B GIAO THNG VN TI TRNG I HC HNG HI B MN: K THUT MY TNH KHOA: CNG NGH THNG TIN

BI GING
TRUYN D LIU

TN HC PHN M HC PHN TRNH O TO DNG CHO SV NGNH

: TRUYN D LIU : 17305 : I HC CHNH QUY : CNG NGH THNG TIN

HI PHNG - 2010

MC LC
Chng I: CC KHI NIM C BN ................................................................................. 4 1.1. Tin tc - d liu - tn hiu ........................................................................................... 4 1.2 M ha d liu ............................................................................................................. 5 1.3 Cc phng php truyn tin ...................................................................................... 17 Chng II: H THNG TRUYN THNG ........................................................................ 19 2.1. Gii thiu v h thng truyn thng .......................................................................... 19 2.2 H thng truyn s liu .............................................................................................. 21 2.3. Cc h thng truyn s liu thng gp..................................................................... 22 2.4. Mi trng truyn tin................................................................................................ 24 2.5. Cc chun giao tip truyn thng .............................................................................. 37 2.6. Mng truyn thng.................................................................................................... 49 Chng III: K THUT TRUYN S LIU ..................................................................... 50 3.1. Gii thiu v k thut truyn s liu.......................................................................... 50 3.2. K thut nh khung trong truyn s liu .................................................................. 50 3.3. K thut truyn ni tip khng ng b .................................................................... 51 3.4. K thut truyn ni tip ng b ............................................................................... 53 3.5. Cc k thut truy nhp ng truyn ........................................................................ 59 Chng IV: CC VN TRONG TRUYN S LIU .................................................. 63 4.1. Vn pht hin sai v sa sai.................................................................................. 63 ..................................................................................................... 74 ............................................................................................. 87 u l ng .................................................................................... 87 u khin khc phc li .............................................................................. 91 m bo cht lng dch v .......................................................................... 94 Chng V: MNG TRUYN S LIU ............................................................................ 102 5.1. Tng quan............................................................................................................... 102 5.2. Kin trc phn tng v m hnh OSI. TCP/IP .......................................................... 104 5.3. Phn loi mng theo k thut chuyn mch ............................................................. 106 5.4. K thut LAN ......................................................................................................... 109

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YU CU V NI DUNG CHI TIT

Tn hc phn: K thut Truyn d liu B mn ph trch ging dy: K thut my tnh M hc phn: 17305 TS tit 45 L thuyt 45 Thc hnh/Xemina 0 T hc 0 Loi hc phn: 1 Khoa ph trch: CNTT Tng s TC: 2 Bi tp ln 0 n mn hc 0

iu kin tin quyt: Sinh vin phi hc xong cc hc phn sau mi c ng k hc phn ny: Kin trc my tnh, Mch v tn hiu, L thuyt truyn tin, K thut Vi x l, Nguyn l h iu hnh, Cu trc d liu Mc tiu ca hc phn: - Cung cp cho sinh vin nhng khi nim tng quan v K thut truyn s liu, Mng truyn thng... Ni dung ch yu - Chng I: Tng quan - Chng II: H thng truyn thng - Chng III: K thut truyn s liu - Chng IV: Cc vn c bn trong truyn thng - Chng V: Mng truyn s liu Ni dung chi tit ca hc phn: PHN PHI S TIT TS LT BT TH KT 9 9 2 3 2 2 6 5 1 1 3 1 1 8 8 1 7 9 8 1 1 4 1 3 13 12 1 -2-

TN CHNG MC Chng I: Tng quan 1.1. Mt s khi nim v thng tin 1.2. M ho d liu 1.3. Cch truyn thng tin trn ng truyn 1.4. Nhng vn c bn trong truyn thng Chng II: H thng truyn thng 2.1. H thng truyn thng 2.2. Phng tin truyn tin 2.3. Cc chun giao tip trong truyn thng Chng III: K thut truyn s liu 3.1. Tng quan 3.2. Cc k thut truyn s liu Chng IV: Cc vn c bn trong truyn thng 4.1. Tng quan 4.2. M ho pht hin sai, sa sai 4.3. Kim sot ng truyn Chng V: Mng truyn s liu

5.1. Tng quan 5.2. Kin trc phn tng v m hnh OSI, TCP/IP 5.3. Phn loi mng theo k thut chuyn mch 5.4. K thut mng cc b 5.5. Mng v tuyn v mng v tinh 5.6. Mng truyn d liu IDSN/ DSL

1 2 3 2 2 3

Nhim v ca sinh vin: Tham d cc bui thuyt trnh ca gio vin, t hc, t lm bi tp do gio vin giao, tham d cc bi kim tra nh k v cui k. Ti liu hc tp: William Stalling, Data Computer and Communication ng Vn Chuyt, L thuyt truyn tin, NXB Gio dc Nguyn Vn Thng, C s k thut Truyn s liu, NXB Khoa hc k thut Quch Tun Ngc, X l tn hiu s, NXB Gio dc Nguyn Thc Hi, Mng my tnh v h thng m, NXB Gio dc Nguyn Hng Sn, K thut truyn s liu, NXB Lao ng X hi Hnh thc v tiu chun nh gi sinh vin: - nh gi da trn tnh hnh tham d bui hc trn lp, cc bui thc hnh, im kim tra thng xuyn v im kt thc hc phn. - Hnh thc thi cui k: thi vit rc phch, thi gian lm bi: 75 pht Thang im: Thang im ch A, B, C, D, F im nh gi hc phn Z = 0.2X + 0.8Y. Bi ging ny l ti liu chnh thc v thng nht ca B mn K thut my tnh, Khoa Cng ngh Thng tin v c dng ging dy cho sinh vin. Ngy ph duyt: 15 / 6 / 2010 Trng B mn: ThS. Ng Quc Vinh

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Chng I: CC KHI NIM C BN

1.1. Tin tc - d liu - tn hiu D liu (Data): bao gm cc s kin, khi nim hay cc ch th c din t di mt hnh thc thch hp cho vic thng tin, thng dch hay x l bi con ngi hay my mc. Thng Tin (Information): ngha m con ngi qui cho d liu theo cc qui c c th. Tin tc c th biu th bi ting ni, hnh nh, cc vn bn, tp hp cc con s, cc k hiu, thng qua n con ngi hiu nhau . . .. Trong h thng truyn thng, thng ngi ta khng phn bit d liu v tin tc. Thng tin khi truyn: Theo cc dng nng lng khc nhau: m, in, sng quang, sng in Vt mang tin: Mi trng dng mang thng tin (L dng nng lng - C kh nng lu tr, truyn gi thng tin...) Tn hiu (Signal): l tin tc, d liu c chuyn i, x l (bi cc b phn m ha v /hoc chuyn i) cho ph hp vi mi trng truyn thng. Bn cht tn hiu vn l mt hm n tr bin thin theo thi gian hay tn s. C hai loi tn hiu: tn hiu tng t v tn hiu s. Tn hiu tng t (analog): Tn hiu c bt c gi tr no trong mt khong thi gian xc nh. Tn hiu tng t quen thuc c dng hnh sin. Mt tn hiu tng t c th c s ha tr thnh tn hiu s. Ba c im chnh ca tn hiu tng t bao gm: o Bin (Amplitute): o mnh ca tn hiu, n v: decibel (dB) hay volts. Bin cng ln th tn hiu cng mng. o Tn s (Frequency): Tn s (f) ca tn hiu l s dao ng ca tn hiu trong mt n v thi gian (thng tnh bng giy) hay cn gi l tc thay i ca tn hiu trong mt giy, n v Hz hay s chu k trong mt giy. Mt chu k l s di chuyn sng ca tn hiu t im ngun bt u cho n khi quay tr v li im ngun . o Pha (Phase): L n v o v tr tng i ti mt thi im trong mt chu k n ca tn hiu, n c trng cho tnh tr. Tc thay i quan h ca tn hiu i vi thi gian, c m t theo (degree). S dch pha xy ra khi chu k ca tn hiu cha kt thc, v mt chu k mi ca tn hiu bt u trc khi chu k trc cha hon tt. Tn hiu s: L tn hiu m bin ch c mt trong hai gi tr duy nht, tng ng vi hai trng thi logic c trng bi hai s 0 v 1 trong h nh phn. H thng truyn tn hiu ny l h thng truyn nh phn.

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Tn hiu s bao gm ch hai trng thi, c din t vi hai trng thi ON hay OFF hoc l 0 hay 1. Tn hiu s yu cu kh nng bng thng ln hn tn hiu tng t Cc vn khi truyn d liu: Thng dng tn hiu s cho d liu s v tn hiu tng t cho d liu tng t C th dng tn hiu tng t mang d liu s C th dng tn hiu s mang d liu tng t Bit Interval v Bit Rate: Hu ht cc tn hiu s l khng tun hon, chu k v tn s khng xc nh. Hai khi nim t ra y l Bit Interval v Bit Rate. Bit Interval l khong thi gian cn thit gi mt bit. Bit Rate l s lng Bit Interval trong 1 giy, theo cch ni khc, Bit Rate l s bit c gi i trong 1 giy (bps).

1.2 M ha d liu D liu lu tr trong mt my tnh l dng cc bt 0 v 1. c th mang c t ni ny sang ni khc ( trong hoc ngoi my tnh), th d liu thng c chuyn i sang dng tn hiu s. iu ny c gi l s chuyn i tn hiu s sang tn hiu s (digital to digital D/D) hoc m ho d liu s sang tn hiu s. i lc chng ta cn chuyn i mt tn hiu tng t (v d on ni chuyn trong in thoi) sang tn hiu s v mt vi l do no nh gim bt hiu ng ca ting n. iu ny c gi l s chuyn tn hiu tng t sang tn hiu s (A/D) hoc s ho mt tn hiu tng t. Vo lc khc chng ta li cn chuyn mt tn hiu s t u ra ca mt my tnh qua mt phng tin truyn thng c thit k cho dng tn hiu tng t. V d nh vic gi tn hiu t ni ny n ni khc qua mng in thoi cng cng, tn hiu s cung cp bi my tnh s c chuyn sang tn hiu tng t. iu ny c gi l bin i tng t sang s hay iu ch tn hiu s. Thng th mt tn hiu tng t c truyn qua mt khong cch di s dng phng tin truyn thng tng t. V d m thanh, m nhc t mt trm radio, bn thn n l mt tn hiu tng t c pht qua khng kh. Tuy nhin, tn s ca m thanh hoc m nhc khng thch hp cho vic truyn pht. Tn hiu pht i phi c mang bi mt tn hiu c tn s cao hn. iu ny c gi l bin i tng t sang tng t (A/A) hay iu ch tn hiu tng t.
Cc phng thc chuyn i

S/s (D/D)

Tng t/s (A/D)

S/tng t (D/A)

Tng t/tng t (A/A)

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1.2.1 D liu s - Tn hiu s Chuyn i hoc m ho s / s l s miu t thng tin dng s sang mt tn hiu s. V d khi chng ta truyn tn hiu t my tnh n my in, c hai d liu gc v d liu c truyn u dng s. Trong kiu m ho ny cc s nh phn 0 v 1 pht ra bi my tnh c chuyn thnh cc xung in th, cc xung ny c th truyn c qua dy dn in.

01011101

M ho s /s Trong rt nhiu k thut m ho s / s, chng ta ch bn n nhng k thut hu dng nht cho vic truyn thng d liu. C 3 loi ph bin: n cc, cc v lng cc c ch ra nh hnh di. M ho s / s

n cc

Cc

Lng cc

M ho n cc: l dng n gin vi ch mt k thut c s dng. M ho cc: c 3 kiu con: NRZ, RZ, v biphase. Hai trong s chng c nhng s bit i phc tp. M ho lng cc c ba s bin i: AMI, B8ZS, v HDB3. 1.2.1.1. M ho n cc M ho n cc rt n gin v th s. Tnh n gin ca n cung cp s ch dn d dng lm c s pht trin cho cc h thng m ho phc tp hn v cho php chng ta nghin cu cc loi bi ton m bt k h thng truyn s no cng phi thc hin. H thng truyn s lm vic da trn xung in cng vi mt kt ni trung gian, thng l dy dn hoc cp. Trong hu ht cc kiu m ho, mc in p cao thp ng vi gi tr nh phn 1 hoc 0. Tnh c cc ca mt xung m ch vic la chn l cc dng hay cc m. M ho n cc c tn nh vy l bi v n ch s dng mt cc. Tnh c cc ny ch nh 1 trong 2 trng thi 0 hoc 1 (thng l 1). Trng thi cn li (thng l 0) c i din bi in p 0. M ho n cc ch s dng mt mc in p (mc in p dng hoc m). Bin

thi gian Trong v d ny, m nh phn 1 c m ho ng vi gi tr dng v m nh phn 0 c m ho ng vi gi tr 0. Hn na vic m ho n cc khng phc tp v d thc hin. Tuy nhin, m ho n cc c t nht 2 vn lm cho n t mong mun: thnh phn mt chiu v s ng b ho. Thnh phn mt chiu (DC): Bin trung bnh ca mt tn hiu m ho n cc l khc 0. iu ny to ra thnh phn dng mt chiu (DC) mt thnh phn c tn s bng 0. Khi mt tn hiu cha thnh phn DC, n khng th truyn i m khng x l. -6-

ng b ho: Khi mt tn hiu khng n nh, bn nhn khng th xc nh im u v im cui ca mi bit. V th vn ng b ho trong vic m ho n cc c th xy ra bt c khi no dng d liu gm mt lot cc ch s 0 hoc 1. Qu trnh s ho dng s thay i mc in p ch ra s thay i gi tr bit. S thay i tn hiu cng ch ra rng mt bit va kt thc v mt bit mi bt u. Tuy nhin trong m ho n cc mt lot cc bt cng gi tr, nh 7 s 1, tc l khng c s thay i in p, mc in p dng khng b ph v sau 7 ln min l nhn gi tr bit 1. Bt c khi no khng c tn hiu thay i ch ra im bt u ca bit tip theo trong chui, bn nhn phi da trn mt mc thi gian. Chng hn vi tc bit 1000 bps, nu bn nhn xc nh mt in p dng tr 0.005s, m tc c 1 bt l 0.001s, hay 5 bit. S thiu ng b gia ng h ca bn nhn v bn gi lm sai lch thi gian ca tn hiu, v d 5 bt 1 b ko di thnh 0.006s, v do bn nhn s hiu thnh 6 bt 1. Mt bit ph trong dng d liu gy ra mi th sau khi n c gii m nhm. Mt gii php c pht trin iu khin vic ng b ho trong truyn pht mt cc l s dng mt du tch, mc song song mt ng mang mt xung ng h v cho php bn nhn phn chia ng b ho li thi gian ca n. Nhng vic nhn i s ng s dng cho truyn pht ng ngha vi vic lm tng chi ph v v vy s khng kinh t. 1.2.1.2. M ho cc: M ho cc s dng 2 mc in th, mt in p dng v mt in p m. Bng vic s dng c 2 mc, trong phng php m ho cc, mc in th trung bnh trn ng truyn c gim xung v vn v thnh phn DC ca m ho n cc v th c gim nh. Trong m ho Manchester v Manchester vi sai (xem trang sau), mi bit gm c c hai in th dng v in th m, v vy thnh phn DC hon ton c th loi ra. M ho cc s dng 2 mc bin (mc dng v mc m) Trong s rt nhiu kiu m ho cc a dng, chng ta s ch kim tra 3 kiu thng dng nht: nonreturn to zero (NRZ), return to zero (RZ), v biphase. M ho NRZ bao gm 2 cch: nonreturn to zero, level (NRZ-L), v nonreturn to zero, invest (NRZ-I). Biphase cng c 2 phng php. u tin, Manchester l phng php c s dng bi mng LAN. K n, Manchester vi sai, l phng thc c s dng bi mng Token Ring LAN Polar

NRZ

RZ

Biphase

NRZ-L

NRZ-I

Manchester

Manchester vi sai

M ho Nonreturn to Zero (NRZ): Trong m ho NRZ, mc ca tn hiu lun l dng hoc m. Hai phng thc thng dng nht ca vic truyn pht NRZ c trnh by nh sau: M ho NRZ-L: Trong m ho NRZ-L, mc ca tn hiu ph thuc vo kiu ca bit m n trnh by. in th dng quy c l bit 0, tn hiu in th m quy c l bit 1; theo cch mc ca tn hiu ph thuc vo trng thi ca cc bit. Trong NRZ-L mc ca tn hiu ph thuc vo trng thi ca bit -7-

Mt vn c th ny sinh khi c mt dy di cc bit 0 v 1 trong d liu. Bn nhn nhn mt dng in th lin tc v c th xc nh c bao nhiu bit c gi da vo ng h ca chng, iu ny c th c ng b hoc khng c ng b vi ng h ngi gi. M ho NRZ-I: Trong NRZ-I . Mt s o ngc ca in th miu t mt bit 1. S chuyn i trng thi gia in th dng v in th m a ra mt bit 1. Mt bit 0 c miu t nh mt s khng thay i. NRZ-I tt hn NRZ-L v s ng b ho cung cp bi s thay i tn hiu trong mi thi im mt bit 1 gp phi. Hin trng ca chui bit 1 trong lung d liu cho php bn nhn ng b ho thi gian ca n n ni nhn thc s ca vic truyn. Mt chui bit 0 c th gy ra vn , tuy nhin do cc bt 0 khng hn nh vy, chng gim thiu vn xy ra. Trong NRZ-I cc tn hiu c o ngc nu mt bit 1 c gp. Bin 0 NRZ-L 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 thi gian

NRZ-I

thi gian

Trong chui NRZ-L, in th dng v m c ngha r rng; dng i vi 0 v m i vi 1. Trong chui NRZ-I , bn nhn tm kim s thay i t mt mc ny n mc khc nh l c s nhn ra bt 1. M ho Return to Zero (RZ) Nh chng ta c th thy, bt c thi im no th d liu gc cng cha ng cc s 1 v khng lin tip nhau. Bn nhn c th mt v tr ca n. V nh chng ta cp n trong phn tho lun v m ho n cc, mt cch m bo ng b ho l gi cc tn hiu thi gian phn tch trn mt knh phn tch. Tuy nhin gii php ny s lm tng chi ph ng thi d xy ra li ca bn thn chng. Mt gii php tt hn l bng cch no cha ng vic ng b ho trong tn hiu m ho. Mt vi th ging nh gii php c cung cp bi NRZ-I, nhng kh nng trnh by trnh by chui 0 v 1 l nh nhau. Gi tr 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 Thi gian

m bo vic ng b ho, cn phi c mt tn hiu thay i cho mi bit. Bn nhn c th s dng nhng thay i ny xy dng, cp nht v ng b ho ng h ca n. Nh chng ta bit trn, NRZ-I thc hin iu ny cho mt chui tun t cc bt 1. Nhng thay i vi mi bit, chng ta cn phi c nhiu hn 2 mc. Mt gii php l m ho theo kiu Return to Zero (RZ), bng vic s dng 3 gi tr: dng, m v khng. Trong RZ, nhng thay i tn hiu khng phi gia cc bt, nhng trong mi bit. Ging nh NRZ-8-

L, in th dng c ngha l 0, v in th m c ngha l 1. Trong khong thi gian ca mt na bit, mt na tn hiu cn li tr v 0. Mt bit 1 thc t c miu t l dng-0 v mt bit 0 c miu t l m -0 s tt hn ch c mt mnh dng v m. S bt li chnh ca m ho RZ l i hi 2 thay i tn hiu m ho 1 bit, v v vy n chim gi gii rng hn. Tuy nhin c ba kh nng chng ta kim tra tt hn, l hiu qu tt nht. M ha Biphase: C l gii php tt nht cho n nay gii quyt vn ng b ho l m ho Biphase. Trong phng php ny s thay i tn hiu trong khong thi gian ca mi bit nhng khng tr v 0. Thay vo n chuyn sang cc i din. Ging nh RZ, gia khong thi gian truyn cho php ng b ho. M ho Biphase c b sung l: Manchester v Manchester vi sai. Manchester: M ho Manchester s dng cch o ngc mi bt trong khong thi gian ca n ng b v miu t bit. Vic chuyn trng thi m-dng tng ng vi bt 1 v dng-m tng ng vi bt 0. y ta s dng vic mt chuyn trng thi n cho hai mc ch. M ho Manchester t c theo mc ca ng b ho nh RZ, nhng ch c 2 gi tr bin . Manchester vi sai: Trong Manchester vi sai vic o ngc trong khong thi gian ca mi bt c s dng cho vn ng b ho, nhng s c mt hoc thiu vng ca vic bin i c thm vo u trong khong thi gian tm ngng c s dng xc nh cho bit. Mt s bin i c ngha l bt 0 v s khng bin i c ngha l bt 1. Manchester vi sai yu cu 2 s thay i tn hiu trnh by bt 0 nhng ch c 1 trnh by bit 1. Bin
Thi gian

Manchester

Manchester vi sai

Thi gian

1.2.1.3 M ho lng cc: M ho lng cc, ging nh RZ, s dng 3 mc in th: dng, m v 0. Tuy nhin khng ging nh RZ, mc 0 trong m ho lng cc c s dng miu t bit 0, cn bt 1 ng vi in th m hoc dng. Nu u tin mt bit c miu t bi bin dng, th bt 1 th hai s c miu t bin m, cn bt 1 th ba li c miu t bng bin dng... Vic lun phin ny xut hin c khi cc bit 1 ri rc nhau. Ba kiu ca m ho lng cc thng thng truyn thng d liu l: AMI, B8ZS, v HDB3 Lng cc

AMI

B8ZS

HDB3 -9-

 M ho AMI (o du xen k lng cc): M ha AMI l kiu m ho lng cc n gin nht; trong tn gi ca n; t du xut pht t in tn v c ngha l 1. V vy AMI c ngha l o 1 xen k nhau. Mt v tr trung lp, in th 0 s trnh by bt 0. Nhng bt 1 c miu t bi cc in p dng m an xen nhau. Hnh 5.10 a ra v d ny.
Bin

0
Thi gian

Mt s bin i ca AMI c gi l gi ba bc vi bt 0 nm xen k gia in th dng v in th m. Vi vic o ln trong mi ln xut hin ca 1, AMI t c 2 mc ch: th nht cc thnh phn DC l 0, v th 2 mt dy di cc s 1 c ng b ho. Khng c k thut no chc chn vic ng b ho cho mt chui di cc s 0. Hai bin i ca AMI va c pht trin gii quyt vn ng b ho chui 0, c bit cho vic truyn pht khong cch ln. u tin, c s dng Bc M, c gi l B8ZS (lng cc thay th 8-zero). Th hai, c s dng Nht v Chu u, c gi l HDB3 (lng cc mt cao 3). C hai kiu ny u l s thch nghi vi AMI m ch thay i mu gc trong trng hp c nhiu chui 0 lin tip. B8ZS: B8ZS l mt s tho thun c chp nhn Bc M cung cp vic ng b ho cho chui 0. Trong tt c cc tnh hung, cc chc nng B8ZS tng t nh ca AMI. AMI thay i cc vi mi 1 gp phi. Nhng thay i ny cung cp s ng b ho cn thit bi bn nhn. Nhng tn hiu khng thay i trong sut chui 0, v vy vic ng b ho thng b mt. S khc nhau gia B8ZS v AMI xut hin bt c khi no c 8 hoc nhiu hn cc bt 0 lin tip gp phi trong dng d liu. Gii php cung cp bi B8ZS l p t s thay i tn hiu gi bn trong chui 0 (c gi l violation). mi thi im c 8 bit 0 xut hin lin tip, B8ZS a vo nhng thay i trong mu da trn s khc bit ca bit 1 trc (1 ch xut hin pha trc ca chui 0).

Nu bt 1 trc l dng, 8 bt 0 s c m ho l 0, 0, 0, +, -, 0, -, +. Hy nh rng bn nhn ang tm kim s thay i xc nh 1. Khi n thy c 2 in tch dng lin tip bao quanh 3 bt 0, n nhn ra mu, tnh ton v a vo violation khng gy ra li. Sau - 10 -

n tm kim phn cn li ca nhng violation trng i. Khi tm thy chng, bn nhn chuyn 8 bt thnh 0 v quay tr li ch AMI thng thng. Nu cc ca bt 1 trc l m, mu ca cc violation s l tng t nhng o ngc li cc. C mu dng v m c ch ra trong hnh 1.13. HDB3: Vn ng b ho chui lin tip cc s 0 c gii quyt Nht v Chu u khc vi M. Quy c ny, gi l HDB3, a s thay i vo mu AMI mi thi im 4 bt 0 lin tip thay cho 8 bit nh ca Bc M. Mc d tn gi ca n l HDB3, cc mu thay i bt c khi no c 4 bt 0 lin tip.

Nh trong B8ZS, mu ca cc violation trong HDB3 c da trn s phn cc ca bt 1 trc . Tuy nhin khc vi B8ZS, HDB3 cng nhn vo s cc bt 1 va xut hin trong dng bt k t ln thay th cui cng. Bt c khi no s ca bt 1 k t ln thay th cui cng l l, B8ZS y mt violation vo v tr th 4 ca cc bt 0 lin tip. Nu s phn cc ca bt trc l dng, violation l dng. Nu s phn cc ca bit trc l m, violation l m. Bt c khi no s ca bt 1 k t ln thay th cui cng l chn, B8ZS y violation vo v tr u tin v v tr th 4 ca cc bt 0 lin tip. Nu cc ca bt trc l dng, c hai violation l m. Nu cc ca bit trc l m, c hai violation l dng. V d 1: S dng B8ZS, m ho dng bt 10000000000100; p dng vi cc ca bt 1 u tin l 1. Bin 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 Thi gian

V d 2: S dng HDB3, m ho dng bt 10000000000100; p dng vi s cc bt 1 trc n l chn v bt 1 u tin l dng. Bin 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 Thi gian

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1.2.2. D liu tng t tn hiu s i khi chng ta cn s ho mt tn hiu tng t. V d gi ging ni ca con ngi trong mt khong cch xa. Chng ta cn s ho n gim nhiu v n. Vn ny c gi l chuyn i tn hiu tng t v tn hiu s hoc l s ho tn hiu tng t.

Analog/Digital conversion (codec)

Trong s chuyn i t tn hiu tng t v tn hiu s, chng ta a ra cc thng tin di dng sng lin tc nh l mt dy nhp ca cc tn hiu s (1s hoc 0s). Chuyn i tn hiu tng t v tn hiu s cn s dng mt vi tn hiu s c trnh by ti phn 5.1. Cu trc ca s chuyn i l khng c vn g. Vn l lm nh th no chuyn cc thng tin t s lng ln cc gi tr ti s ri rc ca cc gi tr m khng nh hng ti gic quan con ngi v cht lng ca tn hiu. 1.1.1.1.iu ch bin xung (Pulse Amplitude Modulation - PAM) Bc u tin trong qu trnh chuyn i tn hiu tng t v tn hiu s c gi l iu ch bin xung. K thut ny thao tc vi tn hiu thng t, n gin n v to ra nhng di ca xung c bn c kt qu mu tn hiu tng t. Thut ng mu c ngha l n v bin ca tn hiu trong 1 khong thi gian l bng nhau. L thuyt mu c dng trong iu ch bin xung l hiu qu hn trong cc vng khc ca nng lng, n l d liu truyn thng. Tuy nhin PAM l nn tng quan trng trong chuyn i tn hiu tng t v tn hiu s l thuyt ny c gi l iu ch xung theo m (pulse code modulation - PCM) Trong PAM, tn hiu ban du l mu ti thi gian ngh bng nhau Amplitude Amplitude

Time a. Anaglog signal b. PAM signal

Time

PAM gi l k thut mu v gi. hin ti, cp tn hiu l c, tip theo l tr gip tng hp. Nhng mu gi tr xy ra ch trong s xut hin ca sng, nhng nhn chung kt qu trong PAM vn cn ngn. L do PAM khng hu dng trong d liu truyn thng l, mc d n truyn i sng gc t mt di ca xung, nhng xung ny vn cn c bin (vn l tn hiu tng t, khng phi l tn hiu s). to ra tn hiu s chng ta phi sa i chng bng cch dng PCM. Lu : PAM c mt vi ng dng, nhng bn thn n khng dng trong d liu truyn thng. Tuy nhin y l bc quan trng ph bin u tin trong l thuyt chuyn i v c gi l PCM. 1.2.2.2. iu ch xung theo m (PCM) PCM sa i vn to ra xung bng PAM hon thnh mt tn hiu s. Lm nh vy, PCM u tin lng t ho nhng xung ca PAM. S lng t l l thuyt tha hng nhng gi tr trong mt dy bit ti mu c bit. - 12 -

Amplitude

+127

+125 +110 +90 +88 +77

+38 +24

+48 +39 +26

+52

-15

Time

-50

-80 Hnh 1.18 trnh by 1 mu phng thc ca tha k tn hiu v gi tr ln lng t ho mu. Mi gi tr chuyn i vo tng ng 7 bt nh phn. Bt th 8 l bt du (+ l 0 v l 1). +024 00011000 -015 10001111 +125 01111101 +038 +048 +039 +026 00100110 00110000 00100111 00011010 -080 -050 +052 +127 11010000 10110010 00110110 01111111 +110 +090 +088 +077 01101110 01011010 01011000 01001101

Tc ly mu (Sampling Rate). Nh chng ta thy t cc hnh v trc, s chnh xc ca mi tn hiu s c ti to li t cc tn hiu tng t ph thuc vo s mu em theo. S dng PAM v PCM chng ta ti to li sng chnh xc bng cch em theo s lng mu khng xc nh, hoc chng ta c th ti to s pht ra trng khng ca chnh n. R rng chng ta mun tm mt s u trn trc s. Nh vy, cu hi l C bao nhiu mu th ? Trn thc t, rt t thng tin ng ch cho vic gi v nhn to li cu trc ca tn hiu tng t. Theo nh l Nyquist m bo tnh chnh xc trong s ti to tn hiu tng t nguyn bn ta s dng PAM, s tc ly mu phi tin hnh hai ln tn s cao nht ca tn hiu gc. Nh vy, nu chng ta mun mu ging ni in thoi vi tn s ln nht 4000 Hz, chng ta cn tc ly mu ca 8000 mu trn 1 giy. Lu : Theo nh l Nyquist, s tc ly mu t nht phi tin hnh 2 ln tn s cao nht. Mt s tc ly mu hai ln tn s x Hz c ngha tn hiu phi c ly mu mi x giy. Dng ging ni qua ng dy in thoi trn l mt v d, iu ny c ngha l mt mu mi 1/8000 giy. hiu r hn v nh l xt v d sau: Tc ly mu l bao nhiu di bng rng 10000 Hz (1000 ti 11000)? - 13 -

Gii: Tc ly mu hai ln tn s cao nht ca tn hiu Tc ly mu = 2(11000) = 22000 mu/giy. Amplitude Tn s cao nht = x Hz Tc mu = 2x mu/giy

Time

Thi gian gia 2 mu = x

Bao nhiu bit cho mt mu? Sau khi chng ta tm c tc ly mu, chng ta cn xc nh s bit cn truyn cho mi mu. iu ny phc thuc vo mc ca chnh xc cn thit. S bit l nhng la chn cho tn hiu gc cn ti to vi chnh xc mong mun trong bin . V d: Mt tn hiu l mu, mi mu yu cu t nht 12 mc ca chnh xc (+0 n +5 v 0 n -5). Bao nhiu bit s c gi cho mi mu? Gii: Chng ta cn 4 bit: 1 bit cho du v 3 bit cho gi tr. 3 bit gi tr c th biu din bng 23 = 8 mc (000 n 111), iu l nhiu hn ci ta cn. Vi 2 bit gi tr l khng v 22 = 4. Vi 4 bit gi tr th qu ln v 2 4 = 16(tha qu nhiu). Tc Bit (Bit Rate). Sau khi tm c s bit trn mi mu, ta cn tnh ton Bit Rate theo cng thc: Bit Rate = Tc ly mu x S bit trn mi mu V d: Chng ta mun s ho ging ni con ngi. Bit Rate l g? vi gi thit 8 bit trn mt mu. Gii: Ging ni bnh thng ca ngi thng tn s t 0 n 4000 nh vy tc ly mu l: Tc ly mu = 2 x 4000 = 8000 mu/giy. Bit Rate c th tnh ton nh sau: Bit Rate = Tc ly mu x S bit trn mt mu = 8000x8 = 64000 bit/s = 64 Kbps. 1.2.3. D liu s - Tn hiu tng t Bin i D/A (hay cn gi l iu bin D/A) l qu trnh thay i mt trong nhng c trng ca tn hiu tng t da vo thng tin trong tn hiu s (0 v 1). Khi truyn d liu t mt my tnh n my tnh khc qua ng in thoi cng cng, chng hn nh: d liu gc l s, nhng v cc ng dy in thoi mang cc tn hiu tng t, nn d liu phi c chuyn i. D liu s phi c iu bin thnh tn hiu tng t, iu c thc hin trng nh hai gi tr phn bit tng ng vi s nh phn 0 v 1. - 14 -

C nhiu thit b bin i D/A, nhng chng ta s ch bn n nhng thit b c li nht cho vic truyn d liu. Mt tn hiu hnh sin c 3 c trng: bin , tn s v pha. Khi thay i mt trong 3 c trng ny, ta s to c phin bn mi ca tn hiu hnh sin . Chng hn tn hiu gc l mc 1, c th bin i thnh mc 0 hoc ngc li. V th, bng s thay i lin tc hnh dng ca mt tn hiu in n gin, ta c th dng n m t d liu s. Bt c ba c trng trn c th c thay i theo cch ny, a cho ta t nht 3 thit b bin i d liu s thnh tn hiu tng t: ASK (Amplitude Shift Keying - di bin ). FSK (Frequency Shift Keying - di tn s). PSK (Phase Shift Keying - di pha). Hn na, thit b th t tt hn c l thay i hn hp ca c bin , tn s v pha c gi l b iu ch bin cu phng QAM (Quadrature Amplitude Modulation). QAM l hiu qu nht so 3 thit b trc, v l thit b c dng trong tt c cc MODEM hin i (hnh 5.23).

Cc thnh phn ca b bin i D/A: Trc khi tho lun cc phng php c th bin i D/A, c hai vn c bn phi c nh ngha: tc truyn bit/baud v tn hiu mang. Bit Rate and Baud Rate: Hai thut ng c dng thng xuyn trong vic truyn d liu l bit rate v baud rate. Bit rate l s bit c truyn trong mt giy. Baud rate ch ra s n v tn hiu trn mt giy c yu cu m t nhng bit . Khi tho lun v hiu qu my tnh, th bit rate l quan trng hn, v ta mun bit thi gian x l tng mu tin.Tuy nhin, trong vic truyn d liu, th ch trng n tnh hiu qu ca vic chuyn d liu t ni ny n ni khc trong cc mu tin hay cc khi tin. Cc n v tn hiu t hn c yu cu l hiu qu hn cho h thng v bng thng hp hn c yu cu truyn cc bit; v vy, chng ta ch trng hn vo baud rate. Baud rate xc nh bng thng yu cu gi tn hiu. Baud rate = Bit rate / (s bt trn mt n v tn hiu) 1.2.3.1 iu ch bin (ASK) Cng tn hiu mang c bin i sang dng s nh phn 0 hoc 1. Trng hp ny tn s v pha l khng i trong khi bin thay i. in p biu din mc 1 v m t mc 0 l sang tri vi h thng. Khong thi gian 1 bit l l giai on c nh ngha l 1 bit. nh bin ca tn hiu trong sut khong thi gian mi bt l khng i v s thay i ca n ph thuc vo bit (0 hoc 1). Tc truyn dng ASK b gii hn bi cc tnh cht vt l ca mi trng truyn. - 15 -

Khng may, vic truyn ASK l nhy cm cao vi nhiu. Thut ng ting n (nhiu) m ch n in p khng nh trc can thip vo ng truyn bi cc hin tng khc nh l s nng ln hay in t c sinh ra bi cc ngun khc. Cc in p khng nh trc ny trn ln vi tn hiu lm thay i bin . Mc 0 c th b i thnh mc 1 hoc ngc li. R rng nhiu l vn kh gii quyt i vi ASK, do ch c da vo bin nhn bit. Nhiu thng tc ng ln bin ; v th ASK l phng php iu ch b nh hng nht bi nhiu. K thut ASK ph bin c gi l OOK (on-off-keying). Vi OOK, cc gi tr bit c m t khng theo in p. S tin b l gim bt trong nng lc yu cu truyn thng tin. 1.2.3.2 iu ch tn s (FSK) Tn s tn hiu mang c bin i m t cc ch s nh phn 0 hoc 1. Tn s tn hiu mang trong sut thi gian mi bit l khng i, gi tr ca ph thuc vo bit 0 hoc 1: cn li bin v pha l khng i. FSK trnh c hu ht cc vn nhiu ca ASK. Bi v thit b nhn coi tn s tiu biu thay i qua s chu k cho, n c th b qua cc nh in p. Cc yu t gii hn ca FSK l mi trng vt l ca sng mang. Bng thng FSK Mc d FSK dch gia 2 tn s mang, n d phn tch thnh 2 tn s trong cng thi im. Ta c th ni ph FSK l s hn hp ca 2 ph ASK tp trung quanh tn s f c0 v fc1. bng thng yu cu cho vic truyn FSK bng tc baud rate ca tn hiu cng vi tn s dch (khc nhau gia hai tn s mang): BW = (fc1-fc0) + Nbaud.

1.2.3.3 iu ch pha (PSK) Pha ca sng mang c bin i biu din sang s nh phn 0 hoc 1. C bin v tn s l khng i, cn pha th thay i. V d, nu ta bt u vi mt pha 0 o m t bt 0, th ta c th thay i pha sang 180 o gi s nh phn 1. Pha ca tn hiu trong sut thi gian mi bt l khng i v gi tr ca n ph thuc vo bit 0 hoc 1. - 16 -

Phng php trn thng c gi l 2-PSK hoc PSK nh phn, bi v 2 pha khc nhau (0o v 180o) c dng. Hnh 5.30 ch r iu ny bng mi quan h gia pha sang gi tr bit. S th hai, c gi l chm sao (constellation) hoc s trng thi pha, ch ra cng mi quan h c minh ho ch bng cc pha. 1.3 Cc phng php truyn tin 1.3.1 Cu trc knh truyn Truyn song song (Parallel) Mi bit dng mt ng truyn ring. Nu c 8 bits c truyn ng thi s yu cu 8 ng truyn c lp truyn d liu trn mt ng truyn song song, mt knh truyn ring c dng thng bo cho bn nhn bit khi no d liu c sn (clock signal) Cn thm mt knh truyn khc bn nhn bo cho bn gi bit l sn sng nhn d liu k tip

Truyn ni tip (Serial) Tt c cc bit u c truyn trn cng mt ng truyn, bit ny tip theo sau bit kia Khng cn cc ng truyn ring cho tn hiu ng b v tn hiu bt tay (cc tn hiu ny c m ha vo d liu truyn i)

- 17 -

C hai cch truyn ni tip: Bt ng b: Khi truyn bt ng b ngi ta pht tng k hiu ring r, cch bit nhau v phn bit cc k t ngi ta thm tn hiu u (start) v cui (stop) vo mi k t. ng b: Khi truyn ng b nhn bit gi tr cc thi im l 0 hay 1 cn phi c tn hiu xung clock gi l tn hiu ng b. Tn hiu ng b c chu k l T, ngha l mi giy 1 ngun s cung cp bits. T 1.3.2 Ch truyn tin Mch n cng (mt chiu: simplex): thng tin ch c th truyn t ngun sang thit b thu m chiu ngc li khng th thc hin c. V d: d liu c truyn t my tnh sang my in.
Simplex operation

One-way only

Mch bn song cng (hai chiu ngt qung: half duplex). Hai thit b u cui c th truyn d liu cho nhau ti nhng thi im khc nhau.
Half-duplex operation Two-way but not at the same time

Mch song cng (hai chiu ton phn: duplex). Hai thit b u cui c th truyn d liu cho nhau ng thi.
Full-duplex operation Both-way at the same time

CU HI V BI TP 1.1. Anh ch hy trnh by v cc loi tn hiu c s dng trong truyn dn hin nay. Nu cc c trng, u nhc im ca chng 1.2. Trnh by hiu bit ca anh ch v cc i lng lin quan n tn hiu truyn dn. Nu cc khc phc cc nhc im (nu c) 1.3. Trnh by hiu bit ca anh ch v cc phng thc truyn dn hin nay. Cc u nhc im ca cc phng thc ny. 1.4. Cho chui bt cn truyn: 1001 0111 0011 1010 1101 1111 0101 1101. Anh ch hy m ha chui bt trn theo phng php m ha NRZ-I, 3 bc, Manchester, FSK. 1.6.Cho chui k t cn truyn theo m ASCII m rng l TEST. Anh ch hy m ha chui k t trn theo phng php m ha NRZ, AMI, Manchester, FSK. 1.7.Tn hiu xung PAM c ly mu vi tc 12 KHz t tn hiu tng t dng sng hnh sin 1KHz. Hy xc nh xung PAM t nhin, xung PAM nh phng, Xung DM. 1.8. Mt my thu DM thu c chui bt nh phn: 1001 0111 0011 1010 1101 1111 0101 1101. Anh ch hy v tn hiu tng t tm kim xut hin ti u ra ca b tch phn - 18 -

Chng II: H THNG TRUYN THNG

2.1. Gii thiu v h thng truyn thng H thng truyn thng c hiu l mt h thng ton din gip truyn s liu t ni ny n ni khc. Xt m hnh mt h thng truyn thng tiu biu : Lut 1 Lut 2 Lut n
D liu

Lut 1 Lut 2 Lut n

Sender Mi trng truyn

Receiver

Khi xt mt h thng truyn thng ta xt ti cc yu t sau: Sender: h thng pht L h thng pht d liu. Receiver: h thng thu L h thng thu d liu nhn c t h thng pht Hnh trng mng (Topology): cu hnh chi tit ca ng truyn v cc hthng Giao thc mng (Protocol): Tp hp cc qui tc, qui c v phng thc truyn, v khun dng d liu m khi tham gia truyn thng cc thit b trong h thng phi tun th. Mi trng truyn: cc vt dn cho php d liu c truyn ti trn truyn t ni ny sang ni khc. D liu: Thng tin truyn c nh dng cc dng khc nhau. Cc dng thng thy ca thng tin gm: Text: H thng m ha u tin lin quan n vn bn l h thng m Morse, c s dng rng ri trc khi c my tnh.

y l mt b m nh phn s dng 2 k t chm (.) v gch (-) s ha vn bn (c th xem tng ng vi cc bit 0 v 1). Tuy nhin n c im bt li l ngho nn: t cc k t c m ha. N s dng s phi hp ca cc du gch v du chm vi di khc nhau, iu ny khng c tin li c bit cho cc k t c tn sut xut hin ging nhau. Chnh v th n khng c dng s ha thng tin. Nu chng ta qui nh rng s bit dng m ha cho mt k t phi bng nhau th vi p bit ta c th m ha cho 2p k t. Ngy nay, text c tn ti di dng 1 chui bit (0 hoc 1). Chui c s dng th hin 1 k t gi l - 19 -

m (code). Cc m Unicode thng s dng 16 hoc 32 bit biu din v m ASCII s dng 1 byte biu din. S: Biu din di dng 1 chui bit c gi tr nh phn tng ng vi gi tr s (Khng biu din di dng m ASCII)vd: 8 1000 Hnh nh tnh:nh s tht s l mt nh c v nn t cc ng thng v mi ng thng c xy dng bng cc im. Mt nh theo chun VGA vi phn gii 640x480 c ngha l mt ma trn gm 480 ng ngang v mi ng gm 640 im nh (pixel).

Mt im nh c m ha ty thuc vo cht lng ca nh: nh en trng: s dng mt bit m ha mt im: gi tr 0 cho im nh mu en v 1 cho im nh mu trng. nh gm 256 mc xm: mi im c th hin bng mt byte (8 bits ; nh mu: ngi ta chng minh rng mt mu l s phi hp ca ba mu c bn l (Red), xanh l (Green) v xanh dng (Blue). V th mt mu bt k c th c biu bin bi biu thc: x = aR + bG +cB Trong a, b, c l cc lng ca cc mu c bn. Thng thng mt nh p s c lng mu vi gi tr t 0 n 255. V nh th, mt nh mu thuc loi ny c th hin bng 3 ma trn tng ng cho 3 loi mu c bn. Mi phn t ca mng c gi tr ca 8 bits. Chnh v th cn c 24 bit m ha cho mt im nh mu. Kch thc ca cc nh mu l ng k, v th ngi ta cn c phng php m ha gim kch thc ca cc nh. m thanh v video: D liu kiu m thanh v video thuc kiu tn hiu tun t. Cc tn hiu tun t c s ha theo cch thc sau y: 1 - Ly mu Tn hiu c ly mu: vi tn s f, ta o bin ca tn hiu, nh th ta c mt lot cc s o. 2 - Lng ha Ta xc nh mt thang o vi cc gi tr l ly tha ca 2 (2p) v thc hin vic ly tng ng cc s o vo gi tr thang o. 3- M ha Mi mt gi tr sau c m ha thnh cc gi tr nh phn v t vo trong cc tp tin. 111110101110110010...... - 20 -

Dung lng tp tin nhn c ph thuc hon ton vo tn s ly mu f v s lng bit dng m ha gi tr thang o p (chiu di m cho mi gi tr). 2.2 H thng truyn s liu
Nhiu

Mi trng
G(t)

S(t) m(t)

G(t)

m(t)

S(t)

DTE

DCE

DCE

DTE

DTE (Data Terminal Equipment): thit b u cui d liu vi chc nng truyn cc d liu t ngi (ti ngi dng) s dng di dng s hoc tng t DCE (Data Circuit_Terminal Equipment): thit b chuyn i d liu vi chc nng chuyn i cc tn hiu t DTE sang dng tng thch vi mi trng truyn. Nhiu:

. .

. .

,m

. Trong h thng trn , cc tn hiu tng ng: S(t) S(t) M(t) M(t) G(t) G(t) Nu cc tn hiu tng ng cng khc xa nhau chng t s nh hng ca nhiu vi h thng cng ln. - 21 -

Vd: H thng internet ADSL s dng trn h thng thoi vn c:

Knh thoi

Model

Model

Phn loi h thng truyn s liu: A- Phn loi theo a l: 1) Mng cc b: 2) Mng din rng: 3) Mng ton cu: B- Phn loi theo tnh cht s dng 1) Mng truyn s liu k sinh: 2) Mng truyn s liu chuyn dng: C- Phn loi theo hnh trng mng 1) Mng tuyn tnh: 2) Mng hnh sao: 3) Mng vng: 4) Mng hn hp D- Phn loi theo k thut 1) Mng chuyn mch knh: 2) Mng chuyn mch thng bo: 3) Mng chuyn mch gi: E- Phn loi theo kin trc phn tng mng: 1) Mng OSI 2) Mng ring cng ty 3) Mng theo kin trc TCP/IP 4) . 2.3. Cc h thng truyn s liu thng gp :

- 22 -

: : : . : . 2.3.2. 2 bit 0-1) thp /D )

thp thp

/A

: . (baud rate). 1 giy. 2.3.3.

knh Ch ny hot ng theo m hnh ca h thng in thoi. c th giao tip vi my B, my A phi thc hin mt cuc gi (call). Nu my B chp nhn cuc gi, mt knh o c thit lp dnh ring cho thng tin trao i gia A v B. Tt c cc ti nguyn c cp cho cuc gi ny nh bng thng ng truyn, kh nng ca cc b hon chuyn thng tin u c dnh ring cho cuc gi, khng chia s cho cc cuc gi khc, mc d c nhng khong ln thi gian hai bn giao tip im lng. Ti nguyn (bng thng) s c chia thnh nhiu nhng phn bng nhau v s gn cho cc cuc gi. Khi cuc gi s hu mt phn ti nguyn no , mc d khng s dng n n cng khng chia s ti nguyn ny cho cc cuc gi khc. Vic phn chia bng thng ca knh truyn thnh nhng phn c th c thc hin bng mt trong hai k thut: Phn chia theo tn s (FDM Frequency Division Multi Access) hay phn chia theo thi gian (TDMA- Time Division Multi Access).

- 23 -

2.3.2 Trong phng php ny, thng tin trao i gia hai my tnh (end systems) c phn thnh nhng gi tin (packet) c kch thc ti a xc nh. Gi tin ca nhng ngi dng khc nhau (v d ca A v B) s chia s nhau bng thng ca knh tr hut lu v chuyn tip (store and forward), tc lu li cc gi tin cha gi gi chng i.

2.4. Mi trng truyn tin Trong h thng truyn d liu, mi trng truyn dn l ng truyn vt l gia ni gi v ni nhn. Phng tin truyn thng c phn lm hai loi l c dn v khng dn. Trong c loi trn, truyn thng thc cht l truyn sng in t. Vi phng tin truyn c dn, sng in t c truyn dc theo mt phng tin truyn dn nh cp xon i, cp ng trc hay cp quang. Kh quyn v khng gian xung quanh ta c xem nh l v d v phng tin truyn khng dn, iu c ngha l cc tn hiu in t c truyn i nhng khng theo mt hng nht nh v n thng c gi l mng khng dy. Cc c trng v cht lng ca vic truyn d liu c xc nh bng c cht lng ca phng tin truyn dn v ca tn hiu truyn dn. i vi mi trng truyn c dn, phng tin truyn dn l thnh phn quan trng xc nh gii hn truyn dn. Vi phng tin truyn khng dn, bng thng ca tn hiu dc cung cp bi ng ten quan trng hn mi trng truyn dn. c tnh ca tn hiu c truyn bi ng ten l nh hng hoc a hng. Thng thng th cc tn hiu c tn s thp thng l a hng, iu c ngha l cc tn hiu c pht theo mi hng t ng ten. Vi cc tn hiu c tn s cao, cc tn hiu c tp trung truyn theo mt ng thng. Trong khi thit k mt h thng truyn d liu th vn cn c quan tm l tc truyn d liu v khong cch truyn d liu - 24 -

2.4.1 Mt s khi nim Bng thng: Nu bng thng cng ln th tc truyn d liu t cng mt ngun cng cao. Cc h hi truyn dn: Cc h hi nh l s suy gim, gii hn khong cch, vi mi trng truyn c dy, thng thng th cp xon i c s h hi v tn hiu ln hn cp ng trc, v cp ng trc li b h hi tn hiu nhiu hn cp quang. Nhiu giao thoa: S xung t ca cc tn hiu trong cng mt di tn c th lam sai lch hoc lm mt cc tn hiu. Nhiu giao thoa l c trng ring ca cc phng tin truyn khng dy, tuy nhin n cng l mt vn i vi phng tin truyn c dy. Vi phng tin truyn c dy, nhiu giao thoa c th gy ra bi cc cp gn nhau.V d cp xon i thng b li vi nhau, v mt ng dn thng cha nhiu cp do s dn n nhiu. Nhiu giao thoa cng c xut hin trong truyn khng dn. Nu c bc tt th phng tin truyn c dn c th gim ti a vn ny. S thit cc b nhn: Mt phng tin truyn dn c th c s dng to ra kt ni im-im hoc c dng chia s ng truyn vi cc thit b khc. Trong trng hp phi chia s ng truyn vi cc thit b khc, cc thit b c chia s s gy ra nhiu cng nh s sai lch cc tn hiu trn ng truyn, v th s dn ti s gii hn khong cch cng nh tc truyn d liu.

2.4.2 Phng tin truyn c dn Vi phng tin truyn c dn, kh nng truyn c th hiu theo ngha tc d liu hoc bng thng, ph thuc ch yu vo khong cch v mi trng truyn thng trong kiu kt ni l im - im hay a im, nh trong mng LAN. Bng 2.1 di y cho ta bit cc c im chung ca phng tin truyn c dn thng dng vi ng dng truyn im - im ng di. Cc phng tin truyn c dn thng c s dng l cp xon i, cp ng trc v cp quang.

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2.4.2.1. Cp xon i Phng tin truyn c dn r nht v c s dng nhiu nht l cp xon i M t vt l: Mt cp cp xon i bao gm hai dy bc ng cch in c sp xp theo mt quy tc chun. Mi cp dy hot ng nh l mt kt ni truyn thng n. Mt s cp ny c b li vi nhau thnh mt cp c bc trong mt v bo v. Mt dy cp c th cha hng trm i dy dn. Vic xon cc dy li lm gim nhiu xuyn m, nhiu giao thoa gia cc cp gn nhau trong dy cp. Nhng cp dy gn nhau trong cng mt b c di khc nhau gp phn lm gim nhiu xuyn m, nhiu giao thoa. Trn mt kt ni ng di, di ca cc cp dy thng khc nhau khong t 5 ti 15 cm.Cc dy trong mt cp c ng knh t 0,4 n 0,9 mm. ng dng: Cp xon i c dng ph bin trong truyn dn c tn hiu s v tn hiu tng t. N thng c s dng trong mng in thoi v l phng tin truyn dn trong vic truyn thng ca ni b mt to nh. Trong mng in thoi, tp hp cc in thoi ca nhng gia nh ring l s c kt ni ti mt tng i cc b bi dy cp xon i v c gi l ng thu bao. Trong mt ta nh, mi in thoi s c kt ni bng cp xon i chy ti tng i con trong phng hoc ti tng i chnh ca ta nh. Cp xon i c thit k h tr truyn ting ni s dng tn hiu tng t. Tuy nhin, vi s h tr ca modem, cp xon i c th iu khin truyn d liu s vi tc va phi. Cp xon i cng l phng tin thng dng nht trong vic truyn tn hiu s. Tc truyn d liu s ca mng cc b trong mt to nh thng vo khong 64kbps. Chng ch c s dng rng ri trong mt to nh cho mng cc b kt ni cc my tnh c nhn. Tc truyn d liu ca mng ny thng l khong 10Mbps.Tuy nhin, mt s mng s dng cp xon i vi tc truyn t 100Mbps ti 1Gbps cng c thit k, mc d chng b hn ch v s lng cc thit b v phm vi ca mng. Vi cc mng xa nhau th tc truyn d liu trn cp xon i khong 4Mbps.

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Cp xon i r hn nhiu so vi cc thit b truyn dn khc nh cp ng trc, cp quang v chng d s dng hn. Tuy nhin chng li b hn ch hn v tc truyn d liu cng nh khong cch ca mng. Cc c im truyn dn: Cp xon i c th truyn c tn hiu s v tn hiu tng t. Vi tn hiu tng t, b khuych i tn hiu truyn c lp t cch nhau khong t 5 n 6 km. Vi d liu s (bng c tn hiu s v tn hiu tng t), cc b lp c t cch nhau 2-3 km.

So vi cc loi phng tin truyn dn khc(cp ng trc, cp quang), cp xon i b gii hn bi tc truyn d liu, bng thng v khong cch. Hnh 4.3 cho thy, s suy gim tn hiu ca cp xon i l mt hm tng nhanh theo tn s. Cp xon i cng b nh hng mnh bi cc h hi khc. Phng tin ny d bi nhiu giao thoa v nhiu tp bi v n d xy ra hin tng giao thoa gia cc trng in t . V d, mt dy dn chy song song vi mt dng in xoay chiu s tng thm 60Hz nng lng. Nhiu xung cng d nh hng n cp xon i. Cc dy c bc s lm gim s giao thoa. Cc dy c xon vo nhau lm gim giao thoa ca sng c tn s thp v vic s dng cc dy c di khc nhau ca cc cp lin k lm gim nhiu xuyn m. Vi tn hiu tng t trong kt ni im im, mt bng thng c th ln ti 1 MHz, n h tr mt s knh. i vi vic truyn tn hiu s im im ng di, d liu c th truyn vi tc ln ti vi Mbps, vi khong cch ngn, tc truyn d liu c th ln ti 100 Mbps thm ch ln ti 1 Gbps. Cp xon i c v v khng v bc Cp xon i c 2 loi: c v bc v khng c v bc. Cp xon i khng v bc (UTP) u tin c s dng lm dy in thoi. y l phng tin truyn dn r tin nht thng c s dng trong cc mng LAN. N rt d lp t v s dng. Cp xon i khng v bc ch yu b nh hng bi nhiu giao thoa sng in t, bao gm giao thoa t cc cp xon i gn nhau v t nhiu ca mi trng bn ngoi. Mt cch ci thin cc c trng ca cp xon i l ta bc si cp bng cc v bc li kim loi nhm lm gim s giao thoa. Cp xon i c v bc cho php truyn d liu vi hiu sut tt hn tc cao hn. Tuy nhin, n li t hn v kh lp t hn so vi cp khng bc. Cp UTP loi 3 v loi 5 Hu ht cc vn phng u c lp t sn loi cp xon i 100 ohm thng c gi l cp in thoi. V cp xon i in thoi thng c lp t sn, n cng thng c s dng cho cc ng dng LAN. Tuy nhin tc d liu v khong cch gia cc thit b ca cp xon i in thoi l kh gii hn. - 27 -

Chun EIA-568-A phn bit ba loi cp UTP: Loi 3: Cp UTP kt hp vi cc phn cng kt ni c cc c tnh truyn dn ln n 16 MHz. Loi 4: Cp UTP kt hp vi cc phn cng kt ni c cc c tnh truyn dn ln n 20 MHz. Loi 5: Cp UTP kt hp vi cc phn cng kt ni c cc c tnh truyn dn ln n 100 MHz. Cp loi 3 v cp loi 5 c s dng ch yu trong cc ng dng LAN. Loi 3 s dng ch yu cho cc ng in thoi trong cc vn phng. Loi 5 thng c s dng truyn d liu v ang tr nn thng dng v c ci t sn trong cc cao c. im khc nhau chnh gia cp loi 3 v loi 5 l s vng xon trn mi n v khong cch. Loi 5 xon cht hn vi bc xon thng thng khong 0.6 n 0.85 cm trong khi loi 3 l 7.5 n 10 cm. Loi 5 xon cht hn nn t hn v cung cp hiu sut cao hn loi 3.

Tham s u tin c s dng so snh s suy gim. Cng ca tn hiu suy gim theo khong cch trn mi phng tin truyn dn. Trn cc phng tin c dn, s suy gim thng theo hm logarit v thng c din t nh mt hng s theo decibel trn mi n v khong cch. Nhiu xuyn m gn cc thit b u cui trong cc h thng cp xon i l s kt hp cc tn hiu t mt cp dy sang mt cp khc ti cc cht kim loi. S kt hp din ra khi tn hiu truyn xm nhp vo cht ni ca ng thu tn hiu nhn ti cng mt u ca ng truyn. (v d tn hiu c truyn b thu bi mt cp dy nhn gn ).

Cp xon i c v bc chng nhiu

Cp xon i khng c v bc chng nhiu

Cp xon i UTP v STP s dng u ni RJ-11. RJ 45

2.4.2.2 Cp ng trc M t vt l: Cp ng trc, ging nh cp xon i bao gm hai ng dn in, nhng n c cu trc khc cho php n hot ng trong min tn s rng hn. N bao gm vng rng hnh tr dn in bn ngoi bc ly mt dy kim loi dn in n bn trong. Dy kim loi bn trong c gi bi mt lot cc vng cch in xp cch u nhau hoc c bc bi mt cht in mi. Vng dn in bn ngoi c bc bi mt v bc. cp ng trc n c ng knh - 28 -

vo khong 1 n 2.5 cm. Do c bc kn, c cu trc ng tm, cp ng trc chu nhiu v xuyn m tt hn cp xon i. ng dng: Cp ng trc c l l phng tin truyn thng a nng nht v c s dng rng ri trong nhiu ng dng khc nhau. Cc ng dng quan trng nht l: Phn phi tn hiu truyn hnh Truyn tn hiu in thoi ng di Kt ni cc h thng my tnh khong cch gn Mng ni b Cp ng trc nhanh chng c s dng rng ri phn phi tn hiu truyn hnh ti tng nh truyn hnh cp. Truyn hnh cp tr nn thng dng nh in thoi, s knh ln n hng trm v khong cch ln n vi chc kilomet. Trc y, cp ng trc c v tr quan trng trong cc mng in thoi ng di. Ngy nay, n ang phi i mt vi s cnh tranh ngy cng tng ca cp quang, sng viba mt t v v tinh. Bng cch s dng vic phn chia nhiu thnh phn tn s, cp ng trc c th mang ti 10000 knh ting ni cng mt lc. Cp ng trc cng c s dng nhiu trong cc kt ni khong cch ngn gia cc thit b. Bng cch s dng tn hiu s, cp ng trc c th c s dng cung cp cc knh vo ra tc cao trn cc h thng my tnh. Cc c tnh truyn dn: Cp ng trc c s dng truyn c tn hiu tng t v tn hiu s. Cp ng trc c cc c tnh tn s cao hn so vi cp xon i v v vy c th s dng hiu qu vi cc tn s v tc d liu cao hn. Do c v bc v cu trc ng tm, cp ng trc t chu nh hng bi nhiu v xuyn m hn cp xon i. Yu t nh hng ch yu n hiu sut l s suy gim, nhiu nhit v nhiu iu bin. Nhiu iu bin ch xut hin khi c mt vi knh hoc di tn s c dng chung trn mt ng cp. Vi cc ng truyn tn hiu tng t khong cch di, vic khuch i sau mt vi km l rt cn thit, tn s cng cao th khong cch cn khuch i tn hiu cng ngn. Ph c th s dng cho tn hiu tng t c th m rng n khong 500 MHz. i vi tn hiu s, cn s dng cc b lp sau 1km v nu tc d liu cao hn th khong cch cn lp li cng gn hn.

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2.4.2.3. Cp quang M t vt l: Cp quang l mt phng tin mm do, ng knh nh c kh nng truyn tia sng. Cc cht liu thy tinh hoc cht do c th c s dng lm nn cp quang. Cp quang c ch to bi silic yoxit nng chy tinh khit c kh nng truyn tt nht nhng rt kh ch to. Cp quang ch to bng si thy tinh nhiu thnh phn khng tt bng nhng kinh t hn v vn cho kt qu chp nhn c. Si cht do c gi r nht v c th s dng cho cc ng truyn ngn v chp nhn mt mt cao. Cp si quang c dng hnh tr v bao gm ba thnh phn ng tm: li, lp sn ph v v bc. Li l thnh phn trong cng v bao gm mt hoc nhiu si rt mnh lm bng thy tinh hoc nha. Li c ng knh khong 8 n 100 m . Mi si c bc mt loi v c bit lm bng thy tinh hoc cht do c c tnh quang hc khc vi li. B mt gia li v lp v bc c bit c tc dng to s khc x nh sng ton phn trong li. Lp ngoi cng bc ly mt hoc mt vi si cp ph sn l v bc. V bc oc lm bng cht liu nha tng hp v cc cht liu khc nhm bo v li chng li hi m, s n mn, va p v cc nguy hi t mi trng bn ngoi. ng dng: Mt trong cc cng ngh c ngha nht trong truyn d liu l s pht trin ca cc h thng truyn thng bng cp quang. Cp quang cn c s dng trong truyn thng ng di v cc ng dng ca n trong lnh vc qun s ang pht trin mnh. S ci thin lin tc trong hiu sut v gi thnh ngy cng gim cng vi cc u im vn c ca cp quang khin n c dng ngy cng nhiu kt ni mng ni b. Cc c tnh sau ca cp quang phn bit n vi cp xon i v cp ng trc: Dung lng ln hn: Tim nng v bng thng ca cp quang rt ln, v vy tc truyn d liu ca cp quang rt cao, ln ti hng trm Gbps trn qung ng hng chc km. Ta c th so snh vi tc thc t cc i hng trm Mbps trn qung ng 1 km ca cp ng trc v ch vi Mbps trn 1 km hay t 100Mbps n 1 Gbps trn vi chc mt ca cp xon i. Kch thc nh hn v nh hn: Mt si cp quang nh hn mt dy cp ng trc v mt b cp xon i. chy trong cc ta nh hay di lng t, u im v kch thc rt c li v kch thc nh hn cng gim cc yu cu v cu trc cng trnh. t suy gim hn: S suy gim trong cp quang nh hn nhiu so vi cp ng trc v cp xon i, v l mt hng s trn mt min rng. Khng b nh hng bi in t: Cc h thng cp quang khng b nh hng bi cc trng in t bn ngoi. V vy h thng khng b nh hng bi s nhiu giao thoa, nhiu xung v nhiu xuyn m. Si quang khng pht ra nng lng do t nh hng n cc thit b khc v c mc bo mt cao hn, trnh b nghe trm v kh b r r. Khong cch cn lp tn hiu ln hn: S b lp cn s dng t hn lm gim gi thnh v t cc ngun gy li. Hiu sut ca cc h thng cp quang theo quan im ny c s pht trin vng chc. Khong cch thng thng gia cc b lp vo khong 10 km v c cc ghi nhn khong cch ln ti hng trm km. Cc h thng cp ng trc v cp xon i thng phi dng b lp sau khong vi km. C nm loi ng dng chnh ca cp quang tr nn quan trng: Cc cp trc ng di Cc cp trc trong thnh ph Cc cp trc gia cc vng - 30 -

ng ni gia khch hng v tng i Cc mng ni b Vic s dng cp quang trong truyn tn hiu ng di ngy cng tr nn thng dng trong cc mng in thoi. Cc qung ng ln n 1500 km v dung lng rt cao (thng thng khong 20000 n 60000 knh ting ni). Cc h thng ny ang cnh tranh v mt kinh t vi sng viba v c gi thp hn nhiu so vi cp ng trc. Cc ng cp quang chy di bin cng ang c s dng nhiu hn. Cc ng trc trong thnh ph c di trung bnh khong 12 km v c th c khong 100000 knh ting ni trong mi nhm trc. Cc ng trc ny c lp t trong cc ng ng chn di t v khng c cc b lp tn hiu, c ni vi cc tng i in thoi. Cc ng trc gia cc vng c di khong 40 n 160 km kt ni cc thnh ph v cc vng qu hay l gia cc tng i in thoi ca cc cng ty khc nhau. Hu ht cc h thng ny c t hn 5000 knh ting ni. Cc k thut c s dng trong cc ng dng ny ang cnh tranh vi cc k thut s dng sng vi ba Cc ng ni gia khch hng v tng i l cc ng cp chy trc tip t tng i trung tm ti khch hng. Cc ng cp ny ang dn thay th cp xon i v cp ng trc tr thnh cc mng c y dch v khng ch x l ting ni v d liu m cn c hnh nh v video. Ban u ng dng ny ca cp quang l cho cc khch hng thng mi, nhng vic truyn dn n tng gia nh s sm xut hin. ng dng quan trng cui cng ca cp quang l cho mng ni b. Cc chun ang c pht trin v cc sn phm cho mng cp quang d c dung lng t 100 Mbps n 1 Gbps v c th h tr hng trm, thm ch hng nghn trm trong mt to nh ln hoc mt khu nhiu ta cao c. Cc c tnh truyn dn: Cp quang truyn tn hiu c m ha thnh cc chm tia sng phn x ton phn bn trong. iu ny c th xay ra trong bt c mi trng truyn dn no c ch s khc x cao hn mi trng bn ngoi. Trong thc t, cp quang hot ng nh mt sng truyn c hng vi tn s trong khong t 1014 n 1015 hertz, bao gm c nh sng hng ngoi v nh sng nhn thy c.

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Tia sng t mt ngun sng i vo trong li hnh tr bng thy tinh hoc cht do. Cc tia c gc rng b phn x v truyn dc theo si cp, cc tia khc b hp thu bi cht bao bc. Hnh thc truyn ny gi l truyn a cch, nhy bc, theo ngha c nhiu gc khc nhau s phn x. Khi truyn dn a cch, tn ti nhiu ng truyn khc nhau, mi ng truyn s c di khc nhau dn ti thi gian truyn ca mi ng cng khc nhau. iu ny khin cc thnh phn tn hiu (xung nh sng) tri ra theo thi gian v v vy gii hn tc truyn m d liu c th nhn mt cch chnh xc. Hay ni cch khc yu cu khong cch gia cc xung gii hn tc d liu. Loi cp ny ph hp cho vic truyn khong cch rt ngn. Khi bn knh ca li cp gim i, s gc phn x cng t i. Bng cch gim bn knh ca li theo yu cu ca bc sng.Vic truyn theo kiu n cch (single-mode) cung cp hiu sut cao hn v cc l do sau. V ch c mt ng truyn nn cc sai lch nh khi truyn theo kiu a phng thc khng th din ra. Kiu n cch thng c s dng cho cc ng dng ng di bao gm in thoi v truyn hnh cp. Cui cng, do cc ch s khc x ca li khc nhau nn ta c th c kiu truyn th ba l a cch bin i dn. y l kiu trung gian gia hai kiu trn v mt c tnh. Ch s khc x cao hn ti trung tm khin tia sng cng gn trc th cng chm hn cc tia gn lp v. Tia sng trong li i theo ng cong xon c v ch s khc x c phn loi v gim khong cch phi truyn ca n. Khong cch c thu ngn v tc cao hn cho php tia sng pha ngoi bin ti thit b nhn gn nh cng thi im vi cc tia truyn thng li. Cc cp c kiu a cch bin i dn thng c s dng trong cc mng ni b. C hai loi ngun sng khc nhau c s dng trong cc h thng cp quang: dioed pht quang (LED) v diode bc x laser (ILD). C hai u l cc thit b bn dn pht ra cc chm sng ti mt hiu in th no . n LED r hn hot ng trong min nhit rng hn v c thi gian s dng lu hn. Trong khi ILD hot ng theo nguyn l laser hiu qu hn v c tc truyn d liu ln hn. C mt mi lin h gia bc sng s dng, kiu truyn v tc d liu nhn c. C hai kiu truyn n cch v a cch u h tr mt vi bc sng nh sng v c th s dng c ngun nh sng laser hay n LED. Trong cp quang, nh sng c truyn tt nht trong ba ca s bc sng khc nhau, 850, 1300 v 1550 nanometer (nm). Tt c nhng bc sng ny u nm trong vng hng ngoi ca ph tn s, nm pha di vng nh sng nhn thy c (t 400 n 700 nm). S mt mt s gim i khi bc sng tng ln v cho php tc d liu cao hn trn cc khong cch di. Hu ht cc ng dng cc b hin nay u s dng ngun sng n LED. Mc d vic s dng n LED khng t nhng n gii hn tc d liu di 100 Mbps v khong cch l vi km. c th c tc d liu cao hn v khong cch xa hn phi s dng n LED pht nh sng c bc sng 100 nm hoc ngun sng laser. c tc d liu cao nht v khong cch truyn xa nht ta phi dng ngun sng laser c bc sng 1500 nm Dn thnh phn bc sng (Wavelength-Division Multiplexing): Tim nng ca cp quang s c s dng ton b khi nhiu chm sng vi cc tn s khc nhau c truyn trn cng mt si cp. y l cch truyn dn thnh phn tn s (FDM) nhng thng c gi l dn thnh phn bc sng (WDM). nh sng truyn trong si cp bao gm nhiu mu hay nhiu bc sng, mi bc sng mang cc knh d liu khc nhay. Nm 1997 phng th nghim Bell chng minh mt h thng WDM vi 100 chm sng s hot ng 10 Gbps vi tc d liu khong 1 t t bit mi giy. Hin nay cc h thng thng mi vi 80 knh v tc 10 Gbps i vo hot ng. 2.4.3. Truyn khng dy i vi cc phng tin truyn khng dy, vic truyn v nhn c thc hin bi mt ng ten. Khi truyn i, ng ten pht ra nng lng sng in t vo trong mi trng (thng l khng kh) v khi thu, ng ten thu sng t mi trng xung quanh. C hai loi hnh c bn trong h thng truyn dn khng dy: truyn dn c nh hng v truyn theo mi hng. - 32 -

Vi loi truyn c nh hng, ng ten s pht ra mt chm in t hi t, v th ng ten pht v ng ten nhn phi c chnh sao cho hng thng vo nhau. Khi truyn theo mi hng, tn hiu truyn pht ra theo mi hng v c th thu bi nhiu ng ten. Nhn chung, tn s ca tn hiu cng ln th kh nng tp trung chng vo mt tia c nh hng cng cao. C 3 loi tn s chnh c quan tm. Tn s trong khong 2GHz n 40GHz c gi l sng viba. tn s ny, c th to ra tia c nh hng tt v sng viba ph hp vi vic truyn im - im. Sng viba cng c s dng trong truyn thng v tinh. Tn s trong khong 30MHz n 1GHz ph hp vi truyn thng theo mi hng. Ta c th thy tn s ny ging nh tn s ca i pht thanh. Bng 2.3 tm tt cc c tnh ca truyn dn khng dy ti nhiu di tn. Sng viba l 1 phn ca di UHF v ton b di SHF, sng pht thanh gm di tn VHF v mt phn ca di UHF. Mt loi tn s quan trng khc, dnh cho cc ng dng cc b , l tia hng ngoi ca quang ph. Loi ny bao gm cc tn s xp x t 3.1011 ti 2.1014. Tia hng ngoi c s dng trong vic truyn thng im im v a im trong mt phm vi hp nh mt phng n.

2.4.3.1 Sng viba mt t M t vt l: Hu ht nhng loi ng ten pht sng viba l parabol (hay ng ten cho). Cc ng ten nay thng c ng knh khong 3m. ng ten c lp c nh v tp trung cc tia li trong khong hp truyn chng ti ng ten nhn. ng ten pht sng viba thng t ti im cao trn mt t c th m rng khong cch gia cc ng ten v c th truyn qua nhng vt cn gia. Nu nh khng c chng ngai vt no th khong cch ln nht gia hai ng ten: d=7.14. K.h Trong d: khong cch gia hai ng ten tnh bng km, h: cao ca ng ten tnh bng m, K: H s iu chnh tnh ton, trong thc t sng viba b un cong hoc b khc x do tri t cong v v th vic truyn i c xa hn vic truyn cc tia thng. Theo kinh nghim th K nn bng 4/3. V d hai ng ten sng viba cao 100m c th truyn i 7,14 133 =82 km truyn c vi khong cch xa, cn s dng mt lot cc trm chuyn tip v cc kt ni im im l mt chui cc trm lin tip c th vt qua c gii hn khong cch.. ng dng: Cc h thng s dng sng viba mt t u tin l cc dch v vin thng ng di bn cnh vic s dng cc cp ng trc hay cp quang. Sng viba yu cu cc b khuych - 33 -

i v b lp c t gn nhau hn cp ng trc vi cng mt ng truyn v i hi nm trong tm nhn. Sng viba s dng ph bin trong pht thanh v truyn hnh. Mt ng dng ph bin khc ca sng viba l kt ni im im vi khong cch ngn gia cc to nh. N cn c s dng trong cc mch nh ca ti vi hoc trong vic trao i d liu ca mt mng cc b. Sng viba khong cch ngn cng c th c s dng cho nhng ng dng ng vng.Mt doanh nghip cng c th s dng sng viba trong vic kt ni vi tng i xa trong cng thnh ph t tng i cc b ca cng ty. c tnh truyn dn: Truyn dn sng viba bao gm mt phn nh ca ph in t. Tn s ph bin c s dng truyn l t 2GHz n 40GHz. Tn s cng cao th bng thng ca v tc truyn cng cao. Nh vy vi bt k h thng truyn thng no, nguyn nhn chnh ca s mt mt l s suy yu cc tn hiu. Vi sng viba (v c cc tn s radio) s suy yu c tnh theo cng thc sau:

L 10 log
trong : d: khong cch truyn

4 d

dB

: di bc sng cc di trong cng mt n v

Do s suy yu gim theo bnh phng khong cch. V th, b lp khuych i c th lm cho h thng sng viba pht xa hn t 10 n 100 km. S suy yu c th tng ln do ma, s nh hng ca lng ma c bit ng lu . 2.4.3.2. Sng vi ba v tinh Cc c trng vt l: Trong thc t, v tinh truyn thng l mt trm chuyn tip sng vi ba. N c s dng kt ni hai hay nhiu hn cc trm pht v thu sng mt t. V tinh thu sng trn mt bng tn (uplink), khuch i hoc lp li tn hiu, sau truyn chng trn mt tn s khc (downlink). Mt v tinh trn qu o s iu khin mt s loi di tn v c gi l b tip v tch sng.

Trong hnh th nht, v tinh ang c s dng cho mt kt ni im im gia hai ng ten mt t. Trong hnh th hai, v tinh h tr truyn thng tin t mt trm pht trn mt t ti nhiu tram nhn. - 34 -

 vic truyn thng c hiu qu th v tinh phi gi c v tr tnh so vi mt t. Tuy nhin s di chuyn ca v tinh s khin n khng nm trong tm nhn ca cc trm trn mt t ti mi thi im. gi c v tr tnh so vi mt t th v tinh phi quay cng qy o vi tri t v cn gi cao khong 35.784 km so vi mt t. Hai v tinh s dng cng mt di tn s, nu qu gn nhau th s gy ra nhiu. trnh s nh hng ln nhau, cc chun hin nay yu cu khong cch l 4 0 (gc gia hai v tinh c o t mt t) i vi di tn 4/6 GHz v khong cch l 3 0 i vi di tn 12/14 GHz. V th, s v tinh l c gii hn. ng dng: V tinh truyn thng l mt cuc cch mng cng ngh c tm quan trng nh cp quang. Mt s ng dng quan trng ca v tinh: Truyn hnh in thoi ng di Mng thng mi ring Do tnh cht truyn qung b t nhin ca n, v tinh rt ph hp cho truyn hnh nn n ang c s dng rng ri M v nhiu ni trn th gii.Theo cch truyn thng, chng trnh c pht t mt im trung tm sau s c truyn ti v tinh v s c pht qung b ti cc trm nhn. Cc trm ny li phn phi chng trnh n tng ngi dng ring l. Mt mng cung cp dch v qung b cng cng (PBS) phn phi cc chng trnh truyn hnh hu nh l thng qua cc knh v tinh. Cc mng thng mi khc cng mt phn s dng v tinh, cc h thng truyn hnh cp hin nay ang cn i vic tng cc chng trnh nhn t v tinh. ng dng mi nht ca cng ngh v tinh trong truyn hnh l v tinh qung b trc tip, tn hiu video t v tinh s c truyn trc tip n nh ca ngi s dng. Vic gim gi thnh v kch thc ca anten khin iu ny tr nn kh thi v mt kinh t, hin nay mt s knh i vo hot ng v mt s khc c ln k hoch Vic truyn v tinh cn c s dng kt ni im im cc ng trc gia cc tng i in thoi ca mng in thoi cng cng. y l phng tin truyn ti u cho cc ng trc quc t c mc s dng cao v ang cnh tranh vi cc h thng mt t trong vic kt ni quc t ng di. Ngoi ra v tinh cn mt s ng dng trong truyn d liu thng mi. V tinh c th chia tng dung lng ra thnh thnh mt s knh v cho nhng khch hng thng mi ring l thu cc knh ny. Mi khch hng c trang b mt angten ti mt s v tr v c th s dng cc knh ca v tinh cho mng ring ca mnh. Cc ng dng ny kh t v ch gii hn trong cc t chc ln c yu cu cao. Pht trin gn y v cc h thng u cui m rt nh (VSAT) cung cp mt s la chn gi thnh thp. Hnh 2.6 m t mt h thng VSAT thng thng. Mt s trm khch hng c trang b cc angten VSAT gi thnh thp. Theo mt s quy tc, nhng trm ny chia s mt dung lng truyn v tinh truyn ti mt trm trung tm. Trm trung tm c th trao i hay tip nhn thng bo gia cc khch hng. Cc c tnh truyn dn: Khong tn s ti u cho truyn v tinh l trong khong 1 n 10 GHz. Tn s di 1 GHz s b nh hng bi nhiu t cc ngun t nhin nh t ngn h, mt tri v kh quyn v c cc nh hng gy ra bi con ngi do cc loi thit b in khc nhau. Nu tn s trn 10 GHz, tn hiu s b nh hng d di bi sc ht v ma ca kh quyn. Hu ht cc v tinh cung cp cc dch v truyn im im ngy nay u s dng bng tn c rng trong khong t 5.925 n 6.425 GHz truyn t mt t ln v tinh (uplink) v bng thng trong khong 2.7 n 4.2 GHz truyn t v tinh v mt t (downlink). S kt hp ny c gi l di tn 4/6 GHz. Ch rng tn s uplink v downlink l khc nhau. hot ng lin tc m khng xy ra xung t, v tinh khng th nhn v truyn trn cng mt tn s. V vy tn hiu nhn t trm mt t trn mt tn s c truyn li trn mt tn s khc. - 35 -

Di tn 4/6 GHz nm trong vng ti u t 1 n 10 GHz nhng b s dng bo ha. Cc tn s khc trong vng ny li khng th s dng do cc ngun xung t vi cc tn s ny thng l cc sng vi ba trn mt t. V vy, di tn 12/14 GHz c pht trin (uplink: t 14 n 14.5 GHz; downlink: t 11.7 n 14.2 GHz). Trong di tn s ny, c th b qua vn nhiu. Tuy nhin, ta c th s dng cc trm thu mt t nh hn v r hn. C th thy rng di tn trn s b bo ha do phi ln k hoch cho vic s dng di tn 19/29 GHz. Khi s dng di tn ny, s suy gim s ln hn nhng li cho php bng thng rng hn v cc thit b thu nh v r hn. Ta cn cp n mt s tnh cht ca truyn thng v tinh. Th nht, do khong cch ln, tr do truyn vo khong mt phn t giy gia hai trm mt t. tr ny c th nhn thy khi ni chuyn in thoi. Ta cng phi quan tm n iu khin li v iu khin lu lng. Th hai, sng ngn v tinh rt hu hiu truyn qung b. Nhiu trm c th truyn tn hiu n v tinh v tn hiu t mt v tinh c th c nhn bi nhiu trm. 2.4.3.3. Sng v tuyn qung b M t vt l: S khc nhau c bn gia sng v tuyn qung b v sng ngn l sng v tuyn qung b s truyn theo mi hng cn truyn sng ngn th c nh hng. V vy sng v tuyn qung b khng yu cu phi s dng anten cho v anten cng khng cn phi quay theo mt hng chnh xc. Cc ng dng: Sng v tuyn l thut ng chung c s dng, bao gm cc tn s trong khong t 3 kHz n 300 GHz. Thut ng sng v tuyn qung b c s dng bao gm c bng tn VHF v mt phn ca UHF: 30 MHz n 1 GHz. Min tn s ny bao gm c bng tn FM ca radio v bng tn UHF v VHF ca tivi. Min tn s ny cng c s dng cho mt vi ng dng mng truyn d liu. Cc c tnh truyn dn: Min tn s trong khong t 30 MHz n 1 GHz ph hp cho vic sng v tuyn qung b. Khng ging nh trng hp ca cc sng in t tn s thp, tng in ly khng phn x cc sng v tuyn c tn s trn 30 MHz. V vy vic truyn b gii hn trong phm vi tm nhn v cc cc my pht s khng b cn tr bi cc my pht khc do s phn x t tng kh quyn nh khi truyn sng ngn. Khng ging nh cc tn s cao ca sng ngn, sng truyn qung b t b hng do nhiu t cc cn ma hn. Truyn sng v tuyn tun theo cng thc (2.1), tc l khong cch cc i gia my pht v my thu ln hn khng ng k so vi kh nng nhn ca mt ngi. Nh i vi sng ngn, suy gim theo khong cch tun theo cng thc (2.2). Bc sng cng di th sng v tuyn cng t chu nh hng ca s suy gim. - 36 -

Nguyn nhn chnh gy h hi cho sng v tuyn qung b l s giao thoa ca nhiu tn hiu. S phn x t mt t, nc, t t nhin hoc t cc i tng do con ngi to ra c th gy nn nhiu loi tn hiu gia cc anten. Mt v d l TV s thu v pht nhiu hnh nh khc nhau lc c my bay bay qua. 2.4.3.4 Tia hng ngoi Truyn thng bng tia hng ngoi s dng cc my thu pht c th iu chnh cc nh sng hng ngoi. Hai my thu pht phi nm trong tm nhn ca nhau trc tip hoc thng qua phn x t cc b mt c mu sng nh trn nh.

S khc nhau quan trng gia truyn sng hng ngoi v sng ngn l truyn sng hng ngoi khng th xuyn qua tng. V vy ta khng cn quan tm n vn bo mt v nhiu nh trong cc h thng truyn sng ngn. Hn na, khng c mt yu cu no trong vic s dng di tn s khi truyn sng hng ngoi. 2.5. Cc chun giao tip truyn thng 2.5.1. Cc chun chung Hu ht cc thit b x l tn hiu c kh nng truyn nhn tn hiu hn ch, thng thng cc thit b ny c gn trc tip vi cc thit b chuyn nhn tn hiu hoc qua mng, chng c gi l cc thit b truyn nhn d liu u cui (DTE, DCE). Mi thit b x l tn hiu (trm) thng c kt hp vi mt cp gm mt DTE v mt DCE. Hai trm truyn tn hiu cho nhau qua hai DCE ca mi bn c kt ni vi nhau. Hai DCE trao i tn hiu vi nhau trn mng hoc ng truyn phi tng t nhau, ngha l b phn nhn tn hiu bn ny phi tng ng vi b phn pht tn hiu ca bn kia. DTE v DCE truyn nhn tn hiu vi nhau do cng phi tng thch vi nhau v d liu v thng tin iu khin (cc chun) Cc chun v giao din ga DTE v DCE bao gm: Chun v cu trc: xc nh kt ni vt l gia DTE v DCE (tn hiu v mch iu khin thng qua cp ni v gic cm) Chun v tn hiu: xc nh mc hiu in th, thi gian bin i tn hiu Chun v chc nng ). Chun v th tc: xc nh th t thao tc trong truyn d liu da trn chun chc nng ca cc ng tn hiu. Chun EIA-RS 232 (Electronic Industry Association Recomand Standard): chun giao tip truyn thng cng nghip EIA cng b tiu chun RS-232C vi n lc nhm to ra kh nng ghp ni cc thit b do nhiu nh sn xut lm ra m khng i hi c mt tiu chun k thut c bit cho tng trng hp. tng xy dng tiu chun RS-232 l phi s dng cng loi ni dy, th d loi u ni 25 chn hoc 9 chn, c ni theo cng mt cch v s dng cng mc in p khi biu din cc s nh phn 1 v 0 tng ng. Vi tng ny, nu nh mi ngi u tham - 37 -

gia vo tiu chun theo cng mt cch th c th ni cc thit b vi cng RS-232 ca cc hng khc nhau, cc mu m khc nhau m khng cn c thm iu kin no. Cc mdem, cc my in v nhiu thit b khc c th c ni vo giao din RS-232. Ngy nay, hu ht cc my tnh u trang b mt hoc hai cng ni tip RS-232, v tt c u c kh nng s dng RS-232, t nht l nh mt kh nng tu chn t nh sn xut my tnh hoc t pha ngi s dng my tnh. Cc mch in tch hp c b pht v b nhn RS-232C c cc nh sn xut khc nhau thit k v ch to, th d Motorola, National, Semiconductors. Cc chip b pht/ b m RS-232 tip nhn mc in p TTL li vo v bin i chng thnh cc mc dnh ring cho RS-232C truyn. Cc b nhn RS-232 lm vic theo cch ngc li: tip nhn tn hiu li vo theo chun RS-232 v bin i cc tn hiu sang cc mc TTL tng ng. Cc b phn ny u nm trn bn mch chnh hoc trn mt Card vo/ ra, ngha l pha sau ca cng RS-232. Tn hiu truyn theo chun RS-232 ca EIA Chun RS-232 quy nh mc logic 1 ng vi in p t -3V n -25V (mark), mc logic 0 ng vi in p t 3V n 25V (space) v c kh nng cung cp dng t 10 mA n 20 mA. Ngoi ra, tt c cc ng ra u c c tnh chng chp mch. Chun RS-232 cho php truyn tn hiu vi tc n 20.000 bps nhng nu cp truyn ngn c th ln n 115.200 bps. Cc phng thc ni gia DTE v DCE: n cng (simplex connection): d liu ch c truyn theo 1 hng. Bn song cng (half-duplex): d liu truyn theo 2 hng, nhng mi thi im ch c truyn theo 1 hng. Song cng (full-duplex): s liu c truyn ng thi theo 2 hng.

Hnh 2.26: nh dng khung truyn d liu theo chun RS 232 Khi khng truyn d liu, ng truyn s trng thi mark (in p -10V). Khi bt u truyn, DTE s a ra xung Start (space: 10V) v sau ln lt truyn t D0 n D7 v Parity, cui cng l xung Stop (mark: -10V) khi phc trng thi ng truyn. Dng tn hiu truyn m t nh sau (truyn k t A):

- 38 -

Cc c tnh k thut ca chun RS-232 nh sau: Tc d liu cc i : 20 Kbps in p ng ra cc i : 25V in p ng ra c ti : 5V n 15V Tr khng ti : 3K n 7K in p ng vo : 15V nhy ng vo : 3V Tr khng ng vo : 3K n 7K Mc logic 1 (mc du) nm trong khong: -3 V n 12 V; trong khong t 5 V n 12 V l tin cy, mc logic 0 (mc trng) nm trong khong: +3 V n +12 V, khong t + 5 V n +12 V l tin cy. Tr khng ti v pha b phn ca mch phi ln hn 3.000 nhng khng c vt qu 7.000 . Cc li vo ca b nhn phi c in dung phi nh hn 2.500 pF. di ca cp ni gia my tnh v thit b ghp ni qua cng ni tip khng th vt qu 15m nu khng s dng mdem. Cc gi tr tc truyn d liu chun l 50, 75, 110, 150, 300, 600, 1200, 2400, 4800, 9.600, 19.200, 28.800,, 56.600 baud. Cc tc truyn d liu thng dng trong cng ni tip l: 1200 bps, 4800 bps, 9600 bps v 19200 bps.

Nh vic quy nh thng nht s dng mt u ni 25 chn v v sau b sung thm u ni 9 chn cho cng ni tip RS-232, c th hn l cm v pha dy cp cn cm v pha my tnh, m tt c cc sn phm u tng thch vi nhau. Quy nh ny cng p dng thng nht cho cc thit b ghp ni vi cng RS-232. Hnh trn ch ra cch sp xp chn ca u ni 25 chn v 9 chn dng cho RS-232C, cn vic nh ngha chc nng ca cc chn c lit k bng k tip. Tiu chun RS-232C quy nh r vic s dng u ni thng nht tt c cc sn phm u tng thch vi nhau. V vy th t v chc nng ca cc chn c quy nh rt c th v phi tun th mt cch nghim ngt. d dng nhn ra th t cc chn, bn cnh cc chn u c in r s th t trn phn nha ca phch cm cng nh cm. Nhn xt ny cn c lu khi kim tra cp ni hoc t hn mt cp mi. Cc chn v chc nng trn u ni 25 chn v 9 chn. 25 9 Tn Vit Chc nng chn chn tt Ch : =>: Li vo <=: Li ra 1 Frame Ground FG Chn ny thng c ni vi v bc kim ca dy (t - v my) cp, vi v my, vi ai bao ngoi u ni hoc t thc s. - 39 -

25 9 chn chn 2 3 3 4 5 6 7 8 20 2 7 8 6 5 1 4

Tn Transmit Data (Truyn d liu) Receive Data (Nhn d liu) Request to Send (Yu cu gi) Clear to Send (Xo gi) Data Set Ready (D liu sn sng) Signal Ground (t ca tn hiu) Data Carrier Detect

Vit tt TXD <= RXD => RTS <= CTS => DSR => SG DCD => DTR <=

Chc nng Ch : =>: Li vo <=: Li ra D liu c gi t DTE (my tnh hoc thit b u cui) ti DCE qua ng dn TD. D liu c nhn t DCE ti DTE (my tnh hoc thit b u cui) qua RD. DTE t ng ny ln mc hot ng khi sn sng tham gia cuc truyn d liu. DCE t ng ny ln mc hot ng thng bo cho DTE l phi sn sng nhn d liu. Tnh hot ng ging vi CTS nhng c kch hot bi DTE khi n sn sng nhn d liu. Tt c cc tn hiu c so snh vi t tn hiu (GND). Pht hin tn hiu mang d liu.

Data Terminal Tnh hot ng ging vi ng dn RTS nhng Ready (u cui d c kch hot bi DCE khi mun truyn d liu. liu sn sng) 22 9 Ring Indicate RI Ch cho thy l DCE ang nhn tn hiu rung (Bo chung) => chung. Truyn thng gia hai nt: Cc s khi kt ni dng cng ni tip:

Khi thc hin kt ni nh trn, qu trnh truyn phi bo m tc u pht v thu ging nhau. Khi c d liu n DTE, d liu ny s c a vo b m v to ngt. Ngoi ra, khi thc hin kt ni gia hai DTE, ta cn dng s sau:

- 40 -

Khi DTE1 cn truyn d liu th cho DTR tch cc => tc ng ln DSR ca DTE2 cho bit sn sng nhn d liu v cho bit nhn c sng mang ca MODEM (o). Sau , DTE1 tch cc chn RTS tc ng n chn CTS ca DTE2 cho bit DTE1 c th nhn d liu. Khi thc hin kt ni gia DTE v DCE, do tc truyn khc nhau nn phi thc hin iu khin lu lng. Qu trinh iu khin ny c th thc hin bng phn mm hay phn cng. Qu trnh iu khin bng phn mm thc hin bng hai k t Xon v Xoff. K t Xon c DCE gi i khi rnh (c th nhn d liu). Nu DCE bn th s gi k t Xoff. Qu trnh iu khin bng phn cng dng hai chn RTS v CTS. Nu DTE mun truyn d liu th s gi RTS yu cu truyn, DCE nu c kh nng nhn d liu (ang rnh) th gi li C 2.5.2. thc hin cc phng php truyn mt cch c th, cc nh ch to cung cp mt lot cc IC chuyn dng, cc IC ny chnh l phn cng thuc lp vt l trong mt h thng thng tin,chng hot ng theo nguyn tc ca k thut s v v vy ch truyn ng b hay bt ng b ph thuc vo vic s dung ng h chung hay ring khi truyn tn hiu s i xa. Cc IC u l cc vi mch c th lp trnh. u tin lp trnh ch hot ng mong mun bng cch ghi mt byte c ngha vo thanh ghi ch mode register. Sau ghi tip byte iu khin vo thanh ghi lnh command register vi mch theo m hot ng. V cc giao tip truyn ni tip c dng kh rng ri trong cc thit b in t hin i, cc vi mch ngoi vi LSI c bit c pht trin cho php thc hin cc loi giao tip ny. Tn tng qut ca hu ht cc IC ny l: UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter) USRT (Universal Synchronous Receiver Transmitter): mch ng b thin hng k t. USART c th hot ng theo UART hay USART tu chn. BOPs (Bit-Oriented Protocol Circuits) mch ng b thin hng bit. UCCs (Universal Communication Control circuits) c th lp trnh cho c 3 loi trn. C UART v USART u c kh nng thc hin nhu cu chuyn i song song sang ni tip truyn s liu i xa v chuyn i ni tip sang song song khi tip nhn s liu. i vi s liu truyn bt ng b, chng cng c kh nng ng khung cho k t mt cch t ng vi START bit, PARITY bit v cc STOP bit thch hp. Cc a ch c s v ngt Cng a ch c bn IRQ COM1 3F8h IRQ4 COM2 2F8h IRQ3 COM3 3F8h (IRQ4) COM4 2F8h (IRQ3) Cc cng ni tip t th nht n th t u c phn bit qua cc v tr a ch trong vng vo/ ra ca my tnh v cc s ngt tng ng (IRQ). a ch u tin ca UART, c th l ca thanh ghi m truyn/ nhn, c tnh l a ch c s. Thng thng, a ch c s v IRQ c quy nh nh cc u ni (Jumper) trn Card vo/ ra hoc trn bn mch chnh. Mch iu khin truyn thng d b vn nng UART (VXL 8250A) Vi mch 8250A l mt UART c dng rng ri trong cc my IBM PC ti v phi ghp ni tip c u ni ra cng thng tin ni tip theo chun RS 232C

- 41 -

Cc thanh ghi c th chia lm 3 loi: Thanh ghi iu khin (Control Register): dng nhn v thc hin cc lnh t CPU. Thanh ghi trng thi (Status Register): dng thng bo cho CPU bit v trng thi ca UART hay UART ang lm g. Thanh ghi m (Buffer Register): dng gi k t trong lc truyn hoc x l. Cc thanh ghi ny cng gi cc k t nh phn c truyn v nhn. Vic truy nhp ln cc thanh ghi c thc hin thng qua a ch v khi iu khin. Mi thanh ghi c gn mt a ch tnh theo cch so snh tng i (Offset) vi a ch c s ca cng ni tip. Cc a ch ca hai cng ni tip u tin trong hu ht cc my tnh c tiu chun ho. vit phn mm ghp ni qua cng ni tip ta cn lu l: ton b hot ng ca giao din ni tip u c iu khin qua cc thanh ghi ca UART, trong thanh ghi m truyn/ nhn d liu thng c tnh l hai thanh ghi. Do ch c 8 a ch nn cn n s chuyn mch bn trong thng qua bit DLAB (Division Latch Access Bit, bit 7 ca thanh ghi iu khin ng truyn). Cc a ch ca tng thanh ghi u c tnh theo khong cch n a ch c s, khong cch ny thng c gi l Offset. Tu theo cc thanh ghi, Offset nhn gi tr c th trong khong t 0 n 7. DLAB A2 A1 A0 Thanh ghi a ch 0 0 0 0 B m c/ghi RBH 3F8 (2F8) 0 0 0 1 Cho php ngt - IER 3F9 (2F9) X 0 1 0 Nhn dng ngt (ch c) IIR 3FA (2FA) X 0 1 1 iu khin ng truyn LCR 3FB (2FB) X 1 0 0 iu khin modem MCR 3FC (2FC) X 1 0 1 Trn thi ng truyn LSR 3FD (2FD) X 1 1 0 Trng thi modem MSR 3FE (2FE) X 1 1 1 Khng dng 1 0 0 0 Cht s chia (LSB) 3F8 (2F8) 1 0 0 1 Cht s chia (MSB) 3F9 (2F9) - 42 -

Vi mch UART 8250 c tt c 10 thanh ghi, sau y ta s ln lt tm hiu cc thanh ghi ny: Cc thanh ghi lu tr: Nh thy r t tn gi, cc thanh ghi ny thc cht l cc b m c chuyn dng gi mt k t, k t ny hoc l c nhn nhng cha c c, hoc l c gi ti cng ni tip nhng cn cha c truyn i. Khi m t qu trnh truyn d liu qua cng ni tip, thanh ghi gi (Holding Register) thng c gi l b m nhn hoc b m truyn. Vic trang b cc b m nhn v truyn cng l mt c im ca vi mch 8250. c im ny cho php mt k t th hai c gi ti cng ni tip trc khi k t th nht c truyn hoc c c xong xui bi b x l. Trong thi gian ch k t th nht c truyn hoc c c, k t th hai c gi trong b m. Sau y ta s thy r hn l: trng thi ca b m truyn v b m nhn c quy nh bi thanh ghi trng thi ng truyn, c th hn l bit 7 ca thanh ghi iu khin ng truyn LCR (Line Control Register). Khi bit ny c t bng '0' th thao tc c t a ch c s s c t b m nhn RX v thao tc vit s vit vo b m truyn TX

Thanh ghi iu khin ng truyn: Mt thanh ghi khc trong vi mch 8250 c gi l thanh ghi iu khin ng truyn LCR (Line Control Register). Thanh ghi ny lu tr cc tham s c ngi lp trnh thit lp v xc nh khun mu khung truyn ca cuc trao i thng tin. Cc thng tin v: s cc bit d liu, s lng bit dng v kiu chn l c s dng trong khung truyn u c ct gi trn thanh ghi ny. D liu c th c vit vo thanh ghi ny v c c ra sau y. Chc nng cc bit ca thanh ghi LCR. Cc bit 0 v 1. Gi tr c ct gi trong hai bit nhi phn ny ch r s cc bit d liu trong tng k t c truyn. S cc bit trn mt k t c th nm trong khong t 5 n 8 bit, cho php xc nh di ca t (Word). Li gii thch cho bit 0 v 1 trn hnh v 12 lm sng t thm vai tr ca cc bit ny. Bit 2 ch r s cc bit dng trong mi khung truyn. Nu nh bit 2 c mt gi tr logic bng 0 th s bit dng s c vi mch 8250 to ra. Nu k t c truyn c su, by hoc tm bit d liu v bit 2 c t vo mt logic 1 th hai bit dng s c to ra v "nh km" vo tng t c truyn. Nu nh nm bit d liu c chn lm h thng m dng cho mt k t th cn n 1,5 bit dng chn vo trong t d liu. Yu cu ny cn thit thch ng vi cc thit b c trn s dng nm bit d liu. Bit 3. c quy nh l bit cho php chn l, ngha l c s dng bit chn l hay khng. Nu bit ny c gi tr logic 1 th bit chn l s c to ra v chn vo tng xu k t. Do tnh chn l c cho php nn bt k k t no nhn c cng u b kim tra v tnh chn l. Bit 4. Kiu chn l c chn, l hoc chn, c xc nh bng cch t bit 4. Khi ct gi mt trng thi logic 0 v tr ny c ngha l t tnh chn l l l v ngc li, ct gi mt trng thi logic 1 bit 4 c ngha l t tnh chn l l chn. Nu nh bit 3, tc l bit cho php chn l, b cm bng cch t mt gi tr logic 0 vo v tr ny th bt k l gi tr bit nh th no c t v tr bit 4 cng khng c tc dng. - 43 -

Bit 5. (Bit stick parity). Nu nh bit 3 v bit 5 c t gi tr logic 1 th khi b truyn xut ra mt k t, b nhn ti ch (local) s pht hin nh mt gi tr logic 3. Bit 6. c quy nh l bit BREAK (dng). Khi bit ny c t mt gi tr logic 1 th n bt buc SOUT (Serial out hay TxD) chuyn sang mc logic trng (mc LOW) cho n khi mt gi tr logic 0 c ct gi vo bit 6. Nh c bit ny m my tnh c th bo hiu cho thit b u cui bit l c ni nh mt phn ca h thng truyn thng. Bit 7. Phi c t mt gi tr logic 1 truy nhp cc cht s chia (divisor latches). Cc cht ny l nhng thanh ghi ct gi s chia i vi tn hiu gi nhp (ng h), s ny quy nh tc baud ca h thng truyn thng ni tip. Mi ln tc baud c t li th bit ny (bit 7) li c t v gi tr logic 0.

Thanh ghi tc baud: Tc baud c t bng cch np mt s chia chim 16 bit, trong 8 bit thp hn ca s chia c t trn a ch b m TX/ RX v 8 bit pha trn t a ch k tip sau b m TX/ RX. S tng gp i s cc thanh ghi l cn thit v khi bit 7 hoc thanh ghi LCR (thng vit tt l DLAB) c li v gi tr logic 0 hai a ch ny gn lin vi b m nhn v b m truyn. Khi bit DLAB c t vo mt gi tr logic 1 th hai a ch ny gn lin vi hai cht s chia. Cc cht s chia bao gm 16 bit hay hai byte, c sp xp thnh cc bit c gi tr thp LSB (Least Significant byte) v bit c gi tr cao hn MSB (Most Significant bit), c s dng trong vic t tc baud ca h thng truyn thng. Bi v cc cht s chia c rng l hai byte, gi tr 060 Hex cn c chia ra ct gi trn hai thanh ghi LSB v MSB. Vi gi tr tc baud bng 1200 trong th d ny, 60 Hex c ct gi trong LSB (bit c gi tr thp) v gi tr 0 c ct trong MSB (bit c gi tr cao hn).
Tc baud mun c S chia c dng to ra: 16 x ng h Thp phn Hex Sai s theo phn trm (sai khc gia mong mun v thc t)

50 75 110 134,5 150 300 600 1200

2304 1536 1047 857 768 384 192 96

900 600 417 359 300 180 0C0 060

0,026 0,058 - 44 -

Tc baud mun c

S chia c dng to ra: 16 x ng h Thp phn Hex

Sai s theo phn trm (sai khc gia mong mun v thc t)

1800 64 040 2000 58 03A 0,69 2400 48 030 3600 32 020 4800 24 018 7200 16 010 9600 12 00C Mt s tc baud v cc gi tr s chia tng ng di c hai dng thp phn v thp lc phn (Hex). Gi tr ny ca s chia c np vo b m TX/ RX khi bit DLAB c mt gi tr logic 1 t vo. Thanh ghi trng thi ng truyn: Thanh ghi trng thi ng truyn (LSR: Line Status Register) thanh ghi 8 bit, cha thng tin v qu trnh d liu qua cng ni tip cn cung cp cho b vi x l.

Bit 0, c dng thng bo cho bit d liu nhn c (DR: Data Received). Khi bit 0 c gi tr logic 1 c ngha l d liu c nhn v sn sng b x l c. Bit 1: Mt gi tr logic 1 bit ny c ngha l k t nhn trc b mt v n khng c c trc khi mt k t mi c nhn nn k t mi ghi ln k t trc. Bit 2: Mt gi tr logic 1 bit li chn l c ngha l k t c nhn c tnh chn l sai. Khi thanh ghi trng thi ng truyn (LSR) c c th bit ny li c t v gi tr logic 0. Bit 3: y l bit li khung truyn. Nu k t nhn khng c mt bit dng hp l, ngha l c li khung truyn, th bit 3 trong thanh ghi LSR c t vo mt gi tr logic 1. Bit 4: c quy nh l bit gin on ngt (break interrupt bit). Bit ny c t ng t vo mt gi tr logic 1 khi d liu nhn c c gi mt mc trng trn ton b chiu di ca mt t d liu. Bit 5: c quy nh l bit bo hiu trng thi rng ca b m truyn (THRE: Transmit Holding Register Empty). Bit ny bo hiu l cng ni tip sn sng tip nhn k t khc c truyn ti. Bit 6: Bit ny l mt bit ch c. Khi bit ny c gi tr logic 1 th b m truyn ang cn trng. Bit 7: khng c s dng v lun c t gi tr logic 0. - 45 -

Khi vit phn mm truy nhp thanh ghi ln thanh ghi trng thi ng truyn ta cn lu ti mt s chc nng ca thanh ghi ny. Thanh ghi trng thi ng truyn (LSR: Line Status Resgister) xc nh trng thi ca b m truyn v b m nhn. Thanh ghi ny ch dng c ra, ni dung tt c cc bit c t ng t bng phn cng. Mt iu ri ro c th xy ra khi truyn d liu mt k t mi c th c vit vo b m truyn trc khi k t trc y c gi. Khi k t mi ny s vit ln ni dung ca k t ang c truyn. trnh tnh trng ri ro ny S5 c giao nhim v thng bo kt qu kim tra xc nh liu vn cn mt k t trong b nh. Nu c th n c t thnh '1', cn nu nh bit ny c gi tr bng 0 th c ngha l b m truyn ang trong trng thi trng rng. truyn mt k t: - Kim tra bit 6 cho n khi c t;(Test Bit 6 until set;) - Truyn k t; (Send character;) nhn k t: - Kim tra bit 0 cho n khi c t; (Test Bit 0 until set;) - c k t; (Read character;)

Thanh ghi cho php ngt: Vi mch 8250 c mt nhiu kh nng ngt. C hai thanh ghi c s dng iu khin v xc nh cc ngun ngt. Thanh ghi u tin trong hai thanh ghi l thanh ghi cho php ngt IER (Interrupt Enable Register) cn thanh ghi th hai l thanh ghi nhn dng ngt IIR (Interrupt Identification Register).

Bit 0: Mi ln nhn mt k t th mt ngt li c to ra. Bit ny c t li (Reset) sau khi k t c b x l c. Bit 1: Nu bit ny c t mt gi tr logic 1 th b m truyn (thanh ghi gi truyn) trng v mt ngt xut hin. - 46 -

Bit 2: cho php c s thay i trong trng thi ng truyn b nhn theo cch gy ra mt ngt. Bit 3: cho php c s thay i trong trng thi modem ngt b x l. Bit 4- 7: Cc bit ny lun c t gi tr logic 0. Nu nh kh nng ngt ca vi mch cho php v mt ngt xut hin th bit xut ra ngt t 8250 chim ly mc logic 1. Tn hiu ny c ni vi bus ngt cng ca my tnh. Logic 1 trn bus ny bo hiu cho b x l bit l cn phi ch ti cng ni tip. Hnh 15 minh ho s phn b ca cc bit trn thanh ghi IER. Thanh ghi nhn dng ngt

Nu nh mt ngt xut hin th phn mm chng trnh phi thc hin c chc nng kim tra thanh ghi xc nh xem s kin no ang gy ra ngt. Thanh ghi nhn dng ngt IIR cha ng m, nhn dng iu kin (ngt) no ang yu cu ch . Mt im cn ch l: gia cc ngt cng c mc u tin khc nhau, ni khc i l c mt vi ngt t ra l "quan trng" hn so vi cc ngt khc. V nguyn tc, ngt no quan trng hn s c u tin x l trc.
Thanh ghi nhn dng ngt Bit Bit Bit Mc 2 1 0 u tin Kiu ngt Cc ngt v t li chc nng Ngun ngt iu khin t li ngt

0 1

0 1

1 0

Cao nht

c thanh ghi m b nhn 0 1 0 Th ba c thanh ghi IR (nu l ngun ngt) hoc ghi vo b m truyn 0 0 0 Th t Trng thi Xo gi hoc d c thanh ghi trng modem liu sn sng hoc bo thi modem chung hoc pht hin tn hiu ng nhn Bng trn lit k cc mc u tin ca tng ngt. Ct t li ngt lit k tc ng no l cn n t li ngt c cht. Mch iu khin truyn thng ng b - d b vn nng USART (VXL 8251A) Vi mch 8251A l mt USART c dng rng ri trong cc my IBM PC ti v phi ghp ni tip c u ni ra cng thng tin ni tip theo chun RS 232C 1 0 0 Th hai - 47 -

Khng dng Li trn hoc li chn l hoc li khung truyn hoc break interrupt C d liu C d liu nhn nhn B m B m truyn trng truyn trng

Khng dng Trng thi ng nhn

c thanh ghi trng thi ng truyn

S :
m m d liu // nt iu khin pht Pht TxD

Reset Clk C/D RD WR

Logic iu khin ghi c

RS232 iu khin thu

DSR CS DTR CTR

iu khin mode m

m Thu RxD

Cc thanh ghi c th chia lm 3 loi: nt // RTS - Thanh ghi iu khin (Control Register): dng nhn v thc hin cc lnh t CPU. - Thanh ghi trng thi (Status Register): dng thng bo cho CPU bit v trng thi ca UART hay UART ang lm g. - Thanh ghi m (Buffer Register): dng gi k t trong lc truyn hoc nhn Thanh ghi t ch D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0 D7 S2 S1 EP PEN L2 L1 B2 B1 Bit 0,1 c dng ng b v h s nhn tc 00 ng b 10 nhn 16 01 nhn 1 11 nhn 64 Bit 2,3: s bit m k t 00 5 10 7 01 6 11 8 Bit 4: cho php dng Parity hay khng Bit 5: Parity bit Bit 6,7: s bit STOP 00 khng hp l 01 1 10 11/2 11 2 Thanh ghi t lnh D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0 D7 EH IR RTS ER SBRK RxE DTR TxEN Bit 0: cho php pht tn hiu Bit 1: DTE sn sng Bit 2: Cho php thu - 48 -

Bit 3: Gi k t gin on (k t vi tt c cc bit la 0) Bit 4: Xo c li Bit 5: Yu cu truyn Bit 6: Reset ni b Bit 7: tm kim k t ng b Thanh ghi trng thi: D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0 D7 DSR SYNDET FE OE PE TxEMPTY RxRDY TxRDY Bit 0: bn pht sn sng Bit 1: bn thu sn sng Bit 2: m pht rng Bit 3: li Parity Bit 4: li thu Bit 5: li Frame Bit 6: k t ng b Bit 7: modem sn sng 2.6. Mng truyn thng Nhng h thng truyn thng c th m con ngi s dng v khai thc: H thng in tn dng nng lng in mt chiu H thng thng tin v tuyn in dng nng lng sng in t H thng thng tin quang nng H thng thng tin dng sng m H thng truyn s liu H thng truyn hnh H thng thng tin thoi Trong phm vi ca h thng truyn s liu Mng chuyn mch knh Mng chuyn mch gi Mng dch v tch hp s Mng cc b Mng v tuyn Mng v tinh CU HI V BI TP 2.1. Anh ch hy trnh by v thng truyn thng tng qut. 2.2. Anh ch hy trnh by v cc ng truyn hu tuyn c s dng hin nay. Nu c im v phm vi ng dng ca chng. 2.3. Trnh by hiu bit ca anh, ch v chun EIA-RS232C 2.4. Trnh by hiu bit ca anh, ch v mch iu khin truyn thng d b vn nng UART8250A 2.6. H thng truyn mt k t m ASCII chun l A thng qua mch iu khin truyn thng d b UART8250A. Anh ch hy cho bit gi tr cc bt ca thanh ghi iu khin ng truyn, thanh ghi tc Bound. Bit rng h thng c s dng 01 bt dng kim tra (parity) l bit, tc truyn l 9600bound 2.7. Gi s h thng nhn c mt k t m ASCII chun trong b m nhn ca mch iu khin ng b-d b nn nng USART 8251A. Anh ch cho bit gi tr cc bt trong thanh ghi t ch . Bit rng h thng s dng 01 bit Parity, v h s nhn tc c s dng l 16. - 49 -

Chng III: K THUT TRUYN S LIU

3.1. Gii thiu v k thut truyn s liu C tn hiu tng t v tn hiu s u c th c truyn i bng cc thit b ph hp. Chng c x l nh mt hm ca h thng truyn. Xt m hnh truyn s liu n gin:

DTE (Data Terminal Equipment): Thit b u cui x l d liu thng gi tt l thit b u cui. DTE gm hai khi chc nng khc nhau: khi x l l ngun hoc b thu d liu, khi kim tra s lin lc l t hp cc b phn thc hin chc nng lin lc c hoc khng c b phn lc nhiu. DCE (Data Circuit Equipment): Thit b mch d liu. DCE c th c hai khi chc nng l m ha (hoc gii m) v iu ch (hoc gii iu ch). CODEC = Code + Decode: m ha v gii m. MODEM = Modulation + Demodulation: iu ch v gii iu ch. Cc mch truyn d liu thng truyn song cng (hai chiu) nn phi cn n mch CODEC v MODEM. ng dy: ng dy c hiu l mi trng mang tin ni gia h thng gi v h thng nhn, mi trng c th c phn lm 2 loi l mi trng hu tuyn v v tuyn. 3.2. K thut nh khung trong truyn s liu 3.2.1. K thut m k t K thut ny s dng mt trng trong phn tiu m t s lng cc k t c trong khung. Bt li ca k thut ny l nu mt k t m ca mt khung no b li s lm cho cc khung pha sau khng th xc nh c. K thut ny v th m t c s dng. Qu trnh c khung d liu: Khi c phn u tin h thng thu s xc nhn s k t ca frame d liu. c ht s k t qui nh khi c phn u tiu ca frame tip theo h thng thu tip tc xc nhn di ca frame d liu .

Qu trnh c khung d liu nu b li: Khi phn u khung d liu bt k b li, n s nhn sai khung d liu v ko theo l li ton b cc khung d liu tip theo.

- 50 -

3.2.2. K thut s dng byte lm c v cc byte n. K thut ny s dng mt byte c gi tr c bit lm c hiu (flag byte) nh du im bt u v kt thc ca khung. Mt vn pht sinh trong k thut ny l, trong d liu c th cha byte c gi tr ca c hiu. iu ny s lm gy khung. gii quyt vn ny, ngi ta a vo pha trc byte d liu c gi tr ca c hiu mt byte c bic gi l byte ESC. Bn nhn khi nhn c byte ESC theo sau l gi tr ca c hiu th s b i k t ESC ng thi bit y cha phi l im kt thc ca khung. Tng t, nu trong d liu c cha k t ESC th ta cng a thm vo pha trc n mt k t ESC. K thut ny c gi l k t n (character stuffing). Yu im ca K thut ny l n da trn k t dng 8 bits v th s khng s dng c trong cc h thng s dng chun m 16 bits hoc 32 bits nh Unicode chng hn.

3.2.3. K thut s dng bit n K thut ny s dng mu bit c bit, 01111110, lm c nh du im bt u v kt thc khung.Vn t ra nu trong khung d liu cng tn ti mu bit c bit, khi khung d liu s b gy. khc phc vn , khi bn gi pht hin c 5 bits 1 lin tip trong d liu gi i, n s thm vo bit 0. Ngc li, nu bn nhn pht hin 5 bits lin tip v theo sau bng mt bit 0, n s loi b bit 0 ra khi d liu. Nh th c s khng xut hin trong d liu gi.
D liu gc D liu chuyn ln ng truyn,

D liu nhn sau khi loi b cc bit n

3.3. K thut truyn ni tip khng ng b 3.3.1. Mu tn hiu trong ch truyn bt ng b Trong ch truyn bt ng b thng tin c truyn i di dng tng k t v khong cch cc k t l ngu nhin. Tuy nhin to s ng b gia my pht v thu, giao thc tng 2 (Data link protocol) c qui nh c th v mu tn hiu trong h thng truyn bt ng b nh sau: Mi k t gm mt s bit gi l k t d liu, s ny c th l 5 i vi m Baudot, 7 nu l m ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) v 8 nu l m EBCDIC (Extended Binary-Coded Decimal Information Code, m BCD m rng) Ngoi ra, to s ng b, km theo cc bit m k t cn c cc bit Start trc mi k t v cc bit Stop sau mi k t. . Cc bit Start l cc bit 0 v cc bit Stop l bit 1. S bit Start lun lun l 1 bit cn s bit Stop c th l 1, 1,5 hoc 2 bit. Nu c thm bit kim sot chn l (parity bit) th bit ny nm trc bit Stop. - 51 -

 trng thi ngh my pht lun pht i bit 1 gi l bit ngh (idle bit), nh vy my thu d ra bit Start khi c s bin i t 1 xung 0, sau l mt chui bit c s lng theo qui nh ca giao thc. 3.3.2. Nguyn tc

B ghi dch l thnh phn chnh ca phn cng mch truyn khng ng b. Bn pht: Khi LOAD = 1 d liu vo gm 8 bit (k c bit parity) c a ng thi qua 8 ng vo b ghi dch. Trong b ghi dch c sn mch to bit start (bit 0) v 2 bit stop (2 bit 1). Khi LOAD = 0 cc bit ca k t ln lt dch ra truyn trn ng dy. Vy b ghi dch hot ng nh mt mch bin i song song thnh ni tip. Bn thu: c mch pht hin bit vo (bit start) bo hiu bt u thu mt k t. READ = 0: cc bit trn ng dy c dch tun t vo b ghi dch (gm 11 bits: 1 bit start, 8 bits k t v 2 bits stop). READ = 1:cc bit trong b ghi dch (8 bits k t) c c mt cch song song u ra. Vy b ghi dch hot ng nh mt mch bin i ni tip thnh song song. Do bn pht khng pht xung clock pht: CLKT, nn bn thu phi c b to xung clock thu CLKR ring, sao cho CLKT = CLKR. Khi bn pht v bn thu c ng b vi nhau.
Chng trnh con phat Nhan ky t Tnh toan bit chan le Tao bit chan le i=0 Tao bit start "0" Tre 1 T Bit phat TxD i=i+1 i=8 YES Tao bit stop TxD = 1 Tre 2 T Ve chng trnh chnh NO

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Hin nay do k thut ch to pht trin nhiu mch LSI trn th trng p ng cc chun truyn khng ng b nh UART 6402, 8251, 6850. Ta c th thc hin thu pht bt ng b bng phn mm thay cho phn cng, nhng b hn ch v tc (S th hin ti trang trc). 3.4. K thut truyn ni tip ng b 3.4.1. Khi qut Vic thm cc start bit v nhiu stop bit vo mi mt k t hay byte trong thng tin ni tip bt ng b lm cho hiu sut truyn gim xung, c bit l khi truyn mt thng ip gm mt khi k t. Mt khc phng php ng b bit c dng y tr ln thiu tin cy khi gia tng tc truyn. V l do ny ngi ta a ra phng php mi gi l truyn ng b, truyn ng b khc phc c nhng nhc im nh trn .Tuy nhin, cng ging nh truyn bt ng b chng ta ch cho php nhng phng php no cho php my thu t c s ng b bit , ng b k t v ng b frame. Trong thc t c hai lc truyn ni tip ng b: truyn ng b nh hng bit v truyn ng b nh hng k t. 3.4.2. Nguyn tc ng b bit. S khc nhau c bn ca truyn bt ng b v ng b l i vi truyn bt ng b ng h thu chy bt ng b vi tn hiu n, cn truyn ng b th ng h thu chy ng b vi tn hiu n, cc start bit v stop bit khng c dng, thay v vy mi frame c truyn nh l dng lin tc cc k s nh phn. My thu ng b bit trong hai cch .Hoc l thng tin nh thi c nhng vo trong tn hiu truyn v sau c tch ra bi my thu, hoc my thu c mt ng h cc b c gi ng b vi tn hiu thu nh mt thit b gi l DPLL (Digital Phase Lock-Loop). Nh chng ta s thy, DPLL li dng s chuyn trng thi t bit 1->0 hay t 0 ->1 trong tn hiu thu duy tr s ng b qua mt khong thi gian nh k no .Lc lai ghp l kt hp c hai cch Cc phng php ng b xung ng h M ho xung ng h

Dng DPLL

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Phi hp c hai cch

3.3.3 Truyn ng b nh hng k t. C hai kiu iu khin truyn ng b: ng b nh hng k t v ng b nh hng bit. C hai u dng cc nguyn tc ng b bit ging nhau. Khc nhau ch yu gia hai lc l phng php c dng t c s ng b k t v ng b frame. Truyn ng b nh hng k t c dng ch yu truyn cc khi k t, nh l cc tp tin dng text. V khng c start bit hay stop bit nn phng php ny s dng k thut nh khung s dng byte lm c v cc byte n. thc hin ng b ny, my pht thm vo cc k t iu khin truyn, gi l cc k t ng b SYN, ngay trc cc khi k t truyn. Cc k t iu khin ny phi c hai chc nng: trc ht, chng cho my thu thu duy tr ng b bit, th hai, khi iu khin c thc hin, chng cho php my thu bt u bin dch lung bit theo cc danh gii k t chnh xc_s ng b k t.

S ng b frame t c theo phng thc ging nh truyn bt ng b bng cch ng gi khi k t gia cp k t iu khin truyn STX-ETX. Cc k t iu khin SYN thng c dng bi b thu ng b k t th ng trc k t STX (start of frame)

Khi my thu c ng b bit th n chuyn vo ch lm vic gi l ch bt s liu. Khi b thu vo ch bt s liu, n bt u dch dng bit trong mt ca s 8 bit khi tip nhn mt bit mi. Bng cch ny, khi nhn c mi bit, n kim tra xem 8 bit sau cng c ng bng k t ng b hay khng. Nu khng bng, n tip tc thu bit k tip v lp li - 54 -

thao tc kim tra ny. Nu tm thy k t ng b, cc k t tip c c sau mi 8 bit thu c. Khi trong trng thi ng b k t, my thu bt u x l mi k t thu ni tip d ra k t STX u frame. Khi pht hin mt STX, my thu x l nhn ni dung frame v ch kt thc cng vic ny khi pht hin ra k t ETX. Trn mt lin kt im-ni-im, thng thng my pht s quay tr li truyn cc k t SYN my thu duy tr c cu ng b. D nhin, ton b th tc trn u phi c lp li mi khi truyn mt frame mi. Khi d liu nh phn ang c truyn, s trong sut d liu t c ging nh phng php c m t trong mc nguyn tc ng b frame trc y, c ngha l dng mt k t DLE chn vo trc STX v ETX, v chn mt DLE vo bt c v tr no trong ni dung c cha mt DLE. Trong trng hp ny, cc k t SYN ng trc k t DLE u tin.

3.4.4 Truyn ng b nh hng bit. Vic dng mt cp k t bt u v kt thc mt frame ng b frame, cng vi vic thm vo cc k t DLE khng hiu qu cho vic truyn s liu nh phn. Hn na, dng ca cc k t iu khin truyn thay i theo cc b m k t khc nhau, v vy ch c th s dng vi mt b k t. khc phc cc vn ny ngi ta dng lc truyn ng b nh hng bit. Lc ny c xem nh lc iu khin dng cho vic truyn cc frame d liu gm d liu in c v d liu nh phn.Ba lc nh hng bit ch yu. Chng khc nhau ch yu phng php bt u v kt thc mi frame. Bt u v kt thc mt frame bng mt c 8 bit 01111110. Dng thut ng nh hng bit v lung thu c d theo tng bit. Do v nguyn l ni dung ca frame khng nht thit phi l mt bi s ca bit. cho php my thu tip cn v duy tr c cu ng b bit, my pht phi gi mt chui cc byte idle (nhn ri) 01111111 ng trc c bt u frame.Vi NRZI m ha bit 0 trong idle cho php DPLL ti my thu tip cn v duy tr s ng b ng h. Khi nhn c c khi u frame, ni dung ca frame c c v dch theo cc khong 8 bit cho n khi gp c kt thc frame. t c tnh trong sut d liu, cn m bo c khng c nhn lm trong phn ni dung. V l do ny ngi ta dng k thut nh khung s dng bit n Mch thc hin chc nng ny t ti u ra ca thanh ghi PISO. Mch ny ch hot ng trong qu trnh truyn ni dung ca frame. Khi c mt tun t 5 bit 1 lin tc n s t ng chn vo mt bit 0 .Bng cch ny s khng bao gi c c trong phn ni dung truyn i. Mt mch tng t ti my thu nm ngay trc li vo thanh ghi PISO thc hin chc nng g b bit 0 theo hng ngc li. Ni dung frame

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H thng ng b

Ch nh chiu di v ranh gii bt u frame

Khi mi trng truyn l mi trng qung b v chia s cho tt c cc DTE. cho php tt c cc trm khc nhau t c s ng b bit. Trm truyn t vo trc ni dung frame mt mu bit gi l mu m u _preamble_ bao gm mi cp 10. Mt khi ng b, my thu d tng dng bit mt cho n khi tm thy byte khi u khung 10101011. Mt header c nh xc nh pha sau bao gm a ch, thng tin chiu di phn ni dung. Do , vi lc ny my thu ch cn m s byte thch hp xc nh s kt thc mi frame . S bt u v kt thc ca mi frame c ch nh bi cc mu m bo bit khng chun. V d m Manchester, thay cho truyn mt tn hiu ti gia thi bit, mc tn hiu duy tr ti cng mc nh bit trc trong thi bit hon chnh (J) hay ti mc ngc (K).Mt ln na, pht hin u v cui frame, my thu d tng bit, trc ht pht hin JK0JK000 v sau pht hin mu kt thc JK1JK111 .V cc k hiu J, K l cc m bit khng chun, nn trong phn ni dung ca frame s khng cha cc k hiu ny, nh vy t c s trong sut d liu - 56 -

3.4.5 Giao tip gia DTE DCE trong truyn ng b: Khi tc mng truyn khong 1200 bps th ngi ta dng truyn ng b, modem ng b c s dng, n s to xung clock thu t ng ng b vi dng d liu. Chun giao tip RS232 v RS449 c s dng. C 4 nguyn tc ng b: Thit b u cui kim tra thi gian tng bn ring. Modem u cui kim tra thi gian tng bn ring. Thit b u cui A kim tra thi gian 2 bn. Modem A kim tra thi gian 2 bn. 3.4.6 Mt s giao thc truyn ng b 3.4.6.1: Protocal BISYNC (BSC) Syn Syn SOH Header STX Text ETX BCC Thuc lp 2 ca h thng m OSI 7 lp, lp ny c nhim v kim tra s dch chuyn thng tin. Tiu chun BISYNC l protocol kim tra theo th t. Thng bo dng BISYNC c truyn theo khi, mi khi c mt hoc nhiu tn hiu ng b (SYN). M c dng trong BISYNC l m ASCII. Cc k t iu khin c dng l: Syn: bit ng b SOH (Start Of Header): bt u vng Header ca mt n v thng tin chun Header: a ch trm nhn, tn hiu ACK, NAK STX (Start Of Text): s kt thc ca Header v bt u d liu (vn bn) Text: ni dung d liu truyn ETX (End Of Text): kt thc vng d liu BCC (Block Check Character): kim tra khi d liu theo phng php Parity theo VRC v LRC cc bit t STX n ETX ENQ (Enquiry): yu cu phc p t mt trm xa Thng bo BISYNC c dng: TEXT: ni dung ca thng bo. HEADER: ghi a ch ngi nhn v ACK/NAK khi cn thit. BCC: byte k t kim tra khi, thng l k t xt tng kim tra chn l. Khi pha thu nhn ton khi, b phn thu s tnh BCC v so snh vi BCC nhn, sau n thng bo ACK hay NAK. B phn pht s pht li nu sai (nhn NAK) cho n khi khi nhn ng. Nh vy, BISYNC l protocol half-duplex (bn song cng), kim tra theo byte. 3.4.6.2. Protocol SDLC L protocol kim tra theo bit, n t ph thuc vo cc k t. Vi mt s k t d tr cho kim tra ng dy, SDLC d dng lm cho dy s liu truyn trong sut. Thng tin trong SDLC c t chc theo khung. Flag Address Control User data FCS Flag 8 bits 8 8 nx8 16/32 8 Flag (c): Dng truyn tn hiu ng b, bo cho s bt u v kt thc mt khung truyn. Gi tr ca flag c qui nh 01111110. trnh nhm ln, cc byte cn li khng c xut hin lin tip 6 bit 1. B phn truyn s nhi thm bit 0 sau mi cm 5 bit 1 lin tip trong frame. pha thu, sau khi tch flag s tin hnh tch cc bit 0, ri mi tch a ch, iu khin, FCS, phn cn li s l d liu. Address (a ch): Thng c di 1 byte. N dng ghi a ch ca trm th 2. a ch FF dng cho tt c cc terminal trong mng. - 57 -

Control (iu khin): C di 8 bit, c 3 loi khung: Khung thng tin (I - Information): mang d liu cn truyn cho trm. D liu c dng c kim tra vng, kim tra sai s dng ARQ. Khung gim st (S - Supervisory): chnh s m khung (pht v thu), tr li ACK/NAK, thng bo bn iu khin sai v iu khin lung . Khung khng m s (U - Unnumber): dng qun l ng ni nh thit lp mch, gii phng mch, th trm User data (d liu ca ngi s dng): C th c di ty nhng trong khi s dng n ty thuc vo s byte ca SDLC quy nh. FCS (Frame check sequense Kim tra): C di 16 bit, CRC c a thc sinh g(x)=x16 +x12 +x5+1 3.4.6.3. Protocol HDLC Protocol HDLC hon ton ging nh SDLC. SDLC do t chc tiu chun quc t (ISO), cn HDLC do Uy ban t vn quc t v telephone v telegraph CCITT xut s dng X25 trong mng chuyn mch gi. Cu trc vng iu khin ca HDLC:
Bit Dng I S U 1 0 1 1 2 0 1 3 N(S) S M 4 S M 5 P/F P/F P/F 6 7 N(R) N(R) M 8

N(S): ch ra b m dy pht; N(R) ch ra b m dy nhn. Thng thng N(R) = N(S) +1. P/F: bit ch th: P = 1: s cp iu khin th cp. F = 1: th cp tr li s cp. i vi HDLC m rng c th c nhiu byte a ch. Bit u tin ca cc byte a ch l 0, ch c byte cui cng ca vng a ch c bit u tin l 1.
1 0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 1 8n

Nu byte a ch c gi tr 11111111, ngha l s cp s gi frame cho tt c cc th cp trong mng. Vng kim tra ca HDLC m rng th c 2 byte nh sau:
1 Dng Dng Dng I S U 0 1 1 2 0 1 3 S M 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 N(R) N(R) X X 14 15 16 N(S) P/F S 0 0 0 0 P/F M U M M M P/F

Mi mt I frame gm c s th t ca frame pht (N(S)) cng nh s ph thuc v tr ca ACK. ACK l s th t ca frame tip theo s c chp nhn (N(R)). Ca s cc i c chp nhn l 7 = 2 3 1 i vi HDLC v 127 = 2 7 1 i vi HDLC m rng (tr trng thi ton 0). Dy kim tra khung (FCS) thng c 16 bit CRC hoc 32 bit CRC. Qu trnh to thnh (ng khung) v khi phc (m khung) HDLC gm cc bc nh sau: - 58 -

3.5. Cc k thut truy nhp ng truyn 3.5.1 Phng php chia knh tng chung ca phng php ny l: ng truyn s c chia thnh nhiu knh truyn, mi knh truyn s c cp pht ring cho mt trm. C ba phng php chia knh chnh: FDMA, TDMA, CDMA. 3.5.1.1 Chia tn s (FDMA Frequency Division Multiple Access) Mt phng thc truyn thng chia s mt knh truyn n cho nhiu ngi dng cnh tranh l chia tn s (FDMA). Ph ca knh truyn c chia thnh nhiu bng tn (frequency bands) khc nhau. Mi trm c gn cho mt bng tn c nh. Nhng trm no c cp bng tn m khng c d liu truyn th trong trng thi nhn ri (idle). V d: Mt mng c su trm, cc trm 1, 3, 4 c d liu cn truyn, cc trm 2, 5, 6 nhn ri.

Nhn xt: - Do mi ngi dng c cp mt bng tn ring, nn khng c s ng xy ra. Khi ch c s lng ngi dng nh v n nh, mi ngi dng cn giao tip nhiu th FDMA chnh l c ch iu khin truy cp ng truyn hiu qu. - Tuy nhin, khi m lng ngi gi d liu l ln v lin tc thay i hoc ng truyn vt qu kh nng phc v th FDMA bc l mt s vn . Nu ph ng truyn c chia lm N vng v c t hn N ngi dng cn truy cp ng truyn, th mt phn ln ph ng truyn b lng ph. Ngc li, c nhiu hn N ngi dng c nhu cu truyn d liu th mt sngi dng s phi b t chi khng c truy cp ng truyn v thiu bng thng. Tuy nhin, nu li gi s rng s lng ngi dng bng cch no lun c gi n nh con s N, th vic chia knh truyn thnh nhng knh truyn con nh th t thn l khng hiu qu. L do c bn y l: nu c vi ngi dng ri, khng truyn d liu th nhng knh truyn con cp cho nhng ngi dng ny b lng ph. 3.5.1.2 Chia thi gian (TDMA Time Division Multiple Access) Trong phng php ny, cc trm s xoay vng (round) truy cp ng truyn. Vng y c th hiu l vng thi gian. Mt vng thi gian l khong thi gian cho tt c - 59 -

cc trm trong mng u c quyn truyn d liu. Qui tc xoay vng nh sau: mt vng thi gian s c chia u thnh cc khe (slot) thi gian bng nhau, mi trm s c cp mt khe thi gian n c th truyn ht mt gi tin. Nhng trm no ti lt c cp cho khe thi gian ca mnh m khng c d liu truyn th vn chim ly khe thi gian , v khong thi gian b chim ny c gi l thi gian nhn ri (idle time). Tp hp tt c cc khe thi gian trong mt vng c gi li l khung (frame).

Mng dng c ch truy cp ng truyn TDMA trn c su trm. Cc trm 1, 3, 4 c d liu cn truyn. Cc trm 2, 5, 6 nhn ri. Cng p dng cng mt nhn xt v mng TDMA nh mng FDMA. Mi ngi dng c cp pht mt khe thi gian. V nu ngi dng khng s dng khe thi gian ny truyn d liu th thi gian s b lng ph. 3.5.1.3 Kt hp gia FDMA v TDMA Trong thc t, hai k thut TDMA v FDMA thng c kt hp s dng vi nhau, v d nh trong cc mng in thoi di ng. - Cc in thoi di ng TDMA s dng cc knh 30 KHz, mi knh li c chia thnh ba khe thi gian. Mt thit b cm tay s dng mt khe thi gian cho vic gi v mt khe khc cho vic nhn d liu. Chng hn nh cc h thng: Cingular (Nokia 8265, TDMA 800/ 1900 MHz, AMPS 800 mHz), AT&T Wireless. - H thng GSM s dng cc knh 200 KHz c chia thnh 8 khe thi gian. Mt thit b cm tay s s dng mt khe thi gian trong hai knh khc nhau gi v nhn thng tin. Cc h thng Cingular, T-Mobile, AT&T ang chuyn sang dng k thut ny.

3.5.2 Phng php truy cp ng truyn ngu nhin (Random Access) Trong phng php ny, ngi ta cho cc trm t do tranh chp ng truyn chung truyn tng khung d liu mt. Nu mt trm cn gi mt khung, n s gi khung trn ton b di thng ca knh truyn. S khng c s phi hp trnh t gia cc trm. Nu c hn hai trm pht cng mt lc, ng (collision) s xy ra, cc khung b ng s b h hi. Giao thc truy cp ng truyn ngu nhin c dng xc nh: Lm th no pht hin ng . Lm th no phc hi sau ng . C hai phin bn ca ALOHA: Slotted ALOHA (c chia khe) v Pure ALOHA (thun ty): Slotted ALOHA Thi gian c chia thnh nhiu slot c kch c bng nhau (bng thi gian truyn mt khung). Mt trm mun truyn mt khung th phi i n u slot thi gian k tip mi c truyn. D nhin l s xy ra ng v khung b ng s b h. Tuy nhin, da trn tnh phn hi ca vic truyn qung b, trm pht lun c th theo di xem khung ca n pht i c b hy hoi hay khng bng cch lng nghe knh truyn. Nhng trm khc cng lm theo cch tng t. Trong trng hp v l do no m trm khng th dng c ch lng nghe ng truyn, h thng cn yu cu bn nhn tr li mt khung bo nhn (acknowledgement) - 60 -

cho bn pht. Nu pht sinh ng , trm pht s gi li khung ti u slot k tip vi xc sut p cho n khi thnh cng. V d minh ha: C 3 trm u mun truyn mt khung thng tin.

Pure ALOHA K thut Pure ALOHA n gin hn Slotted ALOHA do khng c s ng b ha gia cc trm. Mi khi mun truyn mt khung thng tin, trm s truyn n ngay m khng cn i n u ca slot thi gian k tip. V th xc xut b ng tng thm! Ngha l khung thng tin c gi ti thi im t0 s ng vi nhng khung c gi trong khong thi gian [t0-1, t0+1].

Hnh: Minh ha Pure aloha Nhn xt chung v ALOHA: - Hiu nng thp do khng c thm d ng truyn trc khi gi khung, dn n vic mt nhiu thi gian cho vic pht hin ng v phc hi sau ng . - Hot ng theo kiu ALOHA c kh nng dn n vic h thng b cht ng do mi n lc gi gi tin ca tt c cc trm u b ng . Slotted ALOHA tr nn quan trng vi l do khng my rnh mch lm. N ra i vo nhng nm 1970, c s dng trong mt s h thng th nghim thi , v ri hu nh b lng qun. V khi cng ngh truy cp Internet khng qua cable c pht minh, t nhin li pht sinh vn lm sao cp pht ng truyn c chia s cho nhiu ngi dng cnh tranh, Slotted ALOHA li c ci tin thnh cc gio thc ti u hin ang s dng trong mng Lan l CSMA v CSMA/CD CSMA/CA. 3.5.3 Phng php phn lt truy cp ng truyn Hai phng php iu khin truy cp ng truyn chia knh v truy cp ngu nhin u c nhng im hay v hn ch: - Trong cc giao thc dng chia knh, knh truyn c phn chia mt cch hiu qu v cng bng khi ti trng ng truyn l ln. Tuy nhin chng khng hiu qu khi ti trng ca ng truyn l nh: c tr hon khi truy cp knh truyn, ch 1/N bng thng c cp cho ngi dng ngay c khi ch c duy nht ngi dng hin din trong h thng. - Cc giao thc dng truy cp ngu nhin th li hot ng hiu qu khi ti trng ca ng truyn thp. Nhng khi ti trng ng truyn cao th phi tn nhiu chi ph cho vic x l ng . Cc giao thc dng phn lt s n vic tn dng nhng mt mnh ca hai dng ni trn. - 61 -

 tng chnh ca cc giao thc dng phn lt l khng cho ng xy ra bng cch cho cc trm truy cp ng truyn mt cch tun t. V c bn, c hai cch thc phn lt s dng ng truyn: Thm d (polling): Trm ch (master) s mi cc trm t (slave) truyn khi n lt. Lt truyn c cp pht cho trm t c th bng cch: trm ch dnh phn cho trm t hoc trm t yu cu v c trm ch p ng. Tuy nhin c th thy nhng vn s gp phi ca gii php ny l: chi ph cho vic thm d, tr do phi ch c phn lt truyn, h thng ri lon khi trm ch gp s c. Chuyn th bi (token passing): Th bi iu khin s c chuyn ln lt t trm ny qua trm kia. Trm no c trong tay th bi s c quyn truyn, truyn xong phi chuyn th bi qua trm k tip. Nhng vn cn phi quan tm: chi ph qun l th bi, tr khi phi ch th bi, kh khn khi th bi b mt. CU HI V BI TP 3.1. Gi s 2 trm A v B cn truyn d liu cho nhau theo giao thc BSC vi tnh hung sau: Trm A cn truyn 4 k t d liu cho trm B, trong khi trm B cng cn truyn 02 k t cho trm A. Hy v s n gin minh ho vic trao i d liu gia 2 trm khi trm A ch ng yu cu truyn trc 3.2. Gi s 2 trm A v B cn truyn d liu cho nhau theo giao thc BSC vi tnh hung sau: Trm A cn truyn 3 k t d liu cho trm B, trong khi trm B cng cn truyn 04 k t cho trm A. Hy v s n gin minh ho vic trao i d liu gia 2 trm khi trm B ch ng yu cu truyn trc 3.3. Cho chui k t cn truyn dng m ASCII m rng l TRUONGDHHHVN. Trm gi s ng gi chui k t trn theo khun dng d liu ca giao thc HDLC thnh cc frame truyn i, mi Frame cha 02 k t. Anh, ch hy cho bit gi tr cc bt ca trng iu khin (Control) trong cc frame c truyn. 3.4. Gi s bn nhn thu c 01 frame theo giao thc HDLC (khng c li). Gi tr trng iu khin l 0010 01010. Anh ch hy cho bit trng iu khin ca Frame thu c cung cp nhng thng tin g. 3.5. Gi s hai trm A v B cng s dng giao thc HDLC trao i thng tin vi nhau theo phng thc d b cn bng. Trong trm B cn truyn 3 frame d liu cho trm A, trm A cn truyn 2 frame d liu cho trm B. Hy v s n gin minh ha qu trnh trao i thng tin gia 2 trm (Bit rng trong qu trnh truyn nhn, d liu khng b sai)

- 62 -

Chng IV: CC VN TRONG TRUYN S LIU

4.1. Vn pht hin sai v sa sai Cc mng truyn s liu phi c kh nng cho php truyn d liu t mt thit b n thit b khc vi chnh xc cao. Mt h thng khng th m bo rng d liu nhn c bi mt thit b l hon ton ging vi d liu c truyn pht t mt thit b khc l mt h thng v dng. Ti bt k thi im no d liu c truyn i t ngun ti ch, chng c th tr nn b sai lc trn ng truyn. Trong thc t, ngi ta thy rng ch mt phn no ca thng ip b thay i trn ng truyn. C nhiu yu t, bao gm nhiu ng truyn c th thay i hoc lm mt mt hoc mt s bit ca mt n v d liu. Cc h thng ng tin cy phi c c ch cho php d tm v sa nhng li . 4.1.1 Cc khi nin v li V bn cht, li truyn s liu l li bit. Nu tn hiu mang d liu nh phn c m ha, nhng thay i nh th c th lm thay i ngha ca d liu. Nguyn nhn gy ra li: Cc qu trnh vt l sinh ra: l cc li xy ra trong qu trnh truyn s liu trn ng truyn vt l. Bt c khi no mt tn hiu in t di chuyn t mt im ny ti im khc, n d b nhiu khng on trc t sc nng, t tnh v cc dng ca ca in. S nhiu ny c th lm thay i hnh dng v thi gian ca tn hiu. Cc thit b truyn thng gy ra: l cc li xy ra do chnh cc thit b tham gia truyn s liu gy ra. xc nh xc sut li bit s dng p b, Xc nh t sut li bit BER (Bit Error Rate) BER 10-9 - ng truyn c xem l tt BER 10-4 - ng truyn chp nhn c Ngoi ra cn mt s n v o khc, t c s dng hn: FER (Frame Error Rate) PER (Packet Error Rate) xc nh xc sut li gi s liu s dng cng thc: pf = 1 (1-pb)N vi N - di gi s liu, o bng bit pf N.pb, nu N.pb << 1 Th d minh ho: Cho N = 1000 bit, pb = 10-6 pf = 1 (1-pb)N = 1 (1-10-6)1000 = 0.00095 Hay pf N.pb, 1000 .10-6 0.001. 4.1.2. Cc kiu li V bn cht, li c th c chia thnh 2 loi l li n v li chm. Trong mt li n bit, mt bit 0 c thay i thnh 1 hoc 1 thnh 0. Trong mt li bit chm bit, nhiu bit bt thay i. V d mt nhiu xung hng hot ko di 0.01 giy trn ng truyn cng vi mt tc d liu 1200 bps c th thay i tt c hoc mt vi bit trong 12 bit thng tin.

Li bit n - single bit error Thut ng li bit n c ngha l cc li bit ring l, phn b ngu nhin trong gi s liu. - 63 -

 hiu tm nh hng ca thay i , hnh dung rng mi nhm 8 bit l mt k t ASCII vi mt bit 0 c b sung vo bn tri. Trong hnh v, 00000010 (ASCII STX) c gi i, c ngha l k t bt u, nhng bn nhn li nhn c 00001010 (ASCII LF- line feed) .

Cc li bit n l kiu li t xy ra trong truyn d liu ni tip. hiu l do ti sao, ta hy hnh dng ngi gi thc hin gi d liu vi tc 1 Mbps. iu c ngha l mt bit ch ko di trong khong 1/1.000.000 giy hay 1 micro giy. li bit n xy ra, nhiu phi nm trong khong 1 micro giy, iu t khi xy ra; nhiu thng ko di hn nhiu so vi khong . Tuy nhin, li bit n c th xy ra nu gi d liu s dng truyn d liu song song. V d, nu c 8 ng song song c s dng gi tt c 8 bit ca mt byte cng mt thi im, mt trong nhng ng b nhiu, mt bit c th b thay i trong mi byte. V d nh thc hin truyn dn song song trong mt my tnh gia CPU v b nh. Li bit chm - Burst Error Thut ng li bit chm ngha l c 2 hay nhiu bit trong n v d liu c thay i bit 1 thnh bit 0 v t 0 thnh 1.

Trong trng hp ny, 0100010001000011 c gi, nhng bn nhn th nhn c 0101110101000011. Ch l li bit hng lot khng phi lun lun c ngha l xy ra cc bit lin tip nhau. Chiu di ca mt lot c nh lng t bit bt li u tin ti bit b li cui cng. Mt s bit nm gia c th khng b nh hng. Cc khi nim lin quan: Gap (k h): L vng nm gia 2 vng li. Burst (Bng n): L vng trong BER cc b vt qu mt gi tr ngng nht nh. Burst bt u v kt thc bng cc li. Burst interval (khong li chm): vng gia 2 vng li chm lin tip. Cluster: vng khng c bt k mt bit ng no xen gia. K hiu: 1 l 1 bit b li, 0 l 1 bit ng (khng b li), 0 x l mt dy lin tip x bit ng

Li mt s mi trng c khuynh hng bng n. - 64 -

Mt d gii quyt: s liu my tnh lun c gi thnh cc khi bit. Gi s rng kch thc khi l 1000 bit, v t l li l 0.001. Nu cc li l c lp th hu ht cc khi u cha li. Nu cc li xut hin mt cch bng n trong 100 khi, th tnh trung bnh ch c mt hoc hai khi trong 100 khi b nh hng. Khi vic gii quyt cc khi bit b li s tr nn n gin. Mt kh: kh pht hin v sa hn so vi cc li c lp (isolated). 4.1.3. Pht hin sai trong truyn s liu Phng php pht hin sai trong truyn s liu l d dng d tha. Mt c ch d tm li phi tho mn nhng yu cu t ra cn phi gi tt c d liu 2 ln. Thit b nhn sau s c th thc hin cng vic so snh bit-bit gia hai phin bn d liu. Bt k s khc nhau no s ch bo mt li v mt c ch sa li ph hp s c thit lp ti . H thng ny s hon thnh mt cch chnh xc (cc li bt l c a ra bng ng cc bit trong c hai tp d liu l rt nh), nhng cch ny cng kh chm, Khng ch mt gp i thi gian cho vic truyn dn m cn mt thi gian cho qu trnh so snh tng n v bit-bit. Khi nhim bao gp thng tin b sung trong truyn dn ch dnh cho mc ch so snh l mt cch tt. Nhng thay v lp li ton b dng d liu, mt nhm nh hn cc bit c th c ghp thm vo cui mi n v. K thut ny c gi l d tha redundancy bi v cc bit ph thm l d tha i vi d liu thng tin; chng s b loi b ngay khi chnh xc ca truyn dn c xc nhn. D tm li s dng khi nim v d tha c ngha l ghp thm cc bit ph thm cho vic d tm li ti thit b nhn.

Mt khi dng d liu c to ra, n truyn qua mt thit b v thit b ny thc hin phn tch dng d liu, b sung mt m kim tra d tha mt cch hp l. n v d liu gi c chiu di c m rng thm nhiu bit (trong hnh minh ha l 7 bit thm), i qua ng kt ni ti bn nhn. Bn nhn chuyn ton b dng d liu qua mt b phn chc nng kim tra. Nu dng bit nhn c kim tra da vo cc tiu chun xc nh, phn d liu ca n v d liu c chp nhn v cc bit d tha c loi b. Nh vy phng php ny c th hiu: Bn gi b sung thm cc thng tin d tha vo s liu cn gi i mt cch thch hp (theo quy lut = thut ton nht nh). Bn nhn da trn cc thng tin d tha xc nh xem gi tin nhn c c b li hay khng. C 4 k thut kim tra kiu d tha c s dng trong truyn s liu; kim tra VRC (Vertical redundancy Check) hay cn c gi l kim tra chn l, k thut LRC (Longitudinal Redundancy Check), k thut CRC (Cyclical Redundancy Check) v Checksum. Ba k thut u tin VRC, LRC v CRC thng c thc hin trong tng vt l cho mc ch s dng trong tng lin kt d liu, cn k thut th 4- Checksum c s dng chnh thc trong cc tng pha trn - 65 -

4.1.3.1. K thut VRC C ch ph bin v chi ph t nht cho d tm li l k thut VRC, thng c gi l kim tra chn l. Trong k thut ny, mt bit d tha c gi l bit chn l c ghp vo mi n v d liu sao cho tng s cc bit 1 trong n v d liu (bao gm c bit chn l) tr thnh chn (hoc l) Trong k thut VRC, mt bit chn l c b sung vo tt c cc n v d liu sao cho tng s bit 1 trong n v d liu tr thnh mt s chn.

Ch rng cho n gin, ch bn lun v kim tra chn l s cc bt 1 s l mt s chn. Trong mt vi h thng c th s dng kim tra tnh l chn (odd parity). Nguyn tc th ging nhau nhng vic tnh ton th khc nhau. Hiu qu ca k thut VRC VRC c th d tm tt c cc li bit n. N cng c th do tm cc li bit chm bit min l tng s cc bit thay i lun l s l (1, 3, 5). hy ly v d mt n v d liu chn l tng s cc bit 1 bao gm bit kim tra chn l l 6: 1000111011. Nu bt k 3 bit no thay i gi tr, kt qu chn l s l l v li s c d tm: 1111111011: 9, 0110111011:7, 1100010011:5. B kim tra VRC s tr v mt kt qu l 1 v n v d liu b loi b. iu ny cng ng i vi bt k li kiu bit l no. Tuy nhin, b kim tra VRC khng th d tm khi tng s cc bit 1 ca n v d liu b thay i l chn. V d: n v d liu gc: 1110111011:8, n v d liu nhn c: 1100011011:6, 1000011010:4. VRC c th d tm mi kiu li n. N c th d tm cc li lot bit khi v ch khi tng s cc li trong mi n v d liu l l. 4.1.3.2. K thut LRC (Longitudinal Redundancy Check) Trong k thut LRC, mt khi cc bit c t chc trong mt bng (cc hng v cc ct). V d, thay v gi mt khi 32 bit, t chc chng thnh trong mt bng to bi 4 hng v 8 ct,. Sau tnh ton bit chn l cho tng ct v to ra mt hng mi 8 bit, cc hng l cc bit kim tra tnh chn l cho ton khi. Ch l bit chn l u tin trong hng th 5 c tnh da vo tt c cc bit u tin. Bit chn l th 2 c tnh ton da trn trn tt c cc bit th 2, Sau c th nh km 8 bit chn l vo d liu gc v gi chng ti bn nhn. - 66 -

Trong k thut kim tra LRC, mt khi cc bit c chia thnh cc hng v mt hng cc bit d tha c thm vo ton khi. Hiu qu ca k thut LRC LRC l k thut tng cng kh nng d tm cc li bit hng lot. Nh v d trc thy, mt LRC ca n bit c th d dng d tm mt li lot bit ca n bit. Mt li bit chm ca nhiu hn n bit cng c d tm qua LRC vi kh quan rt cao. Tuy nhin, khi c mt mu cc bit vn cha khc phc c. Nu 2 bit trong mt n v d liu b thay i v hai bit cng ng v tr trong n v d liu khc cng b h hi, B kim tra LRC s khng d tm thy li. V d, ta xem xt c 2 n v d liu: 11110000 v 11000011. Nu cc bit u tin v cc bit cui cng trong tng n v d liu b thay i, to ra cc n v d liu c c l 01110001 v 01000010, li khng th c d tm bi LRC. 4.1.3.3. K thut kim tra vng CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check) K thut th 3 v l k thut mnh nht trong cc k thut kim tra d tha l k thut kim tra vng CRC. Khng ging nh k thut VRC v LRC da ch yu vo phn bit b sung, k thut CRC da trn php chia nh phn. Trong CRC, thay v thm cc bit cng t c mt tnh chn l theo mong i, mt chui cc bit d tha c gi l CRC hay s d CRC, c ghp vo cui n v d liu do n v d liu kt qu c th chia ht cho s nh phn th hai c xc nh trc. Ti ch ca n, n v d liu n c chia bi cng s . Nu ti bc ny, php chia c s d bng 0, n v d liu c coi l cn nguyn vn v do c chp nhn. Nu s d khc khng c ngha l n v d liu b h hi trong qu trnh truyn v do b loi b. Cc bit d tha c s dng bi CRC ly c t php chia n v d liu theo s chia xc nh trc; phn d ca php chia s l CRC. c th phn loi qu trnh ny, bt u mt cch tng quan v sau i su vo chi tit hn.

Bc th nht, mt chui n bit c ghp vo n v d liu. S n l mt s nh hn s cc bit trong s chia xc nh trc c chiu di n+1 bit Bc th hai, n v d liu mi ko di chia cho s chia s dng mt qu trnh gi l chia nh phn. Phn d ca php chia l CRC. - 67 -

Bc th 3, CRC ca n bit dn ra t bc 2 thay th cc bit 0 c ghp vo cui n v d liu. Ch l CRC c th bao gm tt c cc bit 0. u tin, d liu c nhn, theo l CRC. Bn nhn coi ton b chui d liu l mt n v v chia n cho cng s chia m c s dng trc tm ra s d CRC. Nu chui n m khng c li, b kim tra CRC s cho kt qu u ra l s d bng 0 v n v d liu c qua. Nu chui b thay i trong qu trnh truyn, kt qu php chia l mt s khc 0, do n v d liu khng c qua. B sinh CRC- CRC generator Mt b sinh CRC s dng php chia modulor 2. Trong bc u tin, s chia 4 bit c tr i t 4 bit u tin ca s b chia. Mi bit ca s chia c tr i tng ng vi bit ca s b chia m khng cn nh sang bit tip theo cao hn. Trong v d ca , s chia 1101 c tr t 4 bit ca s b chia, 1001 cho kt qu l 100 (s 0 u ca s d c b i). Cc bt cha c s dng tip theo t s b chia sau c chuyn xung di to ra s cc bit trong s d bng vi s cc bit s chia. Do , theo bc tip theo l 10001101=101 Trong qu trnh ny, s chia lun bt u vi bit 1; s chia c tr t mt phn ca s b chia/s d trc bng nhau v di; s chia ch c th c tr i t s b chia/s d m bit tri nht ca n bng 1. Ti bt k thi im no bit tri nht ny ca b chia/s d l 0, mt chui cc s 0, c cng chiu di nh s chia, thay th s chia trong bc ca ton b qu trnh. V d, nu s chia c di 4 bit, n c thay th bng 4 s 0. (Ch rng ang x l vi cc mu bit, ch khng phi vi cc gi tr nh lng; 0000 khng ging 0.). Hn ch ny c ngha rng ti bt k bc no bn tri nht ca php tr s l 0-0 hoc 1-1, c hai u bng 0. V vy, sau php tr, bit bn tri nht ca s d s lun dn ti 0, do bit ny c loi b v bit tip theo cha c s dng ca s b chia c y xung a ra s d. Cn ch l ch c bit u tin ca s d c loi b- nu bit tip theo cng l 0, n vn c gi li, v s b chia/s d cho bc tip theo s bt u vi 0. Qu trnh ny lp li cho n khi ton b s b chia c s dng.

B kim tra CRC- CRC Checker B kim tra CRC thc hin chc nng mt cch chnh xc nh b sinh CRC. Sau khi nhn c d liu c ghp vi CRC, n tng t thc hin php chia modulor-2. Nu s d tt c bng 0, cc bit CRC c b i v d liu c chp nhn, nu khng dng cc bit nhn c b b i v d liu c gi li. gii s rng khng c li xy ra. S chia do tt c bng 0 v d liu c chp nhn. - 68 -

Cc a thc CRC B sinh CRC (s chia) thng c biu din khng ch di dng chui cc bit 0 v 1 m cn l mt a thc i s. Khun dng ca a thc l hu dng v hai l do: N ngn, v c th c s dng chng minh khi nim ton hc

Mi quan h ca mt a thc i vi biu din nh phn

Mt a thc s c la chn sao cho tha mn: N s khng c chia ht bi x N c th c chia ht bi (x+1) iu kin u tin m bo rng tt c cc li bit chm bit c di bng vi di ca a thc c d thy. iu kin th 2 m bo rng mi li bit hng lot nh hng mt s l cc bit c d thy. Cc a thc sinh chun: CRC12: x12+x11+x3+x+1 CRC16: x16+x15+x2+1 CRC-ITU-T: x16+x12+x5+1 CRC32: x32+x26+x23+x22+x16+x12+x11+x10+x8+x7+x5+x4+x2+x+1 Hiu qu ca k thut ca CRC CRC l phng php d tm li rt hiu qu. Nu s chia c chn theo nguyn tc nu trc th: CRC c th d tt c cc li bit chm bit m nh hng mt s l cc bit CRC c th d tt c cc li bit chm c chiu di nh hn hoc bng bc ca a thc. - 69 -

 CRC c th d tm vi kh nng tm thy li bit chm bit c chiu di ln hn bc ca a thc. 4.1.3.4. CHECKSUM Ging nh VRC, LRC v CRC, Checksum da trn khi nim v d tha - redundancy B sinh Checksum bn gi, b sinh Checksum chia nh n v d liu thnh cc phn on bng nhau n bit (thng l 16). Cc phn on ny c cng vo vi nhau s dng php tnh phn b s hc sao cho tng s cng l n bit. Tng sau c ly phn b v c ghp vo cui n v d liu gc vi vai tr l cc bit d tha v c gi l trng Checksum. n v d liu c m rng c truyn qua mng. V th nu tng ca n v d liu l T th Checksum s l T. B kim tra Checksum Bn nhn chia nh n v d liu thnh cc phn on nh ni trn v thm tt c cc phn on s dng phn b kt qu. Nu n v d liu m rng ton vn, gi tr tng c tm thy bng cch cng cc n v d liu v trng Checksum s bng 0. Nu kt qu khc khng, gi tin cha mt li v bn nhn loi b gi ny.

Bn gi s thc hin cc bc sau: n v d liu c chia thnh k phn, mi phn n bit Tt c cc phn c cng vi nhau s dng php ly phn b ly c tng. Tng c ly phn b v tr thnh Checksum. Checksum c gi i cng vi d liu

Bn nhn thc hin cc bc sau: n v d liu c chia thnh k phn, mi phn n bit Tt c cc phn c cng vi nhau s dng php ly phn b ly c tng. Tng c ly phn b Nu kt qu bng 0, d liu c chp nhn, bng khng chng b loi b. - 70 -

Hiu qu ca k thut Checksum Checksum d c mi li xy i vi mt s l cc bit, cng nh hu ht cc li xy ra i vi s chn cc bit. Tuy nhin, nu mt hoc nhiu bit ca mt phn on b h hi v tng ng vi bit hoc cc bit c gi tr i ngc nhau trong mt phn on th 2 th khng gii quyt c. Nu s cui ca mt phn on l 0 v n c i thnh 1 trong qu trnh truyn, khi bit 1 cui trong phn on khc phi c thay i thnh 0 bng khng li khng th c d thy. Trong LRC, hai bit 0 c th thay i c thnh 1 m khng sa i tnh chn l bi v cc s nh c loi b. Checksum bo ton tt c cc s nh; v vy mc d 2 bit 0 tr thnh cc bit 1 khng thay i gi tr ti v tr ca chng, chng s thay i gi tr ca v tr ca bit tip theo cao hn. Nhng bt k thi thi gian no mt o ngc bit c cn xng bng mt o ngc bit vi s tng ng ca phn on d liu khc, do li l khng hin minh. 4.1.4. Sa sai trong truyn s liu Cc c ch m bit n gi ch cho php d tm li nhng khng phi l c ch sa li. Sa li c th c x l bng 2 cch. Trong cch th nht, khi mt li c pht hin, bn nhn c th ngi gi gi li ton b n v d liu. Trong cch th 2, bn nhn c th s dng m sa li sa mt s li nht nh mt cch t ng. Theo l thuyt, c th sa bt k li m nh phn no mt cch t ng. Tuy nhin cc m sa li phc tp hn nhiu so vi cc m d tm li v i hi nhiu bit d tha hn. S cc bit cn sa mt li a bit hoc li bit chm bi qu ln trong phn ln cc trng hp do n tr nn khng hiu qu. V l do ny, phn ln cc phng php sa li ch gii hn sa li cho mt, hai hoc ba bit li. Khong cch Hamming (Hamming distance) Cho 2 t m, chng hn 10001001 v 10110001, tnh c trong chng c 3 cp bit tng ng khc nhau. Cch xc nh: XOR 2 t m v m s bit 1 kt qu.S v tr bit trong 2 t m khc nhau c gi l Khong cch Hamming Cc tnh cht pht hin li v kim tra li ca mt m ph thuc vo khong cch Hamming ca chng. pht hin ra d li, cn mt m c khong cch d+1 bi v vi mt m nh vy khng c mt cch no m d li bit n c th lm thay i mt t m ng thnh mt t m ng (valid) khc. Khi ngi nhn nm c mt t m khng hp l, n c th ni rng mt li truyn xy ra. sa d li, cn mt m khong cch Hammingl 2d+1 bi v nh th cc t m hp l cch xa n mc m ngay c vi d bit thay i, t m ban u vn cn gn hn mi t m khc, v th m n c th c xc nh mt cch duy nht. M Hamming T trc ti nay kim tra s cc bit cn thit c th kim sot ton b cc trng thi li bit n c th xy ra trong khi truyn. Mt k thut c pht trin bi R.W Hamming cung cp mt gii php thc t. nh v tr cc bit d tha Positioning Redundancy Bits M Hamming c th c p dng cho cc n v d liu c chiu di bt k v s dng mi quan h gia d liu v bit d tha c bn lun phn trn. V d, mt m ASCII 7 bit cn phi c 4 bit d tha m c th c thm vo cui n v d liu hoc t ri rc vi cc bit d liu gc. Trong hnh 9.17, nhng bit ny c t cc v tr 1,2,4 v 8 (cc v tr trong chui tun t 11 bit l bnh phng ca 2). thy r trong cc v d di y, cn xem cc bit r1, r2, r4 v r8

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Trong m Hamming, mi r bit l bit VRC cho mt t hp cc bit d liu; r1 l bit VRC cho mt t hp cc bit d liu, r l bit VRC cho t hp cc bit d liu khc, vn vnCc t hp c s dng tch ton tng gi tr r cho chui 7 bit d liu nh sau: r1: Cc bit 1,3, 5, 7, 9, 11 r2: cc bit 2, 3, 6,7, 10, 11 r4: cc bit 4, 5, 6, 7 r8: cc bit 8, 9, 10, 11 Mi bit d liu ny c th bao gm mt hoc nhiu tnh ton VRC. Trong cc chui trn, tng bit d liu gc c bao gm trong t nht 2 tp hp, trong khi r bit ch c bao gp mt ln. xem mu theo gii php ny, hy xem biu din nh phn ca tng v tr bit. Bit r1 c tnh ton bng cch s dng tt c cc v tr m biu din nh phn ca n bao gm mt bit 1 v tr phi nht. Bit r2 c tnh ton bng cch s dng tt c cc v tr bit vi mt bit 1 v tr th 2.

Tnh ton cc gi tr r Trong bc u tin, thay th tng bit ca k t gc trong cc v tr thch hp ca n bng n v d liu c chiu di 11 bit. Trong cc bc tip sau, tnh ton cc gi tr chn l i vi nhiu t hp bit. Gi tr chn l cho tng t hp l gi tr tng ng vi r bit. V d, gi tr ca r1 c tnh ton cung cp tnh chn l-chn i vi t hp cc bit 3, 5, 7, 9 v 11. Gi tr ca r2 c tnh ton cung cp tnh chn l-chn vi cc bit 3, 6, 7, 10 v 11 vn vn M 11 bit cui cng c gi qua ng truyn dn

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D tm v sa li Gi hy hnh dung rng theo thi gian khi d liu c truyn ti bn nhn, s 7 bit b thay i t 1 thnh 0 Bn nhn ly d liu t ng truyn v tnh ton li 4 VRC mi s dng cng tp bit c s dng bi bn gi cng vi bit chn l tng ng (r) i vi tng tp hp (xem hnh 9.21). Sau n lp ghp cc gi tr chn l vo mt s nh phn theo th t ca r (r 8, r4 ,r2 ,r1). Trong v d ca , bc nay cho s nh phn 0111 (bng 7 trong h mi), l v tr chnh xc ca bit li. Mt khi bit li c xc nh, bn nhn c th o ngc gi tr ca n v thc hin sa li .

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M Hamming cho php sa li n tuy nhin c th ci tin s dng m Hamming cho php s li chm. Phng php thc hin: Mt dy K m c b tr v sp xp nh mt ma trn. Mi t m l mt hng ca ma trn Ti h thng pht: thay v truyn tng t m mt (tng hng ca ma trn) th li tin hnh truyn tng ct ca ma trn theo th t t trn xung di. Ti h thng thu: Ma trn c tin hnh thu v sp xp li theo ng qui c, sau tng t s c d tm v sa li theo tng hng. Trn thc t nu xy ra li chm, do truyn theo tng ct do kh nng mi t m ch c th xy ra li n v vic d tm v sa li n tr v vi bi ton xt.

Hnh 4.19: kim tra m Hamming vi li chm 4.2 Nhu cu trao i d liu gia mi ngi ngy mt tng, d liu m mun chia s, trao i ngy mt ln hn, phc tp hn v a dng hn. gii quyt vn ny bi ton nn d liu ra i, mc ch ca n l lm gim kch thc ca d liu gc nhm gup cho vic x l d liu nhanh hn (sao chp, di chuyn, ti ln, ti xung,). C hai phng php nn d liu l nn d liu c hao ht (lossy compression) v nn bo ton (lossless compression). Gi s c d liu ngun l A. Qu trnh nn d liu l N, gii nn l G, d liu sau khi nn l B v d liu sau khi gii nn l C. Khi c: B = N(A) C = G(B) Nu A = C khi qu trnh gi l nn d liu c bo ton, nu A C nhng v mt chnh xc d liu, chnh xc ca A v C c th chp nhn c khi qu trnh l qu trnh nn d liu c hao ht. Thc t th c hai phng php nn u cho ra kt qu tng t nhau. Bi khi nn c hao ht ta thng tm nhng d liu t cn thit loi b nn bng mt thng hu nh ta khng nhn ra vic hao ht . 4.2.1. Thut ton Thut ton RLE (Run-length Encoding) 4.2.1.1. tng Loi d tha n gin nht trong mt tp tin l cc ng chy di gm cc k t lp li, iu ny thng thy trong cc tp tin ho bitmap, cc vng d liu hng ca cc tp tin chng trnh, mt s tp tin vn bn... - 74 -

V d, xt chui: AAAABBBBBBCCCDDDDD Nu coi nh biu din 1 k t ta cn s dng ti 1 byte khi biu din chui k t trn ta cn ti 18 byte Chui ny c th c m ho mt cch c ng hn bng cch thay th chui k t lp li bng mt th hin duy nht ca k t lp li cng vi mt bin m s ln k t c lp li l: 4A6B3C5D = 8 byte. iu ny c ngha chui c biu din gm 4 k t A, theo sau bi 6 k t B, ri li theo sau bi 3 k t C, ri li theo sau bi 5 k t D. Vic nn mt chui theo phng php ny c gi l m ho di lot. Khi c nhng lot di, vic tit kim c th l ng k. C nhiu cch thc hin tng ny, tu thuc vo cc c trng ca ng dng (cc lot chy c khuynh hng tng i di hay khng? C bao nhiu bit c dng m ho cc k t ang c m ?). Vi nhng ng chy di th phng php trn rt hiu qu tuy nhin vi cc ng chy ngn (1 k t) th vic m li hon ton d tha v phn tc dng. Vd: chui k t HOANGANH = 8 byte 1H1O1A1N1G1A1N1H = 16 byte. trnh tnh trng thut ton RLE qui c nh sau:

Khi 2 bit cao ca byte u tin c bt, n bo hiu 6 bit tip ca byte s th hin s ln lp, byte tip theo s th hin k t lp. Nh vy s biu din c cc ng chy c s ln lp l 26 - 1 = 63 k t. Vi nhng ng chy c s ln lp ln hn 63 th phi chia lm cc ng chy khc nhau. Vd: AAAAAAA = 1100011101000001 Khi 1 trong bit cao khng c bt, ton b 8 bit c hiu l dng biu din 1 k t (khng c s m ha xy ra). Vd: A = 01000001 Nh vy k t c m ASCII ln nht c th biu din c l 10111111 = 191 Nu s dng 1 bit lm c khi s ln lp ta c th m c l 2 7-1 = 127 k t tuy nhin, khi s k t ti a c th biu din c ch l 01111111 = 127 k t, con s ny < 191 khi ta s dng 2 bit. Theo thng k nhng ng chy di (s ln lp li ca k t) phn ln l < 65. Nh vy vic s dng 2 bit lm c s c li nht. Trong thc t RLE thng c s dng m ha trong nh dng nh BMP. Trong nh dng nh BMP, d liu nm 2 dng: Dng 1: cc ng chy lp li c di ln hn 1: AAAAAAAAAAA Dng 2: cc ng chy gm cc k t ri rc: BCDEFG ti u nht cho vic nn d liu v phn bit gia cc ng chy trn, ta s dng m nhn dng nn cc dng ng khc nhau nh sau: Dng 1: Dng 2 byte biu din ng chy dng : <S ln lp ><K t lp> AAAAAAAAAAA 1100 1011 A Dng 2:Dng ESCAPE lm m nhn dng c bit: <ESCAPE>< n=s k t><dy k t n> DOIBUNG 001 1011 0x07 D O I B U N G - 75 -

4.2.1.2. Gii thut Thut ton nn Bc 1: t k t trc vo k t cha xc nh Bc 2: c k t tip theo vo t lung nhp Bc 3: Nu l k t EOF th thot. Bc 4: Vit ra k t hin ti Bc 5: Nu k t ny khc k t trc, t k t trc vo k t hin ti v quay tr li bc 2. Bc 6: c v m them k t cho ti khi gp k t khng ging k t tm thy. N chnh l ng chy. Bc 7: Vit ra ng chy Bc 8: Vit ra ngoi k t khng ng. Bc 9: t k t trc vo k t khng ng v tip tc bc 2 Thut ton gii nn Bc 1: t k t va c vo k t khng xc nh Bc 2: c k t tip theo t lung nhp Bc 3: Nu k t l EOF th kt thc Bc 4: Vit k t hin ti ra ngoi. Bc 5: Nu k t khng ng vi k t trc, t k t trc vo k t hin ti v i ti bc 2 Bc 6: c ng chy Bc 7: Xut ra k t hin ti vi di ng chy cuat n. Bc 8: Quay li bc 1 4.2.1.3. Nhn xt Dng nn d liu c nhiu on lp li Thch hp cho d liu nh v ng dng hp Cha phi l thut ton nn vi hiu xut cao n gin, d ci t 4.2.2. Thut ton Huffman tnh 4.2.2.1. tng Huffman l mt thut ton m ha dng nn d liu. N da trn bng tn sut xut hin cc k t cn m ha xy dng mt b m nh phn cho cc k t sao cho dung lng (s bt) sau khi m ha l nh nht. m ha cc k hiu (k t, ch s, ...) ta thay chng bng cc xu nh phn, c gi l t m ca k hiu . Chng hn b m ASCII, m ha cho 256 k hiu l biu din nh phn ca cc s t 0 n 255, mi t m gm 8 bt. Trong ASCII t m ca k t "a" l 1100001, ca k t "A" l 1000001. Trong cch m ha ny cc t m ca tt c 256 k hiu c di bng nhau (mi t m 8 bt). N c gi l m ha vi di khng i. Khi m ha mt ti liu c th khng s dng n tt c 256 k hiu. Hn na trong ti liu ch ci "a" ch c th xut hin 1000000 ln cn ch ci "A" c th ch xut hin 2, 3 ln. Nh vy ta c th khng cn dng 8 bt m ha cho mt k hiu, hn na di (s bt) dnh cho mi k hiu c th khc nhau, k hiu no xut hin nhiu ln th nn dng s bt t, k hiu no xut hin t th c th m ha bng t m di hn. Nh vy ta c vic m ha vi di thay i. Tuy nhin, nu m ha vi di thay i, khi gii m ta lm th no phn - 76 -

bit c xu bt no l m ha ca k hiu no. Mt trong cc gii php l dng cc du phy (",") hoc mt k hiu quy c no tch t m ca cc k t ng cnh nhau. Nhng nh th s cc du phy s chim mt khng gian ng k trong bn m. Mt cch gii quyt khc dn n khi nim m tin t M tin t l b cc t m ca mt tp hp cc k hiu sao cho t m ca mi k hiu khng l tin t (phn u) ca t m mt k hiu khc trong b m y. ng nhin m ha vi di khng i l m tin t. V d: Gi s m ha t "ARRAY", tp cc k hiu cn m ha gm 3 ch ci "A","R","Y". Nu m ha bng cc t m c di bng nhau ta dng t nht 2 bit cho mt ch ci chng hn "A"=00, "R"=01, "Y"=10. Khi m ha ca c t l 0001010010. gii m ta c hai bit mt v i chiu vi bng m. Nu m ha "A"=0, "R"=01, "Y"=11 th b t m ny khng l m tin t v t m ca "A" l tin t ca t m ca "R". m ha c t ARRAY phi t du ngn cch vo gia cc t m 0,01,01,0,11 Nu m ha "A"=0, "R"=10, "Y"=11 th b m ny l m tin t. Vi b m tin t ny khi m ha xu "ARRAY" ta c 01010011. Nh vy bi ton Huffman c th pht biu nh sau: Input Bng n ch ci: . Tp cc trng s (tn sut xut hin) tng ng , vi . Output B m : L tp hp cc t m (m word) nh phn vi ci l t m ca ai v Yu cu: L(C) l trng s ca b m C

iu kin vi mi b m T(A,W) Hiu xut hot ng ca thut ton c tnh bng L(C)/L(T) 4.2.2.2 Gii thut Thut ton nn: Chun b: Tch chui k t cn m ha thnh cc k t ring l vi s ln xut hin ca chng, sp xp dy cc k t theo th t tng dn ca s ln xut hin. Bc 1: Tm hai k t c trng s nh nht ghp li thnh mt nt, trng s ca nt mi bng tng trng s c hai k t ghp li. Loi 2 k t va gp ra khi dy v thm vo nt va to. Sp xp li dy Bc 2: Nu s k t trong danh sch > 1 th tip tc thc hin bc 1, nu khng thc hin bc 3. Bc 3: nh s cc nhnh ca cy nh phn vi qui c nhnh bn tay tri m 0 v nhnh phi m 1. Bc 4: Duyt cy nh phn cho ti khi ht 1 l. M nhn c chnh l m huffman ca k t l. - 77 -

Thut ton gii nn: Bc 1: c ln lt tng bit trong tp tin nn v duyt cy nh phn x c xc xc nh cho n khi ht mt l. Ly k t l ghi ra tp tin gii nn. Bc 2: Trong khi chua ht tp tin nn th thc hin bc mt, ngc li th thc hin bc 3. Bc 3: Kt thc thut ton. 4.2.2.3. Nhn xt 1. M Huffman ch thc hin dc khi bit c tn sut xut hin ca cc k t. 2. M Huffman ch gii quyt dc d tha phn b k t. 3. Huffman i hi phi xy dng cy nh phn sn cha cc kh nng. iu ny i hi thi gian khng t do ta khng bit trc kiu d liu s c thc hin nn. 4. Qu trnh gii nn phc tp do chiu di m khng bit trc cho n khi k t du tin c tm ra. Nh vy thut ton Huffman tnh c nhng nhc im sau: 1. Trong qu trnh nn cn n 2 ln duyt File Chi ph nn cao. 2. Cn phi lu tr thng tin gii nn Lm tng kch thc d liu nn. 3. D liu nn cn phi c sn Khng nn c d liu pht sinh theo thi gian thc. 4.2.3. Thut ton Huffman ng 4.2.3.1. tng Thut ton ny vn da trn tng ca Huffman l s dng mt vi bit (bit m) biu din mt k t. di m bit cho cc k t khng ging nhau: K t xut hin nhiu lnbiu din bng m ngn. K t xut hin t biu din bng m di. To sn mt cy ti thiu ban u, cy s c cp nht dn dn da trn d liu pht sinh trong qu trnh nn hoc gii nn.
D liu pht sinh

Khi to cy ti thiu

Cy Huffman

Nn/ gii nn

Cp nht cy

D liu
nn/gii nn

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4.2.3.2. Thut ton Cy Huffman: Mt cy nh phn c n node l c gi l cy Huffman nu tha: 1. Cc node l c trng s wi 0, i [1,n] 2. Cc node nhnh c trng s bng tng trng s ca cc node con ca n. 3. Tnh cht Anh/ em (Sibling Property): 4. Mi node, ngoi tr node gc u tn ti mt node Anh/ em (c cng node cha). 5. Khi sp xp cc node trong cy theo th t tng dn ca trng s th mi node lun k vi node anh em ca n. Cch thc to cy: 1. Khi to cy ti thiu, ch c node Escape (node 0) 2. Cp nht tng k t vo trong cy theo qui tc: Nu k t cha c trong cy thm mi node l Nu k t c trong cy tng trng s node ln 1 Cp nht trng s ca cc node lin quan trong cy Thut ton cp nht trng s: 1. Tng trng s ca node l ln 1. 2. i t node l n node gc tng trng s ca cc node ln 1. Kim tra tnh cht anh em v hiu chnh li cy nu c vi phm. Thut ton xc nh node vi phm: 1. Gi x l node hin hnh. 2. So snh x vi cc node tip theo sau (theo th t t tri sang phi, t di ln trn). 3. Nu tn ti y sao cho y.Weight < x.Weight th x l node vi phm. Thut ton hiu chnh cy tha tnh cht anh em: 1. Gi x l node vi phm. 2. Tm node y xa nht, c trng s cao nht tha y.Weight < x.Weight 3. Hon i x v node y trn cy. 4. Cp nht li cc node cha tng ng. 5. Lp li b1 cho n khi khng cn node vi phm. Thut ton nn: 1. Nu c cha c trong cy Duyt cy T tm m bit ca Escape ghi ln outputfile. Ghi tip 8 bit m ASCII ca c ln outputfile. Thm node c vo cy v cp nht li cy. 2. Nu c c trong cy: Duyt cy T tm m bit ca c v ghi ln outputfile Tng trng s ca node c ln 1 v cp nht li cy

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c k t c

Khi to cy ti thiu c != EOF

N
Kt thc

Y
Cy Huffman M ha (nn k t c)

D liu nn

Cp nht k t c vo cy

Thut ton gii nn:

c d liu nn b

Khi to cy ti thiu b != EOF

Kt thc

Cy Huffm an

Gii nn b thnh c

D liu gii nn c

Cp nht k t c vo cy

1. Bt u t v tr hin ti trn inputfile. 2. Ly tng bit ca b, duyt trn cy (b==0: tri, b==1: phi). a. Nu i n node l x, return x.char b. Nu i n node Escape: i. c = ly 8 bit tip theo t inputfile ii. Thm c vo cy, cp nht li cy. iii. return c - 80 -

4.2.3.3. Nhn xt: Thut ton Huffman ng khc phc c nhng nhc im ca huffman tnh v c nhng u im sau: 1. Khng cn tnh trc s ln xut hin ca cc k t. 2. Qu trnh nn ch cn mt ln duyt file. 3. Khng cn lu thng tin phc v cho vic gii nn. 4. Nn online trn d liu pht sinh theo thi gian thc 4.2.4. Thut ton LZ78 4.2.4.1. tng Thay v thng bo v tr on vn lp li trong qu kh, m LZ78 nh s tt c cc on vn sao cho mi on ghi nhn s hiu on vn lp li trong qu kh cng vi mt k t m n lm cho on khc vi on trong qu kh. Nh vy mi on mi l mt on k t trong qu kh cng vi mt k t trong qu kh. Chnh v th on mi khc vi on c trong qu kh. V d: Gi s ta c on vn bn sau: ABBCBCABABCAABCAAB Qu trnh nn:

1. 2. 3. 4.

5. 6.

7.

A B B BC B BC BCA B BA B BC BCA BCAA B BC BCA BCAA BCAAB

khng trong t in; y n vo khng trong t in; y n vo trong t in khng trong t in; y n vo trong t in trong t in khng trong t in; y n vo trong t in khng trong t in; y n vo trong t in trong t in trong t in khng trong t in; y n vo trong t in trong t in trong t in trong t in khng trong t in; y n vo - 81 -

Nh vy thu c thng ip nn d liu gm: (0,A)(0,B)(2,C)(3,A)(2,A)(4,A)(6,B) Vi chui k t ABBCBCABABCAABCAAB S lng bt cn thit = tng di * 8 = 18 * 8 = 144 bits Nu s dng nn nh nu trn. K t nn: (0, A) (0, B) (2, C) (3, A) (2, A) (4, A) (6, B) Ch mc t m: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Khi ta c th biu din cc ch mc di dng:

Bits: (1 + 8) + (1 + 8) + (2 + 8) + (2 + 8) + (3 + 8) + (3 + 8) + (3 + 8) = 71 Trn thc t chui k t c nn di dng: 0A0B10C11A010A100A110B Qu trnh gii nn:

4.2.4.2.Thut ton Thut ton nn: - Bc 1: c mt k t -> ch, on c gn bng 1, kt np k t vo t in, w=ch; - 82 -

Bc 2: While not eof(f) do Begin c tip k t tip theo w:= ww+ch; If w thuc t in then ww:=w; Else begin M(w,j); Ghi j v ch vo tp nn. Thm w vo t in. End; End; - Bc 3: Dng chng trnh. Thut ton gii nn: - Bc 1: c thng tin v t in c lu trong tp nn, tl:=false; - Bc 2: While not eof(f) do Begin c byte tip theo -> b Dem(b,s,t); If tl=false then w:=w+s Else w:=ww+s; TIMCHU(w,t); If t=false then Begin Ghi s ra tp gii nn Thm s vo t in End Else Begin ww:=s; End; End; -

Bc 3: Dng chng trnh.

4.2.4.3. Nhn xt Ni chung thut ton LZ78 l mt thut ton nn vn bn kh tt, c thi gian chy chng trnh tng i nhanh tuy nhin kh nng tit kim cha c khai thc tt a. 4.2.5 Thut ton LZW 4.2.5.1 tng: Phng php nn LZW c pht minh bi Lempel - Zip v Welch. N hot ng a trn mt tng rt n gin l ngi m ho v ngi gii m cng xy dng bn m. Nguyn tc ha ng ca n nh sau: 1. Mt xu k t l mt tp hp t hai k t tr ln. 2. Nh tt c cc xu k t gp v gn cho n mt du hiu (token) ring. 3. Nu ln sau gp li xu k t , xu k t s c thay th bng du hiu ca n

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4.2.5.2 Gii thut Phn quan trng nht ca phng php nn ny l phi to mt mng rt ln dng lu gi cc xu k t gp (Mng ny c gi l "T in"). Khi cc byte d liu cn nn c em n, chng lin c gi li trong mt b m cha (Accumulator) v em so snh vi cc chui c trong "t in". Nu chui d liu trong b m cha khng c trong "t in" th n c b sung thm vo "t in" v ch s ca chui trong "t in" chnh l du hiu ca chui. Nu chui trong b m cha c trong "t in" th du hiu ca chui c em ra thay cho chui dng d liu ra. C 4 qui tc cho vic m ha d liu: - Qui tc 1: 256 du hiu u tin c dnh cho cc k t n (0 - 0ffh). - Qui tc 2: C gng so snh vi "t in" khi trong b m cha c nhiu hn hai k t. - Qui tc 3: Cc k t u vo (Nhn t tp tin s c nn) c b sung vo b m cha n khi chui k t trong b m cha khng c trong "t in". - Qui tc 4: Khi b m cha c mt chui m trong "t in" khng c th chui trong b m cha c em vo "t in". K t cui cng ca chui k t trong b m cha phi li trong b m cha tip tc to thnh chui mi. V d: Cc bc m ho chui "!BAN!BA!BAA!BAR!" nh sau:

Bc 1: K t th nht ! c ct vo b m cha chun b to nn mt chui. Bc 2: K t th hai B ni thm vo sau k t !. V trong "t in" cha c chui "!B" nn chui ny c thm vo "t in" v c gn du hiu l 100h (V t 000h n 0ffh c dnh ring cho cc k t n: Qui tc 1). ! c gi ra cn B phi li trong b m cha. Bc 3: K t th ba A thm vo sau B. Chui "BA" cng cha c trong "t in" nn n c thm vo "t in" v gn du hiu l 101h. A li trong b m cha cn B c gi ra Bc 4: K t th t N thm vo sau A to thnh chui "AN" cng cha c trong "t in" nn c thm vo "t in" v c du hiu l 102h. N li trong b m cha cn A c gi ra Bc 5: K t th nm ! thm vo sau N to thnh chui "N!", "N!" c thm vo "t in" vi du hiu l 103h. ! li cn N c gi ra. Bc 6: K t th su B thm vo sau !. Ln ny th chui "B!" c trong "t in" nn khng c k t no c gi ra. "B!" tip tc li trong "t in" to ra chui mi. - 84 -

Bc 7: K t th by A thm vo sau B to thnh chui "B!A", do "B!A" khng c trong "t in" nn n c thm vo "t in" v gn du hiu l 104h ng thi du hiu 100h c gi ra thay cho "B!" (Qui tc 4). A tip tc li trong b m cha to thnh chui mi. Cc bc trn c th tip tc cho n khi ht tp tin cn nn. Vic gim kch thc ch thc s bt u ti bc 7 khi m mt du hiu 12 bits l <100h> c gi ra thay cho hai byte "B!". -

Trong thut ton nn ny, phn ln thi gian khi bt u nn ch yu mt vo vic to "t in". Khi "t in" ln, xc sut gp chui b m cha trong "t in" tng ln v cng nn c nhiu hn. Mt iu cn ch y l mi mt du hiu, ta phi lu mt chui trong "t in" so snh. V du hiu c biu din bng mt s 12 bits nn "t in" s c 4096 li vo, khi tng s bit d biu din du hiu ln th hiu qu nn s tt hn nhng li b gii hn bi b nh ca my tnh. V d, khi dng 16 bits biu din mt du hiu th "t in" phi c n 65536 li vo, nu mi li vo c khong 20 k t th "t in" phi ln khong 1,2 MB. Vi mt t in c dung lng nh vy rt kh c th thc hin trn cc my tnh PC hot ng di h iu hnh DOS v gii hn ca mt on (Segment) l 64KB. u im ca phng php nn LZW l bn nhn c th t xy dng bng m m khng cn bn gi phi gi km theo bn tin nn. Thut ton LZW qun l bng cch loi b k t sau mi on do u ra ca mi on ch cha con tr m thi. Thut ton ny lu tr bng vic chun b mt danh sch cc on bao gm rt nhiu k t trong u vo l mt bng ch ci no , n thc hin mt qu trnh m rng cc bng ch ci hay ni cch khc l n dng k t b sung biu din li cc chui ca k t chnh quy. nn LZW trn m ASCII 8 bits ta cn m rng bng ch ci bng cch dng 9 bits hay nhiu hn 256 k t b sung m m 9 bits cung cp c dng lu tr cc chui m c quyt nh t cc chui trong ngun tin. Thut ton s khng t hiu qu nn cao nu c nhng iu kin sau: Ngun tin khng ng nht v c tnh d tha ca n thay i trong sut tp tin. Ngun tin di mt cch ng k vt qu tm gii hn ca bng chui. Xt chui k t: BABAABAAA

1. BA khng trong t in; a vo BA, a ra m ca on : m(B) 2. AB khng trong t in; a vo AB, a ra m ca on : m(A) - 85 -

3. BA nm trong t in. BAA khng trong t in; a vo BAA, a ra m ca on : m(BA) 4. AB nm trong t in. ABA khng trong t in; a vo ABA, a ra m ca on : m(AB) 5. AA khng trong t in; a vo AA, a ra m ca on : m(A) 6. AA nm trong t inv n l t cui; a ra m ca on : m(AA) D liu nn : <66><65><256><257><65><260> S bit cn thit th hin = di * 8 = 9 * 8 = 72 bits D liu nn: <97><256><98><258><259><257><261> S bit cn thit th hin = di * 9 = 6 * 9 = 54 bits Ch : vi mi t m n bits C th th hin c s t m l 2 n

66 C trong t in;Xut k t (66) l. B 65C trong t in;Xut k t (65) l . A, thm vo BA 256 C trong t in; output string(256) i.e. BA,thm vo AB 257 C trong t in; output string(257) i.e. AB,thm vo BAA 65 C trong t in; output string(65) i.e. A,thm vo ABA 260 khng c trong t int; xut ra chui k t xut trc + k t u tin c xut trc : AA, thm vo AA 3.2.5.3.Nhn xt Thut ton LZW khc phc c s lng ph v b nh m cc thut ton trc khng tn dng c ht. ng thi khc phc c s cng nhc ca thut ton nn, gp phn lm thut ton nn tr nn mm do hn, c sc hp dn hn i vi ngi s dng. C th ni y l thut ton tiu biu trong h thng m h LZ, l tin cho cc thut ton nn d liu tt hn sau ny. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 4.2.6. Tng kt Qua cc phng php nn c dng ph bin trn, ta thy rng, thut ton nn di lot (Runlength) khng th p dng cho nhiu loi tp tin c, v d nh tp tin chng trnh, tp tin c s d liu... v cc lot chy l rt ngn, do nu p dng thut ton ny khng nhng khng lm b tp tin m cn lm phnh to chng. Thut ton Huffman c u im l h s nn tng i cao, phng php thc hin tng i n gin, i hi t b nh, c th xy dng da trn cc mng b hn 64KB. Nhc im ca n l phi cha c bng m vo tp tin nn th pha nhn mi c th gii m c do hiu sut nn ch cao khi ta thc hin nn cc tp tin ln. Nhng hn ch ny phn no c khc phc thng qua thut ton nn Huffman ng nhng thut ton ny kh phc tp trong qu trinh xy dng cy khung. - 86 -

Hai thut ton cn li (Huffman v LZW) u c th p dng c nn nhiu loi tp tin khc nhau. Thut ton nn LZW c cc u im l h s nn tng i cao, trong tp tin nn khng cn phi cha bng m. Nhc im ca thut ton ny l tn nhiu b nh, kh thc hin da trn cc mng n gin (b hn 64KB). 4.3. 4.4. V iu khin lu lng l c ch iu khin nhm m bo thit b pht d liu khng lm thc th nhn b trn b nh m. Thit b thu thng s dng mt b nh d liu m c di ln nht tng ng d liu ca thit b pht. Tuy nhin khi d liu nhn c, thit b thu phi x l d liu trc khi n c truyn ln tng cao hn. V vy, trong trng hp khng c s iu khin lu lng th b nh m ca Thit b thu c th b lp y v trn (overflow) trong khi n cn ang phi x l d liu n trc. iu khin lu lng h thng thu v pht s dng: Pht hin li: s dng cc thut ton pht hin li. Bo tn hiu xc nhn (ACK): trm ch gi thng bo kt qu nhn l nhn c frame. Bo tn hiu khng xc nhn (NACK) v truyn li: trm ch gi thng bo khng nhn c hoc frame b li, trm ngun truyn li frame. Truyn li sau khong thi gian (timeout): trm ngun s truyn li frame nu n khng nhn c tn hiu ACK sau khong thi gian nht nh. Piggyback: khi mt trm mun truyn tin n s kt hp nh km vo cc thng bo nhn ca cc gi tin trc . Nh vy s tit kim c bng thng ng truyn.

bt u, xem xt c ch iu khin lu lng trong trng hp khng c li xut hin trong qu trnh truyn d liu. Hnh di l lc tun t thi gian th hin quan h ca hai trm pht v thu. Mi mi tn miu t mt frame truyn mt lin kt d liu gia hai trm. D liu c gi mt cch tun t th hin bng cc frame. Mi mt frame cha ng mt phn d liu v cc thng tin iu khin. Thi gian trung bnh m mt trm cn pht ra ht cc bit ca mt frame gi l thi gian pht, v thi gian mt bit ia qua lin kt gia - 87 -

trm ngun v ch gi l thi gian truyn. By gi gi s rng tt c cc frame c truyn u thnh cng, tc l khng c frame no b mt hoc li. V cc frame c nhn s ng theo th t truyn. Tuy nhin th mi frame trong qu trnh truyn c th b mt thi gian tr tu trc khi n c nhn. 4.4.1. Stop-and-Wait Flow Control (iu khin lu lng dng-v-ch) Stop-and-Wait l trng hp iu khin lu lng kh n gin, n lm vic nh sau: Trm ngun truyn mt frame Sau khi trm ch nhn c frame n s thng bo sn sng nhn frame tip theo bng vic gi li mt tn hiu bo nhn rng nhn c frame Trm ngun s i cho n khi n nhn c tn hiu bo nhn trc khi gi frame tip theo. V trm ngun phi ch tn hiu bo nhn nn trm ch c th tm dng lu lng truyn d liu bng cch khng gi tn hiu bo nhn. Th tc ny lm vic kh tt vi s t cc frame c kch c ln. Trong trng hp khi d liu ln cn truyn th trm ngun s chia khi d liu thnh cc khi nh hn v truyn bng cc frame. N s thc hin tt vi cc l do sau: Kch c b nh m ca trm thu c th c gii hn Qu trnh truyn lu hn nn c th pht sinh li v cn phi truyn li frame, tuy nhin do cc frame nh nn li c th pht hin sm hn v lng d liu truyn li l nh hn. Vi mi trng chia s (nh mng LAN), n s khng cho php mt trm chim gi mi trng truyn vi thi gian ko di, v s pht sinh thi gian tr lu cho vic gi thng tin ca cc trm khc. Tc c ch ny s ngn chn c vic mt trm chim dng ng truyn lu.

Vi mt thng ip s dng nhiu frame th th tc ca Stop-and-Wait c th khng y . Bn cht ca vn l ch 1 frame ti mt thi im c truyn. Trng hp m di ca lin kt (l s lng bit lp y trong lin kt) ln hn di ca frame th tht s kt qu khng c hiu qu. iu ny c th hin trong hnh trn thi gian pht frame (l thi gian t khi pht bit u tin n bit cui cng ca frame ra khi trm ngun) ta gi s l 1, cn thi gian truyn (l thi gian mt bit i t trm ngun n trm ch) biu din bng bin a. Khi a<1, tc thi gian truyn nh hn thi gian pht, trong trng hp ny th frame - 88 -

 di bit u tin ca n n c ch trc khi trm ngun pht xong frame. Khi a>1, tc thi gian truyn nhiu hn thi gian pht, do trm ngun s hon thnh vic pht frame trc khi bit u tin ca n n c trm thu. Ni cch khc, tc gi tr ln hn ca a ph thuc tc truyn d liu cao hn v/hoc khong cch xa hn gia cc trm. C hai trng hp ca hnh trn (a v b) u gm tun t cc hnh nh ca qu trnh truyn theo thi gian. Trong c 2 trng hp, 4 hnh nh u th hin vic truyn frame cha d liu, cn hnh nh cui cng th hin vic tr li mt frame bo nhn nh. Trng hp a>1, ng truyn lun c s dng khng ht; cn trng hp a<1, ng truyn c dng qu mc, khng hiu qu. V bn cht vi mi tc truyn d liu cao v khong cch xa gia trm pht v thu th c ch iu khin lu lng s s dng ng truyn khng hiu qu. 4.4.2. Sliding-Window Flow Control (iu khin lu lng ca s trt) Vi c ch Stop-and-Wait, bn cht ca vn l ti mt thi im ch mt frame c truyn, do trong trng hp di lin kt ln hn di ca frame th kt qu tht s khng hiu qu. Vi c ch ca s trt th hiu sut s c ci thin bng vic cho php nhiu frame c th truyn ng thi. Trc ht, hiu nguyn tc hot ng ca c ch ca s trt vi 2 trm A v B c kt ni theo lin kt truyn song cng. Trm B cp pht b nh m v nhn frame W, cn A gi cc frame W nhng khng cn i tn hiu bo nhn (ACK). theo di cc frame va bo nhn, mi frame c gn nhn vi mt s tun t. B bo nhn frame bng vic gi mt tn hiu bo nhn cha s tun t ca frame s nhn tip. Tn hiu bo nhn ny thng bo rng B sn sng nhn frame W tip theo vi s tun t c ch ra. C ch ny cng c th dng bo nhn nhiu frame. V d: B nhn frame 2,3 v 4 nhng khng bo nhn (frame 2 v 3) cho n khi frame 4 c nhn, sau B bo nhn vi s tun t l 5, tc l B bo nhn 2,3 v 4 ng thi mt ln. Trong khi , A phi duy tr mt danh sch s tun t cc frame m n gi, v B duy tr mt danh sch cc s tun t m n sn sng nhn. Mi danh sch ny c th truyn qua ca s cc frame. Thao tc trn c hiu l c ch iu khin lu lng ca s trt. Do s tun t c lu l mt trng ca frame v c kch c gii hn. V d: vi kch c trng l 3 bit th s tun t s c phm vi t 0 n 7. Tu theo cc frame c nh s theo modulo 8, tc l sau s tun t 7, s tip theo l 0. Nhn chung, vi trng s tun t kch c k bit th phm vi s tun t l t 0 n 2 k-1, v frame c nh s theo modulo 2 k.

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Hnh trn m t c ch ca s trt dng 3 bit s tun t, do cc frame c nh s tun t t 0 n 7, v sau s tng t c s dng li cho cc gi tin tip theo. Hnh ch nht ln (l ca s) th hin cc gi tin c th c gi: trong hnh, trm ngun c th truyn 5 frame bt u vi frame 0. Mi khi mt frame c gi ca s ny co ngn li, v mi khi nhn c mt tn hiu bo nhn (ACK) th ca s c tng ln. Cc frame gia ng thng ng v ca s c gi nhng cha c bo nhn. Trm pht s phi lu cc frame ny trong trng hp c th phi truyn li. Kch c ca s thc t khng nht thit phi ln nht c th nh di cc s tun t. V d: dng 3 bit s tun t th c th cu hnh kch c ca s l 4 cho cc trm dng iu khin lu lng ca s trt.

Hnh trn th hin kch c trng s tun t l 3 bit v kch c ca s ln nht cha c 7 frame. Bt u A v B u c ca s ch ra A c th truyn 7 frame bt u t 0 (F0). Sau khi A truyn 3 frame (F0,F1,F2) khng c bo nhn, A thu nh ca s li cn 4 frame v lu 3 bn copy ca 3 frame truyn. Ca s ny th hin A c th truyn 4 frame, bt u vi frame s 3. B sau truyn mt tn hiu RR 3 (Receive Ready) vi ngha nhn c tt c cc frame n frame s 2 v sn sng nhn frame s 3, thc t th B sn sng nhn 7 frame bt u vi frame s 3. Vi tn hiu bo nhn ny, A tr li trng thi cho php truyn 7 frame v bt u vi frame 3, v do A hu b nh m lu 3 frame v n c bo nhn. A tip tc truyn cc frame F3,F4,F5,F6. B tr li tn hiu RR4 bo nhn c F3, v chp nhn vic truyn F4 m khng cn phi bo nhn F2, v B bo tn hiu nhn v A truyn F4,F5,F6. V do A ch c th m ca s ca n cho php truyn 4 frame bt u vi F7. K thut m t trn cung cp mt dng iu khin lu lng thc s, v trm thu ch phi iu tit 7 frame (tr frame m n bo nhn). Hu ht cc giao thc cng cho php mt trm ct t lu lng cc frame n t trm khc bng vic gi mt tn hiu RNR (Receive Not Ready) ngn vic truyn tip cc frame. Theo cch th RNR5 c ngha nhn c tt c cc frame n 4 v khng chp nhn thm na. khi phc hot ng th mt trm cn gi tn hiu thng bo bnh thng m li ca s. n y mi bn lun vic truyn ch theo mt hng, nu 2 trm cng trao i d liu th mi trm cn duy tr 2 ca s mt truyn v mt nhn, v mi bn cn gi c cc frame d liu ln frame bo nhn n trm khc. thc hin h tr hiu qu cho trng hp - 90 -

ny, thng c cung cp mt chc nng gi l piggybacking (mang theo). Mi mt frame d liu bao gm mt trng cha s tun t ca frame v thm mt trng cha s tun t dng cho tn hiu bo nhn. Nh vy, nu mt trm c d liu v tn hiu bo nhn cn gi, n s gi c hai trong cng mt frame, tit kim dung lng ng truyn. Tt nhin, nu trm ch c tn hiu bo nhn cn gi m khng c d liu th n s gi mt frame bo nhn thng thng. Cn nu trm pht ch c d liu gi th n phi lp li s tun t ca tn hiu bo nhn cui cng m n gi, v khi trm thu nhn c hai ln cng tn hiu bo nhn th n ch n gin b qua tn hiu bo nhn ny. iu khin lu lng ca s trt c kh nng hu ch hn iu khin lu lng Stopand-Wait. V n x l nh mt ng ng (pipeline) c th lp y frame trn ng truyn. iu ny hon ton tng phn vi Stop-and-Wait l ti mt thi in ch c 1 frame c truyn trong ng trn ng truyn 4.5. V phc li iu khin khc phc li l cc c ch pht hin v sa li xut hin trong qu trnh truyn cc frame. Cc frame c gi tun t do theo l thuyt chng phi n ni nhn theo th t cng nh khi gi. Tuy nhin, thc t qu trnh c th xut hin li, c 2 loi li c bn l: Mt frame: v mt l do no m frame gi khng n c ch Hng frame: nhn c frame n nhng c mt s bit b li Cc cng ngh iu khin khc phc li ph bin da trn cc thng bo nhn gia 2 trm thu v pht. Nhn chung cc c ch ny c gi l ARQ (Automatic repeat request - t ng lp yu cu). C 3 k thut chun ca ARQ l: Stop-and-wait ARQ Go-back-N ARQ Selective-reject ARQ Tt c cc phng php ny da trn vic dng k thut iu khin lu lng. 4.5.1. Stop-and-Wait ARQ

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Phng php ny da trn nguyn tc chung ca k thut iu khin lu lng stopand-wait. Trm ngun truyn 1 frame v ch tn hiu ACK. C 2 loi li c th xut hin. Mt l: frame n c ch nhng b hng, tc l trm ch dng k thut pht hin li thy li v hu frame. gii quyt vn ny, trm ngun s dng mt ng h, v nu sau khong thi gian timeout khng nhn c tn hiu ACK th frame c truyn li (mt bn copy). Hai l: tn hiu ACK khi gi li b hng, tc l trm ch nhn ng frame v bo tin hiu ACK, nhng tn hiu ACK b hng nn trm ngun khng nhn ra (hoc khng n c). Trng hp ny trm ngun cng dng thi gian timeout truyn li frame. Gi s frame truyn li ny cng n ch v khng b li, khi trm ch s nhn c 2 frame ging nhau. gii quyt vn ny, cc frame c lun phin gn nhn 0 v 1, v tn hiu ACK tng ng l ACK1 v ACK0. y, ACK0 s bo nhn ca frame 1 v c vi ngha thng bo l sn sng nhn tip (frame 0). 4.5.2. Go-Back-N ARQ Phng php ny da trn k thut iu khin lu lng ca s trt (sliding-window). Trm ngun c th gi hng lot cc frame tun t c nh s. (S frame khng c bo nhn cn li s c ch ra bi kch c ca s.) Trm ch s bo tn hiu (tn hiu RR receive ready hoc km ACK - piggybacked ACK) cc frame n bnh thng nu khng c li no xut hin. Khi trm ch pht hin mt frame li, n s bo tn hiu NACK (REJ reject) cho frame v s hu b mi frame n sau cho n khi frame li c nhn ng. Cn trm ngun khi nhn c tn hiu REJ n s truyn li frame li v tt c cc frame truyn sau frame li. y, sau mi frame truyn, trm ngun khi to gi tr timeout cho frame . Gi s trm ch (B) nhn thnh cng frame i-1 v trm ngun (A) gi tip frame i, ta c th c cc trng hp li sau: - Hng frame: B s hu frame i, ta c 2 trng hp nh: Trong chu k thi gian hp l, A gi tip frame i+1, B nhn c i+1 nhng khng ng th t (do hng i) v gi REJ. A phi truyn li i v tt c cc frame sau . A khng gi tip frame i+1, nn B khng nhn c g thm v cng khng gi tn hiu hoc RR hoc REJ. Khi A t gi tr timeout, n s truyn mt frame RR gm 1 bit (c hiu nh bit P - Poll) c thit lp gi tr 1. Khi , B hiu frame RR vi bit P=1 nh l mt lnh yu cu phi gi thng bo tn hiu RR cho bit sng sng nhn frame tip theo l frame i. V khi A nhn c tn hiu RR n s truyn li frame i. - Hng tn hiu RR: C 2 trng hp: B nhn ng frame i v bo RR sn sng nhn i+1, nhng tn hiu RR b mt. Tc l A ch nhn c tun t cc tn hiu RR ca cc frame 1,2,,i-1,i v vn khng nhn c i+1 cho n khi t gi tr timeout ca i. Khi A t gi tr timeout n s truyn mt frame RR c bit nh trng hp 1.b, v thit lp gi tr timeout ca P-bit (P=1). Nu tn hiu tr li RR ny ca B cng tht bi th khi A t gi tr timeout ca P-bit n s pht li lnh RR. V tt nhin sau mt s ln nht nh pht li lnh RR m vn khng nhn c tnh hiu bo nhn th A s khi to li th tc truyn t u. - Hng tn hiu REJ: tng t trng hp 1b. Xt trng hp minh ho phng php Go-Back-N ARQ ti s trang sau. V frame 4 b hng nn B nhn frame 5 v 6 khng ng th t do B gi tn hiu REJ 4. Khi A nhn REJ 4 n khng ch gi li frame 4 m phi gi li c frame 5 v 6. y, A phi lu bn sao ca cc frame khng c bo nhn sn sng truyn li.

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Trong phn trc, chng ta cp n trng s tun t k-bit vi di 2k. Ta quan tm rng nu d liu c trao i c hai hng, tc trm B cng truyn c d liu n A (B gi piggyback ACK) bng cc frame d liu (ngay c khi tn hiu ACK c gi), B phi t cc s trong trng ACK ca frame d liu. Gi s trng s tun t l k=3 bit (tc di ca n s l 23=8). A gi frame 0 v nhn v tn hiu RR1, ri gi tip cc frame 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,0 v vn ch nhn c RR1, iu ny c ngha rng tt c 8 frame b hng hoc mt v B ch sng sng nhn frame 1. Vn ny ch c gii quyt nu ti ti a ca ca s l 2k-1, tc l 23-1=7. 4.5.3. Selective-Reject ARQ (y li c chn lc) Vi phng php ny, cc frame cn truyn li ch l cc frame c bo nhn NACK (ta gi l tn hiu SREJ) hoc qu thi gian timeout. Hnh 7.9.b minh ho phng php ny, khi frame 5 c nhn khng theo th t, B s gi tn hiu SREJ 4 ch ra rng frame 4 khng nhn c. Tuy nhin, B vn nhn tt c cc frame n v lu chng trong b nh tm (buffer) cho n khi nhn ng frame 4, v B s t frame 4 vo ng th t logic truyn. y li c chn lc thc hin hiu qu hn Go-Back-N, bi v n truyn li cc frame l t nht. Tuy nhin, do trm thu phi duy tr mt b nh tm lu cc frame n cho n khi frame li nhn ng v phi to v tr logic chn frame li vo ng th t. V trm truyn cng phi duy tr nhiu logic phc tp c th gi cc frame khng theo tun t. Chnh nhc im li m Selective-Reject c dng t hn Go-Back-N. Hn na do gii hn kch c ca s m Selective-Reject hn ch hn Go-Back-N. Ta quan tn trng hp c s tun t kch c 3 bit, khi kch c ca s l 2 3-1=7, ta c cc trng hp sau: - 93 -

A gi frame t 0 n 6 n B B nhn 7 frame v bo dn 1 tn hiu RR7 Nhng v li truyn nn RR7 b mt A t gi tr timeout v truyn li frame 0 B a ra ca s nhn sn sng nhn cc frame 7,0,1,2,3,4,5. Tuy nhin n cho rng frame 7 mt v v th y l mt frame 0 mi v chp nhn. Nh vy c s chng cho gia ca s gi v nhn. khc phc iu ny th kch c ca s ln nht khng th ln hn khong rng ca trng s tun t. Trong trng hp trc, nu ch frame 4 khng c bo nhn th khng c kt qu ln xn nh trng hp ny. Nhn chung vi trng s tun t k-bit rng s l 2k th kch c ca s ti a l 2 k-1 (trong v d ny l 2 3-1=4). 4.6. V 4.6.1. Cc khi nim c bn v h thng 4.6.1.1. H thng thi gian thc (real-time system) L h thng m trong s ng n ca vic thc hin cc thao tc khng ch phc thuc vo vic thu c kt qu ng m cn phi a ra kt qu ng thi im.iu c ngha l tnh ng n ca h thng thi gian thc khng ch phc thuc vo kt qu logic ca thao tc m cn ph thuc vo thi im to ra cc kt qu.Gii hn v thi gian m cc kt qu c a ra gi l thi hn kt thc (deadline), l thi im mun nht c th chp nhn c kt thc mt thao tc. c im ca h thng thi gian thc: Cc s kin bn trong v bn ngoi c th xy ra mt cch nh k hoc t pht. S ng n ca h thng cn ph thuc c vo vic p ng cc rng buc thi gian. 4.6.1.2. H thng truyn thng a phng tin (Multimedia): L h thng cung cp tch hp cc chc nng lu tr, truyn dn v trnh din cc kiu phng tin mang tin ri rc (vn bn, ho, nh) v lin tc (audio, video) trn my tnh. Thut ng media: phng tin truyn t thng tin (th d: vn bn, m thanh, hnh nh); cn multimedia c ngha l truyn thng tin bng nhiu phng tin truyn t mt cch ng thi. Cc kiu media trong h thng a phng tin gm: Media c lp vi thi gian: thng tin khng lin quan g n vic nh thi lung d liu, v d nh vn bn, ho, nh. Media ph thuc thi gian: thng tin c quan h cht ch vi thi gian, phi c trnh din trc ngi s dng vo nhng thi im xc nh. V d: animation (phim hot ho), audio (m thanh), video, game online (tr chi trc tuyn). H thng a phng tin cng l h thng thi gian thc. 4.6.1.2. Khi nim v m bo cht lng dch v - QoS(Quality of Service) Cc h thng a phng tin thng l phn tn, hot ng trn mng my tnh, cc yu cu ti nguyn cho s hot ng ca h thng thng l ng, th d trong ng dng Video conference th yu cu v ti nguyn ph thuc s ngi tham gia. Do , cn c cc gii php m bo cht lng cc dch v (m bo QoS) ca ng dng tho mn yu cu ca ngi dng. m bo cht lng da trn c s l qun l ti nguyn v QoS ph thuc vo ti nguyn kh dng ca h thng, vic qun l ti nguyn y l: 1. Tnh ton hoc c lng c hiu sut s dng ti nguyn 2. Dnh ti nguyn cho dch v 3. Lp lch truy cp ti nguyn - 94 -

Cc tham s chnh QoS l: tr: l thi gian cc i truyn mt gi tin, n ph thuc vo tc truyn tin, tc truyn tin cng ln, tr cng nh v ngc li. Thng lng: thng lng quyt nh kh nng truyn tin, thng lng c tnh l tng s n v d liu cc i c truyn trong 1 n v thi gian, chng hn s gi tin, s byte d liu truyn i trong 1 s. T s mt tin: l s n v d liu b mt cc i trong mt n v thi gian. Ngoi ra cn c khi nim kch thc mt tin: l s gi tin b mt lin tip cc i. Bn cnh t s mt tin ta c th dng khi nim tin cy: t s mt tin t l nghch vi tin cy. Jitter: l bin thin ca tr. Cc mc cht lng dch v: QoS yu cu: l QoS ti thiu m ng dng yu cu, nu di gi tr ny th ng dng l khng chp nhn c. QoS mong mun l QoS cc i m ng dng yu cu.

Hai c tnh quan trng ca cc ng dng a phng tin l: 1. Chp nhn mt mt d liu mt mc nht nh 2. Yu cu tr nh v ch thay i trong mt phm vi nht nh. Kin trc mng truyn thng vn c thit k chnh cho truyn d liu ngy nay khng ph hp lm vi cc ng dng a phng tin. 4.6.2. Cc dch v v cc yu cu m bo cht lng 4.6.2.1. Truyn video v audio c lu tr Trong lp ng dng ny, cc client yu cu cc file audio, video c nn v c lu tr trn server. Cc file audio: bi ging, bi ht ; Cc file video: cc on phim, Ti mt thi im no , client yu cu mt file audio, video t server: Sau thi gian tr vi giy, client s chy file audio, video trong khi vn tip tc nhn phn cn li ca file t server. c tnh ny c gi l streaming. Nhiu ng dng cn cung cp tnh nng tng tc vi ngi dng (user interactivity): Pause, Resume, Jump,Skip. Khong thi gian t lc ngi dng a ra yu cu (play, skip, forward) ti khi bt u nghe/nhn thy trn my client nn nm trong khong t 1 10 giy c th chp nhn c. Yu cu i vi tr v jitter khng cht ch bng trong ng dng thi gian thc nh: in thoi internet, video conference thi gian thc. Cc chng trnh dng chi cc file audio/video c lu tr nh: realPlayer, netshow 4.6.2.2. Streaming ca audio v video trc tip Tng t nh pht thanh v truyn hnh qung b (broadcast) truyn thng, ch c iu n c thc hin trn Internet. Cc file audio, video truyn trc tip, khng c lu gi, ngi dng khng th pause, forward, rewind, Tuy nhin, nu c lu gi cc b ti my ca ngi dng, mt s ng dng c th pause, rewind. Truyn hnh, pht thanh trc tip thng c pht broadcast ti nhiu ngi dng qua k thut multicast hoc qua nhiu lung unicast ring. - 95 -

Hn ch v thi gian ca truyn hnh, pht thanh trc tip l kht khe hn so vi vic truyn audio, video c lu tr; tr ti 10 giy l c th chp nhn c 4.6.2.3. ng dng tng tc audio, video thi gian thc Lp ng dng ny cho php mi ngi dng audio, video tng tc thi gian thc vi ngi khc. Audio tng tc thi gian thc c th coi nh l in thoi internet. N cung cp dch v in thoi vi gi rt r. Vi tng tc video thi gian thc, trong ng dng videoconferenceing, mi ngi c th giao tip trc tip vi nhau. Trong cc ng dng tng tc audio/video thi gian thc th yu cu tr nh hn vi trm miligiy. V d vi m thanh: tr nn nh hn 400 ms. Cc tham s mng quan trng nht nh hng n QoS: * Tr E2E (End-to-End Delay): Tr E2E (End-to-End Delay) l tng hp ca: thi gian x l v ch trong hng i ca router, thi gian truyn gi tin ln ng truyn (transmission time), thi gian truyn gi tin ti pha nhn (propagation time) v thi gian x l ca pha nhn. tr ny c nh hng ln n s cm nhn ca NSD dch v MM. Vi cc ng dng tng tc thi gian thc nh in thoi internet, tr end-to-end nh hn 150 ms l khng gy ra vn g (gic quan con ngi khng cm nhn c tr ny), tr t 150-400 ms c th c chp nhn nhng cht lng km hn. tr > 400 ms th cc t khng chp nhn c. Pha nhn ca ng dng in thoi internet s khng xem xt ti bt k gi tin no n tr hn mt ngng no , v d > 400 ms. Do , cc gi tin tr hn ngng trn coi nh l mt. * Thng ging tr (Jitter): l thng ging ca khong thi gian n gia 2 gi tin. Vic loi b jitter i hi phi tp hp cc gi tin ti b m v lu gi chng lu cc gi tin n chm nht cng vn cn kp c chi (play) ng th t. Vic ny gy ra mt tr b sung. Mt trong nhng thnh phn to nn tr end-to-end l thi gian i hng i ca router (thi gian i l ngu nhin) - thi gian ny l ngu nhin. * T l mt gi tin (Packet Loss): Ni chung cc mng da trn IP khng m bo cho vic phn pht gi tin. Cc gi tin s b loi b khi ti tng t bin v t gi tr nh (peak) v trong cc giai on c tc nghn mng. Ch rng trong cc dch v MM, cc gi tin n mun cng b coi l mt. 4.6.3. Cc k thut m bo cht lng dch v 4.6.3.1. S dng dch v c gng ti a Dch v c gng ti a (best effort) c xy dng da trn 3 nguyn tc sau: 1. Khng t chi vic a vo mng mt lu lng no, 2. Mi lu lng c i x nh nhau 3. Mng ch m bo mt iu duy nht l lu lng s c truyn i bng mt cch tt nht m n c th nu c ti nguyn, ngha l khng lm sinh thm tr nhn to v khng lm mt gi tin mt cch khng cn thit. c im c gng ti a c th dn n cc vn sau: * Khng trnh c s mt mt gi tin Khi truyn d liu qua mng, nu b m ca cc thit b trung gian y s khin cc gi tin b loi b v coi nh b mt. Nu s dng giao thc khng tin cy, th khng khc phc - 96 -

c nhc im ny. Nu s dng giao thc tin cy c th khc phc c nhng li dn n jitter ln. * tr end-to-end c th rt ln L tng ca thi gian x l v ch trong hng i ca cc thit b trung gian v thi gian truyn cng vi v thi gian x l ca pha nhn. SS v Backoff c th lm cho tr E2E rt ln. Vi cc ng dng tng tc thi gian thc nh in thoi internet, tr E2E: < 150ms l khng vn g (gic quan con ngi khng cm nhn c) 150-400ms c th c chp nhn c. 400ms th khng chp nhn c, cc gi tin tr hn ngng trn coi nh l mt. * Jitter: Mt trong nhng thnh phn to nn tr end to end l thi gian i hng i ca cc thit b trung gian. Thi gian i l ngu nhin, lun thay i nn sinh ra jitter. Mt v d v jitter: Xt 2 gi tin c gi i lin tip, cch nhau 20ms trong mt on ca ng dng internet. Nu gi tin u tin ti khi router c hng i rng, cn khi gi tin th hai ti th hng i li y, th khong thi gian gia 2 ln router chuyn tip gi tin s ln hn 20ms. Nu pha nhn chi ngay on m thanh khi nhn c, kt qu cht lng m thanh s rt km. 4.6.3.2. S dng cc giao thc khng kt ni, khng bo nhn Cc giao thc hng ni, tin cy, khng h tr multicast. truyn d liu phi thit lp kt ni. Chnh v c cc c ch ny m cc giao thc yu cu kt ni s lm tng thi gian tr ca gi tin, lm tng jitter trong lung gi tin. y l iu khng th chp nhn c i vi cc ng dng mng thi gian thc nh video conference. Chnh v l do cc ng dng mng thi gian thc s s dng cc giao thc khng tin cy, khng hng ni. 4.6.3.3. C ch loi b jitter pha nhn 1. Chn mt s tun t (sequence number) vo mi on 2. Gn nhn thi gian (timestamp) cho mi on, l thi im m on c to ra. 3. Lm tr vic chi (play) pha nhn. Thi gian lm tr phi lu cc gi tin phi c nhn trc khi ti lt (th t) chng c lp lch chy. Vic lm tr c th theo khong thi gian c nh hoc thay i. Cc gi tin khng ti c pha nhn trc th t chy ca chng c xem nh l b mt. C hai phng php lm tr vic chi pha nhn. Lm tr vic chi vi thi gian c nh (fixed playout delay) Lm tr vic chi vi thi gian thch nghi (adaptive playout delay) * Lm tr vic chi vi thi gian c nh (fixed playout delay) Pha nhn c gng thc hin chy mi on ng q ms sau khi on c to ra. Nu timestamp ca mt on l t, pha nhn s chy on ti thi im t + q Nu on c timestamp t n sau thi im t+q, n b coi nh mt. Chng ta quan tm ti vic chn gi tr tt cho q Nu tng q th t l mt gi tin gim (tt), nhng QoS gim cn phi cn nhc Nu tr E2E ln th dng q ln, nu tr nh v jitter nh th dng q nh Nu q << 400 ms, rt nhiu gi tin c th b coi nh l b mt, d vn n ch - 97 -

Th d s dng q =< 150 ms. Ch rng, s tun t l khng cn cho chin thut ny.

Hnh trn minh ha mi quan h gia thi gian lm tr v s mt mt gi tin (n bn nhn sau thi im c chy theo lch) ng bc thang bn tri: th hin thi gian m ti gi tin c to ra v gi i, cch nhau 20ms. ng bc thang gia: Trng hp lm tr vi thi gian ngn (= p-r), gi tin th 4 ti pha nhn sau thi gian c lp lch nn b coi l mt. ng bc thang bn phi: Trng hp lm tr vi thi gian di hn (= p-r): ton b cc gi tin u ti pha nhn trc thi gian c lp lch v c chi. * Lm tr vic chi vi thi gian thch nghi (adaptive playout delay) nh gi tr v jitter, theo iu chnh thi gian lm tr ti lc bt u mi cuc hi thoi. Thut ton m pha nhn thay i thi gian lm tr (playout delay): ti l timestamp ca gi tin th i ri l thi im gi tin th i ti pha nhn. Khi , tr E2E ca gi tin th i l ri ti, gi tr ny c th thay i i vi tng gi tin. pi l thi im gi tin th i c chi pha nhn Gi di l tr trung bnh cho ti gi tin th i. Ta c di = (1 - u) di-1 + u (ri - ti) vi u l hng s no (v d u = 0.1). Gi vi l lch trung bnh cho ti gi tin th i gia tr ca gi tin th i v tr trung bnh di. vi = (1 - u) vi-1 + u | ri - ti - di | Cc gi tr di, vi c tnh cho mi gi tin nhn c ti pha nhn, t tnh thi im chi cho gi tin u tin ca mi on thoi. Vai tr ca s tun t: Trong thut ton trn iu quan trng l phi xc nh u l on u tin ca on thoi: - Nu khng c s mt gi tin, pha nhn c th xc nh c iu ny bng cch so snh timestamp ca gi tin th i vi timestamp ca gi tin th i - 1. Nu, ti ti-1> 20 ms, th pha nhn s bit rng gi tin th i l gi tin u tin ca on hi thoi. - Nu vic mt gi tin xy ra, th khi ti ti-1> 20 ms cha chc i l gi tin u tin ca on thoi. Trong trng hp ny, 2 gi tin nhn c cng c hiu 2 timestamp > 20 ms. V th, s tun t trong trng hp ny c s dng. Pha nhn c th dng s tun t xc nh trng hp no l gi tin u tin, trng hp no l mt mt gi tin.

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4.6.3.4. Khi phc cc gi tin b mt ti pha nhn Vic truyn li gi tin b mt l khng ph hp vi ng dng thi gian thc.V v th ngi ta s dng phng php khi phc gi tin b mt ti pha nhn. C 2 phng php: FEC (forward error correction) & Xen k (interleaving). FEC: tng ca FEC l thm cc thng tin b sung vo gi tin ban u, cc thng tin ny c th c dng khi phc cc gi tin b mt. C 2 c ch FEC C ch th nht: Gi mt on cha thng tin b sung sau n on. on thng tin b sung c to bng cch thc hin php XOR n on ban u. Nu mt gi tin no trong n + 1 gi tin b mt, pha nhn c th khi phc li gi tin . Hn ch: Nu c nhiu gi tin b mt, pha nhn s khng th ti to li c. Nu c ca khi (n + 1) l nh, mt phn ln ca cc gi tin b mt c th c khi phc. Lc ny cng lm tng tr bi v pha nhn phi nhn ton b khi gi tin xong mi c th thc hin chng c. C ch th hai: Gi mt lung thng tin b sung chnh l lung m thanh ban u c cht lng thp hn. Pha gi to mt lung bnh thng v mt lung tc bit thp (c xem nh l thng tin b sung), v d: Lung bnh thng l m ha PCM vi tc 64 Kbps Lung tc bit thp m ha GSM vi tc 13 Kbps Pha gi s to ra gi tin th n bng cch ly on th n ca lung bnh thng chn vo v on th n-1 ca lung b sung nh hnh v. Khi c s mt gi tin khng lin tc, pha nhn c th chy on m ha tc bit thp trong gi tin k tip. on tc bit thp cho cht lng m thanh thp hn on bnh thng, nhng trn tng th th nh hng khng ng k.

Trong lc ny, pha nhn ch phi nhn 2 gi tin trc khi thc hin chy chng, v th tr l nh. Nu m ha tc bit thp chim t l kch thc khng ng k so vi m ha bnh thng, tc truyn tng ln khng ng k. - 99 -

 x l vi s mt gi tin lin tc, mt bin th ca c ch trn c s dng. Thay v chn on tc bit thp th n - 1 vo on bnh thng th n, pha gi s chn: on tc bit thp th n-1 v n2 Hoc chn on tc bt thp th n-1 v th n-3. Vic chn cng nhiu on b sung vo th cng lm tng bng thng v tr. C ch xen k (Interleaving) Pha gi s xp cc d liu m thanh trc khi truyn, cc phn t st nhau s c xp cch nhau mt khong no trong lung truyn i. iu ny s lm gim nh hng ca vic mt gi tin. V d: mi phn t di 5 ms, mt on di 20 ms (cha 4 phn t). on u tin cha cc phn t th: 1, 5, 9, 13..., on th 2 cha phn t th: 2, 6, 10, 14 Vic mt gi tin s ch lm cho mi on nhn c sau khi c khi phc li gim cht lng i cht t.

C ch trn c th nng cao cht lng lung nhn c, trong khi khng lm tng yu cu bng thng. Bt li d thy l tng tr. y l hn ch vi cc ng dng tng tc thi gian thc nh in thoi Internet. Tuy nhin khng nh hng lm ti ng dng truyn m thanh c lu tr trn server. 3.6.3.5. C ch khi phc gi tin b mt ch da trn pha nhn Lc khi phc gi tin b mt kiu ny s c gng to ra mt gi tin thay th cho gi tin b mt lm sao cho gi tin thay th s tht ging gi tin b mt nu c th. K thut ny tng i hiu qu khi t l mt gi tin l nh (< 15%) v kch thc gi tin nh (v d ch cha d liu m ho 4-40 ms m thanh). Dng n gin nht ca lc ny l lp li gi tin. Khi mt gi tin b mt, pha nhn s to ra mt bn sao ca gi tin nhn c ngay trc gi tin b mt thay th cho gi tin b mt. iu ny c u im l yu cu kh nng tnh ton thp ti pha nhn. Dng th hai ca lc ny l s dng php ni suy. Khi mt gi tin b mt, pha nhn s s dng gi tin ti trc v sau gi tin b mt ni suy ra mt gi tin mi thay th cho gi tin b mt. Dng ny cho cht lng tt hn dng th nht nhng yu cu kh nng tnh ton ti pha nhn cao hn. CU HI V BI TP 4.1. Anh, ch hy trnh by v cc k thut kim tra sai theo phng php kim tra chn l. Cho v d minh ha. - 100 -

4.2. Anh, ch hy trnh by v k thut kim tra sai theo phng php kim tra m vng CRC. Cho v d minh ha. 4.3. Anh, ch hy trnh by v k thut kim tra sai theo phng php kim tra Hamming. Cho v d minh ha. 4.4. Anh ch hy cho bit s cn thit v trnh by tng quan cc phng php kim sot lung d liu trong h thng truyn d liu 4.5 Anh ch hy cho bit s cn thit v trnh by tng quan cc phng php kim sot li d liu trong h thng truyn d liu 4.6. Anh ch hy cho bit s cn thit v trnh by tng quan cc phng php kim sot tc nghn trong h thng truyn d liu 4.6. Anh ch hy cho bit s cn thit v trnh by tng quan cc phng php xc nh a ch ca cc i tng trao i thng tin trong h thng truyn d liu 4.7. Cho chui k t n truyn theo dng m ASCII chun l NEXT. Anh ch hy thc hin m ha cc k t truyn trn theo cc k thut m ha Parity. 4.8. Cho chui bt cn truyn l 1001 0111 0011 1010 1101 1111 0101 1101. Anh ch hy m ha chui bt trn theo k thut kim tra sai CRC. Bit rng a thc sinh c s dng l G(x)= x16 + x

- 101 -

Chng V: MNG TRUYN S LIU

5.1. Tng quan S kt hp ca cc my tnh vi cc h thng truyn thng c bit l h thng vin thng to ra s chuyn bin c tnh cch mng trong vn t chc khai thc v s dng cc h thng my tnh. Mt mi trng lm vic nhiu ngi s dng phn tn hnh thnh, cho php nng cao hiu qu khai thc ti nguyn chung t nhng v tr a l khc nhau. Cc h thng nh th c gi l cc mng my tnh. Nm 60 xut hin cc mng x l dng mt my x l trung tm. Nm 70 cc my tnh c ni vi nhau trc tip to thnh mt mng my tnh Mng thng tin: cc my tnh mng (b chuyn mch) ni vi nhau bng ng truyn v cc my tnh x l thng tin ca cc user (Host) hoc cc DTE c ni trc tip vo cc my tnh mng c th trao i thng tin qua mng to nn mng my tnh mng truyn s liu. Mc ch: Lm cho cc ti nguyn c gi tr cao, kh dng i vi bt k mt user no trn mng. Tng tin cy ca h thng nh kh nng thay th khi xy ra s c i vi mt my tnh no . mt mng my tnh tr mt mi trng truyn d liu th n cn phi c nhng yu t sau: Mi my tnh cn phi c mt a ch phn bit trn mng. Vic chuyn d liu t my tnh ny n my tnh khc do mng thc hin thng qua nhng quy nh thng nht gi l giao thc ca mng. Khi cc my tnh trao i d liu vi nhau th mt qu trnh truyn giao d liu c thc hin hon chnh. V d nh thc hin vic truyn mt file gia mt my tnh vi mt my tnh khc cng c gn trn mt mng cc cng vic sau y phi c thc hin: My tnh cn truyn cn bit a ch ca my nhn. My tnh cn truyn phi xc nh c my tnh nhn san sng nhn thng tin Chng trnh gi file trn my truyn cn xc nh c rng chng trnh nhn file trn my nhn san sng tip nhn file. Nu cu trc file trn hai my khng ging nhau th mt my phi lm nhim v chuyn i file t dng ny sang dng kia. Khi truyn file my tnh truyn cn thng bo cho mng bit a ch ca my nhn cc thng tin c mng a ti ch. iu trn cho thy gia hai my tnh c mt s phi hp hot ng mc cao. By gi thay v chng ta xt c qu trnh trn nh l mt qu trnh chung th chng ta s chia qu trnh trn ra thnh mt s cng on v mi cng on con hot ng mt cch c lp vi nhau. y chng trnh truyn nhn file ca mi my tnh c chia thnh ba module l: Module truyn v nhn File, Module truyn thng v Module tip cn mng. Hai module tng ng s thc hin vic trao i vi nhau trong : Module truyn v nhn file cn c thc hin tt c cc nhim v trong cc ng dng truyn nhn file. V d: truyn nhn thng s v file, truyn nhn cc mu tin ca file, thc hin chuyn i file sang cc dng khc nhau nu cn. Module truyn v nhn file khng cn thit phi trc tip quan tm ti vic truyn d liu trn mng nh th no m nhim v c giao cho Module truyn thng. - 102 -

Module truyn thng quan tm ti vic cc my tnh ang hot ng v san sng trao i thng tin vi nhau. N cn kim sot cc d liu sao cho nhng d liu ny c th trao i mt cch chnh xc v an ton gia hai my tnh. iu c ngha l phi truyn file trn nguyn tc m bo an ton cho d liu, tuy nhin y c th c mt vi mc an ton khc nhau c dnh cho tng ng dng. y vic trao i d liu gia hai my tnh khng ph thuc vo bn cht ca mng ang lin kt chng. Nhng yu cu lin quan n mng c thc hin module th ba l module tip cn mng v nu mng thay i th ch c module tip cn mng b nh hng. 1. Module tip cn mng c xy dng lin quan n cc quy cch giao tip vi mng v ph thuc vo bn cht ca mng. N m bo vic truyn d liu t my tnh ny n my tnh khc trong mng. Nh vy thay v xt c qu trnh truyn file vi nhiu yu cu khc nhau nh mt tin trnh phc tp th chng ta c th xt qu trnh vi nhiu tin trnh con phn bit da trn vic trao i gia cc Module tng ng trong chng trnh truyn file. Cch ny cho php chng ta phn tch k qu trnh file v d dng trong vic vit chng trnh. Cc yu t ca mng my tnh: ng truyn DL: chuyn cc tn hiu in t gia cc my tnh Kin trc mng: cch ni cc my tnh vi nhau ra sao v tp hp cc quy tc, quy c, m tt c cc thc th tham gia truyn thng trn mng phi tun theo m bo cho mng hot ng tt. o Cch ni cc my tnh cn c gi l: Hnh trng mng (Topology) o Cc quy tc, quy c truyn thng: giao thc mng (Protocol) Topo mng im im (Point to point): cc ng truyn ni tng cp nt vi nhau, mi nt u c trch nhim lu tr tm thi sau chuyn tip d liu cho ti ch.
Star (hnh sao) Loop (chu trnh) Tree (cy)

Qung b (Broadcast): cc nt c chung mt ng truyn vt l, d liu c th c tip nhn bi bt k nt no.

Ring (vng) Bus (tuyn tnh)

Giao thc Khun dng d liu Th tc gi, nhn Kim sot hiu qu v cht lng truyn X l li, s c Phn loi mng my tnh: theo cc tiu ch - 103 -

Khong cch a l
K thut chuyn mch Kin trc mng Theo khong cch a l Mng LAN (Local Area Network): mng cc b Mng WAN (Wire Area Network): mng din rng Mng MAN (Metropolitan Area Network): mng th Mng GAN (Global Area Network): mng ton cu Theo k thut chuyn mch Chuyn mch knh Chuyn mch thng bo Chuyn mch gi Dch v tch hp s: kt hp chuyn mch knh v chuyn mch gi Theo kin trc SNA ca IBM ISO TCP/IP 5.2. Kin trc phn tng v m hnh OSI. TCP/IP 5.2.1. Kin trc phn tng Mc ch: gim phc tp ca vic thit k v ci t Mi mt h thng thnh phn ca mng c xem nh mt cu trc a tng trong mi tng c xy dng da trn tng trc . Mi tng cung cp 1 dch v nht nh cho tng cao hn Quan h gia 2 tng K nhau: giao din (Interface) ng mc: giao thc M hnh phn N tng H thng A H thng B Tng N Application Presentation Tng i Secsion Tng i-1 Transport Network Data link Physical Vic chia cc tng da trn cc nguyn tc ch yu: Hn ch s lng cc tng To ranh gii gia cc tng sao cho cc tng tc v m t cc DL l ti thiu Cc chc nng, cng ngh khc nhau c tch bit Khi thit k li cc tng nh hng t nht ti cc tng k n Chun ho giao din Vic x l d liu trong mi tng l tch bit - 104 -

C th chia mt tng thnh cc tng con khi cn v hu b cc tng khc Tng tc gia cc tng
H thng A Tng N +1 H thng B Tng N +1 Giao din
Request Confirmation Response Indication

Tng N

Giao thc Tng N

Tng N

SAP: Service Access Point: im truy nhp dch v Cc hm nguyn thu Request: ngi s dng dch v dng gi mt chc nng Indication (ch bo) ngi cung cp dch v dng: Gi mt chc nng, hay ch bo mt chc nng c gi Response: ngi s dng dch v dng hon tt mt chc nng c gi bi hm Indicate Confirm: ngi cung cp dch v hon tt mt chc nng c gi bi hm Request 5.2.1. M hnh OSI Chc nng cc tng trong m hnh ISO Tng Vt l: truyn dng bit v cu trc qua ng truyn vt l, truy nhp ng truyn vt l nh cc phng tin c, in... Tng Lin kt d liu: cung cp cc phng tin truyn thng tin qua lin kt vt l m bo tin cy: c ch ng b ho, kim sot li, kim sot lung d liu khi cn. Tng Mng: chn ng v chuyn tip thng tin vi cng ngh chuyn mch thch hp kim sot lung d liu, ct/hp d liu nu cn Tng Giao vn: truyn d liu gia hai u mt, thc hin kim sot li, kim sot lung d liu, ghp knh v ct hp d liu nu cn Tng Phin: cung cp cc phng tin qun l truyn thng gia cc ng dng, thu thp duy tr, ng b ho v hu b cc phin truyn thng gia cc ng dng Tng Trnh din: chuyn i c php d liu p ng yu cu truyn d liu ca cc ng dng qua mi trng OSI Tng ng dng: cung cp cc phng tin user c th truy cp vo mi trng OSI, cc dch v phn tn 5.2.2. M hnh TCP/IP H giao thc TCP/IP Cung cp phng tin truyn thng lin mng IP (Internet Protocol): cung cp kh nng kt ni cc mng con thnh lin mng truyn d liu. Vai tr ca IP tng t nh tng Mng trong m hnh ISO IP l 1 giao thc kiu khng lin kt v n v d liu dng trong IP l Datagrame - 105 -

TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) giao thc kiu c lin kt s dng khun dng d liu l Segment Kin trc Tng ng dng: cung cp cc phng tin truyn thng gia cc tin trnh hay cc ng dng Client/Server. Tng Giao vn: truyn d liu gia hai u mt Tng Internet: ng i ca d liu Tng Mng: giao din gia mt h thng cui v mng Tng Vt l: c trng ca mi trng truyn, tc tn hiu, m ho H thng A H thng B Tng N Application Transport Tng i Internet Tng i-1 Network access Physical

5.3. Phn loi mng theo k thut chuyn mch 5.3.1. Mng chuyn mch knh (Circuit switching networks) Khi hai thc th cn trao i thng tin vi nhau, gia chng s c thit lp mt knh c nh v c duy tr cho ti khi mt trong hai bn ngt lin lc. Cc d liu c truyn theo ng c nh . VD: Knh thoi:
S2 A S1 S4 S5 S3 S6 B

c im: Tn thi gian thit lp knh c nh gia hai thc th Hiu sut s dng ng truyn khng cao v c lc knh b b khng do c hai bn u ht thng tin cn truyn trong khi cc thc th khc khng c php s dng knh truyn ny. 5.3.2. Mng chuyn mch thng bo (Message switched network) Khun dng d liu lu chuyn trong mng dng thng bo (Message) Thng bo l n v thng tin c khun dng c quy nh trc. Mi thng bo c cha vng thng tin iu khin ch nh r ch ca thng bo. Cn c vo thng tin ny m mi nt trung gian c th truyn thng bo ti nt k tip theo ng dn ti ch ca n.
S2 A S1 S4 S5 S3 S6 B

- 106 -

V d: dch v Mail c im: Hiu sut s dng ng truyn cao (khng b chim dng c quyn m c phn chia cho nhiu thc th) Gim tnh trng tc nghn (mi trm c th lu tr thng bo cho ti khi knh ri mi gi thng bo i) C th iu khin vic truyn thng tin bng cch sp xp u tin cho cc Mail Tng hiu sut s dng gii thng ca mng khi gi Mail ti nhiu trm Cht lng truyn ph thuc kch thc Mail 5.3.3. Mng chuyn mch gi (Packet switched network) Cc thng bo c chia thnh phn nh hn gi l gi tin (packet ), c khun dng quy nh trc Mi gi cng cha cc thng tin iu khin (a ch ngun, ch) v c th c gi ti ch bng nhiu con ng khc nhau. Cc gi c gii hn kch thc ti a sao cho cc nt c th x l ton b gi trong b nh m khng cn phi lu tr tm thi trn .. Quan tm: Vic tp hp li cc gi tin to thng bo ban u Vn chn ng Cc gii thut chn ng (tm ng i ngn nht) Thut ton Dijsktra Thut ton B.Ford Thut ton Floyd Giao thc X25 PLP Nm 1916, CCITT cng b khuyn ngh v giao thc X25 s dng trong cc mng chuyn mch gi cng cng (Public Packet Switched Network) X25PLP (Public Level Protocol) nh ngha hai loi lin kt logic VC (Virtual Circuit): Lin kt o c tnh tm thi c thit lp v xo b bi cc th tc ca X25) PVC (Permanent VC): lin kt o c thit lp vnh vin trn mng Cc th tc chnh ca X25PLP Call setup: Request: yu cu thit lp lin kt Call accepted: yu cu thit lp lin kt c chp nhn. Clearing: Clear request: yu cu xo b lin kt Clearing: Clear confirmation: xc nhn xo b lin kt Data Data: d liu RR (Receiver Ready): Sn sng nhn d liu RNR (Receiver Not Ready): Khng sn sng nhn d liu REJ (Reject): yu cu truyn li Interrupt Interrupt: yu cu truyn d liu khn - 107 -

Interrupt confirmation: bo nhn d liu khn Reset Reset requet: yu cu khi ng li lin kt Reset confirmation: xc nhn khi ng li lin kt Restart Restart requet: yu cu khi to li giao din Restart confirmation: xc nhn khi to li giao din Khun dng gi tin X25PLP C hai loi khun dng tng qut cho cc gi tin X25PLP * Gi tin d liu Q D 0 1 Logical Channel Logical Identifier Channel Identifier P(R) M P(S) 0 User data

* Gi tin iu khin 0 0 0/1 0/1 Logical Logical Channel Channel Identifier Identifier Packet Type Identifier Additional Information

Trong : Q bit (Qualifier): nh tnh thng tin cha trong gi tin D bit (Delivery Confirmation):C ch bo nhn gi tin D=0 c ch bo nhn gia DCE v DTE D=1 c ch bo nhn gia DCE v DTE M (Mode): Khi c ct/hp t d liu M=0: cn gi tin tip theo M=1: gi tin cui Logic Channel Identifier : s liu ca lin kt logic P(s): s liu gi tin gi P(r): s liu gi tin ch nhn Packet type Identifier : phn bit kiu gi tin User data: 128 Byte : d liu ca ngi s dng Additional: cc thng tin b sung c th cho cc hm 5.3.4. Mng dch v tch hp s ISDN (Intergrated Service Digital Network) Mng truyn thng hin nay s dng hai k thut chuyn mch chnh l k thut chuyn mch knh v k thut chuyn mch gi. Cc mng chuyn mch knh c xy dng - 108 -

truyn thoi, cn cc mng chuyn mch gi c dng truyn d liu tng tc. Tuy nhin, trong thc t c nhiu ng dng i hi mng phi c kh nng ng thi truyn c nhiu dng thng tin khc nhau nh ting ni, hnh nh, d liu, fax.. p ng nhu cu ny hnh thnh mng dch v tch hp s: ISDN Cc knh ISDN Knh l ng truyn dn thng tin gia user v mng (knh thu bao: subcriber) Trong ISDN, knh thu bao ch truyn cc tn hiu s v chia lm ba loi phn bit nhau v chc nng v tc . Knh D (Da ta): truyn thng bo bo hiu gia user v mng, tc 16kb/s hoc 64kb/s Knh B (Base): Truyn cc T/h ting ni, m thanh, d liu, hnh nh Knh H (High): Truyn thng tin vi tc cao: H6 6 knh B H1 1,536 Mb/s - 45Mb/s H4 132 Mb/s - 138,24Mb/s Giao din ISDN ISDN cung cp tt c cc dch v trn mt giao din truy nhp vo mng duy nht Giao din tc c bn (Basic Rate Intergrate BRI) cu trc knh 2B+D (16Kb/s) vi tc 192kb/s Giao din tc c s (Primary Rate Intergrate PRI) cu trc knh 23B+D hoc 30B+D (16Kb/s) Cc dch v ISDN
Tng i cng s Thoi My tnh Ti vi Truyn hnh DTE

PC

PC

ISDN
Cu h

PC

LAN

Dch v an ninh

PC

PC

Dch v cng cng

5.4. K thut LAN Mc ch: Kh nng trao i thng tin Chia s ti nguyn c trng: a l: nh di vi chc km Tc truyn: di 100 Mb/s - 109 -

 tin cy: t sut li thp 10-8 n 10 -11 Qun l: s hu ring ca mt t chc no K thut LAN Topology STAR RING BUS STAR LAN Thit b trung tm HUB: phn knh Switch: chuyn mch Router: chn ng Vi chc nng: To lin kt im im Chuyn tip tn hiu c im:

Lp t n gin
D dng kim sot, khc phc s c Tn dng ti a ng truyn vt l Nhc im: di ng truyn hn ch BUS LAN Dng cc ng ni c bit: ct ch T in tr thun 40 c im D lp t, m rng Khng tn dng ti a ng truyn Phi c c ch kim sot li, tc nghn (dng Th bi) RING LAN Dng cc b chuyn tip (Repeater) Thc hin truyn theo chiu duy nht di dng cc gi tin CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multipe Access with Collision Detection): a truy nhp s dng sng mng c pht hin sung t ATM LAN ATM LAN: s dng ATM nh mt giao thc truyn d liu trong cc h thng LAN c im: H tr v m bo nhiu dch v Thng lng trao i tng Tch hp cng ngh LAN, WAN, da trn nhng ng dn o v knh o Kh nng m rng mng Cu trc Wireless LAN (WL: Lan khng dy) Mi trng truyn LAN thng thng: cp ng trc, xon i, si quang, tuy nhin vi cc to nh c kin trc phc tp, ng truyn vt l khng ti u v tn dy v kh ci - 110 -

t. Hn ch iu ny c th s dng cng ngh LAN khng dy, tuy nhin chi ph cho cc LAN khng dy l kh cao, vn tc d liu thp v an ton gim. Cc ng dng: LAN Extension (da trn LAN c dy): Cho php di chuyn cc trm, hn ch s i dy, thay v m thm, lp t thm mt trm dng modul iu khin (chn ng ni tip) Cross-Building: Kt ni LAN trong cc to nh cao tng cnh nhau nh mt lin kt im im. Nomadic Access: h tr kt ni c dy gia hai b phn knh LAN v my xch tay Adhoc: kt ni cc my tnh xch tay im im tm thi Cng ngh WL: Dng tia hng ngoi: trong phng (tia hng ngoi khng xuyn c qua tng) Tri ph: LAN hot ng trong bng ISM Sng viba Mng v tuyn gi(Radio) Mi trm thu - pht trc tip qua m trng ti trm khc c im: Tn ti mt cng vo/ra duy nht trong b chuyn mch Mi trm ch truyn thi gian nht nh Kh nng lin kt bn trong b gii hn Cu trc Tp trung: B thu pht trung tm gn lin vi ngun thu pht Cc trm cn li c lin lc qua node trung tm Cc node s truyn ti trung tm mt knh, trung tm truyn ti node qua mt knh khc Phn tn: Dng mt knh truyn cho tt c cc trm S dng cc b Repeater nh mt nt trong mng (chuyn mch gia hai nt) in hnh: Tp trung: ALOHA: ti Hawai Cho php cc terminal xa c th truy nhp vo h thng B phn iu khin: iu khim terminal (TCU: Terminal Control Unit) iu khin chng trnh (PCU: Programe Control Unit) S dng PSK c bng thng 20KHz v tc truyn 9600b/s Khun dng gi tin: Phn tn: dng AX2S s dng Bc M Cng ngh FSK bng thng 20KHz hoc 100KHz, tc 4500b/s da trn giao thc HDLC vi khun dng Frame Mng v tinh

- 111 -

Viba mt t M t vt l: Loi ng ten dng cho n l Parabol vi kch thc khong 10 feet c c nh v hng chm tia n ng dn nhn thy c ngten n b thu Khong cch gia hai ngten: khong cch cc i gia hai ngten: ng dng Khong cch xa Cht lng cao v thay th cp ng trc Mng im im gia cc to nh.. Truyn d liu s di 10Km c tnh: Tn s: 2-40GHz, tc truyn ln 2,6Hz -> 12Mb/s 186Hz -> 274Mb/s Viba v tinh V tinh thng tin l mt trm chuyn tip ni hai hay nhiu b thu pht. mt v tinh lin lc c hiu qu -> n phi t quay quanh n v tc quay tng ng tc quay ca tri t (35784km/s) ng dng: Phn phi truyn hnh (PBS Public Broadcasting Service) Truyn in thoi khong cch xa: Dng cho cc trung k v tng i v mng in thoi cng cng. c tnh truyn: 1 - 10GHz: Truyn ln: 5,926 - 6,425GHz Truyn xung: 3,7 - 4,26GHz Cu trc mng v tinh: im im c im mng v tinh: Mng v tinh c th thy c 1/4 tri t Gi thnh truyn ph thuc khong cch m v tinh bao ph S lm chm truyn lan Mt trm c th nhn li s truyn ca n Phn ng Mt v tinh ring l s c bng thng rng v chia nh n cho mt s knh c bng thng nh, mi knh c mt phn phi ring. C hai cch phn phi Phn ng theo tn s FDM (Frequency Division Multiple) Theo thi gian TDM (Time Division Multiple) FDM: V tinh chia bng thng tng cho cc knh, mi knh n lt n li chia cho cc trm, tng cp knh phn phi cho tng cp trm mt t (mi trm Multiple) v c mt s lng nh trm s dng. V d: bng tn 6/46Hz -> knh c bng thng 36MHz Chia thnh 7 khi 5MHz, mi khi tng ng 60 ng ting ni (420 ng) TDM: Lp li cc Frame: Mi mt frame c chia cho mt khe thi gian, chu k lp li cc frame: 125 s 15ms v bao gm 5 15 khe. Tc truyn: 10Mb/s 100Mb/s - 112 -

CU HI V BI TP 5.1. Trnh by nguyn tc phn tng trong m hnh truyn thng.. 5.2. Trnh by m hnh OSI 7 tng: S , chc nng ca cc tng, tng tc gia cc tng 5.3. Nu s , chc nng, u nhc im ca mng chuyn mch knh 5.4. Nu s , chc nng, u nhc im ca mng chuyn mch thng bo 5.5. Nu s , chc nng, u nhc im ca mng chuyn mch gi 5.6. Nu s , chc nng, u nhc im ca mng chuyn mch tch hp s.

- 113 -

 THI THAM KHO

1: 1. Anh (ch) hy trnh by hiu bit ca mnh v H thng truyn thng (s ,

chc nng cc thnh phn). Cho v d minh ho. 2. Cu 2: H thng cn truyn thng bo M = 1011 0011 1011 0110, anh (ch) hy thc hin vic m ho thng bo ny theo phng php m ho Hamming. 3. Trnh by hiu bit ca anh (ch) v h giao thc X25PLP. 2: 1. Anh (ch) hy trnh by hiu bit ca mnh v k thut truyn s liu qua cc c trng: Bin , Tn s, Gc pha ca tn hiu. So snh cc k thut truyn ni trn. 2. H thng cn truyn thng bo M = 1010 0101 0011 1101, anh (ch) hy thc hin vic m ho thng bo ny theo phng php m ho CRC (a thc sinh G(x) = x5+x4+x+1 ). 3. Trnh by hiu bit ca anh (ch) v Chun giao tip trong truyn thng, chun EIA - RS232C. 3: 1. Anh (ch) hy trnh by hiu bit ca mnh v cc phng thc truyn thng trong truyn s liu (truyn ng b, d b...; cc c ch truyn d liu) 2. H thng cn truyn thng bo M=DHHH, anh (ch) hy thc hin vic m ho thng bo ny theo phng php m ho Hamming. 3. H thng nhn c mt Frame HDLC dng thng thng nh sau: 01111110 00111101 01110100 00000111 10011000 00111110 00111111 0 Hy cho bit v gii thch : - ngha ca cc trng trong Frame - Cho bit y l loi Frame g? - Cho bit d liu trong Frame l dy nh phn g? - Kim tra li xem Frame ny c b li hay khng (Vi G(x)=x16 + x5 + x4 +1)? 4: 1. Anh (ch) hy trnh by hiu bit ca mnh v H thng truyn thng, s nguyn l v chc nng cc thnh phn 2. V s minh ho vic lin kt v trao i thng tin gia hai tng lin kt d liu ca hai trm A v B theo phng thc d b cn bng vi tnh hung sau: Trm
B cn truyn 3 frame d liu cho trm A, trong qu trnh truyn frame s 2 b li; trm A cn truyn 1 frame d liu cho trm B. S dng cc giao thc HDLC hng bit, s dng phng php kim sot li ARQ dng ch. 3. H thng cn truyn thng bo M=HAIPHONG cho trm c a ch dng thp phn l 182, theo cc frame HDLC, mi frame cha 2 k t. Anh (ch) hy thc hin ng gi frame cha chui IP (vi a thc sinh G(x)=x16 + x3 + x +1)

5:
1. Anh (ch) hy trnh by nhng vn sau:

a. Mng chuyn mch gi trong h thng truyn d liu; b. Mc ch, quan h v nguyn tc phn chia cc tng trong m hnh OSI 2. Gi s bn nhn nhn c thng bo c m ha theo Hamming c ni dung sau: 1000 1110 1001 1101 1101 0111 1101 1010 1110 Hy cho bit - Thng bo nhn c c ng hay khng. - Ni dung cn nhn l g? (Xt trong trng hp ch sai 1 bt)
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3. H thng cn truyn thng bo M=AMPLITUDE ti trm ch c a ch

dng thp phn l 179, anh (ch) hy thc hin vic ng gi Frame HDLC cha chui k t UD (Mi frame cha 2 byte k t, a thc sinh G(x)=x 16 + x15 + x5 + x3 + x +1).
GI P N 1: Cu 2: - Thc hin chn cc bt Ci vo cc v tr tng ng - Xc nh v tr cc bit 1 trong chui sau khi chn thm cc Ci - Cng Modulo 2 v tr cc bt 1 - Thay th gi tr cc bt Ci vo v tr tng ng thm 2: Cu 2: - T G(x) c c=5 - Xy dng M(x) - Tnh M(x)*x5/G(x) - Kt qu d Q(x) chnh l CRC - Chui m ha l M(x)*x5+Q(x) 3: Cu 2: - Xc nh gi tr m ASCII chun ca cc k t cn truyn - Ghp gi tr m ASCII ca cc k t cn truyn theo th t - Tip theo thc hin tng t nh 1 cu 2 Cu 3: - Kim tra v loi b cc bt 0 thm vo - Tch cc bt theo th t ca cc trng. - Gii thch gi tr ca cc trng - Xc nh gi tr ca d liu - Kim tra: Ly chui bt (sau khi loi b bt 0 thm vo) chia cho G(x) - Kt qu d <>0 frame nhn c b sai 4: Cu 2: - Vic truyn d liu theo d b khng cn bng. - Khi to trao i - Trm B yu cu truyn trc B b ng - Phng php kim sot li ARQ dng ch mi ln ch truyn 1 frame. - V s Cu 3: - Xc nh gi tr nh phn ca tramk ch Address - Mi frame truyn 2 k t IP thuc frame s 2 (h thng vn cn cn truyn cc frame khc xc nh gi tr cc bt thuc trng Control - Xc nh gi tr nh phn ca chui IP Information - Ghp gi tr cc bit ca Address, Control, Information M(x) - T G(x) c=16 - Cc bc tip theo thc hin tng t nh 1 cu 2 5: Cu 2: Tng t nh 3 cu 3 Cu 3: Tng t nh 4 cu 3

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