K THUT PHN NG

A. Bi tp:
T s ha lu c tnh theo cng thc n = Q
v
/Q
o

Cc em tham kho thm mt s dng bi tp sau:
1. Khi kho st qu trnh ln men Lactic ngi ta thu c bng s liu thc
nghim sau:
tgian 50 100 150 200 250 300
Nng
lactose
45 43 25 13 8 5
Vtoc R 0,5 0,55 0,51 0,49 0,47 0,44
a) Hy trnh by phng php xc nh cc thng s ng hc, khi qu trnh
c m t bng ng hc Michaelis Menten:
S m
S
m
C K
C
R R
+

?
b) chuyn ha 90 Lactose cn tin hnh phn ng trong thi gian bao lu?
c) Khi tin hnh phn ng sau 280 pht thi nng ng cn li l bao
nhiu?
Gii:
a) xc nh cc tham s ca phng trnh ng hc Michaelis Menten
m S m
m
R
1
C
1
R
K
R
1
+

b ax
R
1
C
1
R
K
y
R
1
m S m
m
+ +
Trong o

'

2 2
2 2
2
. .
. . .
x x
y x y x
b
x x
y x x x y
a

ml mg
b
a
aR K
ph VSV g mg
b
R
m m
m
/
. /
1

Da vo bng s liu tnh cc h s a, b t suy ra Km v Rm.

b) Khi thc hin phn ng sau 280 pht hm lng ng cn st c xc nh theo:
2
MAX X m SV
m SV
MAX X m SV
S
2
R C K C
K C
2
R C K C
C

,
_

+ +

=
C) lm bi ton ngc li
2. Khi tin hnh phn ng Isomer Ete etyl Axit Axetyl Axetic theo phn ng:
Thu c s bin thin nng (phn mol) Etanol theo thi gian nh sau:
, h
0 71,8 145,5 215,8 264,3 333,3 383,5 478,3
x 0,366 0,277 0,215 0,174 0,152 0,130 0,121 0,106
Khi cn bng x = 0,078. Hy trnh by:
a) Phng php cc nh thng s ng hc bng thc nghim?
b) ng dng xc nh hng s tc ?
c) Xy dng th m phng?
Gii:
b) Gi thit phn ng thun nghch bc 1
Khi tc phn ng c th vit dng: -R
A
= k
1
C
A
= - k
-1
C
B

Tch phn thu c:
Khi
Da vo s liu t bng ta tnh cc gi tr k ti cc thi gian khc nhau. T tnh gi tr k
trung bnh.
c) V th m phng
Cu 3
Phn ng:
Tin hnh trong ru khan.
Khi phn tch ly 20 cm
3
0,1 N dung dch axit ban u.Thu c s liu thc
nghim sau

.10
3
, s 0 0.6 1.2 1.8 2.4 3.6
4.8
6.6
V Ba(OH)
2
0,1N, cm
3
21.00 17 14 11.000 9 6
4 3
V Na(OH)
0,1N, cm3
0.00 2 3.5 5.000 6 7
8 9
Hy trnh by:
a) Phng php cc nh thng s ng hc bng thc nghim?
b) ng dng xc nh hng s tc ?
c) Xy dng th m phng?
Gii:
b) Gi thit c hai phn ng u c bc 1, khi tch phn phng trnh ng hc ta c:

( )
2 1
0
ln k k
C
C
A
A
+
Xy dng quan h
( ) f
C
C
A
A

0
ln
khi ly C
A
l lng dung dch Ba(OH)
2
0,1 N dng
phn ng vi CO
2
sinh ra, cn C
A0
l lng Ba(OH)
2
0,1 N ban u ( = 0).
Theo th (hay dng phng php bnh phng cc tiu) tm c h s gc:
k = k
1
+ k
2
= tg = 3,4.10
-4
1/s
Xy dng th C
B
= g(C
R
) vi C
B
v C
R
l lng sn phm trong phn ng 1 v 2
Nng C
R
t l vi lng dung dch NaOH 0,1 N dng trong thy phn ete to thnh, cn
nng C
B
tnh nh sau:
V Ba(OH)
2
0,1 N ( = 0) V Ba(OH)
2
() V NaOH 0,1 N ()
Kt qu thu c: 99 , 0 tg
k
k
2
2
1

T gii h tm k
1
v k
2
.
4. Trong mt thit b thc xy ra phn ng bc 1 c khi lng ring thay i
(tng 1,18 ln khi chuyn ha hon ton). Khi tin hnh thc nghim vi cht ch
th, thu c kt qu sau:
, s 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
C, vn 0 3 15 26 35 37 35 29 30 16 12 9 7 5 3 0
Xc nh chuyn ha khi k = 1,3.10
-2
1/s nu thi gian lu trong thit b bng
thi gian lu ca cht ch th?
Gii:
Nng trung bnh trong thit b c xc nh theo:
( )

d E C C
0
A A
Trong thit b khuy i vi phn ng bc 1 c khi lng ring thay i th:
( )
( ) [ ] +

1
1
0 A
A
k exp 1 1
k exp
C
C
Kt hp ta c:
( )
( ) [ ]
( ) ( )
+

AE E
k exp 1 1
k exp
C
C
1
1
0 A
A
y: 1525 , 0
18 , 1
18 , 1 1
1 U
1 U 0 U

,
s
C
i
C
i
.10
1
E(

).10
2
A
AE(

).10
2
10
2

AE(

)
30 2 6 0.1674 0.7314 0.1224 0.1224
35 14 49 1.1715 0.6933 0.8122 0.9347
40 25 100 2.0921 0.6570 1.3744 2.3091
45 34 153 2.8452 0.6223 1.7707 4.0798
50 36 180 3.0126 0.5894 1.7755 5.8553
55 34 187 2.8452 0.5580 1.5875 7.4428
60 28 168 2.3431 0.5281 1.2374 8.6801
65 20 130 1.6736 0.4997 0.8363 9.5164
70 15 105 1.2552 0.4727 0.5933 10.1097
75 11 82.5 0.9205 0.4470 0.4115 10.5212
80 8 64 0.6695 0.4227 0.2830 10.8042
85 6 51 0.5021 0.3996 0.2006 11.0048
90 4 36 0.3347 0.3776 0.1264 11.1312
95 2 19 0.1674 0.3568 0.0597 11.1909
Nh vy:
( )
( ) [ ]
( ) ( )

AE E
k
k
C
C
A
A
1
1
0
exp 1 1
exp
Thay vo ta c:
0
0 0
0
1
1
1 1
1
A
A
A
A
A
A A
A
A
C
C
C
C
C
C C
U
U
U
C
C

Bng trn ch c gi tr tham kho s liu khng ng vi bi.

6. nhit u ra ca thit b phn ng c tnh theo cng thc:
( ) ( )

P
B B
C
C C H
t


0
Vy nhit u ra cua hn hp l : t
R
= t
V
+ t
B. L THUYT :
K thut phn ng d th :
Cu 1.5
Phn ng d th (h rn kh) c phn loi nh th no? Yu t no
quyt nh tc phn ng trong mi trng hp? Lm th no iu
chnh tc phn ng trong nhng trng hp ny?
Trong thc t khi nghin cu ng hc xc tc d th rn kh, ch o
c ng hc hiu dng nn dng thc nghim nh gi cc m
hnh trn l rt kh. xc nh chnh xc cn loi b nh hng ca
qu trnh khuch tn v truyn nhit bn trong v ngoi mao qun ca
xc tc. Thng cn c vo 3 tiu chun v nh lng v tnh cht vt
l nh gi:
1) Phn mol ca cht tham gia phn ng l khng i, chuyn
ha bng 0: x
A
= const; U
A
= 0. Tc u ph thuc vo p
sut R
0
= g(p);
2) X
A
= const; U
A
= 0 t s
( ) P f
R
P

0
;
3) p sut lm vic khng i, chuyn ha bng 0 tc u
ph thuc vo nng : P = const; U
A
= 0 R
0
= g(x
A
);
4) Khi c P = const, x
0
cho trc th c quan h: R = g(x
A
);
Xt ht xc tc hnh cu, cn bng vt cht:
( ) ' ' * * kC
F
F
C k C C
t
n

Vi: C nng nhn dng chy;
C nng b mt xc tc;
k* - hng s tc mt ngoi;
k hng s tc ca h;
F
n
, F
t
din tch mt ngoi v trong ca xc tc;
T :
Tc phn ng:
R rng tc phn ng ph thuc vo nhit v s khuch tn,
c 3 vng:
- Khi nhit cha cao tc phn ng mt ngoi quyt nh
th k
a
= k*;
- Khi nhit tng cao th k
a
= do khuch tn chm quyt nh;
Trng hp trung gian:
thay i (iu chnh) tc phn ng:
- Khi xy ra trong min ng hc: dng nhit , cht xc tc;
- Khi xc ra trong min khuch tn: Ngoi dng khuy trn;
Trong nhit v p sut;
1.6 Trnh by cc gi thuyt c bn ca thuyt Langmuir khi thit lp
ng hc phn ng d th rn kh?
Thuyt hp ph ng nhit ca Langmuir c thit lp trn c s cc
gi thit sau:
1) Qu trnh hp ph v nh hp ph c m t bng c ch phn
ng n gin (bc phn ng bng h s t lng), tc l ton b
tm hot ha c cng tnh cht: cng lc ht phn t, cng
ln, cc phn t c hp ph khng tng tc ln nhau;
2) Lng tm hot ha l khng i: C = C
(A)
+ C

= const;
3) Ngoi cu t hp ph, khng hp ph cu t khc, khi c i
cu t cng tham gia phn ng th lng tm hot ha cng
khng i: C = C
()
+ C
(i)
= const
thit lp phng trnh ng hc Langmuir cn tha mn 3 gi thit:
- Tha mn cc iu kin t 1 3;
- C mt bc vi tc chm s quyt nh tc qu trnh,
cc giai on khc trng thi cn bng;
- Tc giai on chm nht l tc chung ca qu trnh;
Trn c s thit lp c
Phng trnh ng hc tng qut c dng c 3 thnh phn c trng
cho:
- ng hc;
- ng lc;
- Hp ph;

V d phn ng dng A + B R + S khi giai on 3 chm l:

C: k
III
K
A
K
B
C
2
c trng ng hc;
C
A
C
B

K
C C
S R
c trng ng lc hc;
( )
n
i i
C K

+ 1 c trng hp ph;
n = 2 s m;
1.7 Trnh by cc gi thuyt c bn ca thuyt Temkin khi thit lp
ng hc phn ng d th rn kh?
C mt s im khc bit so vi ng hc Langmuir:
- Giai on chm quyt nh ca phn ng c thay bng
nguyn l Bodenstein (dng c ch phn ng n gin);
- Dng cht trung gian l nhng cht k bn ch tn ti trng
thi cn bng hp ph;
- Ch c cht trung gian c hp ph vo tm hot ha;
- B mt cht xc tc khng ng nht, nhit hp ph gim dn t
l nghch vi lng tm hot ha;
Xt phn ng dng: A + B R + S
Theo Temkin: A + () R + (J)
B + (J) S + ()
Ch c cht trung gian c hp ph vo tm hot ha.
Nu b mt cht xc tc ng nht (ch c thay i nh ca cc tm
hp ph) th:

Theo nguyn l Bodenstein hp cht trung gian km bn nn:

Tng s tm hot ha: C = C
()
+ C
(J)
= const C
()
= C C
(J)
Do
( )
( )
C C
C C
k
k
K
A
J R
I

1
1

I
K
k
k
1
1

Tng t:
II
K
k
k
2
2

Thay vo ta c: R = k
1
C
A
[C C
(J)
] k
-1
(C
R
C
(J)
+ k
-2
C
S
[C C
(J)
]
k
2
C
B
C
(J)
= 0
T :


Khi b mt ng nht ta c:
Khi nghin cu phn b thi gian lu bng thc nghim, ngi ta cho
cht ch th vo thit b phn ng v coi n nh hp en, ri o hm
p ng u ra theo s chung hnh v
Ty theo c im v cch thc hot ng ca thit b m dng
bin u vo dng khc nhau, nn kt qu o c hm p ng u
ra cng khc nhau:
- Cho tnh hiu vo dng bc th xc nh hm tch phn phn b;
- Cho tn hiu vo dng xung th thu c hm vi phn phn b;
Tn hiu c th c cho vo nhiu dng: hnh sin, rng ca,
tam gic, vung gc, khi, tn s, t bin dng (bc), Dirac
(xung), t bin m
C hai dng tn hiu hay c s dng, l:
- Tn hiu dng bc: xem hnh v

'

<

0 1
0 0
0

khi
khi
C
c
C

- Tn hiu dng xung: hnh 4.3

'

0
0 0
0

khi
khi
C
c
C

Yu cu chung i vi cht ch th:
- Khng tng tc vi dng chnh, tc l c tnh cht gn vi
dng chnh;
- D quan st, ghi nhn, phn tch vi chnh xc cao;
- Khng c hai vi ngi s dng;
- R tin, d kim, c ngun n nh;

Hm p ng u ra c th o di dng:
- Lng cht ch th ang i ra khi thit b (hm vi phn phn
b);
- Lng cht ch th i ra khi thit b (hm tch phn phn
b);
- Lng cht ch th s i ra khi thit b (hm phn phn b);
Phn b sung thm :
Cu 1.10
Hm phn b vi phn, tch phn cho ta bit ci g?
Trong k thut phn ng (tnh ton thit b) ch xc nh thi gian phn
ng theo phng trnh ng hc l cha v:
- C phn t nm cc gc cht ca thit b, kt qu l nm li
thit b qu lu, chim ch trong thit b v lm gim hiu sut;
- C phn t i qua thit b qu nhanh dn n cha thi gian
ch bin (phn ng).
Nh vy thi gian lu li trong thit b ca cc phn t l khng nh
nhau v lm gim hiu sut thit b, cht lng sn phm khng ng
u.
Ni chung, cc phn t i qua thit b vi qu o rt phc tp, tc
khc nhau, nn chng c th chuyn ng cng hay khng cng vi
hng chnh ca thit b. Tt nht xc nh thi gian lu ca cc
phn t trong thit b l phi bit vn tc tc thi ca mi phn t.
Nhng, vic lm l kh kh khn trong thc t. nh gi thi
gian lu ca cc phn t trong thit b th dng hm phn b thi gian
lu. Phn b thi gian lu khng phi l thi gian lu thc, nhng
cng nh gi chng.
xc nh hm phn b thi gian lu, ngi ta cho cht ch th vo v
xc nh hm p ng u ra.
Bng cch nh vy, ngi ta xc nh c hm p ng vi phn -
phn b nu cho tn hiu vo dng xung; v hm tch phn phn b khi
cho tn hiu u vo l dng bc.
Thi gian lu trung bnh:
Q
V

, v th nguyn:

Theo nh ngha v mt xc sut ca mt i lng U: Cd
du ) u ( f ) du u U u ( P +

Th chnh l mt phn b thi gian lu trong hm vi phn - phn
b thi gian lu v th nguyn : C().
Khi cho ch th vo thit b dng bc th hm p ng thu c chnh l
hm tch phn - phn b:

0
d ) ( c ) ( F

R rng: < 0 th
0
c
c
) ( c
0

tc l xc sut phn cht ch th ra khi
thit b khi cha cho n vo l bng 0.
Ta c:

0
0
M
0
0
0
M d ) ( c M dM d ) ( c
M
dM
0

Nn:

0
1 d ) ( c

Tc l xc sut cc phn t a vo thit b m i ra khi thit b l
bng 1.
c trng c bn ca mt i lng ngu nhin l k vng ton hc v
phn tn:
K vng ton hc chnh l gi tr trung bnh ca n, vi thi gian lu
l:

0
0
0
d ) ( c
d ) ( c
hay d ) ( c

Khi bit th tch thit b ta s xc nh c lu lng (nng sut) nu
ta xc nh c thi gian lu trung bnh . Hay ngc li bit Q s
xc nh c V hay cc kch thc khc ca thit b.
phn tn ca thi gian lu
2
c trng cho trung bnh, l bnh
phng ca hiu s gia gi tr phn tn (thc) v k vng ton hc
ca n, c ngha l:
( )
1
d ) ( c .
d c
) ( hay d ) ( c ) 1 ( ) (
0
2
0
2
2
0
2 2

Nh vy, phn tn cng ln th khuy trn dc cng mnh.
Cu 1.11
xc nh phn b thi gian lu bng thc nghim cn tin hnh nh
th no (phng php thc nghim v bin i s liu thc nghim)?
Khi nghin cu phn b thi gian lu bng thc nghim, ngi ta cho
cht ch th vo thit b phn ng v coi n nh hp en, ri o hm
p ng u ra theo s chung hnh v
Ty theo c im v cch thc hot ng ca thit b m dng
bin u vo dng khc nhau, nn kt qu o c hm p ng u
ra cng khc nhau:
- Cho tnh hiu vo dng bc th xc nh hm tch phn phn b;
- Cho tn hiu vo dng xung th thu c hm vi phn phn b;
Tn hiu c th c cho vo nhiu dng: hnh sin, rng ca,
tam gic, vung gc, khi, tn s, t bin dng (bc), Dirac
(xung), t bin m
C hai dng tn hiu hay c s dng, l:
- Tn hiu dng bc: xem hnh v

'

<

0 1
0 0
0

khi
khi
C
c
C

- Tn hiu dng xung: hnh 4.3

'

0
0 0
0

khi
khi
C
c
C

Yu cu chung i vi cht ch th:
- Khng tng tc vi dng chnh, tc l c tnh cht gn vi
dng chnh;
- D quan st, ghi nhn, phn tch vi chnh xc cao;
- Khng c hai vi ngi s dng;
- R tin, d kim, c ngun n nh;

Hm p ng u ra c th o di dng:
- Lng cht ch th ang i ra khi thit b (hm vi phn phn
b);
- Lng cht ch th i ra khi thit b (hm tch phn phn
b);
- Lng cht ch th s i ra khi thit b (hm phn phn b);
Cu 1.12.
Tnh ton thit b phn ng nhm mc ch g? Cn bit nhng a i
lng no?
M hnh ha v tnh ton cc thit b phn ng nhm:
- Xc nh ch hot ng ti u ca thit b;
- a ra nhng kt cu, kiu dng mi c nng sut cao, hiu sut
ln;
- Ci tin cc thit b hin c nhm tng nng sut, tng hiu sut,
gim chi ph v tng cht lng, gim gi thnh;
- Thit k thit b phanbr ng mi c nng sut cao, hiu sut ln
iu kin ti u;
m hnh ha v tnh ton thit b phn ng cn thit lp mi
quan h v:
- Quan h v nhit ng hc;
- Cn bng vt cht;
- Cn bng nhit;
- Quan h v ng hc;
- Quan h v cu trc dng;
- iu kin bin;
Nu phng trnh tng qut ca tng phng trnh
n gin cho tnh ton thng a ra cc gi thit nhm n gin
ha:
- Gi thit vn tc dng theo phng bn knh v hng trc l
khng i (b qua bin thin theo hai hng ny), c ngha l
trong cc thit b dng tr c dng cht lng git vi vn tc ln
v ch xoy cao theo m hnh y l tng;
- Trong thit b khng c chnh lch p sut, khi khng hnh
thnh dng xung, c th b qua phng trnh truyn ng
lng. Coi nh khng tho mn iu kin lin tc ca dng (W
= 0) nh thit b khuy gin on;
- Trong thit b c t = const, th nng lng khng thay i, c th
b qua phng trnh truyn nng lng;
- t khuy trn hon ton (l tng) l coi s t bin v t, C,
u vo v u ra, cn trong thit b khng i, tc l grad
j = 0, nn khng c dng dn:
0 gradC va
ch c
dng i lu.
Mt cch tng qut gii h phng trnh m t cn bng vt cht,
cn bng nhit, ng hc phn ng v cu tru c dng cn s dng my
tnh do khi lng tnh ton ln.
Cu 2.4
Hy trnh by m hnh khuch tn: nh ngha, c im g, nhng
thit b no c coi gn ng tun theo m hnh ny?
M hnh khuch tn chnh l m hnh y l tng khi thm thnh phn
khuy trn dc (m hnh mt thng s) v c thnh phn khuy trn theo
hng knh (m hnh 2 thng s) m t thit b c kch thc ln do tng
nng sut
M t ton hc m hnh mt thng s:
y l m hnh y l tng:
c
-
c

; khi c tnh n khuch tn

(khuy trn) dc:
D
L
2
2
c

Bin i v dng v th nguyn, khi t n nh ( 0

c

) th:
L
z ; 0
dz
C d

Pe
1

d
dC
2
2
L

+
Thng s ca m hnh D
L
coi nh khng i dc theo thit b, c xc nh
bng thc nghim qua chun s:
L
L
D
wL
Pe
, n c trng cho mc khuy
trn dc ca thit b.
R rng khi Pe
L
= 0 th D
L


lc m hnh tr thnh m hnh khuy
trn v do khuy trn mnh lm
san bng nng .
Khi Pe
L


: D
L
0 th tr thnh m hnh y l tng.
Cc m hnh thc: 0 < Pe <

(thc t Pe
L
=100).
C th xc nh thng s ca m hnh bng thc nghim thng qua
phn tn:
( )
L
Pe -
2
L L
2
e - 1
Pe
2
-
Pe
2
) (
Khi Pe > 10:

Pe
2
) (
L
2

Cc thtit b phn ng c ng knh v chiu di ln tun theo m hnh
ny.
Cu 1.13
M hnh ton tng qut ca thit b phn ng c dng nh th no?
Gm nhng thnh phn no?
Phng trnh ton hc tng qut m t cn bng vt cht ca dng
c dng: tng bin i cc thnh phn ca dng l bng 0 (khng i),
hay vt cht ca mt dng trong h khng mt i hay sinh ra m ch
chuyn t thnh phn dng ny sang thnh phn dng khc
Trong 5 thnh phn ca dng gm:

- bin i cc b

( ) W div
- dng i lu, do ngoi lc

( ) grad div
- dng dn, do chnh lch th trong ni b
pha

f
- dng cp, do chnh lch th gia hai pha
R tc phn ng, ngun.
Trong c 3 thnh phn nu ln cu trc dng:

, ( ) W div ,
( ) grad div
v 2 thnh phn nu ln ng hc qu trnh: efDC v R.
Khi kho st v phn b thi gian lu th ch xt 3 thnh phn cu
trc dng, nn phng trnh c dng:

gii h phng trnh trn cn c iu kin bin: ng dng
cc phng trnh vo nhng trng hp c th, cn gii phng trnh
ny vi cc iu kin gii hn (iu kin u v iu kin bin) gi
chung l iu kin n tr. iu kin n tr bao gm:
- iu kin bin v hnh hc: hnh dng, kch thc hnh hc ca
thit b;
- iu kin bin v thi gian (iu kin u): tc , nhit ,
nng ;
- iu kin bin v vt l: cc tnh cht vt l ca dng;
- iu kin gii hn: tc , nhit , nng v tr gii hn
ca thit b;
Tuy nhin, cc qu trnh xy ra trong cc fermenter thc t l rt
phc tp, kh khn gp phi ngay t khi lp h phng trnh vi phn
m t h, cng nh iu kin bin ca chng. Vic gii cc h phng
trnh m t cc qu trnh bng phng php ton hc gii tch thng
khng thc hin c.
Khi , ngi ta dng phng php m hnh ha nghin cu cc
i tng trn cc m hnh. lp m hnh cho cc thit b c th,
ngi ta a ra cc gi thit (iu kin) n gin ha h phng
trnh n mc c th gii c. Cc iu kin ny ngoi iu kin u
v iu kin bin, cn c nhng gi thit nhm n gin ha cc qu
trnh v thit b c th. Nhng cn m t ng i tng c m hnh
ha. Mc chnh xc ca cc gi thit a ra ph thuc vo mc
tm hiu, nm bt bn cht ca qu trnh.
n gin ha phng trnh cn bng tng qut, c th l nhng
gi thit sau:
- Gi thit vn tc dng theo phng bn knh v hng trc l
khng i (b qua bin thin theo hai hng ny), c ngha l
trong cc thit b dng tr c dng cht lng git vi vn tc ln
v ch xoy cao theo m hnh y l tng;
- Trong thit b khng c chnh lch p sut, khi khng hnh
thnh dng xung, c th b qua phng trnh truyn ng
lng. Coi nh khng tho mn iu kin lin tc ca dng (W
= 0) nh thit b khuy gin on;
- Trong thit b c t = const, th nng lng khng thay i, c th
b qua phng trnh truyn nng lng;
- t khuy trn hon ton (l tng) l coi s t bin v t, C,
u vo v u ra, cn trong thit b khng i, tc l grad
j = 0, nn khng c dng dn:
0 gradC va
ch c
dng i lu.
Cu 2.12
Trnh by phng php tnh ton chu i thit b phn ng ng nhit?
y l thit b gm n thit b khuy trn ng nhit ni tip vi iu kin:
- Th tch nh nhau;
- C th tch bng nhau;
- Lu lng qua cc thit b khng i;
- Khng c trao i cht;
M t ton hc cho thit b th i (xem hnh v):
M t ton hc cho thit b th i (xem hnh v):
( ) 0 V R C C Q
d
C d
i 1 i

Khi t ch n nh:

Q
V
R
C C
i 1 i

Nng u ra ca n s (khi phn ng bc 1, trong thit b c V = const) l:

n
1 1 0
i
k 1
1
U 1
U 1
C
C

,
_

Trong :
Q
V
1
- thi gian lu trung bnh ca mt thit b khuy;
Khi n=1 tr thnh phng trnh ca m hnh khuy l tng;
khi n th tr thnh biu thc ca m hnh y l tng.