Summary of Chapter 9

Sulphuric acid, H2SO4 is used in the making of detergents, fertilizer and paint. Contact Process manufactures it. The sulphur dioxide gas, SO2 released from industrial activities can cause acid rain. Acid rain causes environmental pollution. Ammonia, NH3 is mainly used to make fertilisers and nitric acid, HNO3. NH3 has a pungent smell and gives white fume when reacted with hydrogen chloride gas, HCl. NH3 is manufactured through Haber Process. The orderly arrangement of atoms of the same size in metals makes metals malleable and ductile. An alloy is a mixture of two or more elements in which the major component is a metal. Some examples of alloys are duralumin, brass, stainless steel, bronze and pewter. Alloys are stronger, harder, do not corrode easily and more lustre than pure metals. Polymer is a large molecule formed by joining many smaller repeating molecules called monomers. Examples of naturally occurring polymers are rubber, cellulose and starch. Examples of synthetic polymers are PVC, polythene, perspex and nylon. Glass consists of silicates, in which silica, SiO2 or sand is a major constituent. Generally, most glass are

transparent, chemically inert, hard, brittle and impermeable. They are bad conductors of heat and electricity. Generally, ceramics are very hard, brittle, have a very high melting point, do not corrode and chemically inert. They are good insulators of electricity and heat. A composite material usually consists of two or more different substances combined to create a new substance which has properties that are superior to those of the original components. Examples of composite materials include reinforced concrete, superconductors, fibre optic, fibre glass and photochromic glass.

Sulphuric Acid, H2SO4

Uses of Sulphuric Acid, H2SO4 Manufacture of dyes, pigment, paints Production of fertilisers Manufacture of detergents Leather tanning As electrolyte in car batteries Manufacture of insecticides Metallurgy - remove oxides from the surface of metals Manufacture of artificial fibres (rayon, nylon)

Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid, H2SO4 through

Contact Process Stage 1 To produce sulphur dioxide gas Molten sulphur is burnt in the furnace in dry air to produce sulphur dioxide, SO2. The gas produced is purified and cooled.

S + O2 SO2
Stage 2 To produce sulphur trioxide gas) SO2 and excess oxygen gas, O2 are passed through a converter. SO2 is converted into sulphur trioxide SO3 with the presence of Vanadium (V) oxide as a catalyst, V2O5

catalyst at 450C 550C and pressure of 1 atmosphere to convert into SO3. The conversion efficiency is about 98%.

2SO2 + O2 2SO2
Stage 3 To produce liquid concentrated sulphuric acid) The sulphur trioxide, SO3 is first reacted with concentrated sulphuric acid, H2SO4 to form oleum, H2S2O7.

SO3 + H2SO4 H2S2O7

The oleum, H2S2O7 is then diluted with water to produce concentrated sulphuric acid, H2SO4 in large quantities.

H2S2O7 + H2O 2H2SO4

The reason why SO3 is not dissolved directly in water to produce sulphuric acid:

SO3 + H2O 2H2SO4

solubility of sulphur trioxide in water is low SO3 reacts too violently with water to produce a lot of heat and fumes.

Sulphur Dioxide, SO2 and Environmental Pollution SO2 in the air comes from the burning of fossil fuels containing sulphur. SO2 can be oxidised to sulphur trioxide, SO3 when it reacts with nitrogen dioxide, NO2. Inhaling SO3 will cause bronchitis and lung diseases. SO3 dissolves in rainwater to form sulphuric acid, a component of acid rain. The effects acid rain include: corrodes concrete building increases the acidity of soil depletes essential nutrients for plant growth increases the acidity of water

Ammonia, NH3 and Its Salts

Uses of Ammonia, NH3 Manufacture of wood pulp, lacquer and varnish Manufacture of nitric acid, HNO3 via the Ostwald process To produce nitrogen monoxide gas Ammonia is oxidised to nitrogen monoxide and water with the presence of platinum as the catalyst at 850C and pressure of 7 atmosphere.

4NH3 + 5O2 4NO + 6H2O

To produce nitrogen dioxide gas Nitrogen monoxide reacts with excess oxygen to form nitrogen dioxide.

2NO + O2 2NO2
To produce liquid nitric acid Nitrogen dioxide then reacts with oxygen and water to form nitric acid.

4NO2 + O2 +2H2O 4HNO3

Making ammonium chloride in dry cell Manufacture of synthetic fibres Manufacture of refrigerant Manufacture of ammonium nitrate explosives

Making household cleaning agent Production of ammonium sulphate fertilisers

The Properties of Ammonia, NH3 alkaline very soluble in water less dense than air colourless gas pungent smell burn in oxygen gas, O2 but not in the air give a white fume when reacted with hydrogen chloride gas, HCl

Manufacture of Ammonia, NH3 through Haber Process

This process combines nitrogen gas, N2 from the air with hydrogen gas, H2 derived mainly from natural gas to form ammonia, NH3. The ratio of one volume of N2 to three volumes of H2 is compressed to a pressure of 200 500 atm. The conversion efficiency is about 9%.

N2 + 3H 2NH3
It is then passed through layers of iron catalyst with aluminium oxide to speed up the rate of reaction at a temperature of 450C 550C. NH3 is formed and then liquefy and separated to get a better yield.

Preparation of Ammonium Fertilisers (ammonium sulphate) A.Determine the volume of sulphuric acid to neutralise 25cm3 of ammonia solution. 1. 25.00 cm3 of 2.0 mol dm-3 aqueous ammonia solution is transferred into a conical flask. Add three drops of methyl orange indicator. 2. A 50.00cm3 burette is filled with sulphuric acid. The initial burette reading (V1) is recorded. 3. Sulphuric acid is added slowly from the burette to the aqueous ammonia solution in the conical flask while swirling the flask gently. 4. Titration is stopped when the colour of the methyl orange changes from yellow to orange. The final burette reading (V2) is recorded. 5. The volume of sulphuric acid required to neutralised 25.00cm3 of ammonia solution is (V2 V1) cm3. B. Preparing ammonium sulphate crystals 1. 25.00cm3 of 2.0 mol dm-3 aqueous solution is pipette to a conical flask. 2. (V2 V1) cm3 of sulphuric acid is added from the burette to the aqueous ammonia solution. 3. The mixture in the conical flask is transferred to a beaker and is slowly evaporated white crystals of ammonium sulphate are produced.

4. The ammonium sulphate crystals are removed by filtration and washed with distilled water. The crystals are dried with filter paper.

Alloys
Arrangement of Atoms in Metals

Metals are ductile or can be stretched because the orderly arrangement of atoms in metals enables the layers of atoms to slide on one another when force is applied.

Metals are malleable or can be shaped because the orderly arrangements of atoms allow empty spaces in between the atoms. When a metal is knocked, atoms slide.

What are alloys? A mixture of two or more elements with a certain fixed composition in which the major component is a metal. To improve the appearance. reduce the formation of the oxide layer To improve the strength and hardness. disturb the orderly arrangement of metal atoms reduce the layers of atoms from sliding To improve the resistance to corrosion of a pure metal. prevent the formation of oxide layer

Alloy Bronze

Composition 90% copper 10% tin

Properties Hard and strong Does not corrode easily Has shiny surface Harder than copper

Brass

70% copper 30% zinc

Steel

99% iron 1% carbon

Hard and strong

Stainless Steel

74% iron Shiny 8% carbon Strong 18% chromium Does not rust

Uses In the building of statues or monuments In the making of medals, swords and artistic materials In the making of musical instruments and kitchenware In the construction of buildings and bridges In the building of the body of cars and railway tracks In the making of cutlery In the making of surgical

Duralumin

Pewter

93% aluminium 3% copper 3% magnesium 1% manganese 96% tin 3% copper 1% antimony

Light Strong

instruments In the building of the body of aeroplanes and bullet trains In the making of souvenirs

Lustre Shiny Strong

The Arrangement of Atoms in Alloys The presence of atoms of other metals that are of different sizes disturbs the orderly arrangement of atoms in the metal. This reduces the layer of atoms from sliding.

Synthetic Polymers
What are Polymers? A large molecule made up of monomers which are joined together by covalent bond. Monomers are joined into chains by polymerisation. Polymerisation is the chemical process by which the monomers are joined together to form the polymer molecule. Occur naturally (natural polymers) and man-made polymers (synthetic polymers).

Monomers in Natural Polymers Monomer Isoprene Glucose molecule Glucose molecule Amino acid Natural Polymer Natural rubber (polyisoprene) Starch Cellulose Protein

Monomers in Synthetic Polymers Monomer Ethane Synthetic Polymer Polythene Uses Plastic bags Shopping bags Plastic containers Insulation for electrical wiring Piping Bottle crates Carpets Car batteries Ropes

Propene

Polypropene

Chloroethene

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)

Artificial leather Water pipes Records Safety glass Reflectors Traffic signs Lens

Methylmethacrylate

Perspex

Hexane-1, 6-diol Benzene-1, 4dicarboxylic acid

Terylene

Clothing Sails Ropes

Hexane-1, 6-diamine Hexane-1, 6-dioic acid

Nylon

Ropes Clothing Carpets

Should We Continue Using Synthetic Polymers? Synthetic polymers are not easily biodegradable. They may cause pollution, blockage of drainage system and flash floods. Petroleum that is a non-renewable resource is the main source of raw materials for the production of synthetic polymers. Ways to reduce pollution Burying the synthetic polymers Pyrolysis (process of heating the plastic in the absence of air to break it down) Recycling of synthetic polymers Invention of biodegradable polymers that can be decomposed by bacteria, other micro-organisms or by sunlight (photodegradable)

Glass and Ceramics

Glass made from sand major component is silica, SiO2 Type of Composition Properties Glass Fused Glass SiO2 Highly heatresistant glass High transparency High melting point Resistant to chemical attack Soda-lime SiO2, Na2O, Good chemical Glass CaO durability High thermal expansion coefficient Easy to make into different shapes Low melting point

Uses Laboratory glassware Lenses Telescope Mirrors

Bottles Window-panes Mirrors Electrical bulbs Flat glass Glass containers

Borosilicate Glass

SiO2, Na2O, CaO, B2O3, Al2O3

Lead Crystal SiO2, Na2O, Glass PbO,K2O, Al2O3

Low thermal expansion coefficient Resistant to heat and chemical attack High melting point Soft and easy to melt High density High refractive index

Cooking utensils Laboratory glassware Automobile headlights

Lead crystal glassware Art objects Lens Prisms Candeliers

Examples of glass: Fused glass Soda-lime Glass

Borosilicate Glass Lead Crystal Glass

Ceramics made from clay major component is silicate

Properties Hard and strong

Uses Construction materials

Examples Tiles Cement Bricks Furnaces Nuclear Reactors

Withstand high pressure and heat

Resistant to chemicals, do not corrode and longlasting

Ornamental articles

Plates Bowls Vases Porcelain Toilet wall tiles Floor Ovens Toasters Fuses Spark Plugs

Good electric and heat insulators

Electrical appliances

Have Semiconductors semiconducting properties and can store charges Hard, resistant to Medical field corrosion and chemicals withstand compression

Microchips

Artificial limbs Bones Teeth

Composite Materials
Modern technologies require materials with unusual combinations of properties. The new structural materials must have properties like low density, strong and resistance.

What are Composite Materials? A composite material is a mixture of two or more different substances such as metal, non-metals, alloys, ceramics, glass and polymers. Composite material Reinforced concrete Components Steel bars and concrete (cement, sand and small pebbles) Uses Construction of large structures like Highways High-rise buildings Bridges Oil platforms Airport runways Bullet trains Medical magnetic imaging like Magnetic resonance imaging (mri) Magnetic energystorage Generators Transformers Computers Electric cables Transmit data, voice, images in a digital format

Superconductor Yttrium oxide, barium carbonate, copper (II) oxide

Fibre optic

Silica, sodium carbonate, calcium oxide

Fibre glass

Glass fibre and polyester (a type of plastic)

Photochromic glass

Glass and silver chloride or silver bromide

Make household products like Water storage tanks Badminton rackets Small boats Skis Helmets Optical lenses Car windshields Smart energy efficient windows in buildings Information display panels Lens in cameras Optical switches Light intensity meters

Original components Concrete Yttrium oxide, barium carbonate, copper(II)oxide Silica, sodium carbonate, calcium oxide Glass

Composite materials Reinforce concrete Superconductor

Properties Original components Low tensile strength Nonconductor electric Not transparent Transparent but not sensitive to the intensity of light rays Sensitive to the intensity of the light rays Composite materials Very strong Very good conductor

Fibre optic

Transparent

Photochomic glass

Transparent and sensitive to the strength of light rays

Silver chloride

Advanced Materials and The Future New conducting glass and plastics materials may be developed as conductors because they are cheaper to use and maintain. New composite materials to substitute iron and steel to build car engines and car bodies that are lighter and stronger. Enables various materials to be developed. New materials are needed to improve the quality of human life.