JOB SATISFACTION AMONGST EMPLOYEES AT A PUBLIC HEALTH INSTITUTION IN THE WESTERN CAPE

NEZAAM LUDDY

Mini-thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Magister Commercii in the Department of Industrial Psychology, Faculty of Economic and Management Science, University of the Western Cape.

SUPERVISOR: RUKHSANA JANO

NOVEMBER 2005

ABSTRACT

Job satisfaction among public sector employees within South Africa, specifically the health environment is becoming an area of major concern as highlighted by recent research studies and media reports. An exodus of professional staff and a lack of resources have exacerbated the current problem impeding on effective and efficient service delivery. Literature validates that factors such as poor working conditions, staff shortages, below competitive salaries, a lack of promotional opportunities are some of the major factors contributing to employee dissatisfaction within the sector (Ellickson & Logsdon, 2002; Herman, 2005; Ting, 1997).

As the ultimate goal in the health environment is service delivery, it is imperative that employees perform optimally and maintain acceptable levels of job satisfaction, hence, contributing to the vision and mission of providing better care and health to individuals (Department of Health Provincial Government: Western Capes annual report, 2003/2004).

The primary objective of this study is to ascertain the levels of job satisfaction experienced amongst employees at a public health institution in the Western Cape region. For the purpose of this study a quantitative, non-probability convenience sampling design was used to assess job satisfaction. The sample group (N = 203) consisted of permanent and contract male and female staff members on salary levels 2 to 13, extending across the following occupational classes: Pharmacist, Pharmacist Assistant, Auxiliary Service Officer, Administrative Clerk, Director, Personnel

Officer, Administrative Officer, State Accountant and Personnel Practitioner. A

biographical questionnaire and the Job Descriptive Index questionnaire (JDI) were administered to gather the data. The JDI measures job satisfaction on five job facets, namely, pay, promotions, supervision, co-workers and the work itself. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used to analyse the data.

Results indicate that employees at the public health institution in the Western Cape expressed satisfaction with their co-workers, followed by the nature of the work and the supervision they receive. Opportunities for promotion and pay emerged as major sources of dissatisfaction. With the exception of marital status, the relationship between occupational class, race, gender, educational level, tenure, age, income and job status with job satisfaction was found to be significant. Although the research indicates that job satisfaction is significantly related to variables such as work, remuneration, supervision, promotion, and co-workers, ongoing research is required in this domain. However, the role of other potentially confounding extraneous variables on job satisfaction needs to be contemplated for future research. Lastly, due to the composition of the sample, results of this study cannot be inferred to other similar occupational classes in other public institutions. Therefore, it is recommended that a proportionate stratified random sample be utilised for future research.

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Key words: Job satisfaction Occupational classes Public health institution Job Descriptive Index Organisational factors associated with job satisfaction Satisfaction with pay Promotion opportunities Supervision Relationship with co-workers Satisfaction with nature of work

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DECLARATION

I hereby declare that Job satisfaction amongst employees at a public health institution in the Western Cape is my own work, that it has not been submitted for any degree or examination at any other institution of higher learning, and that all references have, to the best of my knowledge, been correctly reported. It is being submitted for the degree of Magister Commercii at the University of the Western Cape.

Full Name:

Nezaam Luddy

Date:

15 November 2005

Signed:

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Seek knowledge from the cradle to the grave.

Prophet Muhammad

First and foremost I thank the Almighty Allah for granting me the strength, health, courage and inspiration to prosper in this endeavour and thus enriching my knowledge. Verily, God does not change [a] peoples condition unless they change their own inner selves. HE is indeed the unseen force behind making this study a success.

I thank the lecturing staff of the University of the Western Cape (Industrial Psychology Department), whose tutelage over the two years provided me with the necessary background skills to undertake and complete this study.

To my colleagues without whose interest and co-operation I could not have produced this study. I wish to thank them for supporting this initiative and affording me their time and sharing their experiences.

A special thank you to my supervisor, Rukhsana Jano, for her guidance, insight and encouragement in the writing and compilation of this thesis. Your invaluable support and patience throughout this journey has been unreal and is appreciated from the bottom of my heart.

I wish to thank Karl Heslop for providing statistical support. Your assistance and insight is highly valued and appreciated.

A note of thanks to Gerda Theron from the Department of Cultural Affairs and Sport: Directorate Libraries for providing me with valuable text books and articles over the research period.

I thank my mother Fatima Luddy and father Abdulrazaak Luddy, for instilling in me unquestionable values and morals, thank you for your love, guidance and for always believing in me throughout the years.

My sincere gratitude goes out to my friends Misha Morar, Leigh Angy Zwaan, Sakena Parker, Nadine Sha, Janine Oosthuizen, Courtney Kruger and Warren Charles. I am humbled by your friendship. Thank you for your support and for continuously enquiring about my progress for the duration of the study. A special thanks to my supervisor at work, advocate Peter Burgers for his constant inspiration and guidance during the past two years. My request for three months special leave that you have supported, to enable me to complete the research, is indeed appreciated.

To my loving and understanding wife, Najwa. You are the star that gives light to this project. Your patience, love, encouragement and tolerance warrant you to have coauthorship in this endeavour. I also wish to thank my teenage son, Yaeesh for his sacrifices and support. I acknowledge that it was not always easy sacrificing your weekends and holidays while I was busy with the study. Thanks to the both of you for your infinite love and support during trying times.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE NO.

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

CONTENT

1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6

Introduction Motivation for the study Research questions Research objectives Research hypotheses Delimitations of the study

1 3 10 11 12 13

1.7

Definition of terms 1.7.1 Remuneration/Pay 1.7.2 Supervisor 1.7.3 Promotion 1.7.4 Work 1.7.5 Co-worker

14 14 15 15 15 16

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1.8 1.9

Summary of the chapter Overview of the study

16 16

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1

Introduction

18

2.2

The concept of job satisfaction 2.2.1 Definitions of job satisfaction 2.2.2 Facet satisfaction 2.2.3 Overall satisfaction

20 20 21 22

2.3

Motivation theories 2.3.1 Content theories 2.3.1.1 Maslows needs hierarchy theory 2.3.1.2 Herzbergs two factor theory 2.3.1.3 McClellands need for achievement theory 2.3.2 Process theories 2.3.2.1 Vrooms expectancy theory 2.3.2.2 Equity theory 2.3.2.3 Goal setting theory

22 24 24 26 30 31 31 33 34

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2.4

The antecedents of job satisfaction 2.4.1 Personal Determinants 2.4.1.1 Race 2.4.1.2 Gender 2.4.1.3 Educational level 2.4.1.4 Tenure 2.4.1.5 Age 2.4.1.6 Marital status 2.4.2 Organisational factors 2.4.2.1 The work itself 2.4.2.2 Remuneration/pay 2.4.2.3 Supervision 2.4.2.4 Promotion opportunities 2.4.2.5 Co-workers 2.4.2.6 Job status 2.4.2.7 Job level

35 36 36 37 39 40 42 43 44 44 45 47 48 48 49 50

2.5

The consequences of job satisfaction 2.5.1 Productivity 2.5.2 Physical and psychological health 2.5.3 Turnover 2.5.4 Absenteeism

51 51 52 52 53

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2.6

Summary of the chapter

54

CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1

Introduction

55

3.2

Research design 3.2.1 Population 3.2.2 Sample 3.2.3 Procedure 3.2.4 Biographical Questionnaire 3.2.5 Measuring Instrument 3.2.5.1 Job Descriptive Index (JDI) 3.2.5.1.1 Nature and Composition of the JDI 3.2.5.1.2 Reliability of the JDI 3.2.5.1.3 Validity of the JDI 3.2.5.1.4 Rationale for inclusion of the JDI

55 57 57 58 59 60 60 60 61 63 64

3.2.6 Statistical Techniques 3.2.6.1 Descriptive Statistics 3.2.6.2 Inferential Statistics

65 65 66

3.2.6.2.1 The Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient 3.2.6.2.2 Multiple Regression Analysis 3.2.6.2.3 Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) 3.2.6.2.4 Scheffes Multiple Comparison Method

66

67 67 68

3.3

Summary of the chapter

69

CHAPTER 4 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

4.1

Introduction

70

4.2

Demographic information in terms of the sample

70

4.3

Descriptive statistics of the Job Descriptive Index Questionnaire

80

4.4

Inferential statistics 4.4.1 Correlations for the biographical data and job satisfaction 4.4.2 Correlations for the dimensions of job satisfaction

82 82

84

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4.4.3 Multiple Regression Analysis 4.4.4 Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) 4.4.5 Scheffes Multiple Comparison Method

86 90 99

4.5

Summary of the chapter

100

CHAPTER 5 DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1

Introduction

101

5.2

Discussion 5.2.1 Demographic information about the sample 5.2.2 Descriptive statistics for the dimensions of job satisfaction 5.2.3 Inferential Results 5.2.3.1 Correlation analysis for the biographical data and job satisfaction 5.2.3.2 Correlation analysis for the dimensions of job satisfaction 5.2.3.3 Multiple Regression Analysis

101 101 102

103 103

104

105

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5.2.3.4 Differences in job satisfaction based on biographical characteristics - Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) 5.2.3.4.1 5.2.3.4.2 5.2.3.4.3 5.2.3.4.4 5.2.3.4.5 5.2.3.4.6 5.2.3.4.7 5.2.3.4.8 5.2.3.4.9 Race Gender Educational level Tenure Age Marital status Income Job status Scheffes Multiple Comparison

106

106 107 109 110 111 112 113 114 115

5.3

Conclusions

116

5.4

Recommendations

118

Reference List

121

Appendices: Appendix A Letter of request to complete questionnaire Appendix B Biographical questionnaire Appendix C Job Descriptive Index (JDI) questionnaire

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LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO.

PAGE NO.

Table 1.1: Annual turnover rates by salary band for the period 1 April 2003 to 31 March 2004 5

Table 1.2: Major reasons why personnel are leaving the department

Table 1.3: Sick leave - 1 January 2003 to 31 December 2003

Table 1.4: Misconduct addressed at disciplinary hearings

Table 1.5: Grievances lodged for the period 1 April 2003 to 31 March 2004 9

Table 1.6: Disputes lodged with Councils for the period 1 April 2003 to March 2004 10

Table 4.1: Descriptive statistics for the dimensions of job satisfaction 80

Table 4.2: Correlations for the biographical data and job satisfaction 82

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Table 4.3: Pearson correlation matrix for the dimensions of job satisfaction 84

Table 4.4: Results of multiple regression analysis

88

Table 4.5: Occupational class and job satisfaction

90

Table 4.6: Race and job satisfaction

91

Table 4.7: Gender and job satisfaction

92

Table 4.8: Educational level and job satisfaction

93

Table 4.9: Years of service and job satisfaction

94

Table 4.10: Age and job satisfaction

95

Table 4.11: Marital status and job satisfaction

96

Table 4.12: Income and job satisfaction

97

Table 4.13: Job status and job satisfaction

98

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LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO.

PAGE NO.

Figure 2.1: Herzbergs theory: Factors affecting job satisfaction Figure 2.2: Vroomss expectancy theory Figure 2.3: Equity theory Figure 4.1: Occupational classifications Figure 4.2: Racial distribution Figure 4.3: Gender distribution Figure 4.4: Educational level Figure 4.5: Length of service Figure 4.6: Age in years Figure 4.7: Marital status Figure 4.8: Income distribution Figure 4.9: Job status

28 32 33 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79

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CHAPTER 1

1.1

INTRODUCTION

According to Meyer (1999), most South African employees experience a lack of job satisfaction resulting in a low level of employee commitment that, in turn, impacts on performance and the achievement of organisational goals. The symptoms of these problems result in low productivity, high absenteeism, labour unrest, industrial action and high labour turnover. The current situation in the public sector in South Africa is not dissimilar. Public sector employees are faced with a multitude of factors that impact on effective and efficient service delivery.

Herman (2005) reports that the Western Cape Department of Health is working extensively on improving employment conditions of employees within the health sector as the province has been experiencing an exodus of professional employees over the years in this sector. Herman attributes the exodus of employees in the health sector to factors such as better salary prospects being offered overseas resulting in employee shortages and placing additional demands on remaining employees. Cullinan (2005) concurs that statistics indicated that by 2001 more than 23 000 South African-born health employees were working abroad in countries such as Britian, the USA, Canada, Australia and New Zealand. The reseacher states that the Gauteng and Western Cape provinces, the two better resourced provinces, have seen

substantial declines in public sector personnel, as has Kwazulu-Natal (p. 11). Not only are poor salaries blamed for the dilemma within the public sector, but other factors such as the work environment and poor management are shown to contribute towards and exacerbate job satisfaction (Cullinan, 2005).

Ting (1997) states that empirical evidence consistently indicates that job characteristics such as pay satisfaction, opportunities for promotion, task clarity and relationships with co-workers and supervisors have significant effects on job satisfaction of government employees. In support, a study conducted by Ellickson and Logsdon (2002) reflected that job satisfaction of public sector employees was significantly influenced by perceptions of employee satisfaction in terms of pay, promotional opportunities, relationships with supervisors, employeesperformance management systems and fringe benefits.

Similarly, Barrows and Watson (n.d.) posit that low pay, limited flexibility and limited opportunities for promotion are characteristics of the public sector which prevent the most qualified workers remaining in government agencies and climbing the corporate ladder. The researchers emphasise that the resultant effect can lead to a loss in productivity and a lack of continuity in the public sector. They contend that these hindering factors also serve as a discouragement for young people entering the labour market to pursue careers as civil servants.

Another study conducted by Pohlmann (1999) found that public sector employees indicated dissatisfaction with supervision, communication and pay. However, a

survey conducted by Schneider and Vaught (1993) indicated that lower skilled public sector employees place more emphasis on factors such as achievement, growth, the work itself and recognition while public sector professionals indicated extrinsic factors such as management policies and rules, job security, pay, supervision and working conditions to be important.

1.2

MOTIVATION FOR THE STUDY

A survey conducted at 79 health clinics in South Africa between November 2002 and February 2003, found that 56% of professional employees intended to go overseas due to better salary prospects and wanting to further their education. The survey further indicated that 40% lacked supervision, 68% received feedback from supervisors, while 44% had no job descriptions. Other factors that were highlighted by the survey causing dissatisfaction, was the extra workload, problems with colleagues, stress, employees shortages, unsafe working conditions and poor equipment (Mariani, Gcaba, & Dalton, 2003). Against this backdrop, the premise of this research is focused on ascertaining how variables such as the work environment, pay, supervision, co-workers and promotion impacts on job satisfaction of civil servants at an institution residing under the Department of Health in the Western Cape.

According to Luthans (1989), high or low employee turnover rates, absenteeism and grievances lodged are factors that indicate whether job satisfaction or job dissatisfaction exists within organisations. In this regard, similarly, information

disseminated from the Department of Health Provincial Government: Western Capes annual report (2003/2004) highlights some of the major problems experienced within the Department being:

Employee turnover rates; Major reasons why employees are leaving the department; Costs incurred due to sick leave taken; Types of misconduct addressed at disciplinary hearings and Grievances and disputes lodged.

Table 1.1 provides a summary of turnover rates per salary band. Highly skilled supervision which forms part of the Director occupational class reflects the highest turnover rate of 32.33%.

Table 1.1 Annual turnover rates by salary band for the period 1 April 2003 to 31 March 2004 Number of employees per Salary Band band as on 1 April 2003 Appointments and transfers into the Department Terminations and transfers out of the Department % Turnover rate

Lower skilled Skilled Highly skilled production Highly skilled supervision SMS Band A SMS Band B SMS Band C SMS Band D Total

4753 8209 8997

304 997 836

356 1359 1109

7.49 16.56 12.33

2051

651

663

32.33

74 18 2 1 24105

5 2 1 0 2796

9 1 0 0 3497

12.16 5.56 0 0 14.51

Source: Annual Report (2003/2004): Department of Health-Western Cape, p. 115.

According to Jayiya (2001), the public service is experiencing an exodus of highly skilled managers and it is for this reason that the government has introduced the

Senior Management System (SMS) initiative to circumvent the problem. Jayiya adds that the SMS offers competitive salary packages similar to that of the private sector. Highly skilled managers are also afforded the opportunity to manage their own benefit dispensation. Basset (1994) maintains that a high turnover rate is indicative of dissatisfaction among employees.

As indicated in Table 1.2 below, resignations and expiry of contracts are the two major reasons for employees leaving the department.

Table 1.2 Major reasons why personnel are leaving the Department Termination type Resignation Expiry of contract Total Number 983 1691 3497 % of Total 28.11 48.36

Adapted from Annual Report (2003/2004): Department of Health-Western Cape, p. 116.

Table 1.3 illustrates the average number of days of sick leave taken per employee is 9 days per employee, resulting in an estimated salary cost of R43 399 000.

Table 1.3 Sick leave - 1 January 2003 to 31 December 2003 % days with Salary Band Total days medical certification Number of employees using sick leave Lower skilled Skilled Highly skilled production Highly skilled supervision Senior management Total 169457 79.50 18628 100 9 43,399 161 72.67 38 0.20 4 268 5721 72.47 830 4.46 7 3,505 58657 65717 80.54 79.56 6412 7448 34.42 39.98 9 9 11,263 21,575 39201 78.89 3900 % of total employees using sick leave 20.94 10 5,253 Average days per employee Estimated cost (R000)

Source: Annual Report (2003/2004): Department of Health-Western Cape, p. 124.

Research indicates that attitudinal factors such as job satisfaction and the countrys economical state contribute to absenteeism in the workplace (Grobler, Warnich, Carrell, Elbert & Hatfield, 2002).

According to Nel, van Dyk, Haasbroek, Schultz, Sono and Werner (2004), absenteeism is costly and has a disruptive effect on business operations resulting in lost productivity. In addition, Robbins, Odendaal and Roodt (2003) maintain that absenteeism is costing South African companies millions of rands per annum in decreased efficiency and increased benefit payments.

Table 1.4 indicates the number of employees in the Department of Health: Western Cape that appeared at disciplinary hearings for being absent from work without obtaining prior permission. Failure to report for work is often associated with job dissatisfaction and impacts on productivity and continuity of a business entity (French, 2003).

Table 1.4 Misconduct addressed at disciplinary hearings (Table 1.4 is additional statistics in relation to Table 1.3) Type of misconduct Absent from work without permission Total 132 Number 98 % of Total 74.2

Adapted from Annual Report (2003/2004): Department of Health-Western Cape, p. 128.

Basset (1994) states that employee dissatisfaction is often combined with high levels of complaints and grievances within the workplace. The author adds that dissatisfied

workers can either be a constructive or a destructive complainer that may resort to sabotage and passive aggression.

Table 1.5 indicates that the total number of grievances lodged for the reporting year 2003/2004 amounted to 48 cases.

Table 1.5 Grievances lodged for the period 1 April 2003 to 31 March 2004 Number Number of grievances resolved Number of grievances not resolved Total number of grievances lodged Source Annual Report (2003/2004): Department of Health-Western Cape, p. 129. 48 18 37.5 30 % of Total 62.5

In addition, Table 1.6 depicts a total number of 47 dispute cases lodged with the Councils for the reporting year 2003/2004. The Annual Report (2003/2004) of the Department of Health-Western Cape (p. 129) indicated that no employee strike action occurred for the period 1 April 2003 to 31 March 2004.

Table 1.6 Disputes lodged with Councils for the period 1 April 2003 to March 2004 Number Number of disputes upheld Number of disputes dismissed Total number of disputes lodged Source Annual Report (2003/2004): Department of Health-Western Cape, p. 129. 47 10 37 % of Total 21.2 78.8

Taking cognisance of the statistics presented (pp. 6-11), additional support is warranted for the research to be conducted amongst employees at the public health institution in the Western Cape region.

1.3

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

Is there a relationship between biographical variables (namely, occupational class, race, gender, educational level, tenure, age, marital status, income and job status) and job satisfaction? Is there a relationship between job satisfaction amongst employees and work in present job, remuneration, supervision, promotion and co-workers?

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Will the demographic variables of occupational class, race, gender, educational level, tenure, age, marital status, income and job status explain the variance in job satisfaction amongst employees? Are there differences in job satisfaction based on biographical variables (namely, occupational class, race, gender, educational level, tenure, marital status, income, and job status)?

1.4

RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

Based on the preceding research questions, the research objectives of the study can be translated as follows:

To determine the relationship between biographical variables (namely, occupational class, race, gender, educational level, tenure, age, marital status, income and job status) and job satisfaction. To determine whether there is a statistically significant relationship between job satisfaction and work in present job, remuneration, supervision, promotion and co-workers amongst employees in a public health institution in the Western Cape. To determine the variance in job satisfaction amongst employees in a public health institution based on demographic variables (namely, occupational class, race, gender, educational level, tenure, age, marital status, income and job status).

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To determine whether there are significant differences amongst employees based on their biographical characteristics (namely, occupational class, race, gender, educational level, tenure, marital status, income, and job status).

1.5

RESEARCH HYPOTHESES

Welman and Kruger (2001, p. 11) define a hypothesis as a tentative assumption or preliminary statement about the relationship between two or more things that needs to be examined.

Hypothesis 1 Alternative Hypothesis (H1) There will be a significant relationship between biographical variables (namely, occupational class, race, gender, educational level, tenure, age, marital status, income and job status) and job satisfaction amongst employees in a public health institution in the Western Cape.

Hypothesis 2 Alternative Hypothesis (H1) There will be a significant relationship between work, remuneration, supervision, promotion, and co-workers with job satisfaction amongst employees in a public health institution in the Western Cape.

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Hypothesis 3 Alternative Hypothesis (H1) The demographic variables of occupational class, race, gender, educational level, tenure, age, marital status, income and job status will significantly explain the variance in job satisfaction amongst employees in a public health institution in the Western Cape.

Hypothesis 4 Alternative Hypothesis (H1) There will be significant differences in the job satisfaction of employees in a public health institution in the Western Cape based on their biographical characteristics (namely, occupational class, race, gender, educational level, tenure, age, marital status, income and job status).

1.6

DELIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

The sample consists of civil servants employed within the Health Department in the Western Cape. Generalisability of the results of the study is problematic as the study is conducted in only one public health institution in the Western Cape region. Another contributing factor impacting on generalisability is the fact that only the occupational classes of pharmacist, pharmacist assistant, auxiliary service officer, administration clerk, director, personnel officer, administrative officer, state

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accountant and personnel practitioner are targeted in the study. Therefore the results of the study cannot be inferred to other similar occupational classes in other public institutions and hence, the external validity of the study may be compromised.

For the respondents, the selected variables contributing to job satisfaction might not be the only contributing factors that are important. Other variables such as role ambiguity, job level, contingent rewards and other work-related factors have not been investigated. Hence, the internal validity of the study will adversely be affected. Thus, any conclusions emanating from the research are somewhat tenuous.

1.7

DEFINITION OF TERMS

1.7.1

Remuneration (Pay)

Heery and Noon (2001, p. 306) define remuneration as payment for work, which can assume a number of different forms, including a basic wage or salary, supplementary cash payments, such as shift pay and overtime pay, and benefits in kind. According to Erasmus, van Wyk and Schenk (2001, p. 526), remuneration is defined as the financial and non financial extrinsic rewards provided by an employer for the time, skills and effort made available by the employee for fulfilling job requirements aimed at achieving organisational objectives. Concepts such as pay, wage or salary are occasionally used as more or less having the same meaning as remuneration (Erasmus et al., 2001).

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1.7.2

Supervisor

According to Evans (1993, p. 112), a supervisor is defined as a member of the most junior level of management in the organization. According to Heery and Noon (2001, p. 355), a supervisor is defined as a front-line manager who is responsible for the supervision of employees. Nel et al. (2004, p. 453) consider supervisors to be those employees that control the activities of lower-level employees.

1.7.3

Promotion

Heery and Noon (2001, p. 286) define promotion as the act of moving an employee up the organisation hierarchy, usually leading to an increase in responsibility and status and a better remuneration package. Grobler et al. (2002, p. 237) define promotion as the reassigning of an employee to a higher-level job. Graham (1986, p. 156) defines promotion as a move of an employee to a job within the company which has greater importance and, usually higher pay. According to Schleger (1985, p. 50), a promotion is when one person moves into a position of greater responsibility.

1.7.4

Work

Work is stated as the tasks that have to be done (Collins South African Thesaurus, 2004, p. 655). In addition, it is defined as something you have to do that needs effort

15

and energy (South African Oxford School Dictionary, 2004, p. 253). Furthermore, work refers to someones job (The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English, 1992, p. 1412).

1.7.5

Co-worker

Co-worker is defined as fellow worker, a colleague (Chambers Compact Dictionary, 2005, p. 181).

1.8

SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER

In this chapter the study was contextualized with specific reference being made to the factors affecting job satisfaction of public service employees and how job satisfaction impacts on the current situation within the public service environment. The rationale for the study, the research objectives and hypotheses were highlighted. The chapter concludes with delimitations and key terms being defined. An overview of each chapter is provided below.

1.9

OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY

To aid in the attainment of the objectives of the study, a survey of the available literature that was undertaken is presented in Chapter 2. The chapter therefore provides the theoretical grounding that forms the premise of the study.

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Chapter 3 provides an in depth discussion of the research methodology used to investigate the research problem. The design for the sample selection and size, research instruments used, procedures followed and the statistical techniques used to analyse the data is also highlighted.

Chapter 4 focuses on the findings that became apparent from the research study.

Chapter 5 deals with the discussion of the results that were obtained. Conclusions are drawn based on the obtained results and the possible practical implications of the research findings are highlighted. In conclusion, recommendations for future research that may be of worth are put forth.

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CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1

INTRODUCTION

Prolific research in the area of job satisfaction has been conducted over the past few decades (Boshoff, Cilliers & Van Wyk, 2003; Buitendach & De Witte, 2005; Calder, 2000; Derlin & Schneider, 1994; Dolliver, 2003; Hoole & Vermeulen, 2003; Kh Metle, 2005; Malherbe & Pearse, 2003). However, a paucity of studies exist in the public health industry investigating job satisfaction across different occupational classes. The vast majority of studies conducted in the public health industry in South Africa over the past years have mainly focused on job satisfaction amongst health care doctors and nurses (Damane, 1992; Herman, 2005; Mariani et al., 2003; Mavanyisi, 2005; Pillay, 2003).

According to Kh Metle (2005), job satisfaction has been a popular topic for researchers in a wide area of fields including industrial psychology, public administration, business and higher education. The principal reason as to why job satisfaction is so extensively researched is that it relates to significant associations with several variables (Yousef, 2000 cited in Buitendach & De Witte, 2005). For example, it has a positive association with life satisfaction (Judge, Boudreau & Bretz,

18

1994 cited in Buitendach & De Witte, 2005), organisational commitment (Fletcher & Williams, 1996 cited in Buitendach & De Witte, 2005) and job performance (Babin & Boles, 1996 cited in Buitendach & De Witte, 2005).

Cherrington (1994) postulates that employees experiencing high satisfaction levels contribute to organisational commitment, job involvement, improved physical and mental health, and improved quality of life both on and off the job. Job dissatisfaction on the other hand, culminates in higher absenteeism, turnover, labour problems, labour grievances, attempts to organise labour unions and a negative organisational climate. Spectors (1997) research corroborates that of Cherringtons (1994) in which it was found that employees who are dissatisfied with their jobs show their disapproval by constantly being late or staying absent from work.

Considering the above and in light of the vision of Healthcare 2010 Equal access to quality care of the Department of Health: Western Cape, it is imperative that employees maintain satisfactory job satisfaction and performance levels. Boggie (2005) maintains that in order to provide good service, the quality of employees is critical to ensure success. It is for this reason that it is essential that the area of job satisfaction be explored in order to gain a better insight thereof. This will provide executive managers with important information to enable them to stimulate greater job satisfaction amongst employees.

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2.2

THE CONCEPT OF JOB SATISFACTION

2.2.1

Definitions of job satisfaction

There are a plethora of definitions of job satisfaction, some of which are contradictory in nature. Spector (1997) refers to job satisfaction in terms of how people feel about their jobs and different aspects of their jobs. Ellickson and Logsdon (2002) support this view by defining job satisfaction as the extent to which employees like their work.

Schermerhorn (1993) defines job satisfaction as an affective or emotional response towards various aspects of an employees work. The author emphasises that likely causes of job satisfaction include status, supervision, co-worker relationships, job content, remuneration and extrinsic rewards, promotion and physical conditions of the work environment, as well as organisational structure.

Similarly, Mc Namara (n.d.) points out that job satisfaction refers to an individuals feeling or state of mind giving heed to the nature of the individuals work. The author further explains that job satisfaction can be influenced by a diversity of job dimensions, inter alia, the quality of the employees relationship with their supervisor, the status of the physical environment in which the individual works, degree of fulfillment in work.

20

In direct contrast, Rue and Byars (1992) refer to job satisfaction as an individuals mental state about the job. Robbins et al. (2003) add that an individual with high job satisfaction will display a positive attitude towards their job, and the individual who is dissatisfied will have a negative attitude about the job. This definition is expanded by Greenberg and Baron (1995) who define job satisfaction as an individuals cognitive, affective and evaluative reactions toward their jobs.

According to Coster (1992 cited in Sempane, Rieger & Roodt, 2002), the work itself could have an effect on the total quality of life of the employee. Schneider and Snyder (1975 cited in Sempane et al., 2002) conclude job satisfaction is an individuals personal assessment of conditions prevalent in the job, thus evaluation occurs on the basis of factors, which they regard as important to them.

According to Cherrington (1994), research on job satisfaction has identified two aspects to understanding the concept of job satisfaction, namely, the facet satisfaction and overall satisfaction. These two concepts are explained as follows:

2.2.2

Facet Satisfaction

Facet satisfaction refers to the tendency for an employee to be more or less satisfied with various facets or aspects of the job (Johns, 1988). Cherrington (1994) refers to the various aspects or facets of the job as the individuals attitude about their pay, the work itself - whether it is challenging, stimulating and attractive, and the

21

supervisors - whether they possess the softer managerial skills as well as being competent in their jobs.

2.2.3

Overall Satisfaction

Overall satisfaction focuses on the general internal state of satisfaction or dissatisfaction within the individual. Positive experiences in terms of friendly colleagues, good remuneration, compassionate supervisors and attractive jobs create a positive internal state. Negative experiences emanating from low pay, less than stimulating jobs and criticism create a negative internal state. Therefore, the feeling of overall satisfaction or dissatisfaction is a holistic feeling that is dependent on the intensity and frequency of positive and negative experiences (Cherrington, 1994).

2.3

MOTIVATION THEORIES

Mullins (1996, p. 520) states that motivation is a process which may lead to job satisfaction. Although the relationship between motivation and job satisfaction is not clear, it can be illustrated by means of the motivational theories (Mullins, 1996).

According to Calder (2000), motivational theories can be classified into two categories, namely, content theories and process theories. Mullins (1996) concludes that the content theories of motivation are specifically related to job satisfaction and assume a direct relationship between job satisfaction and improved performance,

22

while the process theories contemplate in more detail the relationship between motivation, satisfaction and performance.

Cronje, Du Toit, Marais and Motlatta (2003) further posit that content theories highlight the factors within people that guide behaviour, whereas process theories focus largely on why individuals opt for certain behavioural choices to satisfy their desires and how they assess their satisfaction after they have attained their objectives. Nel et al. (2004) make reference to content theories as the what of motivation and to process theories as the how of motivation. Nel et al. (2004) state that content theories concentrate on the needs and factors that motivate behaviour, while process theories are focused on the source of behaviour and the factors that affect the strength and direction of the behaviour.

The following content theories will be addressed: Maslows needs hierarchy theory, Herzbergs two factor theory and Mc Clellands achievement motivation theory. Process theories that will be given attention to include: The Valence Instrumental Expectancy theory, Equity theory and Goal Setting theory. These theories endeavour to provide a supporting context for job satisfaction.

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2.3.1

Content Theories

2.3.1.1

Maslows needs hierarchy theory

Extensive research has been conducted in the area of work motivation and satisfaction and many psychologists have attempted to explain it in terms of certain needs, interests and values. One theory that has explored these factors is Maslows hierarchy of needs. According to Maslow, the individual personality is dynamic and continuously strives to satisfy a hierarchy of needs with an inherent tendency towards self actualization (Joubert, 2000).

Amongst others, Abdullah (2002) postulates that Maslows hierarchy of needs is divided into five levels. Edwards (1993 cited in Arnolds & Boshoff, 2001) states that level one of the hierarchy refers to the satisfaction of the psychological needs which include the basic needs such as housing, material and financial benefits impacting positively on employee job performance.

At level two, the safety needs for security and protection from physical and emotional harm is prominent. At this level, the employer must provide a safe working environment, while the onus rests with individuals to ensure their own personal safety outside of the work sphere (Abdullah, 2002). According to Smith and Tisak (1993 cited in Arnolds & Boshoff, 2001), at this level, safety and security in the form of job security and fringe benefits, have been found to enhance employee job performance.

24

According to Abdullah (2002), level three refers to the social needs that entail the need for affiliation focusing on the relationship with co-workers or subordinates. Levine (1994) concludes that at this level, social support of employees is necessary to enhance performance.

The esteem needs exist at level four of the hierarchy and is divided into two parts, namely, (i) the need for recognition and respect from others and (ii) a need for a positive self-image and self respect (Abdullah, 2002). According to Korman (1971) and Tharenou (1979) cited in Arnolds and Boshoff (2001), individuals with high selfperceived ability and self-image are more likely to be higher achievers on task performance than those who have a low self-perceived ability, low success expectancy and low self-image.

The self-actualization needs are at the last level of Maslows hierarchy and are arrived at when all previous levels have been satisfied to a large extent (Heller & Hindle, 1998). The satisfaction of self-actualization in the workplace is enhanced by creating opportunities for promotion, allowing autonomy, providing challenging assignments and the optimal utilization of individuals ability. This is specifically prevalent in the case of top management where the factors mentioned above impact positively on employee job performance (Alpander (1990), Cranny, Smith & Stone (1992), and Mc Campbell (1996) cited in Arnolds & Boshoff, 2001). As each need in terms of the hierarchy becomes substantially satisfied, the following need becomes dominant (Robbins et al., 2003).

25

Although Maslows needs theory is used extensively, wide criticism has been lodged against the theory as a lack of empirical evidence exists in substantiation for the theory (De Cenzo & Robbins, 1988 cited in Arnolds & Boshoff, 2001). Steers and Porter (1991) add that there is no evidence of the five categories of needs being reflected in order of satisfaction in any special hierarchy. Similarly, Robbins et al. (2003) posit that little support has been found for the prediction that need structures are organised along the scope suggested by Maslow.

2.3.1.2

Herzbergs two factor theory

According to Heller and Hindle (1998), Herzbergs two factors is a set of motivators that drives people to achieve. Nagy (n.d.) asserts that Herzbergs theory consists of two dimensions known as hygiene factors and motivator factors. According to Herzberg (1959) cited in Ruthankoon and Ogunlana (2002), the hygiene factors also known as extrinsic factors are the parts of the jobs which create dissatisfaction but, if not present, only return the worker to a neutral point of job satisfaction. These job factors include supervision, interpersonal relations, benefits, job security, salary and working conditions. Herzberg states that hygiene issues cannot motivate employees but can minimise dissatisfaction and serve as a point of departure for motivation. On the other hand, satisfying motivator needs which are related to job tasks, job content and intrinsic aspects of the job can lead to job satisfaction, but the absence thereof cannot lead to job dissatisfaction (Robbins, 1993). According to Robbins et al. (2003), investigations conducted by Herzberg in terms of the intrinsic (motivators)

26

factors and extrinsic factors (hygiene) suggest that the opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction as was traditionally believed. The results of the studies reflected that the opposite of satisfaction is no satisfaction (motivators) and the opposite of dissatisfaction is no dissatisfaction (hygiene factors).

27

FIGURE 2.1: FACTORS THAT AFFECT JOB SATISFACTION IN TERMS OF HERZBERGS THEORY

Hygiene needs: Reflect job context and lower level needs

Negative job environment creates demands for

Hygiene factors: More money Better supervision Good working conditions Job security Consistent management policies and rules

Which influence

Level of dissatisfaction

Level of job performance

Level of satisfaction

Which influence

Motivator needs: Reflect job content and higher level needs

Positive job opportunities Allow worker to achieve

Motivators: Achievement Responsibility Growth Work itself Recognition

Source: Grobler et al. (2002, p. 107).

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A criticism of Herzbergs theory is that it oversimplifies work motivation. There are job factors that lead to both satisfaction and dissatisfaction. Despite this criticism, Herzberg extended Maslows needs hierarchy concept and made it more applicable to work motivation (Abdullah, 2002).

Nagy (n.d.) points out that empirical evidence for Herzbergs theory is scarce and most support around this theory has been obtained using Herzbergs own unique methods consisting of critical interviews.

However, according to Schermerhorn (1993), Herzbergs two-factor theory is an important frame of reference for managers who want to gain an understanding of job satisfaction and related job performance issues. Schemerhorn asserts that Herzbergs two-factor theory is a useful reminder that there are two important aspects of all jobs: what people do in terms of job tasks (job content), and the work setting in which they do it (job context). Schermerhorn suggests that managers should attempt to always eliminate poor hygiene sources of job dissatisfaction in the workplace and ensure building satisfier factors into job content to maximise opportunities for job satisfaction.

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2.3.1.3

McClellands need for achievement theory

McClellands need theory was one of the popular motivation theories in the 1950s and his theory relates to management by objectives (Di Rodio, 2002). Robbins et al. (2003) report that McClellands theory focuses on the needs for achievement, power and affiliation.

The need for achievement, according to Greenberg (1999), is where individuals strive for goals that are challenging, but attainable, with the hope of feedback on achievement. Greenberg (1999) further states that this need is concerned with an individuals longing to strive for personal achievement rather than the rewards of success.

The need for power refers to individuals desire to control their surroundings, including people and material resources. In this regard some people have a high need for personalized power while others have a high need for socialized power (McShane & Von Glinow, n.d.).

In terms of McClellands need for affiliation, Stuart-Kotze (n.d.) states that the need for affiliation is similar to Maslows need to belong. Stuart-Kotze contends that the need for affiliation manifests itself in the desire to be liked by other individuals, to be accepted in a group and to enter into warm personal relationships. Cronje et al. (2003) posit that research indicates that people with a high need for power and low need for

30

affiliation make good managers, whilst individuals with a high need for achievement, in most instances, make successful entrepreneurs.

2.3.2

Process Theories

2.3.2.1

Vrooms expectancy theory

Vroom regarded Maslows hierarchy of needs and Herzbergs two factor theory as too simplistic and as a result put forward a model that constituted the concepts of valence (V), instrumentality (I) and expectancy (E). Vrooms theory is referred to as VIE theory. Vroom explained the scope of motivation as a process governing choices between alternative forms of voluntary activity. According to the VIE theory, most behaviours are under the voluntary control of a person (Abdullah, 2002).

According to Vrooms expectancy theory, the success of motivation is dependent on two factors, namely, that the value of the outcome should be high and that the individual should be of the opinion that the task undertaken is attainable and will lead to the expected outcome (Dessler, 1988). In this regard, Vrooms theory links expectation and task accomplishment to the probability of recognition (Luthans, 2002). In support Nel et al. (2004) state that expectancy refers to an individuals belief that a certain level of effort will lead to a certain level of performance and reward.

31

Figure 2.2 illustrates the key concepts of Vrooms expectancy theory.

FIGURE 2.2: VROOMS EXPECTANCY THEORY

Expectancy perceived probability that effort will lead to performance and first level outcomes

Effort exerted (Motivation force)

Performance

Firstlevel outcomes

Second-level outcomes

Valence-anticipated satisfaction of attaining a goal

Units produced Sales generated Number of queries solved Number of invoices processed

Recognition Bonus Acceptance Promotion

Source: Nel et al. (2004, p. 318).

A criticism of Vrooms theory however, is that he did not succeed to convert motivation to perform an act into the actual performance of that act (Bottomley, 1987). Although the theory has its criticism, most of the research evidence is supportive of the theory (Dessler, 1988).

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2.3.2.2

Equity theory

The Equity theory of motivation suggests that individuals have a strong want to maintain a balance between what they perceive their inputs or contributions to be in relation to expected rewards (Dessler, 1988). In terms of the Equity theory, Robbins (1993) states that satisfaction is determined by an individuals input-outcome balance. The author further mentions that satisfaction occurs when perceived equity exists, and dissatisfaction results when perceived inequity exists.

To illustrate the Equity theory, reference is made to figure 2.3 below.

FIGURE 2.3: EQUITY THEORY

Ratio Comparisons Perception ______________________________________________________________ O / lA < O / lB O / lA = O / lB O / lA > O / lB Inequity due to being under rewarded Equity Inequity due to being over rewarded

___________________________________________________________________________________

*Where: O / lA represents the employees; and O / lB represents relevant others. Source: Robbins (1993, p. 224).

In terms of the theory, individuals regard a state of equity to exist when their job inputs in relation to their job outputs are equivalent to that of relevant others. In this

33

regard a situation of fairness is said to exist (Robbins, 1993). Employees might assess their relation to friends, neighbours, co-workers, colleagues in other organisations or previous jobs they themselves have occupied (Robbins, 1993). Similarly, Robbins et al. (2003) concur that employees compare their job inputs (such as their contribution, experience, education and competence) to their job outputs (salary levels, salary increases and recognition) in relation to that of others.

Similarly, inequity exists when there is a perception amongst employees that they are under-rewarded relevant to others or whether they are overrewarded in relation to their job outputs. The resultant effect is that individuals might contribute less in the workplace if they are of the opinion that they are being underpaid. On the other hand, employees might offer more in terms of their expected job outputs as they may be more motivated to contribute if a job pays well in comparison to their job outputs (Dessler, 1988).

2.3.2.3

Goal setting theory

Locke (1968 cited in Robbins et al., 2003) proposed that aiming towards attaining a goal is a significant source of work motivation. According to Heery and Noon (2001), the goal setting theory stems from the notion that the behaviour of employees can be changed by influencing their goals and targets. Nel et al. (2004) add that employees are motivated if they are aware of what needs to be done in achieving a specific goal, irrespective of the difficulties they might encounter in doing so. They refer to the

34

Management By Objectives (MBO) technique that harbours employee involvement in goal-setting, decision-making and feedback.

Robbins (1998) states that employees will perform better if they get continuous feedback in terms of how well they are progressing toward their goals. Furthermore, Robbins (1998) adds that continuous feedback will also identify possible discrepancies that might hamper the achievement of attaining goals. Employees granted the opportunity to be involved in the preparation of their own goals would be more committed in achieving such goals.

Heery and Noon (2001, p. 142) note four general principles to elicit high performance and increase motivation in terms of the goal setting theory: goals should be challenging but attainable; goals should be specific rather than vague; employees should be involved in the process, setting their own goals; and goals should be measurable in terms clearly understood by employees.

2.4

THE ANTECEDENTS OF JOB SATISFACTION

The factors affecting job satisfaction can be divided into two main areas, namely, personal determinants and organisational factors (Nel et al., 2004).

35

2.4.1

Personal Determinants

Studies investigating job satisfaction indicate that personal determinants such as race, gender, educational level, tenure, age and marital status impact on job satisfaction.

2.4.1.1

Race

Research evidence with regard to the relationship between race and job satisfaction have yielded inconsistent results (Friday, Moss & Friday, 2004).

Research conducted by Gavin and Ewen (1974) cited in Friday et al. (2004) on various occupational classes consisting of blue collar and white collar employees, reflected that African employees experienced higher levels of job satisfaction than the other racial groups. On the other hand, a number of studies have also found that White employees amongst different occupational classes experienced higher levels of job satisfaction in comparison to African employees (Strawser & Slocum (1972), OReilly & Roberts (1973), Milutinovich (1977), Gold, Webb & Smith (1982), Davis (1985), Greenhaus, Parasuraman & Wormley (1990), Martin & Tuch (1991) all cited in Friday et al., 2004).

A survey conducted by Henault (2004) investigating job satisfaction amongst American healthcare executives revealed that minorities continued to lag behind their White counterparts. A number of studies have also found that race based differences

36

in relation to job satisfaction can be attributed to group homogeneity. The results from these studies reflect that as homogeneity in the group increases, members of the group experience an increase in job satisfaction (Jackson (1991), Egan, OReilly & Tsui (1992) cited in Jones & Schaubroeck, 2004).

Studies indicating the relationship between race and job satisfaction within the South African context are however, limited. An investigation by Erasmus (1998) from the Unisa Business Leadership School, found a difference in job satisfaction between White and African females within a human resources profession. The researcher reports that White females were found to be more satisfied than their African female colleagues. The research highlighted factors such as pay and benefits causing dissatisfaction amongst African females. Findings of another study conducted in 2000 among readers of the apartment section of the South African Business Times, revealed that African respondents are more likely to feel less secure in their positions than their White counterparts. Reasons cited for their feeling of lack of job security were as a result of restructuring, affirmative action or shrinking of industry sectors (Robbins et al., 2003).

2.4.1.2

Gender

Several studies conducted with regard to the relationship between gender and job satisfaction have yielded contradictory results (Chiu, 1998).

37

A study conducted by Murray and Atkinson (1981) investigating gender differences in determinants of job satisfaction, reflected that females attach more importance to social factors, while males place greater value on pay, advancement and other extrinsic aspects. In support, Tang and Talpade (1999) maintain that there is a significant difference between males and females in terms of job dimensions impacting on job satisfaction. Their study found that men tend to have higher satisfaction with remuneration in relation to females, while females tended to have higher satisfaction with co-workers than males.

Findings of a survey looking at issues affecting women in the South African workforce indicated similar findings with regard to females. The majority of respondents revealed that they were satisfied with their jobs. The factors that contributed the most to their job satisfaction were the company of co-workers, the opportunity to learn new things and factors inherent in the job itself (Robbins et al., 2003).

Oshagbemi (2000) however, failed to find that gender affects job satisfaction. Similarly, Donohue and Heywood (2004) could not prove gender satisfaction differences in a study conducted amongst young American and British employees.

Contrary to the above, Robbins et al. (2003) argue that no evidence exists suggesting that gender impacts on an employees job satisfaction. The authors are of the opinion

38

that gender differences can have an effect on the relationship between job dimensions and job satisfaction, but that it does not have a direct impact on job satisfaction.

2.4.1.3

Educational level

Studies conducted on the relationship between the level of education and job satisfaction showed no consistent pattern (Kh Metle, 2003).

An investigation by Crossman and Abou-Zaki (2003) in the Lebanese banking sector found that no statistically significant relationship existed between job satisfaction and education (p = 0.094). Although the relationship was not significant, their research found that a relationship between job satisfaction and education existed. In this regard respondents in possession of a school certificate reported the lowest level of overall job satisfaction, while employees with a college certificate reported the highest level of overall job satisfaction. The researchers highlighted possible factors such as a lack of skills and less favourable treatment by management as contributing to lower satisfaction levels among staff in possession of a school certificate.

However, a similar study conducted by (Kh Metle, 2003) amongst Kuwaiti women employed in a public government sector environment, showed that a strong relationship existed between the level of education and overall job satisfaction. Of the employees surveyed, 90% were in possession of a post graduate qualification.

39

Employees in possession of an intermediate level qualification reported higher levels of satisfaction in relation to those employees who have higher levels of education. Kh Metle (2003) suggests that job satisfaction decreases in relation to an increase in the level of education as the expectations of employees are often not met by employers. To concur with this finding, results obtained from a study conducted by Johnson and Johnson (2000) whereby 288 employees in the American postal services were surveyed, found perceived over-qualification to have a negative relationship with the dimensions of job satisfaction.

2.4.1.4

Tenure

Tenure refers to the number of years an employee has spent working (Oshagbemi, 2003). According to Bedeian, Ferris and Kacmar (1992) cited in Robbins et al. (2003), tenure and job satisfaction is positively related.

Ronen (1978) cited in Oshagbemi (2003) found tenure to have a U-shaped relationship with job satisfaction. In this respect, Ronen maintains that employee satisfaction declines within the first year of employment and remains low for several years, after which it increases. Furthermore, he maintains that employee expectations are high at the time of appointment, but when these expectations are not met, the resultant effect leads to a drop in job satisfaction. As the employee becomes more mature and experienced, the initial expectations decline to a more realistic level

40

thereby making such expectations more attainable, coinciding with increased job satisfaction.

Research conducted by Mottaz (1988) amongst nurses in the United States of America found a significant increase in job satisfaction with length of time on the job. Clarke, Oswald and Warr (1996) contend that employees with longer service may experience higher satisfaction levels because the job matches their personal needs. In this regard, Mottaz (1987) cited in Sarker, Crossman, & Chinmeteepituck (2003) adds that employees with long service tend to adjust their work values to the conditions of the workplace resulting in greater job satisfaction. Oshagbemi (2000) attribute the increase in job satisfaction over the length of time to factors such as job stability and opportunities for promotion.

Contrary to the above, Savery (1996) cited in Sarker et al. (2003) states that longer tenure in a job may lead to boredom and lower levels of job satisfaction. Similarly, Clarke et al. (1996) maintain that longer tenure does not necessarily lead to increased levels of job satisfaction. The researchers cite low job mobility and external labour market conditions as possible factors contributing to lower levels of job satisfaction.

41

2.4.1.5

Age

Mixed evidence exists regarding the relationship between age and job satisfaction (Robbins et al., 2003).

According to Greenberg and Baron (1995), older employees are generally happier with their jobs than younger employees, while people who are more experienced in their jobs are more highly satisfied than those who are less experienced. This view is supported by Drafke and Kossen (2002). The researchers state that job satisfaction typically increases with age as older workers have more work experience and generally have a more realistic view of work and life in comparison to their younger counterparts. They are of the opinion that younger workers have less experience to draw on and have an idealistic view of what work should be like.

Research conducted by Okpara (2004) amongst managers within an IT environment found a significant relationship between job satisfaction and age. Similarly, earlier research supported this finding. Rhodes (1982) cited in Oshagbemi (2003) supports the findings that the relationship between job satisfaction and age is significant. The author reached this conclusion after a review of the findings of seven other separate studies conducted on the relationship between age and job satisfaction.

Robbins et al. (2003) report that although most studies indicate a positive relationship between age and job satisfaction, other studies reflect a decrease in satisfaction as

42

employees move towards middle age, at least up to the age of 60. Satisfaction increases again from around 40 and on. The authors refer to this phenomenon as the U-shaped relationship. Mottaz (1987) in Oshagbemi (2003) cited several reasons for the variance in job satisfaction between older and younger workers. Mottazs view is that younger workers are generally more dissatisfied than older employees because they demand more than their jobs can provide. The author postulates that older workers possess more seniority and work experience enabling them to move easily into more rewarding and satisfying jobs. Older workers place less emphasis on autonomy or promotion, thus they demand less from their jobs, making them more satisfied than their younger counterparts. Workers tend to adjust to work values and the work environment the longer they are employed, adding to greater job satisfaction.

2.4.1.6

Marital status

Research on the effect of marital status on job satisfaction has yielded inconclusive results (Robbins et al., 2003).

The results of a study conducted by Kuo and Chen (2004) investigating the level of job satisfaction amongst IT personnel working in Taiwan, found marital status to be highly related to general, intrinsic and overall satisfaction. They reported that the results of the study indicated that married employees experienced higher levels of job satisfaction in comparison to that of single employees. Research conducted by

43

Cimete, Gencalp and Keskin (2003) which involved 501 nurses employed at two university hospitals in Istanbul, established that the job satisfaction mean score of divorcees and widows was higher than that of single and married groups. The difference between the mean scores was significant. Research conducted by Jamal and Baba (1992) also found a significant relationship between job satisfaction and marital status.

2.4.2 Organisational factors

The organisational factors impacting on job satisfaction include the work itself, remuneration/pay, supervision, promotion opportunities, co-workers, job status and job level.

2.4.2.1

The work itself

Locke (1995) postulates that employee job satisfaction is dependant on satisfaction with the job components, such as the work itself.

Robbins et al. (2003, p. 77) refer to the work itself as the extent to which the job provides the individual with stimulating tasks, opportunities for learning and personal growth, and the chance to be responsible and accountable for results. According to Robbins (1993), employees prefer jobs that present them with opportunities to execute their competencies on a variety of tasks and that are mentally stimulating.

44

This view is supported by Lacey (1994) who states that individuals are more satisfied with the work itself when they engage in tasks that are mentally and physically stimulating. Robbins et al. (2003) posits that jobs that are unchallenging lead to boredom and frustration. Contrary to the above, Johns (1996) is of the opinion that some employees prefer jobs that are unchallenging and less demanding.

Research conducted by Vitell and Davis (1990) which involved employees in a management information system environment, found a statistically significant relationship between job satisfaction and the dimension of work itself. Results from other studies conducted indicate that a dimension such as the work itself can result in either job satisfaction or dissatisfaction (Oshagbemi, 1997; Ruthankoon & Ogunlana, 2003).

2.4.2.2

Remuneration/pay

Research appears to be equivocal regarding the influence of pay on job satisfaction.

According to Bassett (1994), a lack of empirical evidence exists to indicate that pay alone improves worker satisfaction or reduces dissatisfaction. The author is of the opinion that highly paid employees may still be dissatisfied if they do not like the nature of their job and feel they cannot enter a more satisfying job. In a study conducted by Oshagbemi (2000) amongst United Kingdom academics, a statistically

45

significant relationship between pay and rank of employees and their level of job satisfaction was established.

However, a study conducted by Young, Worchel and Woehr (1998) in the public sector failed to find any significant relationship between pay and satisfaction. Similarly, results from a survey conducted by Brainard (2005) amongst postdoctoral scientific researchers found pay and benefits to be weakly associated with job satisfaction.

The existence of both financial reward and recognition has been found to have a significant influence on knowledge workers (Arnolds & Boshoff, 2004; Kinnear, 1999; Kinnear & Sutherland, 2000). Individuals view their remuneration as an indication of their value to the organisation. They compare their inputs to received outputs relevant to that of others (Nel et al., 2004).

This view is supported by Sweeney and McFarlin (2005) who concur that comparisons with similar others are important predictors of pay satisfaction. Their study, which was based on the social comparison theory, highlighted the fact that comparisons to similar others impacts on pay satisfaction. According to Boggie (2005), inequity in terms of lack of recognition and poor pay often contribute to a problem with employee retention.

46

2.4.2.3

Supervision

Research demonstrates that a positive relationship exists between job satisfaction and supervision (Koustelios, 2001; Peterson, Puia & Suess, 2003; Smucker, Whisenant, & Pederson, 2003).

Supervision forms a pivotal role relating to job satisfaction in terms of the ability of the supervisor to provide emotional and technical support and guidance with workrelated tasks (Robbins et al., 2003). According to Ramsey (1997), supervisors contribute to high or low morale in the workplace. The supervisors attitude and behaviour toward employees may also be a contributing factor to job-related complaints (Sherman & Bohlander, 1992). Supervisors with high relationship behaviour strongly impact on job satisfaction (Graham & Messner, 1998). Wech (2002) supports this view by adding that supervisory behaviour strongly affects the development of trust in relationships with employees. The author further postulates that trust may, in turn, have a significant relationship with job satisfaction.

A study conducted by Packard and Kauppi (1999) found that employees with supervisors displaying democratic management styles experienced higher levels of job satisfaction compared to those who had supervisors who exhibited autocratic or liassez faire leadership styles. Brewer and Hensher (1998) contend that supervisors whose leadership styles emphasise consideration and concern for employees generally have more satisfied workers than supervisors practicing task structuring and

47

concern for production. Bassett (1994) maintains that supervisors bringing the humanistic part to the job, by being considerate toward their employees, contribute towards increasing the employees level of job satisfaction.

2.4.2.4

Promotion opportunities

A number of researchers are of the opinion that job satisfaction is strongly related to opportunities for promotion (Pergamit & Veum, 1999; Peterson et al., 2003; Sclafane, 1999).

This view is supported in a study conducted by Ellickson and Logsdon (2002) with municipal government workers where satisfaction with promotional opportunities was found to be positively and significantly related to job satisfaction. Kreitner and Kinicki (2001) however, state that the positive relationship between promotion and job satisfaction is dependent on perceived equity by employees.

2.4.2.5

Co-workers

A number of authors maintain that having friendly and supportive colleagues contribute to increased job satisfaction (Johns, 1996; Kreitner & Kinicki, 2001; Luthans, 1989).

48

Findings of a survey conducted by Madison (2000) on more than 21000 women occupying the most demanding jobs indicated that those participants who lacked support from co-workers, were more likely to suffer from job dissatisfaction. Another survey conducted amongst 1250 FoodBrand employees found that positive relationships with co-workers enhance job satisfaction (Berta, 2005).

Empirical evidence indicates that relationships with colleagues have consistently yielded significant effects on job satisfaction of federal government workers in the United States (Ting, 1997). A study conducted by Viswesvaran, Deshpande and Joseph (1998) further corroborated previous findings that there is a positive correlation between job satisfaction and co-workers.

2.4.2.6

Job status

To date, a paucity of research exists indicating the relationship between job status and job satisfaction.

Research conducted by Feather and Rauter (2004) which involved contract and permanent employees in the teaching environment in Australia, failed to establish a relationship between job status and job satisfaction.

49

2.4.2.7

Job level

Satisfaction surveys reflect that a positive relationship prevails between job level and job satisfaction (Cherrington, 1994).

Higher levels of job satisfaction are usually reported by individuals occupying higher level positions in organisations as they offer better remuneration, greater variety, more challenge and better working conditions (Cherrington, 1994). Research conducted by Robie, Ryan, Schmieder, Parra and Smith (1998) corroborates the view that a positive and linear relationship exists between job satisfaction and job level. Results of their study indicate that as job level increased, so did job satisfaction.

In support of the above, Allen (2003) postulates that job satisfaction is strongly linked to an employees position within the company. The author concludes that the higher the ranking, the lower the job satisfaction. In contrast, Mossholder, Bedeian and Armenakis (1981) cited in Robie et al. (1998) report that job satisfaction decreases with an increase in the job level.

50

2.5

THE CONSEQUENCES OF JOB SATISFACTION

Numerous authors have highlighted that job satisfaction impacts on employee productivity, turnover, absenteeism, physical and psychological health (Johns, 1996; Luthans, 1989; Mullins, 1996).

2.5.1

Productivity

Research findings indicate that the relationship between satisfaction and productivity is positive, but very low and inconsistent (Johns, 1996).

According to Luthans (1989), although a relationship between job satisfaction and productivity exists, the relationship between these variables is not strong. The author maintains that the most satisfied employee will not necessarily be the most productive employee.

At an individual level the evidence is often inconsistent in terms of the relationship between satisfaction and productivity, but at an organisational level a strong relationship exists between satisfaction and productivity (Robbins et al., 2003).

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2.5.2

Physical and psychological health

Spector (1997) states that individuals who dislike their jobs could experience negative health effects that are either psychological or physical. On the other hand, Luthans (2002) mentions that employees with high levels of job satisfaction tend to experience better mental and physical health.

2.5.3

Turnover

A number of studies strongly support the view that turnover is inversely related to job satisfaction (Griffon, Hand, Meglino & Mobley (1979) and Price (1977) cited in Robbins et al., 2003).

According to French (2003), a high employee turnover rate is often prevalent in an environment where employees are highly dissatisfied. Greenberg and Baron (1995) contend that employees lacking job satisfaction often tend to withdraw from situations and environments as a means of dealing with their dissatisfaction. A major form of employee withdrawal is voluntary turnover. By not reporting for duty, or by resigning to seek new job prospects, individuals might be expressing their dissatisfaction with their jobs or attempting to escape from the unpleasant aspects they may be experiencing. Phillips, Stone and Phillips (2001) concur that employee turnover is the most critical withdrawal variable.

52

A study conducted by Steel and Ovalle (1984) established a moderately strong relationship between job satisfaction and turnover, indicating that less satisfied workers are more likely to quit their jobs. According to Lee and Mowday (1987) cited in Luthans (1989), a moderate relationship exists between satisfaction and turnover. The researchers posit that high job satisfaction will not necessarily contribute to a low turnover rate, but will inadvertently assist in maintaining a low turnover rate.

2.5.4

Absenteeism

Research indicates that job satisfaction levels are related to absenteeism (Hellriegel, Slocum & Woodman, 1989).

Nel et al. (2004, p. 548) maintain that absenteeism is regarded as withdrawal behaviour when it is used as a way to escape an undesirable working environment. According to Luthans (1989), various studies conducted on the relationship between satisfaction and absenteeism indicates an inverse relationship between the two variables. Thus, when satisfaction is high, absenteeism tends to be low. The converse indicates that when satisfaction is low, absenteeism tends to be high. Contrary to this, the findings of a study undertaken by Johns (1996) found the association between job satisfaction and absenteeism to be moderate.

Robbins (1993) supports the view of a moderate relationship existing between satisfaction and absenteeism. According to Robbins et al. (2003), the moderate

53

relationship between these variables could be attributed to factors such as liberal sick leave, whereby employees are encouraged to take time off. The afore-mentioned could ultimately reduce the correlation coefficient between satisfaction and absenteeism.

2.6

SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER

The chapter introduced the concept of job satisfaction and highlighted the different motivational theories relating to job satisfaction. Furthermore, it sought to provide an overview of the literature pertaining to job satisfaction antecedents, whereby personal determinants and organisational factors impacting on job satisfaction were discussed. In terms of the job satisfaction antecedents and job satisfaction consequences, various areas where research has been conducted have been referred to.

From the literature review it is evident that job satisfaction is a phenomenon that has been extensively researched and is of significant importance to employees and managers alike. In this regard, the literature concludes with the relevance of job satisfaction on the physical and psychological health of employees and the effect it has on productivity, turnover and absenteeism.

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CHAPTER 3

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1

INTRODUCTION

The chapter highlights how the research problem was explored, with specific reference made to how the participants were selected and the procedure followed to gather the data. Furthermore, the ethical considerations and confidentiality aspects are addressed; the measuring instruments to gather the data and its ensuing psychometric properties are discussed. The chapter concludes with the statistical techniques utilised for the data analysis.

3.2

RESEARCH DESIGN

For the purpose of the study a non-probability sampling design in the form of a convenience sampling method was adopted and considered to be appropriate to gather the data. The rationale for using this sampling method was due to the respondents being easily accessible, their availability, as well as it being less time consuming and inexpensive to gather the research information.

55

Welman and Kruger (2001, p. 62) contend that the advantage of non-probability samples is that they are less complicated and more economical than probability samples. The authors further postulate that convenience sampling involves collecting information of members of the population that are near and readily available for research purposes. However, a limitation highlighted by Leedy (1993) in terms of utilising convenience sampling is that it is not necessarily representative of the population and therefore the results are not generalisable to other entities. Hence, taking cognisance of the afore-mentioned and that a non-probability sample was used, the external validity of the study was compromised. A quantitative methodology was used to assess job satisfaction. The instruments used to gather the data included a biographical questionnaire (Appendix B) and Job Descriptive Index (JDI), which is a self-administered questionnaire (Appendix C).

Dessler (2000) points out the following in terms of using questionnaires as a method of data collection: It is a quick and efficient way to obtain information from a large number of individuals; It is less costly than interviewing a vast number of people; and Questionnaires secure participants anonymity.

56

The major drawbacks of using questionnaires are however, outlined by Bless and Higson- Smith (1995): the response rate for questionnaires tend to be low; the literacy levels of respondents are not known to the researcher in advance; and the researcher runs the risk of receiving incomplete questionnaires that will have to be discarded.

3.2.1

Population

The population targeted in this study included permanent and contract employees (N = 286), spanning across six (6) Directorates (Financial Administration, Supply Chain Management, Professional Support Services, Labour Relations, Human Resource Management and Information Management) at a public sector institution under the auspices of the Department of Health in the Western Cape.

3.2.2

Sample

All employees were solicited to partake in the study. Thus, two hundred and eighty six (286) questionnaires were administered of which two hundred and three (203) questionnaires were returned, yielding a 71% response rate. According to Sekaran (2000), a response rate of thirty percent (30%) is regarded as acceptable for most research purposes. This good response rate can be attributed to inter alia: the

57

participants being informed well in advance of the purpose and objectives of the research, buy-in from the Head of Department and the assistance of senior managers in administering the questionnaires. Furthermore, the researcher is employed by the Health Department: Western Cape and was therefore acquainted with the participants, thus making it easier to ensure co-operation and follow up.

The sample (n = 203) comprised of males and females, permanent and contract employees members on salary levels 2 to 13, extending across the following occupational classes: Pharmacist, Pharmacist Assistant, Auxiliary Service Officer, Administrative Clerk, Director, Personnel Officer, Administrative Officer, State Accountant and Personnel Practitioner.

3.2.3

Procedure

Prior to conducting the study permission was obtained from the Head of the Department of Health: Western Cape. Consent was also granted to the researcher to have access to departmental information necessary for the research.

To evoke an interest in the study, all senior managers and employees residing under their supervision were initially informed via e-mail about the purpose and objectives of the study and when the study would be conducted, the confidentiality, anonymity and voluntary nature of the study was also addressed, and assurance given that the information acquired would only to be used for research purposes.

58

A total number of two hundred and eighty-six (286) biographical and JDI questionnaires were distributed within the six (6) Directorates identified to partake in the research study. Attached to the questionnaires was a cover letter (Appendix A) re-iterating the aims and objectives of the study, assurance that anonymity would be protected, that responses would be confidential, that the study is for research purposes only and the instructions to complete the questionnaire.

A contact person employed within each Directorate was identified to assist with the distribution of the research questionnaires. To ensure anonymity and confidentiality, participants were requested to return the questionnaires to the researcher within one (1) week in the enclosed envelope provided.

3.2.4

Biographical Questionnaire

A self-developed questionnaire was used to obtain demographic information relevant to the sample. Participants were asked to furnish information with regard to their occupational class, race, gender, educational level, age, marital status, monthly income, job status and years of service employed in the public sector.

59

3.2.5

Measuring Instrument

3.2.5.1

Job Descriptive Index (JDI)

The JDI was used to elicit data on job satisfaction of employees.

3.2.5.1.1

Nature and Composition of the JDI

The JDI was developed by Smith, Kendall and Hulin in 1969 and is the most widely used instrument measuring employees job satisfaction within organisations (Kreitner & Kinicki, 1995). Spector (2000) adds that the JDI is directed towards specific areas of satisfaction rather than merely global satisfaction and allows for different areas of the job to be independently measured. It requires respondents to describe their work as opposed to directly asking respondents how satisfied they are, thereby ensuring that respondents have a job referent rather than a self-referent.

The JDI measures satisfaction perceptions for five (5) job facets, namely: pay, promotions, supervision, co-workers and the work itself (Spector, 2000). The measuring instrument consists of seventy two (72) items - nine (9) items each for the facet of promotion and pay, and eighteen (18) items each for work, supervision, and co-workers (Smucker & Kent, 2004).

60

To score the responses, employees are requested to indicate whether each statement does or does not describe their jobs. Positively discriminating items are scored (yes) = 3, (?) = 1, and (no) = 0 while negatively discriminating items are scored (yes) = 0, (?) = 1, and (no) = 3 (Cherrington, 1994). The higher the score obtained, the higher the level of job satisfaction (Kreitner & Kinicki, 2001).

3.2.5.1.2

Reliability of the JDI

According to Foxcroft and Roodt (2002, p. 41), the reliability of a measure refers to the consistency with which it measures whatever it measures. In support, Anastasi (1990, p. 103) states that reliability refers to the consistency of scores obtained by the same persons when re-examined with the same test on different occasions, or with different sets of equivalent items, or under variable conditions.

The Cronbach alpha coefficient indicates the consistency of responses to items in a measure (Foxcroft & Roodt, 2002). Reliability assessments using Cronbach alpha coefficient has exceeded .80 for the JDI (Smith et al., 1969).

According to Smucker et al. (2003), seventy eight (78) surveys conducted among female sports journalists assessing their level of job satisfaction using the JDI yielded the following results for the reliability Cronbach alphas: .88 for the facet of pay satisfaction, .78 for promotion satisfaction, .90 for supervision satisfaction, .77 for

61

people satisfaction, .91 for work satisfaction, and .92 for overall satisfaction. The results obtained reflect the consistency of responses to items in the measure.

A study conducted by Futrell (1979) targeting nine hundred and twenty (920) salesmen employed in the United States, provided proof for the reliability of the JDI. Results from the study yielded alpha coefficients ranging from .67 to .96, demonstrating internal reliability for each scale. In a survey conducted amongst 207 full-time employees from a variety of organisations, additional evidence was obtained for the reliability of the JDI. Results of the survey indicated internal consistency for the indices for the JDI ranging from .83 to .90 (Nagy, 2002).

To measure the internal consistency of a measuring instrument, the split-half reliability method is applied by splitting the test into two halves thereby obtaining the correlation between the two halves (Cohen & Swerdlick, 2002). Smith et al. (1969) calculated the split-half coefficients for the sub-sections of the JDI by applying the Spearman-Brown formula. The results obtained ranged between 0.80 and .88 for the different facets of the JDI.

Schneider and Dachler (1978) established the test-retest reliability of the JDI ranging between 0.45 and 0.76. The test-retest reliability is a measure of a tests stability based on the correlation between scores of a group of respondents on two separate occasions (Colman, 2003).

62

3.2.5.1.3

Validity of the JDI

According to Anastasi and Urbina (1997, p. 8), validity refers to the degree to which the test actually measures what it purports to measure.

According to Nagy (2002), the JDI was administered in over 400 studies and has documented proof of convergent and discriminant validity. Smith et al. (1969) cited in Smucker et al. (2003) conducted a validation study on the JDI through factor and cluster analysis. The results obtained from the study reflected that the JDI possessed high levels of discriminant and convergent validity.

Additional support is provided by Futrell (1979) for the convergent and discriminant validity of the JDI. Results from Futrells study indicated convergent correlations of between .36 and .75. In addition, evidence of discriminant validity was provided by the fact that predictably low correlations were found between the scales of the JDI measuring satisfaction independently. According to Futrell (1979), a measure is said to have discriminant validity if it is independent rather than an accident of the measurement procedure (p. 595).

According to Smith (1981 cited in van Zyl & van der Walt, 1994, p. 22), construct validity concerns the extent to which a test/questionnaire measures a theoretical construct or trait.

63

Through meta-analysis, the construct validity of the JDI was investigated by examining antecedents, correlates and consequences of job satisfaction from previous empirical studies. The results obtained reflected seventy nine (79) unique correlates with a combined total of one thousand eight hundred and sixty three (1863) correlations being associated with the JDI sub-dimensions. The construct validity of the JDI was supported by acceptable estimates of internal consistency, test-retest reliability and results that demonstrated convergent and discriminate validity (Kinicki, McKee-Ryan, Schriesheim & Carson, 2002) thereby confirming the validity of the JDI.

3.2.5.1.4

Rationale for inclusion of the JDI

The rationale for the inclusion of the JDI to measure the construct job satisfaction is founded by the following underlying factors:

Smith (1969) cited in Spector (1997) states that the JDI is a proven valid and reliable instrument for the assessment of job satisfaction; Vorster (1992) cited in Cockcroft (2001) concludes that the JDI has been standardised and found to be suitable for South African conditions; The JDI is regarded as the most carefully designed and developed instrument for measuring job satisfaction (Vroom, 1964 cited in Schneider & Vaught, 1993). It is professed that over 50% of the articles published between 1970 and 1978 in seven leading management related journals that used non-ad hoc

64

measures of job satisfaction employed the JDI (Yeager, 1981 cited in Schneider & Vaught, 1993); and The JDI has been employed in previous surveys in the public sector to measure employee job satisfaction levels (Schneider & Vaught, 1993). The JDI is easy to administer and does not require a high level of reading ability to complete (Heneman, Schwab, Fossum & Dyer, 1983).

3.2.6

Statistical Techniques

The research data were statistically analysed by means of the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). The data analyses involved both descriptive and inferential statistics.

3.2.6.1

Descriptive Statistics

Descriptive statistics allow researchers to present the data acquired in a structured, accurate and summarised manner (Huysamen, 1990). The descriptive statistics utilised in the current research to analyse the demographic data included frequencies, percentages, means and standard deviations.

65

3.2.6.2

Inferential Statistics

According to Sekaran (2000, p. 401), inferential statistics allow researchers to infer from the data through analysis the relationship between two variables; differences in a variable among different subgroups; and how several independent variables might explain the variance in a dependent variable.

The following inferential statistical methods were used to test the research hypotheses.

3.2.6.2.1

The Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient

Cohen and Swerdlik (2002) posit that the Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient is a widely used statistic for obtaining an index of the relationships between two variables when the relationships between the variables is linear and when the two variables correlated are continuous. According to Anastasi and Urbina (1997, p. 88), the Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient takes into account not only the persons position in the group but also the amount of her or his deviation above or below the group mean.

To ascertain whether a statistically significant relationship exists between work itself, pay, supervision, promotion and co-workers with job satisfaction, the Product Moment Correlation Coefficient was used. Sekaran (2000) states that the Pearsons

66

Product Moment Correlation Coefficient provides an indication of the scope to which the variables being investigated are related to each other or not. Sekaran further states that it also indicates the directionality and strength of the relationship.

3.2.6.2.2 Multiple Regression Analysis

Multiple regression analysis takes into account the intercorrelations among all variables involved. This method also takes into account the correlations among the predictor scores (Cohen & Swerdlik, 2002). Sekaran (2000) adds that in multiple regression analysis more than one predictor is jointly regressed against the criterion variable.

This method is used to determine if the independent variables will explain the variance in job satisfaction experienced by public sector employees.

3.2.6.2.3 Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

Murphy and Davidshofer (2001) contend that Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) provides statistical estimates of the variability in test scores associated with systematic differences in the ratings assigned and differences in the ratings obtained. They add that ANOVA scores can be more accurately generalised over time. According to Hinkle, Wiersma and Jurs (1982, p. 253), in ANOVA, the hypothesis

67

is that the mean performance in the population is the same for all groups (equality of population means).

This statistical method is used to establish whether statistically significant differences exist in job satisfaction based on biographical variables.

3.2.6.2.4 Scheffes Multiple Comparison Method

ANOVA offers discernment into the differences between groups, but does not provide a precise indication as to where the differences exactly remain. For this reason the Scheffes Multiple Comparison Method was utilised to establish precisely where such differences lie in job satisfaction based on the biographical variables.

Hinkle et al. (1982, p. 266) contend that when a statistically significant F ratio is obtained in ANOVA, and the null hypothesis is rejected, we conclude that at least one population mean is different from the others. They also mention that all the population means could differ or any combinations could differ, and as a result, in order to validate which pairs of means differ, it is necessary to do a subsequent analysis such as the Scheffes Multiple Comparison procedure.

The Scheffes Multiple Comparison Method is thus used to ascertain where the differences between the groups prevail.

68

3.3

SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER

This chapter extensively outlined the research design, the nature of the sample, the procedure used to collect the data, addressed issues concerning confidentiality, the description of the measuring instruments adopted and statistical techniques employed to test the research hypotheses.

69

CHAPTER 4

DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

4.1

INTRODUCTION

An overview of the results obtained in the study are presented and discussed in this chapter. The chapter also outlines the demographic information depicted in graphical format. The descriptive and inferential statistics are presented thereafter. The alpha levels of .05 and .01 were selected a priori for test of significance for correlations, while the multiple regression analysis was tested at the .05 significance level. For the analysis of variance all values were tested at the .01 significance level.

4.2

DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION IN TERMS OF THE SAMPLE

The chapter commences with an analyses of the biographical data gathered from the research sample (n = 203). The data analysed are presented in the form of bar charts. This is followed by a description of the most salient sample characteristics by means of frequencies and percentages.

70

Figure 4.1: Occupational classification 100 Frequency % 80 60 40 20 20 0

e Di r in i st re ra c to Pe ti v r rs o eO nn ffi el ce Pr r ac ti t io ne r ac i st m ffi c

Pharmacist 37 11 43 23 18 26 10 11 Pharmacist Assistant Auxiliary Service Officer Administrative Clerk Director Personnel Officer Administrative Officer State Accountant Personnel Practitioner
ce O

Ph xi l ia ry

ar Se

rv i

Au

Occupational classification

Figure 4.1 illustrates the occupational classifications of the sample. The occupational classes of the sample comprises 21.2% (n = 43) administrative clerks, 18.2% (n = 37) pharmacist assistants, 12.8% (n = 26) administrative officers, 11.3% (n = 23) directors, 9.9% (n = 20) pharmacists, 8.9% (n = 18) personnel officers, 5.4% (n = 11) auxiliary service officers, 5.4% (n = 11) personnel practitioners and 4.9% (n = 10) state accountants. A total of 2% (n = 4) did not indicate their occupational category.

Ad

71

Figure 4.2: Race 140 120 Frequency % 100 80 60 40 20 0

ri c an n Co lo ur ed As Af W hi te ia

123

54 18 6

African Coloured Asian W hite

Race

As depicted in Figure 4.2, the racial composition of the sample comprises of 60.5% (n = 123) Coloured respondents, 26.6% (n = 54) White respondents and 8.9% (n = 18) African respondents. The least represented group (n = 6, 3%) is the Asian group. Two individuals (n = 2, 1%) did not indicate their race group. The high response rate in terms of the Coloured group is indicative of the demographics of the Western Cape Province, where the majority of the workers employed in the public sector are Coloured people.

72

Figure 4.3: Gender

140 120 Frequency % 100 80 60 40 20 0

al e M

125

77

Male Female

Gender

Figure 4.3 presents the gender distribution of the sample. The sample was representative of a larger number of male respondents to that of female respondents. Male respondents comprised of 61.6% (n = 125) compared to 37.9% (n = 77) female respondents. One (n = 1) employee or 0.5% omitted to indicate his/her gender. The high response rate with regards to the male respondents is attributed to the fact that the Cape Medical Depot (i.e. pharmaceutical distributions), which is a component residing under the Directorate Supply Chain Management, has 55 Coloured males on its payroll. The large number of males in this division is due to the nature of the work where employees are expected to lift heavy boxes on a continuous basis.

Fe

73

al

Figure 4.4: Educational level 100 Frequency % 80 60 40 20 0

/d ip l st oma gr ad ua te std std d. 10 .9 .6 St

83 52 32 23 11 Up to std. 6 Up to std. 9 Std. 10 3 year degree/diploma Post graduate

to Up

Up

to

eg re e 3 ye a rd

Educational level

Figure 4.4 illustrates the education level of the sample. The graph depicts that the majority of the respondents, 40.9% (n = 83) has an educational level of Std. 10, whilst 15.8% (n = 32) possess an educational level up to Std. 9. Fifty two respondents (25.6%) has a 3 year degree/diploma and 11.3% (n = 23) possess a post graduate qualification. A minimum of 5.4% (n = 11) has an educational level up to Std. 6. Two (1%) of the respondents did not indicate their educational qualification. It can therefore be concluded that the Directorates where the study was conducted mostly employs individuals with an educational level of Std. 10.

Po

74

Figure 4.5: Length of service 140 120 Frequency % 100 80 60 40 20 0

rs ye ar s ea rs rs ye a 2y ye a ye a rs

105

< 2 years 41 22 30 3 3-10 years 11-20 years 21-30 years > 30 years

310

11 -2 0

21 -3 0

<

Number of years

It can be viewed in figure 4.5 that the majority of the respondents (n = 105 or 51.7%) fall in the 11-20 years service group and 41 respondents (20.2%) fall in the 3-10 years service group. Thirty respondents (14.8%) fall in the 21-30 years service group while 22 respondents (10.8%) fall in the less than 2 years service group. The smallest number of respondents (n = 3 or 1.5%) fall in the less than 30 years service group. Two (1%) of the respondents did not indicate their years of service at the organisation.

75

>

30

Figure 4.6: Age in years 100 Frequency % 80 60 38 40 20 0

rs rs rs ye a ye a ye a ol d er

93

51 20 22-29 years 30-39 years 40-49 years 50 years and older

30 -3 9 40 -4 9 50

22 -2 9

Age

The graphic presentation of the age distribution of the sample is presented in figure 4.6. The majority of the respondents (n = 93 or 45.8%) fall in the age category 30-39 years. This is followed by 51 (25.1%) of the respondents in the age category 40-49 years. The age category 22-29 years old, constitutes 18.7% (n = 38) of the sample. The minority of the respondents (n = 20 or 9.9%) fall in the age category of 50 years and older. One (0.5%) respondent did not indicate his/her age. From the ensuing results it can therefore be concluded that the majority of the workforce participating in the study is fairly young, ranging between the ages 30-39 years old.

ye

ar s

76

an d

Figure 4.7: Marital status 121

140 120 Frequency % 100 80 60 40 20 0 66

Single 13 Married Divorced

ed

ng l

Marital status

Figure 4.7 illustrates that of the 203 respondents who participated, 121 (59.6%) of the respondents are married, sixty-six (32.5%) are single, and thirteen (6.4%) are divorced. Three (1.5%) of the respondents omitted to indicate their marital status.

77

Di

vo rc e

Si

ar ri

Figure 4.8: Income distribution 100 Frequency % 80 60 40 20 0 15 76 63 48 Less than R5 000 R 5 001 - R10 000 R 10 001 - R 15 000 Over R 15 000

00 0

00 0 15 Ov er

00 0

10

R5

-R

-R

th an

00 1

ss

Le

Figure 4.8 displays the graphic presentation of the monthly income distribution of the sample. The majority of the respondents (n = 76 or 37.4%) earn between R 5 001 to R 10 000 per month. Sixty-three respondents (31%) earn less than R 5 000 per month, whilst 48 of the respondents (23.7%) earn between R 10 001 to R 15 000 per month. Only 15 of the respondents (7.4%) earn more than R 15 000 per month. One (0.5%) of the respondents did not indicate his/her monthly income.

10

Monthly Income

00 1

78

15

00 0

Figure 4.9: Job status 177

200 180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0

Frequency %

22

Permanent Contract

Pe

Job status

In figure 4.9 the job status of the sample is depicted. The graphic presentation illustrates that the majority of the respondents (n = 177 or 87.2%) are permanently employed. The contract employees comprise twenty two or (10.8%) respondents. Four respondents (2%) did not indicate their job status.

Co nt ra ct

rm

an

en t

79

4.3

DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS OF THE JOB DESCRIPTIVE INDEX QUESTIONNAIRE

Descriptive statistics in the form of arithmetic means and standard deviations for respondents were computed for the various dimensions of job satisfaction assessed by the JDI.

Table 4.1

Descriptive statistics for the dimensions of job satisfaction

Variable Nature of the work Subscale Supervision Subscale Co-workers Subscale Promotion Subscale Pay Subscale Overall Job Satisfaction

Mean 36.36 30.69 37.73 12.76 11.96 112.82

Std Dev 9.78 11.98 13.42 14.66 13.08 32.40

Min 6 3 3 0 0 48

Max 54 51 54 54 50 181

N 201 199 200 197 202 201

Table 4.1 above indicates that the arithmetic means for the nature of the work, supervision and co-worker subscales are 36.36, 30.69 and 37.73 respectively. An approximate mean of 36 constitutes an average level of satisfaction on these subscales. It therefore appears that the employees at the public health institution in

80

the Western Cape are relatively satisfied with the nature of the work that they perform, as well as with their co-workers, but are less satisfied with the supervision they receive.

Means of 12.76 and 11.96 were obtained for the promotion and pay subscales respectively. Average levels of satisfaction on these subscales are represented by an approximate mean score of 18. It would thus appear that the employees at the public health institution in the Western Cape are not very satisfied with their promotion opportunities and even less satisfied with the pay they receive.

Table 4.1 thus in summary, shows that employees at the public health institution in the Western Cape are most satisfied with their co-workers, followed by the nature of the work itself and the supervision they receive. They are however, less satisfied with their opportunities for promotion and least satisfied with the compensation they receive.

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4.4

INFERENTIAL STATISTICS

4.4.1

Correlations for the biographical data and job satisfaction

Hypothesis 1 Alternative Hypothesis (H1) There will be a significant relationship between biographical variables (namely, occupational class, race, gender, educational level, tenure, age, marital status, income and job status) and job satisfaction amongst employees in a public health institution in the Western Cape.

Table 4.2

Correlations for the biographical data and job satisfaction

Occupational class Race Gender Educational level Tenure Age Marital status Income Job status * p < 0.05 ** p < 0.01

JOB SATISFACTION .67** .41** .72** .38** .65** .26* .14 .53** .54**

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Table 4.2 indicates the relationship between the respondents biographical characteristics and their job satisfaction levels as measured by the Job Descriptive Index. The correlation coefficients varied between .14 (marital status) to .72 (gender).

There was a significant relationship between respondents occupational class and job satisfaction (r = 0.67, p < 0.01). The results indicate that there was a significant relationship between race and job satisfaction (r = 0.41, p < 0.01) and between gender and job satisfaction (r = 0.72, p < 0.01).

Furthermore, there was a significant relationship between educational level and job satisfaction (r = 0.38, p < 0.01). There was a significant correlation between tenure and job satisfaction (r = 0.65, p < 0.01). While there was a significant relationship between age and job satisfaction (r = 0.26, p < 0.05), there was no significant relationship between marital status and job satisfaction (r = 0.14, p > 0.05).

A significant relationship was found between income and job satisfaction (r = 0.53, p < 0.01) as well as between job status and job satisfaction (r = 0.54, p < 0.01).

83

4.4.2

Correlations for the dimensions of job satisfaction

Hypothesis 2 Alternative Hypothesis (H1) There will be a significant relationship between nature of the job, pay, supervision, promotion, and co-workers with job satisfaction amongst employees in a public health institution in the Western Cape.

Table 4.3

Pearson Correlation matrix for the dimensions of job satisfaction

JOB SATISFACTION Nature of the job 0.2141 p = 0.032 * Pay 0.4324 p = 0.0104* Supervision 0.4182 p = 0.012* Promotion 0.0855 p = 0.323 Co-workers 0.0888 p = 0.302 * p < 0.05

84

Table 4.3 contains the Pearson correlations for the relationships between the various facets of job satisfaction, as assessed by the JDI. As can be seen, the strongest correlation was found between satisfaction with the nature of the job itself (r = 0.2141). The correlation, nevertheless, represents a relatively weak, positive linear relationship. This is substantiated by the coefficient of determination (r2 = 0.0458), which indicates that only 4.58% of the variation in job satisfaction can be explained by the variation in the nature of the work.

Although the correlation between job satisfaction with the work itself translates into a relatively weak, positive relationship, it is nevertheless statistically significant at the 0.05 level. That is, the probability of finding that no relationship exists between these two variables in the population from which the sample was drawn is 5% or less. It may therefore be concluded that satisfaction depends on the nature of the work conducted by employees.

The remaining dimensions indicate weak, positive relationships to job satisfaction. The strongest correlation was obtained between satisfaction and pay (r = 0.4324), while the weakest relationship was found between job satisfaction and supervision (r = 0.4182). Nevertheless, the subscales for the relationships between job satisfaction and pay (r = 0.4324; p = 0.0104), and job satisfaction and supervision (r = 0.4182; p = 0.012), was found to be significant at the 0.05 confidence interval level, while those for promotions (r = 0.0855; p = 0.323), and co-workers

85

(r = 0.0888; p = 0.302) subscales did not reach statistical significance at either the 0.01 or 0.05 levels of significance. Moreover, the aforementioned variables account for relatively little of the variation in total job satisfaction. On the basis of the coefficient of determination, it may be concluded that satisfaction with pay explains approximately 19% (r2 = 0.1869) of the variation in job satisfaction, satisfaction with opportunities for promotion and co-workers explain 0.73% (r2 = 0.0073) and 0.79% (r2 = 0.0079), respectively, while only approximately 18% (r2 = 0.1749) of the variation is accounted for by satisfaction with supervision. It would thus appear that higher correlations with respect to any one of these facets is likely to translate into higher levels of job satisfaction.

4.4.3

Multiple Regression Analysis

Multiple regression analysis was performed to determine the extent to which the demographic variables of occupational class, race, gender, educational level, tenure, age, marital status, income and job status will explain the variance in terms of job satisfaction amongst employees.

Hypothesis 3 Alternative Hypothesis (H1) The demographic variables of occupational class, race, gender, educational level, tenure, age, marital status, income and job status will significantly

86

explain the variance in job satisfaction amongst employees in a public health institution in the Western

The results of the multiple regression analysis regressing demographic variables against job satisfaction, as dependent variable, are presented in Table 4.4. The coefficient of multiple correlation between the demographic variables and job satisfaction, as indicated by multiple R in Table 4.4, is 0.32, R square, the coefficient of multiple determination, is 0.10005, whilst R square adjusted, is equal to 0.06858. Therefore, 6.86% of the variance in job satisfaction can be accounted for by these demographic variables.

Furthermore, the F statistic of 3.18 is statistically significant at the 99% level, (p < 0.01). On the basis thereof, it may be concluded that the demographic variables significantly explain 6.86% of the variance in job satisfaction. However, 93.14% of the variance in job satisfaction may be explained by factors not considered in this study. Further, the variation in job satisfaction is not affected by the job status (p < 0.05).

Table 4.4 also indicates that when the other variables are controlled, two of the demographic variables, tenure and age, are significant. Predictors of job satisfaction with a Beta-value of -.305887, tenure reaches statistical significance at the 0.05 level, and is the best predictor of job satisfaction. Similarly, age, with a Beta-value of .217017, is also significant at the 0.05 level.

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Table 4.4

Results of Multiple Regression Analysis: Regressing demographic variables against job satisfaction (as dependent variable)

OVERALL JOB SATISFACTION Variable(s) 1.. AGE 2.. EDUCATION 3.. GENDER 4.. OCCUPATIONAL CLASS 5.. TENURE 6.. RACE 7.. INCOME 8.. JOB STATUS 9.. INCOME Multiple R R Square Adjusted R Square Standard Error .31630 .10005 .06858 34.78462

Analysis of Variance DF Regression 5 Residual 143 F = 3.17940 Variable GENDER EDUCATION TENURE CATEGORY AGE (Constant)

Sum of Squares 19234.87394 173025.70325 .0094** Beta -.095056 -.086091 -.305887 -.145928 .217017

Mean Square 3846.97479 1209.96995

Signif F = B -6.962193 -1.976216 -7.353274 -10.489781 10.293997 150.081633

SE B 6.289439 2.138643 2.298401 6.768922 4.926160 24.755461

T Sig -1.107 -.924 -3.199 -1.550 2.090 6.063

T .2702 .3570 .0017* .1234 .0384* .0000

* p < 0.05

As tenure carries a negative Beta weight, the suggestion is that an inverse relationship exists between tenure and job satisfaction, with more tenured employees experiencing

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lower levels of satisfaction. Age carries a positive Beta weight, suggesting that the older the employee, the higher the level of satisfaction experienced.

Table 4.4 further shows that neither gender nor educational level was found to be statistically significant at the 0.05 levels. Moreover, it further appears as though level of education, with a Beta-value of .086091 is the poorest predictor of job satisfaction in the sample. It can thus be concluded that while tenure and age are significant predictors of job satisfaction for employee members, gender and educational level do not predict this variable amongst employees.

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4.4.4

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

Hypothesis 4 Alternative Hypothesis (H1) There will be significant differences in the job satisfaction of employees in a public health institution in the Western Cape based on their biographical characteristics (namely, occupational class, race, gender, educational level, tenure, age, marital status, income and job status).

The ensuing tables present the findings of the biographical characteristics Table 4.5 Occupational class and job satisfaction
OCCUPATIONAL CLASS Pharmacist Pharmacist Assistant Auxiliary Service Officer Administrative Clerk Director Personnel Officer Administrative Officer State Accountant Personnel Practitioner

Mean 77.82 82.42

S 24.69 32.67 20 37 11 43 23 18 26 10 11

N 4.1

P .000**

Scheffe's Test Levels of job satisfaction amongst administrative clerks differ significantly from the other groups

102.03 21.53 62.49 23.67

122.03 13.53 112.79 21.67 93.47 92.79 32.53 23.65

118.76 18.53

** p < 0.01

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The results from Table 4.5 indicate that there is a significant mean difference in the job satisfaction levels of employees based on their occupational class. Administrative clerks evidenced the lowest levels of job satisfaction with a mean score of 62.49 and a SD of 23.67, followed by pharmacists with a mean score of 77.82 and a SD of 24.69, while directors and personnel practitioners indicated the highest levels of job satisfaction with means of 122.03 and 118.76 and SDs of 13.53 and 18.53 respectively.

Table 4.6

Race and job satisfaction

RACE African Coloured Asian White

Mean 67.98

S 23.27 18

F 3.92

P .000**

Scheffe's Test African respondents differed significantly from the other groups

106.68 12.43 118.64 16.31 109.64 14.45

123 6 54

** p < 0.01

Results depicted in Table 4.6 indicate that there is a significant mean difference in the levels of job satisfaction of employees based on their race. African employees reported the lowest levels of job satisfaction (Mean = 67.98, SD = 23.27) compared to other groups of employees. Asian employees showed the highest level of job satisfaction (Mean = 118.64, SD = 16.31). However, any conclusions are somewhat

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tenuous since the number of African and Asian employees who participated in this research was fairly small.

Table 4.7

Gender and job satisfaction

GENDER Male Female

Mean 89.82 72.67

S 8.62 14.59

N 125 77

F 3.21

P .000**

Scheffe's Test Females were less satisfied

** p < 0.01

In terms of Table 4.7 the results indicate that there is a significant mean difference in the levels of job satisfaction experienced by male and female employees. Females reported lower levels of job satisfaction (Mean = 72.67, SD = 14.59) relative to male employees (Mean = 89.82, SD = 8.62). Cognisance must however, be taken of the fact that the number of the females who participated in the study made up only 37.93% of the sample. Thus, drawing conclusions from the results will have little substance.

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Table 4.8

Educational level and job satisfaction

EDUCATION LEVEL Up to std. 6 Up to std. 9 Std. 10 / Grade 12 3 year degree / diploma Postgraduate

Mean 68.43 82.14 93.21

S 32.6 23.47 12.57 11 32 83 52 23

F 3.95

P .000**

Scheffe's Test Respondents with educational level up to Std.6 differ significantly from the other groups

112.42 16.69 102.67 14.34

** p < 0.01

From Table 4.8 the results indicate that there is a significant mean difference in the job satisfaction levels experienced by employees based on their education levels. In this instance, those with education levels up to standard 6 indicated the lowest job satisfaction relative to the other education levels. Employees at this level reflected a mean score of 68.43 with a SD of 32.60. Respondents with a 3 years degree/diploma reported the highest levels of job satisfaction with a mean score of 112.42 and a SD of 16.69.

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Table 4.9

Years of service and job satisfaction

YEARS OF SERVICE < 2 years 3-10 years 11-20 years 21-30 years > 30 years

Mean

S 22 41

F 3.55

P .000**

Scheffe's Test Those employed between 3-10 years differ significantly from those in the other groups

114.87 12.58 62.42 85.74 32.2 13.65

105 30 3

101.79 9.59 93.62 11.24

** p < 0.01

Table 4.9 elucidates that there is a significant mean difference in the job satisfaction levels of employees with 310 years of experience compared to the other categories of employees. Employees with 310 years service reflect the lowest level of job satisfaction with a mean score of 62.42 and a SD of 32.20. Those respondents with less than 2 years service reported the highest level of satisfaction, indicating a mean score of 114.87 and a SD of 12.58.

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Table 4.10

Age and job satisfaction

AGE 21 years and younger 22-29 years 30-39 years 40-49 years 50 years and older

Mean

Scheffe's Test Respondents in the

105.32 12.65 101.71 13.56 97.64 71.94 12.35 8.92 38 93 51 20 2.48 .000**

age category 40-49 years differed significantly from the other groups

102.63 14.48

** p < 0.01

Results depicted in Table 4.10 highlight that there is a significant mean difference in the job satisfaction levels of employees in the age group 40-49 years and employees in the other age groups. Employees in the age group 40-49 years reported significantly lower levels of job satisfaction compared to the other age categories with a mean score of 71.94 and a SD of 8.92. Interestingly, employees younger than 21 years old reflect the highest level of job satisfaction having a mean of 105.32 and a SD of 12.65.

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Table 4.11

Marital status and job satisfaction

MARITAL STATUS Single Married Divorced Widowed

Mean

S 66

F 2.48

P .000**

Scheffe's Test Married respondents differed significantly from the other groups

101.71 22.56 71.69 17.35

121 13

103.94 14.92 102.63 12.48

** p < 0.01

Table 4.11 elucidates that there is a significant mean difference in the job satisfaction levels of employees based on their marital status. Those who are married are more likely to report significantly lower levels of job satisfaction, compared to those who are single, divorced or widowed. In this instance the results depict that married employees have a Mean of 71.69 and a SD of 17.35. Single, widowed and divorced respondents have a Mean = 101.71, SD = 22.56; Mean = 102.63, SD = 12.48 and Mean = 103.94, SD = 14.92 respectively. Thus, it can be concluded that divorced employees reported higher levels of job satisfaction in relation to the other respondents.

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Table 4.12

Income and job satisfaction

INCOME < R5000 R5 001-R10 000 R10 001-R15 000 > R15 000

Mean 65.71 93.69

S 12.56 24.35 63 76 48 15

F 2.48

P .000**

Scheffe's Test Respondents in the lowest income group differed significantly from the other groups

101.94 15.92 91.63 16.48

** p < 0.01

From Table 4.12 it can be derived that there is a significant mean difference in the job satisfaction levels of employees based on their income group. Employees earning the lowest income reported significantly lower levels of job satisfaction (Mean = 65.71, SD = 12.65) relative to the other income groups. Respondents in the income bracket R 10 001R 15 000 reported the highest level of job satisfaction indicating a mean of 101.94 and a SD of 15.92.

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Table 4.13

Job status and job satisfaction

JOB STATUS

Mean

Scheffe's Test Contract employees

Permanent

101.69 15.67

177

3.38

.000** differed significantly

Contract

81.74

12.31

22

from permanent employees

** p < 0.01

Table 4.13 illustrates that there is a significant mean difference in the job satisfaction levels of permanent and contract employees, with permanent employees reporting higher levels of job satisfaction having a mean of 101.69 and a SD of 15.67. Contract employees indicated lower levels of job satisfaction with a mean of 81.74 and a SD of 12.31. However, any conclusions are somewhat tenuous since the number of permanent employees (n = 177) far out number contract employees (n = 22) that participated in the study.

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4.4.5 Scheffes Multiple Comparison Method

The Scheffes test reflected the following findings in terms of levels of job satisfaction based on the biographical variables of the sample: Administrative clerks indicated they were the least satisfied compared to the other occupational classes. African respondents indicated lower levels of job satisfaction relative to the other race groups. Female employees experienced lower levels of job satisfaction relative to their male counterparts. Respondents with educational levels up to std.6 were the least satisfied group of employees. Those employees who had been working for the organisation between 3 and 10 years were the least satisfied. Respondents in the age category 40-49 years evidenced the lowest levels of job satisfaction. Married employees reported the lowest levels of job satisfaction. Employees on the lowest income level reported significantly lower levels of job satisfaction relative to the other income groups. Contract employees were less satisfied compared to permanent employees.

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4.5

SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER

The chapter presented the research results in tabular form. Statistically significant mean differences between biographical data and job satisfaction were identified and discussed in detail. The data gathered from the Job Descriptive Index (JDI) were statistically analysed by means of the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). Statistical analysis involved both descriptive and inferential statistics (Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient, Multiple Regression Analysis, Analysis of variance, and Scheffes Multiple Comparison method).

Chapter five will discuss the results obtained and will also highlight other research conducted in the field with reference to the findings that became apparent from the research study. Finally, conclusions are drawn and recommendations are made.

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CHAPTER 5

DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1

INTRODUCTION

The chapter discusses the prominent findings of the study and makes reference to relevant research to support the findings of the current study. The discussion include demographic information about the sample, results obtained from the descriptive statistics for the dimensions of job satisfaction, correlations between the dimensions of job satisfaction, Multiple regression analysis and significant statistical differences between biographical variables. Conclusions are drawn based on the obtained results and recommendations for future research that may be of worth are put forth.

5.2

DISCUSSION

5.2.1

Demographic information about the sample

The sample consisted of 203 civil servants employed by the Department of Health, in the Western Cape. Administrative clerks made up the greater number of respondents that participated in the study (n = 43 or 21.2%). The majority of respondents were Coloured (n = 123 or 60.5%) with the sample being more representative of males

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than females (n = 125 or 61.6%). Most of the respondents have a std. 10 educational level (n = 83 or 40.9%), are in the age group 30-39 years (n = 93 or 45.8%) and are married (n = 121 or 59.6%). The majority of respondents are permanently employed (n = 177 or 87.2%), have 11-20 years service in the public sector (n = 105 or 51.7%) and fall in the income bracket R 5001-R 10 000 (n = 76 or 37.4%).

5.2.2

Descriptive statistics for the dimensions of job satisfaction

The results in table 4.1 indicate that employees at the public health institution in the Western Cape, where the research was conducted, are most satisfied with their coworkers (mean = 37.73; SD = 13.42), followed by the nature of the work itself (mean = 36.36; SD = 9.78) and the supervision they receive (mean = 30.69; SD = 11.98). They are however, less satisfied with promotional opportunities (mean = 12.76; SD = 14.66) and least satisfied with the pay they receive (mean = 11.96; SD = 13.08).

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5.2.3 Inferential Results

5.2.3.1

Correlation analysis for the biographical data and job satisfaction

Significant relationships were found between the biographical data of the sample and job satisfaction (cf. Table 4.2). The correlation coefficients ranged between .14 (marital status) to .72 (gender).

The results indicate significant relationships at the 99% confidence level between respondents job satisfaction and occupational class (r = 0.67, p < 0.01), race (r = 0.41, p < 0.01), gender (r = 0.72, p < 0.01), educational level (r = 0.38, p < 0.01), tenure (r = 0.65, p < 0.01), income (r = 0.53, p < 0.01) as well as job status (r = 0.54, p < 0.01).

Furthermore, there was a significant relationship between age and job satisfaction (r = 0.26, p < 0.05) at the 95% confidence level. However, no significant relationship between marital status and job satisfaction was found (r = 0.14, p > 0.05).

The results depicted in Table 4.2 clearly indicate that there is a significant statistical relationship between the biographical variables with job satisfaction. Hence, the null hypothesis is rejected.

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5.2.3.2

Correlation analysis for the dimensions of job satisfaction

As can be derived from Table 4.3, the results indicate a strong correlation between satisfaction with the nature of the job itself (r = 0.2141). The correlation, nevertheless, represents a relatively weak, positive linear relationship. This is substantiated by the coefficient of determination (r2 = 0.0458), which indicates that only 4.58% of the variation in job satisfaction can be explained by the variation in the nature of the work.

In addition, although the correlation between job satisfaction with the work itself translates into a relatively weak, positive relationship, it is nevertheless statistically significant at the 95% confidence level. The remaining dimensions indicate weak, positive relationships to job satisfaction. The results indicate that the strongest correlation was obtained between satisfaction and pay (r = 0.4324), while the weakest relationship was found between job satisfaction and supervision (r = 0.4182). Nevertheless, the subscales for the relationships between job satisfaction and pay (r = 0.4324; p = 0.0104), and job satisfaction and supervision (r = 0.4182; p = 0.012), was found to be significant at the 95% confidence level, while those for promotions (r = 0.0855; p = 0.323), and co-workers (r = 0.0888; p = 0.302) did not reach statistical significance at either the 99% or 95% confidence interval levels.

Furthermore, it can be noted that the aforementioned variables account for relatively little of the variation in total job satisfaction. On the basis of the coefficient of

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determination, it may be concluded that satisfaction with pay explains approximately 19% (r2 = 0.1869) of the variation in job satisfaction, satisfaction with opportunities for promotion and co-workers explain 0.73% (r2 = 0.0073) and 0.79% (r2 = 0.0079), respectively, while only approximately 18% (r2 = 0.1749) of the variation is accounted for by satisfaction with supervision. It would thus appear that higher correlations with respect to any one of these facets is likely to translate into higher levels of job satisfaction. Hence, the null hypothesis is rejected.

5.2.3.3

Multiple Regression Analysis

The results of the multiple regression analysis regressing demographic variables against job satisfaction, as dependent variable, indicate that demographic variables significantly explain the variance in job satisfaction. Therefore, 6.86% of the variance in job satisfaction can be accounted for by these demographic variables.

It can be concluded that when the other variables are controlled, tenure and age are significant predictors of job satisfaction. In addition, findings of the study revealed that more tenured employees experienced lower levels of satisfaction and older employees experienced higher levels of satisfaction. Furthermore, the F statistic of 3.18 is statistically significant at the 99% level, (p < 0.01). On the basis thereof, it may be concluded that the demographic variables significantly explain approximately 6.86% of the variance in job satisfaction. However, this finding suggests that nearly

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93.14% of the variance in job satisfaction may be explained by factors not considered in this study.

The null hypothesis may therefore be rejected.

5.2.3.4

Differences

in

job

satisfaction

based

on

biographical

characteristics - Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

5.2.3.4.1

Race

Studies indicating the relationship between race and job satisfaction within the South African context are limited.

Results of the current study reflect that a significant difference in job satisfaction exists based on the respondents race. Asian, White and Coloured respondents employed in the Health Department: Western Cape are significantly more satisfied than their African colleagues. The levels of job satisfaction for African respondents are significantly lower in comparison to the level of job satisfaction of the other racial groups. The finding of this study is consistent with a number of studies investigating the relationship between race and job satisfaction.

Studies have found that African employees amongst different occupational classes experienced lower levels of job satisfaction in comparison to White employees

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(Slocum & Strawser (1972), OReilly & Roberts (1973), Milutinovich (1977), Gold et al., (1982), Davis (1985), Greenhaus et al., (1990), Tuch & Martin (1991) all cited in Friday et al., 2004). Robbins et al. (2003) report that a study conducted in 2000 revealed that African respondents are more likely to feel less secure in their positions than their White counterparts. Reasons cited by the authors for the feeling of a lack of job security amongst African respondents were organisational restructuring, affirmative action or shrinking of industry sectors.

Another study conducted by Erasmus (1998) found that White females reported higher levels of job satisfaction in comparison to their African female colleagues.

In direct contrast to the findings of this study, an investigation conducted by Gavin and Ewen (1974) cited in Friday et al. (2004), reflected that African employees experienced higher levels of job satisfaction in comparison to the other racial groups.

5.2.3.4.2

Gender

There are significant differences between job satisfaction based on gender. Results of this study indicate that female employees are less satisfied than their male counterparts.

No evidence has been found to suggest that gender has a direct impact on job satisfaction (Robbins et al., 2003). The authors maintain that gender differences can

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have an effect on the relationship between job dimensions and job satisfaction, but that it does not have a direct impact on job satisfaction.

In support of the above, and in relation to the findings of this study, Oshagbemi (2000) states that women may experience less job satisfaction due to disparities in factors such as pay, promotion prospects and job level. The researcher further contends that given equal opportunity, women should however, be no less satisfied in their jobs than their male counterparts. Hulin and Smith (1964) cited in Chui (1998) found in a study that women experienced lower satisfaction levels as a result of variables which covaried with gender, for example, rank and promotional opportunities.

Contrary to the findings of this study, Clark (1997) cited in Donohue and Heywood (2004) found women to experience greater job satisfaction. A plausible reason cited by the researcher for the research finding is that women may experience labour market success greater than their expectations.

Another study conducted by Tang and Talpade (1999) found significant differences between males and females in terms of job dimensions impacting on job satisfaction. Their study found that men tend to have higher satisfaction with remuneration in relation to females, while females tended to have higher satisfaction with co-workers than males.

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Research conducted by Oshagbemi (2000) and Donohue and Heywood (2004) failed to find support for the relationship between job satisfaction and gender.

5.2.3.4.3

Educational level

There is a significant difference in job satisfaction levels experienced by employees based on their educational levels. Employees with the lowest qualification indicated the lowest level of job satisfaction. Results from the study reveal that respondents with an educational level up to standard 6 are significantly less satisfied than respondents in possession of a higher level of education.

The finding of this study is consistent with the findings of Crossman and Abou-Zaki (2003). Their study, which was conducted in a Lebanese banking environment, found that employees with lower educational levels, experienced lower overall job satisfaction in comparison to those employees who was in possession of a college certificate.

Contrary to the findings of the current study, a number of researchers (Glenn & Weaver (1982), Hodson (1985), Free (1990) all cited in Johnson & Johnson, 2000; Kh Metle, 2003) found that higher educated employees experience lower levels of organisational job satisfaction. A probable reason cited for these differences is that highly educated employees have higher levels of expectations which companies are often unable to fulfill.

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The results of the current study do not support the greater number of previous research due to the environment in which the research was conducted and also taking into account the composition of the sample.

5.2.3.4.4

Tenure

There is a significant difference in job satisfaction based on tenure. Employees between 3 to 10 years service differ significantly from those in the other groups. Thus, employees with 3 to 10 years service reflect significantly lower levels of job satisfaction in comparison to employees with less than 2 years and more than 11 years of service. The results further indicate that employees with less than 2 years service reflect the highest level of job satisfaction and that job satisfaction increases again from 11 years onwards.

The current situation may be attributed to the fact that employees with less than 2 years service believe that the Department will be able to meet their career expectations. Employees with 3 to 10 years service may consider themselves as having stagnated and no longer have faith that the Department is able to meet their career expectations. This view is shared by Ronen (1978) cited in Oshagbemi (2003) in that employee expectations are high at the time of appointment, but when these expectations are not met, the resultant effect leads to a decrease in job satisfaction and remains relatively low for the next few years. Employee satisfaction levels increase again as the employees years of employment increases.

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5.2.3.4.5

Age

There is a significant difference in job satisfaction based on respondents age. The results suggest that employees in the age group 40-49 years report significantly lower levels of job satisfaction compared to the other age categories.

The finding of the study is contrary to the view shared by Robbins et al. (2003). The authors report that although most studies indicate a positive relationship between age and job satisfaction, at least up to the age of 60, other studies reflect a decrease in satisfaction as employees move towards middle age. Satisfaction increases again from around 40 and on. Contrary to the view shared by Robbins et al. (2003), Reese, Johnson, and Campbell (1991) found in a study conducted among 229 secondary school physical education teachers, that educators between the age group 46-60 indicated the lowest job satisfaction levels.

Results of this study indicate that employees up to the age of 29 years old indicate high satisfaction levels, after which there is an apparent decrease in satisfaction levels between the age group 30-49. Furthermore, job satisfaction significantly increases again from the age 50 years and older. This is consistent with the view shared by international authors (Drafke & Kossen, 2002; Greenberg & Baron, 1995) that older people are generally happier with their jobs than younger employees. As in the case with tenure, Herzberg, Mausner, Peterson and Capwell (1957) cited in Kh Metle (2005) found in 17 research studies that satisfaction levels is high when employees

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start first jobs. Job satisfaction declines and remains relatively low during the next few years and increases again as employees become older.

Mottaz (1987) in Oshagbemi (2003) cited several reasons for the variance in job satisfaction between older and younger workers. Younger workers are generally more dissatisfied than older employees, simply because they demand more than their jobs can provide. The author posits that as older workers possess more seniority and work experience it enables them to move easily into more rewarding and satisfying jobs. As a result they place less emphasis on autonomy or promotion, therefore demanding less from their jobs making them more satisfied than their younger counterparts. Lastly, employees tend to adjust to work values and the work environment the longer they are employed, adding to greater job satisfaction.

5.2.3.4.6

Marital status

There is a significant difference in job satisfaction based on marital status. Married employees differ significantly from those in the other groups. They reported lower levels of job satisfaction in comparison to those who are single, divorced or widowed.

International research findings with regard to the relationship between job satisfaction and marital status appear to be equivocal. Results from the study are supported by research conducted by Cimete, Gencalp and Keskin (2003) using a sample of 501 nurses employed at two university hospitals in Istanbul. Their study established a

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significant difference in the job satisfaction mean scores of the participants, reporting that the job satisfaction mean score of divorcees and widows was higher than that of single and married groups.

Contrary to the findings of the current study, research conducted by Kuo and Chen (2004) found that married employees experienced higher levels of job satisfaction in comparison to that of single employees. The reason cited by the researchers for married employees experiencing higher levels of satisfaction, is that they are often more contented with the nature of their work.

5.2.3.4.7

Income

There is a significant difference in the job satisfaction levels of employees based on their income. Employees earning the lowest income report significantly lower levels of job satisfaction relative to the other income groups.

In the current context, the majority of the employees on the lowest income bracket work within a warehouse environment where physical work is expected often under trying conditions. It is possible that these employees might feel that equilibrium does not exist between their production inputs in comparison to the income they receive. Another possibility exists that employees on the lowest income level experience lower levels of satisfaction as they have less disposable income in comparison to employees on the other income levels.

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Research appears to be equivocal regarding the influence of pay on job satisfaction. According to Bassett (1994), a lack of empirical evidence exists to indicate that pay alone improves worker satisfaction or reduces dissatisfaction. The author concludes that highly paid employees may still be dissatisfied if they do not like the nature of their job and feel they cannot enter a more satisfying job.

A study conducted by Oshagbemi (2000) amongst United Kingdom academics, found a statistically significant relationship between pay and rank of employees and their level of job satisfaction. However, Young et al. (1998) conducted a study in a public sector environment and failed to find any significant relationship between pay and satisfaction.

5.2.3.4.8

Job status

There is a significant difference in the job satisfaction levels of employees based on their job status. Contract employees report significantly lower levels of job satisfaction in comparison to permanent employees.

To date, a limited amount of research has been conducted on the relationship between job status and job satisfaction. Research conducted by Feather and Rauter (2004) with regards to the levels of job satisfaction that exists between contract and permanent employees in the teaching environment in Australia, failed to establish a relationship between job status and job satisfaction.

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The results of the current study should be interpreted with caution in terms of job status as the majority of the respondents are permanently employed (n = 177), in comparison to the number of contract employees (n = 22) that participated in the study. It is, however, suggested that the Department offer individuals permanent contracts to enhance the contract employees level of job satisfaction.

5.2.3.4.9

Scheffes Multiple Comparison

The Scheffes test (ranging from Table 4.5 to Table 4.13) reflects the following findings in terms of levels of job satisfaction based on the biographical variables of the respondents:

Administrative clerks indicated they were the least satisfied compared to the other occupational classes. African respondents evidenced lower levels of job satisfaction relative to the other race groups.

Female employees indicated lower levels of job satisfaction relative to their male counterparts. Respondents with educational levels up to std.6 were the least satisfied group of employees. Contract employees being less satisfied compared to permanent employees. Furthermore employees who had been working for the organisation between 3 and 10 years were reported to be the least satisfied.

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Employees on the lowest income level reported significantly lower levels of job satisfaction relative to the other income groups. Married employees reported the lowest levels of job satisfaction. Respondents in the age category 40-49 years evidenced the lowest levels of job satisfaction.

Hence, the null hypothesis that there are no statistically significant differences in job satisfaction of employees based on their biographical variables, is rejected.

5.3

CONCLUSIONS

The central objective of this study was to establish the impact of variables, such as the work itself, pay, supervision, promotion and relationships with co-workers on employees in terms of job satisfaction at a public sector institution in the Western Cape. A literature survey was conducted to form the theoretical premise for the study.

Factors such as pay, the work itself, supervision, relationships with co-workers and opportunities for promotions have been found to contribute to job satisfaction (Grobler et al., 2002; Johns, 1996; Nel et al., 2004; Robbins et al., 2003).

The empirical findings from the study indicate that employees at the public health institution in the Western Cape, where the research was conducted, are most satisfied with their co-workers, followed by the nature of the work itself and the supervision

116

they receive. They however, indicated that they are less satisfied with promotional opportunities and least satisfied with the pay they receive.

In terms of the stated research hypotheses the following specific empirical findings emerged from the investigation: There is a significant relationship between biographical variables and job satisfaction amongst employees in a public health institution in the Western Cape. A significant relationship exists between work, remuneration, supervision, promotion, and co-workers with job satisfaction amongst employees in a public health institution in the Western Cape. The demographic variables of occupational class, race, gender, educational level, tenure, age, marital status, income and job status significantly explain the variance in job satisfaction amongst employees. There are significant differences in the job satisfaction of employees in a public health institution in the Western Cape based on their biographical characteristics.

The results of the study should be interpreted with caution due to the limitations of the study. Cognisance must also be taken of the fact that the results obtained from the research may be specific to the directorates where the investigation was conducted. This can be attributed to the fact that a non-probability sample in the form of convenience sampling was utilised in the study. Hence, the results acquired cannot be

117

generalised with confidence to other public institutions residing under the Department of Health in the Western Cape.

Another contributing factor impacting on generalisability is the fact that only the occupational categories pharmacist, pharmacist assistant, auxiliary service officer, administration clerk, director, personnel officer, administrative officer, state accountant and personnel practitioner are targeted in the study. Therefore, the results of the study cannot be inferred to other occupational classes of a similar category resulting in the external validity of the study being compromised.

In addition, although the response rate for the current study is adequate, the composition of the sample could have introduced elements of bias in the research findings. Most notably, it is possible that disparities in terms of biographical data of respondents could have distorted the results obtained from the investigation.

5.4

RECOMMENDATIONS

As a caution is warranted with regard to the generalisibility of the present findings to other public institutions and occupations, it is suggested that for future research a proportionate stratified random sample be used to compare several public sector institutions using a bigger sample. Various authors maintain that stratified random sampling is the most suitable technique in that it presents greater reliability and

118

validity (Anastasi, 1990; Huysamen, 1983; Murphy & Davidshofer, 1988; Welman & Kruger, 2001).

Empirical findings of this study suggest that the occupational classes of administrative clerks and pharmacists were the least satisfied. From the literature surveyed it is evident that the public sector is experiencing an exodus of professional skilled employees to other sectors and countries. It is recommended that executive management accord significant attention to future studies of this nature as to identify those variables having a major impact on job satisfaction in an attempt to retain highquality skills, in particular scarce skills, that is in line with the human resource development strategy of the Department of Labour. According to Marx (1995), offering competitive salaries and opportunity for upward mobility enhances the chances of employee retention. Meyer, Mabaso and Lancaster (2002) maintain that it is imperative to secure the supply of scarce skills in order to meet with societal needs.

The research findings reported in this study make a valuable contribution to the awareness of understanding the concept of job satisfaction and the effect the underlying variables work, supervision, co-workers, promotion and pay have on job satisfaction. However, additional research is needed to further investigate the potential relationship and effect these variables and other extraneous variables, such as role ambiguity, job level, contingent rewards and working conditions have on job satisfaction.

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Finally, future research of this nature may assist personnel managers and operational managers on all levels to be aware of the status of job satisfaction and allow them to pro-actively put mechanisms in place to enhance job satisfaction of employees and ultimately, improve service delivery. Schneider and Vaught (1993) contend that being aware of the job satisfaction of employees afford personnel managers the opportunity to be proactive and decide on interventions that will ensure commitment and involvement from employees.

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APPENDIX A LETTER OF REQUEST TO COMPLETE QUESTIONNAIRES

SEEKING KNOWLEDGE FROM THE CRADLE TO THE GRAVE

Dear Colleague

REQUEST TO COMPLETE A BIOGRAPHICAL QUESTIONNAIRE AND RESEARCH QUESTIONNAIRE

I am a Masters student at the University of the Western Cape (Industrial Psychology Department) conducting research for my thesis on Job Satisfaction. On 21 April 2005 I obtained permission from Professor KC Househam (Head of Department: Health) to proceed with my research at your institution.

The attached biographical questionnaire contains questions about yourself while the job satisfaction questionnaire (JDI) taps into feelings you may have about your present job; pay; supervision; promotion opportunities and people you are working with. There are no right and wrong answers. Please ensure that you circle all your responses listed under the different facets.

Your responses will be treated with the utmost of confidentiality; therefore no provision is made on the questionnaires for you to write down your name. It would be appreciated if you could place the questionnaires in the envelope provided and ensure that it is sealed on return. All questionnaires are to be returned within one (1) week of the date of receipt thereof.

I assure you that the information provided is for research purposes only. I want to take this opportunity to thank you for availing yourself and thereby contributing towards making my research thesis a success.

.. N. LUDDY

APPENDIX B BIOGRAPHICAL QUESTIONNAIRE

BIOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION BIOGRAFIESE INLIGTING

Information about yourself ( Inligting oor Uself )

(1) Please circle your occupational class Omkring asseblief u beroepsklas Pharmacist Pharmacist Assistant Auxiliary Service Officer Administrative Clerk Director Personnel Officer Administrative Officer State Accountant Personnel Practitioner 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

(2) Please circle your race Omkring asseblief u ras African Coloured Asian White 1 2 3 4

(4) Please circle your Educational Level Omkring asseblief u opvoedkundige vlak Up to Std. 6 Up to Std. 9 Std. 10 / Grade 12 3 Year Degree / Diploma Post Graduate 1 2 3 4 5

(3) Please circle your gender Omkring asseblief u geslag Male Female 1 2

(6) Please circle your age Omkring asseblief u ouderdomsgroep (5) Please circle your years of service in the Public Sector Omkring asseblief u diensjare in die Publieke Sektor Less than 2 years 3 - 10 years 11 - 20 years 21 - 30 years Over 30 years 1 2 3 4 5 21 years and younger 22 - 29 years 30 - 39 years 40 - 49 years 50 years and older 1 2 3 4 5

(8) Please circle your monthly income Omkring asseblief u maandelikse inkomste Less than R5 000 R5 001 - R10 000 R10 001 - R15 000 Over R15 000 1 2 3 4

(7) Please circle your marital status Omkring asseblief u huwelikstatus Single Married Divorced Widowed 1 2 3 4

(9) Please circle your job status Omkring asseblief u werkstatus Permanent Contract 1 2

CONFIDENTIAL

APPENDIX C

JOB DESCRIPTIVE INDEX (JDI) QUESTIONNAIRE

JOB SATISFACTION QUESTIONNAIRE

Job Descriptive Index (JDI)

Listed below are a series of statements that represents feelings that you may have about your present job. There are no right or wrong answers Your responses will be treated as strictly confidential.

A.

Think of your present work. What is it like most of the time? How well do the words below describe your work? Please circle the most appropriate response next to each word. Y for YES if it describes your work N for NO if it does not describe your work ? if you cannot decide

WORK IN PRESENT JOB 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Fascinating Routine Satisfying Boring Good Creative Respected Hot (temperature) Pleasant Useful Tiresome Healthful Challenging On your feet Frustrating Simple Endless Gives a sense of accomplishment Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N

B.

Think of the pay you are receiving now. How well does each of the following words describe your present pay? Please circle the most appropriate response next to each word. Y for YES if it describes your work N for NO if it does not describe your work ? if you cannot decide

PRESENT PAY 1 Income adequate for normal expenses 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Satisfactory profit sharing Barely live on income Bad Income provides luxuries Insecure Less than I deserve Highly paid Underpaid Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? N N N N N N N N Y ? N

C.

Think of your supervision you are receiving now. How well does each of the following words describe your present supervision? Please circle the most appropriate response next to each word. Y for YES if it describes your work N for NO if it does not describe your work ? if you cannot decide

SUPERVISION ON PRESENT JOB 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Asks my advice Hard to please Impolite Praises good work Tactful Influential Up-to-date Doesnt supervise enough Quick tempered Tells me where I stand Annoying Stubborn Knows job well Bad Intelligent Leaves me on my own Lazy Around when needed Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N

D.

Think of your opportunities for promotion that you have now. How well does each of the following words describe your present opportunities for promotion? Please circle the most appropriate response next to each word. Y for YES if it describes your work N for NO if it does not describe your work ? if you cannot decide

PRESENT OPPORTUNITIES FOR PROMOTION 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Good opportunities for advancement Opportunities somewhat limited Promotion on ability Dead-end-job Good chance for promotion Unfair promotion policy Infrequent promotions Regular promotions Fairly good chance for promotion Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? N N N N N N N N N

E.

Think of the majority of the people that you are working with at the moment. How well does each of the following words describe these people? Please circle the most appropriate response next to each word.

Y for YES if it describes your work N for NO if it does not describe your work ? if you cannot decide

PEOPLE IN YOUR PRESENT JOB 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Stimulating Boring Slow Ambitious Stupid Responsible Fast Intelligent Easy to make enemies Talk too much Smart Lazy Unpleasant No privacy Active Narrow interests Loyal Hard to meet Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N

LICT

Digitally signed by LICT DN: cn=LICT, c=ZA, o=Univ. of the Western Cape, ou=Library Services Reason: Document is released Date: 2006.10.12 14:26:51 +02'00'