CONTENT

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TOPIC

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INTRODUCTION 1.O 2.0 3.0 4.0 TRUSSES RIGID FRAMES ARCHES CABLE AND TENSION STRUCTURES PORTAL FRAMES DOME CONCLUSION APPENDIX REFERENCES

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5.0 6.0

INTRODUCTION
This asignment will thoroughly list and explain six (6) diferrent types of structural forms. These forms include: Trusses Rigid Frames Cable and Tension Structures Arches Portal Frames

1.O

TRUSSES

Trusses provide both practical and economical solutions especially in the design of bridges and buildings. If an entire truss lies in a single plane, it is called a plane truss. Typically, the most simple and stable truss consists of three straight members (triangle shape) connected together at its ends. As for rectangular configuration, be advice that the shape is not suitable for a truss because of instability and shape changes without changing the length of any of the four members, thus swaying will occurred. A truss is composed of triangles because of the structural stability of that shape and design. A triangle is the simplest geometric figure that will not change shape when the lengths of the sides are fixed. In comparison, both the angles and the lengths of a four-sided figure must be fixed for it to retain its shape.

1.1 Characteristics of Trusses

1.1.1

Planar truss

The simplest form of a truss is one single triangle. This type of truss is seen in a framed roof consisting of rafters and a ceiling joist because of the stability of this shape and the methods of analysis used to calculate the forces within it, a truss composed entirely of triangles is known as a simple truss. A planar truss lies in a single plane. Planar trusses are typically used in parallel to form roofs and bridges. The depth of a truss, or the height between the upper and lower chords, is what makes it an efficient structural form. A solid girder or beam of equal strength would have substantial weight and material cost as compared to a truss. For a given span length, a deeper truss will require less material in the chords and greater material in the verticals and diagonals. An optimum depth of the truss will maximize the efficiency. 1.1.2 Space frame truss

A space frame truss is a three-dimensional framework of members pinned at their ends. A tetrahedron shape is the simplest space truss, consisting of six members which meet at four joints. Large planar structures may be composed from tetrahedrons with common edges and they are also employed in the base structures of large free-standing power line pylons.

1.2

Types of Trusses

There are two basic types of truss: The pitched truss, or common truss, is characterized by its triangular shape. It is most often used for roof construction. Some common trusses are named according to their web configuration. The chord size and web configuration are determined by span, load and spacing.

 The parallel chord truss, or flat truss, gets its name from its parallel top and bottom chords. It is often used for floor construction. A combination of the two is a truncated truss, used in hip roof construction. A metal plateconnected wood truss is a roof or floor truss whose wood members are connected with metal connector plates. 1.2.1 Pratt truss

This design uses vertical members for compression and horizontal members to respond to tension. What is remarkable about this style is that it remained popular even as wood gave way to iron, and even still as iron gave way to steel. The continued popularity of the Pratt truss is probably due to the fact that the configuration of the members means that longer diagonal members are only in tension for gravity load effects. This allows these members to be used more efficiently, as slenderness effects related to buckling under compression loads will typically not control the design. Therefore, for given planar truss with a fixed depth, the Pratt configuration is usually the most efficient under static, vertical loading. 1.2.2 Bowstring truss

Named for their shape, bowstring trusses were first used for arched truss bridges, known as tied-arch bridges. Many variations exist in the arrangements of the members connecting the nodes of the upper arc with those of the lower, straight sequence of members, from nearly isosceles triangles to a variant of the Platt truss. 1.2.3 King post truss

One of the simplest truss styles to implement, the king post consists of two angled supports leaning into a common vertical support. The queen post truss is similar to a king post truss in that the outer supports are angled towards the center of the structure. The primary difference is the horizontal extension at the centre which relies on beam action to provide mechanical stability. This truss style is only suitable for relatively short spans. 1.2.4 Lenticular truss

Have the top and bottom chords of the truss arched, forming a lens shape. A lenticular pony truss bridge is a bridge design that involves a lenticular truss extending above and below the roadbed. 1.2.5 Town's lattice truss

American architect Ithiel Town designed Town's Lattice Truss as an alternative to heavy-timber bridges. His design, patented in 1820 and 1835, uses easy-to-handle planks arranged diagonally with short spaces in between them. 1.2.6 Vierendeel truss

The Vierendeel truss is a truss where the members are not triangulated but form rectangular openings, and is a frame with fixed joints that are capable of transferring and resisting bending moments. Regular

trusses comprise members that are commonly assumed to have pinned joints, with the implication that no moments exist at the jointed ends. This style of truss was named after the Belgian engineer Arthur Vierendeel, who developed the design in 1896. Its use for bridges is rare due to higher costs compared to a triangulated truss. The utility of this type of truss in buildings is that a large amount of the exterior envelope remains unobstructed and can be used for fenestration and door openings. This is preferable to a braced-frame system, which would leave some areas obstructed by the diagonal braces.

1.3

Statics of trusses

A truss that is assumed to comprise members that are connected by means of pin joints, and which is supported at both ends by means of hinged joints or rollers, is described as being statically determinate. Newton's Laws apply to the structure as a whole, as well as to each node or joint. In order for any node that may be subject to an external load or force to remain static in space, the following conditions must hold: the sums of all forces, as well as all moments acting about the node equal zero. Analysis of these conditions at each node yields the magnitude of the forces in each member of the truss. These may be compression or tension forces. Trusses that are supported at more than two positions are said to be statically indeterminate, and the application of Newton's Laws alone is not sufficient to determine the member forces. In order for a truss with pin-connected members to be stable, it must be entirely composed of triangles. In mathematical terms, we have the following necessary condition for stability. When m = 2j 3, the truss is said to be statically determinate, because the (m+3) internal member forces and support reactions can then be completely determined by 2j equilibrium equations, once we know the external loads and the geometry of the truss. Given a certain number of joints, this is the minimum number of members, in the sense that if any member is taken out, then the truss as a whole fails. While the relation is necessary, it is not sufficient for stability, which also depends on the truss geometry, support conditions and the load carrying capacity of the members. Some structures are built with more than this minimum number of truss members. Those structures may survive even when some of the members fail. Their member forces depend on the relative stiffness of the members, in addition to the equilibrium condition described.

2.0

RIGID FRAMES

Another type of structure that is similar to a truss and capable of carrying external loads. The main different is the way that external loads are applied to them. In frames, members maybe applied at any point of any member. The consequence of the difference is that not all frame members are two-forces which as a result may subjected of bending as well. Portal frames and large frames are common types of rigid jointed frames as the jointas are stiff, continuous and moment couples occurred.

3.0

ARCHES

Arches are curved structures that are capable of taking bending moments. The basic arch structures are classified as three-pinned and fixed support arch. The forces maybe determined from simple statically analysis, which known as statically determinate for three-pinned. Fixed support arches are statically indeterminate and have to be solved by taking its strain energy into account. An arch requires all of its elements to hold it together, raising the question of how an arch is constructed. One answer is to build a frame which exactly follows the form of the underside of the arch. This is known as a centre or centring. The voussoirs are laid on it until the arch is complete and self-supporting. For an arch higher than head height, scaffolding would in any case be required by the builders, so the scaffolding can be combined with the arch support. Occasionally arches would fall down when the frame was removed if construction or planning had been incorrect. The interior and lower line or curve of an arch is known as the intrados. Old arches sometimes need reinforcement due to decay of the keystones, forming what is known as bald arch.

4.0

CABLE AND TENSION STRUCTURES

It consists primarily of cables, hangers and the main structural component in the form of an arch or girders. The cables normally used to suspend the hangers which resist the weight of the girders, example the bridge. High strength steel cables have been used extensively over the past twenty five years for space roof structures. There are two different possibilities when using steel cables in roof structures.The first possibility, consists of using the cables only for suspension of the main roof structure, which can be either conventional, e.g. beams, cantilevers, etc., or a space frame. In this case, the main roof structure, instead of being supported, is actually suspended from steel cables above the roof, which transmit the tensile forces to appropriate anchorages. They are cable-stayed roofs.

4.1

Cable-stayed roofs

There are many examples of this type of construction used as industrial buildings where the roof structure, either as a single or as a double cantilever, is suspended from cables, which in turn are anchored on robust pylons above the roof level. In this type of construction, the cables behave as simple suspension elements, while the roof structure itself behaves like a normal load resisting unit, subject to moments, shears, and other kinds of action effect. It is expected that the suspending elements remain in tension, even under wind uplift, due to the dead weight of the roof. The second possibility is represented by those roof structures where the steel cables are effective members of the roof structure itself, and not just conveyors of forces from the structure to the anchorages. In this type of construction, the cables themselves resist the various external loads. Their particular behavior has deeply influenced the structural forms used and has imposed new methods of execution.

4.2

Prestressed tensile membrane system

Tension structures are used to cover stadia, arenas, swimming pools, recreation halls and other buildings where a large area for public assembly and exceptional aesthetic effect are required simultaneously. A feature of these structures is their geometrically non-linear behaviour. Deformations play an essential role in the analysis and the principle of superposition of effects is not valid. An important problem associated with these structures is their sensitivity to aerodynamic instability, e.g. flutter. This sensitivity imposes special requirements on the design and the constructional details of these systems, particularly those which use membranes made of lightweight fabric as cladding. The requirements of stiffness under transverse loading and anchorage are major form determinants for cable structures, and these are examined in the following sections. Single cable structures are characterized by their flexibility. They require stiffening to prevent a change of shape with each variation in load and to make them capable of resisting uplift due to wind. Gusty winds can produce oscillations, unless damping is provided to the structure.

4.3

Plane systems

The principal methods of providing stability are the following: i. Additional permanent load supported on, or suspended from, the roof, sufficient to neutralize the effects of asymmetrical variable actions or uplift. This arrangement has the drawback that it eliminates the lightweight nature of the structure, adding significant cost to the entire structure. ii. Rigid members acting as beams, where permanent load may not be adequate to counteract uplift forces completely, but where there is sufficient flexural rigidity to deal with the net uplift forces, whilst availing of cables to help resist effects of gravity loading.

4.4

Plane systems

iii. Rigid surfaces behaving as inverted shells or vaults, where uplift forces are countered by the in-plane compressive rigidity of the structure. iv. Secondary cables prestressing the main cables so that these remain in tension under all conditions of load. Such prestressing can take a variety of forms: A stayed arrangement, wherein the main cable is stayed to other elements or to the ground, as in the case of guyed trusses. A planar arrangement of suspension and stabilising cables, with opposite curvatures cables. This structure reacts elastically to all changes of shape provoked by the externally applied loads. This principle can be extended to permit creation of space trusses, or structures of revolution. An orthogonal or diagonal arrangement of suspension and stabilising cables, with opposite curvatures, forming an anticlastic surface.

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4.5

Anticlastic cable

Accurately defined, a cable truss system has a triangulated structural form which increases stiffness, particularly under non-symmetric loading. However, the term is also frequently applied to the cables with opposite curvature.

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4.7

Cable trusses

The orthogonal or diagonal arrangement of anticlastic cables can also be extended to the conical form. The increasing use of horizontal ring cables enhances stiffness against asymmetric loading because of the difficulty of anchoring a large number of cables at a point, the top is usually flattened.

5.0

PORTAL FRAMES

Portal frames are the most commonly used structural forms for single-storey industrial structures. They are constructed mainly using hot-rolled sections, supporting the roofing and side cladding by cold-formed purlins and sheeting rails. They may also be composed of tapered stanchions and rafters fabricated from plate elements. Portal frames of lattice members made of angles or tubes are also common, especially in the case of longer spans. The slopes of rafters in the gable portal frames vary in the range of 1 in 10 to 1 in 3. Generally, the centreto-centre distance between frames is of the order 6 to 7.5 m, with eaves height ranging from 6 -15 m. Normally, larger spacing of frames is used in the case of taller buildings, from the point of economy. Moment-resisting connections are to be provided at the eaves and crown to resist lateral and gravity loadings. The stanchion bases may behave as either pinned or fixed, depending upon rotational restraint provided by the foundation and the connection detail between the stanchion and foundations. The foundation restraint depends on the type of foundation and modulus of the sub-grade. Frames with pinned bases are heavier than those having fixity at the bases. However, frames with fixed base may require a more expensive foundation.

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For the design of portal frames, plastic methods of analysis are mainly used, which allows the engineer to analyse frames easily and design it economically. The basis of the plastic analysis method is the need to determine the load that can be applied to the frame so that the failure of the frame occurs as a mechanism by the formation of a number of plastic hinges within the frame. The various methods of plastic analysis are discussed later. The most common form of portal frame used in the construction industry is the pinned-base frame with different rafter and column member size and with haunches at both the eaves and apex connections. Due to transportation requirements, field joints are introduced at suitable positions. As a result, connections are usually located at positions of high moment which are mainly at the interface of the column and rafter members and also between the rafter members at the apex. It is very difficult to develop sufficient moment capacity at these connections by providing 'tension' bolts located solely within the small depth of the rafter section. Therefore the lever arm of the bolt group is usually increased by haunching the rafter members at the joints. This addition increases the section strength.

5.1 Connections In a portal frame, points of maximum moments usually occur at connections. Further, at corners the connections must accomplish the direction of forces change. Therefore, the design of connections must assure that they are capable of developing and maintaining the required moment until the frame fails by forming a mechanism. There are four principal requirements, in design of a connection: a) Strength - The connection should be designed in such a way that the plastic moment (Mp) of the members (or the weaker of the two members) will be developed. b) Stiffness - Average unit rotation of the connecting region should not exceed that of an equivalent length of the beam being joined. The equivalent length is the length of the connection or haunch measured along the frame line. L = r1 + r2 This requirement reduces to the following:

Where h is the joint rotation.

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c) Rotation Capacity The plastic rotation capacity at the connection hinge is adequate to assure that all necessary plastic hinges will form in the structure to enable failure Design. Mechanism and hence all connections should be proportioned to develop adequate rotation at plastic hinges. d) Economy - Extra connecting materials and labour required to achieve the connection should be kept to a minimum. If the knee web is deficient in resisting the shear force, a diagonal stiffener may be used.

6.0

DOME

A dome is a structural element of architecture that resembles the hollow upper half of a sphere. Dome structures made of various materials have a long architectural lineage extending into prehistory. 6.1 Characteristics

A dome can be thought of as an arch which has been rotated around its central vertical axis. Thus domes, like arches, have a great deal of structural strength when properly built and can span large open spaces without interior supports. Corbel domes achieve their shape by extending each horizontal layer of stones inward slightly farther than the previous, lower, one until they meet at the top. These are sometimes called false domes. True, or real, domes are formed with increasingly inward-angled layers of voussoirs which have ultimately turned 90 degrees from the base of the dome to the top. A compound dome with pendentives from a sphere of greater radius than the dome.Drums, also called tholobates or tambours, are cylindrical or polygonal walls supporting a dome which may contain windows. When the base of the dome does not match the plan of the supporting walls beneath it, techniques are employed to transition between the two. The simplest technique is to use diagonal lintels across the corners of the walls to create an octagonal base. Another is to use arches called squinchs to span the corners, which can support more weight. The invention of pendentives, triangular segments of an even larger dome filling the spaces between the circular bottom of the dome and each of the four corners of the square base, superseded the squinch technique. Domes can be divided into two kinds: simple and compound, depending on the use of pendentives. Pendentives are triangular sections of a sphere used to blend the curved surface of a dome with the flat surfaces of supporting walls. In the case of the simple dome, the pendentives are part of the same sphere as the dome itself; however, such domes are rare. In the case of the more common compound dome, the pendentives are part of the surface of a larger sphere below that of the dome itself and form a circular base for either the dome or a drum section. Domes have been constructed from a wide variety of building materials over the centuries: from mud to stone, wood, brick, concrete, metal, glass and plastic.

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6.2 Types of domes Corbel dome A corbel dome is different from a 'true dome' in that it consists of purely horizontal layers. As the layers get higher, each is slightly cantilevered, or corbeled, toward the center until meeting at the top. Onion dome The onion dome is a bulbous shape tapering smoothly to a point, strongly resembling an onion, after which they are named, and exemplified by Saint Basil's Cathedral inMoscow and the Taj Mahal. Oval dome . An oval dome is a dome of oval shape in either plan or profile or both. The term comes from the Latin ovum, meaning "egg". Parabolic dome A parabolic dome is a unique structure, in which bending stress due to the UDL of its dead load is zero. Hence it was widely used in buildings in ancient times, before the advent of composite structures. However if a point load is applied on the apex of a parabolic dome, the bending stress becomes infinite. Hence it is found in most ancient structures, the apex of the dome is stiffened or the shape modified to avoid the infinite stress. Polygonal dome Called domical vaults, or cloister vaults, these are domes which maintain a polygonal shape in their horizontal cross section. Sail dome Also called sail vaults, pendentive domes, or Byzantine domes, this type can be thought of as pendentives which, rather than merely touching each other to form a circular base for a drum or compound dome, smoothly continue their curvature to form the dome itself. The dome gives the impression of a square sail pinned down at each corner and billowing upward. Saucer dome A saucer dome is the architectural term used for a low pitched shallow dome which is described geometrically as having a circular base and a segmental section. A section across the longer axis results in a low dome, capping the volume. A very low dome is a saucer dome. Many of the largest existing domes are of this shape.

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 Umbrella dome Also called pumpkin, melon, scalloped, or parachute domes, these are a type of dome segmented by ribs radiating from the center of the dome to the base. The material between the ribs arches from one to the other, transferring the downward force to them. Influential domes Domes that have been disproportionately influential in later architecture are those of the Pantheon in Rome, Hagia Sophia in Constantinople , and the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem. In Western architecture, the most influential domes built after the early Renaissance exploit of Brunelleschi's Florentine dome have been those ofSt.

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CONCLUSION
As you would have read the assignment gave a very thorough and deatailed explanation of the six (6) mentioned structural forms.

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APPENDIX

PICTURE SHOWING PORTAL FRAMES

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PICTURE SHOWING OF TYPES OF TRUSSES

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Triangular arch

Round arch or Semicircular arch

Segmental arch or arch that Unequal round arch is less than a semicircle orRampant round arch

Shouldered flat arch -see also jack arch Lancet arch Equilateral pointed arch Three-foiled cusped arch

Elliptical arch Horseshoe arch Three-centered arch Inflexed arch

Tudor arch Ogee arch Reverse ogee arch Catenary or Parabolic arch

PICTURE SHOWING ARCHES

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REFERENCES
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trus/10-02-2011 en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arch/10-02/2011 http://theconstructor.org/others/cable-and-tension-structures/17/10=-02-2011 www.corusconstruction.com/en/.../portal_frame/ - United Kingdom/10/02/2011

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