. Khi sullfur dioxide v cc ht to ra ma axit v bi axit ph hy thc vt cn li. Mt thc vt dn n xi mn t mnh m li mt lp cha khong cng tng t mt hoang mc. Cnh quan thnh so ln n ni tr thnh mt trong vi mc nhn sinh c th nhn thy t khng gian. Khi nim 9: a cht l khoa hc mi trng c bn Hp phn ch yu tng mi trng ca con ngi l hp phn a cht, v hiu mi trng ca chng ta i hi nhn thc rng v nh gi ng cc khoa hc tri t v cc ngnh lin quan. Ngnh a cht no cng c xem l mi trng. hiu bit mi trng phc tp i hi kin thc ng k v cc ngnh nh: 1) a mo, N/C cc dng a hnh v cc qu trnh b mt; 2) Thch hc, N/C cc v khong vt; 3) trm tch hc, N/C mi trng lng ng trm tch; 4) kin to, N/C cc qu trnh hnh thnh lc a, cc bn i dng, ni v cc yu t cu trc ln khc; 5) a cht thy vn; nghin cu nc mt v nc gn mt 6) Th nhng hc, nghin cu t; 7) a cht kinh t, ng dng a cht xc nh v nh gi nguyn liu khong; 8) a cht cng trnh, ng dng cc thng tin a cht cho cc vn cng trnh. Ngoi cc ngnh ny, nh khoa hc tri t nghim tc nn c nhng kin thc v nhng ng gp cho nghin cu mi trng t nhng lnh vc nh sinh hc, bo tn, khoa hc kh quyn, ha hc, lut mi trng, kin trc v k thut cng nh a l t nhin, a l kinh t, a l nhn vn v a l th.

Nh v, a cht mi trng l lnh vc ca nh tng hp vi s quan tm lin ngnh cht ch, iu ny khng ph nhn nhng ng gp ng k ca cc chuyn gia trong cc lnh vc nghin cu mi trng khc nhau, hoc tm quan trng tp trung vo cc vn hoc cc lnh vc c trng. N ch n thun tha nhn rng mc du nhng quan tm nghin cu ca chng ta c th c chuyn mn ha, chng ta nn c kin thc v cc ngnh khc v nhng ng gp ca chng i vi a cht mi trng.

Tm quan trng v tnh lin ngnh ca CMT tr thnh hin nhin khi chng ta kho st t m bn cht cc vn mi trng. Hu ht cc n u phc tp, lin quan n nhiu mt m c th c khi qut ha thnh cc nhm: vt l, sinh thi v li ch v s dng nhn sinh. Cc nhn t vt l gm a l t nhin, cc qu trnh a cht, cc qu trnh thy vn, cc kiu v t, v kh hu hc. Cc nhn t sinh vt bao gm bn cht hot ng thc vt v ng vt, nhng thay i v iu kin v cc qu trnh sinh vt, phn tch khng gian ca thng tin sinh vt. Nhn t li ch v s dng nhn sinh bao gm s dng t, kinh t hc, m quan, tng tc gia hot ng nhn sinh v cc lnh vc vt l v sinh vt, v lut mi trng. 10

 Hin nhin, khng c mt n hoc quan tm nghin cu no lin quan n mi nhn t c th tn ti mt trong ba nhm trn, v c s tng tc ng k trong cc nhm ny. Cc n nh hot ng cht thi, xy dng ng cao tc, h thng vn chuyn khi, qui hoch s dng t th, v khai thc khong sn c th c cn nhc vi tt c cc nhm. V d, qui hoch, xy dng v vn hnh v tr h chn lp v sinh c xem xt vi cc nhn t vt l nh v tr vt l, a hnh, kiu t, v cc iu kin thy vn, cc qu trnh sinh vt v s phn hy cht thi hu c v s nhim bn ca phm vi sinh vt xung quanh; v nhng quan tm ca con ngi nh thc t cng trnh tt v s phc tng cc lut v qui ch. TM TT a cht mi trng l s dng thng tin a cht hiu v qun l tt hn mi trng ca chng ta. a cht mi trng l a cht ng dng. Bin s quan trng phn bit a cht vi cc khoa hc khc l s cn nhc thi gian. Cng vic ca cc nh a cht s dng nghin cu cc gi thuyt v phng php khoa hc. Cc c s vn ha i vi suy thoi mi trng l o c, kinh t, chnh tr v cc tn gio, nhng cc vn mi trng th khng c gii hn cho mt h thng chnh tr v x hi no. Khung o c ca chng ta xut hin m rng dn dn v cui cng c th xem mi trng ton din trong o c t ai. o c ny xc nhn quyn ca mi ti nguyn, bao gm cc thc vt, ng vt, cc vt liu Tri t, tn ti tip tc v t nht nhng khu vc no , s tn ti tip tc trong trng thi t nhin. Cc nguyn nhn trc tip ca khng hong mi trng l dn s qu ng, th ha, cng nghip ha xut hin vi vic quan tm o c i vi t ai qu t v cc th ch khng thch hp i ph vi sc p mi trng. Gii quyt cc vn trn bao gm c nhng hiu bit khoa hc v thc y hnh vi x hi, kinh t v o c m cho php cc gii php c thc hin y Chn khi nim c bn thit lp khung trit hc cho vic nghin cu a cht mi trng ca chng ta gm:

1) S gia tng dn s th gii l vn mi trng s 1. 2) S bn vng l mc tiu ca mi trng. 3) V bn cht Tri t l h thng ng i vi cc vt liu, v nhn thc s phn hi v tc bin i trong h thng nh th l cc k quan trng gii quyt cc vn mi trng. 4) Tri t l mi trng sng duy nht m chng ta c, v ti nguyn ca n ch c hn. 5) Cc qu trnh vt l ngy nay ang lm bin i cnh quan chng ta v hot ng qua nhiu thi gian a cht, nhng cng v tn sut ca cc qu trnh ny l thuc vo bin i t nhin v ngun nhn sinh.

11

6) Cc qu trnh Tri t nguy him i vi con ngi lun tn ti. Cc tai bin t nhin ny phi c nhn dng v ngn nga nhng ni c th xy ra, v s e da ca chng i vi s sng v ti sn con ngi phi c gim thiu. 7) Qui hoch s dng t v nc phi c gng t c s cn bng gia li ch kinh t v nhng bin i t r rng hn nh m quan. 8) Nhng tc ng ca s dng t c xu th l ly tch (dn li) v bi vy chng ta phi c trch nhim vi cc th h mai sau. 9) Hp phn c bn ca mi mi trng nhn sinh l hp phn a cht, v hiu bit mi trng chng ta i hi s hiu bit cc khoa hc Tri t v cc khoa hc lin quan. CHNG 2: CC VT LIU V QU TRNH TRI T Chu k a cht Qua 4.5 t nm ca lch s Tri t, cc vt liu trn hoc gn mt t c to ra, duy tr v b ph hy bi nhiu qu trnh vt l, ha hc v sinh hc. Cc qu trnh hot ng lin tc to ra cc vt liu Tri t-t, nc v kh quyn-cn thit cho s tn ti ca chng ta. Cc qu trnh ny lin quan n cc chu k a cht bao gm cc ph chu k sau: Chu k kin to Chu k Chu k thy vn Cc chu k sinh a ha Chu k kin to Thut ng kin to biu th cc qu trnh a cht qui m ln lm bin dng v Tri t to ra cc dng a hnh nh cc bn i dng, cc lc a, cc vng ni. Cc qu trnh kin to c iu khin bi cc lc su trong lng t S trnh by cc qu trnh kin to mng mt phn th gii hin i. i Ty Dng ang m ra do s tch gin tch cc ti chui ni la gia i dng. Nam M di chuyn v pha ty vn hnh trn mng i dng ht chm bn di Thi Bnh Dng. S un cong xung di ca mng ht chm to ra vc hm i dng su. Thch quyn v v Tri t Ngy nay Tri t l sn phm ca 4.5 t nm phn d thnh cc lp c t trng khc nhau. Nhiu vt liu t trng ln nht b ht vo trung tm, v mt s cht t trng nh nht thot ra b mt. Phn tng t trng trong tri t, ngha l cc vt liu t trng thp hn ni trn cc vt liu t trng cao hn. Cc p sut v nhit gia tng t b mt ti tm Tri t Tri t c chia thnh bn lp chnh: nhn trong, nhn ngoi, mantle v v. 1) 0 to 35 km - Crust (locally varies 5-70 km) 2) 35 to 2890 km - Mantle 3) 2890 to 5100 km - Outer core 12

4) 5100 to 6378 km - Inner core The crust and uppermost part of mantle forms lithosphere (approximatly 35 to 60 km). Asthenosphere lies in the depth of 100 to 700 km V Lp trn cng c gi l V (Crust). N l thnh phn ca c ni ln b mt khi Tri t hnh thnh. V khng phi l mt lp lin tc, m l cu to ca cc khi ln gi l cc mng kin to, v cc mng ny lun lun di chuyn-mc du bn khng cm nhn thy tr lc ng t v phn xut ni la. C hai kiu v Tri t-phn t v phn nc. 1) Phn t gi l V Lc a: dy t 10 n 25 dm, mt s v tr ti 45 dm. N c chia thnh 6 lc a (Continental Crust): u (Eurasia), Phi, Bc M, Nam M, Nam Cc v c. 2) Phn nc ca v Tri t: l y cc i dng, gi l V i dng (Oceanic Crust), b dy 4-7 dm. Mantle 1) Mantle trn (outer hay upper): gm thnh phn ca cc silicat st v mange. N rn chc phn nh vi lng di y. Cc nh khoa hc thng xem phn nh ca Mantle Trn v V nh l Thch quyn (Lithosphere). Thch quyn lnh nht, d gy nht ca cc lp Tri t. N tri trn phn lng, thp hn ca Mantle Trn (Asthenosphere) 2) Mantle di (inner hay lower): nm pha di Mantle Trn. y l lp gn nhn Tri t nht. Nhn Ngoi Nhn ngoi (Outer Core) bt u khong 1,800 n 3,200 dm di b mt Tri t. Thnh phn gm st, nicke, lu hunh v oxy. N lnh hn nhn trong-khong 7,200 n 9,032 F-nh th n vn trng thi lng. Nhn Trong Nhn Trong (Inner Core) dy khong 780 dm. N nm cch mt Tri t t 3,200 n 3,960 dm. Nhn Trong rt nng- khong 10,000 F. Nhng p sut ln n ni lm cho n cng li. Ngoi st, nickel cc nh khoa hc cho rng n cn cha lu hunh, cacbon, oxy, silic v kali V Nhn Trong qu nng nn n bc x cc dng nhit ln cc lp trn. Cc dng ny c gi l cc dng i lu. Cc dng i lu ny lm cho cc mng kin to ca b mt Tri t di chuyn. S di chuyn cc mng kin to gy ra phn xut ni la, ng t v cc to ni. Di chuyn ca cc mng thch quyn Khng ging nh quyn mm c xem l tng i lin tc, thch quyn b v thnh cc mng ln gi l cc mng thch quyn (lithosphere plates), chng di chuyn tng i vi nhau. Cc qu trnh kt hp vi ngun gc, di chuyn, v ph hy ca cc mng ny c gi chung l kin to mng (plate tectonics). Mng thch quyn bao gm lc a v mt phn bn i dng hoc ch bn i dng. cc mng ln l TBD, Bc m, Nam M, u-A, Chu Phi v c. C nhiu mng nh nh Juan de Fuca, Cocos. Ranh gii gia cc mng thch quyn l cc khu vc hot ng a cht ni m hu ht cc trn ng t v hot ng ni la xut hin. 13

Ti ranh gii ny cc mng c hnh thnh v b ph hy, cc vt liu quay vng t trong Tri t ra v. Do s ti quay vng lin tc ny, cc qu trnh kin to c gi chung l chu k kin to. Magma t quyn mn dng ln b mt ti cc sng ni la i dng. Magma y cc mng tch ra, trng lc ko cc mng ny t ch a hnh cao. Cc mng ngui i, tng b dy chn , t trng ln hn, va chm vi mng t trng nh hn, chi xung mantle, ti y cui cng n b ti ng ha. Cc kiu ranh gii kin to C ba kiu ranh gii mng: phn k, hi t v chuyn dng. Cc ranh gii ny khng phi l cc ng nt hp m l nhng i rng hng chc n hng trm km. Cc ranh gii phn k xut hin nhng ni thch quyn mi c to ra v cc mng di chuyn xa nhau. Cc ranh gii ny xut hin ti cc sng ni gia i dng v qu trnh ny gi l s tch gin y i dng Cc ranh gii hi t xut hin ni m cc mng va chm. Nu mng i dng va vo mng lc a , mng i dng mt cao hn chm xung bn di ra ch o ca mng lc a. Cc ranh gii hi t kiu ny gi l cc i ht chm Tuy nhin, nu ra ch o ca c hai mng bao gm cc lc a, n s kh khn hn cho s ht chm bt u. Trong trng hp ny ranh gii va chm lc a c th pht trin trong cc ra ca cc mng ny b bin dng thnh cc khi ni. Kiu ranh gii phn k ny to ra mt s h thng ni cao nht nh ai ni Alpine v Himallaya i tch gin khng phi l rift lin tc, ring bit, m l mt lot rift ngn x dch theo chiu ngang gi l ranh gii chuyn dng hoc cc t gy chuyn dng, xut hin ni giao nhau ca hai mng Hu ht cc ranh gii nh th xut hin trn v i dng, nhng mt s xut hin trn lc a. Ranh gii chuyn dng lc a ni ting l t gy San Andreas California, ni mt phn mng Thi Bnh Dng trt ngang qua mt phn mng bc M. Ti mt s v tr, im ni 3 mng, v cc khu vc ny c gi l im gip ni 3 mng. Hnh 2.6 (Trong sch) cho thy hai im ni nh vy. im gp g ca mng Juan de Fuca, Bc M v Thi Bnh Dng trn b ty ca Bc M v im ni ca cc sng ni tch gin c kt hp vi mng Thi bnh Dng, Cocos v Nazca pha ty Nam M. Tc di chuyn mng Nhn chung, tc nh mng tay ca bn mc, thay i t 2 n 15cm/nm. t gy San Andreas dch chuyn ngang khong 5cm/nm, cho nn cc n v hoc sng sui c th b dch chuyn nhng ni chng ct ngang t gy. Trong sut 4 triu nm qua c khong 200 km dch chuyn trn t gy San Andreas. 14

Los Angeles trn mng Thi Bnh Dng, di chuyn chm chp v pha San Francisco thuc mng Bc M. Trong 10 triu n 20 triu nm cc thnh ph ny s nm cnh nhau. S ma st gia chng, di chuyn vi tnh cht cc b v khu vc ch khi s cng gin tr ln qu ln n ni m chng tch thnh tng mng, gy ra ng t. S dch chuyn ngang dc theo ranh gii chuyn dng nh San Andreas c th ti vi mt trong mt trn ng t ln. Tuy nhin s kin nh th ni chung xut hin ti mt v tr no ch mt ln trong vi trm nm. Pangaea v cc lc a hin ti S vn ng ca cc mng thch quyn gy ra hnh dng v cc v tr hin nay ca cc lc a. Bng chng r rng v s di chuyn lc a bt u cch ngy nay khong 200 triu nm, vi s tan d ca siu lc a Pangeae (tn do alfred Wegener ngh). Hnh 2.8a cho thy Pangeae cch ngy nay 180 triu nm v v tr hin ti ca cc lc a v cc bn i dng S m rng y i dng qua 200 triu nm tch u- v Bc M khi vng t pha nam, u- khi Bc M, v cc lc a pha nam (Nam M, Phi, n, Nam Cc v c) tch ri nhau. Bin Tethys gia chu Phi v chu u ng li, li tn d nh ngay nay l a Trung Hi. Cch nay khong 50 triu nm n x vo Trung Quc, to ra ni Himalayan (ni cao nht th gii) v Cao nguyn ty tng. S va chng ny ngy nay vn ang xy ra. Chu k kin to v a cht mi trng Mi th sng trn hnh tinh b nh hng bi kin to mng. V cc mng di chuyn chm chp vi cm mi nm, bng cch ny lm cho cc lc a v cc bn i dng, to ra cc i ti nguyn (du, kh v khong sn) cng nh ng t v ni la. Cc qu trnh kin to xut hin ti cc ranh gii mng quyt nh qui m v cc tnh cht v t m chng ta ph thuc vo n xy dng v sn xut nng nghip. Hn na, s di chuyn mng qua nhiu triu nm lm bin i hoc sa i cc kiu dng chy trong i dng, tc ng n kh hu ton cu cng nh nhng thay i lng ma khu vc. Nhng bin i ny nh hng n kh nng sn xut ca t ai v cc v tr sng. Chu k Chu k ph chu k a cht ln nht. Chu k lin quan vi tt c cc ph chu k a cht khc, n ph thuc vo chu k kin to ly nhit v nng lng, chu k sinh a ha ly vt liu v chu k thy vn ly nc s dng cho cc qu trnh phong ha, xm thc, vn chuyn, lng ng v to trm tch. Mc du cc bin i rt nhiu v thnh phn v tnh cht, chng c th c phn loi thnh ba kiu chnh 1) S chi phi bi ni nhit t.t lm nng chy cc b ht chm trong chu k kin to. S kt tinh nng chy to ra cc mc ma bn di v trn mt t. 2) Cc trn v gn mt t b ph hy v ha hc v vt l bi qu trnh phong ha, to nn cc trm tch b vn chuyn bi gi, nc v bng ti cc bn trm tch nh i dng. 3) Cc lp tch tch t trm tch cui cng tri qua giai on thnh (chuyn thnh cng), hnh thnh cc trm tch. 4) Cc trm tch b chn vi xung su c th b bin cht (bin i hnh dng) bi nhit, p sut hoc cc dung dch hot ha to ra cc bin cht, m c th vn b chn vi su hn v nng chy, bt u mt chu k na. 15

Mt s bin i v trnh t l tng ny c trnh by trong hnh 2.9. V d, mc ma v bin cht c th b bin i thnh bin cht mi m khng tri qua phong ha v xm thc. Tm li, kiu hnh thnh trong ch k ph thuc vo mi trng to . Chu k v chu k kin to Chu k kin to cung cp mt s mi trng to , vi cc qu trnh to c trng xut hin tng kiu ranh gii mng Khi xem xt chu k ring bit, chng ta quan tm ch yu vi s ti to v cc vt liu khong. Tuy nhin, cc qu trnh kin to chi phi v duy tr cc chu k l cn thit trong vic xc nh tnh cht ca to ra. Bi vy, s quan tm ca chng ta trong chu k kin to hn, bi v da vo cc vt liu ny m chng ta xy dng nh , nh my, ng x v cc cng trnh khc. Chu k v khong sn Chu k l nguyn nhn gy ra s tp trung cng nh phn tn cc vt liu, rt quan trng cho vic khai thc m. Nu khng phi l qu trnh mc ma, trm tch v bin cht tp trung khong sn th rt kh khai thc ti nguyn. Chng ta ly cc ti nguyn c tp trung bi qu trnh chu k , bin i chng thng qua cc hot ng cng nghip v ri tr li chng dng long vo chu k, ni chng b phn tn bi cc qu trnh a cht khc. Mi khi chng ta thc hin vic ny, ti nguyn khng th tp trung li trong thi gian hu ch. V d khong sn phosphat c dng lm phn bn rng ri. Phosphat c khai thc dng tp trung, b bin i v c dng trong nng nghip, ri b phn tn b nc mt v nc ngm, cc dng khng kh v cc tc nhn khc. Cui cng, phosphat c th tr nn qu nhiu lm nhim nc, Vi ngoi l s dng nc giu phosphate t cc nh my x l nc thi ti n t khi c tp trung y c ti to. Chu k thy vn Chu k thy vn l s vn ng ca nc t i ng vo kh quyn v ngc li. B chi phi bi nng lng mt tri, chu k ny vn hnh bi s bc hi, ma, dng chy mt, v dng chy gn mt. Ch mt lng nc rt nh trong chu k hot ng gn mt t vo mi lc. V d, ton b nc trong kh quyn, sng ngi, v mi trng gn mt nng ch khong 0.3% ca tng lng nc (trn 97% nc i dng). Tuy nhin, lng nc nh trn hoc gn mt ny li cc k quan trng trong vic to iu kin di chuyn thun li v phn loi cc nguyn t ha hc trong trng thi c ha tan, chm tr cnh quan, phong ha , vn chuyn v lng ng trm tch v cung cp cc ti nguyn nc cho chng ta. Chu trnh sinh a ha Chu k sinh a ha l s chuyn i v quay vng ca mt hoc nhiu nguyn t qua kh quyn, thch quyn, thy quyn, v sinh quyn (mt phn ca tri t ni s sng tn ti). Chu k sinh a ha lin quan cht ch ti chu k kin to, v thu vn. Chu k kin to cung cp nc t cc qu trnh ni la cng nh nhit v nng lng hnh thnh v bin i vt liu tri t. Chu k v thy vn lin quan ti nhiu qu trnh chuyn i v tch tr cc nguyn t ha hc trong nc, t v .

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 hiu tt hn cc chu trnh sinh a ha chng ta s tho lun chu trnh carbon ton cu. Carbon dng tinh khit c tm thy trong mt s khong vt nh graphit v kim cng. Tuy nhin, quan trng hn i vi chng ta l nhiu dng carbon hp cht vi cc nguyn t khc. Carbon l khi xy dng c bn ca s sng v n ht hp d dng vi cc nguyn t carbon khc v vi oxy v hydro to thnh cc hp cht sinh hc. V vy (kt qu l), chu trnh sinh a ha carbon lin quan cht ch ti chu trnh oxy v hydro. Mt s hp cht carbon l cc kh di nhng iu kin bnh thng; quan trng nht trong cc kh ny l carbon dioxide (CO2), c trong kh quyn, t v cc phn mi trng khc. CO2 trong kh quyn hoc trong t d b ho tan trong nc to axit yu nh axit carbonic (H2CO3) c vai tr quan trng trong phong ha cc trn hoc gn mt t. Hnh 2.12 trnh by lng carbon trong cc ngn d tr khc nhau cng nh tc di chuyn gia cc ngn trn c s hng nm. Ch : hu ht carbon trn tri t c tr trong trm tch bin v trm tch. Cc ngn cha khc ch chim khong 0.05 % tng s. Tuy vy, carbon cha trong kh quyn v c di chuyn t n t v i ng c tm quan trng mi trng c bit. V s tp trung CO2 trong kh quyn ra tng do s bin i t nhin hoc do t cc nhin liu ha thch, kh hu ton cu cng thay i. Nhn thy s tri ngc r rng: carbon tr trong kh quyn gm 3 tn t vic t nhin liu ha thch, nhng lng carbon vo kh quyn t vic t nhin liu ha thch l 6 t tn mi nm. Nh vy 3 t tn carbon i u? y l cu hi ln m cha c cu tr li. C l chng i vo ngn cha ln hn bao gm nc i dng nng, t hoc thc vt trn mt t. V kh quyn l mi trng ng v s di chuyn carbon nhanh xy ra gia kh quyn v cc thc vt trn t v trong i dng, thi gian c tr trung bnh ca carbon trong kh quyn ngn. Cc chu trnh sinh a ha khng c pha kh, nh chu trnh phospho khc bit nhiu. Chu trnh phospho lun rt chm, mt hng trm ngn nm n nhiu triu nm. Di chuyn phospho t t n i dng ch yu bng xm thc cc du pht pht (phospho thng trong xng v rng c v cc ng vt khc trong ). Phospho quay tr li t bi chu k to giu phospht, v chu k kin to nng ln, phi l xm thc mt ln na. Him hn, phospho tr li t l phn chim (hoc phn di), tp trung li v c dng nh phn bn. CHNG 3: T V MI TRNG Xi mn t l mt vn mi trng nghim trng trn quy m ton cu. Thy r nht l cc loi t ca vng Piedmont ng nam Hoa K, ti Charlotte, vng pha bc Carolina, ni mt lot cc rnh xi, l pht trin. Cc xi mn c nhiu nh hng bao gm c thit hi v ti nguyn t ai cng nh s xung cp v cht lng nc do cn lng xung. Nh vy, xi mn t l mt vn quan trng c bit trong cc mi trng th, ni m thm thc vt c th c g b trc khi xy dng trc khi pht trin. Mc d c nhiu bin php bo v c hiu lc gim thiu xi mn t do th ha, nhng vn ny vn tn ti nhiu ni trn th gii, ni m vic bo v ti nguyn t c th khng c ch trng.

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Trong lnh vc quy hoch s dng t, tnh ph hp ca t cho s dng c th thng c xc nh mt phn bi cc loi t hin nay, c bit l cho s dng nh: th ha, qun l g, nng nghip Nghin cu cc loi t gip nh gi c mi nguy him t nhin, bao gm c l lt, l t v c th d don c ng t ti cc a im c th. Mu sc ca t cng ng vai tr trong ch th mi trng. Nu t thot nc tt, t s c mu , t km thot nc thng c mu vng. y l im khac bit quan trng bi v t km thot nc c lin quan n vn mi trng nh s n nh dc thp hn v khng c kh nng c s dng cho vic t lm phng tin x l cho cc nh gi h thng x l nc thi( b t hoi..) V vy, nghin cu v t l mt vn rt quan trng trong lnh vc mi trng. 1.S lc v ti nguyn t t l mt dng ti nguyn vt liu ca con ngi. t c hai ngha: t ai l ni , xy dng c s h tng ca con ngi v th nhng l mt bng sn xut nng lm nghip. V.V.Dokuchaev, nh khoa hc ngi Nga tin phong trong lnh vc khoa hc t cho rng: t nh l mt thc th t nhin c ngun gc v lch s pht trin ring, l thc th vi nhng qu trnh phc tp v a dng din ra trong n. t c coi l khc bit vi . tr thnh t di nh hng ca mt lot cc yu t to thnh t nh kh hu, cy c, khu vc, a hnh v tui. Theo ng, t c th c gi l cc tng trn nht ca khng ph thuc vo dng; chng b thay i mt cch t nhin bi cc tc ng ph bin ca nc, khng kh v mt lot cc dng hnh ca cc sinh vt sng hay cht. Trong t nhin: t l vt th t nhin c hnh thnh lu i t khi c s sng xut hin trn qu t, l kt qu ca mt qu trnh hot ng tng hp ca 5 yu t gm: mu thch, sinh vt, kh hu, a hnh v thi gian; y l mt nh ngha u tin v kh hon chnh v t. Sau ny nhiu nh nghin cu cho rng, cn b sung thm vo mt yu t khc na l con ngi; chnh con ngi khi tc ng vo t lm thay i kh nhiu tnh cht vt l, ha hc v sinh hc ca t t nhin v t hnh thnh nn nhng loi t mi khng th tm thy c trong t nhin. 2.Cc thnh phn chnh ca t t c th chia ra thnh hai tng: tng t b mt, l lp trn cng nht, phn ln cc loi r cy, vi sinh vt v cc loi hnh s sng ng vt khc c tr v tng t ci, tng ny nm su hn v thng thng dy c v cht hn cng nh t cc cht hu c hn. Nc, khng kh cng l thnh phn ca phn ln cc loi t. Khng kh, nm trong cc khong khng gian gia cc ht t, v nc, nm trong cc khong khng gian cng nh b mt cc ht t, chim khong mt na th tch ca t. C hai u ng vai tr quan trng trong s sinh trng ca thc vt v cc loi hnh s sng khc trong thit din ng ca t trong mt h sinh thi c th. Thnh phn cu to ca t gm cc ht khong chim 40%, hp cht humic 5%, khng kh 20% v nc 35%. Khng kh, nm trong cc khong khng gian gia cc ht t, v nc, nm trong cc khong khng gian cng nh b mt cc ht t, chim khong mt na th tch ca t. C hai u ng vai tr quan trng trong s sinh trng ca thc vt v cc loi hnh s sng khc trong thit din ng ca t trong mt h sinh thi c th. Gi tr ti nguyn t c o bng s lng din tch (ha, km2) v ph ( mu m thch hp cho trng cy cng nghip v lng thc). 18

Cn c vo t l cc loi ht (thnh phn v khong cht) trong t ngi ta chia t ra lm 3 loi chnh: t ct, t tht v t st. Chng c cc t l cc ht ct, limon v st nh sau: t ct: 85% ct, 10% limon v 5% st. t tht:45% ct, 40% limon v 15% st. t st:25% ct, 30% limon v 45% st. Gia cc loi t ny cn c cc loi t trung gian. V d : t ct pha, t tht nh... Cc lp trm tch dy cha t bn c to ra t s lng ng bi gi thng thng c gi l hong th (loess trong ting c) hay limon (trong ting Php). Cht rn l phn ch yu ca t, n chim gn 100% trng lng kh ca t v c chia lm hai loi: Cht v c Cht v c l phn ch yu ca t, n chim t 97 - 98% trng lng kh ca t. Cc cht v c to thnh hai dng hp cht: hp cht kh tan v hp cht d tan. Cc hp cht d tan bao gm cc mui d tan trong nc nh carbonat, sulfat, clorua to thnh cc dch cht dinh dng nui sng cy nh cc mui cha N, P, K... Ngoi ra, cng c nhng mui c cho cy trng khi nng cao nh NaCl, Na2CO3... lm cho t tr nn mn. Cht hu c Cht hu c tuy chng ch chim 2%- 3% nhng li rt quan trng. Ngun gc cht hu c trong t l do cc xc b ca thc vt, ng vt v vi sinh vt to nn. Cc cht hu c ny s b bin i di tc ng ca khng kh, nc, nhit , vi khun, vi sinh vt ... theo hai qu trnh khong ha v mn ha: - Qu trnh khong ha. L qu trnh ph hy cc cht hu c bin chng thnh nhng cht v c n gin nh cc loi mui khong, nc, cc cht kh CO2, NH3, H2S... - Qu trnh mn ha. L qu trnh tng hp cc hp cht v c ln hu c to thnh hp cht cao phn t mu en gi l mn. Vi sinh vt t ng vai tr quan trng trong s hnh thnh mn, ri mn li b khong ha hnh thnh cc loi mui dinh dng cung cp cho thc vt. Mn c cha nhiu cht dinh dng c bit l N rt cn thit cho cy trng, mn cn c vai tr lm cho t ti xp, gi m, gi cht dinh dng v cn c tc dng kch thch cy trng. Cc loi t nguyn thy b chn vi di cc hiu ng ca cc sinh vt c gi l t c. 3.Phu din t (soil profiles) Nhng tng tc cht ch ca vng tun hon ca v thy vn to ra cc vt liu phong ha l cc hp phn c bn ca t. Phong ha l s ph hy vt l v ha hc ca v l giai on u tin trong pht trin t. phong ha b tip tc bin i bi cc sinh vt t trong t m c gi l tn d hoc c vn chuyn, ty thuc vo v tr v thi gian m n b bin i. Vt liu phong ha khng ha tan c na c th cn li v c bn ti ch v b bin i to thnh t tn d. Nu vt liu phong ha c nc, gi, bng h mang i v ri b bin i cc v tr mi, n hnh thnh t b vn chuyn. t c th c xem nh h thng m v tng tc vi cc hp phn khc ca chu k a cht. Cc c im ca t ring bit l hm s ca kh hu, a hnh, m, thi gian (tui ca t), v cc qu trnh hu c (hot ng ca cc sinh vt t). 19

Cc tng t Nhng chuyn ng theo chiu ng v ngang ca cc vt liu to ra s phn lp r rng, song song vi b mt gi chung l phu din t (soil profiles). Cc lp gi l cc i (zone) hoc cc tng t (horizon). y ch cp cc tng din ph bin nht trong cc loi t. Tng O v tng A cha vt cht hu c nng cao. S khc nhau gia hai lp ny phn nh lng vt cht hu c c trong tng lp. Nhn chung tng O cha tan b rc thc vt v vt cht hu c khc, trong khi tng A bn di cha c vt liu hu c v khong. Di tng O v A, mt s loi t c tng E hoc i ra la (leaching), lp mu sng b ra i cc hp phn cha st. Tng ny c mu sng do cha t vt cht hu c hn so vi tng O v A v t vt liu mu v c nh o xit st Tng B, hoc tng tch t, nm di tng O, A hoc E cha cc vt liu khc nhau c di chuyn xung di t nhng tng bn trn. Mt s kiu tng B c tha nhn: - Kiu quan trng nht l tng argillic B hoc Bt. Tng Bt c lm giu bi cc khong vt st c di chuyn xung dui. - Kiu khc ca tng B m cc nh a cht mi trng quan tm l tng Bk, c c trng bi s tch ly cacbonat can xi. Cacbonat bc cc ht t ring r trong t v c th lp y cc khong rng (khong trng gia cc ht t)

Tng t m b nhim cabonat canxi n ni m hnh thi ca n b khng ch bi cacbonat c ch nh l tng K (Hnh 3.1b). Cabonate lp y cc khong l rng trong tng K, v cabonat thng to cc lp song song vi mt t. Thut ng caliche thng c dng cho s tch ly khng u n hoc cc lp cacbonat canxi trong t. Tng C nm ngay trn vt liu m cha bin i v cha vt liu m bin i tng phn bi cc qu trnh phong ha. Tng R, hoc vt liu m cha bin i, l gc rn chc nm di cng. Tuy vy, mt s khe nt v khong l rng khc c th cha st di chuyn t trn xung.

Thut ng harpan (lp st rn ngay di mt t) c dng trong vn liu v t. Tng t hardpan c nh ngha l tng t cng (b nn cht). Hardpan thng cha st nn cht hoc gn kt bng cacbonat, oxit st, hoc silic. Cc tng hardpan gn nh khng thm nc v nh th s hn ch s vn ng xung di ca nc trong t. Mu t Tng O v A c xu hng mu en do cha nhiu vt cht hu c. Tng E c mu trng do ra la oxit st v nhm. Tng B biu l s khc nhau ng k nht v mu sc, bin i t vng/nu n thm, ph thuc vo s hin din ca cc khong st v cc oxit st. Tng Bk c th c mu sng do cha cabonat, nhng i khi chng c mu hi do s tch ly oxit st. Nu tng K thc s pht trin n c mu gn nh trng do cha rt nhiu cabonat canxi.

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Mc du mu ca t c th l cng c chn on phu din t quan trng, ngi ta c cnh bo v vic gi lp tng B. Vt liu m nguyn thy, nu giu st, c th to t rt ngay c khi s pht trin phu din t tng i t. Mu ca t c th l ch s quan trng v t b ra tri nh th no. t ra tri tt l nhng iu kin thng kh tt (iu kin oxy ha), v st oxy ha c mu . t b ra la km l t m t, v st t b oxy ha. Mu t thng l mu vng. S phn bit ny l quan trng v t ra la km c kt hp vi cc vn mi trng nh tnh n nh sn thp hn v khng th dng nh mi trng cht thi cho cc h thng thot nc gia nh (b t hoi v bn lc). Kin trc t Kin trc t ph thuc vo t l tng quan kch thc ca cc ht ct, bt, st Cc ht st c ng knh < 0.004mm, ht bt c ng knh 0.004-0.074mm, v ht ct l 0.074 n 2.0mm. Vt liu c ng knh ln hn 2.0mm l cui, si v tng ph thuc vo kch thc ht. Ch rng-kch thc ht y l s phn loi cho cng trnh v hi khc vi s phn loi t ca B Nng nghip M. Kin trc t thng thng c nhn dng ngoi tri bng vic c lng, ri c xc nh li trong phng th nghim. Cu trc t Cc ht t dnh st vo nhau trong cc khi, gi l pets, c phn loi theo dng thnh mt s kiu. Hnh 3.3 biu th mt s cu trc thng thng ca pet tm thy trong t. Cu trc lin quan vi qu trnh to t. V d cu trc ht rt r trong cc tng A, trong khi cu trc khi v lng tr (prismatic) thng thy trong tng B. Cu trc t l cng c d on quan trng gip nh gi s pht trin v tui tng i ca cc phu din t. Nhn chung, theo thi gian phu din t pht trin, cu trc tr nn phc tp hn, c th t ht n khi n lng tr khi lng st trong tng B tng ln. 4. ph t t c th c xem l h sinh thi phc tp. Mt m3 t c th cha hng triu sinh vt sng bao gm cc loi gm nhm, cn trng, giun, to, nm v vi khun. Cc sinh vt ny quan trng trong vic xo trn v lm thng kh cc ht t, trong vic thi ra v chuyn i cht dinh dng trong t thnh cc dng hu ch cho thc vt. ph t l kh nng cung cp cht dinh dng ca t (nh N, P, K) cn thit cho s pht trin ca cy. t pht trin trn ng bng ngp lt cha y cht dinh dng v vt liu hu c c ph t nhin. Cc t khc pht trin trn cc ra la mnh hoc trn trm tch b ri t vt cht hu c hn, c th ngho dinh dng vi ph thp. t thng c canh tc gia tng sn lng thc vt bng vic b sung phn bn cung cp dinh dng hoc vt cht hu c nhm ci thin cu trc t v duy tr m. ph t c th suy gim do xi mn v ra la di chuyn cc cht dinh dng, bi s gin on cc qu trnh t nhin (nh l lt) cung cp cc cht dinh dng, hoc bng vic s dng lin tc thuc tr su lm bin i hoc tiu dit cc sinh vt t. Nc trong t Mt khi t bao gm cc mu khong vt cng v cht hu c vi cc khong rng gia chng. Khong rng c lp y cc kh (hu ht l khng kh) hoc cht lng (hu ht l nc). Nu tt c cc khong rng trong khi t c lp y nc, t ny c 21

gi l t bo ha nc; mt khc l t khng bo ha. t trong cc vng m ly b bo ha quanh nm, trong khi t cc vng kh hn ch thnh thong mi bo ha. Lng nc trong t gi l hm lng nc hoc m ca n, c th rt quan trng trong vic xc nh cc tnh cht k thut nh sc bn ca t v kh nng co gin ca n. V d, Nu bn tng xy lu i ct bi bin, bn bit rng ct kh khng th xy c, nhng ct m s to c cc bc tng cao cho lu i. S khc nhau gia t m v kh cng rt r rng cho mi ngi sng khu vc vi cc con ng t bi ngang qua t giu st. Khi t kh, cc iu kin i xe l tuyt vi, nhng khi tri ma, con ng tr nn ly li v rt kh di chuyn. Nc trong t c th chy v mt pha hoc theo chiu thng ng qua cc l rng t l cc khong trng gia cc ht hoc trong cc khe nt c to ra nh l kt qu ca cu trc t. Thut ng dng bo ha l ch nc lp y tt c cc l rng v dng khng bo ha ch mt phn l rng c nc lp y (thng ph bin hn). Nghin cu cc mi lin quan m t v s vn ng ca nc v cc cht lng khc trong t, cng vi vic quan trc s vn ng ca cc cht lng l mt ti nghin cu quan trng. N lin quan vi nhiu vn nhim nc nh s vn ng ca du ha do s r r ca cc bn cha ngm hoc s di chuyn ca cc cht nhim lng t cc v tr thi. 5. Phn loi t Chng ta phi lm quen vi hai h thng phn loi ring bit: nguyn tc phn loi t c cc nh khoa hc t s dng, v phn loi cu trc t bi cc kiu vt liu v cc tnh cht cng trnh Nguyn tc phn loi t (Soil taxonomy) Cc nh KH t pht trin phn loi t c tnh h thng c gi l soil taxonomy, ch ti cc tnh cht vt l v ha hc ca phu din t. Phn loi ny l h thng cp bc su phn: Loi (order), Ph loi (suborder), Nhm (Great Groups), Ph nhm (Subgroups), Chng (Familier) v Lot (Series). Mi Loi (Bng 3.1) c da vo hnh thi hc t s b (s lng v cc kiu tng hin din), trng thi dinh dng, hm lng hu c (vn thc vt,...), mu sc (, vng, nu, trng...) v nhng xem xt kh hu chung (lng ma, nhit trung bnh...). Cc cp cng thp hn, thng tin s cng chi tit hn Nguyn tc phn loi c bit hu dng cho cc mc ch nng nghip v s dng t lin quan. N b ph phn v qu phc tp v thiu thng tin kin trc v cng trnh y phc v cho cc mc ch cng trnh. Tuy nhin, cc nh khoa hc tri t nghim tc phi c kin thc phn loi ny v n c dng ph bin bi cc nh khoa hc t v cc nh a cht t (nhng ngi nghin cu cc vt liu tri t v cc qu trnh ca lch s tri t hin i (ko di 1.65 triu nm). Phn loi cu trc ca t H thng phn loi t hp nht, c dng rng ri trong thc tin cng trnh, trnh by Bng 3.2. V tt c cc t t nhin l s pha trn ca cc ht th (cui v ct), cc ht nh (bt v st), v vt cht hu c, phn chia ch yu ca h thng ny l cc t ht th, t ht mn v t hu c. Mi nhm c da vo kch thc ht u th hoc s phong ph ca cht hu c.

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t th l t cha hn 50% (theo trng lng) ht c ng knh > 0.074 mm. t mn l t cha < 50% ht t c ng knh > 0.074 mm. t hu c c hm lng hu c cao v c mu en hoc mu xm, i khi c mi trng thi (sulfua hydro phn hy). Cc tnh cht cng trnh ca t Tt c cc t trn gng nc (water table) (b mt di tt c cc khong trng trong b bo ha) c ba phn hoc pha ring bit: vt liu rn, dung dch, v kh (v d nh KK hoc CO2). Tnh hu ch ca t b nh hng ln bi nhng bin i v t l v cu trc ca ba pha ny. Cc kiu vt liu cng, kch thc ht, v hm lng nc l nhng bin s quan trng nht xc nh cc c im cu trc hoc tnh cht cng trnh. i vi cc nh qui hoch, c im cu trc quan trng nht ca t l do (plasticity), bn (strength), nhy (sensitivity), h s nn (compressibility), tnh n mn (erodibility), thm (permeability), kh nng gm mn, d o (ease of excavation) v kh nng co-gin (shrink-swell). do (plasticity) Lin quan n lng nc trong t, c dng gip phn loi t ht mn cho mc ch xy dng. Gii hn lng (LL) ca t l lng nc m vt qua t hot ng nh cht lng; gii hn do (PL) l lng nc di mc t khng cn hot ng nh vt liu do. Phn bit gia gii hn lng v do l ch s do (PI), dy v hm lng m trong t c tnh cht nh cht do. Cc t c ch s do rt thp (5%) c th gy ra cc vn v ch mt thay i nh trong hm lng nc c th lm thay i t t trng thi rn sang lng. Mt khc ch s PI ln, ln hn 35%, t c kh nng trng n v co ngt khi m t hoc kh. Sc bn (Strength) L kh nng ca t khng li s bin dng. Rt kh tng qut ha v sc bn ca t. Gi tr trung bnh ca sc bn t thng sai lch, v t thng l s kt hp ca s pha trn, cc i, hoc cc lp vt liu vi cc tnh cht vt l v ha hc khc nhau. bn ca mt kiu t c th l hm s ca dnh kt v lc ma st (cohesive and fritional forces). - dnh kt (cohesion) l s o v kh nng ca cc ht t dnh li vi nhau. Lc dnh ca cc ht trong t ht mn ch yu l do cc lc tnh in gia cc ht v l nhn t quan trng v bn ca t. Trong t ht th bo ha mt phn, cc mng m gia cc ht c th gy ra lc dnh r rng do sc cng b mt (Hnh 3.5). iu ny gii thch kh nng ct m (ri rc khi kh) to thnh bc tng ng ca cc lu i ct trn bi bin - Lc ma st (friction): Lc ma st gia cc ht cng gp phn vo sc bn ca t. Lc ma st tng l hm s ca mt , kch thc, v hnh dng ca cc ht t, cng nh trng lng ca cc ht nm trn p cc ht li vi nhau. Cc lc ma st c ngha nht trong cc t ht th nhiu ct v cui. Lc ma st gii thch ti sao bn khng ln chn khi i b trn ct kh bi bin. V hu ht cc t l s pha trn cc ht th v mn, nn sc bn lun l kt qu ca c lc dnh v ma st trong. Mc du vy khi qut ha st v t giu hu c c xu hng sc bn thp hn t ht th l rt nguy him. Thc vt c th gi vai tr quan trng v bn t. V d, cc r cy c th cung cp lc dnh ng k qua vic buc cc m r lin tc hoc neo cc r ri rc vo gc bn di lp t mng trn sn dc. 23

 nhy (sensitivity) nhy o c s bin i v sc bn t do nhng nhiu lon nh rung ng hoc khai qut. t ct v cui si khng c st c nhy nh nht. Khi cc vt liu mn nhiu hn, t s nhy hn. Mt s loi t st c th mt 75% hoc nhiu hn sc bn ca chng theo sau s nhiu lon. Ct vi lng nc cao c th ha lng khi b chn ng hoc rung. Qu trnh ny gi l s ha lng (liquefaction). quan st hin tng ny, ng trn ct t bi bin v rung bn chn. Ct s ha lng v chn bn s hi ln xung. H s nn (compressibility) H s nn l s o xu hng c kt ca t, hoc l s gim khi lng. H s nn l hm s mt phn bn cht co gin ca cc ht t v lin quan trc tip ti s st ln ca cng trnh. S ln qu mc s lm nt mng v tng nh. Cc vt liu ht th nh cui v ct c h s nn thp, v ln s thp hn nhiu trong cc vt liu ny. cc t ht mn v t hu c c ln cao. H s xi mn (Erodibility) H s xi mn c lin quan ti s d dng m t c th b di chuyn bi gi v nc. Cc vt liu b xm thc d dng (cc t vi tc nhn xi mn cao) bao gm t bt, ct, v cc vt liu b ri khc khng c bo v. Cc t dnh kt (hn 20% st) v t c gn kt t nhin th khng d b xi mn bi gi v nc v bi vy c nhn t xi mn thp. thm (permeability) thm l s o s d vn ng ca nc qua vt liu t. Cui si sch hoc ct c thm cao nht. Khi cc ht mn pha trn vo cui si v ct, thm gim xung. St nhn chung c thm rt thp. gm mn (Corrosion) gm mn l s phn hy phong ha chm hoc phong ha ha hc t b mt vo trong t. Mi vt th b chn trong t nh cc ng ng, dy cp, m neo, ct hng ro cng l i tng gm mn. Sc gm mn ca t c th ph thuc vo tnh cht ha hc ca c t, vt liu c chn v lng nc c sn. Ngi ta quan st thy rng t cng d dn in (in tr sut thp do nc trong t nhiu hn) th kh nng gm mn cao hn. Bi vy, s o in tr sut t l mt cch nh gi tai bin gm mn. Tnh d o (Ease of excavation) Tnh d o lin quan n th tc, thit b c yu cu di chuyn t trong xy dng. C ba nhm k thut khai o chung. Khai o thng thng: c thc hin vi ng c, cuc, gu mc. V c bn, thit b ny o t m khng phi gt n trc (hu ht cc loi t c th di chuyn bng qu trnh ny). Khai o Rippable: i hi xi t ln vi rng c bit trc khi di chuyn (cc v d gm t nn cht hoc gn kt). N hoc ct : thng l t tin nht (v d, t gn kt bng silic cng, nh btng, c th phi ct vi ba khoan di chuyn. Tim nng co ngt v trng n (Shrink-swell potential) 24

Tim nng co ngt v trng n lin quan n xu hng thu hoc mt nc. t c xu hng tng hoc gim khi lng cng vi lng nc gi l trng n. S trng n gy ra bi sc ht ha hc ca cc phn t nc ti cc ht dt siu nh, hoc cc tm mng, hoc cc khong st no . Cc tm mng ch yu gm cc nguyn t silic, nhm v oxy, v cc lp nc c b sung vo gia cc tm ny khi st trng n hoc phng ln (Hnh 3.6a). t trng n thng c ch s do cao phn nh xu hng ht nhiu nc khi trng thi do. Montmorilonit l khong vt st ph bin c kt hp vi hu ht t trng n. Vi lng nc y , montmorilonit tinh khit c th n ti 15 ln khi lng ban u ca chng, nhng may mn thay hu ht cc loi t ch cha hn ch s lng st ny, cho nn him khi i vi loi t trng n phng ln qu 25 n 50%. Tuy vy, s gia tng khi lng hn 3% c xem l tai bin Cc t trng n nc M gy ra cc vn mi trng ng k, nh mt trong nhng tai bin t nhin thit hi nht ca chng ta, l nguyn nhn thit hi hn hai t ng mi nm cho cc ng cao tc, cc ta nh v cc cng trnh khc. Mi nm hn 250,000 ngi nh mi c xy dng trn cc t trng n. Trong s khong 60% b mt s h hi nh nh nt mng, tng hoc ng i (Hnh 3.6b,c), nhng 10% b ph hy nghim trng-mt s khng sa cha c. Nhng ph hy cu trc trn t trng n gy ra bi nhng bin i th tch trong t phn hi nhng bin i v lng m. Cc nhn t tc ng n lng m ca t trng n bao gm kh hu, thc vt, a hnh, mng thot nc, kim sot v tr, v cht lng cng trnh. Cc vng nh ty nam nc M c mt ma m t r rt tip sau l mt ma kh, nh th cho php xut hin s co ngt-trng n u n, c kh nng tri qua vn t trng n nhiu hn nhng vng ni m lng ma c phn b nhiu hn trong c nm. Thc vt c th gy ra nhng bin i lng m ca t. Nht l trong sut ma kh, cc cy ln ht v dng rt nhiu m t cc b to iu kin cho t co li (Hnh 3.6b). Bi vy, trong cc vng t trng n, khng nn trng cy gn st mng cc cng trnh nh (nh nh). a hnh v mng thot nc cng nh hng ng k v a hnh bt li v nhng iu kin thot nc to ra ao nc xung quanh hoc gn cng trnh, lm tng ln phng ca cc st trng n. Tuy nhin, cc nh thu c th lm rt nhiu trnh vn ny. Mu th trong phng th nghim trc khi xy dng c th nhn dng t vi tim nng co ngt v trng phng. Thit k thch hp cc dng gn mt, cc rnh nc ma v mng c th gim thiu s ph hy lin quan vi cc t trng n bng vic ci thin rnh thot v cho mng iu chnh cht t s co ngt-trng phng ca t. R rng rng mt s t c mong mun s dng c bit hn cc t khc. Cc nh qui hoch quan tm ti vic s dng t s khng lm cc th nghim t nh gi cc tnh cht cng trnh ca t, nhng h s c chun b tt hn thit k vi bn cht v li dng cc iu kin a cht nu h hiu thut ng c bn v cc nguyn l v cc vt liu tri t. Tho lun ca chng ta v cc tnh cht cng trnh xy dng hai nguyn l chung. 25

1) Trc tin, v bn thp, nhy cao, h s nn cao, thm thp, v tim nng co ngt-trng phng bin i, t st nn c trnh trong cc n lin quan ti cc cng trnh nng, cc cng trnh vi ln cho php ti thiu, hoc cc n i hi t thot nc tt. 2) Th hai, cc t c tim nng gm mn cao hoc cc t d khai o nn c trnh nu c th. Nu cc t nh th khng trnh c, th cn quan tm thm, cc vt liu c bit v/hoc cc k thut v gi khi u cao hn trung bnh (qui hoch, thit k, v xy dng) phi c tnh n. Cc chi ph th sinh (vn hnh v bo tr) cng c th ln hn. Bng 3.3 tm tt cc tnh cht cng trnh ca cc t di dng phn loi t thng nht. 6. Tc xi mn Tc xi mn t l th tch, khi lng, hoc trng lc ca t v xi mn t mt v tr trong mt thi gian v khu vc c th (v d, kg/nm/ha) thay i vi cc tnh cht cng trnh ca t, s dng t, a hnh v kh hu. C mt s phng php o c tc xi mn t. Phng php trc tip nht l thc hin cc s o trn sn dc qua thi k cc nm (t nht vi nm) v s dng cc gi tr ny nh l i din ca xi mn xy ra trn mt khu vc rng hn v khong thi gian di hn. Tuy nhin phng php ny thng khng thc hin c v cc d liu t cc sn ring l v cc lu vc rt kh t c. Phng php th hai l s dng cc d liu t c t vic kho st cc h cha tnh ton nhng thay i sc cha nc ca h (Bng 3.4); s suy yu sc cha cho chng ta bit v khi lng trm tch c gi li trong h. Nu chng ta s dng d liu ny t nhiu h cha, chng ta c th thu c ng cong tc sn lng trm tch cho ton b vng. Hnh 3.7 l mt v d ng cong nh th cho cc lu vc ty nam nc M. Phng php cui cng l s dng phng trnh tnh ton tc trm tch b xm thc t mt v tr ring bit. Phng trnh thng dng ph bin nht l Phng trnh mt t ph dng (Universal Soil Loss Equation). Phng trnh ny s dng cc d liu v dng trn ma, kch thc v hnh dng ca sn dc, lp ph t v cc bin php kim sot xm thc d bo lng t di chuyn t v tr gc ca n. 7. nhim trm tch Trm tch c th l cht nhim ln nht ca chng ta. Trong nhiu khu vc, nhim trm tch lm tc nghn dng chy, lp y trong cc h, bn cha nc, h o, knh, cng, chn vi thc vt v ni chung to ra s kh khn cho s di chuyn. Trm tch nhim t nhin-t b xi lm suy kit t ti v tr gc ca n (Hnh 3.8), l gim cht lng nc m n vo, v c th lng ng cc vt liu v ch trn t ma mng sn xut hoc cc t hu dng khc (Hnh 3.9). Tc suy gim dung tch do trm tch lp y ao v cc h cha c trnh by bng 3.4. D liu ny cho thy rng cc h nh s lp y trm tch trong vi thp k. CHNG 4: CC TAI BIN T NHIN: TNG QUAN 1.Cc tai bin l qu trnh t nhin Tri t l h thng tin ha ng lc vi nhng tng tc phc tp ca cc qu trnh bn trong v bn ngoi. Cc qu trnh ni sinh gy ra s dch chuyn cc mng thch quyn ln v cc lc a. S tng tc ti cc khp ni mng pht sinh ng sut ni sinh, gy ra s bin dng t , dn n ng t, hot ng ni la, v s trn kin to (s di chuyn chm dc theo t gy). Cc qu trnh ny gy ra nhng s kin bn ngoi nh trt t, l bn, v sng thn. Nhng s kin bn ngoi khc nh dng nc v hot ng 26

ca sng do nhng tng tc bn ngoi ca thy quyn, kh quyn v thch quyn, m ngay c nhng s kin ny cng b nh hng bi cc qu trnh ni sinh. V d, trn lt d di c th do bo gy ra, nhng bn cht v qui m ca trn lt li b tc ng bi cc dng a hnh vng ln cn b bin m c to bi cc lc trong lng t. Tng t nh th, hot ng ca nc chy v sng xi (mn a hnh) b tc ng bi mt t nng ln. Cc qu trnh a cht tai bin, hoc cc tai bin t nhin, xut hin nh k gy ra cc thm hc t nhin-cc s kin gy mt mt sinh mng v ti sn. Hu nh con ngi t ch ti cc qu trnh ny cho ti khi thm ha tn cng. Thi v tnh ny c nhng nguyn nhn phc tp: n phn nh c nhng ngi lc quan cm nhn v s sng v nh ca ca h v s hiu bit gii hn v cc hin tng t nhin. Phn hai ca cun sch ny c thit k cung cp cho sinh vin kin thc c bn v cc qu trnh a cht ni sinh v ngoi sinh gy ra cc thm ha v con ngi phn ng ra sao vi cc qu trnh tai bin ny. Trong sut hai thp k qua, cc thm ha thin nhin nh ng t, l lt, lc, bo git cht vi triu ngi trn hnh tinh ny, trung bnh khong 150,000 ngi cht mi nm. S thit hi ti chnh trn 20 t la cha tnh n nhng tn tht x hi nh tht nghip, au kh v mt tinh thn, nng lc sn xut suy gim. Hai thm ha rin bit, lc xoy cng vi l lt Bangladesh nm 1970 v ng t Trung Quc nm 1976, mi s kin cp i trn 300,000 sinh mng. Nm 1991 mt trn lc xoy khc nh vo Bangladesh git cht 145,000 ngi. Nm 1995 ng t Kobe, Nht bn git cht trn 5000 ngi, ph hy nhiu ngn ta nh, thit hi ti sn trn 100 t la. Nhng thm ha khng khip ny do cc tai bin t nhin lung tn ti gy ra nh nhiu lon kh quyn v vn ng kin to nhng qui m ca chng b nh hng bi mt dn s v cc kiu s dng t. Tai bin t nhin khng g khc hn l cc qu trnh t nhin. Chng tr thnh cc tai bin khi con ngi sng v lm vic trong cc vng ni cc qu trnh ny xut hin. Cng vic ca cc nh a cht mi trng l nhn dng cc qu trnh tai bin tim nng v to ra cc thng tin c gi tr cho cc nh qui hoch v cc nh ra quyt nh h xy dng cng thc la chn khc nhau nhm trnh hoc gim thiu s e da i vi sinh mng con ngi v ti sn. Tuy nhin, tnh cch t nhin ca cc tai bin l ro cn ng nhin m chng ta chm trn mi khi chng ta c gng gim thim nhng tc ng bt li ca chng. Tc ng ca s kin thm ha phn phn l hm s ca cng (lng nng lng thot ra) v tn xut (khong lp li), nhng n li b nh hng bi nhiu nhn t khc bao gm kh hu, a cht, thc vt, dn s v s dng t. Nhn chung, tn xut ca cc s kin nh th c quan h nghch vi tn xut. V d, cc trn ng t nh xut hin thng xuyn hn cc trn ng t ln. Nhng nm 1990 c Lin hp quc chn l Thp k Quc t v gim thiu thin tai. Mc tiu ca chng trnh ny gim thiu mt mt sinh mng v thit hi ti sn do cc tai bin t nhin. t c mc tiu ny s i hi cc phng php gim nh c cc tai bin vt l c trng v cc tai bin sinh vt hc thng i km vi chng. V d, ng t v l lt, nc c th b nhim bi vi khun, gia tng s lan trn bnh tt. 2.Li ch ca tai bin t nhin Tht ma mai thay, cng mt s kin t nhin ly i sinh mng con ngi v ph hy ti sn li cho chng ta nhng ti sn quan trng. L sng cung cp cc cht dinh dng cho cc ng bng ngp lt nh trong trng hp ca sng Mississippi v sng Nile trc khi xy dng o Aswan. L cng gy xi mn trn cc sn ni, phn phi trm tch 27

xung cc bi bin t cc con sng v di cc cht nhim t ca sng vo mi trng ven b. Trt t mang nhng li ch cho con ngi khi mnh vn trt t hnh thnh cc p, to thnh cc h khu vc min ni. Cc h ny cung cp kho nc c gi tr ln v l ti nguyn m quan quan trng. Cc phn xut ni la, trong khi c tim nng to ra cc thm ha thc s, li cung cp cho chng ta nhiu li ch. Thnh thong chng to ra t mi: V d, cc o Hawaii hon ton c ngun gc ni la giu dinh dng c th lng trn cc t c trc v nhanh chng kt hp vi chng. Tng t, ng t cng cung cp cho chng ta cc dch v c gi tr ln. Khi cc b ph hy trong lc xy ra ng t, chng c th to ra cc i st khng thm nc c gi l st lp y t gy (fault gouge) dc theo t gy. nhiu ni i st ny hnh thnh ro chn pha trn sn dc t t gy to nn p tch nc t nhin gn b mt. ng t cng quan trng trong xy dng min ni v l nguyn nhn trc tip cho s hnh thnh nhiu ti nguyn cnh quan ca nc M. 3.Tn tht do tai bin thin nhin Khi chng ta so snh cc nh hng ca cc tai bin khc nhau, chng ta thy rng nhng tai bin gy ra s mt mt sinh mng cng khng ging nhau. S ngi cht nhiu nht mi nm lin quan n lc xoy v bo, mc du st, l, v bo nhit i cng gy thit hi nng. Cht ngi do ng t c th bin ng ng k theo tng nm, mt trn ng t ln ring l c th git rt nhiu ngi. Ngi ta c lng rng phn dn c ng c ca California c th phi chu 100 t la thit hi trong khi ch vi ngn ngi cht. Nm 1994 ng t Northridge (rng nhng khng ln) Los Angeles git cht khong 60 ngi v tn tht khong 20 n 30 t la ti sn. L lt, trt t, t trng n v ng gi, mi loi s kin cng gy ra nhng tn tht trung bnh nc M khong 1.5 t la. t trng l cng l mt trong nhng tai bin gy thit hi nht, mi nm trn 3 t la. Mt kha cnh quan trng ca tt c cc tai bin t nhin l tim nng to ra thm ha, c nh ngha l mi hon cnh m trong nhng tn tht v ngi v ti sn, hoc x hi ni chung i hi s phc hi lu di. Nhng s kin c kh nng to ra thm ha nhiu nht l l, bo hit i, lc xoy, ng t v phn xut ni la. Trt t, nhn chung ch xy ra trn din tch nh nn ch c tim nng thm ha va phi. Tim nng thm ha ca hn hn cng va phi: mc du hn hn c th xut hin trn din tch rng, thng c nhiu thi gian cnh bo trc khi nhng nh hng ti t nht din ra. Cc tai bin vi tim nng thm ha thp bao gm xm thc b bin, ng gi, st v t trng n. Nhng nh hng ca tai bin t nhin thay i theo thi gian do nhng thay i v cc kiu s dng t, tc ng n con ngi pht trin cc khu vc t ven ra; th ha lm bin i tnh cht vt l cc vt liu t v dn s gia tng. Thit hi do hu ht cc tai bin nc M ang tng ln, nhng s ngi cht t nhiu tai bin ang gim xung do cng tc d bo v cnh bo tai bin tt hn. 4.D bo thm ha v nh gi ri ro Bit cch d bo tai bin nn chng ta c th gim thiu mt mt sinh mng v thit hi ti sn l mt c gng ca chng ta. Vi mi mt tai bin c th chng ta phi c mt lng thng tin nht nh- trong mt s trng hp d bo cc s kin. Khi khng c thng tin c nhng d bo chnh xc, tt nht m chng ta c th lm l khoanh nh nhng khu vc ni m nhng s kin tai bin xut hin v suy lun ni m cc s kin tng lai tng t c th xy ra. Nu chng ta bit iu c th xy ra v nhng hu qu c 28

th ca mt s kin xut hin mt v tr c th, chng ta c th nh gi tnh cht s kin (pose) i vi con ngi v ti sn, ngay cc khi chng ta khng th d bo chnh xc khi n s xy ra. D bo thm ha Nhng nh hng ca thm ha ring bit c th c gim thiu nu chng ta c th d bo s kin ny v a ra cnh bo (issue a warming). C gng thc hin vic ny trong hon cnh nht nh bao gm hu ht hoc tt c cc yu t sau y: nhn dng v tr ca tai bin, xc nh xc xut m s kin vi cng nht nh s xut hin, quan st nhng s kin bo trc, d bo s kin v a ra cnh bo. a.V tr: Phn nhiu, chng ta bit ni m loi s kin c th c kh nng xi ra. qui m ton cu nhng i ng t v phn xut ni la c phc tho bng vic lp bn cc chn tm ng t v cc ni la, cc ni la tr. qui m khu vc, chng ta bit t nhng phn xut qu kh m cc khu vc ln cn ca nhng ni la no c th b e da bi cc dng bn ln hoc tro trong s kin ca phn xut tng lai. Ri ro ny c th c phc tho cho mt s ni la Cascade, bao gm Mt. Rainier, cho cc ni la c th Nht bn, Italy, Colombia, v nhng ni khc. qui m a phng, nhng m t chi tit v t, v thy vn c th nhn dng cc sn dc c kh nng trt l (trt t) hoc ni m t trng n tn ti. Chc chn chng ta c th d bo ni m l chc chn xut hin, t v tr ca ng bng ngp lt v nhng chng c nh th t nhng trn lt mi nh vt liu l v nhng du vt ngp cao. b.Xc sut xut hin: xc nh xc sut m mt hin tng ring bit s xut hin ti mt v tr ring bit trong trong mt thi gian ring bit l mt b phn cn thit ca d bo tai bin. i vi nhiu con sng, chng ta c nhng d liu di y v dng chy pht trin m hnh xc sut m c th d bo hp l s lng trung bnh cc trn lt vi cng no s xy ra trong mi nm. Mc du trn lt mi nm c th xut hin trung bnh 10 nm mt ln, c th i vi mt vi trn lt cng ny xy ra vo bt c nm no. c.Nhng vn dc bo trc: rt nhiu s kin tai bin c bo trc bi nhng du hiu xy ra trc. V d, mt t c th trn (di chuyn chm chp) trong thi k di trc khi trt t thc s. Thng tc trn tng ln ti s st l v trt t cui cng. i khi ni la cng phng ln hoc phnh ra trc khi phn xut, v thng s gia tng ng k xut hin trong hot ng a chn cc b khu vc xung quanh ni la. Nhng sc bo trc v s nng d thng c th xy ra trc ng t. Nhng s kin bo trc gip d on thi gian v v tr m s kin c th xy ra. Trn trt t hoc s phng ln ca ni la c th dn n cnh bo c a ra v mi ngi s tn khi khu vc tai bin. d.D bo: Vi mt s qu trnh t nhin c th d bo mt cch chnh xc khi s kin n. L ca sng Mississippi xut hin trong ma xun trong s phn ng tan tuyt hoc cc h thng bo khu vc ln hon ton c th d bo c, v chng ta c th d bo khi no thi gian sng s t giai on l c th. Khi cc cn bo nhit i c pht hin rt xa ngoi bin v hng vo b bin, chng ta c th d bo thi gian v v tr m chng c th nh vo t lin. Tsunamis, v sng bin a chn, pht sinh bi s nhiu lon nc i dng do ng t hoc ni la di bin cng c th c bo trc c th kh thnh cng, v trong mt s trng hp thi gian sng n c d bo chnh xc. e.Cnh bo tai bin: sau khi s kin tai bin c d on hoc d bo c thc hin, cng chng phi c cnh bo. Dng thng tin dn n cnh bo thin tai c th xy ra 29

nh trn ng t ln hoc lt nn vn ng dc theo con ng tng t nh hnh 4.5. Tuy nhin, cng chng khng lun n nhn nhng cnh bo nh vy, nht l khi s kin c d bo khng xy ra trong qu kh. Trong nm 1982, khi cc nh a cht khuyn rng phn xut ni la gn H Mammoth, California, hon ton c kh nng, s t vn ny lm mt kinh koanh du lch v s e s ca mt b phn dn c. S phun tro khng xy ra v s t vn cui cng c hy b. Vo thng 7 nm 1986. Mt lot trn ng t xy ra trong thi k bn ngy vng ln cn ca Bishop, Lanifornia, ng Sierra Nevada, bt u vi trn ng t chn cp 3 v ln n cc im trong trn ng t ph hy ca chn cp 6.1. Cc nh iu tra kt lun co xc sut cao mt trn ng t ln hn s xut hin khu vc k cn trong tng lai gn v a ra cnh bo. Nhng ch kinh doanh a phng s mt ngnh du lch ma h, cm thy rng, thc ra cnh bo ny l v trch nhim, trn ng t c d bo khng bao gi thnh hin thc. Nhng rc ri thuc kiu ny dn mt s ngi n kt lun rng nhng d on khoa hc l khng c gi tr v rng nhng cnh bo t vn khng nn c a ra. Phn ca vn ny l thng tin ngho nn gia cc nh khoa hc nghin cu v cc phng vin cho phng tin truyn thng i chng. Bo ch, TV, v thng bo radio khng th gii thch bng chng hoc bn cht ca d bo thm ha, lm cho cng chng mong ch nhng tuyn b hon ton chc chn iu s xy ra. Mc du cc nh khoa hc cha c kh nng d on nhng phn xut ni la v ng t mt cch chnh xc, dng nh rng h c trch nhim cng khai nhng phn on c hiu bit ca h. Cng chng am hiu c kh nng tt hn cho trch nhim hnh ng tt hn cng chng khng am hiu, thm ch ch ny lm cho mi ngi kh chu. Cc thuyn trng ph thuc vo nhng t vn thi tit v nhng cnh bo cc iu kin thay i khng a ra gi thuyt rng h s tt hn khng bit v trn bo sp xy n, ngay cho l trn bo i hng i v chch khi con tu. Ch khi cc cnh bo thi tit chng minh rt hu ch cho k hoch, nhng cnh bo chnh thc v tai bin nh ng t, trt t v l cng s hu ch cho mi ngi quyt nh v ni h sng, lm vic v du lch. Mt ln na xem xt d bo phn xut ni la khu vc H Mammoth ca California. Cc d liu a chn gi cho cc nh khoa hc rng nng chy ang di chuyn ln b mt. Xt thy xc sut cao rng ni la s phn xut v kh nng mt sinh mng nu iu xy ra, s l v trch nhim cho cc nh khoa hc khng a ra t vn. Mc du phn xut khng xy ra, cnh bo dn n s pht trin cc l trnh s tn v cn nhc s sng sng cho tai bin. k hoch ny c th t ra rt hu ch, v chc chn rng phn xut ni la s xut hin khu vc H Mammoth trong tng lai. S kin mi nht xut hin ch cch nay 600 nm; kt qu ca d bo ny, cng ng c s am hiu tt hn trc v nh th c kh nng x l phn xut tt hn nu n xy ra. nh gi ri ro Trc khi con ngi c l tr c th tho lun v xem xt iu chnh tai bin, h phi c tng hay v ri ro m h i mt di nhng kch bn khc nhau. Lnh vc nh gi ri l lnh vc pht trin nhanh trong vic phn tch cc tai bin, v vic s dng v p dng n c th c m rng. Ri ro ca mt s kin c th c nh ngha l sn phm xc sut ca thi gian xut hin s kin m hu qu s xy ra. Cc hu qu (thit hi v ngi, ti sn, hot ng kinh t, dch v cng cng...) c th c biu l cc qui m khc nhau. V d, nu chng ta ang xem xt ri ro t thit hi ng t ti l phn ng ht nhn, chng ta c th nh gi nhng hu qu di dng phong x r r m c th lin quan ti nhng thit hi v ngi 30

hoc nhng sinh vt sng khc. Trong bt k mt nh gi nh th, iu quan trng l tnh ton cc ri ro cho cc s kin khc nhau-trong v d ny, cho cc trn ng t c cng khc nhau. S kin ln c xc xut xy ra thp hn s kin nh, nhng nhng hu qu ca n th chc chn ln hn. Xc nh ri ro c th chp nhn c th phc tp hn, i vi ri ro m x hi hoc cc c th sn sng chp nhn hon cnh (are willing to take depends upon the situation). Li xe l kh ri ro, nhng hu ht chng ta chp nhn rng ri ro l mt phn ca cuc sng trong th gii hin i. Mt khc, ri ro c th chp nhn c t nh my nng lng ht nhn th rt thp v chng ta coi hu ht mi ri ro ca cht c phng x khng th chp nhn c. Cc nh my nng lng ht nhn c th gy ra tranh lun v nhiu ngi nhn thc chng l nhng phng tin ri ro cao. Thm ch xc sut ri ro do tai bin a cht nh ng t c th hon ton thp, nhng hu qu c th cao, dn n ri ro kh cao. Vn tn xut ca phn tch ri ro l thiu nhng d liu ng tin tng phn tch hoc xc xut hoc nhng hu qu ca mt s kin. Rt kh xc nh xc xut cho nhng s kin a cht nh ng t v phn xut ni la, v nin i cc s kin qu kh bit c thng khng tha ng. Tng t, c th rt kh xc nh nhng hu qu ca mt s kin hoc lot s kin. V d, nu chng ta quan tm n cc hu qu phng x r r vo mi trng. Chng ta cn nhiu thng tin v sinh vt, a cht, thy vn v kh hu a phng, mi thng tin ny c th phc tp v kh phn tch. Mc d nhng gii hn ny, phn tch ri ro l mt bc trong hng ng. Khi chng ta hc thm v vic xc nh xc xut v nhng hu qu ca s kin tai bin, chng ta s c kh nng cung cp nhng phn tch tin tng hn cn thit cho vic ra quyt nh. 5.Phn ng ca con ngi vi tai bin Cc cch m chng ta x l tai bin thng trc ht l phn ng. Tip theo chng ta tin hnh tm kim v cu h, cha chy, cung cp thc phm, nc v ch n nu. Khng th ph nhn rng nhng hot ng ny gim s mt mt sinh mng v ti sn v cn c tip tc. Tuy nhin, di chuyn n mc gim thiu tai bin cao hn yu cu nhiu n lc hn lng trc nhng thm ha v tc ng ca chng. Qui hoch s dng t trnh nhng v tr tai bin, xy dng chng tai bin, v nhng gim thiu hoc kim sot tai bin l nhng iu chnh lng trc nhng s kin thm ha tng lai v c th gim thiu s tn thng ca chng ta i vi chng. i ph thm ha Tc ng ca thm ha i vi dn s c th hoc l trc tip hoc l gin tip. Nhng nh hng trc tip bao gm ngi b cht, b thng, chuyn ch, hoc b nhng tn tht khc bi nhng s kin c th. Nhng nh hng gin tip ni chung l s phn ng thm ha. Chng bao gm au n tinh thn, quyn gp tin hoc hng ha, v thanh ton thu thu c ti tr cho s phc hi. Cc tc ng trc tip tc ng n t c th hn, trong khi cc tc ng gin tip tc ng n nhiu ngi hn. Cc giai on phc hi sau thm ha l cng vic khn cp, khi phc cc dch v, cc ng thng tin, v ti thit. Hnh 4.6 trnh by m hnh phc hi l tng. M hnh ny c th c p dng cho cc hot ng phc hi thc s sau s kin nh trn ng t Northridge nm 1994 khu vc Los Angeles. S khi phc sau ng t bt u gn nh ngay lp tc (ng xc c sa cha, cc phng tin c phc hi, etc.) phn ng dng dola t cc chng trnh lin bang, cc cng ty bo him, v cc ngun khc trong 31

vi tun v thng u sau ng t. Cc khu vc b thit hi chuyn nhanh chng t pha phc hi n giai on Ti thit I (ko di n khong nm 2000). Khi chng ta di chuyn vo giai on Ti thit II sau ng t Northridge, ghi nh nhng bi hc t hai thm ha qua l quan trng: ng t 1994 nh vo Anchorage, Alaska, v l qut ph hy Rapid City, South Dakota, nm 1972. S phc hi sau ng t Anchorage bt u ngay lp tc phn ng dng la khng l t cc chng trnh lin bang, cc cng ty bo him v cc ngun khc khong mt thng sau ng t. Kt qu l, s ti thit l qu trnh cung nhit, vi mi ngi c ginh tin ti tr sn c cng nhiu cng tt. Rapid City, s khi phc khng t nh ti tn khong 10 tun sau trn lt, v cng ng mt thi gian suy ngh cn thn qua nhng la chn tt nht. Kt qu l, Rapid City ngy nay c s dng t trn ng bng ngp lt khc hon to, v tai bin l lt gim thiu nhiu. Tri li, Anchorage s khi phc v ti thit nhanh i cng vi vi qui hoch s dng t rt t. Cc cn h v cc ta nh khc c xy dng vi vng ngang qua cc khu vc b ph hy mt t....Pht l nhng li ch tim nng ca qui hoch s dng t cn thn, Anchorage c th b cng mt kiu ng t gy thit hi m xy ra vo nm 1964. Rapid City, by gi ng bng ngp lt l ai mu xanh vi cc bi chi gn v cc hot ng khc-s bin i gim tai bin ngp lt. Trong trng hp ca Northridge, cc tc ng ca ng t trn cc ng vt v cc cu, cc ta nh, v cc cu trc khc ang c nh gi xc nh cc tiu chun cng trnh c ci tin ra sao xy dng nhng cu trc mi hoc tng cng nhng cu trc mi hn c th c b sung trong thi k Ti thit II. Nhng trn ng t va phi n ln th chc chn xy ra ln na khu vc Los Angeles. Bi vy, chng ta cn tip tc cc n lc gim thiu tai bin ng t khu vc ny. Ngn chn phng nga Nhng la chn m chng ta quyt nh, v mt cc nhn hoc x hi, trnh v gim thiu cc tc ng ca thm ha ph thuc mt phn vo nhn thc tai bin ca chng ta. tng lm vic tt c thc hin trong nhng nm gn y c gng hiu cc tai bit khc nhau th no. iu ny quan trng v s thnh cng ca cc chng trnh gim thiu tai bin ph thuc v quan im ca con ngi c kh nng b tc ng bi tai bin. Mc du c th c nhn thc ph hp v tai bin mc c quan, iu ny khng th thm xung dn chng chung. iu ny l c bit ng cho nhng s kin xy ra khng thng xuyn; mi ngi c y thc hn v nhng hon cnh nh bi cy hoc cc m chy rng m c th xut hin vi nm mt ln. Thm ch c th c th ch ha cng nh nhng qui nh a phng kim sot nhng thit hi do nhng s kin ny. V d, cc ngi nh mt s khu vc nam California c lp bng cc tm vn khng d chy v i khi c c cc h thng bnh phu nc, v nhng l t thng c lm sch cy bi. Nhng bin php an ton nh th thng d nhn thy trong pha ti thit sau chy. Mt trong nhng iu chnh hp l nht v mt mi trng i vi tai bin i hi phi qui hoch s dng t. l, mi ngi trnh xy dng trn cc ng bng ngp lt, nhng khu vc ni m c trt t hot ng, hoc nhng v tr ni m xi l b bin chc chn xy ra. nhiu thnh ph, cc ng bng ngp lt c phc tho v phn vng cho vic s dng t c th, i vi trt t, nhng i hi php l v nghin cu cng trnh t v a cht cng trnh ti cc v tr xy dng c th gim ng k nhng thit hi tim nng. Nhng thit hi do xi l b bin c th c gim thiu bng vic yu cu s tht vo thch hp ca cc cng trnh t ng b hoc vch bin. Mc du c th kim sot cc qu trnh vt l trong cc trng hp c bit, qui hoch s dng t iu chnh 32

cc qu trnh t nhin thng thch hp hn s dng k thut m c th hoc khng th thc hin. Bo him L s la chn khc m mi ngi c th thc hin trong x l tai bin t nhin. Bo him l l ph bin trong nhiu khu vc, bo him ng t cng c th. Tuy nhin, v nhng mt mt ln sau ng t Northridge 1994, mt s cng ty bo him thng bo h khng cn cung cp bo him ny. S tn L la chn quan trng hoc iu chnh tai bin bo nhit i cc bang doc Vnh Mexico hoc dc b ng ca nc M. Thng c thi gian cho mi ngi s tn, h ch n nhng d bo v cnh bo. Tuy nhin nu mi ngi khng phn ng nhanh v khu vc b nh hng l mt vng th rng ln, th nhng tuyn l trnh s tn c th b nghn bi dn c ri khi trong s hong lon pht cui cng. S chun b trc tai bin L s la chn m cc c th, gia nh, cc thnh ph, cc bang hoc ton b cc quc gia c th thc hin. iu quan trng y l hun luyn cc c nhn v cc c quan di chuyn mt lng ln ngi b thng v nhng ngi c gng s tn khi khu vc sau khi cnh bo c a ra. Nhng c gng hng vo kim sot nhn to cc qu trnh t nhin nh trt t, l, v dng dung nham c s thnh cng pha trn. Ngay c nhng cu trc nhn to thit k tt nht cng khng th c mong i bo v chng li s kin cc oan. Nhng bc tng ngn v nhng cu trc khc bo v sn dc khi trt ni chung l thnh cng khi c thit k tt. Ngay c ngi quan st thiu trch nhim c th nhn xt s khc nhau ca nhng cu trc nh th dc theo cc xa l v t th cc khu vc i. Cc cu trc bo v sn dc c tc ng hn ch ti mi trng v cn thit ni m cng trnh i hi s ct nhn to c khai o hoc ni m sn dc bt n tc ng n cu trc nhn sinh. Cc phng php thng thng kim st l l xy dng p v . ng tic, cc n kim sot l c xu hng cung cp cho dn c ng bng ngp lt thc sai lm v s an ton v khng c phng php no c th mong i c bo v mi ngi v ti sn ca h mt cch tuyt i khi nhng trn lt cng cao. Mt la chn m mi ngi thng chn n gin l chu ng mt mt do thin tai gy ra. Rt nhiu ngi lc quan v nhng c hi ca h qua mi loi thm ha v bi vy hnh ng t trong s bo v chnh h. iu ny thc s ng cho nhng loi tai bin-nh phn xut ni la v ng t-m ha hon lm mi xy ra mt khu vc c th. Khng ch v mt chin lc chng ta la chn hoc hoc gim thiu hoc trnh tai bin, vic cp bch l chng ta hiu v thy trc nhng tai bin v nhng tc ng vt l, sinh vt, kinh t, v x hi ca chng. 6.Kh hu ton cu v cc tai bin S bin i ton cu v vng c th tc ng ng k n phm vi nh hng ca s kin tai in t nhin nh ph hy bo (l v xi mn), trt t, hn hn, v chy,. iu ny i khi c minh ha mt cc n tng bi El Nino, mt s kin kh hu xut hin vi nm mt ln. Trong thi k El Nino, gi mu dch tr nn yu i hoc thm ch i chiu; Thi Bnh Dng pha ng xch o tr nn nng d thng; v dng i dng xch o di chuyn v pha ty tr nn yu hoc i chiu. El Nino c cho l gy ra s gia tng d di trong mt s thm ha qui m gn ton cu bi a mt lng nhit nng khc thng vo kh quyn. 33

Hnh 4.8 trnh by phm vi ca cc thm ha t nhin ng gp vo El Nino 1982/1983, khi l lt, hn hn, v chy git cht vi ngn ngi trn ton th gii v gy thit hi hng t la i vi ma mng, cc cng trnh, cc tin ch v.v...Nc c, Chu M, v Chu Phi cc nng. C mt s bt ng kin v s thit hi v s ngi cht c th qui trc tip cho El Nino-mt s nghin cu cho rng nhng nh hng ca El Nino c gii hn cho cc vng nhit i, ni m chng gy ra thit hi khong 2 t. Bt c l do g, nm 1982/1983 chc chn l thi gian nh n nhng thin tai. Hn hn nh vo c, ni nhng bi cy n c chy trong thng hai nm 1983 t trn 400,000ha, git cht 74 ngi, v ph hy hn 2000 cn nh. Tng thit hi c khong 3 t la. Trong nhng khu vc kh bnh thng ca Bolivia, Peru, v Ecuador trn b ty Nam M, lng ma trn 350 ri xung so vi bnh thng 10-12 cm. im ny dn n nhng trn lt thm khc v trt t git cht trn 600 ngi trong khi gy thit ht khong 1 t la. L lt v hn hn nhng phn khc Nam M gy thit hi 3 t la v git cht trn 150 ngi. Bc M, hn hn nh vo Mexico, v Trung M, nhng trn bo nc M git cht khong 100 ngi v gy thit hi trn 2 t la. B Bin Thi Bnh Dng v nhng bang min ni b nh d di: Xi mn b bin ph hy mt lng ln nh ca v c s kinh doanh, v lt ca cc sng ni a gy thit hi nghim trng cho ma mng v cc cng trnh. Chu Phi, hn hn do mt phn El Nino ph hy ma mng a n nn i trn lan. Hn hn c bit thm khc Chu Phi v mt s nguyn nhn. Nhng nh hng ca hn hn trc cng gy rt nhiu kh khn mt s khu vc; nhng vn chnh tr hoang mch ha mt s khu vc lm cho vic trng v thu hoch ma mng vt v ngay c trong thi gian tt; dn s qu ng l mi quan tm ang gia tng trong nhiu phn hn lon ca Chu Phi. El Nino din ra ch trong thi gian ngn, nhng n ti to mt s nh hng di hn, chng ta c th thy nh l kt qu ca xu th nng ln ton cu m hin ti chng ta c th ang tri qua. Chng ta c th ang x y s nng ln ny bi gia tng nng CO 2 kh quyn qua vic t cc nhin liu ha thch. Tuy nhin, iu ny cha tht chc chn, v nhiu iu cha chc chn khoa hc quanh ch nng ln ton cu do con ngi. Kh cacbonic t nng bu kh quyn bi hp th bc x hng ngoi pht ra t tri t, mt hin tng c gi l hiu ng nh knh. Chng ta khng th lm bt c iu g v El Nino, nhng chng ta c th lm iu g v CO 2 kh quyn qua vic qun l vic t cc nhin liu ha thch. S bin i kh hu ko di c th nh hng n cng v tn sut ca nhng s kin thin tai. Nu xu hng nng ln tip tc, mc bin s nng ln khi bng h nng chy ra v nc i dng nng ln m rng. Kt qu l, xi l b bin s gia tng. Cc kiu kh hu s thay i, lm cho cc khu vc sn xut lung thc thay i do mt s vng nhn thm ma v s vng khc ma li gim i. Cc hoang mc v cc khu vc bn kh hn s chn chn m rng v cc v pha bc tr thnh t sn xut. Nhng bin i nh th c th a n nhng bin i dn s ton cu, m c th gy ra cc cuc chin hoc nhng bin ng chnh tr v x hi. 7.Gia tng dn s v tai bin S gia tng dn s l vn mi trng chnh. Khi dn s chng ta tip tc gia tng, t ra nhiu yu cu ln hn vo t v nhng ti nguyn ca chng ta, nhu cu qui hoch gim thiu thit hi do nhng thin tai cng tng ln. C th, s gia tng dn s t mt s ngi nhiu hn chu ri ro t s kin thin nhin v p nhiu ngi nh c nhng 34

khu vc tai bin, to thm nhng ri ro. Nhng ri do do mt dn s cao v sng vng nguy him hn c th hin r rng bi s mt mt hng ngn sinh mng Mexico v Colombia nm 1985. Thnh ph Mexico l mt trung tm ca khu vc th ng dn nht th gii. Xp x 23 triu ngi c tp trung trn mt din tch khong 2300 km2, v khong 1/3 s h (trung bnh 5 ngi) sng trong mt cn phng ring l. Thnh ph c xy dng trn cc y h c lm tng thm dung ng ng t, v nhng phn ca thnh phng ang chm xung tc vi cm mi nm mt phn do s ht nc ngm. S st ln khng u, cho nn cc ta nh chuyn thnh th nghing v d b chn ng ng n lm hn. Trong thng 9 nm 1985, Mexico chu ng trn ng t mnh 7.8 m git cht khong 10.000 ngi ch ring thnh ph Mexico City. Khi ni la Colombia Nevado del Ruiz phun tro vo nm 1985, mt dng bn xung sn ng ca ni, git cht khong 1000 ngi. Cc trm tch t s kin to ra cc t phong ph trong thung lng sn Lagunilla, v mt trung tm nng nghip pht trin . Th trn Armero, vo nm 1985 c s dn khong 22,500 ngi, vo ngy 13 thng 10 nm 1985, mt dng bn khc kt hp vi phun tro ni la chn vi Armero, li khong 21,000 ngi cht hoc mt tch. Vt cht ca 140 nm lm tng s ngi cht do dng bn hn 20 ln do s gia tng dn s. Tr tru thay, khu vc ny b tn st bi cng mt s kin m trc y to ra t sn xut, kch thch s pht trin v gia tng dn s. Tho lun ca chng ta v cc qu trnh t nhin gi vic xem t nhin l ng lc v thaty i. S hiu bit ny ni vi chng ta rng chng ta khng th xem mi trng ca chng ta bt ng theo thi gian. Cnh quan m thiu nhng tai bin t nhin cng s c s bin i t hn; n s an ton hn, nhung t th v hn v c th t d chu hn v mt thm m. Hi thm on vn cn ang hi v vic chng ta s c gng kim sot t nhin bng no v chng ta s cho php chng xut hin bng no. Tuy nhin chng ta nn nh rng s nhiu lon l t nhin v rng qun l thi nguyn thin nhin phi bao gm qun l vi nhng nhiu lon nh chy, bo v lt. CHNG 5: SNG V L LT 1.ng bng ngp lt (floodplain) ng bng ngp l l mt vng t bng phng k bn sng, v b ngp nh k do nc l trn v trn thc t th n c to ra bi qu trnh l lt. 2.Sng v sui (stream and rivers) Sng v sui l mt phn quan trng ca vng tun hon nc. Nc bc hi t mt t m phn ln l i dng ln trn bu kh quyn, ri li tr v i dng. Mt phn ri xung t to thnh ma hay tuyt ri thm vo t; ty thuc vo a hnh a phng, nc chy trn s chy theo nhng hng khc nhau. Nc chy trn s theo con ng ca n ti cc dng chy ni m chng c th nhp vo vi nhau to thnh nhng dng chy ln hn hay sng. Sng v dng chy ch khc nhau v kch thc (dng chy nh hn sng), v cc nh a cht thng s dng dng chy cho bt k phn no ca nc chy trong con knh. Vng thot nc (din tch,km2) ca mt nhnh sng hay h thng sng c goi l lu vc sng. dc ca mt dng chy, l khong cch theo phng thng ng trn mi n v khang cch theo chiu ngang, c th c biu din l m/km, , hay thng thy hn trong thy hc nh m/m (n v c th lc b). 35

V d: con dc c gc nghing 0.50 th c dc khong 0.009m/m hoc 9m/km (9m trong 1000m). Trong cc trng hp ni chung, dc ln nht nhng ni cao v gim i nhiu khi dng chy tin ti mt nm ngang ca n (mc thp nht v mt l thuyt m sng c th gy ra xi mn ), m thng thng l mc nc bin; mt con sng lun c mt nm ngang tm thi nh 1 ci h. T kt qu dc dng chy ca con sng m ta tnh c, c th v mt nghing ca dng chy (y l th ca gc nghing ca con sng so vi khong cch nc xui dng). Mt nghing ny hu ht c dng lng cho, nh phn u ca vn trt. Dng chy thng c dc v cnh thung lng ln khi cng ln cao gn u ngun ca n, ni dng chy bt u. Kt qu ny gn nh l hin nhin, v ni c dc hay a hnh ni dng chy cao ln s bo mn thung lng su hn. Hu qu 1 phn l lm tng s xi mn bi v dc ca con knh s lm cho nng lng ca dng chy cao hn, lm cho sng vn chuyn nhiu trm tch v bo mn con knh ca n su hn so vi con knh c dc thp. Sc mnh ca dng chy l kt qu ca khi lng nc chy qua 1 im, dc nc b mt ( dc ca nc b mt c th tng ng vi dc ca knh), v n v khi lng ca nc (l hng s) 3.Trm tch sng (sediments in river) Tng khi lng trm tch sng c gi l tng ti lng, bao gm ti y, ti l lng, ti ha tan. Ti y c chuyn dc theo y ca lng knh bng cch tri l lng, ln, hay xoay vng. Ti y hu ht cc sng (thng l ct v si) l mt thnh phn tng i nh (t hn 10%) ca tng ti lng. Ti l lng (thng l bn v t st) c vn chuyn pha trn y dng chy v chuyn ng hn lon theo dng chy. N thng l phn ln nht (khong 90%) ca tng ti lng, v lm cho nhng con sng trng c ngu. Ti ha tan mang theo cc cht ha hc cc cht ha tan t s phong ha ca trong lu vc sng. Ti ha tan lm cho dng chy c v mn (nu n cha mt lng ln Natri v Clor), v c th lm nc dng chy tr nn cng (nu ti ha tan c Canxi v Magi vi nng cao). Nhng cu t quan trng nht thng thy ca ti phn hy l bicarbonate (HCO3-) v ion sulfate (SO42-) v ion ca Canxi (Ca2+), Natri (Na+), Magie (Mg2+). Mt ion l mt nguyn t hoc mt nhm cc nguyn t (phn t) vi nng lng m hay dng l kt qu t s thm vo hay mt i ca cc electron. c trng l hn 5 loi nguyn t v phn t chim khong 90% ti ha tan ca mt con sng. Ti l lng v ti y khi lng xung nhng ni khng mong mun s to ra mt lp trm tch nhim (tho lun chng3). 4.Vn tc dng chy, xi mn, v lng ng trm tch Sng l h thng vn chuyn c bn to ra s xi mn v lng t trm tch ca sng, v sng l tc nhn xi mn chnh chm tr nn cnh quan ca chng ta. Vn tc ca sng thay i theo mi ni v tc ng n s xi mn v lng ng trm tch. Vn tc nc trung bnh ca mt im bt k dc theo b sng c nh ngha l t l vi lu lng qua mt ct dng chy ca knh (th tch nc chy qua im trong mt n v thi gian). Tc l, tnh c vn tc trung bnh ca dng chy bn phi chia tng lu lng cho din tch mt ct dng chy. Phng trnh V=Q/A hay Q=V.A hay Q=V.W.D Q: lu lng (m3/s thng vit gn l cms) V: vn tc dng chy (m/s) A: din tch mt ct dng chy (m2) W: chiu rng dng chy (m) 36

D: chiu su dng chy (m). Phng trnh Q=W.D.V c gi l phng trnh lin tc. Chng ta gi s rng nu khng c s thm vo hay mt lu lng dc theo chiu di ca con sng hay lu lng l hng s. Vi iu kin lu lng l hng s, nu din tch mt ct gim xung th vn tc phi tng. iu ny gii thch ti sao mt con sng khi qua ch khu vc dc v hp hay khu vc ca knh th c vn tc dng chy cao hn ni rng vi din tch mt ct ln. Mt nhn t cho php vn tc tng trong khc sng hp vi din tch mt ct nh l dc. iu cng ch ra rng vn tc trung bnh ca nc sng t l vi su v dc ca n. Ngy nay chng ta c th thy rng ti sao dc c lin quan n sc nc (trc y c nh ngha l t l vi lu lng v dc). Nu lu lng l hng s th sc nc s t l vi dc ngay lc . Lng sng hp v dc ng s c sc nc mnh hn lng sng rng v dc thp. Ni chung, dng chy nhanh hn c kh nng xi mn b sng nhiu hn l dng chy chm. Hn na, dng chy nhanh, sc nc c khuynh hng mnh hn, trm tch c th c mang i nhiu hn v nng hn. Khi nhng ht nh c vn chuyn th sc nc kh thp, cc ht ln nht v nng nht (si mn v cui nh) c tch t li trong mi trng sng nhng v tr m sc nc kh ln. Ct v ph sa c khuynh hng lng xung khi dng chy chm nhng dc thp, nhng on nc di chuyn chm do sc nc yu. Ni cc dng chy i t trn ni xung ng bng c th to ra nhng trm tch hnh qut c gi l t bi hnh qut. Nhng ni sng chy ra bin c th bi t trm tch tr thnh mt vng chu th, mt vng t hnh tam gic rng ln ko di n tn bin. S tch t trm tch ch xut hin nhng khu vc c bit ca dng sng (river channel) hoc vng t bi hnh qut v vng chu th phc tp v rt phc tp, lin quan n s thay i mi trng sng nhng chng nm ngoi phm vi tho lun ca chng ta. Ht ln nht (ng knh ht l cm hay mm) mt dng sng c th vn chuyn c gi l kh nng ca dng sng; trong khi tng ti m sng mang i trong mt n v thi gian (n v l kg/s) l cng sut ca n. 5.H qu ca vic chuyn i s dng t (land use changes) Nhng dng chy v sng l nhng h thng m, v duy tr mt trng thi cn bng ng lc hay trng thi n nh, gia nhng th mang i -trm tch vn chuyn bi dng chy-v nhng th phi lu li-trm tch c phn phi ti dng chy t cc nhnh ph v i dc. Nhng dng chy thng c dc v hnh dng mt ct cung cp vn tc cn thit cho dng chy di chuyn c lng trm tch lu li. S tng gim lng nc hay trm tch m dng chy nhn c s lm thay i dc ca knh hay hnh dng mt ct, t lm thay i vn tc nc. S thay i ca vn tc nc c th lm tng hay gim lng trm tch c mang n trong h thng. Nh vy, vic thay i cc hot ng s dng t lm nh hng th tch trm tch hoc nc trong dng chy, c th gy ra mt trong cc s kin nghim trng. V d: xem xt vic dng rng canh tc nng nghip. S thay i ny s lm tng xi mn t v lm tng ti lng c cung cp cho dng chy. u tin, dng chy s khng th vn chuyn ton b ti lng v s lm lng ng nhiu trm tch hn, tng dc ca con knh, v t t lm tng vn tc nc v cho vn chuyn trm tch n nhiu hn. dc s tip tc tng do s bi t knh cho n khi vn tc tng mang i ti lng mi. T trng thi cn bng ng lc mi c thip lp, to ra s n nh v tc tng ln ca trm tch, dc v hnh dng knh. Trng thi cn bng s n nh trc khi c nhng thay i mi trong vic s dng t. 37

Gi s, by gi qu trnh o ngc xut hin, ngha l t trng trt c chuyn thnh rng. Lng trm tch gi li trong dng chy ca vng s gim (t rng c t l xi mn thp hn t nng nghip), t trm tch lng xung knh dng chy, v s xi mn ca con knh s lm dc gim xung, t t lm gim vn tc nc. u th ca s xi mn so vi s tch t s tip tc cho n khi 1 trng thi cn bng gia lng trm tch i v lng gi c lp li. Cc thay i va m t trn xy ra mt vng ca Piedmont, ng Nam nc M. Trong lch s giai on u ca t nc th vng t ny l rng nhng c dn sch trng trt, lm cho sc xi mn v lng t ca dng sui tng nhanh. By gi, vng t ny ang tr li rng, kt hp vi vi 1 s phng php bo tn t, gim bt lng trm tch c gi li khi vn chuyn ti dng chy. Theo cch , dng chy tng mt thi ly li tt nghn vi do cc trm tch, by gi ang c lm sch v ra tri. Mc d nh vy, nhng cn ph thuc vo cc phng php bo tn v vic s dng t trong tng lai. By gi, cn xem xt n tc ng ca vic xy p trn mt dng chy. S thay i ng k s din ra khi t h cha u ngun hay cui ngun. u ngun, nh hng chnh ca h cha l lm gim tc dng chy xui dng, gy ra s tch t trm tch. Cui ngun, nc ti bn di p s c t trm tch, a s trm tch s c thu gom li trong h cha. V th, dng chy phi c cng sut vn chuyn trm tch thm vo, v nu iu ny xy ra s xi mn s chim u th hn l lng t h ngun ca p. Sau , dc s gim cho n khi t c trng thi cn bng (hnh 5.6). Chng ta s tr li vi ch p chng 10. 6.Cc kiu mu knh v ng bng ngp lt (channel patterns and floodplain formation) Hnh dng ca con knh trong tm nhn d kin (t my bay) c gi l m hnh knh. C hai kiu knh chnh l an xen v un khc, c hai u c th thy c trn cng mt con sng. M hnh knh an xen c c trng bi nhiu on knh nh, chn v o; chng c tch ra v ri nhp li to thnh sng. Qu trnh hnh thnh m hnh con knh an xen cng nh s to thnh cc con knh khc, l kt qu t s tng tc gia dng chy v chuyn ng ca trm tch vi nhng bin ng a cht v kh tng. Nu con sng c dc ln v c mt lng trm tch th di do th rt c th m hnh ca n l an xen. Nhng con knh an xen c khuynh hng rng v cn hn so vi nhng con sng un khc. dc ln v nhiu trm tch th c li cho vic vn chuyn cc vt liu gi li y, m quan trng cho s pht trin ca nhng cn ct to thnh nhng o; t phn dng chy ra v chia thnh nhng phn nh hn. Nhng knh an xen c khuynh hng lin quan ti nhng dng sng bng c dc ln vi nhiu si, hoc nhng con sng c dc ln i qua nhng khu vc ang c nng ln nhanh do cc qu trnh kin to. S nng ln nhanh to ra dc ln cho sng v nng lng xi mn, to ra trm tch si th. M hnh knh un khc c rt nhu ch un khc, di chuyn qua li ngang qua ng bng ngp l. Bn ngoi mt ch un, khi dng knh c triu ln v di chuyn nhanh hn s lm tng s xi mn b sng. Pha trong nhng khc un, nc chy chm hn v trm tch c lng xung, to nn nhng cn ct hnh li lim. Do cc qu trnh xi mn v tch t trm tch tip tc din ra, nhng ch un khc s di chuyn dc con knh. Qu trnh ny d thy trong vic xy dng v duy tr 1 s ng bng ngp l. S tch t trm tch 38

ngoi b sng trong nhng cn l s lm vng t bi nng ln, iu ny rt quan trng trong s pht trin ca vng ng bng ngp l. Nhiu trm tch vn chuyn trn sng s c gi li nh k do s tch t trong knh v vng ng bng st bn n. Tp hp nhng khu vc ny gi l mi trng khu vc ven sng, hay vng t t nhin ca con sng. S di chuyn ch un khc ca nhng con sng kt hp vi s trn b to ra vng ng bng m nh k b ngp trong nc v trm tch. Nhng con knh un khc thng c 1 s khu vc nguy him, nc su v di chuyn chm (h) hay bi bi. Nhng con knh thng (kh him m hnh knh) c l cng c nhng khu vc . Vc nc l nhng khu vc su c to ra bi s xi mn lng sng khi triu ln (chy nhanh) v c trng khi triu xung (chy chm); nhng ch tng i su, dng nc di chuyn chm. H nc l ni ngi ta thng bi vo ma h. Bi bi l nhng khu vc c to ra bi cc qu trnh bi t lc triu ln v c c trng khi triu xung nhng ch kh nng, nc chy nhanh. Bi vy chng ta c th kt lun rng h xi mn lng sng lc triu ln v ly y trm tch lc triu xung. Trong khi bi bi th ngc li. Cng cn lu rng, lc triu xung th vn tc vc nc thp hn bi cn, lc triu ln vn tc ca nc qua vc nc li cao hn so vi bi cn. S thay i vn tc ny c th xy ra mt phn bi v hnh dng c bn ca h nc v cn ct k bn ging nh mt hnh tam gic, trong khi ca bi bi li ging hnh ch nht hn. Khi triu xung, din tch mt ct dng chy ca vc nc c th vt qua din tch ca bi bi k bn, v v vy phng trnh lin tc Q=AV, c ngha l vn tc ca h nc thp hn bi cn ( phm vi theo di). Lc triu ln, mt ct dng chy ca h nc by gi nh hn ca bi bi; v th phng trnh lin tc c ngha vn tc dng chy trong h nc by gi vt qua vn tc bi bi. y l iu kin dng chy vt qua ngng (hnh 5.10). y l m hnh vn tc v mi quan h gia bo mn lng sng vi lp y, v iu duy tr nhng vc nc v bi cn. Mt dy h nc v bi bi c lp li khong chng 5 hoc 7 ln chiu rng knh. pht trin tt h nc v bi bi phi c 1 lng si ng k lng sng v dc tng i thp (nh hn 0.015; gc nghing thng khng c n v). Nhng dng chy m y c vt liu mn hoc dc ln, thng khng c hay t h nc v bi bi. L do ca vic n nay chng ta vn cha hiu r. Chng ta bit rng h nc v bi bi c ngha rt quan trng v mt mi trng. y l kt qu phn no bi v s xen k gia ni su, nc di chuyn chm vi ni cn, nc di chuyn nhanh vc nc v bi cn, to ra nhng mi trng vt l khc nhau v lm tng a dang sinh hc. 7.L L lt c lin h mt thit vi s lng v cng ma cng vi lng nc chy trn. Nhng trn l thm khc c tng thut trn TV v bo ch thng c to thnh bi nhng cn bo ln c cng mnh lit v khng c tnh thng xuyn. Nhng cn l nh hay nhng dng chy c l c to thnh t nhng cn bo c cng nh th xy ra thng xuyn hn. Tt c nhng bin c dng chy, c o lng hay c lng t trm thy vn, c th c sp xp theo ln ca lu lng dng chy, n v tnh thng thng l m3/s. Cc thng s o c c th c biu din trn th ng di dng tn sut lu lng chy bng cch bt ngun t khong thi gian ti din R vi mi thng s ca dng chy t cng thc: R=N+1M R : khong thi gian ti din tnh bng nm N : s nm theo d liu 39

M : xp hng ca dng chy trong danh sch Lu lng cao nht trong 9 nm t d liu thu c ca 1 dng sng c th hin trong hnh 5.13 (khong 280 m3/s) c th t M bng 1. Nh vy khong thi gian ti din ca cn l ny l: R = N + 1 M = 9 + 1 1 = 10 iu c ngha l cn l lu lng tng ng hoc hn 280 m3/s c th s din ra c 10 nm 1 ln; chng ta gi l l 10 nm. Xc sut ca cn l ny xy ra trong bt c nm no l 1 10 hay 0,1 (10%), xc sut ca cn l 100 nm xy ra trong bt c nm no l 1 100 = 0,01 hay 1%. Nhng nghin cu trn nhiu con sng nh sng v ln cho thy nhng con knh c to thnh v duy tr bi lu lng ti a (vi vn tc cao nht) tn s 1,5 2 nm (khong 30 m3/s bng 5.13). V vy chng ta c th hy vng rng mt dng chy c th lm ni ln 2 bn b ca n v che i phn t bi vi nc v trm tch mi nm 1 ln hay hn. Qu trnh t nhin ca vic nc trn qua b sng c gi l nn lt. a s cn l ca sng l hm s ca ton b khi lng v lng ma phn b trong lu vc, tc ca lng ma thm vo hay t v a hnh. Tuy nhin, mt s cn l l kt qu t s tan chy qu nhanh ca bng v tuyt vo ma xun, hay do mt p nc b v (trng hp him). Cui cng, vic s dng t c th nh hng rt ln n s ngp lt trong lu vc. Lu lng knh (m3/s hoc cm3/s) ti mt im m nc chy trn qua knh gi l lu lng l v c dng ch s cng ca l. Cng ca mt trn lt c l c hoc khng c tng quan vi mc thit hi vt cht. Thut ng giai on l thng c ngha l s dng ln ca nc n cao c th gy ra thit hi. nh ngha ny da vo nhn thc ca con ngi v s kin, v th cao ca nc c xem l giai on l cn ty thuc vo hot ng ca con ngi vng ng bng ngp l. Cng thu c nhiu d kin v dng chy th vic d bo l cng chnh xc. Tuy nhin, cc cng trnh xy dng c thit k cho l 10 nm, 25 nm, 50 nm, hay 100 nm, hoc thc t bt c dng chy no di kh nng cao nht c th xy ra, l mt vic tnh ton y ri ro bi v vic d on l u da trn xc sut. Trong mt thi gian di, mt con l 25 nm xy ra trung bnh c 25 nm 1 ln, nhng 2 con l 25 nm c th xy ra vo bt c thi im no c cho nh i vi 2 con l 100 nm. V th, nu chng ta tip tc xy p, ng, cu, nh v nhng cng trnh khc trn vng c th xy ra l, th ta c th tip tc ch nhng thit hi v tnh mng v ti sn. 8.L h ngun v l thng ngun Rt c ch khi phn bit gia l thng ngun v h ngun. L thng ngun xut hin nhng phn pha trn lu vc v thng thng c hnh thnh bi 1 cn ma ln trong mt thi gian ngn trn mt din tch tng i nh. Nhng cn l ny c th khng dn ti nhng v l lt nghim trng nhng dng sng ln khi ra h ngun, mc d chng c th kh nguy him trong phm vi a phng. V d: mt cn l u ngun xy ra Front Range, bang Colorado vo ma h nm 1976, khi 1 trn l ln d di c hnh thnh bi mt trn ma ging phc tp mang n lng ma khong 25cm, qut qua mt vi hm ni pha ty Loveland. Ch trong khong thi gian ngn, cn l y cp i sinh mng ca 139 ngi v gy thit hi trn 35 triu -la v ng cao tc, ph s, cu cng, nh ca v cc khu vc kinh doanh nh. Hu ht thit hi v vt cht v nhn mng xy ra hm ni Big Thompson, ni c hng trm c dn sinh sng, nhng ngi cm tri v du khch. H khng bit mt cnh bo no. 40

Nhng trn l nm 1993 trn sng Mississipi l mt cn l h ngun ln. thng xuyn l tin u trn TV v bo ch. L h ngun bao ph mt khu vc rng ln v thng c hnh thnh bi cc cn bo xy ra trong thi gian di lm t b ng v lm tng lng nc chy trn trn b mt. L trn cc lu vc ph c l hn hp hn, nhng s ng gp ca s lng nc chy trn t hng ngn nhnh sng nh y c th l nguyn nhn cho mt trn l rt ln ni h ngun. Mi cn l loi ny c c trng bi s chuyn ng nc xui dng, l s tng cao t ngt v st gim nhanh chng. Mt vi cn l thng ngun ln m nguyn nhn trc tip gy ra l do s km cht lng cc cng trnh. V d, a s trn l ph hoi trong lch s ca West Virginia xy ra l do s km cht lng ca p nhnh gia ca Buffalo Creek 9.L lt v s pht trin Cc hot ng s dng t ca con ngi mi trng th lm tng cng v tn s l lt lu vc nh trong khong vi km2. Tc gia tng l hm s ca phn trm t c che ph bi bng rm hay, va h, nhng ni c trng xi mng (lin quan n nhng v bc khng thm nc) v phn trm khu vc c trang b cng thot nc. Nhng ng cng ng vai tr kh quan trng v chng cho php dn nc t th chy t nhng b mt khng thm nc ti cc knh mng mt cch nhanh chng. V th, v bc khng thm nc v h thng cng l mt s o trong vic nh gi mc th ha. nh hng ca vic th ha cn ln hn 1 con l c tn s l 50 nm. L lt l mt hm s gia lng ma ri s chy trn v s th ha, v s th ha gy nhng thay i rt ln trong mi quan h ny Mt nghin cu, khi c nhng cn bo ln th dng chy th ln hn gn 5 ln so vi dng chy trc khi th ha. c tnh lu lng thot ra ca nhng khong thi gian ti din khc nhau vi cc mc th ha khc nhau c biu din hnh 5.18. c lng ch ra s tng ln khng khip t ngt ca lng nc chy trn cng vi s gia tng v khu vc khng thm nc v ng cng nh nu. S th ha lm tng lng nc chy trn do lng nuc thm vo t rt t. Khong thi gian gia nhng cn ma v lc l t nh cao dung nh gim ng k, i vi hai iu kin tri ngc nhau l th v nng thn (Khong thi gian ngn gia hai s kin c c trng bi s vt ln v h xung ca nc l). Do ch c 1 lng nc nh thm vo t, nn khi triu xung hoc lng nc vo ma kh hn, th dng chy th c duy tr bi lng nc mt chy vo knh. Qua , lm tp trung mt s cht nhim c trong nc v lm gim cc gi tr thm m ca dng chy ni chung. Mi quan h gia vic s dng t v l lt nhng lu vc nh kh l phc tp. Mt nghin cu kt lun rng khng phi tt c mi hnh thc th ha u lm tng lng nc chy trn v l lt. Khi nhng hng cy trng nh ng v u nnh c thay th bi s pht trin ri rc c dn, s d bo nc chy trn v nh cao l cng thp v khong thi gian ti din t 2 ti 4 nm tng ln. Tuy nhin, vi con l m khong thi gian ti din trn 4 nm, lng nc chy trn v nh cao l cc vng t nng nghip c th vt qua vng dn c pht trin. Khi nhng hng cy trng c thay th bi nhng khu vc tri nha hay c, lng nc chy trn nhng khu vc c tri nha th ln hn, nhng khu vc c th c lng nc chy trn t hn so vi t nng nghip. V th, cc tc ng do thay i cc hot ng s dng t i vi lng nc chy trn v l lt ph thuc vo thin nhin, quy m ca vic th ha v c bit l t l gia khu vc tri nha vi khu vc trng c. 41

 th ha khng ch l pht trin m cn lm tng nguy c l. Mt vi trn l qut xut hin bi v nhng cy cu c xy dng ngang qua nhng dng chy nh, m nguyn nhn l do cc mnh rc tch t li thnh ng ngn cn dng nc 10.Thin nhin v phm vi nh hng ca nn l lt L lt l mt trong nhng tai bin t nhin thng xy ra nht. nc M, s nn nhn mt tch do l sng khong 100 ngi mi nm, vi thit hi v ca ci khong 4 t USD hng nm. Thit hi v nhn mng thp khi c so snh vi thit hi trong cc x hi tin cng nghip, y l ni thiu h thng kim tra v cnh bo v hiu qu vic cu tr thin tai. Mc d nhng x hi tin cng nghip vi dn s ng c vng t bi s c nhiu ngi cht hn khi c l, nhng thit hi ca ci t hn so vi x hi cng nghip. Cc nhn t kim sot mc thit gy ra bi l bao gm: - Vic s dng t trn vng t bi. - Cng ( su, vn tc ca nc v tn s ca l). - Tc tng ln v khong thi gian l. - Ma (v d : trng cy trn t bi) - Lng ph sa, trm tch tch t li. - Hiu qu ca vic d an, cnh bo v h thng cp cu. Vic xy ra l, nguyn nhn khch quan chnh l l, nguyn nhn ch quan l do s chia r hay trc trc ca h thng chnh quyn. Nhng thit hi chnh bao gm s ngi b thng v thit mng, v thit hi gy ra bi l cun, cc mnh v, vt liu trm tch ca nng tri, nh ca, cc ta nh, ng ray xe la, cu, ng v h thng thng tin. St l t v tch t trm tch khu vc nng thn v thnh th gy ra tn tht v t v thc vt (cy trng). Nhng tc ng ph bao gm nhim trong phm vi nh ca con sng, thiu thc n v dch bnh, v ni do mt nh ca. Thm vo , ha hn c th xy ra do 1 s nguyn nhn xung quanh hoc v ng ng dn ga. 11.i ph vi l Trong lch s, i ph vi l con ngi c gng ngn nga bng cc bin php nh: kim sot lng nc bng p, thay i dng chy bng cc con , thm ch thit k ton b dng chy dn nc ti cc vng t c hiu qu hn. Mi 1 d n mi li gieo vo mi ngi mt nim tin khng ng rng l lt s khng cn na. Tuy nhin, chng ta vn ang tin hnh xy nhng con hoc nhng con knh c tiu chun c th kim sot sc mnh ca ma l trn v, nhng i khi nc l vt qu sc cha ca con knh th cn l trn ra trn din rng. C 2 cch thng thng i ph vi nguy c l. + Ngn nga l phng php m chng ta m t. + Thch nghi: bao gm kim sot ng bng ngp l, iu c cho rng l rt quan trng khi chng ta nhn ra s hn ch ca vic cc cng trnh, v s bo him l lt. a.Phng nga bng kin c Phng php ngn nga l lt bao gm vic xy dng nhng con ro chn vt l nh ( nhng con c p ln cao bi t rn chc dc theo b sng) v nhng bc tng chng l (thng c xy dng bng b tng tri ngc vi nhng con c lm t t), nhng h cha tr nc sau x nc ra ngoi vi tc an ton. Sau cn bo nc c gi li nhng ch trng, cc con knh c ci thin lm tng din tch v nc c chy ra nhanh hn, v s i hng ca con knh di chuyn dng nc l ra xung quanh vng cn c bo v. Chng ta s tho lun v nhng kin tn thnh hay phn i v vic ci thin con knh v thay i hng sau phn ny. 42

Tht l khng may li ch tim nng ca ro chn vt l thng b mt i bi do s pht trin vng t bi ngy cng tng. V d, ma ng nm 1986 mang cn bo khng khip v ngp lt trn v hng ty, c th l California Nevada v Utain. Tng cng, thit hi hn 270 triu la v t nht 17 ngi cht .Trong sut cn bo v l , 1 con b v sng Yuba thuc California lm hn 20 000 ngi dn phi s tn. Mt bi hc quan trng m chng ta hc c t trn l ny l rt nhiu con xy dng cch y nhiu nm dc theo cc sng California v cc bang khc trong iu kin km t dn ti h hng. Mt s cng trnh xy dng c thit k chng l li lm tng ngp lt trong 1 thi gian di( xem case history: tucson, ariona). iu m chng ti hc c t tt c vic ny l cc cng trnh kim sot l phi i i vi cc quy inh ca vng t bi , gim mc nguy hi ti mc ti thiu. Mt v d cui cng v s dng ro chn vt l kim sot con sng, xem xt k li ch to ln khi ca cc k s trong qun i M gi mc nc sng Missisippi thp bng cch dch chuyn dng sng theo hng New Orleans n mt con ng ngn hn dc theo sng Atchafalaya, khong 180km v pha ty. Sng Atchafalaya qua sng Red to ra 1 con ng ngn hn vo vnh Mexico, v nu theo qu trnh t nhin th ch c s di chuyn duy nht mi sng Missisippi, cn Baton Rouge v New Orlean b b qua v gn nh con knh kh hn. Chi ph kinh t v x hi cho vic di chuyn qu ln. Cho nn cc k s tiu tn vi trm triu la cho vic cu dng cng trnh kim sot l ging nh p, kim sot sng Mississppi. Bi v kh nng ca ng i mi qu ngn v dc, n ch l vn v thi gian khi dch chuyn sang ni khc, nhng h khng ch n cc cng trnh xy dng. kin ny c chia s bi nhiu nh a cht, nhng li khng phn nh ht kin ca cc k s qun i. Gn y con sng dch chuyn trong sut ma l nm 1973 xy ra 1 thit hi nghim trng ti 1 trong nhng cc cng trnh trng yu. Nhng trn l ln hn cng tng t, bi v 2 con sng rt gn nhau, vic bt sng Missisippi ti Gulf bng 1 con ng ngn hn dng nh rt kh khn, ngay c khi nu cng trnh khng h hng. l, p trn v o knh c th xy ra vi a im khc khc, gy ra s dch chuyn. b.iu ha lng nc ngp T 1 quan im v mi trng, phng php tt nht gim n mc thp nht thit hi ca l vng th l thch nghi vi vng t bi. Mc ch ca vic thch nghi vi vng t bi l lm sao thu c nhiu li ch nht t vic s dng t bi cng vi vic gim ti mc ti thiu mc nguy hi t l v chi ph trong vic chng l. l s tho hip gia vic s dng vng t bi ba bi, v iu gy ra kt qu l thit hi v nhn mng v ti sn c nhn, hon ton t b vng t bi, iu b i nhiu ngun ti nguyn thin nhin c gi tr. iu ny khng ni ln rng cc ro chn vt l, nhng h cha nc, v cc hot ng ca con knh l khng c gi tr. 1 s vng pht trin trn ng bng ngp l, chng thc s cn thit bo v sinh mng v ti sn. Tuy nhin cn thy r, ng bng ngp l ph thuc vo h thng sng v bt k s xm phm no lm gim din tch mt ct ca ng bng ngp l u lm tng l lt. Gii php l tng l s ngng li vic pht trin trn ng bng ngp l buc phi c cch thc ngn cn bng cc ro chn vt l mi. Hay ni cch khc, tng l thit k gn lin thin nhin. Thc t, trong hu ht cc trng hp, phng php hiu qu v thc tin nht l 1 s kt hp gia ro chn 43

vy l vi cc c im vng ng bng ngp l m s lm thay i t nht cc thng s vt l ca h thng sng. V d: trong vic phn vng ng bng ngp l hp l cng vi cc d n lm chch hng dng chy hoc h cha thng lu, c th phi thay i hng dng chy hay h cha nc thng lu. Nhng kt qu c th thp hn yu cu nu khng c tiu chun no v ng bng ngp l c s dng. c.Lp bn tai bin l Bc chun b u tin thch nghi vi ng bng ngp lt l lm bn nguy c l, n cung cp thng tin v ng bng ngp l cho vic ln k hoch s dng t. Bn nguy c l c th m t cc cn l trong qu kh hoc cc cn l c tn sut c bit, cc cn l 100 nm. Chng rt hu dng trong vic iu chnh s pht trin chuyn dng, mua bn t ca cng ng s dng nh cng vin v nhng tin nghi gii tr, v to thnh ng li s dng t trn cc ng bng ngp l trong tng lai. Vic pht trin bn nguy c l cho mt 1 lu vc c th rt kh khn v tn km. Thng thng cc bn c chun b bng cch phn tch d liu lu lng dng chy t cc trm thy vn mt khong thi gian vi nm . Tuy nhin, d liu lu lng khng c gi tr trong nhiu trng hp, c bit l cc dng chy nh, v th phi s dng nhiu ngun d liu thay th nh gi mc nguy c l. Cc phng php nh gi nguy c l thng ngun c l lin quan n s c lng lu lng nh l d trn cc c im ca vng chu th thot nc. Mt nghin cu v dng chy trung tm Texas m t chu k nhng con mnh lit l thng ngun mnh lit, a ra mt m hnh ch yu theo kinh nghim c lng lu lng nh l bng cch o 1 s lng ln dng chy(s lng dng chy u ngun) ca vng lu vc v mt lu cht( tng chiu di ca tt c cc dng chy trong vng chia cho din tch ca vng chu th). Hay ni cch khc, cng vic ca Texas l to ra 1 bn thng k hp l v mi quan h gia lu lng nh l v 2 tham s vt l, cng dng chy v mt thot nc, n c th s dng d bo l vng chu th ni thng tin v thu hc l khng c gi tr hoc khng cho vic nh gi chi tit. Vic nh gi nguy c l cho cc khu vc h lu c th xem nh hon chnh bng 1 phng php chung l trc tip quan st v o c cc thng s vt l. V d, cn l rng ln thung lng sng Missisippi trong sut ma h nm 1993 c ch r trn cc bc hnh to thnh t cc d liu thu nhn c t v tinh. Cn l cng c th c v ra t cc bc nh chp trn khng nhn c trong sut cn l, v chng c th c c lng t cc ng nc cao, trm tch l, nhng du vt c ra, v cc mnh v b gi li trn ng bng ngp l, o trong cc ng rung ngay sau khi nc va rt. Vic lm bn cn thn v t v thc vt cng c th gip cho vic nh gi nguy c l h lu. t ng bng ngp l thng khc so vi t vng cao, v vi iu kin thch hp t c th t c lin quan n tn s l bit. Mt bn da trn 1 nghin cu ca lu vc sng Colorado gn Austin, Texas, ch ra mi tng quan tuyn tnh gia t v l 100 nm. Thng c 1 loi thc vt c khoanh x x lu vc sng c th tng quan vi cc vng l lm cho vic nh gi nguy c l tr nn d dng. 1 Vi loi cy c r nng i hi ngun nc di do v li ch t vic ngp nc thng xuyn. Nhng cy ny thng c tm thy gn b sng nhng dng chy lu nm m thng xuyn c l. Mt vi loi cy khc th b hn ch hn do s thot nc tt ca t, m iu khng phi l vn lm cho l ko di di v hay thng xuyn. Mc d cc khoanh ca thc vt th rt c ch trong vic nh gi nhng vng d xy ra l, nhng nguyn nhn ca 44

nhng khoanh ny th phc tp v khng phi l nguyn nhn trc tip gy ra bi l. V th, s dng thc vt hay vi t, nn kt hp vi cc cch thc nh gi nguy c l khc, nh d liu t v tinh, chp nh trn khng, ghi chp lch s v nhng im c trng ca ng bng ngp l. Li ch quan trng nht ca vic nh gi nguy c l u ngun v cui ngun t vic quan st trc tip hoc t cc c im ca vng ng bng thot nc nc v lu vc sng l tnh thit thc v gi thnh. Nghin cu sng v sng Colorado ch ra rng nhng cch thc ny c th d dng phn bit cc vng c nguy c l thng xuyn (tn sut thi gian t 1 n 4 nm) ti nhng vng trung gian (10 n 30 nm) hoc him khi xy ra (hn 100 nm). Ch c 1 iu bt li lin quan n chnh xc. Vic nh gi nguy c l da trn s y d liu thu hc ni chung (lu lng dng chy) s a ra nhiu tin on chnh xc. Vic nh gi kh nng l da trn cc d liu y v cc thng s thy vn(lu lng dng chy) thng thng cung cp 1 d bo chnh xc hn v cc s kin l. nhng khu vc th ha, chnh xc ca vic lm bn nguy c l hon ton ch da vo d liu v lu lng sng chy l ng ng. Mt tm bn tt hn c th c to thnh bng cch gi s hin trng th trong tng lai vi vic c lng t l phn trm vng khng thm nc. Mt bn l 100 nm thuc l thuyt c th c a ra sau . 12.Nhn thc v l lt T theo cp chnh quyn (chnh ph, cc c quan kim sot), s nhn thc v hiu bit y v l c th ln k hoch mc tiu; tuy nhin trn phng din c nhn, nhn thc ny l khng r rng. Mi ngi c nhng hiu bit rt khc nhau v l, v s phng l trong tng lai hay bng lng chp nhn nhng quy nh. Quy trnh cc c quan chc nng bao gm lp bn nhng khu vc d xy ra l lt (hng ngn bn c chun b), nhng khu vc c tim n l qut h lu t nhng p nc v nhng khu vc m s th ha dng nh s gy ra nhng rc ri trong tng lai. Thm vo , chnh ph khuyn khch cc vng v ton b cc a phng thng qua nhng k hoch qun l vng ng bng ngp l. Tuy nhin, khi nim v qun l vng ng bng ngp l v vic lp k hoch trnh mi nguy him ca l bng cch khng pht trin trn nhng vng ng bng ngp l hay di chuyn s pht trin hin thi n nhng a im ngoi vng t bi , i hi 1 tm nhn xa hn v 1 s hiu bit c chp nhn bi ton th dn s. CHNG 6: TRT T V CC HIN TNG LIN QUAN (hc cc cu hi son) CHNG 7: NG T V CC HIN TNG LIN QUAN(cu hi kh y ) Thm ha ng t gy ra nhng tn ph, n c th hy dit c mt thnh ph ln v cp i mng sng ca hng ngn ngi ch trong vng vi giy. 1.t gy v s dch chuyn ca t gy a.Cc kiu t gy - t gy trt (a strike slip fault): l mt trong s nhng t gy di chuyn theo chiu ngang. Mt t gy c gi l vt bn phi (right-lateral) nu khi bn phi di chuyn v pha bn khi bn thy ng rnh trt; v n l vt bn tri (left-lateral) nu khi bn tri di chuyn v pha bn. - t gy vi s di chuyn dc: c th l mt t gy nghch (reverse fault) hoc t gy bnh (normal fault). Mt t gy nghch c gc trt nh hn 450 c gi l t gy p (thrust fault). Chng u ph thuc vo s di chuyn hnh hc ca hai khi trt. S di 45

chuyn ca t gy nghch v t gy p c kt hp vi s thu ngn ca v tri t (crustal shortening). Ngc li, t gy bnh c kt hp vi s m rng v tri t (crustal extension). Nhng t gy trn to nn s di chuyn hay ph v. Tuy nhin, cng c th l nhng t gy b chn vi (buried faults), thng kt hp vi gp khc. S di chuyn v ph v ca t gy b chn vi ny khng ph bin trn b mt, ngay c vi nhng trn ng t ln. b.i t gy v on t gy Cc t gy hu nh cha bao gi xy ra ring l. Chng to thnh nhng i t gy, l mt nhm t gy c lin quan vi nhau, tng ng vi nhau trn bn v thng chng cho nhau hay to nn nhng kiu ng vin. i t gy thay i theo chiu rng t mt n vi km. Hu ht cc t gy di hay i t gy nh i t gy San Andreas u b phn on (segmented), mi on c mt lch s v kiu di chuyn ring. Mt mng ng t (earthquake segment) c xc nh nh nhng phn ca i t gy m c nhng t on ng vai tr nh mt n v trong sut nhng trn ng t tin s v lch s. t on trong mt trn ng t ni chung s dng li cc ranh gii ca 2 mng; tuy nhin, nhng trn ng t ln c th bao gm vi on ca t gy. Chiu di t on t nhng trn ng t ln c o trn hng chc km. N l mng t gy quan trng nht c lng thm ha ng t. Khi lch s ca i t gy cha c bit n th i ny c th c chia thnh nhiu on da trn s khc nhau v hnh hc v hnh thi hc. Tuy nhin, t khi vic c tnh thm ha ng t bit n th vic xc nh mng t gy theo lch s ca n c coi l thch hp, bao gm c hot ng a chn trong lch s v hot ng a chn thi tin s. Nghin cu hot ng a chn thi tin s (Paleoseismology) l vic nghin cu cc ng t thi tin s t mi trng a cht. Nhng qu trnh a cht chi phi s phn on t gy v vic sinh ra ng t nhng mng ring bit l vn phi nghin cu. 2.Sng a chn v cc rung chuyn mt t (seimic waves and ground shaking) a.Tm chn Tm ng t l im hoc khu vc trong tri t, ni xut pht ng t, ni xy ra s ph hu v bc x cc sng a chn. N dc chia lm 2 phn: - Tiu im (cn dc gi l tm trong, h tm hay chn tiu focus) - Chn tm (tm ngoi hay thng tm epicenter) l hnh chiu ca tiu im trn mt t Khong cch t chn tiu ti chn tm chnh l su chn tiu, khong cch t chn tiu ti im quan st trn mt t gi l khong cch chn tiu, cn khong cch t chn tm ti im quan st gi l khong cch chn tm. V tr ca tiu im thng c th t n chiu su l 600km. Tuy nhin tiu im c phn bit thnh nhiu trng hp sau: + Tiu im cn: nm trong khong 70km tnh t mt t. ng t c tiu im cn thng l rt mnh + Tiu im trung bnh: nm trong khong 70-300 km, ng t c tiu im trung bnh thng c cng yu + Tiu im su: t 300km n 700km, ng t c tiu im su c cng rt yu. b.Sng a chn 46

Khi t gy gy ra ng t, nng lng ta rng v lan truyn i mi ni di hnh thc rung ng tng t nh lan truyn sng nn gi l sng ng t. y l yu t gy ph hy cc vt liu b mt. Sng ng t dc chia lm 2 nhm chn ng - Chn ng bn trong a cu Sng gy ra do s nn p-Sng P (sng s cp: Primary waves compressional waves): y l sng pht sinh u tin. Sng P truyn trc tip t tm ng t theo chiu thng ng, c kh nng lan truyn trong mi trng cht rn, lng hay kh, vi s nn v gin n lun phin ca vt cht nm ngang so vi phng truyn sng. Tc lan truyn sng P trong nh granit xp x 5.5km/s, trong cht lng chm hn, v trong nc l khong 1.5km/s Khi nhng sng P vi tn s cao hn 15 hec/s c truyn trong khng kh th tai ngi c th nghe c. Sng gy ra do s rung chuyn-Sng S (sng th cp: secondary waves shear waves): xut pht chm hn sng P vi giy. Sng S di chuyn theo cc phng nm ngang, lm cho cc vt trn b mt b lc l theo phng ngang v to nn ng sut ct. Sng S ch truyn qua mi trng rn vi tc khong 3km/s - Chn ng bn ngoi a cu Nhng sng lan truyn trn b mt v tri t gi l sng b mt, gy ra nhng thit hi v ti sn (nhng cng trnh xy dng). Sng L lan truyn qua tt c mi vt liu vi vn tc lan truyn nh nhng din tch ln, do vy nn sng ny truyn n trm a chn mun nht. Sng L to nn sng thn khi c ng t bin Gm sng Love v sng Rayleigh Sng Rayleigh mang tn Lord Rayleigh (John William Strutt), nh vt l ngi Anh, ngi tin on s tn ti ca loi sng ny da trn cc tnh ton ton hc vo nm 1882. Sng Rayleigh truyn dc trn mt t tng t nh sng truyn trn mt i dng hay mt h. Khi sng Rayleigh truyn trn mt t n khin mt t va nhp nh ln xung va dao ng dc theo phng truyn. khong cch xa chn tm, Sng Rayleigh l sng c bin ln nht v cng l loi sng c tc chm nht. Sng Love mang tn ca nh ton hc ngi Anh, A.E.H. Love, ngi xy dng m hnh ton hc cho loi sng ny vo nm 1911. Sng Love truyn dc theo lp t mt t n mt ranh gii phn lp trong v Tri t. N c to thnh bi s dao thoa ca cc sng phn x t mt t v khc x, phn x qua gii hn ca mt lp nht nh trong v Tri t. c.Tc ng ca tn s sng rung ng S rung ca mt t, cc ta nh v cc cu trc khc gy ra bi tn s ca trn ng t.Tn s sng l s sng i qua mt im tham chiu trn giy, n v l hertz (Hz).Chu k l thi gian gia cc bin k tip ca mt ln sng i qua cc im tham chiu. Tn s xut hin ca mt sng ng t bng 1 chia cho chu k (tc l, nghch o ca chu k). Nh vy, tn s ca mt ln sng P vi chu k l 2s th bng 1/2 hay 0,5 Hz. C sng P v S u c phm vi tn s rng, nhng v s suy gim nhanh chng (gim bt) ca tn s khi sng truyn i t ni chng c to ra, sng hu ht sng c tn s l 0,5 n 20 hertz. Sng trn b mt phc tp hn th c tn s thp hn (nh hn 1 Hz). Cc ta nh v cc cu trc thng c tn s rung t nhin (tn s ring) trong phm vi tng t nh sng ng t. iu ny lm cc ta nh rung ng khi tn s sng a chn c tn s gn bng vi tn s ring ca ta nh. Nhng ta nh thp th c tn s ring cao hn nhng ta nh cao, v nhng sng nn v sng trt c xu hng lm cho nhng ta 47

nh thp rung ng, trong khi sng trn b mt c xu hng lm cho nhng ta nh cao rung ng. V nhng sng c tn s cao gim nhanh hn nhiu so vi sng tn s thp, cc ta nh cao c th b h hi trong phm vi rng t tm chn ca trn ng t ln, trong khi cc ta nh thp hn kh nhy cm vi rung ng khi chng gn tm chn. Nguyn tc ny c minh ha c th vo nm 1985 khi mt trn ng t vi cng 8,1 xut hin cch Mexico City vi trm cy s v gy thit hi hay ph hy nhiu ta nh cao tng. Nhng loi t khc nhau, chng hn nh nn cng, t ph sa (ct, si), ph sa v bn, ng vi nhng trn ng t khc nhau.V d, cng rung ca trm tch khng vng chc (bit l trong bn v t st lng ng) c th nghim trng hn nhiu so vi nn cng. Hiu ng ny c gi l s khuch i vt cht. Mt bi hc ln t trn ng t thnh ph Mexico l cc ta nh c xy dng trn t v c kh nng ln v tng rung ng a chn th cc k nguy him, d cho tm chn cch vi trm km. Sng a chn c to ra u tin ngoi khi bao gm nhiu tn s, nhng khi n thnh ph th sng c tn s thp khong 0,5-1,0 Hz. N c suy on rng khi cc sng ny p vo di y h nc thnh ph Mexico, cc bin ca chn ng c th tng b mt bi 1 yu t (h s) 4 hoc 5. Rung ng xy ra d di l nguyn nhn m cc ta nh lc l ra sau v ra trc, v cui cng nhiu ta nh b sp hoc b khi nhng tng trn cao b sp ln nhng tng di thp. Hu ht cc thit hi xy ra cc ta nh cao t 6-16 tng bi v cc ta nh c tn s t nhin gn bng sng a chn n. Kh nng khuch i ca sng b mt l nguyn nhn gy thit hi, mt ln na c chng minh vi thm ha ng t nm 1989 vi cng 7.1, trn ng t Loma Prieta, bt ngun pha nam San Francisco. S sp trn ng cao tc, lm cht 41 ngi, xy ra trn mt phn ca ng b c xy dng trn bi t lp v bn. Ni ng cao tc c xy dng trn t bi t tt v cu trc n nh t xy ra rung ng. S thit hi ln cng c ghi nhn Marina-San Francisco, ch yu l cc khu vc c xy dng trn bi t lp v mn cng nh nhng mnh vn vo vnh bin sau trn ng t nm 1906. Hiu ng khuch i lm bin ca sng a chn tng ln theo hng v. V d, s gy cu Northridge trong trn ng t Northridge nm 1994 (pha Bc v pha ty) kt qu lm cho a chn mnh ln pha ty bc. S chuyn ng mnh trn mt t (vi vn tc ln nht) v pha ty bc l kt qu ca s chuyn ng (gy v trong trn ng t) ca mt khi t tr ln v v pha ty bc. 3.Thang o S dng Thang Richter. Cng Richter (M) ca mt trn ng t l n v o lng nng lng c gii phng. N c o da vo hnh nh trn my ghi a chn, mt dng c ghi nhn s thay i ng t nguyn nhn l s rung ng. Tnh cht ca php o cng Richter, u tin xc nh bin ln nht c to ra trong mt trn ng t bi tiu chun ca my o a chn cch 100km t tm a chn.Cng ny c bin i n mt cng trn h thng chia logarit Richter. Mi s nguyn ca h thng chia tng gp mi v bin . Nng lng pht ra trong mt trn ng t l t l thun vi cng . Nhng s tng nng lng t n v ny n n v k tip l khong 30 ln. V d: Mt trn ng t cng 7 gii phng nng lng ln hn 30 ln so vi nng lng trong trng hp vi cng 6. Khong 48

27.000 (30*30*30) chn ng ca cng 5 c pht ra nh nng lng ca trn ng t cng 8. Cng Richter cu 1 trn ng t cng c th c c tnh t my o ng t ti cc a im khc nhau, s dng gii php ha phng trnh ton hc. Bin cc i v s khc bit trong thi gian n ca sng P (ch yu) v sng S (th yu) t mt trn ng t xa c ghi nhn.Hnh 7.16 cho thy k lc ca mt trn ng t vi mt bin 85 mm v s khc bit trong thi gian n khong 34 giy.ng ni gia bin vi s khc nhau trong thi gian n ch ra rng ln l 6 v khong cch t tm chn l khong 300 km.Ghi nhn t vi my ghi a chn trong khu vc l cn thit xc nh v tr tm chn mt cch chnh xc. Cng Richter quy m ban u c d nh nh l mt cng a phng (ML) v sng a chn c s dng l ln nht, bt k loi (P, S, hoc b mt). Nu ln c xc nh bng cch s dng bin ln nht ca cc sng P, kt qu ln c gi l Mb (b l vit tt ca body wave), v nu bin ln nht ca mt ln sng trn b mt c s dng, ln c gi l Ms.Trong nhng nm gn y c mt h thng thay i t cng Richter n cng tc thi(Mw). Cng tc thi thng gn vi cng Richter, c bit l trn ng t c cng cao hn. Tuy nhin, n c thm mt c s vt l vng chc v c th ng dng trn mt phm vi rng chuyn ng trn mt t hn cng Richter, v vy n c khuyn khch s dung trong phn tch bo co s liu thng k ca trn ng t. Mi trn ng t c mt Richter duy nht xc nh sc tn ph ca n trong khi cng th thay i ty theo khong cch xa hay gn i vi chn tm. C th so snh vi mt cy pho: kch thc ca cy pho ni ln sc mnh lc n (tng ng vi Richter) v ting n nghe c (tng ng vi cng ca trn ng t). S dng thang Mercalli, thang ny khng da vo s thng vong v ngi nh gi, m ch da vo mc h hi ca nh ca v cc cng trnh xy dng. Cp 1: Ch ghi nhn c vi cc loi a chn k tinh vi. Cp 2: Rt yu, kh ghi nhn c. Cp 3: Yu, mt s ngi cm nhn c. Cp 4: Trung bnh, rung chuyn nh lm cho ngi ang ng git mnh thc dy. Cp 5: Kh mnh, lc l nh tu b nhi sng, ly tch trn bn b khua ng. Cp 6: Mnh, cc vt nng b di ch, cc mng vi trn trn nh b xung, mt s ng khi b . Cp 7: Rt mnh, cc ng khi b , mc nc ging b thay i. Cp 8: Sp , cc vt liu nng b li i xa hay b ln nho, ng khi nh my v thp chung b . Cp 9: Tn khc, nh ca b sp mt phn hay hon ton. Cp 10: Tht tn khc, cc ng dn kh v dn nc b gy, ng ry xe la b vn xon, cc khe nt rng xut hin trn b mt t. Cp 11: Tai bin, cc cu xy ct chc chn b sp , ng ry hon ton b cong vo. Cp 12: i bin, mt t bin i hon ton khng cn du vt c. Mc ny cha thy xy ra trong lch s loi ngi. 4.Giai on ca chu trnh ng t y l mt chu trnh suy on rng trn ng t in hnh c ba hay bn giai on.

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Giai on u tin l mt thi gian di khng hot ng a chn sau mt trn ng t ln v cc cn d chn ngay lp tc lin kt (trn ng t xy ra mt vi pht n mt vi thng n mt nm hoc lu hn sau nhng s kin chnh). Giai on th hai c trng bi s tng ln ca ng t, nh l phng php tip cn tch ly cng n hi v cc b vt qu sc bn ca , khi u s t on m to ra trn ng t nh. Giai on th ba ca chu trnh ny, bao gm nhng trn ng t nh (xy ra mt vi ngy trc trn ng t ln). V d, ML = 6 trn ng t c th c foreshocks khong ML = 4. Trong mt s trng hp giai on th ba c th khng xy ra. Giai on th t (sau trn ng t ln), cc chu trnh bt u mt ln na. Mc d chu trnh ch l gi thit v thi k gia cc trn ng t ln ang bin i, cc giai on c xc nh trong s xut hin v ti pht ca trn ng t ln. 5.nh hng ca ng t Rung ng khng phi l nguyn nhn duy nht dn n s tn ph v gy thit hi trong trn ng t. Thm ha ng t nh hng rt rng bi s ph hoi trc tip khi gy ra cc ch t gy trn mt t (v cc hiu ng ca n trn con ngi v cu trc) v b mt v. Cc hin tng khc gy ra s t gy v rung ng bao gm l t, ha hon, ha lng ca mt t, sng thn, v nhng thay i v cao ca t. a.Rung lc v t gy (shaking and ground rupture) Nhng tc ng tc thi ca mt trn ng t bao gm cc thm ha km vi cc chn ng mnh bi cc vt t gy rng ln trn b mt v s di chuyn ca cc t gy. V d, trn ng t San Francisco nm 1906 lm dch chuyn mt t theo phng ngang 6,5m dc theo pha bc San Andreas ch t gy ca San Francisco vi cng ti a. cng ny, b mt nhanh chng b t gy v cc cy ln b bt gc c th gy cht ngi. S rung ng c th ph hy hay lm sp cc ta nh ln, cu cng, p, ng hm, ng ng dn, v cc cu trc bn vng khc. Vo nm 1964 trn ng t ln Alaska (8,25) gy ra thit hi rng ln cho cc h thng giao thng, ng st, sn bay, v cc ta nh. Nm 1989 trn ng t Loma Prieta vi cng 7.1, tuy cng nh hn trn ng t Alaska nhng n gy thit hi khong 5 t USD. Nm 1994 trn ng t Northridge vi cng 6,7 lm 61 ngi cht v gy thit hi hn 30 t USD , y tr thnh mt trong nhng thm ha ln nht Hoa K. Vng Los Angeles l khu th ha vi mt dn s cao phi chu chn ng vi cng ln b.S ha lng (liquefaction) S ha lng l s chuyn i vt liu cha nc bo ha t th rn sang th lng. Trong sut qu trnh ng t, s ha lng xy ra bi s tng p sut ca nc gy ra do s nn p trong qu trnh rung ng d di. S ha lng ca cc vt liu kch thc nh to thnh bn v ct bo ho nc gn mt t lm chng mt i tnh lin kt v chy c. Kt qu l cc ta nh c th b nghing hay b chn vi trong bn lng, trong khi b cha hay cc ng ng nm trong lng t c th b nh ln khi mt t. c.Trt t (landslides) ng t thng gy nn nhiu v l t ti cc khu vc i ni. iu ny c th gy ra s tn ph nghim trng, gy tn tht ln ti sinh mng. iu ny c minh chng trong trn ng t Peru 1970. Trn ng t ny c hn 70000 ngi cht v trong c 20000 ngi thit mng bi trn l t d di chn vi cc th trn. C hai trn ng t 50

 Alaska 1964 v Loma Prieta 1989 u gy ra nhng trn trt l t thm khc, ph hy cc ta nh, ng x v nhng cng trnh khc. d.Ha hon Ha hon l mt mi nguy ln lin quan n ng t.S rung ng ca mt t v dch chuyn b mt c th ph v ng dy ti in v kh t, do s xut hin m chy. Mi nguy him t ha hon s tng gp i v khi cc thit b cha chy c th ph hy cc ng ng dn nc b v. Trong cc cn nh ring bit v cc ta nh khc, cc vt dng nh my si kh b va p gy r r kh t v gy ha hon. C hai trn ng t Nht Bn v Hoa K u km theo s tn ph ca cc m chy. e.Song thn Sng thn, hoc sng bin a chn c kh nng tn ph rt ln. S bin mt hu ht s sng trong trn ng t Alaskan nm 1964 c cho l do sng thn. May mn thay, nhng cn sng thn khng khip thng him xy ra v thng c hn ch trong lu vc Thi Bnh Dng. Tn s ca nhng s kin ny Hoa K l khong 8 nm. Sng thn bt ngun khi nc bin di chuyn theo phng thng ng trong trn ng t ln, c s vn ng di mt bin, hoc trong qu trnh phun tro ni la ngm. Khi nc tch ra cc con sng c th di chuyn vi tc rt ln l khong 800km/h, v khong cch gia cc ngn sng lin tip c th vt qu 100km. cao sng vng nc su c th t hn 1m nhng khi ln sng i vo vng nc nng ven bin th vn tc nh hn 60km/h, v chiu cao ca n c th tng ln n hn 20m Nhng tc hi to ln n mt th trn nh trn o Okushiri, Nht Bn vo ngy 12-71993: sng thn c to ra bi trn ng t c cng 7,8 richter bin Nht Bn. S dng ln ca mt nc bin dao ng t 15-30m. Khng c s bo trc v tm ng t nm rt gn o v cc con sng ln p n ch t 2-5 pht sau khi ng t. Cn sng thn git cht 120 ngi v gy tn tht nng n v ti sn l 600 triu USD. Sng thn c th gy ra nhng tc hi gh ghm trong khong 1000km tnh t ni pht sinh: nm 1960, mt trn ng t hnh thnh Chil khi mo cho mt cn sng thn di chuyn n Hawaii 15 gi sau , git cht 61 ngi. Tuy nhin, ngy nay thi gian truyn di cho php ngi ta nhn ra nhiu trn sng thn nhm bo trc cho dn c sng trn ng i ca n. Trong nhng trn ng t yu, thi gian n ca nhng con sng thng c nh gi trong khong 1.5giy mi gi thi gian di chuyn. Thng tin ny c s dng xy dng h thng cnh bo sng thn nh trng hp Hawaii. Mt trn ng t cng 7,1 ngy 17/7/1998 to nn mt cn sng thn ln vi cao sng t 10m n 15m. Mt chui gm 3 t sng xut hin trong khong t 1020 pht ngay sau trn ng t Sissano Lagoon trn b bin pha bc ca Papua New Gouinea git cht hn 2100 ngi. Tm chn ng t ngoi khi khong 50km. Sng thn l kt qu t mt hiu ng kt hp gia cc trn ng t v s l t ngm . S kin Papua New Guinea lm ni bt cho nhng thit hi, cho kh nng tn ph t nhng t sng bt thng c to ra bi mt trn ng t ti a phng . iu quan tm by gi l cho xy dng mt h thng cnh bo sng thn. V d, cnh bo nhng ngi dn ty bc California khi sng thn c sinh ra bi ng t Alaskan hoc Cascadia. Thi gian lan truyn ca sng thn t o Aleutian Alaskan ti bc Caliornia khong 4 gi, v s di chuyn ca sng thn v pha nam c th c gim st t s thay i mc nc ca my o thu triu. S bao gm nhng my mc hin i nh my o t y Thi Bnh Dng, bn Alaska, v ba b bin ng bc California. 51

Mi nguy him t sng thn ti nhng v tr c bit trn b bin tu thuc vo phn b bin cc b v a th y i dng m c th tng hoc gim cao sng. Nhng tc hi gy ra bi sng thn khc lit nht ti b nc ni m tu thuyn, bn cng v cc cng trnh, h thng giao thng, v nhng vt c ch u b ph hu. Nhng con sng cn c th gy hi ti hot ng sng di v trn mt nc, trong mi trng gn v ven b. Nhng con sng gy ra bi l t cng gy nh hng ng k v thit hi trn din rng. Nm 1958, mt trn ng t gy l t xung vnh Lituya, Alaska, gy ra mt t sng khng l di chuyn ln mt t ni c cao trn 500m so vi mc nc bin. f.Nhng thay i khu vc khi mt t ni ln (regional changes in land elevation) S lm bin dng mt t (thuc khu vc) theo chiu thng ng bao gm s nng ln v s ln xung, l mt hu qu khc ca mt vi trn ng t ln. Nhiu s bin dng c th lm thay i mc nc ngm trong mt khu vc. Trn ng t ln Alaska nm 1964 vi mt quy m ng t theo thang Mercalli l cp X- XI lm bin dng mt t theo chiu thng ng mt khu vc thng ng rng ln hn 250000km2. S bin dng l do hai min co hay gin n khng ng u, vi mi chiu di khong 500km th m rng ra hn 210km. S nng ln 10m v ln xung 2,4m gy ra nhng hu qu nh lm xo trn cuc sng ca sinh vt bin v thay i mc nc ngm. Kt qu ca s ln xung l l lt xy ra mt vi cng ng dn c, tri li nhng khu vc c nng ln th cc nh my ng tu v nh ca c dn nh c b dch chuyn cao hn mc thy triu lm cho cc bn tu v cc phng tin khc khng hot ng c. Vo nm 1992, mt trn ng t ln 7,1 richter gn Capeplendocino ty bc California nng ng b bin ln khong 1 m. Kt qu l cc qun th sinh vt bin b cht v b mc cn trn b bin. 6.Ri ro ng t v d bo ng t Nhng thit hi v mt mt v sinh mng v ti sn lin quan n cc trn ng t l do khng c cc d bo trc. Rt nhiu nghin cu ang c tin hnh d on trc ng t. Phng php tt nht hin nay l s dng phng php xc sut xc nh cc nguy c lin kt vi mt khu vc c th hoc vi mt on t gy c th. Xc nh cc ri ro l mt hnh thc d bo di hn. Chng ta c th ni rng mt trn ng t mang tnh nghim trng hay mnh lit c mt xc sut cao tng khu vc hoc tng on t gy trong mt s nm c th. S d on nh vy c th gip nhng ngi ang quan tm n thc o an ton a chn hay nhng ngi ang tm ni sinh sng, nhng n li khng gip g nhiu cho c dn ca vng c ng t hot ng bit trc v chun b cho mt trn ng t c th. S d o ngn hn ch r thi gian v v tr ng t th hu ch hn nhiu. S d on nh vy ph thuc vo ln vo s quan st hin tng c bo trc khi cn trong giai on hnh thnh ca n, nhng n l mt vng kho st hot ng. a.Estimation of seimic risk (c tnh ri ro a chn) Ri ro ng t lin quan n mt vng c bit c cho thy trn bn ch mi nguy him a chn, cung cp bi nhng nh khoa hc M. Mt s t nhng bn ny ch ra a chn tng i, ni nhng trn ng t c cng ln xut hin. Tuy nhin, mt phng php c a chung trong vic nh gi ri ro a chn l tnh ton xc sut xut hin ca s kin c th hoc rung chuyn. Trong mt bn ch ri ro ng t da trn xc sut ca chuyn ng nm ngang, ch ra ng bin ca gi tr gia tc cc i gy ra bi a chn rung chuyn. Gi tr cc 52

i trong trng hp ny c ngha l xc sut 90 % nhng gi tr ny s khng vt hn trong 50 nm. Cch gii thch bn ny l nhng vng nht i din cho nhng vng a chn mnh nht, bi v l vng trong thi k 50 nm s c xc sut cao nht trong vic tri qua a chn rung chuyn mnh nht. Nhng bn ch ri ro ng t a phng cn thit cho s c lng nhng vng nguy him chnh xc hn l mc tiu gip pht trin h thng cao c v xc nh t l an ton. b.Conditional probabilities for future earthquakes (xc sut c kin ca ng t trong tng lai) Xc sut c iu kin l s c lng cc xc sut ca mt trn ng t mt cng nht nh xy ra dc theo nhng on t gy trong mt thi gian xc nh. Nhng nh gi nh vy da vo s tng hp nhng bn ghi chp lch s v s nh gi a cht ca nhng trn ng t trc y (c th l 12 trn ng t th k trn t gy San Andreas nam California). Vo cui nhng nm 1980, nhng nh a cht ti California s dng phng php ny nh gi xc sut c iu kin cho nhng trn ng t ln dc theo nhng on t gy ca San Andreas giai on 30 nm t nm 1988 n nm 2018. Hnh di y cho thy cc xc sut ny, vi 1.0 tng ng vi xc sut l 100 %. c.Short-term prediction (d bo ngn hn) Trong d on ngn hn, d bo ng t l mt lnh vc nghin cu quan trng. Ging nh d bo thi tit, d bo ng t xc nh trong mt khong thi gian tng i ngn, trong cc s kin c kh nng xut hin v gn cho n xc sut xy ra. Ging nh Nht Bn lm cuc th nghim u tin d on ng t vi mt s thnh cng, bng cch s dng cc tn s ng t cc nh, lp i lp li cc o c, cc cuc iu tra, ng nc tiltmeters, quan st a t. H thy rng ng t trong cc lnh vc m h nghin cu gn nh lun lun km theo nhng sng ng t cc nh xy ra vi thng trc cc chn ng. Hn na, hin tng t nghing tng quan mnh m vi nhng trn ng t hot ng. d.Toward earthquakes prediction Chng ta vn cn mt chng ng di c th d on ng t mt cch chnh xc. Hin nay, nhiu thng tin hin thi thu thp c cho thy mi quan h gia nhng hin tng bo trc v ng t. Nhng nh khoa hc lc quan trn th gii tin tng rng dn dn chng ta c th d bo ngn hn chnh xc ng t (t mt thp nin n mt nghn nm), phm vi d on trung bnh (mt vi nm n vi thng), v s d on tm ngn (t ngy hay nhiu gi) cho vic xc nh v tr v cng h hi ca ng t. Nu chng ta bit cng v thi im bt u bin c th ta c th tnh ton c khi no ng t tip theo xut hin. iu nghe tht n gin nhng l iu kh thc hin v khng c mi quan h no y c dn ra chnh xc s dng trong vic d on thc t. 7.i ph ri ro ng t C th i ph vi ng t nhng khu vc d xy ra ng t bao gm: s pht trin ca nhng chng trnh gim bt ri ro, kh nng quyt nh chn a im cn thn, cc cng trnh, s iu chnh s dng t cho hot ng ng t, v vic pht trin h thng cnh bo. Nhng i ph vi ri ro c ngh ra ph thuc vo s nhn thc ca con ngi. a.Chng trnh gim thiu ri ro (earthquake hazard reduction programs)

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 Hoa K, nhng nh a cht nghin cu v ng t, trng i hc v nhng nh khoa hc khc pht trin mt chng trnh gim thiu ri ro trong c nc. Mc ch ch yu ca chng trnh l Trnh by nhng hiu bit v ngun gc ca ng t. Bao gm hiu bit v tnh cht vt l, cc hot ng c hc ca s t gy cng nh s pht trin m hnh vt l ca qu trnh ng t(hinh 7.19) Xc nh tim lc ca ng t bao gm vic m t nhng vng c s hot ng ca ng t, xc nh tc bin dng ca v tri t, nhn dng s hot ng ca cc t gy, xc nh c im mc ng t, tnh ton lu di xc sut d bo v cui cng l pht trin nhng phng n d bo trung hn v ngn hn ca nhng trn ng t. D bo tc ng ca nhng trn ng t. iu ny bao gm tp hp cc thng tin cn thit cho vic d on ch t gy v s rung ca mt t v cho cc d bo do phn ng ca cc thit b m chng ti xy dng ti cc khu vc d b ng t, cng nh nh gi gim i lin kt vi nguy c ng t. p dng kt qu nghin cu. mc ny chng trnh quan tm n vic chuyn ti cc kin thc v mi nguy him ng t cho ngi dn, cng ng, tiu bang, v c nc. Kin thc ny lin quan n nhng g c th thc hin k hoch tt hn cho trn ng t v gim bt kh nng mt mt ti sn v cuc sng. b.ng t v nhng c s vt cht quan trng C s vt cht quan trng l nhng th, nu b h hi hoc b ph hy, c th gy ra s mt mt nghim trng cho cuc sng, thit hi ti sn, hoc gin on ca x hi. Trong mi trng th, v d nh trng hc, cc c s y t, v cnh st v cc trm cu ho. V d khc bao gm p nc, nh my in, v cc phng tin cn thit khc. C ba kha cnh ca s quyt nh qu trnh lin quan n c s vt cht quan trng v nguy c ng t. nh gi cc ri ro. nh gi nhng c s cho d c th c d tnh hoc sa i thch ng vi ri ro. nh gi ch quan ca mt ri ro chp nhn c. Hai kha cnh u tin th lin quan n vic xy dng c s vt cht quan trng an ton hn, c mt thnh phn mnh l khoa hc. Tuy nhin, khng c c s vt cht no c th nu ra c an ton tuyt i, chng ti cng phi c lin quan ti vic nh gi ri ro cho php, l mt vn v an ton cng cng hn l v khoa hc. Trong trng hp ca cc nh my in ht nhn, nhng yu cu nh gi s nguy him cho thy mt mi quan tm c bit v vic xc nh v tr ca nhng nh my ny. nh gi ny i hi kh nng c tnh s t gy v ng tin cy ti a trn ng t c th xy ra pha trn t gy trong vng ln cn ca v tr . Mt t gy c kh nng xy ra c xc nh bi mt hi ng kim sot nng lng, l mt t gy vn ng t nht mt ln trong 50.000 nm qua hoc nhiu dch chuyn trong 500.000 nm qua. y l mt tiu chun va phi hn v i din cho mt mc an ton ln hn cc tiu chun 10.000nm thng c s dng cho cc c s khc. Cc trn ng t ng tin cy ti a c kh nng xy ra da trn mi trng kin to, nhng trn ng t lch s v cc vn lin quan n ng t. Trn ng t ny c th c dng o mc nguy hi do ng t i vi cc c s vt cht quan trng. D ton vi ng tin cy ti a v cc trn ng t i khi c th c thc hin bng cch nghin cu thc a nh gi tc ng ca ng t trong lch s v hot ng thi tin s. Chiu di ca mt t gy v s dch chuyn mi s kin u lin quan 54

n cng trn ng t v phng trnh c sn c tnh cng , nu d kin c chiu di mt t gy hoc s rung chuyn trong mi trn ng t th chng ta c th tnh c mc nguy him ca ng t. S lp li trung bnh ca mt trn ng t vi cng c bit cng c th c c tnh nu mt t l trt c bit n hoc gi nh. Tht khng may, c s d liu lin quan n chiu di t gy v s dch chuyn th b hn ch. V vy, c tnh nguy him ca mt trn ng t cho nhng c s vt cht quan trng s phi tnh ton cho mi trn ng t c th. Nhng g cc nh a cht lm l thu thp nhiu d liu a cht thch hp nht c th bo m rng cc quyt nh ca h c da trn thng tin y , c c s. Chc chn, vi mt t gy c th, chng ta mun bit chiu di ca t gy ny, kiu t gy, s dch chuyn hon ton, tui ca s di chuyn gn y nht, khong xp x s tr li, v chnh xc ca mt cng cc i ca trn ng t. Vn chnh cn li l thng rt kh xc nh thi im tuyt i ca nhng trn ng t trong tin s. Tuy nhin, chng ta ang c nhng tin b trong vic hiu v ng t, nhn ra t gy hot ng, v nh gi nhng trn ng t ng tin nht trong nhng khu vc c bit. c.iu chnh thch nghi vi hot ng cuc sng (adjustments to earthquake activity) - Bo v cc cng trnh kin trc - Quy hoch s dng t V tr ca nhng c s quan trng nh trng hc, bnh vin, v trm cnh phi t nhng khu vc trnh xa vng c nhng t gy d xy ra hoc vt liu t d thay i nh l d b rung do ng t. i vi nhng khu vc c gi tr ti sn t hng triu ln hng t USD cho mt l t, chng ta cn to ra nhng bn t chi tit. S gip cc k s thit k nhng ngi nh v nhiu cng trnh khc chng li s rung chuyn do ng t tt hn. iu ny cn cho s u t v i hi mt s u t ng k v thi gian v tin bc vi nhng bc u tin l s pht trin nhng bin php d bo s chuyn ng mt t t trn ng t ti v tr xc nh. -Hp ng bo him 8.H thng cnh bo ng t (earthquakes warning system) Vic to ra mt h thng cnh bo ng t l kh thi, n s bo trc mt pht ti Los Angeles trc khi sng ng t lan truyn n. Nguyn tc l sng Radio truyn nhanh hn nhiu so vi sng ng t. Nht bn s dng mt h thng (my o a chn) khong gn 20 nm cnh bo cho tu in siu tc ca h t khi trt bnh xe la do mt trn ng t lm cht hng trm ngi. H thng cnh bo c xut California l mt mng li phc tp gm cc my o a chn v cc my pht tn hiu dc theo vt nt San Andreas. H thng ny trc tin cho thy chuyn ng cng vi s rung chuyn ln, sau a ra li cnh bo ti thnh ph Los Angeles, v truyn thng tin n cc c s quan trng, trng hc, cng ng dn c. Do ph thuc vo ni bt u xy ra ng t nn thi gian d bo s thay i t 15 giy n 1 pht. Thi gian ny cho mi ngi tt cc c cu hot ng, my tnh v n np. H thng d bo ng t khng phi l mt thit b d bo, n ch cnh bo khi ng t xy ra ri. Phng php s dng h thng d bo ng t th c kh nng ri ro nu nh gp bo ng gi. Vic s dng h thng ny Nht cho thy s lng bo ng gi c l chim t hn 5% nn h thng bo ng cn thiu st . 55

Nghin cu gn y v h thng bo ng sm California c mt h thng c xem l kh thi nhng v li nhun kinh t th khng chi ph cho vic xy dng v hot ng. Hu ht s tiu tn ph cho vic xy dng c c tnh t 3 triu n 6 triu USD, ph hot ng hng nm l t 1,5 n 2,5 triu USD. Nh vy, thm ha t trn ng t nm 1994 Northridge vi ln 6,7 vt qu 30 t USD. Tht kh a ra mt mc gi kinh t cho tt c nhng hu qu lin quan ti s an ton ca cng chng, c bit c lin quan n kh nng b tn thng v thit hi v sinh mng. Nu khng c thit b k thut t tin th s khng d bo c nhng tai bin ang n. 9.Hiu bit v tai bin ng t Nhng vng t lin khng thc s vng chc gy hoang mang cho nhng ngi m thm ch ch tri qua nhng trn ng t va phi. Mt s ln nhng c bit, c bit l tr em nhng ngi phi chu ng nhng lo u v mt tinh thn sau nhng trn ng t San Fernando v Northridge. iu ny chng minh ng t gy nhng nh hng v cm xc cng nh tm l. B qua s lo u v mt tinh thn sau ng t, hu ht mi ngi sng trong vng c kh nng xy ra thin tai khng c nhng hiu bit y v s nguy him ca ng t. Thm vo , dng nh c s khc bit trong cch ni v lm ca con ngi. Tokyo ang xy dng trung tm chng thin. Ngi dn Nht khng c phng trong trn ng t Kobe nm 1995 v chnh quyn b ch trch v khng a ra nhng phn ng c hiu qu v nhanh chng. Bi hc cho ton th gii rt ra t Northridge v Kobe l chung mt ni mt mt ln. X hi hin i ca chng ta c kh nng phi hng chu nhng thm ha t cc trn ng t ln. Nhng ngi dn sng trong vng t c ng t xy ra th khng nhn thy s e da tht s ca ng t nn khng c s phng b i ph vi ng t, v cng kh thc hin vic di tn h n vng an ton. Gim ti thiu s tn ph ca ng t i vi cc cng trnh xy dng, cc kin trc s phi thit k cng trnh c vng chc cao, lm gim mc tn tht khi mt t rung chuyn. CHNG 8: HOT NG NI LA (cu hi kh y ) CHNG 9: TAI BIN B BIN (cu hi y ) CHNG 10: NC: QU TRNH, CUNG CP, V S DNG ( c ti liu in) CHNG 11: NHIM NC V X L ( c ti liu in) CHNG 12: CC KHA CNH A CHT CA SC KHE MT ( c ti liu) CHNG 13: QUN L CHT THI RN (ang tm ti liu) CU HI CC QU TRNH V VT LIU TRI T Cu 1: Hy phn bit cc kiu ranh gii kin to? Cc ranh gii ko phi l cc ng nt hp m l cc i rng hng chc ti hng trm km C 3 kiu ranh gii mng: phn k, hi t, v chuyn dng Cc ranh gii phn k xut hin nhng ni thch quyn mi c to ra v cc mng di chuyn ra xa nhau. Ranh gii ny xut hin gia cc sng ni gia i dng v qu trnh ny gi l s tch gin y i dng.Tuy nhin, nu bin chnh ca hai mng bao gm cc lc a, n s kh khn hn cho s ht chm bt u. Trong trng hp ny ranh gii va chm lc a c th m rng, trong cc ra ca cc mng ny b bin dng 56

thnh cc khi ni. Kiu ranh gii phn k ny to nn cc h thng ni cao nht trn tri t nh Alpine v Himallaya i tch gin khng phi l ng nt (rift) lin tc, ring bit, m l mt k h ngn x dch theo chiu ngang gi l ranh gii chuyn dng hoc cc t gy chuyn dng, xut hin cc ni giao nhau ca hai mng trt. Hu ht cc ranh gii nh th xut hin trn v i dng, mt s xut hin trn lc a. Ranh gii chuyn dng lc a ni ting l t gy San Andreas California, ni mt phn mng Thi Bnh Dng trt ngang qua mt phn mng Bc M. Ti mt s v tr, im ni 3 mng, v cc khu vc ny c gi l im gip ni 3 mng. im gp g ca mng Juan de Fuca, Bc M v Thi Bnh Dng trn b ty ca Bc M v im ni ca sng ni tch gin c kt hp vi mng Thi Bnh Dng, Cocos v Nazca pha ty Nam M. Cu 2: Trnh by cc qu trnh a cht ca gi? 1.Trm tch (tham kho) Trm tch do gi hu ht c chia thnh hai nhm ln: trm tch ct v trm tch hon th, din tch trm tch gi rt ln bao ph hng ngn km Hoa K a.n ct n ct l nhng ng ct cao c tch t do gi, c hu ht dc b bin thp cao hn mc triu cng, him thy b ca h v thung lng sng, cng nh t nhng vng hoang mc khc nhau, ni c qu nhiu ct kh trn mt hu nh sut nm. n ct c tm thy dc b bin Atlantic v Thi Bnh Dng. Ct trn t lin tm thy vng Nebraska, min nam Oregon, nam California, Neveda, Nam n v dc theo nhng con sng ln chy qua vng bn kh cn nh Colombia, sng Snake Oregon v Ohshington. Nhng n ct thng c gi thi ln t pha dc thoi v thi xung pha dc ng (dc ng khong 33O), trong qu trnh ny ct s di chuyn ln mt dc thoi v chuyn xung mt dc nghing, y chnh l nguyn nhn gy nn hin tng ct di chuyn. Cc n rt a dng v kch thc do pht trin di nhiu iu kin khc nhau. n ct di chuyn gy ra rt nhiu vn cho mi trng, bn cnh s n nh ca ct cng l mt vn ln trong vic xy dng v bo tr ng cao tc v ng st xuyn sa mc. Xy dng cc h cha kh khn v tn km. Knh rch cc vng ct nn c lt gi nc v kim sot xi mn. b.Hon th Hon th l sn phm tch t do gi. l nhng trm tch lp ph, ht mn, thng c hm lng calci cao, gn kt yu, vn xp, thng thng khng phn tng, ng nht v ph bin nhiu ni, cha ch yu l ph sa vi kch thc ht dao ng t st n ct mn. Do kch thc ht vn rt mn nn chng c th d di chuyn qua vng bn hoang mc n vng tho nguyn. Ti tho nguyn, ng nng ca gi gim r rt, cng vi s tng m dn ti cc ht bi lin kt li vi nhau lm tng trng lng v khng cn kh nng di chuyn nn ri xung mt t, sau ma li cun bi ny xung mt t nn cht li. Tuy tc tch t rt chm t 1 2mm/nm, song thi gian ko di hng chc nghn nm nn b dy tch t c th t hng chc mt. Qu trnh ri ca bi c cc nh khoa hc tm thy nhiu Trung , ty bc Trung Quc. Mt khc trong trm tch hon th c nhiu khe mao qun thng ng y l nhng du vt lin quan ti c vng tho nguyn. 2.Cc qu trnh a cht ca gi a.Qu trnh phn hy 57

Gi cun cc sn phm do phong ha vt l trn b mt gc i ni khc c gi l qu trnh thi mn. Kt qu l b mt a hnh tr gc, khi qu trnh phong ha li tip tc. Cc sn phm vn cng di chuyn theo gi, va p, ph hy b mt gc trn ng i c gi l qu trnh gm mn. Kt qu ca qu trnh ny l li trn b mt gc nhng rnh kha, c chiu su v dy khc nhau. C hai qu trnh trn u ph thuc vo tc v chiu cao hot ng ca gi. iu kin thun li cho hai qu trnh ny pht trin l khi chiu cao hot ng ca gi t 1 2m so vi mt t, qu trnh ph hy do gi cn ph thuc vo cng, cu to ca . Kt qu ca qu trnh ph hy to thnh cc dng a hnh tng i vi loi cng nh ct , bt , thp ; cc loi a hnh m i vi mm nh rnh, hc, t, hang, dng mng li, ni cc lp cng, mm xen k nhau. b.Qu trnh vn chuyn Cc vt liu ph hy ht nh, mn nh ct, bt, st, bi cc loi c cun vo khng gian cng di chuyn theo chiu gi. Ht cng mn th di chuyn cng xa, ngi ta quan st thy cc ht bi di chuyn t sa mc Sahara ti vng bin Carib. Cc vt liu th nh: tng, mnh c kch thc khc nhau, di tc ng ca gi, chng trt, ln trn sn a hnh khi khu vc b ph hy. c.Qu trnh tch t Khi tc gi suy gim hoc gp cc vt cn trn ng di chuyn th cc vt liu ph hy c tch t li. *Tch t ven sng ln, b h, b bin: vt liu tch t y thng c ht nh, ht mn vi thnh phn ch yu l ct thch anh, ngoi ra cn c st, cc mnh v ca xng ng vt, bo t phn hoa thc vt. n ct l mt dng tch t ny. *Cc tch t hoang mc - Hoang mc chim khong 20% din tch b mt cc lc a. Chng c mt nhiu ni trn lc a tr vng cc, tp trung thnh hai i phn b t v 10o n 45o hai bn cu - Da vo cao ngi ta chia ra: Hoang mc ni, hoang mc ng - Da vo thnh phn vt liu ch yu ngi ta chia ra: Hoang mc , hoang mc ct, hoang mc st, hoang mc mui. - Trm tch hon th l mt trong nhng tch t dng ny. HOT NG NI LA Cu 1: Trnh by cc dng ni la Mi loi ni la u c nhng c im hot ng ring m phn ln l do nht ca magma. nht magma (Magma viscosity) c xc nh ch yu bi thnh phn SiO2 bin i t 50 n 70% v nhit ca n. Magma ni ln t ming ni la c gi l dung nham. 1.Ni la hnh khin (shield volcano) Ni la dng khin c th c xem l ni la c hnh dng ln nht. Chng ph bin o Hawaii v cng c tm thy Iceland v mt vi ni vng Ty Bc Thi Bnh Dng. Tuy chng c hnh dng ging nh vm thoi hay dng khin, chng nm trong s nhng ngn ni cao nht ca Tri t, khi o t y thng nm trn thm i dng. c im chung ca cc ni la dng ny l phun khng gy n; Nguyn nhn l thnh phn tng i thp ca silica trong magma (khong 50%). Loi ph bin ca magma l basalt. Thnh phn ch yu ca n l khong feldspar v cc khong vt c ferromagnesian. Ni la dng khin c xy bt kn gn nh hon ton t nhiu dng 58

dung nham nhng chng c th sinh ra rt nhiu bi ni la (tt c cc cc dng mnh v tro ra mt cch d di t ni la) u c gi l trm tch vn ni la(pyroclastic deposit). S tch ly bi ni la gn ming phun c th to thnh nhng im c trng nh l x ni la hnh nn (cinder cone) S tch ly bi ni la to thnh cc trm tch nham tng. Cc trm tch nham tng c th c c kt to thnh dm kt ni la (pyroclastic rock) dc ca cn ni la dng khin rt thoi gn nh (khong t 3 n 5 0) nhng li tng dn (n khong 100) sn. S thay i ny c lin quan n nht ca dng dung nham (lava). Khi magma i ra khi ming ming phun nh ca ni la th n kh nng v dng chy d dng nhng khi n chy xung pha bn ca ni la th ngui v tr nn do hn v vy n cn dc ln hn c th chy xung xa hn. Tuy nhin, chy xung sn khng phi l qu trnh duy nht m dng dung nham di chuyn ra khi ming ni la. Magma c th di chuyn nhiu kilomet lp di cc vi dung nham. Nhng vi ny thng rt gn vi b mt, nhng chng bo v magma, gi cho magma nng v d chy. Sau khi dung nham ngui v kt tinh, to thnh ,cc vi dung nham c th c li nh l nhng h thng hang ng di v un khc ngon ngoo. Chng to thnh nhng ng dn nc ngm t nhin v c th gy ra nhng vn kin trc khi gp phi chng trong qu trnh xy dng. Ni la hnh khing c nh hnh hm cho, n l dc ng bao quanh lu vc vi ng knh khong 10km hoc hn, hnh thnh do s sp khi hm,m trong nhng h dung nham c to nn hoc chy theo vt nt.S phun tro dung nham t ni la hnh khing cng thng xut hin dc theo chiu di vt t gy c bit nh khu rn nt (rift zones)( l mt vng rng ln ca tri t trong mng ca lp v tri t ang chuyn ng cch xa nhau to thnh mt h thng t gy) trn sn ca ni la.V d,ni la hnh khing qun o Hawaii,ni la ln nht l ni Mauna Loa trn i o pht hin nhng vt nt t nm 1983 n 1999 rng thm 2km2. 2.Ni la kt tng (composite volcano) Nhng ngn ni la kt tng c bit n bi dng hnh nn p. in hnh l nhng ngn ni la M nh l ni St.Helens v Rainier, c 2 u nm bang Washington. Nhng ngn la kt tng c kt hp bi magma c thnh phn silica trung bnh (khong 60%), magma ny c do cao hn magma ca nhng ni la hnh khin. Loi thng dng l andesite, c cu to ch yu bi cc feldspar giu natricacbonat v vi, nhng khong vt c ferromagnesian cha mt lng nh thch anh. Ni la kt tng c c trng bi s pha trn ca cc hot ng gy n v cc dng chy dung nham. Kt qu l, cc ni la c to bi s sp xp qua li ca cc a tng trm tch nham thch ni la v dng chy dung nham c gi l ni la tng. Nhng ngn ni ny c sn ng bi v gc ngh hay theo gc nhn ca repose (angle of repose) (gc dc ln nht cho vt liu lng chy xung) cho nhiu trm tch nham tng khong t 30-350. Do cc hot ng gy n v xy ra kh thng xuyn, dng ni la ny l nguyn nhn ca hu ht cc tai bin ni la gy cht chc v hy dit trong lch s. V n ca ni la vo nhng nm 80 chng minh rng nhng ni la kt tng ny c th to ra nhng v n khng l theo phng ngang. 3.Ni la mi vm (dome volcano) c t trng bi nht ca magma vi thnh phn silica tng cao (khong 70%). Loi ph bin l rhyolite bao gm phn ln l kali v khong feldspar giu soda 59

(soda-rich feldspar), thch anh v mt lng nh khong cht c ferromag-nesian. Hot ng ch yu ca ni la dng mi vm gy n nn lm cho n tr nn rt nguy him. Mt. Lassen nm ng Bc California l 1 v d in hnh cho ni la dng hnh ny. Hng lot v n Mt.Lassen t 1914 n 1917, gm mt v n kinh hong theo phng ngang ph hy c mt khu vc rng ln. Vo ngy 20 thng 5 nm 1915 mt v phun tro ti nh Lassen ph hy mt vng rng ln khu vc ln cn & ma tro ni la ko di khong 320 km v pha ng.y l v n mnh nht trong mt lot v phun tro t 1914 n 1917. Cu 2: Nu s hnh thnh ni la v cc mi nguy him ca chng S hnh thnh ni la Nguyn nhn ca hot ng ni la lin quan trc tip ti hot ng kin to ca nhng loi ni la khc nhau gip ta gii thch c s khc bit v kin to mng. V by gi chng ta quay tr li vi ti quan trng hiu r ngun thnh phn ho hc ca nhng loi sinh ra t nhng loi ni la khc nhau. S xut hin nhng hot ng ni la nhng dy ni gia i dng to ra bazan. ni m h thng ni dn ra trn mt t, v d nh Iceland, ni la hnh khin c thnh to. bazan, loi c thnh phn silic tng i thp, phun ra trc tip t di lng t l magma, ho ln vi mt t vt liu khc, ngoi tr v i dng v thnh phn ca v i dng vn d l bazan. S xut hin ca nhng ngn ni la hnh khin pha trn im nng c xc nh pha di l nhng mng thch quyn. V d nh nhng ngn ni la Hawai c xc nh ph thuc vo mng Thi Bnh Dng hn l bin gii mng. Hin nay ngi ta tin rng c mt im nng pha di mng Thi Bnh Dng ni m magma c phun tro. Magma tri ln xuyn qua mng kin to, to thnh ni la pha di y bin v c th to thnh mt hn o. Bi v nhng hn o Hawai, mng kin to di chuyn mnh m theo hng Ty Bc qua im nng, v vy, hng lot nhng ni la chy theo hng Ty Bc n ng Nam c thnh to. Hn o ln, Hawai, chng my chc gn im nng v hot ng ni la cng tr nn mnh m v di. Nhng hn o pha Ty Nam, vi d nh Molokai v Oahu, hin nhin s di chuyn xa khi im nng khi m nhng ni la trn o ny khng cn hot ng na. S xut hin ca nhng ngn ni la hn hp c lin quan vi ni la andesit v vng a quyn. y l nhng ngn ni la ph bin c tm thy xung quanh vnh ai Thi Bnh Dng. V d nh l nhng ni la dy tng ca Washington, Oregon, v California lin quan ti Cascadia Subduction Zone (Cascades a mountain range in the northwestern United States extending through Washington and Oregon and northern California; a part of the Coast Range)(minh ho 8.11). ni la andesit c to ra t nhng tng a cht, ni m magma a ln s trn ln vi lp v i dng v lc a. Bi v, lp v lc a bao gm hm lng silicat cao hn magma bazan, iu ny to ra vi hm lng silicat mc trung bnh. S xut hin ca dng phun tro hm cho c th gy ra nhng v n cc ln v d di. S phun n ny thng lin quan vi ryolic, c to ra khi magma di chuyn ln trn v trn ln vi lp v lc a, bi v hm lng silic cao ca lp v lc a. Nhng vm ni la, mc d khng phi lc no cng lin quan n dng phun tro hm cho, nhung chng thng c tm thy vng ni a ca vng vng a cht v tro silicat, magma giu ryolic. 60

Nhng tho lun ngn gn ca chng ta khng gii thch tt c nhng s khc nhau trong vic to thnh v xut hin cac loi bazan, andesit, v ryolic. Tuy nhin, gip chng ta hiu c mi quan h gia kin to mng vi nhng hot ng ca ni la v ni la. Mi him ha t ni la Nhng tai bin ni la bao gm nhng nh hng s cp (primary effects) ca hot ng ni la l kt qu trc tip ca s phun tro v nhng nh hng th cp (secondary effects) c th do nhng nh hng s cp gy nn. Nhng nh hng s cp gm dng dung nham (lava flow); hot ng trm tch vn ni la (pyroclastic activity) gm c: ma tro (ash fall), dng tro (ash flow) v lung hi bn trong (lateral blast); s thot kh-hu ht dng hi nc, nhng i khi l nhng kh n mn v c hi. Nhng nh hng th cp gm dng nhng mnh vn v, dng bn, trt l t v la. 1.Dng dung nham (lava flow) Dng dung nham l mt trong nhng sn phm thng thy nht ca hot ng ni la.Chng c c khi magma ln n b mt v chy trn ln ming ni la hoc ming phun dc bn sn ca ni la. C 3 nhm dung nham chnh c tn t nhng loi ni la: balsatic (chim hu ht), andesitic v rhyolitic. Dng dung nham c th kh lng v di chuyn nhanh hoc tng i snh v di chuyn chm. Dung nham balsatic vi hm lng silic khong 50%, quy nh phm vi ca tc chy. Nhng dng vi hm lng kh v nhit bn ln cao nht di chuyn nhanh nht vi tc lc bnh thng l khong 1 m/h; nhng dung nham ny c kt cu b mt nhn khi chng ha rn. Nhng dng dung nham balsatic mt hn chuyn ng vi t l mt vi mt trong 1 ngy v c kt cu th kch sau khi ha rn. Ngoi l i mt vi dng cc dc ng, hu ht dng lava chy chm con ngi c th d dng chuyn i khi ni m n p ti. Dng dung nham t ni la Kilauea, Hawaii, hot ng c vi nm. 5/1990 hn 50 ngi nh ngi lng Kalapana b ph hy bi dng dung nham v 8/1990 dung nham chy qua phn ca bi bin ni ting Kaimu Black Sand Beach v i vo trong i dng. Ngi lng Kalapana k t nm 1995 gn nh bin mt v phi mt nhiu thp k nhiu vng t ti sn xut tr li. Mt khc,s phun tro,phi hp vi cc qu trnh ca bin, sn sinh nhng bi ct bin en mi. Ct c sinh ra khi dung nham nu chy xm nhp i dng v nhng mnh v vo trong cu trc ct. 2.Trm tch vn ni la (pyroclastic hazard) Hot ng trm tch vn ni la m t hin tng ni la n trong bi ni la c phun ra mt cch t nhin t ming ni la vo trong kh quyn. C mt vi loi hot ng do nham tng ni la. Trong s phun tro ni la hoc ma tro, mt lng khng l ca nhng mnh v , nhng mnh v thy tinh t nhin v kh thot ra mnh vo khng kh bi s n t ni la. S n bn l s n ca kh v tro t mt bn ca ni la. Nhng vt liu c tng ra di chuyn xa khi ni la vi tc khng l, i khi t n vn tc m thanh. Nhng dng vn ni la hay dng tro l mt trong nhng phn gy cht ngi nhiu nht ca s phun tro ni la. Chng l nhng dng thc ca dm tch rt nng, , mnh vn thy tinh ni la v kh-c phun ra t ming v di chuyn nhanh chng xung mt bn ca ni la. Dng dm tch cng c bit n nh nhng dng thc nng, a.Ma tro (ash fall) 61

S phun tro tro ni la c th bao ph c hng trm n c hng ngn km 2 bng tm thm tro ni la. Phun tro tro sinh ra mt vi tai bin: - Thm thc vt,bao gm v ma v cy ci c th b ph hy. - B mt nc b nhim bi cn, lm tng tm thi tnh acid ca nc.S tng tnh acid ch ko di vi gi sau khi t phun tro dng li. - Ph v cu trc cc ta nh,nguyn nhn bi s tng gnh nng trn nc nh. B dy ca lp tro l 1cm c khi lng 2.5 tn ln mi nh vi din tch 140m2. - Tai bin v sc khe nh kch thch h thng h hp v mt do s tip xc vi tro v kt hp khi cay. b.Dng tro (ash flow) Dng tro c th nng n hng trm oC v di chuyn vi tc 100km/h xung pha bn ca ni la, thiu tri mi th trn ng i. Chng him khi xy ra khu ng dn c nhng hu qu c th rt thm khc nu khu dn c nm trn ng i ca dng chy. Mt minh chng bi thm xy ra nm 1902 o Ty n ca Martinique. Sng 8/5 mt dng chy nng, tro, hi nc sng rc v nhng kh khc m m xung Mount Pele v qua th trn St.Pierre lm cht 30000 ngi. Mt ngi t trong nh giam l 1 trong 2 ngi sng st, tuy nhin anh ta b bng nng d di v to thnh so kinh khng. Theo nh a tin, anh ta sng phn i cn li bng vic i tua din xic vi ci tn Ngi t St.Pierre. Nhng dng chy nh vy xy ra ni la thuc Ty Bc Thi Bnh Dng trong qu kh v c th xy ra trong tng lai. Mt loi khc ca dng tro l s tro t y, c hnh thnh khi dng magma i ln tip xc vi nc trn hay gn b mt tri t bng s n bng nc v tro d di. Nh mt v n xy ra nm 1911 trn mt hn o Lake Taal, Philipines, lm cht 1300 c dn trn o v b h bng mt v n kinh hong qut qua dng nc. Mt s kin tng t xy ra cng vo nm 1965, ln ny l 200 s sng. S phun tro t y thng lin quan n nhng ni la nh vi ming chn nh Diamond Head, Hawaii. Nhiu ni la tt thuc loi ny c th c tm thy thung lng Christmas Lake, ni cn st li h c trung tm pha Nam ca Oregon v vng Tule Lake thuc Bc California. 3.Kh c (Poisonous gas) Cc loi kh khc nhau bao gm c H2O, CO2, CO, SO2 v H2S c thot ra t hot ng ni la. Nc v CO2 chim hn 90% tng lng kh thot ra. Cc kh ni la nguy him him khi n khu dn c vi nng c. Tuy nhin, SO2 c th tc dng trong kh quyn sinh ra ma acid theo hng gi thi cng vi s phun tro. Cui cng, nng c ca mt s cht ha hc thot ra di dng kh c th c hp th bi tro ni la v ri xung mt t. Cui cng l tro c kt hp cht ch trong t v trong cy ci, ngun thc n ca con ngi v vt nui. Flo l v d c phun ra di dng HF c th b hp thu bi tro ni la. N cng c th c i vo trong ngun nc. Nhng ni la ng c th pht ra cc kh trong nhng chu k di cng vi s phun. Mt minh chng c th l vo ti 21/8/1986, khi h Nios Cameroon, Chu Phi, m l thng kh c, gm c phn ln l CO2. Kh ny nng hn khng kh v lng li nhng ngi lng gn , lm cht gn 2000 ngi v s lng ln ng vt bng s lm ngt. CO2 v nhng kh khc phn gii chm trong vng nc y ca h, ni chim gi mt phn ming ca ni la ng. Nu nhng kh ny ha tan trong nc h v c gi li bng p sut ca nc bn trn th s khng vn g. Tuy nhin, nu nc h bng nhin b xo trn bi s l t di nc v nhng trn a chn nh mang nc t di y ln mt (trng hp h Nios), cc kh c th i vo kh quyn. S kin Cameroon khng phi 62

l duy nht, trong nm 1984 s l t di mt nc mt h gn hin nhin m u cho s phn gii CO2 m cp i s sng ca 37 ngi. Nht Bn ni la c kim tra pht hin s phn gii kh c nh H 2S. Khi s phn gii kh c pht hin thy nhng bo ng c pht ra khuyn ngi dn s tn n khu t cao thot khi kh. Cc nh khoa hc nghin cu rng h thng cnh bo Cameroon cha hiu qu bi v s phn gii kh xy ra t ngt. Ngy 22/8/1986 h ni la Lakes Niso phun ton l kh CO2 lm cht 1.700 ngi v gia sc, n 1988 h ni la Mamun, cch h Nios khong 100km, li cng phun kh v lm cht 37 ngi theo kiu tng t. Trong khu vc Thi Bnh Dng nhng nguy him tng t gp cao nguyn Ging o Java thuc Indonesia, lm cht 142 ngi. 4.L vn v l bn (derbis flow and mudflow) Nhng nh hng th cp nghim trng nht ca hot ng ni la l dng vn v dng bn, c bit n vi tn Gia-va l lahar. Lahar c sinh ra khi mt th tch ln tro lng ni la v vt phng khc bt u bo ha v d chuyn ng,di chuyn thnh lnh xung tng di. im khc bit gia dng vn v dng bn ph thuc vo kch thc u th hn ca phn t. dng vn,hn 50% phn t th hn ct (ng knh 2mm) a.L vn Nghin cu y mt vi ni la xut rng ngay c s phun tng i nh ca vt liu ni la nng c th nhanh chng tan chy th tch ln ca bng v tuyt. Lng di do nc tan chy sinh ra lt, c th lm xi mn v kt hp cht ch vi trm tch nh tro ni la v nhng vt liu khc trn dc ni la,hnh thnh l vn. L vn ni la l hn hp di chuyn nhanh ca trm tch (gm nhng khi v nc) vi s chc chn ca b tng m t. Dng vn c th di chuyn nhiu kilomet xung thung lng t sn ni la ni chng c sinh ra. V d, u nm 1990 dng tro vn ni la t ni la Redoubt Alaska nhanh chng lm tan chy bng v tuyt trong khi di chuyn qua Drift Glacier. Lng ln nc v trm tch to ra mt l vn di chuyn nhanh xung thung lng,vi s tun tro c th so snh vi sng Mississippi vo giai on lt. May mn thay, s kin ny mt khu vc bit lp nn khng c thit hi v ngi. b.L bn Nhng l bn khng l c ngun gc sn nhng ni la Ty Bc Thi Bnh Dng. Hng i ca hai dng bn c bt ngun t Mt.Rainier. Trm tch ca l bn Osceola c 5000 nm tui. Dng bn ny di chuyn hn 80km t ni la v gm hn 1.9 triu m3 vn, tng ng 13km2 vn cht ng n su hn 150m. Trm tch ca dng bn Electron nh hn 500 nm tui di chuyn khong 56km t ni la v gm hn 150 triu m3 bn. Hng trm nghn ngi ang sng trong khu vc b bao ph bi nhng dng c ny v khng c s m bo rng nhng dng tng t s khng xy ra ln na. l bi hc so snh tai bin tim tng ca l vn v l bn ni la vi tai bin l sng. L lt thng n bi ma ln lm tng dn mc nc sng. Ngi sng nhng ni d xy ra l nhn chung c thi gian thot v khi l rt nc v s nguy him v c bn khng cn. Tuy nhin, nhng l bn thm khc c th xy ra vi t hoc chng c du hiu, thng bt u khi ni la b che bi m khi. Hn na, mnh v , bn.c th dy vi mt-cn li sau v vic. Bi v dng vn v dng bn b gi thung lng, tai bin khc c th tng ln khi thung lng b ngn nc sn xut in nng. Mnh vn ln hoc dng bn c th lp y mt h t nhin, y nc vo p trn v gy l xui dng nghim trng. 63

Cu 3: Trnh by c trng ca macma? Dng dung nham l mt trong nhng sn phm thng thy nht ca hot ng ni la.Chng c c khi magma ln n b mt v chy trn ln ming ni la hoc ming phun dc bn sn ca ni la. C 3 nhm dung nham chnh c tn t nhng loi ni la: balsatic (chim hu ht), andesitic v rhyolitic. Dng dung nham c th kh lng v di chuyn nhanh hoc tng i snh v di chuyn chm. Dung nham balsatic vi hm lng silic khong 50%, quy nh phm vi ca tc chy. Nhng dng vi hm lng kh v nhit bn ln cao nht di chuyn nhanh nht vi tc lc bnh thng l khong 1 m/h; nhng dung nham ny c kt cu b mt nhn khi chng ha rn. Nhng dng dung nham balsatic mt hn chuyn ng vi t l mt vi mt trong 1 ngy v c kt cu th kch sau khi ha rn. Ngoi l i mt vi dng cc dc ng, hu ht dng lava chy chm con ngi c th d dng chuyn i khi ni m n p ti. Cu 4: Ti sao Thi Bnh Dng li c vnh ai la? Gii thch s hnh thnh Vnh ai la Thi Bnh Dng l khu vc hay xy ra ng t v phun tro ni la bao quanh vng lng cho TBD. N c hnh dng tng t nh 1 vnh mng nga v di khong 40.000 km. N gn lin vi 1 dy lin tc ca cc rnh i dng, vng cung qun o, cc dy ni la v chuyn ng ca cc mng kin to. Vnh ai la TBD l h qu trc tip ca ca cc hot ng kin to a tng v s chuyn ng, va chm ca cc mng. Phn pha ng ca vnh ai ny l kt qu ca s chm ln xung ca cc mng Nazca v mng Cocos do s chuyn ng v pha ty ca mng Nam M. Mt phn ca mng Thi Bnh Dng cng vi mng kin to nh Juan de Fuca cng ang b chm ln xung di mng Bc M. Dc theo phn pha bc th chuyn ng theo hng ty bc ca mng Thi Bnh Dng ang lm n chm ln xung di vng cung qun o Aleutia. Xa hn na v pha ty th mng Thi Bnh Dng cng ang b ln xung di dc theo vng cung Kamchatka - qun o Kuril trn phn pha nam Nht Bn. Phn pha nam ca vnh ai ny l phc tp hn vi mt lot cc mng kin to nh ang va chm vi mng kin to Thi Bnh Dng t khu vc qun o Mariana, Philipin, Bougainville, Tonga v New Zealand. Indonesia nm gia vnh ai la Thi Bnh Dng (chy dc theo cc o pha ng bc, gn vi v bao gm c New Guinea) v vnh ai Alp (chy dc theo pha nam v ty t Sumatra, Java, Bali, Flores v Timor). Trn ng t thng 12 nm 2004 gn b bin Sumatra trn thc t thuc mt phn ca vnh ai Alp. Khu vc t gy San Andreas ni ting v ang hot ng gn California l t gy chuyn dng ang b li mt phn ca i nng ng Thi Bnh Dng di khu vc ty nam Hoa K v Mexico. NC: QU TRNH, VIC CUNG CP V S DNG Cu 1: Cc nguyn nhn lm suy gim ngun nc mt v nc ngm c v tr lng: ln cht lng.? C 2 nguyn nhn: *T nhin: do s tng ln ca nhit , lm bc hi ngun nc mt cng nh nc ngm.i trc, sa mc ha, lm xi mn t, gy nn s thot hi nc nhanh hn. *Nhn to: Do s s dng v khai thc qu mc , c bit hn l vic lm nhim, lm cho cht lng ngun nc ngm b suy gim ng k. Cu 2: Ngun nc ngm thnh ph H Ch Minh v tc ng ca con ngi? 64

Ngun nc ngm ch yu TP HCM l nc mt thm xung t. Tc ng ca con ngi: khai thc qu mc, lm cn kit ngun nc ngm. Cc cht thi, nc thi c hi thm xung cc tng t, lm nhim mch nc ngm. Cu 3: Hy nu khi nim v ti nguyn nc v ngha ca n i vi nn kinh t quc dn Ti nguyn nc L cc ngun nc m con ngi s dng hoc c th s dng vo nhng mc ch khc nhau. Nc c dng trong cc hot ng nng nghip, cng nghip, dn dng, gii tr v mi trng. Hu ht cc hot ng trn u cn nc ngt. 97% nc trn Tri t l nc mui, ch 3% cn li l nc ngt nhng gn hn 2/3 lng nc ny tn ti dng sng bng v cc m bng cc cc.[1] Phn cn li khng ng bng c tm thy ch yu dng nc ngm, v ch mt t l nh tn ti trn mt t v trong khng kh.[2] Nc ngt l ngun ti nguyn ti to, tuy vy m vic cung cp nc ngt v sch trn th gii ang tng bc gim i. Nhu cu nc vt cung mt vi ni trn th gii, trong khi dn s th gii vn ang tip tc tng lm cho nhu cu nc cng tng. S nhn thc v tm quan trng ca vic bo v ngun nc cho nhu cu h sinh thi ch mi c ln ting gn y. Trong sut th k 20, hn mt na cc vng t ngp nc trn th gii b bin mt cng vi cc mi trng h tr c gi tr ca chng. Cc h sinh thi nc ngt mang m tnh a dng sinh hc hin ang suy gim nhanh hn cc h sinh thi bin v t lin. Chng trnh khung trong vic nh v cc ngun ti nguyn nc cho cc i tng s dng nc c gi l quyn v nc (water rights). ngha d/v nn kinh t quc dn Thi gian qua, nhng cnh bo v nguy c nhim nc, hoc thiu nc cha c x hi quan tm nhiu. Mt bt hp l khc l thu sut TNN hin ang p dng qu thp, nn dn n tnh trng ln lt khai thc nc ngm, hoc thay v s dng nc my nhng ni c iu kin, khng t DN li s dng nc ngm. Bn cnh , mc x pht hnh chnh nhng DN vi phm khai thc ngun nc ngm cn qu nh. Nu khng qun l cht ch vic khoan, o ging cng nh gi rng bo v ngun nc cc sng, sui th trong tng lai ngun nc ngm s b cn kit, dn n vic thiu nc sinh hot v sn xut nhng vng cao. Khi ti nguyn nc b nhim hoc cn kit th ko ch con ngi m c cc sinh vt khc cng phi gnh chu hu qu nng n. Nn kinh t khi s lm vo khng hong do ri lon v nhiu mt. Do , m bo cho nn kinh t pht trin bn vng, yu cu t ra l phi m bo dc vic cung ng, duy tr, v bo v ti nguyn ni chung, v ti nguyn nc ni ring. NHNG KHA CNH A CHT CA SC KHE MI TRNG Cu 1: Ti sao ngoi Granite th phin st en cn c phng x cao? V phin st l cha nhiu cht hu c, m n c hnh thnh t qu trnh di chuyn v tch ly, v vy n l ngun hp thu cc bc x t ni ny, t t ban u, sau tch ly dn v pht ra cc bc x nguy hi nhng ni khc n i qua cha c cc bc x ny. Cu 2: Anh hng ca kh Radon ti TP HCM, ngun pht sinh ch yu? C quan no c trch nhim o lng v kim sot? Ngun pht sinh kh Radon L t cc vt liu xy dng, cc tng hm xe. V tng hm xe nm trong lng t, ni d nhn c kh Radon pht x t di t ln v t cc vt liu xy dng (c 65

bit l cht nn) cu trc nn tng hm hoc cng trnh . Hn na, tng hm xe thng kn nn kh Radon kh thot ra ngoi dn n nng phng x Radon trong tng hm cao. nh hng ca kh Radon Lm gia tng nguy c ung th phi, thn v cc nguy c v sc khe ng h hp. V Radon, ch yu l Po 218 l mt ht nh c kh nng dnh kt vo bi, bi ny c ht vo phi, v ti n phn r phng x. Ngoi ra, ngi ta cn bit rng phng x c th b gy DNA, dn n t bin. C quan chu trch nhim M, c quan chu trch nhim o lng v kim sot l EPA. Cn Vit Nam, do vn cha hon ton nhn thc c r rng mc nguy him ca phng x Radon nn hin vn cha c c quan hp php no chu trch nhim trong vic o lng v kim sot nng Radon. Cu 3: Ti sao nhng ni c phin st thng c nng phng x cao? V phin st c t l st cao, d bm dnh vi nhiu loi vt cht nn n c th kt dnh vi nhiu loi vt cht, trong c c nhng vt cht c kh nng phng x Cu 4: Ti sao cng ln cao nng phng x cng cao? V nhng ni c a hnh thp nu c nng phng x tng i cao th l do gy nn l g? Cng ln cao, nng phng x cao l do nhn dc nhiu phng x t v tr. nhng ni a hnh thp, nng phng x tng i cao l do phng x t t , hoc phng x r r t cc ke h trn mt t, a phng x t lng t ln. SNG V L LT (bi c c y cu tr li) Cu 1: Phn tch tc ng hai mt ca l lt ti mi trng v con ngi . Ti sao min Trung nc ta thng xy ra l vi cng ln v thng gy thit hi nng n . xut mt s gii php gim thiu thit hi? Min Trung thng xy ra l v thit hi nng n l do l ln nhanh, xung nhanh v sc tn ph ln. Nguyn nhn gy nn c im l dng ny l do a hnh ni y t dc, b di Trng Sn chn ngang. Cu 2: Hot ng ca con ngi nh hng n l v gy ra l nh th no? Cu 3: Phn bit l thng ngun v l h ngun. Cng v tn s l hai thng s c trng ca tng loai l. Hy nu nhng yu t nh hng n hai thng s c trng ny. Cu 4: S hnh thnh ng bng ngp lt. nh hng ca tc ng bin i s dng t TAI BIN B BIN Cu 1: Hy nu nh ngha, cu trc v c ch ca xoy thun nhit i. Bo c th gy ra nhng tai bin nh th no? nh ngha Xoy thun nhit i l nhng h thng p thp c hnh thnh trn cc vng i dng nhit i c hon lu xoy thun (ngc chiu kim ng h Bc Bn cu). Cc xoy thun nhit c tc gi duy tr cc i nh hn 17m/s c gi l p thp nhit i (tropical depression), t 17m/s n 33m/s c gi l bo nhit i (tropical cyclone hoc tropical storm). Khi tc gi duy tr cc i vt qu 33m/s, chng c gi l Hurricane i Ty Dng, ng Thi Bnh Dng v Bin Caribe, v c gi l Typhoon Ty Thi Bnh Dng 66

Hu ht nhng trn bo nhit i hnh thnh vnh ai gia 80 v Bc v 150 v Nam, v nhng vng c kh nng bo i qua nht trong i ny l nhng vng c nhit b mt nc bin m. Cu trc v c ch ca xoy thun nhit i Mt cn bo nhit i trng thnh bao gm mt hon lu ngang gn i xng v mt hon lu ng. Cc hon lu ny i khi c gi l hon lu s cp v hon lu th cp. S kt hp ca 2 hon lu to thnh mt dng chuyn ng xoy c. Khng kh hi t theo hnh xon c vo khu vc trung tm ca bo mc thp, hu ht dng thi vo b gii hn trong lp bin mng c dy c 500m n 1000m. *Mt bo: l khu vc trong tm ca bo, ni khng c my hoc t my, lng gi, c dng ging yu. Thng thng ch c nhng cn bo mnh trng thnh mi hnh thnh mt bo r nt. Hon lu s cp ca xoy thun nhit i mnh nht cc mc thp ti vng my thnh mt bo v gim dn theo c cao v bn knh. Trng nhit th hin mt cu trc li nng vi nhit ln nht trong mt bo do s gii phng n nhit khi khng kh nng ln trong thnh my mt bo. *Dng thi ra ca xoy thun nhit i: nm na trn tng bnh lu vi hon lu xoy nghch ngoi bn knh vi trm km. *Bo hnh thnh c phi hi cc iu kin cn thit nh: -Nhit ca nc bin phi cao. Nhng ni c bo bin thng trong vng bin nhit i c hai bn cu: Bn cu Bc v Bn cu Nam. -Kh p ca kh quyn phi cc thp thu ht nng lng t cc khu vc p cao chung quanh -Bo phi c duy tr ngha l khng b vt cn khi c lc ma st ( nh khi b vo t lin). Do , b mt i dng hoc bin nhit i, trong khong 10 0 - 30 0 v tuyn Bc v Nam, pha Ty cc i dng, ni c lc Coriolis mnh v c hin tng cc dng lu nng duy tr nhit cao cho bo hnh thnh. Khu vc tam gic Bermuda ( tam gic c qu) Ty i Ty Dng l mt th d in hnh, ni c nhiu siu bo cp hnh tinh. Nng lng ca bo c tng cng v nhiu nguyn nhn: Do cc lung khng kh m t cc khu p cao xung quanh ht vo, hoc do kt hp vi sng ng, ni c cc khu p thp nhit i xm nhp vo p cao ch tuyn, hoc mnh ln khi i vo vng c dng bin nng...Thng th nng lng ca bo bin gim khi i vo t lin v tc ca gi gim i do ma st vi t lin. Nhng tai bin do bo gy ra Nhng tai bin t bo l do gi mnh to ra, sng dng l l kt qu ca lng ma d di v thng l nguyn nhn ca nhiu ci cht v s tn ph hn l gi, v gi xoy (storm surges) l yu t gy cht nhiu nht ca xoy thun nhit i .Sng do gi xoy cng xy ra vi nhng trn bo nh hn l kt qu t 2 qu trnh : -Di chuyn vo t lin ca cc t sng bin. -Mc nc bin dng ln khi cn bo i qua. Qu trnh ny xy ra do trong cn bo c vng p sut thp hn p sut kh quyn bnh thng. p sut kh quyn mt v tr l trng lng ca kh quyn ln u bng mt lc tc dng ln n v vng (1 atm : p sut kh quyn trung bnh mt bin khong 105 N/m2 hay 14,7 lb/in2(lb : pao ~ 450g, in = 2,54 cm)). p sut vng trong khi kh thp hn p sut trn mt bin lm cho nc trn mt dng ln. 67

Sng do gi xoy c bit gy hi khi chng xy ra ng thi vi lc thy triu ln lm tng khi lng v chiu cao ca nc khi di chuyn v t lin. Cu 2: Hy nu nh ngha, s hnh thnh, c im ca sng thn. chng ta cnh bo v ngn chn sng thn nh th no. Bn hy nu mt s trn sng thn lch s tng xy ra trn th gii. nh ngha sng thn Sng thn (tsunami) l mt lot cc t sng c hnh thnh khi mt khi lng nc, nh mt i dng, b chuyn dch nhanh chng trn mt quy m ln. Cc trn ng t, cc dch chuyn a cht ln bn trn hay bn di mt nc, cc cuc ni la phun v nhng v va chm thin thch u c kh nng gy ra sng thn. Nhng hu qu ca sng thn c th mc khng nhn ra c ti mc gy thit hi to ln. Thut ng tsunami (sng thn) bt ngun t ting Nht c ngha "cng" (tsu, "tn") v "sng" (nami, "ba"). Thut ng ny do cc ng dn t ra d h khng th nhn bit c cc t sng ngoi bin khi. Mt sng thn l mt hin tng bn di y bin su; ngoi khi, sng c bin (chiu cao sng) kh nh (thng di hng trm kilmt), iu ny gii thch ti sao ngoi bin chng ta kh nhn ra n, v khi ngoi khi n ch n gin l mt g sng chy ngang bin. Sng thn trc kia tng c coi l sng thu triu bi v n tin vo b, v n c tnh cht ca mt t thu triu mnh ang tin vo hn l mt loi sng c m sng hnh thnh do hot ng ca gi trn i dng (loi sng chng ta thng gp). Tuy nhin, v trn thc t n khng lin quan ti thu triu, thut ng ny b chng minh l sai (d khng phi trn sng thn no cng xy ra cng) v cc nh hi dng hc khng s dng n na. S hnh thnh sng thn C th do cc nguyn nhn sau y - Cc trn sng thn c th hnh thnh khi y bin, t ngt b bin dng theo chiu dc, chim ch ca lng nc nm trn n. Nhng s di chuyn ln theo chiu dc nh vy ca v Tri t c th xy ra ti cc ra mng lc a. Nhng trn ng t do nguyn nhn va chm mng c bit hay to ra cc cn sng thn. Khi mt mng i dng va chm vi mt mng lc a, i khi n lm ra mng lc a chuyn ng xung di. Cui cng, p sut qu ln tc dng ln ra mng khin n nhy git li li (snaps back) to ra cc t sng chn ng vo v Tri t, khin xy ra cn a chn di lng bin, c gi l ng t ti y bin. - Nhng v l t di y bin (thnh thong xy ra v nguyn nhn ng t) cng nh nhng v sp ca ni la cng c th lm chn ng ct nc khin trm tch v trt xung theo sn ni ri xung y bin gy nn - Tng t nh vy, mt v phun tro ni la mnh di bin cng c th tung ln mt ct nc hnh thnh sng thn. Cc con sng c hnh thnh khi khi lng nc b dch chuyn v tr chuyn ng di nh hng ca trng lc ly li thng bng v ta ra trn khp i dng nh cc gn sng trn mt ao. Trong thp k 1950 ngi ta khm ph ra rng nhng cn sng thn ln c th xut hin t cc v l t, hot ng phun tro ni la v cc v va chm thin thch. Nhng hin tng khin mt lng nc ln nhanh chng b chuyn ch, khi nng lng t mt thin thch hay mt v n chuyn vo trong nc ni xy ra va chm. Cc cn sng thn vi xut hin t nhng nguyn nhn , khc vi nhng trn sng thn do ng t gy ra, thng nhanh chng tan r v him khi lan ti nhng b bin qu xa v din tch 68

xy ra s kin nh. Cc hin tng c th gy ra cc cn sng a chn ln ch trong mt khu vc, nh v l t Vnh Lituya to ra mt sng nc c tnh ti 50-150 m v trn ti cao 524 m trn cc ngn ni . Tuy nhin, mt v l t cc ln c th gy ra mt trn sng thn cc ln gy nh hng trn ton b i dng. c im ca sng thn vng nc rng, cc cn sng thn c chu k rt di (thi gian t sng sau ti v tr mt im sau t sng trc), t nhiu pht ti nhiu gi, v chiu di sng di ln ti hng trm kilmt. iu ny rt khc bit so vi cc con sng hnh thnh t gi bnh thng trn mt i dng, chng thng c chu k khong 10 giy v chiu di sng 150 mt. Chiu cao thc ca mt t sng thn trn i dng thng khng ti mt mt. iu ny khin nhng ngi trn tu gia i dng kh nhn ra chng. Bi v chng c chiu di sng ln, nng lng ca mt cn sng thn iu khin ton b ct nc, hng n xung pha y bin. Cc cn sng i dng vng nc su thng xut hin do chuyn ng ca nc su bng mt na chiu di sng. iu ny c ngha, s di chuyn ca sng b mt i dng ch t ti su khong 100 m hay t hn. Tri li, nhng cn sng thn hot ng nh nhng con sng vng nc nng gia bin khi (bi chiu di ca chng t nht ln gp 20 ln chiu su ni chng hot ng), bi s phn tn chuyn ng ca nc t xy ra ni nc su. Con sng i qua i dng vi tc trung bnh 500 dm mt gi.Khi tin ti t lin, y bin tr nn nng v con sng khng cn di chuyn nhanh c na, v th n bt u 'dng ng ln'; phn pha trc con sng bt u dng ng v cao ln, v khong cch gia cc t sng ngn li. Tuy mt ngi ngoi i dng c th khng nhn thy du hiu sng thn, nhng khi vo b n c th t chiu cao mt ta nh su tng hay hn na. Qu trnh dng ng ln ny tng t nh khi ta vy mt chic roi da. Khi sng tin t pha cui ra u roi, cng mt lng nng lng phn b trong khi lng vt liu ngy cng nh, khin chuyn ng tr nn mnh lit hn. Mt con sng tr thnh mt con 'sng nc nng' khi t l gia su mt nc v chiu di sng ca n rt nh, v bi v sng thn c chiu di sng rt ln (hng trm kilmt), cc cn sng thn hot ng nh nhng cn sng nc nng ngay bn ngoi i dng. Nhng con sng nc nng di chuyn vi tc tng ng cn bnh phng ca gia tc trng lc (9.8 m/s2) v chiu su mt nc. V d, ti Thi Bnh Dng, ni nhng chiu su mt nc trung bnh 4000 m, mt cn sng thn di chuyn vi tc khong 200 m/s (720 km/h hay 450 dm/gi) v mt t nng lng, thm ch i vi nhng khong cch ln. su 40 m, tc s l 20 m/s (khong 72 km/h hay 45 dm/gi), nh hn tc trn i dng nhng vn kh chy nhanh hn n. Sng thn lan truyn t ngun pht (tm chn), v th nhng b bin trong vng b nh hng bi chn ng thng li kh an ton. Cnh bo v ngn chn sng thn Sng thn khng th c d on mt cch hon ton chnh xc, nhng c nhng du hiu c th bo trc mt t sng thn sp xy ra, v nhiu h thng ang c pht trin v c s dng gim thiu nhng thit hi do sng thn gy ra. nhng khonh khc khi li t sng thn l vng lm ca n, nc bin s rt khi b vi khong cch bng na chu k sng trc khi t sng trn ti. Nu y bin c nghing thp, s rt lui ny c th ln ti hng trm mt. Nhng ngi khng nhn thc c v s nguy him c th vn li trn bi bin v t m, hay nht nhng con c trn y bin lc y tr ra. 69

Du hiu cnh bo sng thn ti p ngn nc Kamakura, Nht Bn, 2004. thi Muromachi, mt cn sng thn trn vo Kamakura, ph hy nhng ngi nh g ni t pho tng Pht A di ti Kotokuin. T y, bc tng c t ngoi tri. nhng khonh khc khi li sng ca cn sng thn t mc nh ln th nht, nhng t sng tip theo c th khin nc dng cao hn. Mt ln na, vic hiu bit v hot ng ca sng thn rt quan trng, c th nhn thc rng khi mc nc rt xung ln u tin, nguy him cha h qua. nhng vng b bin c cao thp, mt trn ng t mnh l du hiu cnh bo chnh rng mt cn sng thn c th c to ra. Nhng vng c nguy c sng thn cao c th s dng nhng h thng cnh bo sng thn xc nh v cnh bo ngi dn trc khi sng i ti t lin. Ti mt s cng ng b bin pha ty nc M, vn c nguy c i mt vi cc cn sng thn Thi Bnh Dng, nhng du hiu cnh bo hng dn ngi dn ng thot him khi mt cn sng thn trn ti. Cc m hnh my tnh c th d on phng chng khong thi gian trn ti v sc mnh ca sng thn da trn thng tin v s kin gy ra n v hnh dng ca y bin (bathymetry) v vng t b bin Mt trong nhng du hiu cnh bo sm nht l t nhng loi ng vt gn. Nhiu loi vt cm gic c s nguy him v b chy ln vng t cao trc khi nhng con sng trn ti. V ng t Lisbon l trng hp u tin c ghi li v hin tng ti Chu u. Hin tng ny cng c nhn thy ti Sri Lanka trong trn ng t n Dng 2004. Mt s nh khoa hc c th suy lun rng cc loi vt c th c mt kh nng cm nhn c sng h m Rayleigh waves t mt trn ng t nhiu pht hay nhiu gi trc khi mt cn sng thn tn cng vo b (Kenneally). Trong khi vn cha c kh nng ngn chn sng thn, ti mt s quc gia thng phi hng chu thm ha thin nhin ny, mt s bin php c tin hnh nhm gim thit hi do sng thn gy ra. Nht Bn p dng mt chng trnh ln xy dng cc bc tng chn sng thn vi chiu cao ln ti 4.5 m trc nhng vng b bin nhiu dn c sinh sng. Nhng ni khc xy dng cc ca cng v knh dn dng nc t nhng cn sng thn i hng khc. Tuy nhin, hiu qu ca chng vn cn l mt vn tranh ci, bi v cc cn sng thn thng cao hn tng chn. V d, t sng thn trn vo o Hokkaido ngy 12 thng 7, 1993 to ra nhng t sng cao ti 30 m - tng ng mt ta nh 10 tng. Th trn cng Aonae c trang b mt bc tng chn sng thn bao kn xung quanh, nhng cc cn sng trn qua tng v ph hy ton b cu trc xy dng bng g trong vng. Bc tng c th c tc dng trong vic lm chm v gim cao sng thn nhng n khng ngn cn c tnh ph hy v gy thit hi nhn mng ca sng thn. Nhng hiu ng ca mt cn sng thn c th gim bt nh nhng yu t thin nhin nh cy trng dc b bin. Mt s v tr trn ng i ca cn sng thn n Dng 2004 hu nh khng b thit hi g nh nng lng sng thn b mt di cy nh da v c hp th. Mt v d khc, lng Naluvedapathy ti vng Tamil Nadu n b thit hi rt t khi nhng con sng thn tan v trong khu rng 80,244 cy c trng dc b bin nm 2002 .Nhng nh mi trng xut vic trng cy dc theo nhng vng b bin c nguy c sng thn cao. Tuy c th mt vi nm cy ln t ti kch c cn thit, nhng cng cuc trng rng nh vy c th mang li nhng cng c hu hiu, r tin cng nh c tc dng lu di trong vic ngn chn sng thn hn nhng bin php t tin, gy hi n mi trng nh cc bc tng chn sng. Mt s cn sng thn lch s 70

Trn ng t n Dng 2004, vi cng c c lng khong t 8.90-9.30 trn thang Richter (cng hin vn cha c thng nht, nhng a s cho rng l ln hn 9.0 Richter), gy ra mt lot nhng cn sng thn khng khip ngy 26 thng 12 nm 2004 git hi khong 230,000 ngi (gm 168,000 ngi ti ring Indonesia), bin n tr thnh trn sng thn gy nhiu thit hi nhn mng nht trong lch s. Cn sng thn git hi ngi dn c vng ln cn trn ng t ti Indonesia, Thi Lan v b bin ty bc Malaysia cho ti nhng ni cch xa hng nghn kilmt ti Bangladesh, n , Maldives v thm ch ti c Somalia, Kenya v Tanzania ng Phi. Thm ha dn ti mt chin dch quyn gp ton cu h tr cho cc nn nhn, vi hng t dollar c quyn gp. Khng ging nh Thi Bnh Dng, khng h c mt trung tm cnh bo sng thn no t ti n Dng. Mt phn do nguyn nhn l do t v phun tro Krakatoa nm 1883 (git hi 36,000 ngi) ti nm 2004 khng mt trn sng thn no xy ra khu vc ny. Sau trn sng thn n Dng nm 2004, UNESCO v cc t chc quc t khc ku gi thit lp mt h thng gim st sng thn ton cu. TRT T V CC HIN TNG LIN QUAN Cu 1: Phn tch cc nhn t tc ng ln mt con dc c th gy ra hin tng trt t ( tnh n nh ca dc, a hnh, nc, kh hu, thc vt,). Lin h vi Vit Nam v vn th ha v trt t. Trt t Trt t l 1 hin tng a cht, thng thng dc hiu l s chuyn ng xung rt nhanh ca hay t, c th l khi ln hoc tng nh. Thut ng trt t (landslide) dc s dng m t cho bt k s di chuyn xung dc no ca cc vt liu Tri t. Cc hin tng lin quan nh dng chy, bn, ma , l tuytcng c th dc xem l hin tng trt t Cc nhn t tc ng ln 1 con dc c th gy ra hin tng trt t l: - Tnh n nh ca con dc (slope stability) Dng xc nh r nguyn nhn ca trt t - Lc tc ng ln con dc (force on slope) n nh ca dc c biu hin l mi quan h gia cc lc di chuyn, lc di chuyn lm cho vt liu tri t di chuyn xung pha di dc, v cc lc chng li ngn cn s di chuyn. Lc di chuyn thng thng nht l khi lng ca cc vt liu thnh phn ca dc, bao gm mi th xp chng ln nhau trn con dc nh: thc vt, vt liu tch t, cc cng trnh xy dng. Lc khng c thng thng nht l sc bn ca vt ct (Shear trength) ca vt liu trn con dc, hot ng dc theo cc ng trt tim tng. bn vt ct (Shear trength) l mt hm s ca s kt dnh cc vt liu tri t v s ma st trong.Nhng mt phng trt tim tng l mt phng a l yu nht trn vt liu ca dc. S n nh ca dc th c nh gi bng cch tnh ton h s an ton (SF), c nh ngha l t l gia cc lc khng c v cc lc di chuyn. Resisting Forces SF = Driving Forces Resisting Forces l lc khng c. Driving Forces l lc di chuyn. 71

Hay

FS = (SLT)/(Wsin)

S: bn vt ct (Shear trength). L: dai mt phng trt (The length of the slip plane). T: n v dy (The unit thickness). W: Sn phm trn mt phng, n v trng lng vt liu dc,v n v dy. W = (500m2) x (1m) x (1,6 x 104 N/m3) = 8 x 106N. Nu h s an ton ln hn 1 th cc lc khng c ln hn cc lc di chuyn v con ngi dc c xem nh n nh. Nu h s an ton nh hn 1 th cc lc di chuyn ln hn cc lc khng c v con dc ny thiu s n nh. Cc lc di chuyn v khng c th khng bao gi n nh: thay i theo nhng iu kin a phng, do h s an ton c th tng ln hoc gim xung. - Vai tr ca vt liu Tri t (the role of earth material type) Vt liu to nn dc c nh hng n dng di chuyn xung dc v tn s ca n.S trt c hai m hnh chuyn ng c bn: xoay v tnh tin. i vi cc loi trt xoay trn hay trt (Slump), s trt xy ra dc theo cc b mt cong. Bi v s chuyn ng theo mt ng cong, nhng khi (Slump block) c khuynh hng to nhng a hnh ging nh gh (i khi b quay v lt hng ln trn). Slumps l hnh thc thng thy nht trn t dc (soil slope), nhng n cng ch xut hin mt vi dc (rock slope), t bit nhng ni yu nh l phin st.Trt tnh tin c 2 chiu, chng xut hin dc theo mt phng trt nghing trn con dc .Cc mt phng trt tnh tin thng thng trn cc dc bao gm c khe nt trong tt c cc loi , mt phng y, cc ng nt t st trong cc trm tch, cc mt lt mng trong bin cht. mt vi khu vc, cc ng trt rt cn ch phn lp t ph trn , c bit nh l trt t (Soil slip), mt dng ca trt tnh tin cng xy ra. i vi trt t (Soil slip), mt phng trt lun trn gc nhng bn di t, nm trong lp vt liu ca dc c bit nh l lp t ri rc, hn hp ca b phong ha v cc vt liu khc. Loi t l nhn t trong s ri v trt. Nu mt loi rt bn nm trn mt loi km bn, khi lp bn b ct ri ra nhanh chng v c th lm hng cc phin mng. bn ca vt liu trn dc c th tc ng mnh m n cng v tn s ca s trt gy ra cc tai nn lin quan ti n.V d: s chuyn ng xung dc rt chm ca t hoc (creep), cc dng chy xung dc ca vt liu t bo ha nc (earthflow), trt t v trt (slumps and soil slip) th ph bin trn dc phin st hoc trn cc dc c cc trm tch ni la (volcanic), trn cc dc trn bn chng hn ct k (cemented sandstone), vi, hay granit th t gp.Tht ra, phin st kh hin nhin i vi hot ng l t, iu ny gi l a th phin st (shaleterrain), c trng cho a hnh bt thng nhiu g ng c to ra bi cc qu trnh chuyn ng xung dc a dng. - Vai tr ca a hnh (topography) Dc nh hng mnh m n cng cc lc di chuyn quan h vi nhau trn cc con dc. Khi gc ca mt phng trt tim tng tng ln, cc lc di chuyn cng tng ln; v th kt qu ca tt c iu ny l trt t s xy ra thng xuyn hn trn cc dc ng.V mt nghin cu v s l t xy ra trong hai ma ma vnh San Francisco ca California xc nh c l 75-85% hot ng trt t c lin quan mt thit vi cc khu vc th c dc ln hn 15% hay 8,5o. 72

 mt vi phm vi no , cc hot ng trt t l mt hm s ca dc v a hnh.V d nh l v l tuyt (debris avanlanches) (s chuyn ng xung dc rt nhanh ca t v mnh vn hu c nh cy) th c lin quan ti cc dc rt ng, v min Nam Califinia trt t nng th ph bin trn cc dc ng bo ha nc. Nhng trt t (soil slip) ny thng b bin i thnh cc lung t hay lung bn khi xung dc v iu ny c th ht sc nguy him. Thut ng khc l dng chy rc (debrish flow), l dng chy xung dc ca cc vt liu tng i th. Hn 50% cc ht trong dng chy rc th hn ct. Dng chy rc c th chuyn ng rt chm hoc nhanh cn ty thuc iu kin. Dng chy bn (Mudflow) v cc dng chy rc c quan h vi cc qu trnh ca ni la. - Vai tr ca kh hu v thc vt Kh hu v thc vt c th nh hng n dng trt t hay chuyn ng xung dc khc. Thi tit iu khin t nhin v phm vi ma do m ( moisture ) s cha trong cc vt liu ca dc. Vai tr ca thc vt i vi trt t v cc hiu ng c lin quan rt phc tp, bi v thc vt mt khu vc ph thuc vo nhiu yu t, bao gm thi tit, loi t, a hnh, nhng v ha hon trong lich s.Mi yu t trong c nh hng rt ln n nhng g xy ra trn cc con dc. Thc vt c ngha rt quan trng i vi tnh bn vng ca con dc v 3 l do sau: -Thc vt cung cp che ph lm gim bt va chm ca nhng trn ma ri trn dc, gip cho nc thm vo t d hn, v lm chm qu trnh xi mn trn b mt. -Thc vt c h thng r s to ra s lin kt chc chn i vi cc vt liu trn dc. -Thc vt lm tng sc nng cho dc. Hu ht cc vn trt t u lin quan n tnh n nh ca dc v thnh thc vt rt phc tp nhng u c lin h vi s xo trn, thay i hoc b thm thc vt trn dc. Vic xo trn hoc loi b thm thc vt bi vic n h cng gp phn lm tng nguy c trt t.R rng vic loi b hay cht tt c cy ci gy ra nhiu vn : -Tc thot hi nc ca cy gim mt cch r rt, m t tng ln v s n nh ca dc gim i. -Trong mt vi trng hp c th, lng nc thm vo dc c th tng ln. y l iu c bit rt ging nh t trn dc tng i thp c bao ph bi lp tuyt dy vo ma ng v tan chy t t vo ma xun. -Cng vi loi b nhng cy c g mu ( ti sinh sau khi n ), r ca nhng cy b cht s thi ra theo thi gian, kt qu hin nhin l lm gim sc chu ng v tnh dnh kt ca t.V iu cng lm gim cc lc chng ca con dc, v iu ny gip gii thch vic trt t tng ln sau khi thu hoch nng sn nh cht cy. Trong vi trng hp, s hin din ca thm thc vt li lm tng kh nng xy ra trt t, c bit l trt t nng trn nhng ng dc ng. c bit trong nhng thng ma ng m t, nhng r ngn ca thc vt ny ht nc, thm mt trng lng ng k vo dc ng (mi l cy d tr nc v trng nh mt cn tin nh) v tng lc di chuyn.Thm thc vt dng chn nhng trn ma ro cng l nguyn nhn lm tng s thm nc vo trong ng dc,lm gim i lc chng chu. Khi n mt mc no th thm thc vt v mt vi cm r cy v t s trt. - Vai tr ca nc 73

Nc hu nh u c lin quan trc tip hoc gin tip n trt t, v th vai tr ca n l c bit quan trng.Nhiu cht ha hc c to ra t qu trnh phong ha , v n s t t lm gim sc bn ca nhng vt ct ( shear strength ), do nhng phn ng ha hc ca nc c lin quan n t v gn b mt tri t.Nc t nhin thng c tnh acid bi v n phn ng vi CO2 trong khng kh v t to ra acid yu H2CO3. Qu trnh phong ha ha hc ny c bit c ngha nhng vng vi, y l loi rt d b nh hng phong ha ha hc v phong ha vt l bi acid cacbonic. Kh nng gy xi mn ca nc cng nh hng n tnh n nh ca dc.Xi mn do dng chy hay do sng c th lm di chuyn vt liu v lm tng dc, v vy lm gim i h s an ton. iu ny tht nguy cp, nu nh chn dc c k, v tnh n nh gim th nhng cn trt t ngng hot ng s hot ng tr li.Nhng tc ng ca nc i vi ng dc v trt t l c th thay i c.u tin, s bo ha nc ca nhng vt liu tri t la nguyn nhn lm tng p lc ca nc nhng l hng. Ni chung, p lc nc nhng l hng ( pore-water pressure ) ( p lc nc tng ln khong trng gia cc ht, khi cc khong trng lp y nc ) trn nhng con dc tng ln, sc bn cc vt ct ( shear strength) trn dc gim xung v trng lng tng ln.Do tc ng mng li ( net effect ) s lm gim h s an ton.y l h s rt c ngha trong vic nh gi trt t v l tuyt cng nh nhng dng trt t khc.p lc nc nhng khong trng s tng trc khi xy ra trt t, v nht l nhiu v trt t l do s tng p lc bt thng. Trong nhng trn ma dng, tc thm nc b mt nhng vng cha bo ha nc hay t ri rc vt qua tc thm nc qua lp di lp t ri rc, thm ch mt t nc di chuyn trn dc cng thm vo t, lm tng mc nc ngm. V tai ha s xut hin khi lc chng gim n mc va khi h s an ton nh hn 1. H s an ton s thp nht khi mc nc ngm dng cao ln ti b mt, v du hiu bit l khi khi t trn mt phng trt tim tng bo ha nc. Cch th hai m nc c th lm gim s n nh ca dc l nc rt i nhanh chng, s h thp nhanh chng ca mc nc h cha hay song (vi gi tr thp nht l 1m/ngy). Khi mc nc v tr tng i cao, th khi lng ln c th trn ln b, v hin tng ny c gi l bank storage (s tch ly hai bn b). Sau , nu mc nc bt thnh linh gim xung, th nc hai b rt i m khng c g ngn li. iu ny to ra s phn b p lc nc bt thng nhng khong trng, lm gim lc chng ; cng lc khi lng nc trong t s tng lc di chuyn. Chnh v l do , nhng tai nn b song hay xut hin dc dng sau khi nc l rt xung. Cch th ba m nc c th l gy ra trt t l do s ha lng t nhin ca cc trm tch giu st hoc lm mm st (quick clay). Khi b xo trn, t st mt i sc bn bin dng (Shear strength) v n s c tnh cht nh cht lng v chy. S xo trn t st bn di Anchorage, Alaska, trong trn ng t nm 1964 to ra hiu ng trn v ph hy nng n. - Vai tr ca thi gian Cc lc tc ng trn nhng dc thng thay i theo thi gian.V d, lc di chuyn v lc cn cng thay i theo ma nh m hoc do mc nc ngm thay i.c bit, nhng thay i ny nhiu hn trong nhng nm m t, do tn s trt t tng trong nhng nm m t.Trong nhng con dc khc, vic gim bt lin tc lc cn c th xy ra 74

theo thi gian, c l do qu trnh phong ha lm gim i s dnh kt cc vt liu trn dc, hoc vic tng p lc u n do cc iu n do cc iu kin t nhin hay nhn to.Theo thi gian, dc s tr nn t vng chc v t l l t ngy cng tng cho n khi tai ha xut hin. H s an ton ca dc cng gim theo thi gian do s m t ngy cng tng, gy ra s xo trn nhng ht t trn dc, lm gim ma st bn trong do lm gim sc bn ca nhng vt liu dc. Vn thi ha v trt t Cc hot ng ca con ngi i vi cnh quan th rt ging nhng nguyn nhn gy nn trt t trong nhng vng th, ni c mt dn s cao v cc cng trnh xy dng nh ng ph, nh ca, v cc ngnh cng nghip. V d minh ha t Rio de Janeiro, vi dn s hn 6 triu, c th c rt nhiu vn v tnh n nh ca dc hn bt c thnh ph no c cng din tch.Thnh ph ni ting v nhng nh ni granite p, to nn cnh quan p mt trong thnh ph. S kt hp ca nhng con dc ng v cc vt nt gy ca c che ph bi b mt trm tch gp phn gy ra cc vn .Lc trc, nhng cy g trn dc b cht lm nh, cht t v to khong trng cho nng nghip. Hot ng ny ko theo sau l nhng trn trt t c lin quan ti nhng cn ma ln xung. Gn y hn, do thiu t trn nhng vng bng phng nn s pht trin th gia tng trn nhng con dc. Thc vt b loi b, thay vo l lm nhng con ng ti cc c im pht trin nhng ni ngy cng cao.S o bi ct chn cc dc, v ct t lp t che ph ti im ti hn.Thm vo vic lp y cc vt liu nhng ni o bi trn con dc lm tng cc lc di chuyn trn con dc. Bi v vng ny nh k tri qua nhng cn bo d di, v tht d dng thy rng Rio de Janeiro c nhng vn rt nghim trng. Trong thng 2-1988, mt cn ging rt mnh xung hn 12cm nc ma xung Rio de Janeiro trong 4 gi. Cn bo l nguyn nhn dn n l lt v l bn, lam khong 90 ngi cht, khong 3000 ngi khng nh ca.Vic khc phc tiu tn hn 100 triu USD. Mt vi trn trt t c bt u t nhng con dc ng ni m nh ca khng chc chn v vic kim sot lng nc chy trn do bo khng cn thc t na. nhng khu chut trn i l ni do c nhiu ngi cht nht do l bn. Tuy nhin, mt phn ca vin dng lo trn cnh dc mt ngn ni cng b cun tri bi mt trn trt t, git cht 25 bnh nhn v mt s nhn vin.Rio de Janeiro nhn ly nhng hu qu nng n, do trnh nhng thm ha lp li trong tng lai, h cn nhng phng php kim sot lng nc chy trn ca cn bo v lm tng bn ca dc. Trong qu kh qu trnh t nhin ny mt hng ngn nm to ra cc vc su, dy ni, v i.Trong th k ny, chng ta phi pht trin cc my mc xp loi chng.L.B.Leighton vit: Vi nhng k thut hin i v s phn loi r rng, v ti chnh thch hp, s khng c ngn i no tr n th do cc hot ng pht trin trong tng lai.Khng mt vt liu tri t no c th chng chi s tn cng nghim trng ca khoa hc k thut hin i. V vy, hot ng ca con ngi l mt tc nhn a cht c kh nng to hnh cho cnh quan nh l sng bng hay dng sng.Chng ta c th bin i dc ca nhng qu i ch trong mt m thnh nhng dy t bng phng v nhng con ng, v s thay i dn ti mt s lng ln v trt t nhn to. Nh thy trn hnh 6.19, nhng con ng c lm qu dc kt hp vi vic tng lng nc chy trn sau nhng cn ma, v s gia tng khi lng cc vt liu tch t hay nh ca, 75

lm cho nhng con dc bn vng tr nn km bn.Mt s d n lm dc, ng hay lp y vt liu s tng chiu cao ca n, hoc lm tng tng ti trn n t gy ra trt t. Lin h Vit Nam (tm thm cc v d) Vit Nam, khi hot ng th ha din ra ngy cng nhiu th din tch t xy dng nh ca v hot ng cng nghip ngy cng khan him. nhng ni mt dn s qu cao nh nhng khu th th tnh n nh ca nn t cng b nh hng. Thm vo l hot ng khai thc ti nguyn ba bi, cht ph rng, lm mt dn tnh n nh ca t v . iu ny d dn n trt t. Vn trt t mt khi xy ra nhng khu vc th, ni ng ngi sinh sng v cc cng trnh xy dng, th hu qu v thit hi v nhn mng v ti sn l kh lng. V d: trt t nh my thy in Ankroet. Ankroet l nh my thy in u tin ca VN do Php xy dng nm 1945. Mt s th ln v cc khu cng nghip hin nay ca Vit Nam ang nm trn nhng khu vc c nhy cm cao trc nhng rung ng a chn mt trong nhng tc nhn gy ra trt t nh H Ni, in Bin, Sn La. Cu 2: Gii thch nh hng ca p lc nc n st l. Trn 1 a hnh dc, khi p lc nc chy cng mnh th kh nng xy ra st l s cng cao. V nc chy vi vn tc mnh c th cun phng i cc vt liu trn nn t dc, cc thm thc vt gi t, bo mn b mt a hnh, ha lng lp t v theo thi gian s lm t t bn vng, nguy c trt l tng cao. Cu 2: Hy nu cc bin php ngn chn trt t? Vic phng trnh nhng v trt t t nhin l rt kh khn, nhng vi thc v nhng vic thc hnh tt k thut c th gip ch nhiu hn trong vic gim thiu tai bin.Nhng k thut thng thng ngn nga trt t bao gm cung cp vng thot nc trn v di mt t, loi b nhng vt liu ri rc trn con dc, xy dng nhng bc tng hay nhng cu trc h tr cho con dc, hay kt hp c hai. Kim sot vng thot nc: cc cch thc kim sot nc b mt v di t c nh hng rt ln n vic to s n nh cho con dc. Nhng bin php c bn bao gm gi lng nc chy qua hay thm vo trong dc.Nc b mt c th chuyn hng xung quanh con dc do cc dng thot nc.Thng thng chng ta p dng cch ny bng cch lm con ng ct qua .Khi lng nc thm vo trong dc c th c kim sot bng cch che ph dc bng cc lp khng thm nc, nh l t xi-mng, nha ng, thm ch c cht do. Nc ngm c th b hn ch do vic o rnh mng ( a cut off trench). Nhng rnh mng c lp y si v th v c t ch c th ngn chn hoc chuyn hng dng chy ra xa con dc tim tng khng bn vng. Phn loi: mc d s phn loi dc cho s pht trin lm tng tai bin trt t trong nhiu khu vc, nhng s phn loi c k hoch mt cch cn thn c th c s dng lm tng s n nh ca dc.Hai k thut thng thng lm gim dc l single cut and fill operation and benching. Trong trng hp u, vt liu pha trn ca dc c di chuyn xung gn v tr cn bng ca dc. C nh th khi ton b dc gim xung, v vt liu nhng ch gp phn to ra lc di chuyn b di chuyn i v t di chn dc, y l ni lm tng lc chng . Phng php ny khng c p dng nhng dc ng. La chn khc l con dc phi c ct thnh nhng bc hay mt s benches, c to ra cng vi vng thot nc b mt i hng nc chy trn, lm gim dc, thm vo , l s la chn tt cho nhng khu vc l v trt t nh. 76

Cng trnh h tr dc Retaining walls c xy dng t ct b tng vng chc, st ng t, hoc ct chng (ct b tng, st hay gin g), n s gp phn h tr mt nm ngang ca dc. Chng chng rt tt khi chn di chn dc, lp t li vi si thm nc hoc th, v cung cp nhng l thot nc lm gim s thay i p lc nc khi xy dng trn cc con dc. Mt phng php khc cng lm tng bn ca dc nhng t thng dng hn, bao gm s chn nhng nng vo cc l m c o xuyn qua lp ri rc tim tng ti lp dnh kt. Phng php ny c s dng bo v cho con dc p Glen Canyon trn sng Colorado v p Hanson trn sng Green Washington. NG T Cu 1: K tn mt vi trn ng t m bn bit t nu ln hu qu ca ng t. Mt vi trn ng t Mt trn ng t c ln 7.4 xy ra Th Nh K vo ngy 17/8/1999, san bng hng ngn ta nh b tong, 600000 ngi mt nh ca, v git cht khong 15000 ngi v 15000 ngi mt tch. Ngho i v kt cu cng trnh khng ph hp l mt trong nhng nhn t trong s nt ca nhng ta nh mi xy v nhng chn ng a cht. Mt trn ng t vo th k XIV Trung Quc git cht 850000 ngi. Trn ng t ln San Francisco vo nm 1906 gy ra 700 ci cht v thit hi hn 25 triu USD. Trn ng t Loma Prieta nm 1989 h thng t gy San Andreas, pha nam San Francisco git cht 61 ngi v gy thit hi khong 30 t USD. Ni y thng khng c cc trn ng t ln. Ni c nh gi l c nhng trn ng t ln mt dy c xy ra ngy nay l mt phn ca nam California c th gy thit hi 100 t USD, v git cht vi ngn ngi. Trn ng t New Madrid: Trong sut ma ng nm 1811-1812, mt chui ng t rt mnh xy ra trung tm thung lng Mississippi, gn nh ph hy ton b th trn New Madrid, Misouri, v git cht rt nhiu ngi. Trn ng t mnh lm rung chung ca cha Boston, cch hn 1600 km. Chng to ra nhng bin dng b mt cng ln, bao gm s t gy ca mt t, trn mt khu vc rng t Memphis, Tennessee, ni gp nhau ca sng Mississippi v sng Ohio. Rng b san bng, nhng t gy c m rng v con ngi cht cy xung bng qua chng v t chm xung vi met mt s khu vc gy ra l lt. N gin tip lm o ngc dng chy trong sut qu trnh rung chuyn. Hu qu ca ng t - Tn tht v nhn mng v ti sn - Lm thay i cnh quan v h sinh thi - Gy ra nhng tai bin mi trng thm khc khc km theo n nh sng thn, ni la, trt l t, tuyt l Cu 2: So snh nguyn nhn gy ra trt t v ng t. T nu ln vai tr ca con ngi i vi cc tai bin ni chung v ng t ni ring. Nguyn nhn ca trt t Lm tng lc di chuyn hoc lm gim lc cn. Thng c che giu bi nhng nguyn nhn trc tip trc mt chng hn nh va chm ng t, chn ng hay t ngt tng mt khi lng nc trn dc. S khc bit gia nguyn nhn tht s v nguyn nhn trc tip l rt quan trng. 77

V d: S trt dch chuyn (Translation slide) c th xem nguyn nhn trc tip ca n l do ma ln lm vt liu tri t bo ha nc, nhng ngc li nguyn nhn tht s l kh nng lm trt do tng t yu trn, nh lp t st. V d khc: s km cht lng ca dc nhn to trong s pht trin nh , m nguyn nhn trc tip l ng t nhng nguyn nhn tht s l con dc c xy dng mt cch t hi. Nguyn nhn trt t c th dc chia thnh nguyn nhn bn ngoi v nguyn nhn bn trong Nguyn nhn bn ngoi lm tng p lc ln vt ct (lc di chuyn trn mt n v din tch) khi bn mt ct l tng i n nh (l lc cn trn mt n v din tch). Nhng v d v nguyn nhn bn ngoi nh: s vn chuyn trn con dc, lm dc su hn do xi mn hay o ng, hay do rung lc ca ng t. Nguyn nhn bn trong to ra trt t bao gm cc qu trnh lm gim bn mt ct.Nhng v d ca nguyn nhn ny nh: s gia tng p lc nc nhng khong trng hoc lm gim tnh dnh kt ca cc vt liu trn dc. Thm vo , mt vi nguyn nhn gy ra trt t l trung gian gia hai nguyn nhn trn, n c nhng c im ca nguyn nhn bn ngoi v bn trong.V d nh khi mc nc h nhanh chng, n s lm tng p lc ln mt ct (gy ra bi khi lng ca nc trn con dc) cng vi vic gim sc bn (shear strength) (gy ra do p lc khong trng cao).Mt vi nguyn nhn khc bao gm ha lng t nhin, v phong ha lp t di b mt v xi mn. Nguyn nhn ca ng t *t gy v s di chuyn t gy Qu trnh t gy (faulting) c th c so snh vi vic trt ca hai tm vn ln nhau. S ma st dc theo ranh gii gia hai tm vn ny c th lm chm s di chuyn ca chng, nhng b mt l ca n b v ra v s di chuyn xy ra nhng v tr l khc nhau. Tng t nh vy, khi di chuyn ln nhau, cc mng thch quyn cng b chm li bi lc ma st dc theo ranh gii. Kt qu l dc theo ranh gii chu mt sc cng. Khi chu mt lc qu sc bn ca n, s b nt to nn t gy (Fault). t gy l mt vt nt hay mt h thng nt dc theo ni b i ch, ngha l mt vt nt hay h thng nt s di chuyn ti mt ni khc. S t gy t ngt ca s to nn nhng sng kch ng gi l sng ng t hay sng a chn (seismic waves) lm rung chuyn mt t. Ni cch khc, nng lng dn nn ca b cng s gii phng ra di dng ng t. Do , nhng t gy l ngun a chn (seismic sources), v vic xc nh chng l bc u tin trong vic d on ri ro ng t nhiu vng - t gy trt (a strike-slip fault) - t gy di chuyn dc *Sng a chn v s rung chuyn mt t Khi xy ra s t gy, v ra t ngt v d di, gii phng nng lng dng sng a chn. N l s lan truyn cc sng qua tri t (t) m chng ta nhn bit nh ng t, mc d cc trn ng t cng c th dn n cc t gy v lm tng sng. Tc ng ca con ngi i vi trt t Tc ng do vic s dng t v hot ng ca con ngi l cho cng v tn s xy ra trt t thay i t gn nh khng c g n mt thm hi rt nghim trng. S kt hp nhng iu kin a l bt li chng hn nh t hoc yu km, nhng mt phng trt tim tng trn nhng ng dc thng ng vi nhng cn ma xi x 78

(chy xit), tuyt ri, mt t ng bng theo ma s tip tc to ra hin tng trt t, dng chy bn, l tuyt, v n khng lin quan n cc hot ng ca con ngi.Tuy nhin, nhng hot ng s dng t ca con ngi v nhng dng st ln lm tng mc nghim trng ca cc thm ha . a.Khai thc g (timber harvesting) Nguyn nhn v h qu c th c ca mi quan h gia khai thc g v s xi mn pha Bc California, Oregon, v Washington l mt ch gy tranh ci.Trt t tr nn quan trng trong s tranh ci v l mt l do tt tin rng trc t, trt t nng, l tuyt, v su hn na l nhng v chy t, u c trch nhim v vic gy ra s xi mn.Thc t, mt nghin cu pha Ty dy ni Cascade ca Oregon a ra kt lun rng trt t nng l mt qu trnh xi mn c nh hng ln trong khu vc. Trong khi nhng hot ng khai thc g (cht g v xy ng) c khong hn giai on 20 nm theo di trn vng t a cht n nh khng lm tng vic trt t lin quan n xi mn trong hu ht nhng giai oi thi gian ging nhau, nhng con dc khng bn vng lm tng trt t xi mn trong nhiu thi gian khc nhau v xy ra trn t rng. Vic xy dng nhng con ng trong nhiu khu vc gy ra nhng hu qu nghim trng v nhng con ng c th lm t qung s tho nc cho b mt, vic thay ca mch nc ngm, v s phn phi sinh khi trn mt con dc bi nhng hot ng ct v lp. Khi chng ta hc nhiu v nhng qu trnh xi mn trong nhng khu rng, chng ta pht trin vic ci tin nhng th tc qun l gim thiu nhng nh hng ca vic khai thc g.Tuy nhin, chng ta cha thot khi nhng vn v g m lu n nhng vn trt t xi mn c lin quan n vic khai thc g. b. th ha v trt t Cc hot ng ca con ngi i vi cnh quan th rt ging nhng nguyn nhn gy nn trt t trong nhng vng th, ni c mt dn s cao v cc cng trnh xy dng nh ng ph, nh ca, v cc ngnh cng nghip. V d minh ha t Rio de Janeiro, vi dn s hn 6 triu, c th c rt nhiu vn v tnh n nh ca dc hn bt c thnh ph no c cng din tch.Thnh ph ni ting v nhng nh ni granite p, to nn cnh quan p mt trong thnh ph. S kt hp ca nhng con dc ng v cc vt nt gy ca c che ph bi b mt trm tch gp phn gy ra cc vn .Lc trc, nhng cy g trn dc b cht lm nh, cht t v to khong trng cho nng nghip. Hot ng ny ko theo sau l nhng trn trt t c lin quan ti nhng cn ma ln xung. Gn y hn, do thiu t trn nhng vng bng phng nn s pht trin th gia tng trn nhng con dc. Thc vt b loi b, thay vo l lm nhng con ng ti cc c im pht trin nhng ni ngy cng cao.S o bi ct chn cc dc, v ct t lp t che ph ti im ti hn.Thm vo vic lp y cc vt liu nhng ni o bi trn con dc lm tng cc lc di chuyn trn con dc. Bi v vng ny nh k tri qua nhng cn bo d di, v tht d dng thy rng Rio de Janeiro c nhng vn rt nghim trng. Trong thng 2-1988, mt cn going rt mnh xung hn 12cm nc ma xung Rio de Janeiro trong 4 gi.Cn bo l nguyn nhn dn n l lt v l bn, lam khong 90 ngi cht, khong 3000 ngi khng nh ca.Vic khc phc tiu tn hn 100 triu USD. Mt vi trn trt t c bt u t nhng con dc ng ni m nh ca khng chc chn v vic kim sot lng nc chy trn do bo khng cn thc t na. nhng khu chut trn i l ni do c nhiu ngi cht nht do l bn. Tuy nhin, mt phn ca vin dng lo trn cnh dc mt ngn ni cng b cun tri bi mt trn trt t, git 79

cht 25 bnh nhn v mt s nhn vin.Rio de Janeiro nhn ly nhng hu qu nng n, do trnh nhng thm ha lp li trong tng lai, h cn nhng phng php kim sot lng nc chy trn ca cn bo v lm tng bn ca dc. Trong qu kh qu trnh t nhin ny mt hng ngn nm to ra cc vc su, dy ni, v i.Trong th k ny, chng ta phi pht trin cc my mc xp loi chng.L.B.Leighton vit: Vi nhng k thut hin i v s phn loi r rng, v ti chnh thch hp, s khng c ngn i no tr n th do cc hot ng pht trin trong tng lai. Khng mt vt liu tri t no c th chng chi s tn cng nghim trng ca khoa hc k thut hin i. V vy, hot ng ca con ngi l mt tc nhn a cht c kh nng to hnh cho cnh quan nh l sng bng hay dng sng.Chng ta c th bin i dc ca nhng qu i ch trong mt m thnh nhng dy t bng phng v nhng con ng, v s thay i dn ti mt s lng ln v trt t nhn to. Nhng con ng c lm qu dc kt hp vi vic tng lng nc chy trn sau nhng cn ma, v s gia tng khi lng cc vt liu tch t hay nh ca, lm cho nhng con dc bn vng tr nn km bn.Mt s d n lm dc, ng hay lp y vt liu s tng chiu cao ca n, hoc lm tng tng ti trn n t gy ra trt t. i vi ng t Mt s hot ng ca con ngi c bit lm tng hoc gy ra ng t. Thit hi t nhng trn ng t ny l rt ng tic, nhiu bi hc rt ra t c th gip ta iu chnh hoc dng hn nhng thm ha ng t ln rong tng lai. Vic xy dng cng trnh p ngn nc hoc thng cha: trong sut 10 nm u lin tc hon thnh p cha Hoover trn sng Colorado Arizona v Nevada, vi trm a chn nh a phng xut hin. Hu ht nhng trn ng t ny u rt nh nhng c mt trn ln khong 5, hai trn c ln khong 4. Mt trn c ln khong 6 git cht 200 ngi Italia km theo cc cng trnh xy dng v lp y mt h cha. Hin nhin nhng vng ny b t gy v c th b khuych i bi s tng ln chng cht ca nc trn mt t v tng p sut nc trong bn di b cha dn n s t gy. Ty s dng cht thi b bng cch chn su: t thng 4 nm 1962 n thng 10 nm 1965, vi trm trn ng t xut hin khu vc Denver, Colorado. Trn ng t ln nht c ln 4.3 v gy ra s rung ng tng ng lm ri nhiu chai l trn k ca nhiu ca hng. Ngun gc cui cng ca nhng trn ng t c pht hin ra l kho v kh trn ni m nhng vt liu sn xut l t cht lng ha hc. Cht thi dng lng t cng on sn xut c bm xung ging su su khong 3600m. tip nhn cht thi, b gy v mnh chuyn thnh bin cht v s phun thm dung dch mi gia tng p sut ca cht lng, d dng gim nhng t gy i cng. Hiu bit v hot ng ca ng t khm ph ra s tng quan ln gia t l phun thm cht thi v vic xut hin nhng trn ng t.Khi vic phun thm cht thi dng li lm xut hin nhng trn ng t. Vic gy ra nhng trn ng t Denver bng vic phun thm cht thi lu cht l mt s vic quan trng bi v n trc tip xt cc yu t lin quan gia nhng trn ng t v p sut lu cht cht. S bng n ht nhn di lng t: nhiu trn ng t vi ln rng nh t 5.06.3 c gy ra bi nhng v n ht nhn di lng t, ti Nevada khu vc th nghim ht nhn. Vic phn tch ca nhng d chn cp n nhiu v n sinh ra mt s lc cng i nhau trong t nhin. Nhng nh khoa hc hng u trong lnh vc ny phi suy 80

xt liu c hay khng nhng v n ht nhn c dng ngn li nhng trn ng t rng bi s gii phng lc cng trc khi n n mt im ti hn. Cu 3: ng t gy ra nh hng nh th no? (bi c c) Cu 4: Trnh by cc loi sng a chn? (bi c c) T V MI TRNG T Cu 1: Xi mn t l g? Cc yu t nh hng ti xi mn t? L qu trnh cc tc nhn kh hu (ma gi), i khi c con ngi (cc hot ng cht ph rng ly t canh tc, pht trin c s h tng nh xy nh, lm ng, vv.) tc ng ln mt t lm cho lp mt ca t, keo mn, nhng tng ti xp, cc vn t v st b mt i hoc tri theo hng sn dc: 1) Tc ng ca cc yu t t nhin: lc p ca git nc ma, sc y ca gi ct ph hu cc ht t, bt kn nhng l hng, lm gim tnh thm nc, tng dng chy trn mt v gy ra tri (xi mn mt), dng nc chy tp trung ph t thnh rnh (xi mn rnh), lm xi l tng mng, thnh ho h. 2) Tc ng do con ngi: s dng t khng hp l, gy xi mn mnh, ph t nhanh hn qu trnh hnh thnh t; ph rng; ti nc khng hp l; chn th qu nhiu sc vt, vv. Cng thc Vismi (Wischemier) biu hin tc ng ca cc yu t trn: A = IP x K x LS x C x P (A l lng t mt i; IP - ch s ma; K - ch s c trng ca t; LS - chiu di v dc; C - ch s che ph; P - ch s canh tc x l). Vit Nam, trn cc vng i ni, nu khng c cy che ph, th hng nm mi hecta mt i trung bnh 100 - 200 tn t; cc lng h, lng sng b bi lng nhanh hn nhiu so vi mc bnh thng. Cu 2: nhim t? Cc nguyn nhn dn n nhim t? Cch khc phc? nhim t L s lm bin i thnh phn, tnh cht ca t gy ra bi nhng tp qun phn v sinh ca cc hot ng sn xut nng nghip vi nhng phng thc canh tc khc nhau, v do thi b khng hp l cc cht cn b c v lng vo t, ngoi ra nhim t cn do s lng ng ca cc cht gy nhim khng kh lng xung t (theo nc ma), vv. Cc ngun chnh gy nhim t a) Cc loi vi khun, k sinh trng pht sinh do vic sn xut chn nui khng hp v sinh, dng phn ti bn cy, vv b) Cc loi cht thi rn, phng x, nha do, bao b nilon, kim loi, aming pht sinh t cc ngun thi cng nghip a vo t c) Cc loi ho cht c hi sinh ra do s phn hu cc loi ho cht s dng trong nng nghip (nh thuc tr su, dit c, kch thch sinh trng, vv.), trong chin tranh ho hc... ngm vo t. Cch khc phc: da trn nguyn nhn a ra cc bin php ph hp Cu 3: Tc xi mn t l g? Trnh by mt s phng php o tc xi mn t (bi c c). K tn mt vi phng php chng xi mn t. Vi phng php chng xi mn t: cn phng v chng xi mn t bng bn bin php tng hp 1) Nng nghip: canh tc theo ng ng mc, chn thi v thch hp, bn phn, ph t 2) Lm nghip: trng rng trn i ni v dc ven bin, ven sng 3) Cng trnh xy dng ng rung, lm rung bc thang, h thng giao thng, thu li 4) Ho hc kt hp vi sinh hc: dng cht lin kt mng v cy c che ph mt t quanh nm 81

Cu 4: Tnh cht co v trng n nh hng ti cng trnh xy dng nh th no? D lm nt v v sp cc cu trc cng trnh Cu 5: Nhng nguyn nhn no gy xi mn b bin, nguyn nhn no l ch yu? Nguyn nhn xi mn b bin: do sng triu, do gi, do cc hot ng ca con ngi khi nui trng thy sn, nh bt c, bi tm cc khu du lchTrong , nguyn nhn ch yu l do thy triu v sng NHIM NC V X L NC Cu 1:Hy nu cc tc nhn chnh gy nhim ngun nc? nhim nc cp n s xung cp v cht lng nc c o bng cc ch tiu sinh hc, ha hc, l hc. S xung cp ny c nh gi theo d nh s dng ca nc, xut pht t qui chun, v y t cng cng hoc cc tc ng sinh thi. T gc y t cng cng hoc v quan im sinh thi, cht nhim l bt k mt cht no m trong c d tha mt lng c th nhn bit c ca cc cht c hi cho cc sinh vt sng mong mun. Nh vy,s qu mc nhiu kim loi nng, cc ng v phng x nht nh, pht pho, nit, natri, v cc yu t khc c ch (thm ch cn thit), cng nh vi khun v virus gy bnh nht nh, c xem l cc cht gy nhim. Trong mt s trng hp, mt vt liu c th c coi l mt cht gy nhim cho mt phn on c th ca con ngi, mc d khng c hi cho cc phn on khc. Cc ngun gy nhim nc - Nhu cu oxy ca cht thi - Sinh vt gy bnh - Cht dinh dng nh nito, phospho - Du - Nhng cht c - Trm tch - nhim nhit Cu 2: Hy nu ln 2 nguyn nhn ch yu gy nhim nc mt v bin php x l nhim nc mt? Hai nguyn nhn gy nhim nc mt - Ngun nhim im: t nh my, cc khu cng nghip, th, khu dn c - Ngun nhim ko im: t t s dng, thi tit, thy triu, a hnh, a cht, thc vt Bin php x l nhim nc mt - Gii hn ngun nc dng cho n ung, sinh hot, cng nghip v nng nghip - Ban hnh iu lut gim thiu s ly lan ca cc cht nhim - S dng cng ngh tin tin, vt liu t thin nhin lc sch nc hoc s dng bin php truyn thng l kh Clo. Cu 3: Nhng bin php trong vn sa cha mt tng nc ngm b nhim? Nhng bin php quan trng trong vn sa cha mt tng nc ngm nhim l: *M t c im a cht: y l bc quan trng v m t nhng nt ni bt nh l nhiu long sui ngm thm qua c, v cu trc a cht nh l nt t gy, np on v t on c th l nhn t u th trong iu khin hng chy c nc ngm. *M t c im thy hc: nhn t nh l su ca nc ngm, hng ca dng chy, tc chy c th c xc nh. M t c im thy hc cng bao gm ci nhn v mi quan h gia nc b mt v nc ngm. 82

*Nhn ra cht gy nhim v qu trnh vn chuyn ca chng: cht gy nhim th c xc nh v tr thm qua mt cch cn thn v s tch ly ca mu. Mt vi cht nhim , nh l du ha, th ni lnh bnh, nh vy hu ht du ha s xy dng trn nh ca mt nc bi v n nh hn nc. Tuy nhin, mt vi thnh phn ca du ha l tan c trong nc, nh vy cng n cng l mt pha ha tan bn di mt nc. Trn phng din khc, cht gy nhim nh l Trichloroethylene (TCE), n l mt cht ty ha hc c kh nng ha tan nng hn nc, s chm nhiu hn ni. Cht gy nhim khc, nh l nhng ht mui th ha tan nhiu trong nc v s di chuyn vi dng chy chung ca mi trng nc ngm. Cu 4: Hy phn loi thnh phn gy nhim nc? C rt nhiu cht khc nhau c th gy nhim nc mt hoc nc ngm: cht thi i hi oxi, cc sinh vt gy bnh, cc cht dinh dng, du ha, ha cht c hi, kim loi nng, cc nguyn t phng x, v trm tch. Cc thi i hi oxi Cc cht hu c cht trong cc dng sng, sui b phn hy l do n c ph hy bi vi khun hiu kh. Nu c oxi cho vi khun hot ng, oxi trong nc c th gim thp n mc c v cc t chc khc cht. Lng xi s dng cho vi khun phn hy gi l nhu cu xi sinh ha (BOD), mt thng s thng c s dng trong qun l cht lng ngun nc. Cht hu c cht trong sng sui n t cc ngun t nhin (v d nh l rng t cc khu rng) cng nh trong nng nghip v nc thi th Sinh vt gy bnh Cc vi sinh vt c kh nng gy bnh l cc cht gy nhim sinh hc quan trng. Nhng bnh ly lan qua ng nc ngi nguy him ca con ngi l bnh t, thng hn nhim trng, vim gan v kit l. Bi v n thng kh trong vic kim tra mt cch chnh xc tc nhn gy bnh, ta dng vic tnh vi khun phn coliform nh s o lng ph bin ca nhim sinh hc v tiu chun o lng nhim do vi khun. Nhng vi khun ph bin v thng gy c th thng hnh thnh t rut ca ngi v c tm thy hu ht trong cht thi ca con ngi. Dinh dng Cc cht dinh dng c gii phng t cc hot ng ca con ngi c th dn ti tnh trng nhim ngun nc. Hai cht dinh dng quan trng c th gy ra vn l phtpho v nit, c hai c gii phng t nhiu ngun nguyn vt liu bao gm c phn bn, cht ty ra v cc sn phm ca cc nh my x l cht thi. Nng cao phtpho v nit l kt qu ca qu trnh gi l qu trnh ph dng cho trng trt. Qu trnh ph dng (t ting Hy Lp cho chm sc tt) c c trng bi s gia tng nhanh chng trong s phong ph ca i sng sinh vt, c bit l cc loi to. Trong nhng ao nc ngt hoc h, to n thnh thm dy m gn nh bao ph ht c mt nc, ngn chn nh sng mt tri ti cc sinh vt di, m cui cng phi cht. Ngoi ra, khi phn hy cc loi to, lng xi ha tan c th gim, v c v cc loi thy sinh c th cht. Trong mi trng bin, cht dinh dng cc vng nc gn b bin c th lm to bin (rong bin) n m c th tr thnh mt s phin toi khi ri ra v cht ng trn bi bin. To cng c th gy thit hi hoc git cht san h cc vng nhit i Du nht 83

Du trn ra cc vng nc b mt, thng l cc i dng, gy ra vn nhim nghim trng. Cht c hi Ha cht c hi c tng hp hu c v nhng hp cht c hi n con ngi v cc vt sinh sng. Khi cc vt liu ny c v tnh vo b mt nc hay lp di b mt nc, c th gy nhim nghim trng. Kim loi nng nh ch, thy ngn, km, Cadmi gy nhim nguy him v thng lng xung di y cc dng knh. Nu cc kim loi ny lng xung, chng c th kt hp vi thc vt, bao gm c cy lng thc thc phm, v ng vt. Nu chng ha tan trong nc v c con ngi s dng sn xut nng nghip, kt qu c th gy ng c kim loi nng. Phng x nguyn vt liu trong nc c th gy nhim mi trng nguy him. V mi quan tm c bit n c tc ng hiu qu n con ngi, nhng loi ng vt khc nhau, v cy trng trong thi gian lu di vi lng phng x thp. Cht lng Cht lng bao gm cc hn v nhng mnh v ca khong vt khc nhau, kch thc ht ct nh hn 2 mm, n bn, t st, v mt lng nh cht keo. Khi lng cht gy nhim nc rt ln, cht lng l mt ngun ti nguyn bn ngoi ni . Cht lng c tho ra t, lm gim cht lng ca ngun nc, v vt liu kh c th to ra loi t thch hp trng trt hoc t s dng vo mc ch khc. nhim nhit nhim nhit l s lm nng nc, ch yu do nc nng pht ra t hot ng cng nghip v nng lng cy trng. Nc nng gy ra mt s vn . Ngay c nc ch c vi nng hn xung quanh nc gi t oxy. Nc nng nhiu loi khc hn nc mt v c th tng tc gy hi n sinh vt, bao gm c cy trng v c. Mt khc, nc m c th thu ht v cho php ca mt s loi c mong mun tn ti, c bit l trong ma ng. QUN L CHT THI Cu 1: Nhng iu kin c bn la chn a im lm bi chn lp? La chn a im phi c tnh kh thi i vi nhng c tnh sau: - a hnh, a mo - V tr ca mch nc ngm - Lng ma - Loi t v - V tr ca cc khu x l nc b mt v h thng lu lng nc ngm Cc a im tt nht l ni c nhng iu kin t nhin m bo an ton hp l trong x l cht thi rn. iu ny c ngha rng s nhim t hoc nc b mt rt t (hoc mc chp nhn c), v l iu kin an ton v kh hu, thy vn, a cht, hoc con ngi cc hoc s kt hp ca chng Cc a im tt nht cho cc bi rc nm trong vng kh cn. X l iu kin tng i an ton v trong mt mi trng kh, bt k cc vt liu chn ct l thm c hoc khng thm c, t hoc khng c nc r r. Mt khc, nc r r s lun lun c to ra trong mi trng m t. Do , mt mc chp nhn c ca s r r phi c nghin cu k xc nh nhng a im thun li nht. Thay i nh th no vi vic s dng nc ca a phng, quy nh ca a phng, v kh nng ca h thng thy vn t nhin phn tn, pha long, mt khc t lm suy 84

thoi nc hoc r r nc. Cc a im hp dn nht trong mt kh hu m t l mt trong nhng cht thi c chn ct trn mc nc ngm trong t st v t bn c dn thy lc thp. Bt k nc r r ra s vn trong vng ln cn ca nhng a im ny, lm gim hm lng nguy hi bi lc t nhin v trao i mt s cc ion gia t st v nc r r. iu ny duy tr ngay c khi mc nc kh cao, v n thng l nhng vng m, cung cp nguyn liu vi dn thy lc thp. Cu 2: Hy nu nhng bin php kim sot cht thi rn? Qun l ngun pht sinh Qun l ngun pht sinh rc thi l mt trong cng tc rt quan trng trong vic kim sot nhim cht thi rn. Cng tc kim sot da vo lut mi trng v pht sinh rc thi, thu gom v x l ti ngun pht thi. Bn cnh cc vn bn v lut, cng tc qun l da vo nhng vn bn, nhng quy nh di lut v mi trng cht thi rn Trc ht, i vi nhng ngun pht sinh rc thi nh khu cng nghip, x nghip, nh my, bnh vin phi c h thng x l rc theo tiu chun mi trng. Cc c s ny phi c bo co v cng tc qun l rc thi ti c s mnh thi ra, ni tp trung, thu gom v x l rc. Ngoi ra, cc c s pht thi cht thi rn phi ng ph gy nhim do rc thi gy ra. Ph ny c tnh da trn ph sinh thi v thu mi trng. Cc c quan c trch nhim trong vic qun l rc thi lun phi gim st, kim tra, theo ri thc trng qun l rc thi v x l rc cc c s pht sinh cht nhim. i vi rc thi sinh hot, cn xy dng chng trnh gio dc thc ca ngi dn trong vic bo v mi trng. l thc vt rc thi ng ni, ung ch quy nh, xy dng thi quen phn loi rc, s dng gia dng t gy nhim, hn ch s dng dung kh phn hu nh bao nilon, ti s dng dung trong gia nh. H thng thu gom H thng thu gom rc l mt khu rt quan trng trong chu trnh x l rc thi. Chng ta ch c th x l tt cht thi rn khi ta thu gom ht rc thi t cc ngun pht sinh. Mt h thng thu gom rc bao gm: h thng thng cha rc t ti cc v tr cng cng nh ch, ni cng s, gn cng cc bnh vin, trng hc, cng vin v ti cc cm dn c. i cc khu dn c sinh sng cn t mt thng rc cho 2-3 nh. Bn cnh , chng ta phi k n i ng cng nhn vin lm vic thu gom rc thi v s lng xe chuyn dng dung chuyn ch rc thi. Tuy nhin, mt lng rc khng nh dc thu t h thng thu gom rc thi t cc cng thot nc ca th. Tuy nhin, nc ta, h thng thu gom rc thi con lc hu, lng xe chuyn ch rc cn t v cha chuyn dng, s lng thng rc cn hn ch l nguyn nhn khin nn vt rc ba bi ca ngi dn. Ti cc khu dn c, khu vc nh dn sinh sng thng cha c h thng thng rc thu gom. Rc t cc gia nh ch c ng trong bch nilon hay x trc tip ra v ng, iu ny gy ln lng rc khng nh ri xung cc cng thi, gy tc nghn h thng cng thot nc th, gy nhim ngun nc Phn loi, hn ch, ti ch, ti s dng Phn loi rc thi l cch chia rc thi ra thnh tng loi trc khi c a vo x l. Nhng tiu ch cho vic phn loi rc thi l: c im, tnh cht v kh nng phn hu trong mi trng hay thi gian phn hu. VD: Rc thi phn ra: rc thi hu c, rc thi v c, rc thi rn Tc dng vic phn loi rc thi theo tng thnh phn s gip la chn phng php x l rc ph hp vi tng loi rc thi nng cao hiu qu trong vic x l. 85

Hn ch, ti ch v ti x dng l phng chm 3 R trong cng tc qun l cht thi thng nht. Chng c mc tiu l hn ch phn ln cht thi phi vt i trong qu trnh x l rc thi, l thiu rc v mt s quy trnh khc. Nhng phng php c thc hin l: Thit k cc dung, vt gia dng, bao nilon hay nhng dung mt ln c kh nng phn hu trong mi trng trong thi gian ngn hoc chng c kh nng t hu gip gim bt lng rc thi. Tuy nhin nc ta hin nay, vic p dng phng php ny cn hn ch, bc u nghin cu sn xut v s dng bao nilon tinh bt c thi gian phn hu ngn nhng khng c p dng rng ri. Thit lp chng trnh ti ch rc thi, cng tc ti ch gn lin cng on phn loi rc, l nhng dung qua s dng bng kim loi, nha tng hp, thu tinhc kh nng ti ch li c s c thu li t rc thi ri dung cng ngh thch hp ti ch li chng sn xut ra sn phm mi. Cng tc ti ch c th hn ch khong 30% lng rc thi vo mi trng. Bn cnh , chng ta c th to phn trn t rc thi, ti s dng nhiu ln nhng vt dng trong gia nh hoc trong sn xut cng gp phn hn ch them khong 15% lng rc thi na. Khi chng ta kt hp cht ch c ba yu t trn, c th hn ch khi lng rc thi th trong qu trnh x l vo khong 50%. Li ch ca qu trnh qun l rc thi theo phm chm 3 R trn khng ch gim bt lng rc thi m n cn mang li nhng hiu qu kinh t t vic gim bt chi ph x l, li nhun to ra t ch to sn phm mi t rc thi. Rc tr thnh ngun lc pht trin kinh t. V vic ti ch rc thi tr thnh mt ngnh kinh t. Vit Nam, hn ch, ti ch v ti s dng rc thi ch mang tnh t pht, nh l. N khng c thc hin trc tip t ngun pht sinh rc thi m thng bt ngun t nhng ngi thu lm rc bn ve chai hay nhng ngi thu gom rc thi. CU HI THI CC NM TRC Hy vn dng kin thc hc lm sng t nh ngha v a cht mi trng ca IUGS What is environmental geology? Environmental geology is the study of the interaction between human activity and geological environment. It embraces geoscientific advice in planning and management of geological environment. It also involves the prediction and forecasting of hazards and changes of environment caused by human encroachment on geological processes (Committee of the International Union of Geological Science) Gi tr li: nu li nh ngha trn bng ting Vit (chng 1 c). Sau lit k cc khi nim v nhn thc lin quan (chng 1 c lun). Mi mt khi nim ly 1 v d. Ly v d v ng t, l lt, ni la, trt t ( cp chi tit tng chng sau ). Cui cng l tng kt li (ghi mc tm tt cui chng 1, n y v mang tnh tng quan) MC LC CHNG 1 CHNG 2 CHNG 3 CHNG 4 CHNG 5 CHNG 6 CHNG 7 CHNG 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13 86 1 11 17 26 35 45 45 56

CU HI CC CHNG Cc vt liu v qu trnh T Hot ng ni la Nc: qu trnh, vic cung cp, v s dng Nhng kha cnh a cht ca sc khe mt Sng v l lt Tai bin b bin Trt t v cc hin tng lin quan ng t v cc hin tng lin quan t v mt t nhim nc v x l nc Qun l cht thi rn CU HI THI CC NM TRC GOOD LUCK TO YOU!!

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