Professional Documents
Culture Documents
(x)/x
_
,=
0 at x
0
. Under this condition, the coordinate transformation is invertible at x
0
. Note: we are inverting not just one
function = (x), but we are determining x from a system of n equations, say
(x) = C
, where C
y
0
v
1
3
v
3
v
(we have
y
0
v
1
3
v
3
v
0 for 0 < v < v
max
),
x =
_
1 +v
2
+
y
0
v
1
3
v
3
3v
_
y
0
v
1
3
v
3
v
=
_
2
3
+
8
9
v
2
+
y
0
3v
_
y
0
v
1
3
v
3
v
.
We have now expressed x as a function of v, i.e. x = x(v). When v varies from 0 to v
max
, x(v) varies from to 0.
Since x(v) is nonsingular for v > 0, it follows that x has the full range. Therefore, the coordinates (x, y) cover the entire
two-dimensional plane.
b) The coordinate transformation is nonsingular if
det
(x, y)
(u, v)
,= 0.
Compute:
det
_
x
u
y
u
x
v
y
v
_
= det
_
1 +u
2
+v
2
2uv
2uv 1 +u
2
+v
2
_
(1)
= 1 + 2
_
u
2
+v
2
_
+
_
u
2
v
2
_
2
> 0.
Therefore there are no singular points.
2. a) To determine the range, rst consider = 0. Then x = r sinh , y = 0, z = r cosh . It is clear that z
2
x
2
= r
2
.
Since r 0, the coordinates (x, y, z) cover only the domain [z[ > [x[. With arbitrary , it is clear that the coordinates
(x, y, z) cover the domain [z[ >
_
x
2
+y
2
.
b) Compute the determinant:
det
_
_
sinh cos r cosh cos r sinh sin
sinh sin r cosh sin r sinh cos
cosh r sinh 0
_
_
= r
2
sinh .
The coordinates are singular if r = 0 or = 0.
c) The singularity at r = 0 is due to the fact that the set r = 0, , corresponds to a single point x = y = z = 0.
This is similar to the singularity of the spherical coordinates at r = 0. Points along the cone [z[ =
_
x
2
+y
2
are not
covered because they correspond to , r 0. The singularity at = 0, r ,= 0 is due to the fact that the set
r, = 0, corresponds to the point x = y = 0, z = r at xed r ,= 0. This is similar to the polar coordinate singularity.
3. a) To determine the range, note that r sin 0 for the given range of and r. However, this is immaterial since the
factors cos and sin will make x, y cover the full range (, +). The coordinates (x, y, z) are a slight modication
of the standard spherical coordinates. These coordinates cover the whole space (x, y, z).
b) Compute the determinant:
det
_
_
sin cos r cos cos r sin sin
sin sin r cos sin r sin cos
cos r sin 0
_
_
= r
2
sin .
This is nonzero unless r = 0 or = 0.
c) The singularities are completely analogous to those in the spherical coordinates.
1.3 Basis in tangent space
Suppose that the vectors e
=
x
x
1
= c
x
1
= c
1
.
By assumption, c
= 0, therefore c
1
= 0. It follows that every c
,
x
_
=
acts on vectors /x
dx
dx
,
x
1
_
= c
1
.
Therefore c
1
= 0. Similarly, we nd that every other c
=
x
dx
,
under a coordinate transformation x
= x
(x
_
.
4
1.8 Examples of transformations
a) First compute dx and dy:
dx =
_
1 +u
2
+v
2
_
du + (2uv) dv,
dy = (2uv) du +
_
1 +u
2
+v
2
_
dv.
Then it is easy to compute xdx +ydy,etc. For instance,
d
1
x +y
=
dx +dy
(x +y)
2
=
(du +dv)
_
1 + (u +v)
2
_
(u +v)
2
_
1 +
1
3
(u +v)
2
_
2
.
b) The component transformation matrix is given in Eq. (1).
1.9 Supplementary problem sheet
1A Tangent plane
If the tangent plane is at angle with the horizontal, then the acceleration is g sin (from elementary mechanics). Since
0 <
2
, we need to maximize or, equivalently, tan , which equals
z
r
=
rh
2
e
1
2
r
2
2
, r
_
x
2
+y
2
.
The maximum of z/r is at r
0
= . For example, a point with maximum acceleration is x
0
= , y
0
= 0, z
0
= he
1
2
.
The tangent plane at a point (x
0
, y
0
, z
0
) is given by the equation
n
x
(x x
0
) +n
y
(y y
0
) +n
z
(z z
0
) = 0,
where (n
x
, n
y
, n
z
) are the components of the normal vector,
(n
x
, n
y
, n
z
) =
_
z
x
,
z
y
, 1
_
x0,y0,z0
=
_
e
1
2
h
, 0, 1
_
.
Therefore the equation of the tangent plane is
x
1
2
+
z
h
= 0.
1B Induced metric
The induced metric is found by taking the expression for the bulk metric, g = dx
2
+dy
2
+dz
2
, and computing dx, dy, dz
through the forms d and d:
dx = 2a sin cos cos d a sin
2
sin d,
dy = 2a sin cos sin d +a sin
2
cos d,
dz = 2a cos 2d.
Therefore
g = dx
2
+dy
2
+dz
2
= a
2
d
2
+a
2
(sin )
4
d
2
.
The metric is degenerate at = 0 and =
2
. The singularities at these points are not merely coordinate singularities
that disappear when choosing a dierent coordinate system; but the reason is subtle.
To gure out the nature of these singularities, let us visualize the surface in a neighborhood of = 0. The y = 0
section of the surface corresponds to sin = 0, so = 0 or = . Then
x = sin
2
, y = sin cos , x =
1 cos 2
2
=
1
1 4z
2
2
.
This is a union of two circles touching at x = z = 0. Hence, the surface is a torus with zero inner radius, i.e. intersecting
itself at x = y = z = 0. The rotational symmetry around the z axis leads to a cusp at = 0: the surface has a sharp
corner and the metric cannot be made smooth and nondegenerate by any choice of local coordinates. The situation near
=
2
is similar.
5
1C Embedded waves
The surface is dened by
x =
cos v
2 sin u
, y =
sin v
2 sin u
, z =
cos u
2 sin u
.
1. For y = 0, we have v = 0 and thus
x =
1
2 sin u
, z =
cos u
2 sinu
.
To visualize this line in the (x, z) plane, we eliminate u from these equations and nd
sin u =
2
1
x
,
_
x
2
_
2
+z
2
= 1.
Therefore the line is a circle of radius 1 centered at
_
x =
2, z = 0
_
. This circle does not intersect the z axis since
2
_
2
+z
2
1 = 0.
Note that
_
x
2
+y
2
=
1
2 sin u
> 0.
Also
_
x
2
+y
2
2 =
1
2
_
2 sinu
_
2 sin u
=
2 sin u 1
2 sin u
.
2. Since the surface is now given by an equation of the form F(x, y, z) = 0, the normal vector (up to a constant factor
C) can be found as
(n
x
, n
y
, n
z
) = C
_
F
x
,
F
y
,
F
z
_
= C
_
2
_
x
2
+y
2
2
_
x
2
+y
2
x, 2
_
x
2
+y
2
2
_
x
2
+y
2
y, 2z
_
.
Multiplying by C
1
2
_
x
2
+y
2
(this factor is chosen for simplicity), we have
(n
x
, n
y
, n
z
) =
_
x
_
_
x
2
+y
2
2
_
, y
_
_
x
2
+y
2
2
_
, z
_
x
2
+y
2
_
.
Expressed through the coordinates (u, v), this becomes
n
= (n
x
, n
y
, n
z
) =
_
cos v
2 sin u 1
_
2 sinu
_
2
, sin v
2 sinu 1
_
2 sin u
_
2
,
cos u
_
2 sin u
_
2
_
.
The equation of the tangent plane at point x
0
is
n
_
x
(0)
_
= 0,
where n
must be computed at x = x
0
.
3. We compute
x
u
=
cos v cos u
_
2 sin u
_
2
,
x
v
=
sin v
2 sin u
,
y
u
=
sin v cos u
_
2 sin u
_
2
,
y
v
=
cos v
2 sin u
,
z
u
=
1
2 sin u
_
2 sin u
_
2
,
z
v
= 0.
Now we can expand
dx =
x
u
du +
x
v
dv, etc.
6
Therefore the induced metric is
g = dx
2
+dy
2
+dz
2
=
_
_
_
cos u
_
2 sinu
_
2
_
2
+
_
1
2 sin u
_
2 sinu
_
2
_
2
_
_
du
2
+
dv
2
_
2 sin u
_
2
=
du
2
+dv
2
_
2 sin u
_
2
.
The vector V
a
= (cos v, sin v) is not a unit vector because
g(V, V ) =
cos
2
v + sin
2
v
_
2 sin u
_
2
=
1
_
2 sin u
_
2
,= 1.
The Cartesian components of the vectors /u, /v are found from
u
=
x(u, v)
u
x
+
y(u, v)
u
y
+
z(u, v)
u
z
,
v
=
x(u, v)
v
x
+
y(u, v)
v
y
+
z(u, v)
v
z
.
Therefore, the vector V
a
has the following Cartesian components,
V = cos v
_
sin v
2 sin u
x
+
cos v
2 sin u
y
_
+ sin v
_
cos v cos u
_
2 sin u
_
2
x
+
sin v cos u
_
2 sin u
_
2
y
+
1
2 sin u
_
2 sin u
_
2
z
_
= sinv cos v
_
sin u + cos u
2
_
2 sinu
_
2
_
x
+
_
sin
2
v cos u +
2 cos
2
v sin u cos
2
v
_
2 sin u
_
2
_
y
+ sin v
1
2 sin u
_
2 sin u
_
2
z
.
This vector is within the tangent plane because n
= 0,
n
= cos v
2 sin u 1
_
2 sinu
_
2
sin v cos v
_
sinu + cos u
2
_
2 sin u
_
2
_
+ sin v
2 sinu 1
_
2 sin u
_
2
_
sin
2
v cos u +
2 cos
2
v
2 sin u cos
2
v
_
2 sin u
_
2
_
+
cos u
_
2 sin u
_
2
sinv
1
2 sin u
_
2 sin u
_
2
(after simplication) = 0.
2 Tensors
2.1 Denition of tensor product
a),b) A direct calculation using the property
dx
i
, /x
k
_
=
i
k
gives:
1
, v
1
=
_
dx + 2ydy, 3
x
_
= 3, etc.
The results:
T(v
1
, v
1
) = 0, T(v
1
, v
2
) = 6x.
c) d) First, show that the sum of two linear functions is again a linear function: If A(x) and B(x) are linear functions,
i.e. if
A(x +y) = A(x) +A(y)
and likewise for B, then A+B obviously has the same property. Now, since a tensor is dened as a multi-linear function,
it is clear that tensors form a vector space.
7
2.3 Example of tensor
a) An obvious example of such T is the vector product, T(u, v) = uv, dened in three-dimensional space. To determine
the rank of T, we need to represent T as a multilinear number-valued function of some number of 1-forms and vectors,
e.g. A(f
1
, ..., f
r
, v
1
, ..., v
s
). It is clear that T(v
1
, v
2
) itself is not such a function because it has vector values instead of
scalar (number) values. So we need to add a 1-form to the list of arguments. We can dene
A(f
1
, v
1
, v
2
) = f
1
, T(v
1
, v
2
)
and then its clear that A is multilinear. Therefore T is a tensor of rank 1+2.
b) The calculation may go as follows. We need to determine the components T
such that
[T(u, v)]
= T
.
So we rewrite the given denition of T(u, v) in the index notation, e.g. like this:
[T(u, v)]
= 2
.
Now we would like to move u
instead of u
, so as to rewrite
identically
u
= u
.
Therefore
[T(u, v)]
= 2
=
_
2
_
u
,
T
= 2
.
2.5 Contraction of tensor indices
a) Using the denition of a tensor as a multilinear function, it is easy to show that linear combinations of tensors are also
multilinear functions. Tensor products and contractions are also multilinear. The arguments are much simpler than the
proof of tensor transformation law for components.
b) Contracting two lower indices, e.g. T
=
x
.
However, this does not agree with the contraction of the tensor T
, which transforms as
=
x
.
The contraction over = yields
,=
x
.
c) Calculation gives
T
= 2
= 3n
because
= 0 and
= 3.
2.8 Examples of spaces with a metric
a) We perform the calculation in components,
g(u, v) = u
.
We would like to write g(u, v) = g
, where g
are the components of the metric tensor. Using the known identity
for the -symbol,
,
we nd
g(u, v) = u
) u
= u
+u
.
8
Denote n
2
n
n
2
+n
_
v
.
Therefore
g
n
2
+n
.
To analyze the conditions under which det g
is parallel to the
rst basis vector. Then the components of the vector n in this basis are ([n[ , 0, 0) and the matrix g
=
_
_
1 0 0
0 1 n
2
0
0 0 1 n
2
_
_
.
Then it is clear that det g
=
_
1 n
2
_
2
. Therefore, the matrix g
is nondegenerate if n
2
,= 1.
b) Similar calculations give
g
=
_
3 +n
2
0
0 3
_
.
Therefore the determinant of g
is always nonzero.
c) Considerations are analogous to b), except that the size of the matrix g
is larger.
d) The metric is (dx)
2
+ (dy)
2
+ (dz)
2
, and we need to express dx, dy, dz through du and dv. A calculation gives
g = dx
2
+dy
2
+dz
2
= R
2
_
sinh
2
u + cosh
2
u
_
du
2
+R
2
cosh
2
u dv
2
.
2.9 Supplementary problem sheet
2A Vector equations
a) The equation contains two given vectors A
and B
. The solution x
,
B
= A
, where M
is a matrix and A
and B
are a basis in two-dimensional space (they are nonzero and orthogonal), then the
symmetric tensor X
= fA
+g
_
A
+A
_
+hB
,
where the coecients f, g, h are unknown. It remains to determine these coecients. Using A
= 0 and denoting
A
[A[
2
, we get the system of equations
X
= B
f [A[
2
A
+g [A[
2
B
= B
,
X
= 0 f [A[
2
+h[B[
2
= 0.
The result is g = [A[
2
, f = h = 0, so
X
=
A
+B
[A[
2
.
b) An antisymmetric tensor X
,
where u
is an unknown vector that we need to determine. We can now rewrite the conditions on X
in a vector form,
X
= B
u A = B
X
= 0 u B = 0
It follows that u is parallel to B and then the condition uA = B leaves the only solution u = 0, and therefore X
= 0
is the only admissible solution.
2C Degeneracy of the metric
a) The metric can be written in the basis dx, dy as the matrix
g =
_
y
2
1 +x
2
1 +x
2
0
_
.
The determinant of this matrix is
_
1 +x
2
_
2
which is always nonzero.
b) In the basis where A
and x
is the standard Euclidean coordinate system. The Christoel symbols are dened as
=
2
=
2
.
The relationship between
and can be found as follows. Assuming that the functions x
( x) and also x
=
x
=
x
.
10
Also we can express
x
=
x
.
Therefore we can calculate
(when
is known) as follows,
=
x
_
x
__
x
=
x
_
x
+
2
x
_
=
x
+
2
x
=
x
+
2
x
. (3)
Note that the Euclidean coordinate system
. Assume that
=
_
_
x
,
and substitute
.
We can now express through
. Note that
x
/x
and x
/ x
+
2
x
.
3.3 Covariant derivatives
The rule is that every upper index gets a + and every lower index gets a . Each term with replaces one index in
the original tensor by one of the indices in . Therefore we can write the answer as
T
;
=
+A
;
= B
_
+A
_
;
_
A
_
;
=
_
A
.
This proves the required property.
3.5 Locally inertial reference frame
In this problem (unlike problem 3.1) the coordinate system
, we nd
x
+
_
x
(0)
_
(0)
=
+
_
x
(0)
_
(0)
.
11
The inverse derivative, x
/ x
, can be found by inverting this matrix; the result can be found simply by assuming that
x
+
_
x
(0)
_
A
+O
_
(x x
(0)
)
2
_
,
where A
_
x
(0)
_
(0)
+O
_
(x x
(0)
)
2
_
.
Therefore
2
x
(0)
+O
_
x x
(0)
_
.
Finally, we nd
=
x
+
2
x
(0)
+O
_
x x
(0)
_
.
At x = x
0
we have
(0)
. It follows that the new Christoel symbol is equal to zero at x = x
0
.
Alternatively, one can use the transformation law for the Christoel symbol in the inverse direction, =
... + ...,
i.e. one denotes x
, x
/x
, i.e. x
as
u
u
;
= 0 =
du
ds
.
An explicit formula for
yields
=
u
=
1
2
(g
,
+g
,
g
,
) u
.
Note that g
,
g
,
is antisymmetric in ( ). Therefore these terms will cancel after a contraction with u
.
The remaining term yields
=
1
2
g
,
u
.
b) We give two derivations; the rst one is direct and the second one uses the property (a).
4.1.1 First derivation
Note that
d
ds
_
g
_
= u
_
g
_
,
where we must use an ordinary derivative instead of the covariant derivative (according to the denition of d/ds). So we
nd
u
_
g
_
,
= g
,
u
+ 2g
,
.
Now we need to simplify an expression containing u
,
. By assumption, the derivative of the vector eld u
satises
d
ds
u
= u
,
+
= 0
= u
,
+
1
2
g
(g
,
+g
,
g
,
) u
.
Therefore
u
,
=
1
2
u
(g
,
+g
,
g
,
) u
=
1
2
u
(g
,
+g
,
g
,
) u
=
1
2
g
,
u
.
What remains is a straightforward computation:
u
_
g
_
,
= g
,
u
+ 2g
,
= g
,
u
g
,
u
= 0.
12
4.1.2 Second derivation
We write
d
ds
_
g
_
=
d
ds
_
g
_
= u
,
u
+ 2g
u
,
u
.
Now we need to express u
,
u
du
ds
=
1
2
g
,
u
,
and nd
d
ds
_
g
_
=
dg
ds
u
+g
g
,
u
=
dg
ds
u
+
dg
ds
u
.
It remains to express the derivative of g
_
=
d
ds
_
_
= 0,
thus
dg
ds
g
=
dg
ds
g
dg
ds
=
dg
ds
g
.
Therefore
dg
ds
u
=
dg
ds
g
=
dg
ds
u
,
and thus
d
ds
_
g
_
= 0.
4.2 Commutator of covariant derivatives
First compute
u
;
= u
,
+
,
u
;
=
_
u
,
+
_
,
+
_
u
,
+
_
u
,
+
_
= u
,
+
,
u
,
+
,
+
;
.
Since we want to compute the commutator u
;
u
;
, we can omit the terms that are symmetric in ( ). These
terms are the following:
u
,
,
,
+
,
,
;
.
The remaining terms are
u
;
=
,
u
+ (symmetric in ) ,
which yields
u
;
u
;
= u
,
+
_
= u
.
4.3 Parallel transport
The parallel-transported vector can be represented by a 1-form A
ds
g
A
= 0, u
dx
ds
.
However, the closed curve is assumed to cover only a very small neighborhood of one point x
0
, so we can approximate
A
by a constant, A
(x
0
), along the curve. Therefore
A
=
_
dA
ds
ds =
_
(x)A
(x)dx
(x
0
)
_
(x)dx
.
Now, in a locally inertial system at x
0
we have
(x
0
) = 0. Therefore we can Taylor expand
(x) near x
0
as
(x) =
_
x
0
_
,
+O
_
(x x
0
)
2
_
.
Therefore
A
(x
0
)
_
,
_
x
0
_
dx
(x
0
)
,
(x
0
)
_
x
dx
,
where we have again approximated
,
(x) by its value at x = x
0
, and also used the identity
_
dx
= 0. Further,
_
d
_
x
_
= 0 =
_
x
dx
+
_
x
dx
.
13
Therefore we may rewrite
A
,
_
x
dx
=
1
2
A
,
_
_
x
dx
=
1
2
A
_
x
dx
.
4.4 Riemann tensor
a) It is more convenient to consider the fully covariant tensor R
= R
= R
, (4)
R
+R
+R
= 0, (5)
R
= R
. (6)
However, it is known that the property (6) follows from (4)-(5), therefore it is sucient to consider these two properties
[note that (5) does not follow from (4), (6)]. Let us rst consider the property (4). For xed , , we have that R
is reduced to
N
1
=
_
1
2
n(n 1)
_
2
.
Now we use the property (5). Let us see whether the property (5) is nontrivial at xed . If = , then the property (5)
becomes
R
+R
+R
= 0 (no summation),
which is already a consequence of (4). Likewise for = or for = . Therefore, the property (5) is a new constraint
only if all three indices , , are dierent (i.e. ,= , ,= , ,= ). Suppose that , , are dierent. There are
N
2
=
1
6
n(n 1)(n 2)
choices of such , , . Therefore, for each = 1, ..., n we obtain N
2
additional constraints. Finally, let us check that
every such constraint is nontrivial for every (even if is equal to one of , , ). Suppose = , then (5) becomes
R
+R
+R
= 0 (no summation).
This is a nontrivial constraint (equivalent to R
= R
is
N = N1 nN
2
=
n
2
_
n
2
1
_
12
.
b) Weinberg, Chapter 6, 8
c) There is only one independent component of R
= g
.
Calculating component by component, we nd
R
11
= g
22
R
1212
, R
12
= g
12
R
1212
, R
22
= g
11
R
1212
,
R = g
=
_
2g
11
g
22
2g
12
g
21
_
R
1212
= 2gR
1212
.
Note that the matrix
_
g
22
g
12
g
12
g
11
_
is equal to the inverse matrix to g
(which is g
; since det g
= 1/g, we have
_
g
22
g
12
g
12
g
11
_
= gg
.
Therefore
G
= R
1
2
g
R = gg
R
1212
1
2
g
2gR
1212
= 0.
14
4.5 Lorentz transformations
A Lorentz transformation is represented by a matrix
such that
= g
.
Consider an innitesimal Lorentz transformation,
+H
.
The number of parameters in Lorentz transformations is the same as the number of parameters in H
. The condition
for H
is
(
+H
)
_
+H
_
g
= g
.
Disregarding terms of order
2
, we nd
0 =
= H
+H
.
Therefore, H
= p
+ (p +) u
,
where u
,
= p
,
+ (p +)
,
u
+ (p +) u
,
+ (p +) u
,
u
.
Let us simplify this expression by introducing the time derivative along the uid ow,
d
dt
u
.
15
Then we nd
0 = p
,
+u
_
p + + (p +) u
,
_
+ (p +) u
. (7)
Contracting with u
and using u
= 0, we nd
+ (p +) u
,
= 0. (8)
This is the relativistic continuity equation. Using this equation, we nd from Eq. (7) that
0 = p
,
+u
p + (p +) u
. (9)
Now let us apply the nonrelativistic limit, u
(1, v), to Eqs. (8) and (9). In our notation, for any quantity X we
have
X
d
dt
X
t
X + (v ) X.
The continuity equation (8) gives
d
dt
+ (p +) divv = 0.
This is the ordinary, nonrelativistic continuity equation.
1
Finally, Eq. (9) gives
p +v p + (p +)
v = 0.
(Note that p
,j
=
j
p.) This is the Euler equation,
dv
dt
=
1
p +
_
p v
dp
dt
_
.
5.3 Energy-momentum tensor 2
Compute the covariant derivative,
T
;
=
_
1
2
g
;
_
;
=
;
;
;
+
;
;
;
g
;
=
;
;
;
.
Here we used
;
=
;
which follows from
;
;
X
=
;
X
,
which is due to g
;
= 0. Therefore, we get
;
;
;
= 0;
this entails
;
;
= 0 (since
;
= 0 is a weaker condition than
;
;
= 0, i.e. if
;
= 0 then also
;
;
= 0, so it is
sucient to write the latter).
5.4 Weak gravity
A very short solution is to write R
00
directly through and note that only
00,
comes in (if we disregard terms of
second order). Then compute
00
explicitly through . (Assume that g
,0
= 0.) We may disregard terms of order
because is of order , and also we may raise and lower indices using
instead of g
00,
0,0
+O( ),
00
=
1
2
(g
0,0
+g
0,0
g
00,
) =
,
,
therefore (using
,0
= 0)
R
00
=
,
= =
,00
+
,11
+
,22
+
,33
= .
Here is another, somewhat more comprehensive solution. In the weak eld limit, we write
g
+h
.
1
Note that in the usual, nonrelativistic continuity equations as they are written in most books, there is no p + - just . This is so
because in most cases the matter is nonrelativistic, so p and p + . This is, however, not true for relativistic matter, such as photons
(electromagnetic radiation) for which p =
1
3
.
16
Then we only compute everything up to rst order in h
instead of g
.
Note: the Newtonian limit does not determine the components of g
except for g
00
= 1 +2. The actual metric g
is equal to
, not just h
00
.
Let us do the computation through h
in a more general way. First we compute the Christoel symbol and the Ricci
tensor:
=
1
2
(h
,
+h
,
h
,
) ; O();
R
= R
,
+
,
.
(We may disregard the terms since they are second order in .) Now we compute (again up to rst order in )
,
=
1
2
(h
,
+h
,
h
,
) =
1
2
h
,
,
R
=
1
2
(h
,
+h
,
h
,
h
,
) .
Let us now compute just the component R
00
, recalling that h
is time-independent (so h
,0
= 0) and h
00
= 2:
R
00
=
1
2
(h
0,0
+h
0,0
h
00,
h
,00
) =
1
2
h
00,
=
,
= .
5.5 Equations of motion from conservation law
We would like to rewrite the covariant conservation law T
;
= 0 through ordinary derivatives. The given relations are
useful; lets derive them rst.
g =
1
2
g
_
x
g
_
=
1
2
g
_
gg
g
,
_
=
1
2
gg
g
,
;
=
1
2
g
(g
,
+g
,
g
,
) =
1
2
g
g
,
=
1
g.
Now rewrite the covariant derivative of T
explicitly:
T
;
= T
,
+
=
1
g
_
gT
_
,
+
.
Apply this to the given T
:
0 = T
;
=
m
0
g
__
ds
dx
ds
dx
ds
(4)
(x
(s))
_
,
+
m
0
g
_
ds
dx
ds
dx
ds
(x)
(4)
(x
(s)).
Since in the rst term the dependence on x
is only through
(4)
, we can rewrite
dx
ds
(4)
(x
(s))
_
=
d
ds
_
(4)
(x
(s))
_
(this is easily understood if read from right to left) and then integrate by parts,
_
ds
dx
ds
d
ds
(4)
(x
(s)) =
_
ds
d
2
x
ds
2
(4)
(x
(s)).
Finally,
0 =
g
m
0
T
;
=
_
ds
_
d
2
x
ds
2
+
dx
ds
dx
ds
_
(4)
(x
(s)).
This is a function of x
which should equal zero everywhere. Therefore, the integrand should vanish for every value of s,
d
2
x
ds
2
+
dx
ds
dx
ds
= 0.
17
Remark: in general, equations of motion do not follow from conservation law, but they do follow if there is only one
eld. (e.g. one uid, or one scalar eld, or some number of point particles). The situation in ordinary mechanics is similar:
e.g. the equation of motion for a particle follow from the conservation of energy only if the motion is in one dimension:
E =
mv
2
2
+V (x) = const,
0 =
dE
dt
= (m v +V
(x)) v m v = V
(x).
However, equations of motion do not follow from conservation of energy if there is more than one degree of freedom.
Similarly, equations of motion for say two scalar elds , do not follow from the conservation of their combined T
.
These elds have two dierent equations of motion, and one cannot hope to derive them from a single conservation law.
6 The gravitational eld
6.1 Degrees of freedom
The electromagnetic eld is described by a 4-vector potential A
+
,
,
where (x) is an arbitrary function of spacetime. Using this gauge symmetry, we may e.g. set the component A
0
(x) = 0.
Then only three functions of spacetime (A
1
, A
2
, A
3
) are left. Hence the electromagnetic eld has 3 degrees of freedom.
There are additional gauge symmetries involving functions (x) that do not depend on time. Since these functions (x)
are functions only of three arguments, they do not change the number of degrees of freedom.
6.2 Spherically symmetric spacetime
6.2.1 Straightforward solution
A direct computation listing all the possible Christoel symbols and components of the Ricci tensor is certainly straight-
forward but very long. Here is a way to compute the curvature tensor without writing individual components. Since the
metric has a diagonal form, let us denote
g
, g
1
A
_
e
N
, e
L
, r
2
, r
2
sin
2
_
(11)
is a xed array of four functions. For this calculation, we do not use the Einstein summation convention any more; every
summation will be written explicitly. However, we make heavy use of the fact that
and use
the resulting simplications.
We begin with the calculation of the Christoel symbols,
1
2
1
A
A
,
+
A
,
A
,
]
=
1
2
A
,
A
+
1
2
A
,
A
1
2
A
,
A
. (12)
Note that the summation over results in setting = due to
and
=
1
2
_
B
,
+
B
,
B
,
_
,
where we dened the auxiliary function
B
ln A
.
As a check, we compute the trace of the Christoel symbols and compare with the known formula,
=
1
2
_
B
,
+
B
,
B
,
_
=
1
2
B
,
=
_
ln
g
_
,
.
Let us also denote for brevity
C ln
g =
1
2
= C
,
.
18
We proceed to the computation of the Ricci tensor. We use the formula (with Landau-Lifshitz sign conventions)
R
,
_
+
,
_
_
.
We now compute the necessary terms:
,
=
1
2
B
,
+
1
2
B
,
1
2
_
A
B
,
_
,
,
,
= C
,
,
C
,
1
2
_
B
,
+
1
2
B
,
1
2
B
,
_
=
1
2
_
C
,
B
,
+C
,
B
,
C
,
B
,
_
,
=
1
4
,
_
B
,
+
B
,
B
,
_ _
B
,
+
B
,
B
,
_
=
1
4
B
,
_
B
,
+
B
,
B
,
_
(here set = )
+
1
4
B
,
_
B
,
+
B
,
B
,
_
(here set = )
1
4
B
,
_
B
,
+
B
,
B
,
_
(here set = )
=
1
4
B
,
B
,
+
1
4
B
,
B
,
1
4
B
,
B
,
+
1
4
B
,
B
,
+
1
4
B
,
B
,
1
4
B
,
B
,
1
4
B
,
B
,
1
4
B
,
B
,
+
1
4
B
,
B
,
=
1
2
B
,
B
,
1
2
B
,
B
,
+
1
4
B
,
B
,
.
Finally, we put all the terms together:
R
=
_
1
2
B
+
1
2
B
C
_
,
1
2
_
_
B
,
A
_
,
+C
,
B
,
A
_
+
1
2
C
,
B
,
+
1
2
C
,
B
,
1
2
B
,
B
,
1
4
B
,
B
,
.
We can simplify this expression by considering separately diagonal and o-diagonal components:
R
= (B
C)
,
1
2
_
_
B
,
A
_
,
+C
,
B
,
A
_
+
_
C
,
1
2
B
,
_
B
,
1
4
B
,
B
,
;
R
=
1
2
_
B
+B
_
,
+
1
2
(C
,
B
,
+C
,
B
,
B
,
B
,
)
1
4
B
,
B
,
. (only for ,= )
19
Now we need to simplify this expression further by using the specic form of the metric (10)-(11). We have
A
t
= e
N
, A
r
= e
L
, A
= r
2
, A
= r
2
sin
2
;
B
t
= N, B
r
= L, B
= 2 lnr, B
= 2 lnr + 2 ln sin ;
C = ln
g =
N +L
2
+ 2 lnr + ln sin ;
C
,t
=
N +
L
2
, C
,r
=
N
+L
2
+
2
r
, C
,
= cot , C
,
= 0.
Note that the term
1
2
_
B
+B
_
,
(13)
always vanishes when ,= . We nd (after some omitted algebra):
R
=
1
2
r
2
sin
2
_
_
__
ln
_
r
2
sin
2
_
,
A
_
,
+C
,
_
ln
_
r
2
sin
2
_
,
A
_
_
= r
2
sin
2
__
N
2r
+
1
r
2
_
e
L
1
r
2
_
;
R
= 1 r
2
e
L
_
N
2r
+
1
r
2
_
;
R
t
= R
r
= R
= R
t
= 0;
R
r
=
1
2
C
,
B
,r
1
4
B
,r
B
,
=
1
2
cot
2
r
1
4
2
r
2 cot = 0;
R
tr
=
1
2
_
N +
L
2
N
+
_
N
+L
2
+
2
r
_
L
NL
1
4
NN
1
4
LL
L
r
;
R
rr
=
N
2
+
2
r
2
+N
4
+
1
2
e
LN
_
L +
L
N
2
L
_
+
1
r
L
;
R
tt
=
L
2
+
L
N
L
4
+
1
2
e
NL
_
N
+
_
N
2
+
2
r
_
N
_
.
Finally, we compute the Ricci scalar,
R =
1
A
= e
N
_
L
2
+
L
N
L
4
_
+
1
2
e
L
_
N
+
_
N
2
+
2
r
_
N
_
e
L
_
N
2
+
2
r
2
+N
4
+
1
r
L
1
2
e
N
_
L +
L
N
2
L
_
1
r
2
+e
L
_
N
2r
+
1
r
2
_
+
_
N
2r
+
1
r
2
_
e
L
1
r
2
= e
N
_
L +
L
N
L
2
_
e
L
_
2
N
r
N
+N
2
_
2
r
2
.
Hence, the nonzero components of the Einstein tensor are
G
tt
= e
NL
L
r
+
e
N
r
2
;
G
tr
=
L
r
;
G
rr
=
2
r
2
+
N
r
e
L
r
2
;
G
= r
2
e
L
_
2r
+
1
r
2
+
N
2
+N
4
_
+r
2
e
N
2
_
L +
L
N
L
2
_
;
G
=
1
2
r
2
sin
2
_
e
N
_
L +
L
N
L
2
_
e
L
_
r
+
2
r
2
N
+N
2
_
_
.
20
6.2.2 Solution using conformal transformation
A more clever way to reduce the amount of computation is to notice that the metric g
= r
2
h
= r
2
_
_
_
_
r
2
e
L
0
r
2
e
N
1
0 sin
2
_
_
_
_
.
The metric h
separates into the r t components and the components. We shall rst compute the Ricci tensor
for the metric h
for
the metric h
ab
R, R
ab
R
ab
= 2 (det
ab
) R
1212
.
So it is sucient to compute say R
11
,
R
11
=
a
11,a
a
1a,1
+
a
ba
b
11
b
1a
a
1b
,
and afterwards we will have
R
ab
=
ab
R
11
11
; R =
ab
R
ab
= 2
R
11
11
.
The necessary Christoel symbols are found as (no implicit summation from now on!)
a
1b
=
c
1
2
ac
(
1c,b
+
bc,1
1b,c
) =
1
2
_
A
1,b
a
1
+
a
b
A
b,1
1
b
e
A1Aa
A
1,a
_
;
1
12
=
1
2
A
,2
;
2
12
=
1
2
B
,1
;
a
11
= A
1,1
a
1
1
2
e
A1Aa
A
1,a
;
1
11
=
1
2
A
,1
;
2
11
=
1
2
e
AB
A
,2
.
a
ba
=
1
2
b
ln (det
cd
) =
1
2
(A
1,b
+A
2,b
) =
1
2
(A +B)
,b
.
Then the component R
11
of the Ricci tensor is
R
11
=
a
11,a
a
1a,1
+
a
ba
b
11
b
1a
a
1b
=
1
11,1
+
2
11,2
1
2
(A+B)
,11
+
1
2
(A +B)
,1
1
11
+
1
2
(A +B)
,2
2
11
1
11
1
11
2
1
12
2
11
2
12
2
12
=
1
2
A
,11
1
2
_
e
AB
A
,2
_
,2
1
2
(A+B)
,11
+
1
2
(A+ B)
,1
1
2
A
,1
1
2
(A +B)
,2
1
2
e
AB
A
,2
1
4
A
,1
A
,1
+ A
,2
1
2
e
AB
A
,2
1
4
B
,1
B
,1
=
1
2
B
,11
1
2
e
AB
A
,22
1
4
A
,2
(A B)
,2
e
AB
+
1
4
B
,1
(AB)
,1
.
We also nd (note the symmetry apparent in this formula; this shows that at least this is not obviously wrong)
R = 2
R
11
11
= e
A
B
,11
e
B
A
,22
1
2
A
,2
(A B)
,2
e
B
1
2
e
A
B
,1
(B A)
,1
.
Well, we are not going to nish this calculation here, anyway. But this is roughly how it goes. Let us at
least derive the useful formula below.
The relationship between the curvature tensors under a conformal transformation is found as follows. First we dene
the conformally transformed metric for convenience as follows,
g
= e
2
g
.
Then the Christoel symbols receive a correction which is a tensor B
+B
; B
,
+
,
g
,
.
The Riemann and the Ricci tensors are dened (in Landau-Lifshitz sign convention) by
R
,
+
,
R
= R
,
+
.
21
The same relation holds for
R
and R
through
explicitly).
Therefore
= B
,
B
,
+B
+B
= B
,
B
,
+B
+B
.
We shall only compute the expression for the Ricci tensor R
. As a preparation, we compute
B
,
N
,
,
where N =
= g
is the number of spacetime dimensions. We shall always raise and lower indices using the original
metric g
=
_
,
+
,
g
,
_
,
N
,
+N
,
,
+
,
g
,
_
+N
,
_
,
+
,
g
,
_
,
+
,
g
,
_
,
+
,
g
,
)
_
,
+
,
g
,
_
(
,
+
,
g
,
)
= 2
,
g
,
,
g
,
,
N
,
+N
,
,
+
,
g
,
+ 2N
,
,
Ng
,
+g
,
+g
,
(2 +N)
,
,
+ 2g
,
= g
,
,
g
,
Ng
,
+ 2g
,
= (N 2)
_
+ (N 2)
,
,
g
_
(N 2)
,
,
+
,
,
+
,
_
+
_
g
,
+g
,
g
,
.
Now we note that some of the terms can be absorbed into covariant derivatives, and also that the terms in the last
bracket cancel,
_
g
,
+g
,
g
,
= 0,
so the resulting formula can be written more concisely as
= (N 2) [
,
;
] g
_
(N 2)
,
,
+
;
;
.
The modied Ricci scalar is
R = g
= e
2
g
+e
2
g
_
(N 2) [
,
;
] g
_
(N 2)
,
,
+
;
;
_
= e
2
R +e
2
_
(N 2) [
,
;
;
] N
_
(N 2)
,
,
+
;
;
_
= e
2
R (N 2) (N 1)
,
,
2 (N 1)
;
;
.
The Einstein tensor is modied as follows,
=
R
1
2
g
R = R
+ (N 2) [
,
;
] g
_
(N 2)
,
,
+
;
;
1
2
g
[R (N 2) (N 1)
,
,
2 (N 1)
;
;
]
= G
+ (N 2) [
,
;
] +g
_
(N 2) (N 3)
2
,
,
+ (N 2)
;
;
_
.
Note that there is no change in G
r
(g
) = 0.
Using the metric g
= diag
_
f, 1/f, r
2
, r
2
sin
2
_
, where f 1 r
g
/r, and u
=
_
t, r,
,
_
, where d/d, we nd
d
d
_
f
1
r
_
1
2
_
df
dr
t
2
d
dr
_
1
f
_
r
2
2r
2
2r
2
sin
2
_
= 0. (14)
To derive this equation from other equations given in the lecture, we transform in a clever way the expression
0 =
d
d
/ =
d
d
_
f
t
2
f
1
r
2
r
2
2
r
2
2
sin
2
_
.
22
Namely, we try to separate terms of the form
d
d
(u
t
d
d
_
f
t
_
t
2
d
d
f, etc.
We nd
0 =
d
d
/ =
d
d
_
f
t
2
f
1
r
2
r
2
2
r
2
sin
2
2
_
= 2
t
d
d
_
f
t
_
t
2
df
d
2 r
d
d
_
f
1
r
_
+ r
2
d
d
f
1
2
d
d
_
r
2
_
+
2
d
d
_
r
2
_
2
d
d
_
r
2
sin
2
_
+
2
d
d
_
r
2
sin
2
_
.
Now we substitute the given equations (2)-(4), and also evaluate derivatives of the metric, e.g. df/d = f
r, so
0 =
t
2
f
r 2 r
d
d
_
f
1
r
_
r
2
f
f
2
r 2
r
2
2
sin cos +
2
2r r +
2
2r sin
2
r + 2
2
r
2
sin cos
= r
_
d
d
_
2f
1
r
_
f
t
2
f
2
r
2
+ 2r
2
+ 2r
2
sin
2
_
.
This is obviously equivalent to Eq. (14).
Note: the reason one of the equations follows from other equations is that the equation u
= const is a consequence
of the four geodesic equations, u
;
= 0, and the fact that g
;
= 0. Therefore, when we consider the four geodesic
equations and the equation u
+v =
3
2
r
g
v
2
perturbatively, assuming that v is small,
v() = v
0
() +v
1
() +...
The unperturbed solution is
v
0
() =
1
R
0
cos ,
where R
0
is the distance of closest approach to the Sun. Then
v
1
+v
1
=
3
2
r
g
R
2
0
cos
2
=
3
4
r
g
R
2
0
(1 + cos 2) .
The solution is found with undetermined coecients,
v
1
() = A+Bcos 2, A =
3
4
r
g
R
2
0
, B =
1
4
r
g
R
2
0
.
The total deection angle is found as =
1
2
, where
1,2
are xed by the condition v() = 0. We nd a quadratic
equation
cos
2
2R
0
r
g
cos 2 = 0, cos =
R
0
r
g
R
2
0
r
2
g
+ 2.
Only the solution with the minus sign is meaningful (cos < 1). Since r
g
R
0
, we may expand this in Taylor series and
nd
cos
r
g
R
0
+O(r
3
g
/R
3
0
).
23
Therefore, the angle is very close to /2,
1,2
=
_
2
+
_
,
r
g
R
0
, = 2 =
2r
g
R
0
.
This formula can be rewritten as
=
2r
g
/R
R
0
/R
=
_
2r
g
R
_
R
R
0
.
For the Sun we have R
= 6, 96 10
5
km and r
g
= 2, 954 km, therefore
2r
g
/R
= 8, 489 10
6
=
__
8, 489 10
6
360
/2
3600
[arc seconds]
= 1, 751
(see R. Olo Geometrie der Raumzeit, 2nd German edition, page 151).
7.2 Einstein tensor for weak eld
For this problem Chapter 4 from the book Norbert Straumann General Relativity and Relativistic Astrophysics is
useful. We have g
+h
and
R
,
,
where (...)
,
denotes a derivative
(...). Here one can ask the students about the symmetry of this tensor.
Furthermore
=
1
2
[h
,
+h
,
h
,
] =
1
2
_
h
,
+h
,
h
,
, (15)
where as usual we use the convention that indices are raised or lowered with
; thus e.g. h
=
1
2
_
h
,
+h
,
h
h
,
,
where =
and h = h
= h
,
h.
Thus in the linear approximation we have
G
= R
1
2
R =
1
2
_
h
,
+h
,
h
h
,
,
+
h
_
.
Let us introduce a new variable
1
2
1
2
in G
, we have
G
=
1
2
_
,
+
,
_
=
=
1
2
_
,
,
+
,
,
_
,
or nally
G
=
1
2
_
,
,
+
,
,
,
,
_
.
7.3 Gravitational perturbations I
The metric is written as g
+g
, i.e.
g
00
= 1 + 2, g
0i
= B
,i
+S
i
, g
ij
=
ij
+ 2
ij
+ 2E
,ij
+F
i,j
+F
j,i
+h
ij
, (16)
where S
,i
i
= F
,i
i
= h
,i
ij
= h
ij
ij
= 0, h
ij
= h
ji
. We shall use the formula for G
= g
1
2
h,
h g
,
24
using the 3+1 decomposition:
h = g
= 2 ( 3E) ,
0
0
= + 3+ E,
0
j
= B
,j
+S
j
=
j
0
=
0j
,
i
j
= ( E)
ij
2E
,ij
F
i,j
F
j,i
h
ij
=
j
i
.
Now we compute
0,
=
0
0
0
j,j
=
+ 3
+
_
E B
_
;
j,
j,
=
0j
j
i,i
=
B
,j
S
j
(( E)
ij
2E
,ij
F
i,j
F
j,i
h
ij
)
,i
=
B
,j
S
j
+ ( + E)
,j
+ F
j
;
,
,
=
_
0,
_
,0
+
_
j,
_
,j
=
+ 3
+
_
E
B
_
+
_
B
,j
S
j
+ ( + E)
,j
+ F
j
_
,j
=
+ 3
+
E 2
B + ( + E) .
Then we compute each component of G
separately:
2G
0
0
= 2
0,
,0
0
0
0
0
,
,
= 2
_
+ 3
+
_
E
B
__
0
( + 3 + E) + ( + 3+ E)
+ 3
+
E
_
+ 2
B ( + E)
= 4;
2G
0
j
=
0,
,j
+
,0
j,
0
j
0
j
,
,
=
_
+ 3
+
_
E B
__
,j
B
,j
S
j
+
_
+
E
_
,j
+
F
j
_
B
,j
+
S
j
_
+ (B
,j
+S
j
) = 4
,j
+ S
j
F
j
,
2G
i
j
=
i,
,j
+
j,
,i
i
j
i
j
,
,
=
_
B
,j
S
j
+ ( + E)
,j
+ F
j
_
,i
+
_
B
,i
S
i
+ ( + E)
,i
+ F
i
_
,j
+(( E)
ij
+ 2E
,ij
+F
i,j
+F
j,i
+h
ij
)
ij
_
+ 3
+
E 2
B + ( + E)
_
= 2
_
B +
E
_
,ij
+
F
i,j
+
F
j,i
S
i,j
S
j,i
+h
ij
2
ij
_
2
+
_
B +
E
__
.
* - the origin of the minus sign here is
,0
j,
=
j,
,0
.
7.4 Gravitational perturbations II
Under an innitesimal transformation x
,
g
,
= g
,
. (17)
(This can be easily found from the standard formula for the change of coordinages, involving x
/x
.) Now let
us write Eq. (17) in full, using the perturbation variables (16), the covariant components
=
_
0
,
i
+
,i
_
. We can write the transformation of g
0
,i
i,0
; g
ij
g
ij
i,j
j,i
.
To simplify calculations, we adopt the convention of raising and lowering the spatial indices i, j, ... by the Euclidean
spatial metric
ij
rather than by
ij
. This will get rid of some minus signs. We also denote
0
t
by the overdot. Thus
we have
g
00
g
00
2
0
; g
0i
g
0i
0
,i
i
; g
ij
g
ij
i,j
j,i
.
Substituting the perturbation variables from Eq. (16), we get
0
, (18)
B
,i
+S
i
B
,i
+S
i
0
,i
,i
, (19)
2
ij
+ 2E
,ij
+F
i,j
+F
j,i
+h
ij
2
ij
+ 2E
,ij
+F
i,j
+F
j,i
+h
ij
i,j
j,i
2
,ij
. (20)
Now we need to separate these equations and derive the transformation laws for the individual perturbation variables.
This is easy to do if we perform a Fourier transform of Eqs. (18)-(20) and pass to the Fourier space (where every variable
is a function of a 3-vector k). A vector V
i
is decomposed into scalar and vector components as follows,
V
j
= ik
j
V
(S)
+V
(V )
j
; V
(S)
V
l
k
l
k
2
, V
(V )
j
V
j
ik
j
V
l
k
l
k
2
= V
j
ik
j
V
(S)
. (21)
25
The idea is rst, to project the given vector V
i
(k) onto the direction of k
i
, and second, to subtract the projection from
V
i
and to obtain the component of V
i
which is transversal to k
i
. The imaginary unit factors are added as coecients at
k
j
for convenience: with these factors, the decomposition (21) translates to real space as
V
j
=
j
V
(S)
+V
(V )
j
.
The same procedure applied to a symmetric tensor T
ij
leads to a decomposition into scalar, vector, and tensor
components. Let us go through this procedure in more detail. First, we subtract the trace and obtain the traceless part
T
(1)
of the tensor T,
T
(1)
ij
T
ij
1
3
ij
T
ll
; T
(1)
ii
= 0.
Note the coecient
1
3
that depends on the number of spatial dimensions (three). Now we project T
(1)
ij
onto k
i
k
j
and
obtain the scalar component T
(S)
proportional to k
i
k
j
and the tensor T
(2)
ij
orthogonal to k
i
k
j
:
T
(1)
ij
_
k
i
k
j
+
1
3
ij
k
2
_
T
(S)
+T
(2)
ij
; T
(S)
3
2
k
i
k
j
T
(1)
ij
k
4
; T
(2)
ij
k
i
k
j
= 0.
Note that T
(2)
ij
is again a trace-free tensor, T
(2)
ii
= 0, due to the subtraction of
1
3
k
2
ij
in the rst term. Finally, we project
T
(2)
ij
onto k
i
and k
j
separately, to obtain a vector part T
(V )
j
such that T
(V )
j
k
j
= 0, and a completely traceless (tensor)
part T
(T)
ij
such that T
(T)
ij
k
j
= 0 and T
(T)
ii
= 0:
T
(2)
ij
= ik
i
T
(V )
j
+ ik
j
T
(V )
i
+T
(T)
ij
; T
(V )
j
i
k
l
k
2
T
(2)
jl
, T
(T)
ij
T
(2)
ij
i
_
k
i
T
(V )
j
+k
j
T
(V )
i
_
.
In real space, the full decomposition is
T
ij
=
1
3
T
ll
ij
+
_
1
3
ij
_
T
(S)
+
i
T
(V )
j
+
j
T
(V )
i
+T
(T)
ij
.
T
(S)
3
2
1
j
_
T
ij
1
3
T
ll
ij
_
; T
(2)
ij
_
T
ij
1
3
T
ll
ij
_
j
1
3
ij
_
T
(S)
;
T
(V )
j
=
1
i
T
(2)
ij
, T
(T)
ij
= T
(2)
ij
i
T
(V )
j
j
T
(V )
i
.
It may be convenient to gather the trace terms (the terms containing
ij
) as one term,
T
ij
= T
(tr)
ij
+
i
j
T
(S)
+
i
T
(V )
j
+
j
T
(V )
i
+T
(T)
ij
, T
(tr)
1
3
T
ll
1
3
T
(S)
.
Note that the perturbation variables , E, F
i
, h
ij
are obtained by this decomposition method, starting from the
symmetric perturbation tensor g
ij
, with slight modications: there are some cosmetic factors of 2 and some minus signs.
Applying the decomposition method to Eqs. (18)-(20), we get the following transformation laws for the perturbation
variables,
0
, B B
0
, S
i
S
i
i
,
E E , , F
i
F
i
i
, h
ij
h
ij
.
Remarks:
1. It is clear that one can set F
i
= 0, B = E = 0 with a coordinate transformation. Other components will then show
whether the geometry is really perturbed or its just a coordinate transformation of a at space. In general, there will
remain 6 independent components of perturbations (, , S
i
, h
ij
).
2. These considerations depend rather crucially on the silently made assumption that all the metric perturbations
vanish, g
0, at spatial innity. These boundary conditions are implicitly used when dening the Fourier transforms
necessary for the tensor/vector/scalar decompositions (a Fourier transform is undened without this boundary condition).
Alternatively, one may do without Fourier transforms but then one still needs boundary conditions to solve the relevant
Poisson equations for components. Without boundary conditions, there is no unique decomposition of the form
X
i
= A
,i
+B
i
, A =
1
X
i,i
,
because the function A is dened up to solutions of A = 0. So the tensor/vector/scalar decomposition is actually
undened without a xed assumption about the boundary conditions. The boundary conditions g
0 at spatial
innity is a natural, physically motivated set of boundary conditions. An explicit counterexample where these boundary
conditions are not satised: g
.
26
8 Gravitational radiation I
8.1 Gauge invariant variables
Using the equations derived in Problem 7.4, it is very easy to verify that D =
B +
E and S
i
F
i
are invariant
under innitesimal changes of coordinates (i.e. invariant under innitesimal gauge transformations).
8.2 Detecting gravitational waves
8.2.1 Using distances between particles
(This solution follows Hobson-Efstathiou-Lasenby [2006], 18.4.)
Consider a plane wave moving in the z direction, (all other components of h
are zero)
h
xx
= h
yy
= A
+
e
i(tz)
, h
xy
= h
yx
= A
e
i(tz)
. (22)
To detect the presence of this gravitational wave, let us imagine a cloud of particles initially at rest at dierent positions.
The 4-vectors describing the particles are u
= (1, 0, 0, 0), so one can easily see that these particles move along geodesics:
u
;
= u
,
+
00
,
=
1
2
(h
,
+h
,
h
,
) ,
00
=
1
2
(h
0,0
+h
0,0
h
00,
) = 0.
Therefore the coordinates x
of each particle remain constant with time. However, the distance between each pair of
particles is determined through the spacelike vector x
(1)
x
(2)
as
L
2
(
+h
) x
are the x, y
components, it is clear that only changing lengths are between particles that have some separation in the x, y directions.
Therefore it is sucient to consider a ring of particles situated in the x y plane. The physically measured distances
between the particles in the ring will change with time, i.e. the ring will experience a deformation.
To visualize the deformation, it is convenient to make a local coordinate transformation (local in the neighborhood
of the ring) such that the metric becomes at, g
= x
+
1
2
h
+
1
2
h
.
It is easy to check that
g
+h
) x
+O(h
2
).
Therefore, x
can be understood as the (approximate) Cartesian coordinates where the length is given by the usual
Pythagorean formula. Now if we compute the shape of the ring in these coordinates, it will be easy to interpret this
shape in a straightforward way.
Consider a particle with constant 3-coordinates (x, y, z). After the coordinate transformation, we have
x = x +
1
2
(A
+
x +A
y) e
i(tz)
,
y = y +
1
2
(A
x A
+
y) e
i(tz)
,
z = z.
To visualize the deformation, it is convenient to consider rst the case A
+
,= 0, A
.
Note that the deformations change the shape of the ring in the same way, except for the rotated orientation. This
can be veried by performing a rotation by
4
,
_
x
y
_
2
_
1 1
1 1
__
x
y
_
,
and then it is straightforward to see that this will exchange A
+
and A
.
27
8.2.2 Using geodesic deviation equation
PLEASE NOTE: The commonly found arguments that use the geodesic deviation equation are suspect because the
geodesic deviation equation uses coordinates
described by Eq. (22) will stay indenitely at rest in the coordinate system (
= const)
even though the distances between particles will change with time. See arxiv:gr-qc/0605033 for nice explanations. The
solution given above is simple and straightforward. The argument using the geodesic deviation (see Carroll, Chapter 6,
p. 152-154) goes like this:
The geodesic deviation equation can be simplied for a deviation vector S
dt
2
= R
00
S
.
The Riemann tensor to rst order in h can be expressed as
R
00
=
h
(note that h
0
= 0). Therefore, the geodesic deviation equation becomes
=
h
S
x
=
2
(h
xx
S
x
+h
xy
S
y
) =
2
(A
+
S
x
+A
S
y
) e
i(tz)
,
S
y
=
2
(h
yx
S
x
+h
yy
S
y
) =
2
(A
S
x
A
+
S
y
) e
i(tz)
,
and there is no change in the z direction.
8.3 Poisson equation
The general solution of the Poisson equation,
= 4,
with boundary conditions 0 at innity, is easy to nd using the Fourier transform:
k
2
(k) = 4(k),
(x) =
_
d
3
k
(2)
3
e
ikx
4(k)
k
2
=
_
d
3
k
(2)
3
e
ikx
4
k
2
_
d
3
ye
iky
(y) =
_
d
3
y (y)G(x y),
where G(x) is the Greens function,
G(x) =
_
d
3
k
(2)
3
e
ikx
4
k
2
=
1
_
0
dk
_
0
d sin e
ik|x| cos
=
2
[x[
_
0
dk
k
sinkx =
1
[x[
.
Here we used the known integral
_
0
sinz
z
dz =
1
2
_
+
sin z
z
dz =
1
2
.
Therefore
(x) =
_
d
3
y
[x y[
(y). (23)
One can denote this integral more concisely,
= 4
1
,
where the operator
1
X
i,i
.
28
8.5 Metric perturbations 2
The energy-momentum tensor T
is decomposed as
T
0
i
=
,i
+
i
,
1
T
0
k,k
,
i
T
0
i
_
1
T
0
k,k
_
,i
;
T
i
k
=
ik
+
,ik
+
i,k
+
k,i
+T
(T)i
k
,
i,i
=
i,i
= 0, T
(T)i
i
= 0, T
(T)i
k,i
= 0.
We need to verify that the equation
1
16G
(
S
i
F
i
) =
i
, (24)
which represents the vector part of the spatial Einstein equation (here
i
is the vector part of the spatial T
ij
), also follows
from the conservation of T
T
i
k,ik
_
, =
3
2
1
T
i
k,ik
1
2
T
i
i
,
j
=
1
T
i
j,i
_
1
T
i
k,ik
_
,j
,
(T)
T
i
k
= T
i
k
i
k
,ik
i,k
k,i
.
Note that the operator
1
2
applied to a function f(x) is dened only if the function f has a suciently fast decay at
[x[ . It is sucient that [f(x)[ [x[
3
with > 0 at large [x[. This is a faster decay than that required by the
operator
1
.
The Einstein equations are
2 = 8GT
0
0
,
2
,i
+
1
2
S
i
= 8GT
0
i
= 8G(
,i
+
i
) ,
D
,ij
ij
_
D + 2
1
2
_
S
i,j
+
S
j,i
_
+
1
2
h
ij
= 8GT
i
j
= 8G
_
ik
+
,ik
+
i,k
+
k,i
+T
(T)i
k
_
,
where we have denoted for brevity
S
i
S
i
F
i
, D +B
E,
which are gauge-invariant variables. In the 3+1 decomposition, the Einstein equations become
= 4GT
0
0
, (25)
= 4G, (26)
S
i
= 16G
i
, (27)
D = 8G, (28)
D + 2
= 8G, (29)
S
i
= 16G
i
, (30)
h
ij
= 16GT
(T)i
j
. (31)
The conservation law of the EMT in 3+1 decomposition looks like this,
T
0
0,0
+T
j
0,j
= 0, T
0
i,0
+T
j
i,j
= 0. (32)
This gives
T
0
0
= ,
,i
+
i
+
,i
+
,i
+
i
= 0,
therefore
T
0
0
= , + + = 0,
i
+
i
= 0. (33)
Then it is easy to see that Eqs. (26), (29), and (30) are consequences of Eqs. (25), (27), (28), and the conservation
laws (33). In particular,
S
i
=
t
1
16G
i
=
1
16G
i
= 16G
i
.
29
9 Gravitational radiation II
9.1 Projection of the matter tensor
a) First note that P
ab
is a projector,
P
ab
P
bc
= P
ac
,
and its image has dimension 2, that is, the trace of P
ab
is 2,
P
ii
= 3 n
i
n
i
= 2.
Therefore, for any X
ab
we have
(T)
X
ii
= P
ia
X
ab
P
bi
1
2
P
ii
P
ab
X
ab
= P
ab
X
ab
1
2
2P
ab
X
ab
= 0.
b) We compute
(T)
X
ik,i
=
_
P
ia
X
ab
P
bk
1
2
P
ik
P
ab
X
ab
_
,i
=
_
P
ia
P
bk
1
2
P
ik
P
ab
_
,i
X
ab
+
_
P
ia
P
bk
1
2
P
ik
P
ab
_
X
ab,i
. (34)
Note that the projection kills any component proportional to R
i
because P
ia
R
i
= 0. At the same time, X
ab,i
is propor-
tional to R
i
because
X
ab,i
=
_
X(t [
R[)
_
,i
=
R
i
R
X
.
Therefore the second term in Eq. (34) vanishes:
_
P
ia
P
bk
1
2
P
ik
P
ab
_
R
i
= 0.
So only the rst term remains,
(T)
X
ik,i
=
_
P
ia
P
bk
1
2
P
ik
P
ab
_
,i
X
ab
.
However, this term contains derivatives of P
ab
, which are also sometimes proportional to R
i
. We compute
P
ik,a
= n
i,a
n
k
n
i
n
k,a
; n
i,a
=
_
R
i
R
_
,a
=
R
i,a
R
R
i
R
2
[R[
,a
=
ia
R
R
i
R
a
R
3
=
1
R
P
ia
,
P
ik,a
=
1
R
(P
ai
n
k
+P
ak
n
i
) , P
ik,i
=
2
R
n
k
, (note that P
ak
n
k
= 0)
_
P
ia
P
bk
1
2
P
ik
P
ab
_
,i
= P
ia,i
P
bk
1
2
P
ik,i
P
ab
+P
ia
P
bk,i
1
2
P
ik
P
ab,i
=
2
R
n
a
P
bk
+
1
R
n
k
P
ab
1
R
P
ia
(P
bi
n
k
+P
ik
n
b
) +
1
2R
P
ik
(P
ai
n
b
+P
bi
n
a
)
=
1
R
_
2n
a
P
bk
+n
k
P
ab
P
ab
n
k
P
ak
n
b
+
1
2
P
ak
n
b
+
1
2
P
bk
n
a
_
=
1
R
_
3
2
P
bk
n
a
+
1
2
P
ak
n
b
_
.
This is higher-order in 1/[
R[ than P
ab
, as required.
9.2 Matter sources
The question is to verify the following property,
(T)
X
ik
=
(T)
Q
ik
,
where
Q
ik
= X
ik
_
1
3
ik
r
2
T
0
0
d
3
r.
It is easy to see that X
ik
diers from Q
ik
only by a term of the form A(t, R)
ij
. The transverse-traceless part of
ij
is
zero,
_
P
ia
P
bk
1
2
P
ik
P
ab
_
ab
= 0.
Therefore the transverse-traceless parts of X
ik
and Q
ik
are the same.
30
9.3 Energy-momentum tensor of gravitational waves
See Hobson-Efstathiou-Lasenby [2006], 17.11.
We need to compute the second-order terms in the Einstein tensor. The idea is to separate the second-order terms
already in the Ricci tensor. We will also try to simplify things by using the fact that h
is purely transverse-traceless;
h
0
= 0, h
ii
= 0, h
ik,i
= 0. It follows that
= 0, h
,
= 0.
Also, it is given that the EMT of matter vanishes, T
+h
, g
;
note that now indices are always raised and lowered using
=
1
2
_
_
(h
,
+h
,
h
,
) =
(1)
+
(2)
(1)
=
1
2
(h
,
+h
,
h
,
) ,
(2)
=
1
2
h
(h
,
+h
,
h
,
) .
The Ricci tensor is
R
,
+
= R
(1)
+R
(2)
,
R
(1)
=
(1)
,
(1)
,
,
R
(2)
=
(2)
,
(2)
,
+
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
.
Let us now evaluate these expressions and simplify as much as possible, as early as possible:
(1)
=
1
2
h
,
=
1
2
_
_
,
= 0,
R
(1)
=
(1)
,
(1)
,
=
1
2
(h
,
+h
,
h
,
) =
1
2
h
,
because of the transverse traceless property of h
. Now, since R
(1)
1
2
R
(1)
= 8GT
,
and it is given that T
= 0. Hence, we have h
= 0.
Let us now evaluate derivatives of the second-order terms in the Christoel symbols:
(2)
=
1
2
h
(h
,
+h
,
h
,
) =
1
2
h
h
,
,
(2)
,
=
1
2
h
h
,
+
1
2
h
,
h
,
,
(2)
,
=
1
2
h
(h
,
+h
,
h
,
)
(in the last line we used h
,
= 0). Finally, we tackle the term
(1)
(1)
(1)
=
1
2
_
h
,
+h
,
h
,
_
,
where again the indices are raised via
since we only need this term to rst order. Then we can simplify this expression
by grouping together terms where , appear in similar positions:
4
(1)
(1)
=
_
h
,
+h
,
h
,
_
_
h
,
+h
,
h
,
_
(expand brackets) = h
,
h
,
+h
,
h
,
h
,
h
,
+h
,
h
,
+h
,
h
,
h
,
h
,
h
,
,
h
,
,
+h
,
h
,
(move, rename , ) = h
,
h
,
+h
,
h
,
h
,
h
,
+h
,
h
,
+h
,
h
,
h
,
h
,
h
,
h
,
h
,
h
,
+h
,
h
,
(gather terms) = 2h
,
h
,
+ (h
,
h
,
) h
,
2h
,
h
,
+h
,
(h
,
h
,
) +h
,
h
,
(symmetry of h
) = h
,
h
,
+ 2h
,
h
,
2h
,
h
,
.
Finally, we put together the expression for R
(2)
:
R
(2)
=
1
2
h
(h
,
h
,
+h
,
+h
,
) +
1
2
h
,
h
,
1
4
_
h
,
h
,
+ 2h
,
h
,
2h
,
h
,
_
=
1
2
h
(h
,
h
,
+h
,
+h
,
) +
1
4
h
,
h
,
+
1
2
_
h
,
,
h
,
h
,
_
. (35)
31
The Ricci scalar is
R
(2)
=
R
(2)
=
1
2
h
+
1
4
h
,
h
,
+
1
2
_
h
,
,
h
,
h
,
_
=
3
4
h
,
h
,
1
2
h
,
h
,
, (36)
where we again used the transverse traceless property of h
and also h
rather than g
= R
(2)
1
2
R
(2)
.
We do not write the answer explicitly since it is a combination of Eqs. (35) and (36).
Now let us perform an averaging of the quantity G
(2)
= 0 and h
,
= 0 on the boundary of that region. Then
(...) = 0 and so
we may integrate by parts, for example
A
B
,
= A
,
B
,
as long as A
or h
,
, so that boundary terms vanish. Then, for example,
h
,
_
=
,
h
,
_
, (37)
h
,
_
=
_
h
,
h
,
_
= 0,
h
,
h
,
= h
= 0,
by h
R
(2)
_
= 0.
Finally, we get
_
G
(2)
_
=
_
1
2
h
(h
,
h
,
+h
,
+h
,
) +
1
4
h
,
h
,
+
1
2
_
h
,
,
h
,
h
,
_
_
=
1
2
h
,
_
+
1
4
,
h
,
_
=
1
4
,
h
,
_
using Eq. (37). Finally, we obtain the required equation,
(GW)
T
=
1
8G
_
G
(2)
_
=
1
32G
,
h
,
_
=
1
32G
h
ij
,
h
ij,
_
.
9.4 Power of emitted radiation
To derive the relations
_
n
l
n
m
d
4
=
1
3
lm
,
_
n
l
n
m
n
k
n
r
d
4
=
1
15
(
lm
kr
+
lk
mr
+
lk
mr
),
let us consider the generating function
g
(q
l
)
_
d
4
exp
_
in
l
q
l
,
which is a function of a vector argument q
l
. After computing g
(q
l
) it will be easy to obtain integrals such as the above:
_
n
l
n
m
d
4
= i
q
l
i
q
m
g
(q
j
)
qj=0
, etc.
The computation is easy if we introduce spherical coordinates with the z axis parallel to the vector q
l
, then n
l
q
l
= [q[ cos ,
where [q[
q
l
q
l
, and then we have
g
(q
l
) =
1
4
_
2
0
d
_
0
d sin exp [i [q[ cos ] =
1
4
2
2i sin [q[
i [q[
=
sin [q[
[q[
= 1
1
3!
q
l
q
l
+
1
5!
(q
l
q
l
)
2
1
7!
(q
l
q
l
)
3
+...
32
We have used the Taylor expansion for convenience of evaluating derivatives at [q[ = 0. These derivatives can be found
as follows,
g
q
l
=
2
3!
q
l
+
4
5!
q
l
[q[
2
... =
_
1
3
+
1
30
[q[
2
_
q
l
,
2
g
q
k
q
l
=
_
1
3
+
1
30
[q[
2
_
kl
+
1
15
q
l
q
k
,
3
g
q
j
q
k
q
l
=
1
15
(q
j
kl
+q
k
jl
+q
l
jk
) ,
4
g
q
j
q
k
q
l
q
m
=
1
15
(
jm
kl
+
km
jl
+
lm
jk
) .
Now we compute the intensity of radiation. The ux of radiation in the direction n
k
is
(GW)
T
0k
n
k
, and we need to
integrate this ux through a sphere of radius R:
dE
dt
= R
2
_
d
2
(GW)
T
0k
n
k
=
R
2
32G
_
d
2
_
h
ij
,0
h
ij,k
_
n
k
.
The perturbation h
ij
is found from the Einstein equation. It was derived in the lecture that, in the leading order in 1/R,
we have
h
ij
= 2G
(TT)
Q
ij
(t [
R[)
[
R[
,
(TT)
Q
ij
_
P
ai
P
bj
1
2
P
ab
P
ij
_
Q
ab
.
The projection tensor P
ij
is dened in Problem 9.1. The tensor Q
ij
is dened by
Q
ij
(t)
_
d
3
x
_
x
i
x
j
1
3
[x[
2
ij
_
T
00
(x, t)
and is by denition trace-free, Q
ii
= 0. Thus we have
h
ij,k
=
16G
R
(TT)
Q
ij
(t [R[)
R
k
R
,
dE
dt
=
G
8
_
d
2
_
(TT)
...
Q
ij
(TT)
...
Q
ij
_
.
It remains to compute the average over the sphere of
(TT)
...
Q
ij
(TT)
...
Q
ij
.
Consider any symmetric, trace-free tensor A
ij
instead of
...
Q
ij
; the transverse-traceless part of A
ij
is dened by
(TT)
A
ij
_
P
ai
P
bj
1
2
P
ab
P
ij
_
A
ab
.
Since A
ii
= 0, we have A
ab
P
ab
= A
ab
n
a
n
b
and so
(TT)
A
ij
(TT)
A
ij
=
_
P
ai
P
bj
1
2
P
ab
P
ij
__
P
ci
P
dj
1
2
P
cd
P
ij
_
A
ab
A
cd
=
_
P
ac
P
bd
1
2
P
ab
P
cd
_
A
ab
A
cd
=
_
P
ac
P
bd
1
2
n
a
n
b
n
c
n
d
_
A
ab
A
cd
= A
ab
A
ab
2A
ac
A
bc
n
a
n
b
+
1
2
A
ab
A
cd
n
a
n
b
n
c
n
d
.
After integration over the sphere, according to formulas derived above, we have (again note that
ab
A
ab
= 0 and A
ab
=
A
ba
)
1
4
_
d
2
A
ac
A
bc
n
a
n
b
=
1
3
A
ac
A
bc
ab
=
1
3
A
ab
A
ab
,
1
4
_
d
2
A
ab
A
cd
n
a
n
b
n
c
n
d
=
1
15
A
ab
A
cd
(
ab
cd
+
ac
bd
+
ad
bc
) =
2
15
A
ab
A
ab
,
and thus
1
4
_
d
2
(TT)
A
ij
(TT)
A
ij
= A
ab
A
ab
_
1
2
3
+
1
2
2
15
_
=
2
5
A
ab
A
ab
.
33
Finally, substituting
...
Q
ij
instead of A
ij
, we nd
dE
dt
=
G
2
1
4
_
d
2
_
(TT)
...
Q
ij
(TT)
...
Q
ij
_
=
G
5
...
Q
ij
...
Q
ij
_
. (38)
The angular brackets indicate that we must perform an averaging over spacetime domains. This means, for us, that we
need to average over time (since Q
ij
is a function only of time). Averaging is performed over timescales larger than the
typical timescale of change in the source. For instance, if the source is a rotating body, then averaging must be performed
over several periods of rotation.
10 Derivation: gravitational waves in at spacetime
The metric is assumed to be of the form
g
+h
,
where
and compute
the Einstein tensor (see Problems 7.2, 7.3, 7.4) in terms of the perturbation variables , , etc. We also decompose the
matter energy-momentum tensor T
and obtain the Einstein equations separately for each component (8.5). The result
is that (a) the variables E, B, F
i
can be set to zero by choosing a coordinate system; (b) if there is no matter (vacuum)
the scalar and vector components of the metric perturbation are equal to zero; (c) the tensor component h
ij
satises the
wave equation (31).
Solutions of the wave equation in four dimensions with retarded boundary condition can be written using the known
Greens function. For instance, if
f(t, r) = A(t, r) f(t, R) =
1
4
_
d
3
r
A(t [r R[ , r)
[r R[
.
We will use this formula for f
(T)
h
ij
and A 16G
(T)
T
i
j
. Now, we are interested in describing the radiation sent far
away by a matter distribution, so we take the limit [R[ [r[, and then we can approximately set
(T)
h
ij
4G
[R[
_
d
3
r
(T)
T
i
j
(t [r R[ , r).
Now we use a trick (See Hobson-Efstathiou-Lasenby, 17.9) to express the components T
j
i
through T
0
0
; it is much easier
to compute with T
0
0
because this is just the energy density of matter. Consider rst the tensor T
i
j
rather than its
transverse-traceless part
(T)
T
i
j
. The trick is to write the integral (out of sheer luck)
_
d
3
r
a
b
_
r
i
r
j
_
T
ab
= 2
_
d
3
r T
ij
.
Then we integrate by parts and use the conservation laws (32),
T
i
j,i
= T
0
j,0
, T
i
j,ij
= T
0
j,0j
= T
0
0,00
T
0
0
; T
ij
,ij
=
T
0
0
.
2
_
d
3
r T
ij
=
_
d
3
r T
ab
,ab
r
i
r
j
=
_
d
3
r r
i
r
j
T
0
0
.
Now, we need to obtain the transverse-traceless part of the tensor. In principle, we have the formulas for this (see
Problem 8.5). But they are very complicated. A shortcut is to notice that the projection operator P
ab
does the job
(Problems 9.1 and 9.2), at least in the leading order in 1/[R[. (We are only interested in everything to leading order in
1/ [R[ since all smaller terms will not give any ux of radiated energy.) The result is
(T)
h
ik
(R, t) =
2G
[R[
(TT)
Q
ik
(t [R[),
Q
ik
(t)
_
d
3
r T
0
0
(r, t)
_
r
i
r
k
1
3
r
2
ik
_
. (39)
The tensor Q
ik
is the quadrupole moment of energy distribution; it is a traceless and symmetric tensor. In principle, we
could just use the integral
_
d
3
r T
0
0
(r, t)r
i
r
k
, (40)
because the transverse-traceless parts of (40) and of Q
ik
are the same, but it is more convenient to use Q
ik
.
Since we found the tensor perturbation
(T)
h
ij
, now we would like to compute the energy radiated in the gravitational
waves. For this we need the energy-momentum tensor of gravitational waves. This is a rather nontrivial object, since
in general the gravitational eld does not have any energy-momentum tensor. In the case of gravitational waves in
at background spacetime, one can dene some quantity
(GW)
T
as follows. We can write the Einstein equation and expand it in powers of the perturbation h
:
G
+h
] = G
(1)
[h] +G
(2)
. (41)
Here G
(1)
is the rst-order Einstein tensor, G
(2)
is the second-order etc. First we solve only to rst-order in h (this is
what we have been doing so far) and then we will get an approximate solution h
(1)
:
G
(1)
[h
(1)
] = 8GT
. (42)
This solution disregards the eect of gravitational waves and only takes into account the eect of matter T
. We can
try to get a more precise solution by using the second-order terms in Eq. (41). Then we will get a correction h
(2)
to the
solution; the solution g = +h
(1)
+h
(2)
will be more precise. From Eq. (41) we nd
G
(1)
[h
(1)
+h
(2)
] +G
(2)
[h
(1)
] = 8GT
.
Now this is similar to Eq. (42), but it looks as if there is an additional term in the energy-momentum tensor, which we
may rewrite as
G
(1)
[h
(1)
+h
(2)
] = 8G
_
T
+
(GW)
T
_
,
(GW)
T
1
8G
G
(2)
[h
(1)
].
This motivates us to say that the EMT for gravitational waves is given by this formula. But of course this is not a real
derivation because this does not show why the quantity
(GW)
T
are computed in Problem 9.3. The result is used to compute the power radiated in
gravitational waves (Problem 9.4). Note that the calculation of G
(2)