Otomat Và Ngôn NG Hình TH C

tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
- 1 -
MC LC
LI NI U .......................................................................................................... 5
Chng I: M u ................................................................................................... 8
1.1 Tp hp v cc cu trc i s ......................................................................... 8
1.1.1 Tp hp v cc tp con ............................................................................. 8
1.1.2 Tp hp v cc php ton hai ngi .......................................................... 9
1.3 Quan h v quan h tng ng .................................................................. 12
1.4 Hm s .......................................................................................................... 15
1.5 Logic mnh v tn t .............................................................................. 16
1.5.1 Logic mnh ........................................................................................ 16
1.6.2 Cng thc mnh ................................................................................. 18
1.5.3 Dng chun ca cc cng thc ............................................................... 20
1.5.4 Cc qui tc suy din trong tnh ton mnh ........................................ 23
1.6 Tn t (v t) v cc lng t ........................................................................ 25
1.7 Cc phng php chng minh ...................................................................... 28
Bi tp v logic v lp lun ................................................................................. 30
Chng II: L thuyt tmt ............................................................................... 35
2.1 tmt hu hn ............................................................................................. 35
2.1.1 Cc tnh cht ca hm chuyn trng thi ................................................ 38
2.1.2 Cc phng php biu din tmt ........................................................ 39
2.1.3 Ngn ng on nhn c ca tmt ................................................... 40
2.2 tmt hu hn khng n nh .................................................................. 41
2.3 S tng ng ca tmt n nh v khng n nh ........................... 43
2.4 Cc tiu ho tmt hu hn ........................................................................ 47
Bi tp v tmt hu hn ................................................................................... 51
Chng III: Vn phm v ngn ng hnh thc .................................................. 53
3.1 Bng ch ci v cc ngn ng ...................................................................... 53
3.2 Cc dn xut v v ngn ng sinh bi vn phm .......................................... 55
3.3 Phn loi cc ngn ng ca Chomsky ........................................................... 62
3.4 Tnh qui v cc tp qui ......................................................................... 70
3.5 Cc php ton trn cc ngn ng ................................................................... 73
3.6 Ngn ng v tmt ...................................................................................... 76
- 2 -
Bi tp v vn phm v cc ngn ng sinh ......................................................... 77
Chng IV: Tp chnh qui v vn phm chnh qui ........................................... 80
4.1 Cc biu thc chnh qui ................................................................................. 80
4.2 S tng ng ca cc biu thc chnh qui ................................................ 82
4.3 tmt hu hn v biu thc chnh qui......................................................... 83
4.3.1 Cc h bin i v cc biu thc chnh qui ............................................ 85
4.3.2 Loi b cc A- dch chuyn trong cc h thng bin i trng thi ...... 87
4.3.3 Chuyn cc h chuyn trng thi khng n nh v h thng n nh
......................................................................................................................... 88
4.3.4 Phng php i s ng dng nh l Arden ......................................... 90
4.3.5 Thit lp tmt hu hn tng ng vi biu thc chnh qui ............ 93
4.3.6 S tng ng ca hai biu thc chnh qui ......................................... 96
4.4 B Bm i vi cc tp chnh qui ............................................................ 97
4.5 ng dng ca b Bm (iu kin cn ca ngn ng chnh qui) ......... 98
4.6 Cc tnh cht ng ca cc tp chnh qui ...................................................... 99
4.7 Cc tp chnh qui v vn phm chnh qui .................................................... 101
4.7.1 Xy dng vn phm chnh qui tng ng vi T cho trc ........... 101
4.7.2 Xy dng T hu hn tng ng vi vn phm chnh qui G .......... 102
4.8 iu kin cn v ca ngn ng chnh qui............................................... 103
4.8.1 Quan h tng ng bt bin phi ..................................................... 103
4.8.2 iu kin cn v : nh l Myhill - Nerode .................................... 103
Bi tp v biu thc chnh qui ........................................................................... 105
Chng V: Cc ngn ng phi ng cnh ............................................................ 109
5.1 Cc ngn ng phi ng cnh v cc cy dn xut ......................................... 109
5.2 S nhp nhng trong vn phm phi ng cnh ............................................. 114
5.3 Gin lc cc vn phm phi ng cnh ........................................................ 115
5.3.1 Lc gin cc vn phm phi ng cnh ................................................. 115
5.3.2 Loi b cc qui tc rng ....................................................................... 118
5.3.3 Loi b cc qui tc n v ..................................................................... 119
5.4 Cc dng chun ca vn phm phi ng cnh ............................................... 120
5.4.1 Dng chun Chomsky ........................................................................... 120
5.4.2 Dng chun Greibach ........................................................................... 122
5.5 B Bm cho ngn ng phi ng cnh ...................................................... 124
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5.6 Thut ton quyt nh c i vi cc ngn ng phi ng cnh ................ 127
Bi tp v ngn ng phi cnh ............................................................................ 128
Chng VI: tmt y xung .......................................................................... 130
6.1 Cc nh ngha c s.................................................................................... 130
6.2 Cc kt qu on nhn bi PDA .................................................................. 133
6.3 tmt y xung PDA v ngn ng phi ng cnh .................................... 136
6.4 Phn tch c php v tmt y xung ...................................................... 141
6.4.1 Phn tch c php trn / xung ............................................................. 141
6.4.2 Phn tch c php di / ln ................................................................. 144
Bi tp v tmt y xung ............................................................................. 147
Chng VII: Vn phm LR(k) ........................................................................... 149
7.1 Vn phm LR(k) .......................................................................................... 149
7.2 Mt s tnh cht ca vn phm LR(k) ......................................................... 152
7.3 Cc tnh cht ng ca cc ngn ng .......................................................... 153
Bi tp v vn phm LR(K) ............................................................................... 155
Chng VIII: My Turing, tmt gii ni v nhng bi ton P, NP ........... 156
8.1 M hnh my Turing .................................................................................... 156
8.2 Biu din my Turing .................................................................................. 157
8.2.1 Biu din bng cc m t hin thi ...................................................... 157
8.2.2 Biu din bng th chuyn trng thi ............................................... 159
8.2.3 Biu din bng bng chuyn trng thi ................................................ 160
8.3 Thit k my Turing .................................................................................... 161
8.4 Ngn ng on nhn v Hm tnh c .................................................. 164
8.4.1 My Turing nh l mt my tnh hm s nguyn ................................ 164
8.4.2 Cc chng trnh con ............................................................................ 166
8.5 My Turing khng n nh ........................................................................ 167
8.6 Lun Church ............................................................................................ 167
8.7 S tng ng gia vn phm loi 0 v my Turing ................................ 168
8.8 tmt tuyn tnh gii ni v vn phm cm ng cnh .............................. 171
8.8.1 tmt tuyn tnh gii ni .................................................................... 171
8.8.2 Vn phm cm ng cnh (CSG) ........................................................... 172
8.8.3 S tng ng gia LBA v CSG ..................................................... 174
8.9 Bi ton dng ca my Turing .................................................................... 176
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8.9.1 Nhng bi ton khng quyt nh c ............................................... 176
8.9.2 Bi ton v s tng ng ca Post ....................................................... 178
8.10 Lp cc bi ton NP y ................................................................... 179
8.10.1 Cc lp bi ton P v NP .................................................................... 179
8.10.2 NP-y ........................................................................................... 180
Bi tp v cc bi ton quyt nh c v lp bi ton P, NP-y ............ 183
Ph lc: Hng dn v li gii cc bi tp ....................................................... 185
Danh sch cc t vit tt v thut ng .............................................................. 202
Ti liu tham kho ............................................................................................... 206

- 5 -
LI NI U
L thuyt tmt ra i xut pht t nhng nhu cu ca thc tin k thut, ch
yu l t nhng bi ton v cu trc ca cc h thng tnh ton v cc my bin i
thng tin t ng. Ngy nay, l thuyt ny c mt c s ton hc vng chc v
nhng kt qu ca n c nhiu ng dng trong nhiu lnh vc khc nhau.
Song song vi l thuyt tmt, cc ngn ng hnh thc cng c tp trung
nghin cu nhiu t nhng nm 50 ca th k 20, khi cc nh khoa hc my tnh
mun s dng my tnh dch t mt ngn ng ny sang ngn ng khc. Cc
ngn ng hnh thc to thnh mt cng c m t i vi cc m hnh tnh ton c
cho dng thng tin vo / ra, ln kiu cc thao tc.
tmt v vn phm sinh ra cc ngn ng hnh thc thc cht l mt lnh vc lin
ngnh, gp phn rt quan trng trong vic m t cc dy tnh ton v iu khin t
ng, c pht sinh trong nhiu ngnh khoa hc khc nhau t cc h thng tnh
ton, ngn ng hc n sinh hc. Khi nghin cu vi t cch l cc i tng ton
hc, l thuyt ny cng cp n nhng vn c bn ca khoa hc my tnh, v
cc kt qu nghin cu c nhiu ng dng ngay i vi cc ngnh ton hc tru
tng.
Ngy nay, cc l thuyt v ngn ng hnh thc, tmt v l thuyt tnh ton c
hnh thc ho thnh cc m hnh ton hc tng ng cho cc ngn ng lp trnh,
cho cc my tnh, cho cc qu trnh x l thng tin v cc qu trnh tnh ton ni
chung. tmt v ngn ng hnh thc c p dng rng ri trong nhiu lnh vc
khoa hc v ng dng nh: m hnh ho, m phng cc h thng tnh ton, cc k
thut dch, thng dch, tr tu nhn to, cng ngh tri thc, ...
Nhm p ng nhu cu ging dy, hc tp v nghin cu ca cc sinh vin ngnh
Cng ngh thng tin, chng ti bin son gio trnh tmt v ngn ng hnh
thc theo hng kt hp ba l thuyt chnh: l thuyt tmt, ngn ng hnh thc
v l thuyt tnh ton vi nhiu v d minh ho phong ph.
Gio trnh ny gii thiu mt cch h thng nhng khi nim c bn v cc tnh
cht chung ca tmt v ngn ng hnh thc.
Chng m u trnh by cc khi nim c bn, cc tnh cht quan trng ca cc
cu trc i s, logic mnh , logic tn t v cc phng php suy lun ton hc
lm c s cho cc chng sau. Chng II gii thiu v l thuyt tmt, nhng
khi nim c s v cc hot ng ca tmt. Vn phm v cc ngn ng hnh
thc c cp n chng III. Nhng vn lin quan n tp chnh qui,
ngn ng chnh qui v tmt hu hn c trnh by chi tit chng IV.
Chng V, VI nghin cu cc khi nim c s, mi quan h gia cc lp ngn ng
v cc tnh cht rt quan trng ca ngn ng phi ng cnh, tmt y xung. Lp
cc ngn ng phi ng cnh loi LR(k) c nhiu ng dng trong chng trnh dch,
chng trnh phn tch c php c trnh by trong chng VII. M hnh tnh
ton my Turing, mi quan h tng ng tnh ton gia cc lp ngn ng c
cp chng cui. Trong chng ta tm hiu v phc tp tnh ton ca cc
h thng tnh ton, nhng bi ton quyt nh c v nhng bi ton thuc lp
- 6 -
NP-y . Sau mi chng c cc bi tp h thng ho li kin thc v thng qua
mn hc, hc vin nm bt c cc khi nim c bn, nng cao s hiu bit v
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc, ng thi pht trin kh nng ng dng chng trong
nghin cu v trin khai ng dng Cng ngh thng tin. c bit trong s cc bi
tp cui chng c nhng bi c nh du * l nhng bi kh, phn ln l
c trch t cc thi tuyn sinh sau i hc (u vo cao hc) ngnh cng ngh
thng tin trong nhng nm gn y. Hu ht nhng bi tp kh u c li hng
dn hoc gii thiu cch gii phn ph lc ngi c c th tham kho v t
nh gi c kh nng nm bt, gii quyt vn ca mnh.
y cng l ti liu tham kho, hc tp cho sinh vin, hc vin cao hc v nghin
cu sinh cc ngnh Ton Tin hc, Tin hc ng dng v nhng ai quan tm n
tmt, ngn ng hnh thc v cc m hnh tnh ton ni chung.
Mc d c nhiu c gng, nhng ti liu ny chc vn khng trnh khi nhng
thiu st. Chng ti rt mong nhn c cc kin, gp ca cc ng nghip v
bn c hon thin hn cun gio trnh tmt v ngn ng hnh thc. Th gp
xin gi v theo a ch ca tc gi: B mn Khoa hc my tnh, Khoa Cng ngh
thng tin, i hc Thi Nguyn.
Cc tc gi xin chn thnh cm n cc bn ng nghip trong Vin Cng ngh
thng tin, Vin KH & CN Vit Nam, B mn Khoa hc my tnh, Khoa CNTT,
i hc Thi Nguyn.
H Ni 2007
Ch bin

on Vn Ban

- 7 -

- 8 -
CHNG I
M u

Chng m u gii thiu khi qut v tm lc li cc khi nim c bn, cc tnh
cht v cc k hiu c s dng trong tt c cc chng sau:
Tp hp v cc cu trc i s,
Cc quan h trn tp hp v quan h tng ng,
Xu k t v cc tnh cht ca chng,
Logic mnh , tn t v cc php ton logic, tn t,
Cc qui tc suy lun v phng php chng minh ton hc.
1.1 Tp hp v cc cu trc i s
1.1.1 Tp hp v cc tp con
Tp hp l s kt tp nhng i tng c cng mt s thuc tnh ging nhau, v d
tp tt c cc sinh vin ca Khoa CNTT. Mi i tng thnh vin c gi l
phn t ca tp hp.
Cc ch in hoa A, B, C, c s dng k hiu cho cc tp hp; cc ch thng a, b, c,
c s dng k hiu cho cc phn t ca mt tp hp xc nh. Phn t a thuc tp A, k
hiu l a e A, ngc li, khi a khng phi l phn t ca A, k hiu l a eA.
Tp hp c th c m t theo cc cch sau:
(i) m c cc phn t. Ta c th vit cc phn t ca tp hp theo th t
bt k trong cp du ngoc {, }, v d tp cc s t nhin chia ht cho 7 v
nh hn 50 c th vit l {7, 14, 21, 28, 35, 42, 49}.
(ii) M t tp hp theo tnh cht ca cc phn t. V d tp cc s t nhin
chia ht cho 7 v nh hn 50 c th vit:
{n | n l s nguyn dng chia ht cho 7 v nh hn 50}.
(iii) nh ngha qui. Cc phn t ca tp hp c th nh ngha thng qua
cc qui tc tnh ton t cc phn t bit trc. V d tp cc s giai tha
ca n c th nh ngha:
{f
n
| f
0
= 1; f
n
= (n-1) * f
n-1
, n = 1, 2, }.

- 9 -
Tp con v cc php ton trn tp hp
Tp A c gi l tp con ca B (vit A _ B) nu mi phn t ca A u l phn t
ca B.
Hai tp A v B l bng nhau (vit A = B) nu chng c cng tp cc phn t.
Thng thng, chng minh A = B, chng ta cn chng minh A _ B v B _ A.
Mt tp c bit khng cha phn t no c gi l tp trng (rng), k hiu l C.
Trn cc tp hp xc nh mt s php ton: php hp , php giao , php tr -
v tch Cc c nh ngha nh sau:
A B = {x | x e A hoc x e B}, gi l hp ca hai tp hp,
A B = { x | x e A v x e B}, gi l giao ca hai tp hp,
A - B = { x | x e A v x e B}, gi l hiu ca hai tp hp.
C = U - A, vi U tp v tr tt c cc phn t ang xt, c gi l phn b
ca A.
Tp tt c cc tp con ca A c k hiu l 2
A
= {B | B _ A}, hoc (A).
A B = {(a, b) | a eA v b eB}, gi l tch Cc ca A v B hay cn c
gi l tch t nhin ca hai tp hp.
nh ngha 1.1 Gi s S l mt tp hp bt k. Mt h cc tp con {A
1
, A
2
,
A
n
} ca S c gi l mt phn hoch ca S nu:
(i) A
i
A
j
= C, i = j , cc tp con khc nhau l ri nhau,
(ii) S = A
1
A
2
A
n
, hp ca cc tp con chnh bng S
V d 1.1 S = {1, 2, 3, 10} c th phn hoch thnh hai tp A
1
= {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}-
tp cc s l v tp cc s chn A
2
= {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}.
1.1.2 Tp hp v cc php ton hai ngi
Trc tin chng ta xt cu trc bao gm mt tp hp v mt php ton hai ngi.
Trn tp hp S (sau ny l cc bng ch) c th xc nh mt php ton hai ngi,
nh nguyn thc hin gn mt cp phn t bt k a, b ca S vo mt phn t duy
nht k hiu l a * b. Php ton ny cn c gi l php * (php ton sao) trn tp
hp tha mn cc tin sau.
Tin 1 Tnh ng ca *. Nu a, b e S th a * b e S.
Tin 2 Tnh kt hp. Nu a, b, c e S th (a * b) * c = a * (b * c).
Tin 3 Phn t n v. Tn ti duy nht mt phn t c gi l n v e e S
sao cho vi mi x e S, x * e = e * x = x.
Tin 4 Phn t ngc. Vi mi phn t x e S, tn ti duy nht mt phn t k
hiu x' sao cho x * x' = x' * x = e. Phn t ny c gi l phn t ngc ca x.
Tin 5 Tnh giao hon. Nu a, b e S th a * b = a * b.
- 10 -
Lu : C nhng php ton xc nh trn tp hp khng tha mn bt k tin no nu
trn. V d, N = {1, 2, 3, }- tp cc s t nhin v php tr ( a * b = a b). D dng
kim tra c tt c cc tin trn u khng tha mn.
Vn m chng ta quan tm l nhng tp tha mt s hoc tt c cc tin nu trn.
nh ngha 1.2
(i) Tp S v php ton hai ngi * c gi l cu trc na nhm
(semigroup), gi tt l na nhm nu tha mn tin 1 v 2.
(ii) Tp S v php ton hai ngi * c gi l monoid nu tha mn cc
tin 1, 2 v 3.
(iii) Tp S v php ton hai ngi * c gi l cu trc nhm (group) nu
tha mn tin 1, 2, 3 v 4.
(iv) Na nhm (monoid hoc nhm) c gi l na nhm (monoid hoc
nhm tng ng) giao hon hoc Abelian nu chng tha mn thm tin
5.
Mi quan h gia cc nhm, monoid v nhm, k hiu l G = (S, *), c th hin
thng qua cc tin tha mn nh trn hnh H1-1.
V d 1.2
(i) Tp cc s nguyn Z vi php + to thnh cu trc nhm Abelian.
(ii) Z vi php * (nhn) to thnh cu trc monoid Abelian (n khng phi l
nhm v tin 4 khng tha mn).
(iii) 2
A
tp tt c cc tp con ca A (A = C) to thnh monoid giao hon.
(phn t n v l tp C).
(iv) Tp tt c cc ma trn 2 2 vi php nhn l monoid nhng khng giao hon.

Hnh H1-1 Tp hp v mt php ton hai ngi
Na nhm (Semigroup)
Na nhm Abelian Monoid
Nhm (group) Monoid Abelian
Nhm Abelian
Tp hp (Set) Khng c php ton
Tin 1, 2
3
ton
4
ton
5
ton
3
ton
4
ton
5
5
to
n
- 11 -
Cc s trn cc cnh ca th trn l cc tin c tha mn, v d na nhm
m tha mn tin 3 s to thnh monoid, cn nu tha mn tin 5 s thnh
na nhm Abelian (nhm giao hon).
Trong ton hc cng nh trong khoa hc my tnh, nhiu khi chng ta phi gii
quyt nhng vn lin quan n nhng cu trc gm mt tp hp v hai php
ton nh nguyn (hai ngi). Gi s tp S v hai php ton *, c th tha mn 11
tin sau.
Tin 1 - 5 Php * tha mn 5 tin nu trn.
Tin 6 Tnh ng ca php . Nu a, b e S th a b e S.
Tin 7 Tnh kt hp ca . Nu a, b, c e S th (a b) c = a (b c).
Tin 8 Phn t n v. Tn ti duy nht mt phn t c gi l n v e e S
sao cho vi mi x e S, x e = e x = x.
Tin 9 Nu S v * tha mn cc tin 1-5 th vi mi x thuc S, x = e, tn
ti mt phn t duy nht x' trong S sao cho x' x = x x' = e', trong e' l n v
ca .
Tin 10 Tnh giao hon. Nu a, b e S th a b = b a.
Tin 11 Tnh phn phi. Vi mi a, b, c e S, a (b * c) = (a b)*( a c).
Tp hp xc nh vi mt hoc hai php ton hai ngi trn c gi l h i s.
Nh trn cp, h i s c mt php ton to thnh nhm, na nhm v
monoid. Sau y chng ta xt nhng cu trc i s c hai php ton.
nh ngha 1.3
(i) Mt tp hp v hai php ton *, to thnh cu trc vnh (gi tt l vnh), nu
a/ L nhm giao hon vi php *,
b/ Php tha mn tin 6, 7, v 11.
(ii) Vnh c gi l vnh giao hon nu tha mn tin giao hon (10)
i vi php .
(iii) Vnh giao hon c n v nu l vnh giao hon v tha mn tin
n v (tin 8) i vi .
(iv) Tp hp vi hai php ton tha mn c 11 tin c gi l trng.
V d 1.3
Tp cc s nguyn N vi php cng v php nhn (tng ng vi * v ) to
thnh vnh giao hon c n v (0 l n v ca php cng, 1 - n v ca
php nhn).
Tp tt c cc s hu t (cc phn s dng p/q, p, q l cc s nguyn, q = 0)
vi 2 php cng, nhn to thnh trng.
- 12 -
Tp 2
A
, A = C vi hai php , s tha mn cc tin 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8,
9, 10 v 11 nhng khng phi l nhm, khng phi l vnh v cng chng
phi l trng. N l monoid Abelian i vi c 2 php ton.
Quan h gia cc h i s c m t th nh trong hnh H1-2.

Hnh H1-2 Cc cu trc i s
1.3 Quan h v quan h tng ng
Quan h l khi nim c s quan trng trong khoa hc my tnh cng nh trong
cuc sng. Khi nim quan h xut hin khi xem xt gia cc cp i tng v so
snh mt i tng ny vi i tng khc, v d, quan h anh em gia hai
ngi. Chng ta c th biu din mi quan h gia a v b bi cp c sp xp
(a, b) th hin a l anh ca b, chng hn. Trong khoa hc my tnh, khi nim quan
h xut hin khi cn nghin cu cc cu trc ca d liu.
nh ngha 1.4 Quan h R trn tp S l tp con cc cp phn t ca S, R _ S S.
Khi x v y c quan h R vi nhau ta c th vit x R y hoc (x, y) e R.
V d 1. 4 Trn tp Z nh ngha quan h R: x R y nu x = y + 5.
nh ngha 1.5 Quan h trn tp S c cc tnh cht sau:
(i) Phn x. Nu xRx vi mi x e S.
(ii) i xng. Vi mi x, y e S, nu xRy th yRx
(iii) Bc cu. Vi mi x, y, z e S, nu xRy v yRz th xRz.
nh ngha 1.5 Quan h trn tp S c gi l quan h tng ng nu n c
tnh phn x, i xng v bc cu.

10
8
to
n
Vnh (ring)
Vnh giao hon Vnh c n v
Vnh giao hon c n v
Trng
Nhm Abelian
Tin 1-5
Tin 6, 7, 11
10
to
n
1-11
8
to
n
10
to
n
- 13 -
V d 1.5
a/ Trn tp S, nh ngha xRy x = y. D kim tra c ba tnh cht trn quan
h = u tha mn, vy = l quan h tng ng.
b/ Trong tp cc sinh vin ca Khoa CNTT ta c th thit lp quan h R: sinh
vin a quan h R vi sinh vin b nu c hai u hc cng mt lp. Hin nhin quan
h ny cng l quan h tng ng.
c/ Trn tp S, nh ngha xRy x > y. D kim tra tnh i xng khng
c tha mn, do quan h > khng phi l quan h tng ng.
nh ngha 1.6 Gi s R l quan h tng ng trn tp S v a e S. Lp cc
phn t tng ng vi a, k hiu l C
a
= {b | b e S v a R b}. Lp C
a
c th k
hiu l [a]
R
.
nh l 1.1 Tp tt c cc lp tng ng ca quan h R trn tp S to thnh mt
phn hoch ca S.
Chng minh: Chng ta cn chng minh rng
(i) S =
S a
a C
e

(ii) C
a
C
b
= C nu C
a
v C
b
khc nhau, C
a
= C
b
.
Gi s s e S v R l quan h tng ng nn s e C
s
(sRs - tnh phn x). V C
s
_
S a
a C
e

nn S _
S a
a C
e
. Mt khc, theo nh ngha ca C
a
, ta lun c C
a
_ S vi mi a ca S.
Vy
S a
a C
e
_ S. T suy ra (i).
Trc khi chng minh (ii), chng ta ch rng
C
a
= C
b
nu aRb (1.1)
Bi v aRb th bRa do R i xng. Gi s d e C
a
, theo nh ngha ca C
a
, aRd. Hn
na bRa v aRd, nn cn c vo tnh cht bc cu ca quan h tng ng, ta c
bRd. Suy ra deC
b
. T chng ta c C
a
_ C
b
. Tng t chng ta c th chng
minh ngc li C
a
_ C
b
. Kt hp c hai chng ta c (1.1).
Chng ta chng minh (ii) bng phn chng. Gi s C
a
C
b
= C, ngha l tn ti
phn t d e C
a
C
b
. Khi d e C
a
th aRd. Tng t d e C
b
th bRd. V R i xng
nn dRb. Kt hp aRd, dRb suy ra aRb. S dng (1.1) ta c C
a
= C
b
, vy mu thun
vi gi thit.
Kt lun: Cc lp tng ng l trng nhau hoc ri nhau.
V d 1.6
a/ Trn tp s t nhin N, nRm khi m v n u chia ht cho 2 s c hai lp
tng ng l tp cc s chn v tp cc s l.
b/ Cc lp tng ng ca quan h tng ng trong v d 1.5 (b/) chnh
l cc lp hc c xp trong mt Khoa.
- 14 -
Vn tip theo c quan tm nhiu khi nghin cu cc hnh vi ca mt h thng
tnh ton, c bit cc mi quan h gia cc ph thuc hm l bao ng ca mt
quan h.
Cho trc quan h R khng c tnh phn x, khng bc cu; phi b sung bao
nhiu cp quan h vi nhau R c cc tnh cht . V d R = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (1, 1),
(3, 3)} trn tp {1, 2, 3}. R khng phn x v (2, 2) e R. R khng c tnh bc cu v
(1, 2), (2, 3) e R, nhng (1, 3) e R. Trong s cc quan h m rng R v c tnh
phn x, bc cu, v d T = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (1, 3), (1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)}, chng ta
quan tm nht ti quan h nh nht cha R m c cc tnh cht .
nh ngha 1.7 Gi s R l mt quan h trn tp S. Bao ng bc cu ca R, k
hiu R
+
l quan h nh nht cha R v c tnh bc cu.
nh ngha 1.8 Gi s R l mt quan h trn tp S. Bao ng phn x, bc cu
ca R, k hiu R* l quan h nh nht cha R, c tnh phn x v bc cu.
xy dng R
+
v R*, chng ta nh ngha quan h hp thnh (ghp) ca hai quan
h R
1
, R
2
.
nh ngha 1.9 Gi s R
1
, R
2
l hai quan h trn tp S. Hp thnh ca R
1
, R
2
, k hiu
R
1
R
2
c nh ngha nh sau.
(i) R
1
R
2
= {(a, c) | - b eS, aR
1
b v bR
2
c}
(ii) R
1
2
= R
1
R
1

(iii) R
1
n
= R
1
n-1
R
1
, vi n > 2.
Da vo cc tnh cht ca tp hp v quan h, chng ta c nh l khng nh s
tn ti ca bao ng bc cu ca mi quan h.
nh l 1.2 Gi s S l tp hu hn, R l quan h trn S. Bao ng bc cu R
+
ca R lun
tn ti v R
+
= R
1
R
2
R
3
... Bao ng phn x, bc cu ca R l R
*
= R
0
R
+
. Trong
R
0
= {(a, a) | a e S} l quan h ng nht.
V d 1.7 R = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4)} l quan h trn {1, 2, 3, 4}. Tm R
+
Chng ta tnh R
i
. Lu , nu c (a, b) v (b, c) e R th (a, c) e R
2
.
R = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4)}
R
2
= R R = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4)} {(1, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4)}
= {(1, 3), (1, 4)}
R
3
= R
2
R = {(1, 3), (1, 4)} {(1, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4)}
= C (khng c cp no trong R
2
c th ghp vi cc cp trong R).
R
4
= R
5
= . . . = C.
Vy, R
+
= R R
2
= {(1, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (1, 4), (1, 3)}.
V d 1.8 R = {(a, b), (b, c), (c, a)} l quan h trn {a, b, c}. Tm R
*
.
Trc tin tm R
+
.
- 15 -
R
2
= {(a, b), (b, c), (c, a)} {(a, b), (b, c), (c, a)}
= {(a, c), (b, a), (c, b)}
R
3
= {(a, c), (b, a), (c, b)} {(a, b), (b, c), (c, a)}
= {(a, a), (b, b), (c, c)}
R
4
= {(a, a), (b, b), (c, c)} {(a, b), (b, c), (c, a)}
= {(a, b), (b, c), (c, a)} = R.
Do vy, R
*
= R
0
R
+
= R
0
R R
2
R
3

= {(a, b), (b, c), (c, a), (a, c), (b, a), (c, b), (a, a), (b, b), (c, c)}
1.4 Hm s
Khi nim hm s xut hin khi chng ta mun xt mi quan h tng ng duy
nht ca i tng vi mt i tng cho trc.
nh ngha 1.10 Hm hoc nh x f() t tp X vo tp Y l qui tc gn tng
ng mi phn t x trong X bng mt phn t duy nht trong Y, k hiu l f(x). Phn
t f(x) c gi l nh ca x thng qua f(). Hm f() c k hiu f: X Y.
Cc hm c th nh ngha bi:
(i) Tp cc nh ca cc phn t,
(ii) Qui tc tnh tng ng f(x) v x.
Cho trc f: X Y v A _ X. K hiu f(A) = {f(a) | a eA} _ Y.
V d 1.9
a/ f: {1, 2, 3, 4}{a, b, c} c th nh ngha f(1)= a, f(2) = b, f( 3) = f(4)= c.
b/ f: Z Z c xc nh bi cng thc f(x) = x
2
+ x.
nh ngha 1.11 Cho trc hm f: X Y.
(i) f c gi l n nh (one-to-one) nu x = y th f(x) = f(y).
(ii) f c gi l ton nh (onto) nu mi phn t y ca Y u l nh ca
mt phn t no ca X, ngha l f(X) = Y.
(iii) f c gi l song nh nu f va l n nh v l ton nh.
V d 1.10 f: Z Z c cho bi f(n) = 2*n l n nh nhng khng phi hm
ton nh v cc s nguyn l khng l nh ca s no c. f(X) l tp con thc s ca
Y.
nh l sau gip chng ta phn bit c s khc nhau c bn gia tp hu hn v
tp v hn.
nh l 1.3 (Nguyn l chung b cu) Gi s S l tp hu hn. Hm f: S S l
n nh khi v ch khi l hm ton nh.
- 16 -
Trong v d 1.10, min xc nh ca hm khng phi l hu hn, nn tn ti hm
f() l n nh nhng khng phi l hm ton nh.
1.5 Logic mnh v tn t
1.5.1 Logic mnh
Mt mnh (logic, hay ton hc) l mt pht biu (mt cu) hoc ng hoc sai,
nhng khng th l c hai. Khi n ng ta ni rng cng thc c gi tr chn l l
ng (T true hoc 1), ngc li l sai (F False hoc 0).
V d 1.11 Hy xt cc cu sau:
1. H ni l th ca nc Vit Nam.
2. Bnh phng ca hai l tm.
3. Logic ton l kh
4. Hy trt t!
Hai cu u l mnh v cu mt c gi tr T (hoc gi tr 1), cn cu th hai c
gi tr l F (hoc gi tr 0). Cu th ba khng phi l mnh logic v logic ton
c th l kh i vi mt s ngi, nhng li c th l khng kh i vi mt s
ngi khc. Cu cui l mt mnh lnh, khng th gn gi tr chn l cho n c.
Mnh n (mnh nguyn t) l mt mnh khng th tch nh hn c,
ngha l khi b i bt k mt t no trong cu th n s khng cn l mnh .
Mnh phc hp (gi tt l mnh ) l mt mnh c to lp t cc mnh
n v cc lin t: v (AND), hoc (OR), ph nh (NOT), suy ra, hay ko theo
(IF THEN ), v php tng ng. Cc lin t trong cc mnh logic cn
c gi l cc php ton mnh hay php ton logic. Ta k hiu M l tp tt
c cc mnh .
(i) Php ph nh (NOT)
Nu P e M th khng P (ph nh ca P), k hiu l ( P (hoc P ), l mt mnh
nhn gi tr T nu P c gi tr F v gi tr F nu P c gi tr T.
Bng 1.1 gi tr ca php ph nh

P ( P
T F
F T
(ii) Php tuyn, php hoc (OR)
Nu P, Q e M th tuyn ca P v Q (P hoc Q), k hiu l P v Q, l mt mnh
nhn gi tr F khi v ch khi c P v Q l F.

- 17 -
Bng 1.2 gi tr ca php tuyn

P Q P v Q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
(iii) Php hi, php v (AND)
Nu P, Q e M th hi ca P v Q (P v Q), k hiu l P . Q, l mt mnh
nhn gi tr T khi v ch khi c P v Q l ng (T).
Bng 1.3 gi tr ca php hi

P Q P . Q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
(iv) Php ko theo (IF THEN )
Nu P, Q e M, mnh P ko theo Q (Nu P th Q), k hiu l P Q, l mt
mnh nhn gi tr F khi v ch khi P l T v Q l F.
Bng 1.4 gi tr ca php ko theo

P Q P Q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
(v) Php tng ng (tng ng)
Ngoi nhng php ton trn, ngi ta thng s dng php tng ng mnh
(php khi v ch khi) c nh ngha nh sau:
P Q tng ng vi (P Q) . (Q P) c cc gi tr c nh ngha
nh sau:

- 18 -

Bng 1.5 gi tr ca php tng ng

P Q P Q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T
1.6.2 Cng thc mnh
nh ngha 1.12 Bin mnh l mt k hiu biu din cho mt mnh .
Mt bin mnh khng phi l mt mnh nhng c th thay th bng mt
mnh bt k.
Ta thng s dng cc ch vit hoa nh: P, Q, R, S cho cc bin mnh .
nh ngha 1.13 Mt cng thc mnh (gi tt l cng thc) c nh ngha
qui nh sau:
(i) Nu P l mt bin mnh th P l mt cng thc.
(ii) Nu o l cng thc th ( o cng l cng thc.
(iii) Nu o v | l cng thc th (o v |), (o . |), (o |), (o |) cng l
cng thc.
(iv) Dy cc bin mnh l cng thc khi v ch khi n c thit lp theo
cc qui tc (i) - (iii).
Lu :
1. Mt cng thc cng nh bin mnh , n khng phi l mnh , nhng
nu th cc mnh vo ch cc bin mnh tng ng trong cng thc
th n s tr thnh mt mnh . Do vy, gi tr ca mt cng thc c th
c tnh bng bng gi tr chn l khi thay cc gi tr ca cc mnh vo
ch cc bin mnh tng ng. Hin nhin l nu cng thc o c n bin
th bng gi tr ca o s c 2
n
b gi tr.
2. Trong cc ngn ng lp trnh, cng thc mnh thng c gi l biu
thc logic. Gi tr ca biu thc logic l gi tr kiu Boolean (c gi tr T
hoc F) v c xc nh tng t nh i vi cng thc nh trn.
V d 1.12 Tnh gi tr ca cng thc o = (P v Q) . (P Q ) . ( Q P)
- 19 -
Bng 1.6 gi tr ca cng thc o
P Q P v Q P Q (P v Q) . P Q Q P o
T T T T T T T
T F T F F T F
F T T T T F F
F F F T F T F

Ngoi phng php lp bng tnh gi tr nh trn, ta cng c th suy lun l o
ch ng khi c ba cng thc P v Q, P Q, Q P, ngha l khi c P v Q ng.
nh ngha 1.14 Mt cng thc l hng ng (mt tautology) l cng thc lun c
gi tr T (ng) vi mi trng hp gn gi tr cho cc bin mnh .
V d: P v ( P, (P . Q) P l hai mnh hng ng.
nh ngha 1.15 Hai cng thc o, | c xy dng t cc bin mnh P
1
, P
2
, P
n

c gi l tng ng (logic), k hiu l o |, nu cng thc o | l hng ng.
Sau y l cc tnh cht c bn (cc lut c s) ca cc cng thc tng ng
c s dng nhiu trong suy lun, chng minh cc h hnh thc logic ton hc.
Bng 1.7 Cc lut ng nht logic
I
1
Lut lu ng
P v P P, P . P P
I
2
Lut giao hon
P v Q Q v P, P . Q Q . P
I
3
Lut kt hp
P v (Q v R) (P v Q) v R, P . (Q . R) (P . Q) . R
I
4
Lut phn phi
P v (Q . R) (P v Q) . (P v R), P . (Q v R) (P . Q) v (P . R)
I
5
Lut hp th
P v (P . Q) P, P . (P v Q) P
I
6
Lut De Morgan
( (P v Q) ( Q . ( P, ( (P . Q) ( Q v ( P
I
7
Lut ph nh kp
( (( P) P
I
8
P v ( P T, P . ( P F
I
9
P v T T, P v F P, P . T P, P . F F,
- 20 -
I
10
(P Q) . (P ( Q) ( P
I
11
Lut nghch o
(P Q) ( Q ( P
I
12
(P Q) (( P v Q)
I
13
(P Q) (P Q) . (Q P)
Trong , P, Q, R l cc cng thc.

1.5.3 Dng chun ca cc cng thc
nh ngha 1.16 Mt tuyn s cp l mt cng thc ch gm tuyn ca cc hng
thc s cp v mt hi s cp l mt cng thc ch gm hi ca cc hng thc s
cp. Trong hng thc s cp l bin mnh hoc ph nh ca bin mnh .
V d: P v ( Q l tuyn s cp v ( P . Q hi s cp.
nh ngha 1.17 Mt cng thc dng chun tuyn nu n l tuyn ca cc hi
s cp.
V d: (( P . Q) v R l dng chun tuyn.
nh ngha 1.18 Mt cng thc dng chun hi nu n l hi ca cc tuyn s
cp.
V d: (( P v Q) . R l dng chun hi.
nh l 1.4 Mi cng thc u tn ti dng chun tuyn (hoc hi) tng ng.
nh l ny d dng c chng minh thng qua thut ton sau.
Thut ton 1.1 Chuyn mt cng thc v dng chun tuyn (tng t i vi dng
chun hi).
(i) Loi b cc php , (s dng cc lut ng nht nh trong bng 1.6)
(ii) S dng lut De Morgan loi b php ph nh ( ng trc cc hi
hoc tuyn ca cc cng thc. Trong kt qu, php ph nh ( ch c th xut
hin trc cc bin mnh .
(iii) p dng lut phn phi (I
6
) loi b hi ca cc tuyn (hoc hi). Cng
thc cui cng s l tuyn ca cc hi s cp.
V d 1.13 Tm dng chun tuyn ca cng thc o = (P . ( (Q . R)) v (P Q)
Gii:
(P . ( (Q . R)) v (P Q)
(P . ( (Q . R)) v (( P v Q) (bc (i) p dng I
12
)
(P . (( Q v ( R)) v (( P v Q) (bc (ii) p dng I
7
)
(P . ( Q) v (P . ( R) v ( P v Q (bc (iii) p dng I
4
,

I
3
)
- 21 -
Vy, dng chun tuyn ca o l (P . ( Q) v (P . ( R) v ( P v Q.
Lu : Mt cng thc c th c nhiu dng chun tuyn khc nhau. V d P . Q
bn thn l dng chun tuyn (P . Q) v n cn c dng chun tuyn khc l
(P . Q . R) v (P . Q . ( R)
Mt cu hi t ra l mt cng thc c th chuyn v mt loi dng chun no m
l duy nht hay khng?. Cu tr li l c loi dng chun tuyn c gi l chun
tuyn (hi) chnh tc hay chun tuyn (hi tng ng) y biu din duy
nht cho mi cng thc.
nh ngha 1.19 Mt hi s cp cc tiu trn tp cc bin mnh P
1
, P
2
, P
n
l
mt cng thc dng Q
1
. Q
2
. . Q
n
, trong Q
i
l P
i
hoc l ( P
i
. Mt cng thc
dng chun tuyn chnh tc (chun tuyn y ) nu n l tuyn ca cc hi s
cp cc tiu.
nh l 1.5 Mi cng thc u chuyn tng ng c v dng chun tc tuyn.
nh l c chng minh thng qua thut ton sau.
Thut ton 1.2 Chuyn mt cng thc v dng chun tuyn chnh tc.
(i) p dng thut ton 1.1 a cng thc v dng chun tuyn.
(ii) Loi b i nhng hi s cp l hng ng (nh P . ( P)
(iii) Nu P
i
hoc ( P
i
khng c mt trong mt hi s cp o th thay o bng
(o . P
i
) v (o . (P
i
)
(iv) Lp li bc (iii) cho n khi tt c cc hi s cp u l cc tiu.
V d 1.14 Tm dng chun tuyn chnh tc ca cng thc o = (( P v ( Q) ((P . R)
Gii:
(( P v ( Q) ((P . R)
( (( P v ( Q) v (( P . R)
((P . Q . R) v (P . Q . ( R)) v ((( P . R . Q) v (( P . R . ( Q))
(P . Q . R) v (P . Q . ( R) v (( P . Q . R) v (( P . ( Q . R).
Vy dng chun tuyn chnh tc ca o l
(P . Q . R) v (P . Q . ( R) v (( P . Q . R) v (( P . ( Q . R).
Ta khng nh, mi cng thc u tng ng vi mt dng chun tuyn chnh
tc duy nht.
Mi hi s cp cc tiu Q
1
. Q
2
. . Q
n
c th biu din thnh dy a
1
a
2
a
n
,
trong a
i
= 0 nu Q
i
= ( P
i
, v a
i
= 1 nu Q
i
= P
i
. Do vy, dng chun tuyn chnh tc
ca mt cng thc c th vit thnh tng ca cc xu ca {0, 1}. V d, dng chun tuyn
chnh tc ca cng thc o v d trn c vit thnh 111 + 110 + 011 + 001.
- 22 -
T dng biu din nh phn nu trn ta thy dng chun tuyn chnh tc v bng
gi tr chn l ca mi cng thc c mi quan h cht ch vi nhau. Cch xc nh
dng chun tuyn chnh tc ca cng thc da vo bng gi tr c thc hin n
gin nh sau:
Trong bng gi tr ca cng thc o, nhng hng m o c gi tr ng (T) s xc
nh tng ng cc hi s cp cc tiu tng ng theo dng biu din nh nguyn
nu trn. Trong , T ng vi 1 v F ng vi 0 (sai). Chun tuyn chnh tc ca
cng thc chnh l tuyn ca nhng hi s cp cc tiu ng vi nhng hng .
V d 1.15 Tm dng chun tuyn chnh tc ca cng thc o c cho nh bng
gi tr sau:
Bng 1.8 Cc gi tr ca cng thc o
P Q R o
T T T T
T T F F
T F T F
T F F T
F T T T
F T F F
F F T F
F F F T
Gii:
Cng thc o nhn gi tr ng trong cc hng th 1, 4, 5 v 8. Cc hi s cp cc tiu tng
ng vi nhng hng l (P . Q . R), (P . ( Q . ( R), (( P . Q . R) v (( P . ( Q . ( R). Vy
dng chun tuyn chnh tc ca o s l
(P . Q . R) v (P . ( Q . ( R) v (( P . Q . R) v (( P . ( Q . ( R)
Mt khc, ta d nhn thy i ngu ca dng chun tuyn s l dng chun hi.
Tng t nh trn, ta c cc nh ngha ca cc dng i ngu nh sau:
nh ngha 1.20 Tuyn s cp cc i ca cc bin mnh P
1
, P
2
, P
n
l mt cng
thc dng Q
1
v Q
2
v v Q
n
, trong Q
i
l P
i
hoc l ( P
i
. Mt cng thc dng chun
hi chnh tc hay (chun hi u ) nu n l hi ca cc tuyn s cp cc i.
Lu : D dng suy ra nu o l dng chun tuyn chnh tc th ( o s l dng chun
hi chnh tc.
Tng t nh i vi dng chun tuyn chnh tc, ta cng khng nh c l mi cng
thc u chuyn tng ng c v dng chun hi chnh tc v l dng chun
duy nht.
V d 1.16 Tm dng chun hi chnh tc ca cng thc o = P v (Q R)
- 23 -
Gii:
Trc tin tm ( o = ( (P v (Q R))
( (P v (( Q v R))
( P . ( (( Q v R)
( P . (Q . (R) ( P . Q . ( R
Vy, dng chun hi chnh tc ca o s l ( ( ( P . Q . ( R) P v ( Q v R.
Mt khc, ta cng c th da vo mi lin quan gia bng gi tr chn l ca cng
thc vi dng chun hi chnh tc ca cng thc thit lp cc tuyn s cp
cc i.
Trong bng gi tr ca cng thc o, nhng hng m o c gi tr sai (F) s xc
nh tng ng cc tuyn s cp cc i tng ng theo dng biu din nh phn.
Trong , T ng vi 0 v F ng vi 1. Hi chnh tc ca cng thc chnh l hi ca
nhng tuyn s cp cc i tng ng vi nhng hng .
V d 1.17 Tm dng chun hi chnh tc ca cng thc o c cho trong bng gi tr sau:
Bng 1.9 Cc gi tr ca cng thc o
P Q R o
T T T T
T T F F
T F T F
T F F T
F T T T
F T F F
F F T F
F F F T

Gii:
Cng thc o nhn gi tr sai trong cc hng th 2, 3, 6 v 7. Cc tuyn s cp cc i tng
ng vi nhng hng l (( P v ( Q v R), (( P v Q v ( R), (P v ( Q v R) v ( P v Q v ( R).
Vy dng chun hi chnh tc ca o s l
(( P v ( Q v R) . (( P v Q v ( R) . (P v ( Q v R) . ( P v Q v ( R)
1.5.4 Cc qui tc suy din trong tnh ton mnh
Trong lp lun logic, ta thng da vo mt s mnh c cng nhn (cc gi
thuyt, tin ) l ng suy dn ra nhng mnh ng khc. Nhng mnh
suy ra c gi l h qu, cc tnh cht hay nh l.
Cc qui tc suy din chnh l cc cng thc hng ng (tautology) dng ko
theo: P Q, trong P l gi thit v Q l kt lun.
ph hp hn vi cc qui tc chng minh trong cc chng trnh, chng ta c
th vit cc cng thc dng mnh Horn: P
1
. P
2
. . P
n
Q di dng:
- 24 -
P
1

P
2

P
n
Q
Di y l bng cc qui tc suy din c bn trong lp lun logic ton hc, c s
dng trong lp trnh logic, trong suy din v chng minh ton hc, ...
Bng 1.10 Cc qui tc suy din
Cc qui tc Cng thc dng ko theo
RI
1
: Gia tng
P P (P v Q)
P v Q
RI
2
: n gin ho
P . Q (P . Q) P
P
RI
3
: Modus ponens
P
P Q (P . (P Q)) Q
Q
RI
4
: Modus tollens
( Q
P Q (( Q . (P Q)) ( P
( P
RI
5
: Tam on lun
( P
P v Q (( P . (P v Q)) Q
Q
RI
6
: Suy lun bc cu
P Q
Q R (( P Q) . (Q R))) (P R)
P R
RI
7
: nh kin thit
(P Q) .(R S)
P v R ((P Q) . (R S) . (P v R)) (Q v S)
Q v S
RI
8
: nh i thit
- 25 -
(P Q) .(R S)
( Q v ( S ((PQ).(RS).(( Qv( S)) (( P v( R)
( P v ( R

V d 1.18 Hy chng minh rng
P Q
Q ( R
P v S
R

S
Gii:
Theo RI
7
ta c
P Q
Q ( R

P ( R
Mt khc, R ( (( R), kt hp vi kt lun trn v p dng lut RI
4
(Modus tollens)
ta c
( (( R)
P ( R

( P
S dng kt lun ny cng vi gi thit P v S v p dng RI
5
suy ra iu phi
chng minh.
( P
P v S

S
1.6 Tn t (v t) v cc lng t
Trong suy lun, chng minh ton hc v trong qu trnh tnh ton, ta thng s
dng nhng mnh c cc bin. V d "x > 5", "x = y + 10". Nhng mnh ny
c th ng, sai tu thuc vo cc gi tr ca cc bin x, y. Mt khc, mnh
"x > 5" c hai phn:
+ x l bin, l ch im m mnh khng nh,
+ "ln hn 5" - ni v tnh cht ca x v cn c gi l tn t (hoc v t).
Ta c th k hiu P(x) "x ln hn 5". Pht biu P(x) cn c gi l hm tn t
hay hm v t. Khi P(4) = F, P(8) = T.
- 26 -
Tng qut ho vi n bin: x
1
, x
2
, . . . x
n
, P(x
1
, x
2
, . . . x
n
) l hm mnh vi b
n-phn t, trong P l tn t.
Cc hm mnh thng xc nh gi tr ng, sai trong mt tp cc gi tr ca cc
bin: vi tt c hay vi mt s phn t no . Ton t xc nh s lng c
gi l cc lng t. C hai loi lng t:
+ Lng t tng qut: vi mi phn t (trong v tr),
+ Lng t tn ti: vi mt phn t no trong phm vi xc nh ca bin.
nh ngha 1.21 Cho P(x) l hm xc nh trn min gi tr D.
a/ Vi mi x thuc D, P(x) gi l mt pht biu tng qut v c k hiu:
x e D, P(x), trong k hiu l lng t (lng t) vi mi.
Mnh : x e D, P(x) ng nu P(x) ng vi mi x e D.
b/ Vi x no thuc D, P(x) gi l pht biu tn ti v c k hiu:
-x e D, P(x), trong - l lng t (lng t) tn ti.
Mnh : -x e D, P(x) ng nu P(x) ng vi t nht mt gi tr x no trong D.
V d 1.19
a/ Vi mi s thc x, x
2
> 0 l mnh hng ng, vit ngn gn
x e R, x
2
> 0, vi R - tp cc s thc.
b/ Vi mi s x, c mt s y, x + y = 0 c th vit x e R, -y e R, x + y = 0.
Lu :
chng minh x e D, P(x) l ng th phi ch ra rng vi mi x e D
th P(x) u ng.
chng minh -x e D, P(x) l ng th ch cn ch ra rng P(x) ng
vi t nht mt gi tr x no thuc D, ngha l tm c mt gi tr x
P(x) ng.
chng minh x e D, P(x) l sai th ch cn tm ra mt gi tr x thuc
D m P(x) l sai.
chng minh -x e D, P(x) l sai th phi ch ra rng vi mi x thuc D
th P(x) u sai.
Khi min gi tr D c xc nh trc, ta c th vit ngn gn cc hm lng
t nh sau: -x P(x) hoc (-x)P(x) i vi lng t tn ti v x P(x)
hoc (x) P(x) i vi lng t vi mi.
Tng t nh cc cng thc mnh nu trn, cc hm tn t (cng thc tn t)
c xy dng t cc bin mnh , cc php ton logic v hai php lng t , -.
i vi cc cng thc tn t chng ta c cc qui tc suy din sau.

- 27 -
Bng 1.11 Cc qui tc suy din
I
14
Phn phi ca - i vi php v
-x (P(x) v Q(x)) -x P(x) v -x Q(x)
-x (R v Q(x)) R v -x Q(x)
I
15
Phn phi ca i vi php .
x (P(x) . Q(x)) x P(x) . x Q(x)
x (R . Q(x)) R . x Q(x)
I
16
( (-x (P(x)) x (( P(x))
I
17
( (x (P(x)) -x (( P(x))
I
18
-x (P(x) . R) -x P(x) . R
I
19
x (P(x) v R) x P(x) v R
RI
9
x (P(x)) -x (P(x))
RI
10
x P(x) v x Q(x) x (P(x) v Q(x))
RI
11
-x (P(x) . Q(x)) -x P(x) . -x Q(x)
RI
12
x P(x)
P(c) c l mt phn t P(c) l ng
RI
13
P(c)
-x P(x)
Trong , P(x), Q(x) l cc hm tn t ca bin mnh x c gi tr thuc mt
min xc nh cho trc v R l mt cng thc c lp vi cc bin mnh x.
t li bin trong cc cng thc tn t v kt hp hai qui tc I
14
v I
15
v chng ta
suy ra:
x P(x) v x Q(x) x P(x) v y Q(y)
x (P(x) v y Q(y)) v y Q(y) c lp vi x
x y (P(x) v Q(y)) v P(x) c lp vi y.
-x P(x) . -x Q(x) -x P(x) . -y Q(y)
-x (P(x) . -y Q(y)) v -y Q(y) c lp vi bin x
-x -y (P(x) . Q(y)) v P(x) c lp vi bin y.
Lu : Khi min xc nh D l hu hn, |D| = n, khng mt tnh tng qut ta c th
vit D = {x
1
, x
2
, , x
n
}. Khi ,
x e D, P(x) = P(x
1
) . P(x
2
) . . P(x
n
)
-x e D, P(x) = P(x
1
) v P(x
2
) v v P(x
n
)
- 28 -
1.7 Cc phng php chng minh
H thng ton hc bao gm cc tin , nh ngha v nhng khi nim (thng l
khng nh ngha hnh thc c). Trong
+ Tin l nhng mnh c tha nhn l lun ng v khng cn phi
chng minh.
+ T cc tin v cc nh ngha c th pht biu thnh cc nh l. nh
l cn c chng minh da vo cc gi thit v cc lut suy din tng ng nu
trn.
+ B c th xem nh mt nh l thng c s dng chng minh cc
nh l khc.
+ H qu (kt lun) l mnh c suy ra t cc nh l, cc tnh cht.
Vic khng nh tnh ng/sai ca mt mnh (nh l) c gi l chng minh
nh l.
V d 1.20 Trong hnh hc Euclide chng ta bit c nhng tin phi c
tha nhn nh:
Tin : Cho trc hai im phn bit trn mt phng, c ng mt ng thng i
qua hai im .
Khi nim im, ng thng, ... c nh ngha khng tng minh trong cc
pht biu, nh ngha, tin .
T h tin v cc khi nim c s, ngi ta a ra cc nh ngha v nhng khi
nim mi nh tam gic ng dng, cc gc k, b nhau, ...
nh l: Nu hai cnh ca mt tam gic bng nhau th hai gc i chng cng bng nhau.
H qu: Tam gic c cc cnh bng nhau th cc gc bng nhau.
Tm li, cc nh l thng c dng:
Vi mi x
1
, x
2
, . . . x
n
, nu P(x
1
, x
2
, . . . x
n
) th Q(x
1
, x
2
, . . . x
n
) (*)
Hay vit P(x
1
, x
2
, . . . x
n
) Q(x
1
, x
2
, . . . x
n
), vi x
1
, x
2
, . . . x
n
e D
chng minh nh l (*) chng ta c th thc hin mt trong cc cch sau:
Da vo tnh cht ca php ko theo trong logic mnh ta c: nu
P(x
1
, x
2
, ...x
n
) = F (gi thit sai) th nh l (*) l lun ng. Do vy, ta ch cn
xt cc trng hp P(x
1
, x
2
,... x
n
) = T (gi thit ng). Nu Q(x
1
, x
2
, ..., x
n
) = T
c suy ra t cc tin , nh l, hay cc nh l khc c chng minh
th nh l trn c chng minh. Phng php ny c gi l chng minh
trc tip.
Phng php th hai l chng minh gin tip (hay phn chng). Gi s
P(x
1
, x
2
, , x
n
) = T v Q(x
1
, x
2
, . . ., x
n
) = F. Lc xem P, Q nh l
cc nh l, kt hp cc tin , nh l, hay cc nh l khc c
chng minh dn ra iu bt hp l (mu thun). nh l trn c
chng minh v ta c:
- 29 -
p q ( q ( p
Chng minh bng phng php lp lun, suy din - lp lun loi tr cc
trng hp.
Chng minh bng phng php qui np ton hc. Gi thit mnh S(n)
xc nh trn mi s nguyn dng. chng minh mnh S(n) ng
th chng ta thc hin nh sau:
(i) [Bc c s] Kim tra xem S(1) = T?. Nu ng vi cc trng
hp c s th thc hin bc tip theo.
(ii) [Gi thit qui np] Gi thit S(k) = T vi mi k < n.
(iii) [Bc qui np] Da vo gi thit qui np v cc nh ngha, cc
tnh cht c chng minh lin quan n mnh S(k + 1), nu
chng ta khng nh c S(n + 1) = T th kt lun c mnh
trn ng vi mi n nguyn dng.
V d 1.21 Hy chng minh rng:
1. Vi mi s thc d, d
1
, d
2
, x nu d = min{ d
1
, d
2
} l gi tr cc tiu ca
d
1
, d
2
v x s d th x s d
1
v x s d
2
.
Chng minh: T nh ngha ca hm min ta c d s d
1
v d s d
2
. Tip theo t x s d
v d s d
1
suy ra x s d
1
v quan h s c tnh bc cu. Tng t ta c x s d
2
. y l
phng php chng minh trc tip.
2. Vi mi s thc x, y nu x + y > 2 th hoc x > 1, hoc y > 1.
Chng minh: (Phn chng) Gi s kt lun l sai, ngha l x < 1 v y < 1. Khi
x + y < 2, iu ny dn n nghch l (p . ( p l mnh mu thun). Do vy
mnh trn l ng.
3. Xt bi ton sau: Chng trnh c li v lp trnh vin pht hin ra:
+ Li pht hin module 17 hoc module 24.
+ y l li v tnh ton s hc,
+ Module 24 khng c li.
Vy module 17 c li v tnh ton s hc!
Chng minh: chng minh khng nh trn chng ta s dng phng php lp
lun v suy din dng:
Nu p
1
v p
2
v ... p
n
th q.
4. Chng minh rng n! > 2
n 1
vi n = 1, 2, . . . (**)
Chng minh qui np:
Bc th c s: Kim tra xem (**) c ng vi n = 1?. Bi v
1! = 1 > 1 = 2
1 - 1

nn bc th qui np l ng.
- 30 -
Bc gi thit qui np: Gi thit rng n! > 2
n 1
, (***)
ta cn chng minh rng (**) ng vi n + 1, ngha l
(n+1)! > 2
n
(****)
Tht vy: Theo nh ngha ca giai tha ta c
(n+1)! = (n+1) *(n !)
> (n+1) 2
n-1
theo gi thit qui np (***)
> 2 * 2
n-1
bi v n+1 > 2
= 2
n

Vy (n+1)! > 2
n
. y l iu cn chng minh.
Bi tp v logic v lp lun
1.1 Cho S = {a, b}
*
. Vi mi x, y e S, nh ngha x y = xy (ghp 2 ch).
(a) S c ng vi ?
(b) Php c tnh kt hp, giao hon?
(c) S c phn t n v i vi ?
1.2 Tm quan h l bao ng i xng ca R trn tp S.
1.3 Nu X l tp hu hn th |2
X
| = 2
|X|

1.4 Nhng quan h R sau c phi l quan h tng ng hay khng
(a) Trn tp tt c cc ng thng, l
1
Rl
2
nu l
1
song song vi l
2
,
(b) Trn tp cc s t nhin N, mRn nu m - n chia ht cho 3,
(c) Trn tp cc s t nhin N, mRn nu m chia ht cho n,
(d) Trn S = {1, 2, , 10}, aRb nu a + b = 10.
1.5 Cho f: {a, b}
*
{a, b}
*
xc nh bi f(x) = ax, vi x e{a, b}
*
. Hi f() c
nhng tnh cht g?
1.6 Nu w e{a, b}
*
tha mn abw = wab, chng minh rng |w| l s chn.
1.7 Nhng mnh sau ng hay sai trong trng s thc?
a/ -x, y , nu x < y th x
2
< y
2

b/ -x, -y , nu x < y th x
2
< y
2

c/ x, y , nu x < y th x
2
< y
2

d/ x, -y , nu x < y th x
2
< y
2

1.8 Chng minh cc mnh sau:
a/ 5
n
1 chia ht cho 4
b/ 1 + 3 + 5 + . . . + (2n - 1) = n
2

c/ 2
n
> n
2
, vi n = 4, 5, . . .
d/ 2 + 4 + 6 + . . . + 2n = n*(n + 1)
1.9* ( thi cao hc nm 2000, cu 1 mn thi c bn: Ton hc ri rc)
1. Hy lp bng gi tr ca cng thc mnh sau: P((QR)S)
- 31 -
2. Hy bin i tng ng a cng thc sau y v dng: khng c cc
du tng ng (), khng c cc du ko theo (); khng k cc du
lng t th n l tuyn ca cc thnh phn m mi thnh phn ny li l
hi ca cng thc khng cha cc du tuyn (v) v hi (.):
x (( P(x, y) -y Q(y, x))
1. Cho cng thc mnh A (x P(x) . x Q(x)) ( (-x R(x) v -x F(x))
Thc hin cc php bin i tng ng sau i vi A:
a/ Kh php ko theo
b/ a php ph nh ( v trc tip lin quan ti cc v t P, Q, R v F.
c/ a cc lng t ln trc cng thc.
d/ a cng thc ng sau lng t v dng chun hi v dng chun tuyn.
2. (-x!) P(x) l k hiu mnh Tn ti duy nht mt x sao cho P(x) l
ng.
a/ Cho trng gi tr ca bin x l tp cc s nguyn. Xc nh gi tr chn l
ca cc cng thc (-x!) (x
3
= 1) v (-x!) (x
2
3x + 2 = 0).
b/ Biu din mnh (-x!) P(x) qua cng thc tng ng cha lng t
ton th, lng t tn ti v cc php ton logic khc.
1.11* ( thi cao hc nm 2002, cu 1 mn thi c bn: Ton hc ri rc) Cho
P(x) l v t mt bin trn trng M no . Khi y mnh (x!) P(x) c l
Tn ti duy nht mt x sao cho P(x) l ng.
1. Gi s P(x, y) l v t y = 2x trn trng s Z Z, Z l trng s nguyn.
Hy cho bit gi tr chn l ca cc cng thc sau:
(x)(-y!) (P(x, y) ((-y!)(x) P(x, y))
(-y!)(x) (P(x, y) ((x)(-y!) P(x, y))
2. Cho mnh (-x!)(x > 2). Tm trng ca x mnh trn ng (mnh trn sai).
3. Cho cng thc A (-x ( P(x) v (x ( Q(x)) (X (x P(x) . -x Q(x))).
Dng php bin i tng ng logic a A v dng rt gn:
A (x)(-y) ((P(x) . Q(y)) v ( X), trong P, Q l v t trn mt
bin, cn X l bin mnh s cp.
1. Cho trc cng thc (-x)(x) P(x, y) xc nh trn trng M M vi M =
{1, 2, 3}. Hy bin i tng ng cng thc trn v dng khng cn cc
lng t -, m ch cn cc php hi, tuyn v cc v t trn trng
cho.
2. Cho trc cng thc
- 32 -
A (x P(x) -x Q(x)) v -x ( P(x) v -x ( Q(x) v (((X Y) . ( Y) ( X).
Thc hin cc php bin i tng ng sau y i vi A:
a/ Kh php keo theo .
b/ a du ph nh v trc tip lin quan n X, Y, P v Q.
c/ a cc lng t -, ln ng trc cc cng thc logic khc.
d/ Bin i cng thc ng sau lng t v dng chun hi v dng chun
tuyn.
1. Cho trc cng thc
A (x P(x) -x Q(x)) (x F(x) . x (R(x) (P(x))). Thc hin cc
php bin i tng ng sau y i vi A:
b/ a du ph nh v trc tip lin quan n P, Q, R v F.
d/ Tm dng chun hi v dng chun tuyn ca A.
2. Ch ra trn trng M = {a, b, c} ta lun c:
-x P(x) . -x Q(x) -x -y (P(x) . Q(y)
3. Suy lun di y c ng khng? Nhng qui tc suy din no c p dng?
( X
1
v X
2

X
3
v ( X
2
X
4
v ( X
3
(( X
4
v X
5
) . ( X
5

( X
1
1. Cho cng thc
A (-x (P(x) . Q(x)) v -x R(x)) (x F(x) (X Y)). Thc hin cc php
bin i tng ng sau y i vi A:
b/ a du ph nh v trc tip lin quan n P, Q, R v F.
d/ Tm dng chun hi v dng chun tuyn ca A. T vit dng chun
tuyn v dng chun hi ca ( A.
2. a cng thc B (x)(-y)P(x, y) (-x)(y) ( P(x, y) v cng thc
tng ng trn trng M = {a, b} {c, d} khng cn cc lng t -, ,
- 33 -
ch cn php hi, php tuyn v php ph nh. Php ph nh ch lin quan
trc tip ti tng v t c th trn M.
3. a/ Ch ra hnh suy din di y l ng
X
1
. X
2

( X
1
v (X
3
. X
2
)
( X
3
v ( X
4
v X
5
)
( X
4

X
5
b/ Chuyn m hnh suy din trn v dng cng thc hng ng tng
ng.
1. Cho m hnh suy din trong logic v t

(x)(( P(x) Q(x))
(-x) ( P(x)
(x)(Q(x) R(x))
(x)(S(x) ( R(x)) (*)

(-x) ( S(x)

y P(x), Q(x), R(x), S(x) l cc bin v t xc nh trn trng M.
a/ Vit cng thc tng ng vi m hnh suy din (*) nu trn v n c phi l
cng thc hng ng khng?.
b/ M hnh suy din trn c ng trn trng M khng?, nhng quy tc suy din no
c p dng trong m hnh suy din .
3. Hy din t nh ngha gii hn
0
lim
x x
f(x) = L di dng mt cng thc v t.
4. Ch ra rng cng thc ( ((x) P(x)) tng ng vi cng thc (-x) ( P(x) trn
trng M = {a
1
, a
2
, , a
n
}.
1. Pht biu sau ng hay sai, ti sao?
Tt c mi ngi c bng c nhn th u tt nghip i hc.
Lan c bng c nhn.
Vy suy ra Lan tt nghip i hc.
2. Hai cng thc sau c tng ng logic vi nhau khng, ti sao?
A = P (Q v R) v B = (P Q) v (P R)
3. Cho trc cng thc F = (P ( Q) (( P . R)
a/ Kh php ko theo v rt gn cng thc F.
b/ Tm dng chun hi chnh tc (chun hi y ) v chun tuyn chnh tc
ca F.
- 34 -
1. Cho trc cng thc F = (( P v ( Q) (( P . R)
a/ Kh php ko theo v rt gn cng thc F.
b/ Tm dng chun tuyn chnh tc (chun tuyn y ) ca F.
2. Hai cng thc sau c tng ng logic vi nhau khng, ti sao?
A = -x ( P(x) Q(x))
B = x (P(x) -x Q(x))
3. Suy lun di y c ng khng? Nhng lut logic, qui tc suy din
no c p dng?
P Q
P Q
( (Q . R)
S v P
S

- 35 -

CHNG II
L thuyt tmt

Chng hai gii thiu nhng khi nim c s v cc tnh cht ca l thuyt tmt.
Ni dung bao gm:
Cc khi nim c bn v cc tnh cht ca tmt,
Cc tnh cht ca hm chuyn i trng thi,
S tng ng ca tmt hu hn n nh v khng n nh,
Mt s vn lin quan n cc tiu ho tmt hu hn.
2.1 tmt hu hn
Chng ta s tm hiu v mt nh ngha tng qut nht ca tmt v sau thu
hp cho ph hp vi cc ng dng ca khoa hc my tnh. Mt tmt c nh
ngha nh l mt h thng ([2], [3], [4], [5], [6]), trong nng lng, vt cht
hoc thng tin c bin i; c truyn i v c s dng thc hin mt s
chc nng no m khng cn c s tham gia trc tip ca con ngi. V d nh
my ph-t-copy t ng, my tr tin t ng ATM, ...
Trong khoa hc my tnh, thut ng tmt c ngha l my x l t ng trn d
liu ri rc. Mi tmt c xem nh l mt c ch bin i thng tin gm mt
b iu khin, mt knh vo v mt knh ra.
Hnh H2-1 M hnh ca tmt ri rc
Trong c cc thnh phn:
1. u vo (input). mi thi khong (ri rc) t
1
, t
2
, , cc d liu vo I
1
, I
2
, ,
l nhng s hu hn cc gi tr t bng ch ci
i
u vo.
2. u ra (Output). O
1
, O
2
, O
m
: cc kt qu x l ca h thng l cc s
hu hn cc gi tr xc nh kt qu u ra.
3. Trng thi. Ti mi thi im, tmt c th mt trong cc trng thi q
1
,
q
2
, q
n
.
I
1
I
2

I
k

O
1

O
2

O
m

tmt
q
1,
q
2
, q
n

- 36 -
4. Quan h gia cc trng thi. Trng thi tip theo ca tmt ph thuc vo
hin trng v u vo hin thi, ngha l c xc nh ph thuc vo mt
hay nhiu trng thi trc v d liu hin thi.
5. Quan h kt qu. Kt qu ca tmt khng nhng ch ph thuc vo cc
hin trng m cn ph thuc vo cc u vo. Nh vy, kt qu (u ra,
output) ca tmt c xc nh theo u vo v cc trng thi thc hin
ca n.
Lu [4]:
tmt m u ra ch ph thuc vo u vo c gi l tmt khng
c b nh.
tmt m u ra ph thuc vo cc trng thi c gi l tmt hu
hn b nh.
tmt m u ra ch ph thuc vo cc trng thi c gi l my
Moore.
tmt m u ra ph thuc vo u vo v cc trng thi mi thi
im c gi l My Mealy.
V d 2.1 Xt thanh ghi dch chuyn nh sau

Error!

Hnh H2-2 Thanh ghi dch chuyn 4 bit s dng D-flip flaps
Thanh ghi dch chuyn trn cn c gi l my hu hn trng thi c 2
4
= 16
trng thi (0000, 0001, , 1111), mt dy vo v mt dy ra, bng ch ci vo
(tn hiu vo) = {0, 1}v bng ch ci u ra (tn hiu ra) O = {0, 1}. Thanh
ghi dch chuyn 4 bit trn c th c m t bi tmt sau:

O

Hnh H2-3. My hu hn trng thi thc hin thanh ghi dch chuyn 4 bit.
Nhn xt: Hnh vi ca mi my tun t (cc thao tc thc hin tun t) u c th
biu din c bng mt tmt.
Sau y chng ta xt nh ngha hnh thc v tmt hu hn trng thi gi tt l
tmt hu hn.
D Q

D Q

D Q

D Q

Input
Output
tmt
q
1
, q
2
, q
16

- 37 -
Mt tmt hu hn lm vic theo thi gian ri rc nh tt c cc m hnh tnh
ton ch yu. Nh vy, ta c th ni v thi im k tip khi c t hot ng
ca mt tmt hu hn. Mt cch hnh thc hn, tmt c nh ngha nh sau.
nh ngha 2.1 tmt hu hn n nh (gi tt l tmt hu hn), k hiu l T,
c th biu din c bi b 5 thnh phn M = (Q, , o, q
0
, F), trong :
(i) Q l tp hu hn khc rng cc trng thi,
(ii) l tp hu hn khc rng cc k hiu u vo (bng ch ci), vi gi
thit Q = C,
(iii) o l nh x t Q vo Q v c gi l hm chuyn trng thi.
Hm ny m t s thay i trng thi ca tmt v thng c cho
bit di dng bng chuyn trng thi hay th chuyn trng thi.
(iv) q
0
e Q l trng thi khi u,
(v) F _ Q l tp cc trng thi kt thc. Tng qut: | F| > 1.
M hnh trn c th c m t nh trong hnh H2- 4.
Xu c x l

Bng d liu vo

u c R

Hnh H2-4 S khi ca tmt hu hn
tmt hu hn trng thi gm cc thnh phn sau:
(i) Bng d liu vo. Bng d liu vo c chia thnh cc , mi cha
mt k t t bng ch ci , trong u c nh du cho s bt
u bng v cui dng $ nh du kt thc. Khi khng s dng
cc nh du th bng d liu vo s c xem nh c di v
hn.
(ii) u c R. Mi ln u c ch xem xt mt v c th dch qua phi
hoc qua tri mt . n gin, chng ta gi thit u c ch dch
qua phi sau mi ln x l.
(iii) B iu khin hu hn. B ny iu khin hot ng ca tmt mi
khi c mt d liu vo. Khi c mt k hiu vo, v d a, trng thi
q c th cho cc kt qu sau:
(a) u c R vn nguyn ti ch, khng dch chuyn,
(b) Chuyn sang trng thi khc c xc nh theo o(q, a).
$
B iu khin
hu hn
- 38 -
V d, h thng thang my ca mt to nh nhiu tng c th m hnh ha nh l
mt tmt hu hn. Thng tin vo gm cc yu cu i ln, i xung ti mi thi
im khi ngi s dng c nhu cu. Trng thi c xc nh bi thng tin v cc
yu cu vn cha c p ng (v nhng tng cn i ti t bn trong thang my,
hay trn cc tng), v nhng v tr hin ti ca thang my (ln hay xung). Trng
thi tip theo lun c xc nh bi trng thi hin ti v thng tin vo. T cc
trng thi hin ti cng xc nh c thng tin ra m t hnh vi ca h thng
thang my.
hiu c hot ng ca cc tmt, chng ta cn phi tm hiu cc tnh cht,
c trng ca hm chuyn trng thi.
2.1.1 Cc tnh cht ca hm chuyn trng thi
Hm chuyn trng thi c xc nh trong nh ngha tmt hu hn l mt nh
x xc nh trn cc cp trng thi v k hiu vo, do vy khng th s dng trc
tip on nhn cc xu, m phi m rng o thnh nh x
o: Q
*
Q
nh cc tnh cht sau.
Tnh cht 2.1
(i) q e Q, o(q, A) = q, vi A l t rng. Ngha l trng thi ca tmt ch
thay i khi c d liu vo. (2.1)
(ii) w e
*
, a e , o(q, aw) = o(o(q, a), w) (2.2a)
o(q, wa) = o(o(q, w), a) (2.2b)
Mnh 2.1 Vi mi hm chuyn trng thi o v vi mi xu vo x, y,
o(q, xy) = o(o(q, x), y) (2.3)
Chng minh: Qui np theo |y|, ngha l theo s k t trong y.
C s: Khi |y| = 1, y = a, th o(q, xa) = o(o(q, x), a) ng theo tnh cht (2.2b).
Gi s rng (2.3) ng vi mi xu x v vi nhng xu y c n phn t, | y| = n.
Khi xu y c di l n+1, ta c th vit y = y
1
a, vi | y
1
| = n. Khi
o(q, xy) = o(q, xy
1
a) = o(q, x
1
a), vi x
1
= xy
1
= o(o(q, x
1
), a), Theo (2.2b)
= o(o(q, xy
1
), a)
= o(o(o(q, x), y
1
), a), Theo gi thit qui np
= o(o(q, x), y
1
a), Theo (2.2b)
= o(o(q, x), y).
Do vy, tnh cht (2.3) ng vi mi xu x, y.
- 39 -
2.1.2 Cc phng php biu din tmt
Cho mt tmt thc cht l ch cn cho bit hm chuyn trng thi ca n. Hm
chuyn trng thi c th cho di dng bng chuyn trng thi hoc di dng
th.
A/ Phng php cho bng chuyn trng thi
Bng cho trc mt tmt c th cho di dng bng chuyn trng thi
Cc trng
thi
K hiu vo
a
1
a
2
a
n

q
0
q
1

q
f

q
k
o(q
0
, a
1
) o(q
0
, a
2
) o(q
0
, a
n
)
o(q
1
, a
1
) o(q
1
, a
2
) o(q
1
, a
n
)

o(q
f
, a
1
) o(q
f
, a
2
) o(q
f
, a
n
)

o(q
k
, a
1
) o(q
k
, a
2
) o(q
k
, a
n
)
trong , Q = {q
1
, q
2
, q
k
}, = {a
1
, a
2
, , a
n
} v F l tp tt c nhng trng thi
q
f
(nhng trng thi nm trong hnh trn), q
0
l trng thi bt u (c mi tn i
n).
V d 2.2 Xt tmt hu hn c hm chuyn trng thi c xc nh theo bng
sau
Bng B2.1 Bng chuyn trng thi ca M
Dy vo
Trng thi 0 1
q
0
q
2
q
1
q
1
q
3
q
0
q
2
q
0
q
3

q
3
q
1
q
2
Q = {q
0
, q
1
, q
2
, q
3
}, = {0, 1} v F = {q
0
}, q
0
va l trng thi bt u (c mi tn i
n) va l trng thi kt thc (nm trong mt hnh trn).
B/ Phng php biu din bng th
Hm chuyn trng thi c th biu din di dng th c hng, trong mi
trng thi l mt nh. Nu t k t vo a e , v t trng thi q tmt chuyn
sang trng thi p (o(q, a) = p) th s c cung i t q n p vi nhn l a. nh ng
vi trng thi bt u (q
0
) c mi tn n, nhng nh ng vi cc trng thi kt
- 40 -
thc (thuc tp F) c khoanh trong vng trn kp, nhng nh cn li c
khoanh trong vng trn n.
V d 2.3 tmt hu hn c hm chuyn trng thi c xc nh theo bng v
d 2.2 c biu din bng th nh sau:

Hnh H2-5 Biu din th ca tmt
2.1.3 Ngn ng on nhn c ca tmt
nh ngha 2.2 Mt xu x c on nhn bi tmt hu hn M = (Q, , o, q
0
, F)
nu o(q
0
, x) = q, vi q e F, ngha l o(q
0
, x) e F.
nh ngha 2.3 Tp tt c cc xu (cn c gi l ngn ng) c on nhn bi
tmt hu hn M = (Q, , o, q
0
, F), c k hiu l
T(M) = {x e
*
| o(q
0
, x) e F}
V d 2.4 Xt tmt hu hn cho trc v d 2.2. Ta d dng kim tra dy
110101 l chp nhn c bi M. Tht vy,
o(q
0
, 110101) = o(q
1
, 10101) = o(q
0
, 0101)
= o(q
2
, 101) = o(q
3
, 01)
= o(q
1
, 1) = o(q
0
, A) = q
0
.
V d 2.5 Xt tmt hu hn M c cho nh hnh sau

Hnh H2-6 Biu din th ca tmt hu hn M cho trc
Da vo cc tnh cht v cch biu din ca hm chuyn trng thi trn th nh
hng, chng ta nhn thy:
0

q
1
q
2
q
3
q
0
1

1

1

1

0

0

0

b

q
1
q
3
q
0
b

a

a

b

- 41 -
Mt xu (mt t) on nhn c bi M l dy cc k t u vo (cc nhn
trn cc cung) trn ng i t nh bt u n mt trng thi kt thc no
.
Ngn ng on nhn c bi M l tp tt c cc xu c ghp t cc
nhn trn tt c cc ng i t nh bt u n cc nh kt thc.
T nhn xt trn, ta suy ra ngn ng on nhn c bi M s l
T(M) = {a(ba)
n
a, b
m
| n > 0, m > 0}
2.2 tmt hu hn khng n nh
Chng ta nghin cu nhng tmt m t mt trng thi (cha kt thc) v mt
k t vo th trng thi tip theo ca chng c xc nh duy nht. Tip theo
chng ta xt trng hp nhng tmt hu hn m trng thi tip theo nh trn
khng xc nh duy nht.
Chng ta hy xt tmt c cho bi th chuyn trng thi nh trong Hnh H2-
7.

Hnh H2-7 H bin i biu din tmt hu hn khng n nh
Khi trng thi q
0
v d liu vo l 0, th tmt chuyn n trng thi no?. Theo
h thng trn th n c th hoc chuyn n q
1
hoc quay vng tr li chnh q
0
.
Nh vy, trng thi tip theo ca tmt khng xc nh duy nht khi nhn d liu
vo 0. Nhng tmt nh vy c gi l tmt hu hn khng n nh (khng
tt nh).
nh ngha 2.4 Mt tmt hu hn khng n nh (TK), gi tt l tmt
khng n nh, l b 5 phn t M = (Q, , o, q
0
, F), trong
(ii) l tp hu hn khc rng cc k hiu vo (bng ch ci), vi Q = C,
(iii) o l nh x t Q vo 2
Q
(tp tt c cc tp con ca Q),
(iv) q
0
e Q l trng thi khi u,
(v) F _ Q l tp cc trng thi kt thc. Tng qut th | F| > 1.
0

q
0
1

0

1

q
2
q
1
1

- 42 -
Chng ta nhn thy s khc nhau gia n nh (tt nh) v khng n nh ca
tmt ch l hm chuyn trng thi o. i vi tmt n nh (T), kt
qu ca o ch l mt trng thi, l mt phn t ca Q; cn i vi tmt khng
n nh, kt qu ca hm chuyn trng thi o l mt tp con cc trng thi ca Q.
Tng t nh i vi tmt n nh, hm chuyn trng thi c xc nh trong
nh ngha tmt khng n nh l mt nh x xc nh trn cc cp trng thi v
k hiu vo, do vy khng th s dng trc tip on nhn cc xu, m phi m
rng o thnh nh x
o: 2
Q

*
2
Q

nh cc tnh cht sau.
Tnh cht 2.2
(i) w e
*
, w e Q, o(q, w) = o({q}, w) (2.4)
(ii) S _ Q, o(S, A) = S, (2.5)
(iii) S _ Q, a e, o(S, a) =
S q
a q
e
) , ( o (2.6)
(iv) S _ Q, a e, w e
*
, o(S, aw) = o(o(S, a), w) (2.7)
nh ngha 2.5 Xu w e
*
on nhn c bi mt TK M nu o(q
0
, w) c
cha mt s (t nht mt) trng thi kt thc.
Lu :
Khi M l tmt khng n nh, o(q
0
, w) c th c nhiu hn mt trng
thi. Do vy, w c on nhn bi M nu t q
0
v c d liu vo ln lt
theo w (t tri qua phi) ta c mt cch t n c trng thi kt thc.
Trong th biu din cho tmt khng n nh M, w e
*
on nhn
c bi M cng chnh l dy cc nhn trn cc cung ca mt ng i t
nh bt u n t nht mt nh kt thc.
V d 2.6 Xt tmt khng n nh c biu din bng biu chuyn trng
thi nh hnh H2-8.
Error!

Hnh H2-8 tmt khng n nh M
0, 1

q
0
1

q
1
q
3
1

q
4
q
2
1

0

0, 1

1

0, 1

- 43 -
Lu : Khi mt nh c nhiu hn mt vng khuyn (mt cung quay li chnh n)
vi cc nhn khc nhau th c th ch cn v mt vng khuyn vi cc nhn cch
nhau bng du phy , nh cc nh q
0
, q
1
, q
4
hnh trn.
Dy cc trng thi xc nh bi dy vo 0100 c m t qua hm chuyn trng
thi nh sau:
o(q
0
, 0100) = o ({q
0
}, 0100) Theo (2.4)
= o(o({q
0
}, 0), 100) Theo (2.7)
= o(o(q
0
, 0), 100) Theo (2.6)
= o({q
0
}, 100) = o(o({q
0
}, 1), 00)
= o(o({q
0
, q
3
}, 0), 0)
= o(o(q
0
, 0) o(q
3
, 0), 0) Theo (2.6)
= o({q
4
} o(q
3
, 0), 0)
= o(q
4
, 0) o(o (q
3
, 0), 0)
= {q
4
} o(o (q
3
, 0), 0)
V q
4
l trng thi kt thc nn dy 0100 l on nhn c bi tmt khng n
nh trn.
Tng t, dy 0100 cng chnh l dy ca cc nhn trn ng i t q
0
, q
0
, q
3
, q
4
,
v k thc q
4
, nn n c on nhn bi M (hnh H2-8).
T , chng ta c tp tt c cc t on nhn bi mt tmt c nh ngha nh
sau.
nh ngha 2.6 Tp cc xu (t) c M (n nh hoc khng n nh) on
nhn l tp tt c cc xu d liu (dy cc k t) u vo c on nhn bi M;
k hiu T(M).
T(M) = {w e
*
| o(q
0
, w) F = C}
Tp cc xu c on nhn (hay on nhn c) bi mt tmt th hin kh
nng tnh ton ca h thng v m t hnh vi ca mt tmt. Tp on nhn c
bi mt tmt thng cn c gi l ngn ng c on nhn bi tmt .
2.3 S tng ng ca tmt n nh v khng n nh
trn chng ta phn bit hai loi tmt n nh (T) v khng n nh
(TK). Vn quan trng l chng c quan h vi nhau nh th no?, ngha l
ngn ng on nhn bi TK v T c quan h vi nhau hay khng?
Mt cch trc quan chng ta nhn thy:
T c th m phng hnh vi ca TK bng cch gia tng s cc trng thi.
Ni cch khc, T (Q, , o, q
0
, F) c th xem nh TK (Q, , o', q
0
, F')
bng cch nh ngha o'(q, a) = {o(q, a)}, ni cch khc T l trng hp
c bit ca TK.
- 44 -
TK l tng qut hn, song c v nh khng mnh hn, ngha l tp
m n on nhn khng nhiu hn T.
iu th hai c khng nh bi nh l sau.
nh l 2.1 Vi mi TK M lun tn ti T M' tng ng theo ngha
chng on nhn cng mt tp d liu, T(M) = T(M').
Chng minh: Gi s TK M = (Q, , o, q
0
, F) on nhn L. Chng ta xy
dng mt tmt T M' = (Q', , o', q'
0
, F') nh sau:
(i) Q' = 2
Q
,
(ii) q
0
' = {q
0
},
(iii) F' l tp tt c cc tp con ca Q c cha phn t ca F,
F' = { S _ Q | S F = C}
Trc khi xc nh o', chng ta hy kho st cc c im ca Q', q
0
' v F'. M khi
ng t q
0
v vi mt d liu vo bt k, v d a, M c th chuyn sang mt trong
cc trng thi ca o(q
0
, a). kho st hot ng ca M khi x l a, chng ta phi
xt tt c cc trng thi c th t c khi n x l a. V th cc trng thi ca M'
s l cc tp con ca Q. Khi M bt u vi q
0
, q
0
' c nh ngha nh trn s l
trng thi khi u ca M'. Mt khc xu w e T(M) = L nu M t n trng thi
kt thc khi x l w. Do vy, trng thi kt thc ca M' (phn t ca F') l tp con
ca Q v c cha mt s trng thi kt thc ca M.
Tip theo chng ta nh ngha o':
(iv) o'({q
1
, q
2
, q
i
}, a) = o( q
1
, a) o( q
2
, a) o(q
i
, a)
Ngha l o'({q
1
, q
2
, q
i
}, a) = {p
1
, p
2
, p
k
} khi v ch khi
o({q
1
, q
2
, q
i
}, a) = {p
1
, p
2
, p
k
} vi i, k s |Q|.
Trc khi chng minh L = T(M'), chng ta chng minh kt qu b tr:
o'(q
0
, x) = {q
1
, q
2
, q
i
}, khi v ch khi
o(q
0
, x) = {q
1
, q
2
, q
i
} vi mi x trong
*
. (2.8)
Chng ta chng minh iu kin cn ca (2.8) qui np theo |x|.
Nu o(q
0
, x) = {q
1
, q
2
, q
i
} th o'(q
0
', x) = {q
1
, q
2
, q
i
} (2.9)
Khi |x| = 0, hin nhin o(q
0
, A) = {q
0
} v theo nh ngha o', o'(q
0
', A) = q
0
' = {q
0
},
ngha l (2.9) ng vi |x| = 0.
Gi thit (2.9) ng vi mi y v |y| s n. Xt xu x c di n + 1. Ta c th vit x = ya,
trong |y| = n v a e . Gi s o(q
0
, y) = {p
1
, p
2
, p
k
} v o(q
0
, ya) = {r
1
, r
2
, r
l
}. Bi
|y| s n nn theo gi thit qui np ta c
o'(q
0
', y) = {p
1
, p
2
, p
k
} (2.10)
- 45 -
Mt khc, {r
1
, r
2
, r
l
} = o(q
0
, ya) = o(o(q
0
, y), a) = o({p
1
, p
2
, p
k
}, a). Theo nh
ngha ca o',
o'({p
1
, p
2
, p
k
}, a) = {r
1
, r
2
, r
l
}. (2.11)
Do vy, o'(q
0
', x) = o'(q
0
', ya) = o'(o'(q
0
', y), a) = o'({p
1
, p
2
, p
k
}, a)
= {r
1
, r
2
, r
l
} theo (2.11).
Suy ra (2.9) c chng minh vi x = ya.
iu kin chng minh tng t.
T suy ra, x e L = T(M) khi v ch khi o(q, x) cha mt trng thi ca F. Bi v
o(q
0
, x) cha trng thi thuc F khi v ch khi o'(q
0
', x) nm trong F'. iu khng nh
x e T(M) x e T(M'), ng ngha vi vic M' cng on nhn ng L.
V d 2.7 Xt tmt khng n nh M = ({q
0
, q
1
}, {0, 1}, o, q
0
, {q
0
}) vi hm
chuyn trng thi o c xc nh theo bng B2.2.
Bng B2.2 Bng cc trng thi ca M

Trng thi \ 0 1
q
0
q
0
q
1
q
1
q
1
q
0
, q
1

Xy dng tmt n nh tng ng M' theo nh l 2.1, c cc thnh phn:
(i) Q' ={C, { q
01
}, {q
1
},{q
0
, q
1
}},
(ii) q
0
' = { q
0
},
(iii) F' = {{ q
0
}, { q
0
, q
1
}}, nhng tp con cc trng thi c cha q
0
,
(iv) o' c nh ngha nh trong bng B2.3
Bng B2.3 Bng cc trng thi ca M'
Trng thi \ 0 1
C C C
{q
0
} {q
0
} {q
1
}
{q
1
} {q
1
} {q
0
, q
1
}
{q
0
, q
1
} {q
0
, q
1
} {q
0
, q
1
}

Nhn xt: Khi M c n trng thi, M' tng ng s c th c 2
n
trng thi. Tuy nhin,
chng ta khng nht thit phi xy dng tmt c tt c 2
n
trng thi m ch cn nhng
trng thi t n t trng thi khi u v i n c trng thi kt thc.
Trong bng chuyn trng thi B2.3 trng thi C l khng t n c t trng thi
bt u {q
0
} nn c th loi b i. Ngoi ra, cho tin li chng ta c th k hiu
- 46 -
li tp cc trng thi, v d s
0
= {q
0
}, s
1
= {q
1
}, s
2
= {q
0
, q
1
} v Q' = { s
0
, s
1
, s
1
}.
Khi , tmt c hm chuyn trng thi nh trn s c vit thnh
Trng thi \ 0 1
s
0
s
0
s
1

s
1
s
1
s
2

s
2
s
2
s
2

Tng qut ha qu trnh trn, chng ta c th xy dng thut ton thit lp M' nh
sau.
Thut ton 2.1 Xy dng hm chuyn trng thi ca M' tng ng vi M (Php
n nh ha)
Input: Cho trc tmt M = (Q, , o, q
0
, F) khng n nh.
Output: Hm chuyn trng thi o' ca tmt n nh tng ng.
1. Xy dng o' bt u t {q
0
},
2. Xc nh trng thi t c t nhng trng thi (tp con cc trang thi ca
M) tng ng vi cc ct d liu vo xc nh t trc,
3. Lp li bc 2 cho n khi khng c mt trng thi mi xut hin trong cc
ct ng vi d liu vo.
V d 2.8 Tm tmt n nh tng ng vi
M = ({q
0
, q
1
, q
2
}, {a, b}, o, q
0
, { q
2
})
v o c cho trong bng B2.5.
Trng thi \ a b
q
0
{q
0
, q
1
} q
2

q
1
q
0
q
1
q
2
{q
0
, q
1
}

tmt n nh tng ng vi M l M' = (2
Q
, {a, b}, o', {q
0
}, F'), trong
F' = {{q
2
}, {q
0
, q
2
}, {q
1
, q
2
}, {q
0
, q
1
, q
2
}}. Thc hin theo thut ton 2.1 ta thu c o'
nh bng B2.6.
- 47 -
Trng thi \ a b

{q
0
} {q
0
, q
1
} {q
2
}
{q
2
} C {q
0
, q
1
}
{q
0
, q
1
} {q
0
, q
1
} {q
1
, q
2
}
{q
1
, q
2
} {q
0
} {q
0
, q
1
}
2.4 Cc tiu ho tmt hu hn
Trong phn ny chng ta xt vn tm tmt c s trng thi cc tiu tng
ng (cng on nhn mt ngn ng) vi tmt cho trc.
Trn tp cc trng thi Q chng ta nh ngha mt s quan h tng ng.
nh ngha 2.7 Hai trng thi q
1
v q
2
c gi l tng ng, k hiu q
1
~ q
2
,
nu c hai o(q
1
, x) v o(q
2
, x) u l nhng trng thi kt thc hoc c hai u
khng kt thc vi mi x e
*
.
S cc xu (t) c xy dng t bng k t vo thng l kh ln (c khi l v
hn), nhng trong phn ny chng ta ch xt nhng trng hp hu hn.
nh ngha 2.8 Hai trng thi q
1
v q
2
c gi l k-tng ng ( k > 0), k hiu
q
1
~
k
q
2
, nu c hai o(q
1
, x) v o(q
2
, x) u l nhng trng thi kt thc hoc c hai
u khng kt thc vi mi x e * c di nh hn k.
Hin nhin, hai trng thi kt thc hoc hai trng thi khng kt thc u l 0-
tng ng.
Cc quan h trn c mt s tnh cht nh sau.
Tnh cht 2.3 Hai quan h ~

v ~
k
l cc quan h tng ng (c tnh phn x,
bc cu v i xng).
Tnh cht 2.4 Cc lp tng ng ca hai quan h ~

v ~
k
s to ra hai phn
hoch t, t
k
ca Q; cc phn t ca t
k
l cc lp k-tng ng.
Tnh cht 2.5 Nu q
1
~ q
2
th q
1
~
k
q
2
, vi mi k > 0.
Tnh cht 2.6 Nu q
1
~
(k+1)
q
2
th q
1
~
k
q
2
.
Tnh cht 2.7 Tn ti n t
n
= t
n+1
.
Mnh sau s l c s xy dng tmt cc tiu.
Mnh 2.2 Hai trng thi q
1
v q
2
c gi l (k+1)- tng ng nu
(a) Chng l k-tng ng,
(b) o(q
1
,a) v o(q
2
, a) cng l k-tng ng vi mi a e .
- 48 -
Chng minh: Chng ta chng minh bng phn chng. Gi s q
1
v q
2
khng phi
l (k+1)-tng ng. Khi tn ti w = aw
1
vi di k+1 sao cho o(q
1
, aw
1
) l
trng thi kt thc nhng o(q
2
, aw
1
) li khng phi l trng thi kt thc. Nh vy,
o(q
1
, aw
1
) = o(o(q
1
, a), w
1
) l trng thi kt thc v o(q
2
, aw
1
) = o(o(q
2
, a), w
1
)
khng phi l trng thi kt thc. T suy ra o(q
1
,a) v o(q
2
, a) khng phi l k-
tng ng, mu thun vi gi thit (b).
Da vo cc tnh cht trn chng ta c th xy dng cc lp (k+1)-tng ng khi
bit cc lp k-tng ng trn tp cc trng thi v t xy dng c thut
ton cc tiu ho tmt (c s trng thi cc tiu) tng ng vi tmt cho
trc.
Thut ton 2.2 Xy dng tmt cc tiu ho
Input: Cho trc tmt M = (Q, , o, q
0
, F) thng l khng n nh.
Output: tmt n nh v cc tiu M' = (Q', , o', q
0
', F')
1. Thit lp phn hoch t
0
. Theo nh ngha 0-tng ng, t
0
= {Q
1
0
, Q
2
0
},
trong Q
1
0
= F (tp cc trng thi kt thc), Q
2
0
= Q - Q
1
0
.
2. Xy dng t
k+1
t t
k
. Xy dng Q
i
k
, i = 1, 2, l cc tp con ca t
k
v l cc
lp (k+1)-tng ng. q
1
v q
2
nm trong Q
i
k
nu chng l (k+1) tng
ng ngha l o(q
1
, a) v o(q
2
, a) l k-tng ng, vi mi a trong bng ch
vo. iu ny xy ra khi o(q
1
, a) v o(q
2
, a) nm trong cng lp tng ng
ca t
k
. Do vy, Q
i
k
l lp (k+1)-tng ng. Thc hin nh trn cho n khi
cc tp con Q
i
k
to thnh mt phn hoch t
k+1
ca Q mn hn t
k
.
3. Lp li bc 2 thit lp t
k
vi k = 1, 2, cho n khi t
k
= t
k+1
.
4. Xy dng tmt cc tiu. Cc trng thi ca tmt cc tiu chnh l cc lp tng
ng c xc nh nh trong bc 3, l cc phn t ca t
k
. Bng chuyn trng
thi thu c bng cch thay trng thi q bng lp tng ng tng ng [q].
Lu :
1. Da vo bng chuyn trng thi cho trc ta d dng xy dng c cc lp
t
0
= {Q
1
0
, Q
2
0
}, Q
1
0
= F, Q
2
0
= Q - F;
2. Gi s xy dng c t
k
, k = 0, 1, . Vi q
1
, q
2
e Q
i
k
, Q
i
k
e t
k
, i = 1, 2,
xt cc trng thi cc ct tng ng vi d liu vo a e , nu o(q
1
, a) v o(q
2
, a)
cng thuc mt tp con no ca t
k
th l (k+1)-tng ng, ngha l q
1
, q
2
cng
nm trong mt phn hoch ca t
k+1
;

ngc li s khng phi l (k+1)-tng
ng, ngha l q
1
, q
2
nm trong hai phn hoch khc nhau ca t
k+1
.
3. Lp li bc 2 cho n khi t
k
= t
k+1
.
V d 2.9 Xy dng tmt cc tiu tng ng vi tmt c th chuyn
trng thi nh trong hnh H2-9.
- 49 -

Hnh H2-9 th chuyn trng thi ca v d 2.9
T th chuyn trng thi hnh H2.9 chng ta c bng chuyn trng thi.
Trng thi \ a b

q
0
q
1
q
0

q
1
q
0
q
2

q
2
q
3
q1
q
3
q
3
q
0

q
4
q
3
q
5

q
5
q
6
q
4
q
6
q
5
q
6

q
7
q
6
q
3

Theo thut ton trn ta c Q
1
0
= {q
3
}, Q
2
0
= { q
0
, q
1
, q
2
, q
4
, q
5
, q
6
, q
7
} v
t
0
= {{q
3
},{ q
0
, q
1
, q
2
, q
4
, q
5
, q
6
, q
7
}}.
Chng ta xt tip quan h 1-tng ng tnh t
1
. Trc tin ta c
Q
1
1
= {q
3
}. Da vo bng B2.7 chng ta d kim tra c q
0
l 1-tng
ng vi q
1
, q
5
, q
6
v o(q
0
, t) v o(q
i
, t), i = 1, 5, 6 v t = a, b l cng kt
thc hoc cng khng phi l trng thi kt thc. Vy Q
2
1
= { q
0
, q
1
, q
5
, q
6
}.
Tng t ta c th kim tra c q
2
-tng ng vi q
4
v Q
3
1
= { q
2
, q
4
}.
Hin nhin cn li Q
4
1
= {q
7
}. T chng ta c
b

q
0
b

q
1
a

q
3
q
2
q
4
q
7
q
5
q
6
b

b

a

b

a

b

b

a

a

a

a

b

- 50 -
t
1
= {{q
3
}, { q
0
, q
1
, q
5
, q
6
}, { q
2
, q
4
}, {q
7
}}.
Phn hoch tip t
1
xy dng t
2
. Q
1
2
= {q
3
} v v o(q
0
, t) v o(q
6
, t),
t = a, b u thuc cng lp 1-tng ng (lp {q
0
, q
1
, q
5
, q
6
}) nn q
0
v q
6

l 2-tng ng. Vy Q
2
2
= {q
0
, q
6
}. Nhng q
0
v q
1
(q
0
v q
5
) khng phi
l 2-tng ng v o(q
0
, b) = q
0
(o(q
1
, b) = q
2
, o(q
0
, b) = q
0
, o(q
1
, b) = q
2
)
v chng li khng cng lp 1-tng ng. Kim tra ta thy q
1
l 2-tng
ng vi q
5
, nn Q
3
2
= {q
1
, q
5
}. Tng t q
2
vn l 2-tng ng vi q
4
,
v th Q
4
2
= { q
2
, q
4
} v cn li Q
5
2
= {q
7
}. Vy
t
2
= {{q
3
}, { q
0
, q
6
}, { q
1
, q
5
}, { q
2
, q
4
}, {q
7
}}
Tip tc xy dng t
3
. Tng t nh trn, chng ta thy Q
1
3
= {q
3
}; Q
2
3
= {q
0
, q
6
}
v q
0
l 3-tng ng vi q
6
; tng t Q
3
3
= {q
1
, q
5
}; Q
4
3
= {q
2
, q
4
} v
Q
5
3
= {q
7
}. Ngha l t
3
= {{q
3
}, {q
0
, q
6
}, {q
1
, q
5
}, {q
2
, q
4
}, {q
7
}}.
V t
2
= t
3
, nn cc lp tng ng trong t
2
s lm c s xy dng tmt cc tiu
M' = (Q', {a, b}, o', q
0
', {q
3
}). Trong Q' = t
2
= {{q
3
}, {q
0
, q
6
}, {q
1
, q
5
}, {q
2
, q
4
}, {q
7
}}.
Hm chuyn trng thi o' c xc nh nh trong bng B2.8.
Bng B2.8 Bng cc trng thi ca tmt cc tiu
Trng thi \ a b

{q
0
,q
6
} {q
1
, q
5
} {q
0
, q
6
}
{q
1
, q
5
} {q
0
,q
6
} {q
2
, q
4
}
{q
2
, q
4
} {q
3
} {q
1
, q
5
}
{q
3
} {q
3
} {q
0
,q
6
}
{q
7
} {q
0
, q
6
} {q
3
}

th chuyn trng thi ca tmt cc tiu thu c s l

Hnh H2-10 tmt cc tiu ca tmt hnh H2-9
[q
3
]

[q
0,
q
6
]

b

b

a

[q
1,
q
5
]

[q
2,
q
4
]

[q
7
]

b

a

b

b

a

a
a
a
- 51 -
Bi tp v tmt hu hn
2.1 Chng minh rng trong tmt hu hn, nu o(q, x) = o(q, y) th
o(q, xz) = o(q, yz) vi mi z trong
+
.
2.2 Cho trc tmt hu hn M = (Q, , o, q
0
, F). Gi s R l mt quan h trn
Q c nh ngha nh sau q
1
R q
2
nu o(q
1
, a) = o(q
2
, a) vi a e . Hi R c
phi l quan h tng ng hay khng?
2.3 Xy dng mt tmt khng n nh on nhn {ab, ba}, v s dng n
tm tmt n nh on nhn cng tp .
2.4 Xy dng mt h bin i on nhn c cc xu c cha cat hoc rat t
bng ch a, b, c,
2.5 Xy dng mt tmt khng n nh on nhn c tp tt c cc xu t tp
{a,b} kt thc bng xu con aba.
2.6 Xy dng tmt n nh tng ng vi
M = ({q
0
, q
1
, q
2
, q
3
}, {0, 1}, o, q
0
, {q
3
}) vi o c cho trong bng
Bng B
Trng thi \ a b
q
0
q
0
, q
1
q
0

q
1
q
2
q
1

q
2
q
3
q
3

q
3
q
2

2.7 M = ({q
1
, q
2
, q
3
}, {0, 1}, o, q
1
, {q
3
}) l tmt khng n nh, trong o
c cho bi
o(q
1
, 0) = {q
2
, q
3
}, o(q
1
, 1) = {q
1
}
o(q
2
, 0) = {q
1
, q
2
}, o(q
2
, 1) = C
o(q
3
, 0) = {q
2
}, o(q
3
, 1) = {q
1
, q
2
}
Tm tmt n nh tng ng vi M.
2.8 Xy dng tmt n nh trn {0, 1} on nhn tt c cc xu cha chn
ln cc ch s 1.
2.9 Xy dng tmt n nh trn = {a
1
, a
2
, , a
n
} on nhn cc ngn ng
sau:
a) L
1
= {x e
*
| x c di l}
b) L
2
= {x e
*
| x c di chn}
c) L
3
= {x e
*
| x c di chn v ln hn 1}
- 52 -
2.10* Cho hai tmt sau y:

M
1
: M
2
:

a/ Tm ngn ng T(M
1
) on nhn c bi M
1
v T(M
2
) on nhn c bi M
2

b/ Xy dng tmt M t M
1
v M
2
sao cho T(M) = T(M
1
)T(M
2
)
c/ Xy dng tmt M t M
1
v M
2
sao cho T(M) = T(M
1
) T(M
2
)

2.11* Xy dng tmt cc tiu tng ng vi tmt hu hn cho trc

q
0
0

q
4
q
2
q
6
q
7
q
3
1

1

q
1
q
5
0

1

1

1

1

0

0

1

0

0

1

0

0
q
4
q
0
q
1
q
2
q
3
q
5
0 1
1
1
1
0
1
s
0
s
1
s
2
s
4
a
s
3
c
b
b
c
b
c
- 53 -

CHNG III
Vn phm v ngn ng hnh thc

Chng ba trnh by nhng khi nim, cc tnh cht c bn ca vn phm v ngn
ng hnh thc. Ni dung bao gm:
Cc khi nim c bn ca vn phm v ngn ng hnh thc,
Phn loi vn phm v ngn ng hnh thc ca Chomsky,
Cc php ton trn cc ngn ng v cc tnh cht ca chng,
Tnh qui ca vn phm cm ng cnh,
Cy dn xut i vi vn phm phi ng cnh.
3.1 Bng ch ci v cc ngn ng
L thuyt ngn ng hnh thc l mt lnh vc quan trng v c rt nhiu ng dng
trong khoa hc my tnh. Ngay t u nhng nm 50 ca th k 20, nhiu nh ngn
ng hc mong mun v tm mi cch nh ngha nhng vn phm hnh thc
(m t cc qui tc ca vn phm mt cch chnh xc ca ton hc) m t cc
ngn ng t nhin (ngn ng s dng giao tip trong cuc sng hng ngy nh
ting Anh, ting Php, hoc ting Vit, ...). Theo truyn thng, l thuyt ngn ng
hnh thc lin quan n cc c t c php ca ngn ng nhiu hn l n nhng
vn ng ngha. Nhim v chnh ca l thuyt ngn ng hnh thc l nghin cu
cc cch c t hu hn ca cc ngn ng v hn.
Khi hnh thc ho c cc vn phm ([2], [3], [4], [5]), hin nhin l vic xy
dng cc b chng trnh dch gia cc ngn ng sinh bi cc vn phm trn
my tnh s tr nn n gin hn. Mt ngi ni ting trong s cc nh ngn ng
hc hnh thc l Noam Chomsky, ngi a ra m hnh ton hc cho vn phm
vo nm 1956, tuy cha m t c hon ton ngn ng t nhin (ting Anh),
nhng to ra m hnh cho nhng ngn ng hnh thc thc hin d dng trn my
tnh. Thc t, nhng dng k hiu Backus-Naur (Backus-Naur Form) c s dng
m t nhng ngn ng lp trnh nh Algol, Pascal, C, ... cng chnh l vn phm phi
ng cnh Chomsky.
Trc khi nh ngha hnh thc vn phm, chng ta hy kho st mt s mu cu
chnh trong cc ngn ng t nhin. Trong ngn ng t nhin, v d ting Vit, c
hai mu cu chnh. Nhng cu m chng ta tp trung kho st c dng <danh t>
<ng t> <trng t> hoc <danh t> <ng t>, v d Ba chy nhanh hoc
Ba chy. Trong cu Ba chy nhanh c cc t Ba, chy v nhanh c
vit theo th t xc nh. Nu chng ta thay cc danh t, ng t v trng t bng
cc danh t, ng t v trng t khc tng ng th vn nhn c nhng cu
chnh xc v mt vn phm. V d, khi thay Ba bng Nam, thay chy bng
- 54 -
bi v thay nhanh bng chm chng ta vn c nhng cu ng vn phm.
Tng t i vi nhng cu dng th hai.
Lu : <danh t> <ng t> <trng t> khng phi l cu m ch l m t mt
mu cu. Nu chng ta thay cc thnh phn <danh t>, <ng t>, <trng t>
bng cc t tng thch th s nhn c cc cu ng vn phm. Chng ta gi
<danh t>, <ng t>, <trng t> l cc bin (variable) hay cc k hiu cha
kt thc v cc t Ba, chy, nhanh tng ng c s dng to ra cc cu
c th l cc t kt thc hoc k hiu cui. Nh vy, mi cu ca mt ngn ng
chnh l mt xu c to ra bng cc t kt thc. Chng ta s dng S k hiu
cho mt cu, khi c th to cc qui tc sinh ra hai mu cu trn nh sau:
S <danh t> <ng t> <trng t>
S <danh t> <ng t>
<danh t> Ba
<danh t> Nam
<ng t> chy
<ng t> bi
<trng t> nhanh
<trng t> chm,
Trong , ch ra rng t bn phi (v phi) thay th cho t bn tri (v tri).
Chng ta k hiu P l tp tt c cc qui tc nh trn, c gi l cc qui tc dn
xut (gi tt l qui tc); V
N
l tp cc thnh phn ca cu nh: <danh t>, <ng
t>, <trng t>) v bng t vng l bao gm nh: Ba, Nam, chy, bi,
nhanh, chm, ... T chng ta c th nh ngha hnh thc vn phm l mt
b 4 thnh phn G = (V
N
, , P, S), trong
V
N
= {(<danh t>, <ng t>, <trng t>} - cc k hiu khng kt thc,
= {Ba, Nam, chay, bi, nhanh, chm} - cc k hiu kt thc.
P l tp cc qui tc nh trn v S l k hiu c bit khi u to sinh mt cu.
Cc cu c to ra nh sau:
(i) Bt u t S,
(ii) Ln lt thay th cc k hiu cha kt thc (bin) bng nhng k hiu
kt thc theo qui tc dn xut,
(iii) Kt thc khi xu nhn c ch ton l nhng k hiu kt thc.
Tng qut ha qu trnh nu trn, chng ta nh ngha vn phm hnh thc nh sau.
nh ngha 3.1 Vn phm l mt b 4 thnh phn G = (V
N
, , P, S), trong
(i) V
N
l tp hu hn khc rng cc phn t c gi l cc bin, hay cc
k hiu khng kt thc,
(ii) l tp hu hn khc rng cc phn t c gi l cc k hiu kt
thc, hay bng ch ci,
(iii) V
N
= C, tp cc bin v tp cc k hiu kt thc l ri nhau,
- 55 -
(iv) S l k hiu c bit ca V
N
c gi l k hiu bt u,
(v) P l tp hu hn cc qui tc dn xut c dng o |, trong o, | l
cc xu trn V
N
v v tri o c t nht mt k hiu cha kt thc
(cc bin).
Lu : Tp cc qui tc l ht nhn ca vn phm v n c t ngn ng sinh bi
vn phm . i vi cc qui tc dn xut chng ta lu :
(i) Khng cho php thay th ngc. V d, nu S AB l mt qui tc th
chng ta c th thay S bng AB, nhng ngc li khng th thay AB
bng S c.
(ii) Khng cho php dn xut ngc. V d, nu S AB th khng
c c qui tcAB S.
V d 3.1 G = (V
N
, , P, S) l vn phm, trong
V
N
= {<cu>, <danh t><ng t>, <trng t>},
= {Ba, Nam, Hoa, chy, bi, n, nhanh, chm},
S = <cu>
P = {<cu> <danh t> <ng t>,
<cu> <danh t> <ng t> <trng t >,
<danh t> Ba, <danh t> Nam,
<danh t> Hoa, <ng t> chy,
<ng t> bi, <ng t> n,
<trng t> nhanh, <trng t> chm }
tin li v n gin, trong cc phn sau chng ta s dng cc k hiu:
a) Nu A l mt tp bt k, A
*
k hiu tp tt c cc xu trn A, A
+
= A
*
- A,
vi A l xu rng,
b) Ch vit hoa A, B, A
1
, A
2
, . . . k hiu cho cc bin (k hiu cha kt
thc),
c) Ch thng a, b, c, k hiu cho cc t kt thc, cc ch ci,
d) x, y, z, w, k hiu cho cc xu gm ton cc k hiu kt thc,
e) o, |, T, k hiu cho cc phn t ca (V
N
)
*
, cc xu c c t kt
thc ln cha kt thc,
f) X
0
= A i vi mi tp X _ V
N
.
3.2 Cc dn xut v v ngn ng sinh bi vn phm
Cc qui tc c s dng dn ra mt xu trn V
N
t mt xu cho trc.
Qu trnh s dng lin tc cc qui tc c gi l mt dn xut.
nh ngha 3.2 Nu o | l qui tc trong vn phm G v T, o l hai xu trn
V
N
, khi xu Too s dn xut trc tip ra T|o v c vit l Too
G
T|o.
Trng hp c bit, i vi cc qui tc dng o | chng ta u c o
G

| trong
vn phm G. Khi G xc nh, chng ta c th vit n gin o

|.
- 56 -
Lu : Nu o l xu con ca mt xu v o | l mt qui tc dn xut, chng ta
c th thay o bng | trong xu (cc phn cn li khng thay i).
V d 3.2 G = ({S}, {0, 1}, {S 0S1, S 01}, S} c qui tc S 0S1 nn
0
5
S1
5
G
0
5
0S11
5
= 0
6
S1
6
.
Da vo dn xut
G
chng ta c th thit lp c quan h R trn (V
N
)
*
nh sau:
o R

| nu o
G

|.
nh ngha 3.3 Gi s o v

| l cc xu trn V
N
, chng ta ni rng o
dn ra (dn xut ra)

|, nu o R
*

|. Ni cch khc, o dn ra

| nu o
*
G
|, trong
*
G
l bao ng phn x - bc cu ca quan h
G
trn tp (V
N
)
*
.
Ch : (i) Da vo tnh cht ca quan h
*
G
, hin nhin o
*
G
o vi mi o
(ii) Khi o
*
G
|, o = | ngha l tn ti mt dy o
1
, o
2
, , o
n
, n > 2 sao cho
o = o
1

G
o
2

G

G
o
n
= |. Khi o
*
G
| thc hin trong n bc dn
xut, ta vit o
n
G
|.
nh ngha 3.4 Ngn ng sinh bi vn phm G, k hiu L(G), l tp tt c cc xu
trn tp cc k hiu kt thc dn xut ra c t k t bt u S trong G. Cc phn
t ca L(G) gi l cc xu (hay cc t) ca ngn ng . Hin nhin,
L(G) = {w e
*
| S
*
G
w}
Ta ni rng ngn ng L (k hiu ca L(G) c sinh bi vn phm G hoc G sinh
ra L.
T cc nh ngha pht biu, ta thy rng bn cht ca qu trnh suy dn l
khng n nh: Nu dng dn xut ti mt bc no th ni chung, phn tip
theo khng khi phc mt cch n tr t phn trc , v c th thc hin theo
nhiu cch khc nhau. Mt khc, mt ngn ng c th c sinh bi nhiu vn
phm khc nhau.
nh ngha 3.5 Vn phm G
1
tng ng vi vn phm G
2
nu L(G
1
) = L(G
2
).
V d 3.3 Cho vn phm G
1
= ({S, A, B}, {a, b}, {S ASB, S AB, A a, B b}, S}
v G
2
= ({S'}, {a, b}, {S' aS'b, S' ab}, S'}.
D nhn thy rng L(G
1
) = L(G
2
) = {a
n
b
n
| n > 1} v do vy hai vn phm ny
tng ng vi nhau.
- 57 -
Lu :
1. Mi dn xut u phi thc hin trn c s s dng cc qui tc; khi s cc
qui tc s dng ng mt ln th chng ta vit o
G

|; khi s qui tc ln
hn mt ln th vit l o
*
G

|.
2. Xu cui khng cha cc bin, l mt xu (cu) ca ngn ng sinh bi vn
phm G cho trc.
K hiu: (a) Khi G xc nh th chng ta vit n gin o
*

| thay cho o
*
G

|.
(b) Nu A o, A e V
N
l qui tc trong P, khi chng ta gi l A-dn xut.
(c) Khi c A o
1
, A o
2
, , A o
m
l cc A-dn xut, chng ta c
vit ngn gn A o
1
| o
2
| ... | o
m
.
Sau y chng ta xt mt s vn phm v cc ngn ng sinh bi chng.
V d 3.4 Cho trc vn phm G = ({S}, {0, 1}, {S 0S1, S A}, S}, tm L(G).
V S A nn S
G
A, ngha l A e L(G). Hn na, vi mi n > 1,
S
G
0S1
G
0
2
S1
2

G

G
0
n
S1
n

G
0
n
1
n

V th 0
n
1
n
e L(G), vi n > 0.
ch ra rng L(G) _ {0
n
1
n
| n > 0}, chng ta bt u xt mt cu w bt k thuc
L(G). Nu s dng S A (k hiu rng) trc th ta nhn c A. Trong trng
hp ny w = A = 0
0
1
0
. Ngc li, khi s dng qui tc S 0S1 th sau chng ta
c th hoc s dng S A hoc tip tc s dng S 0S1. Qu trnh dn xut
ca w c dng S
*
G
0
n
S1
n

G
0
n
1
n
, ngha l
L(G) _ {0
n
1
n
| n > 0}
Vy L(G) = {0
n
1
n
| n > 0}.
V d 3.5 Cho trc vn phm G = ({S, C}, {a, b}, P, S), trong P = {S aCa,
CaCa | b}, tm L(G).
V S aCa aba, vy aba e L(G). Hn na
S aCa
S
1
n
G
a
n
Ca
n
(p dng n-1 ln qui tc C aCa)

G
a
n
ba
n
(p dng qui tc C b).
Suy ra a
n
ba
n
e L(G), n > 1; ngha l { a
n
ba
n
| n > 1} _ L(G).
Mt khc, mi cu ca L(G) u c dn ra v c bt u bng qui tc S aCa. Nu
p dng C b th ta nhn c aba. Ngc li p dng mt s ln C aCa th nhn
c a
n
Ca
n
, C l bin v n > 1. Sau p dng C b, chng ta c a
n
ba
n
. T suy ra
- 58 -
L(G) _ { a
n
ba
n
| n > 1}
Kt hp hai bao hm thc trn chng ta c
L(G) = { a
n
ba
n
| n > 1}
V d 3.6 Cho trc G c cc qui tc S aS | bS | a | b, tm L(G).
Chng ta ch ra rng L(G) = {a, b}
+
.
Trc tin chng ta nhn xt G ch c hai k hiu kt thc a, b, nn L(G) _ {a, b}
*
.
Tt c cc qui tcca G u l S-dn xut, vy A thuc L(G) ch khi S A l mt
qui tcca G. Nhng trong vn phm trn khng c qui tc, nn
L(G) _ {a, b}
*
- {A} = {a, b}
+

chng minh {a, b}
+
_ L(G), hy xt dy a
1
a
2
a
n
, trong a
i
l a hoc l b.
Qui tc u tin c th p dng suy ra a
1
a
2
a
n
c th l S aS hoc S bS,
tu thuc a
1
= a hoc a
1
= b. Tng t xt vi a
2
, a
3
, a
n-1
. Cui cng i vi a
n

chng ta p dng S a hoc S b tu thuc a
n
= a hoc a
n
= b. Vy
L(G) = {a, b}
+
V d 3.7 Xy dng vn phm G sinh ra ngn ng L = {wcw
T
| w e {a, b}
*
},
trong w
T
l xu soi gng ca xu w, l xu vit theo th t ngc li ca w,
thng c gi l php o v. V d, (abcde)
T
= edcba.
Chng ta c th chng minh c G = ({S}, {a, b, c}, P, S), vi P = {S aSa | bSb | c}
s sinh ra chnh ngn ng L.
V d 3.8 Tm vn phm sinh ra ngn ng L = {a
n
b
n
c
i
| n > 1, i > 0 }.
D nhn thy L = L
1
L
2
, vi L
1
= {a
n
b
n
| n > 1} (trng hp i = 0) v
L
2
= {a
n
b
n
c
i
| n > 1, i > 1 }
Ngn ng L
1
c th c sinh bi vn phm c cc qui tc S A, A ab, A aAb v
L
2
l kt qu ca php ghp L
1
vi c
i
, i > 1. Vy vn phm G = ({S, A}, {a, b, c}, P, S),
trong
P = { S A, A ab, A aAb, S Sc}
Vi n > 1, i > 0, chng ta c
S
*
Sc
i
Ac
i

*
a
n-1
Ab
n-1
c
i
a
n-1
abb
n-1
c
i
= a
n
b
n
c
i

Suy ra { a
n
b
n
c
i
| n > 1, i > 0} _ L(G).
chng minh chiu ngc li, chng ta hy lu rng mi xu ca L(G) u phi bt
u dn ra bng mt trong cc S-dn xut, S Sc hoc S A. Nu bt u bng
S A v sau p dng mt s ln A aAb ri cui cng p dng A ab:
S A
*
a
n-1
Ab
n-1

*
a
n
b
n
= a
n
b
n
c
0
e L(G).
- 59 -
Khi chng ta bt u bng qui tc S Sc v lp li mt s ln th s nhn c
Sc
i
. Sau p dng cc qui tc cn li nh trn th chng ta c a
n
b
n
c
i
e L(G).
Kt lun: L(G) = {a
n
b
n
c
i
| n > 1, i > 0 }.
V d 3.9 Cho G = ({S, A}, {0, 1, 2}, P, S), trong P gm S 0SA2, S 012,
2A A2, 1A 11. Chng minh rng L(G) = {0
n
1
n
2
n
| n > 1}.
Khi p dng S 012 th S 012, do vy 012 e L(G).
Nu p dng S 0SA2
S
*
0
n-1
S(A2)
n-1
(p dng S 0SA2 n-1 ln)

*
0
n-1
012(A2)
n-1
(p dng S 012)

*
0
n
1A
n-1
2
n
(p dng 2AA2)

*
0
n
1
n
2
n
(p dng 1A 11 n-1 ln).
Vy, 0
n
1
n
2
n
e L(G), n > 1.
chng minh L(G) _ {0
n
1
n
2
n
| n > 1}, chng ta thc hin nh sau: Nu u tin
s dng S 012 th s nhn c 012. Ngc li s dng S 0SA2 mt s ln
th s c 0
n-1
S(A2)
n-1
. loi c S th bt buc phi s dng S 012 v s
nhn c 0
n
12(A2)
n-1
. Mun loi tip A chng ta s dng 2A A2 hoc
1A 11. Qui tc 2A A2 ch i ch ca A v 2. S dng 1A 11 l loi c
bin A. Do vy,
0
n
12(A2)
n-1
= 0
n
12A2 A2 A2, trong c n-1 ln cp A2.
p dng n-1 ln 2A A2,
0
n
12(A2)
n-1
*
0
n
1A
n-1
2
n

Sau p dng n-1 ln 1A 11 th c
0
n
12(A2)
n-1
*
0
n
1
n
2
n

Suy ra L(G) _ {0
n
1
n
2
n
| n > 1} v cui cng L(G) = {0
n
1
n
2
n
| n > 1}.
V d 3.10 Xy dng vn phm G sinh ra L = {a
n
b
n
c
n
| n > 1}.
Chng ta c th xy dng vn phm G sinh ra L bng phng php qui. Tuy
nhin, nu xy dng vn phm sinh trc tip ra L l tng i kh. Vy, chng ta
c th thc hin theo hai bc.
(i) Xc nh cc qui tc dn xut ra a
n
o
n
,
(ii) Chuyn o
n
v b
n
c
n
.
c cc xu a
n
o
n
dng (i), chng ta c th s dng nhng qui tc n gin nh
S aSo | ao. Nu bc (ii) chng ta s dng ngay qui tc o bc th s c
(bc)
n
. Nhng n y khng th chuyn (bc)
n
v c b
n
c
n
v v tri khng c bin
no c. Do vy ta c th s dng o = BC, vi B v C l cc bin. Sau dn cc
- 60 -
bin B v bn tri cn bin C v bn phi bng cch s dng qui tc CB BC. T
nhng lu trn, chng c th nh ngha G = ({S, B, C}, {a, b, c}, P, S), trong
P = { S aSBC | aBC, CB BC, aB ab, bB bb, bC bc, cC cc}
Tip theo chng ta chng minh rng L(G) = {a
n
b
n
c
n
| n > 1}.
V S aBC abC abc, nn abc e L(G).
S
*
a
n-1
S(BC)
n-1
(p dng n-1 ln SaSBC)

*
a
n-1
aBC(BC)
n-1
(p dng qui tc SaBC)

*
a
n
B
n
C
n
(p dng n-1 ln qui tc CB BC)

*
a
n-1
abB
n-1
C
n
(p dng 1 ln qui tc aB ab)

*
a
n
b
n
C
n
(p dng n-1 ln qui tc bB bb)

*
a
n
b
n-1
bc

C
n-1
(p dng 1 ln qui tc bC bc)

*
a
n
b
n
c
n
(p dng n-1 ln qui tc cC cc)
T chng ta c L(G) _ {a
n
b
n
c
n
| n > 1}.
Chiu ngc li s c khng nh nu mi xu a
n
b
n
c
n
, n > 1 u dn xut ra
c t S-dn xut ( S
*
a
n
b
n
c
n
).
Tht vy, nu n = 1 v s dng cc qui tc S aBC, aB ab, bB bb, bC bc,
cC cc th s thu c abc.
Vi n > 1 th s dng n-1 ln S aSBC v 1 ln S aBC chng ta s c
a
n
(BC)
n
. Tip theo chng ta c th s dng CB BC hoc aB ab sau thm
bB bb, bC bc, cC cc. S dng mt trong nhng qui tc trn chng ta s
nhn c cc xu c cc bin B, C nm c bn phi. Khi xy ra cc trng
hp sau:
+ Nu B c dn ht v bn tri ca C th sau ch c th p dng bB bb cho
n khi loi ht bin B v sau s dng bC bc, cC cc cui cng c c a
n
b
n
c
n
.
+ Gi s bin C c chuyn thnh c trc khi tt c cc bin B c chuyn
thnh b, ngha l a
n
(BC)
n

*
a
n
b
i
co, i < n v o cha c bin B ln bin C. V trong
a
n
b
i
co ch c o l cha cc bin cha kt thc v v c ng trc o nn trong cc
qui tc ca G ch c cC cc l c th c p dng. Nu o khng cn dn xut
tip c na (khng c qui tc no c th p dng) v bt u bng B th khng
th dn xut c thnh xu khng cn bin. Ngc li, o bt u bng C th lp
li vic p dng qui tc cC cc cho n khi gp phi t nht bin B, dng
a
n
b
i
c
k
Bo', i, k < n. Trng hp ny cng tng t nh trn, khng th s dng
c qui tc no loi b c bin B. Do vy, trng hp th 2 ny khng th
dn xut ra c cu ca L(G).
- 61 -
Kt hp c 2 trng hp chng ta c {a
n
b
n
c
n
| n > 1} _ L(G) v cui cng l
{a
n
b
n
c
n
| n > 1} = L(G)
V d 3.11 Xy dng vn phm G sinh ra {xx | x e {a, b}
*
}.
Chng ta d on vn phm G = ({S, S
1
, S
2
, S
3
, A, B}, {a, b}, P, S), trong P
gm cc qui tc sau:
P
1
: S S
1
S
2
S
3
, P
8
: Ba aB,

P
2
: S
1
S
2
aS
1
A, P
9
: Bb bB,

P
3
: S
1
S
2
bS
1
B, P
10
: aS
2
S
2
a,
P
4
: AS
3
S
2
aS
3
, P
11
: bS
2
S
2
b,
P
5
: BS
3
S
2
bS
3
, P
12
: S
1
S
2
A,
P
6
: Aa aA, P
13
: S
3
A.
P
7
: Ab bA,
Ch : Trc khi kho st ngn ng sinh bi G chng ta lu mt s tnh cht
sau:
1. Ch c P
1
l S-dn xut,
2. Khi s dng S
1
S
2
aS
1
A, chng ta c th b sung a (k hiu kt thc) vo
bn tri ca S
1
v bin A vo bn phi. A c s dng ch ra rng chng
ta b sung a vo bn phi ca S
1
. Qui tc AS
3
S
2
aS
3
c s dng
a thm a vo bn tri ca S
2
.
3. Tng t, s dng qui tc S
1
S
2
bS
1
B b sung b vo bn tri ca S
1
v
bin B v bn phi. Qui tc BS
3
S
2
bS
3
c s dng a thm b vo
bn tri ca S
2
,
4. S
2
ng vai tr nh phn t trung tm,
5. a thm cc k hiu kt thc vo th ch s dng cc qui tc P
2
P
5
.
6. Cc qui tc P
6
- P
9
ch lm nhim v hon i v tr ca cc k hiu kt thc
vi cha kt thc,
7. P
10
, P
11
thc hin chuyn S
2
sang bn tri,
8. P
12
, P
13
c s dng loi b hon ton cc bin S
1
, S
2
, S
3
.
t L = {xx | x e {a, b}
*
}. Trc tin chng ta ch ra rng L _ L(G).
Chng ta c
S S
1
S
2
S
3
aS
1
AS
3
aS
1
S
2
aS
3
hoc (3.1)
S S
1
S
2
S
3
bS
1
BS
3
bS
1
S
2
bS
3
(3.2)
Gi s xx, x e {a, b}
*
. Chng ta c th p dng (3.1) hoc (3.2) tu thuc vo k
hiu bt u ca x l a hay l b. Xt trng hp hai k t u ca x l ab (cc
trng hp khc cng tng t), chng ta c dn xut S
*
aS
1
S
2
aS
3
abS
1
BaS
3
abS
1
aBS
3
abS
1
aS
2
bS
3
abS
1
S
2
abS
3
. Lp li cch thc hin nh trn vi
- 62 -
mi k hiu trong x, chng ta nhn c x S
1
S
2
xS
3.
, sau s dng P
12
, P
13
suy
dn ra xx, ngha l L _ L(G).
chng minh chiu ngc li L(G) _ L, chng ta hy ch 3 bc u (3.1) v
(3.2) ca mi qu trnh dn xut trong G lun cho aS
1
S
2
aS
3
hoc bS
1
S
2
bS
3
.
Chng ta tho lun v cc cch dn xut tip t aS
1
S
2
aS
3
(trng hp cn li tng t) c
c mt cu trong L(G). Nhng qui tc c th p dng y l S
1
S
2
A, S
3
A,
S
1
S
2
aS
1
A, S
1
S
2
bS
1
B. Xt cc trng hp c th xy ra.
Trng hp 1: S dng S
1
S
2
A vo aS
1
S
2
aS
3
chng ta c aAaS
3
= aaS
3
. Tip
theo ch c th s dng S
3
A c aa e L.
Trng hp 2: S dng S
3
A vo xu aS
1
S
2
aS
3
chng ta c aS
1
S
2
aA = aS
1
S
2
a.
Nu s dng tip S
1
S
2
A th kt qu thu c l aa e L. Ngc li c th s
dng S
1
S
2
aS
1
A (hoc S
1
S
2
bS
1
B) th s nhn c aaS
1
Aa (bbS
1
Bb tng
ng). Trong G s khng c qui tc no c th p dng c dn xut tip m
loi b c cc bin S
1
, A (B tng ng).
Trng hp 3: S dng S
1
S
2
aS
1
A i vi aS
1
S
2
aS
3
chng ta c aaS
1
AaS
3
.
aaS
1
AaS
3
aaS
1
aAS
3

a
2
S
1
aS
2
aS
3
a
2
S
1
S
2
a
2
S
3
. n y d nhn ra qu trnh
dn xut lp li qu trnh trn c a
n
S
1
S
2
a
n
S
3
ri s dng S
1
S
2
A, S
3
A
suy ra a
n
a
n
e L.
Trng hp 4: S dng S
1
S
2
bS
1
B i vi aS
1
S
2
aS
3
chng ta c abS
1
BaS
3
. Dn
xut tng t nh trn ta c xu abS
1
S
2
abS
3
v abab e L.
Tip tc dn xut, thc hin mt trong bn trng hp nu trn, chng ta s
suy ra xu dng xS
1
S
2
xS
3
v do vy xx eL.
T kt lun L(G) = L.
V d 3.12 Cho trc G c cc qui tc dn xut S aSa | bSb | aa | bb | A. Hy
chng minh rng:
(i) Mi xu (cu) ca L(G) u c di chn,
(ii) S cc xu c di 2*n l 2
n
.
Mnh u (i) d khng nh v khi p dng bt k mt qui tc no ca G cng
u thay mt k hiu khng kt thc (S) bng hai k hiu kt thc (a hoc b) (tr
S A) v c nhiu nht mt k hiu khng kt thc. Do vy, qua mi ln p dng
mt qui tc th di ca xu c dn ra tng ln 2 tr qui tc S A.
chng minh mnh (ii), chng ta xt xu w c di 2*n. Da vo cc qui tc
ca G, chng ta thy w c dng a
1
a
2
a
n
a
n
a
2
a
1
, a
i
c dng a hoc b. Vy s
tt c cc xu nh th s l 2
n
.
3.3 Phn loi cc ngn ng ca Chomsky
Trong nh ngha ca vn phm G = (V
N
, , P, S); V
N
l tp cc bin, l tp
ch ci v S eV
N
. tin li cho vic nghin cu v kho st cc ngn ng c
- 63 -
sinh ra bi vn phm, chng ta tm cch phn loi chng. Mun phn loi c cc
ngn ng, chng ta phi da vo cc dng khc nhau ca cc qui tc dn xut.
Chomsky chia cc qui tc dn xut ca vn phm G thnh bn loi.
Trc khi thc hin phn loi ngn ng chng ta cn a thm khi nim v ng
cnh.
Xt qui tc dn xut dng |A |o, trong A l bin; | c gi l ng cnh
tri cn gi l ng cnh phi v |o l xu thay th. Qua chng ta hiu l
ch c th thc hin dn xut theo ng cnh v c c xu thay th trong ng
cnh tri v phi nh xc nh.
V d 3.13
(i) Trong abAbcd abBAbcd, ab l ng cnh tri v bcd l ng cnh phi,
(ii) AB A, A l ng cnh tri, A l ng cnh phi v o = A.
(iii) B A, c ng cnh tri, phi v o u l A. Qui tc ny cho php xo
bin B trong mi ng cnh.
nh ngha 3.6 (Phn loi Chomsky) Cho trc vn phm G = (V
N
, , P, S).
1. Nu cc qui tc trong P khng c rng buc no c th c gi l vn phm loi 0,
hay cn gi l vn phm ng cu, vn phm cu trc cu ([2], [4], [6]) v ngn ng
sinh bi n c gi l ngn ng loi 0 (ng cu). Cc qui tc dng trn c gi
l qui tc loi 0.
2. Nu cc qui tc ca P c dng |A |o vi o = A th vn phm c
gi l loi 1 (cm ng cnh, ph thuc vo ng cnh) v ngn ng sinh bi
n c gi l ngn ng loi 1 (cm ng cnh). Cc qui tc dng trn c
gi l qui tc loi 1. Qui tc S A c php xut hin trong vn phm
loi 1, nhng khi S khng c xut hin v phi ca bt k qui tc
no khc v khi G c gi l vn phm cm ng cnh suy rng.
3. Nu cc qui tc ca P c dng A o vi A eV
N
v o e (V
N
)
*
th
vn phm c gi l loi 2 (phi ng cnh, khng ph thuc vo ng cnh)
v ngn ng sinh bi n c gi l ngn ng loi 2 (phi ng cnh). Cc
qui tc dng trn c gi l qui tc loi 2.
4. Nu cc qui tc ca P c dng A a hoc A aB vi A, B eV
N
v a e
th vn phm c gi l loi 3 (chnh qui) v ngn ng sinh bi n c
gi l ngn ng loi 3 (chnh qui). Cc qui tc dng trn c gi l qui tc
loi 3. Qui tc S A c php xut hin trong vn phm loi 3, nhng khi
S khng c xut hin v phi ca bt k qui tc no khc. Vn phm
chnh qui c qui tc SA c gi l vn phm chnh qui suy rng.
Lu :
Trong vn phm cm ng cnh, chng ta c th s dng qui tc A A
xo i mt bin A m khng c iu kin no. Qui tc ny khng phi l
loi 1 m l loi 1 m rng.
- 64 -
Tt c cc qui tc loi 1: |A |o vi o = A u khng lm gim
di ca xu thay th, ngha l ||A| s ||o|. Tuy nhin, nu o | l qui
tc vi |o| s ||| th cha hn n l loi 1. V d, AB BA khng phi l
qui tc loi 1. Phn sau chng ta s ch ra rng nhng qui tc nh th c th
thay bng qui tc loi 1.
V tri ca qui tc loi 2 (phi ng cnh) lun l mt bin. Trong vn phm
loi 2 (phi ng cnh) c th c qui tc A A, loi qui tc rng cho php
xa i cc bin trong cc dn xut.
Vn phm chnh qui l vn phm phi ng cnh; vn phm phi ng cnh v
vn phm cm ng cnh l vn phm loi 0. Phn sau chng ta khng nh
thm vn phm phi ng cnh cng l vn phm cm ng cnh, chnh xc
hn l c th loi qui tc xo bin t do A A mi qui tc loi 2 cng
l loi 1 m vn m bo tng ng gia cc vn phm.
V d 3.14 Tm loi cao nht c th p dng cho cc vn phm c cc qui tc nh sau:
(i) S Aa, A c | Ba, B abc. Cc qui tc S Aa, A Ba, B abc
thuc loi 2 v A c l loi 3, vy vn phm cha cc qui tc ny l loi 2.
(ii) S ASB | d, A aA. Qui tc S ASB l loi 2, hai qui tc cn li
l loi 3 nn vn phm c nhng qui tc trn l loi 2.
(iii) S aA | bB, A bB | aS, B bB | bS, S a, B a | b. D kim
tra tt c cc qui tc u loi 3 v do vy vn phm cha chng l vn
phm chnh qui.
V d 3.15 Cho vn phm G = ({S, A, B}, {a, b}, P, S) v P gm nhng qui tc sau:
S aB A bAA
S bA B b
A a B bS
A aS B aBB
Vn phm ny l phi ng cnh v tt c cc qui tc u l loi 2. Ngn ng sinh bi
vn phm ny gm tt c cc xu c s cc ch a bng s cc ch b. Chng ta c
th chng minh iu khng nh trn bng phng php qui np theo di ca
xu. Ngoi ra bng phng php qui np chng ta c th chng minh cc tnh cht
sau vi w e
*
.
1. S
*
w nu v ch nu w c s cc ch a bng s cc ch b,
2. A
*
w nu v ch nu w c s cc ch a ln hn s cc ch b l 1,
3. B
*
w nu v ch nu w c s cc ch b ln hn s cc ch a l 1.
Chng ta chng minh tnh cht 1.
Bc c s: |w| = 1 th chng ta ch c A a hoc B b. Do vy t S khng th
dn xut ra xu no c 1 k hiu, ngha l tnh cht trn l ng.
- 65 -
Gi thit qui np: Gi s tnh cht trn ng vi w v |w| < k. Chng ta cn ch ra
rng chng cng ng vi w vi |w| = k.
Trc tin, nu S
*
w th dy dn xut ny phi bt u bng qui tc S aB
hoc S bA. Trng hp s dng S aB th w = aw
1
, vi |w
1
| < k v B
*
w
1
.
Theo gi thit qui np th w
1
c s cc ch b ln hn s cc ch a l 1. T suy ra
w c s cc ch a bng s cc ch b. Tng t i vi qui tc th hai.
Chng ta chng minh iu kin (ch nu): w c s cc ch a bng s cc ch
b v |w| = k th S
*
w. Bit rng trong w ch c a hoc b, do vy k hiu u c
th l a hoc b.
+ Nu k hiu u l a th chng ta c w = aw
1
vi |w
1
| = k -1 < k v s k
hiu b trong w
1
ln hn s k hiu a l 1. Theo gi thit qui np th B
*
w
1
, t
suy ra S aB
*
aw
1
= w, ngha l S
*
w.
+ Tng t i vi trng hp w bt u bng b.
Tnh cht 2. v 3. c th chng minh qui np tng t nh trn.
V d 3.16 Hy lp vn phm phi ng cnh sinh cc ngn ng trn bng ch ci
= {a, b, c, d}.
L

= {x e
*
| x c di chn, bt u bng abc, kt thc bi cd v cha
ng 3 v tr ca c}.
Gii:
Xy dng vn phm phi ng cnh sinh ra L.
Xt x e L, x c di chn v phi bt u bng abc, kt thc bi cd. Vy phn
u v phn cui cha 2 ch c v c tng cng 5 ch ci. Vy:
x e L x = abcwdc, w e
*
vi w c di l s l v cha ng mt ch c.
x = abcw
1
cw
2
dc, w
1
, w
2
e( - {c})
*
= {a, b, d}* sao cho |w
1
| + |w
2
| l s chn.
Da trn cu trc ca t x ta thit lp c vn phm G sinh ra L c dng sau:
G = ({S, A, B, C, D}, {a, b, c, d}, P, S), trong P c cc qui tc sau:
P = {S abcAcAcd | abcBcBcd,
A aC | bC | dC,
C aA | bA | dA | A,
B aD | bD | dD | A,
D aB | bB | dB}
V d 3.17 Hy lp vn phm phi ng cnh sinh ra ngn ng L = {a
n+1
b
n+2
| n >0}.
- 66 -
Gii:
Khi xy dng vn phm sinh ra mt ngn ng cho trc, cn phi thc hin theo
hai bc: phn tch cu trc cc t ca ngn ng v sau tm cc qui tc sinh
ra cc t .
(i) Phn tch: mi t x = a
n+1
b
n+2
c th vit thnh hai phn:
+ Cc t con a, b
2
khng ph thuc vo tham s n c gi l phn c nh.
Phn ny c th t cc v tr c th trn c s m bo lut giao hon.
Vi mi cch t s to ra mt vn phm tng ng.
+ Phn ph thuc vo n: a
n
, b
n
. Khi n thay i th s ch a, b cng phi thay
i nhng phi m bo sinh ra bng nhau. Ta gi cm ny l cm i
xng. Hin nhin (a
n
, b
n
) lp thnh cm i xng. m bo tnh i
xng th mi cm i xng phi do mt bin ring sinh ra chng.
Ta c th vit w e L bt k di mt trong bn dng khc nhau:
w = a
n
ab
2
b
n
= aa
n
b
n
b
2
= a
n
ab
n
b
2
= aa
n
b
2
b
n

(ii) Xy dng vn phm: T bn dng khc nhau ca xu x c bn vn phm tng
ng nh sau:
G
1

= ({S}, {a, b}, {SaSb | ab
2
}, S)
G
2

= ({S, A}, {a, b}, {S aAb
2
, A aAb | A}, S)
G
3

= ({S, A}, {a, b}, {S Ab
2
, A aAb | a}, S)
G
3

= ({S, A}, {a, b}, {S aA, A aAb | b
2
}, S)
Hin nhin bn vn phm ny tng ng vi nhau: L(G
1
) = L(G
2
) = L(G
3
) = L(G
4
) = L.
V d 3.18 Xy dng vn phm phi ng cnh sinh ra ngn ng sau
L = {a
2n+1
c
m+1
d
2m+1
b
n+2
c
i+2
f
k+1
a
3i+2
| n, m, i, k = 0, 1, 2, }
Mi t w e L u phn c thnh 4 cm i xng nh sau
w = a
2n
a

c
m
c

d d
2m
b
2
b
n
c
i
c
2
f
k
f a
2
a
3i
, vi n, m, i, k = 1, 2,

Hai cm i xng (a
2n
, b
n
) v (c
i
, a
3i
) c quan h tch ghp, nn chng phi c
sinh ng thi. Ta chn S
1
sinh ra (a
2n
, b
n
) v S
2
sinh ra (c
i
, a
3i
) cng mt lc.
Cm (c
m
, d
2m
) c lng trong (a
2n
, b
n
), cm (f
k
) lng trong (c
i
, a
3i
). Nhng cm
i xng c quan h lng nhau th c sinh dn t ngoi vo trong, ngha cm b
cha sinh sau cm cha n. Ta chn tip S
3
sinh ra (c
m
, d
2m
), S
4
sinh ra (f
k
).
Khi cm (a
2n
, b
n
) phi c sinh ra trc sau mi n cm (c
m
, d
2m
), tc l S
1
phi xut hin trc S
3
. Tng t, cm (c
i
, a
3i
) phi c sinh ra trc (f
k
), tc l
S
2
phi xut hin trc S
4
.
S
1
S
3
S
4
S
2
- 67 -
Ngoi ra, cc k hiu ph S
1
, S
2
, S
3
, S
4
m nhn vic sinh ra cc xu con ca
w, nn chng khng th ng vai tr l k t bt u c. Bi vy ta a thm k
t bt u S v vn phm sinh ra L s c dng sau:
G = {{S, S
1
, S
2
, S
3
, S
4
}, {a, b, c, d, f}, P, S), trong P gm cc qui tc sau:
S S
1
S
2
(sinh ra 2 cm i xng tch ghp (a
2n
, b
n
) v (c
i
, a
3i
))
S
1
a
2
S
1
b (lp sinh ra cm i xng (a
2n
, b
n
))
S
1
aS
2
b
2
(dn ra S
2
chun b sinh ra cm i xng (a
m
, b
2m
))
S
2
cS
2
a
2
(lp sinh ra cm i xng (c
m
, b
2m
))
S
2
cd (kt thc vic sinh ra phn u ca xu w)
S
3
cS
3
a
3
(lp sinh ra cm i xng (c
i
, a
3i
))
S
3
c
2
S
4
a
2
(a S
4
vo chun b sinh ra (f
k
))
S
4
fS
4
| f
V d 3.20 Xy dng vn phm phi ng cnh trn = {a, b, c, d, e} sinh ra ngn ng
L = { w e | w bt u bng abbb, kt thc bng ccd, cha abbcd v |w| l chn}
Trc khi xy dng vn phm G, ta cn phn tch cu trc ca w e L, trn c s
a ra nhng qui tc thch hp.
w e L w = abbbxabbcdyccd, vi x, y e
*
v |y| + |x| l mt s chn.
Tng di ca x v y l mt s chn li c chia thnh hai trng hp: di ca
chng cng chn hoc cng l. Do vy, ta c th s dng ch s 1 cho trng hp chng
c di l v ch s 2 cho trng hp chng cng c di chn. Khi

w e L w =

S dng k hiu A sinh ra trng hp (3.3) v k biu B sinh ra trng (3.4). Khi
vn phm G c cc qui tc dng:
S abbbAabbcdAccd | abbbBabbcdBccd
A aC | bC | cC | dC | eC
C aA | bA | cA | dA | eA | A
B aD | bD | cD | dD | eD | A
D aB | bB | cB | dB | eB
V d 3.20 Cho bng ch ci = {a
1
, a
2
, , a
n
}.
(i) Ngn ng L =
+
c sinh bi vn phm chnh qui
G = ({S}, , {S a
i
S | a
i
, 1 s i s n}, S).
abbbx
1
abbcdy
1
ccd
abbbx
2
abbcdy
2
ccd
vi x
1
, y
1
e
*
v |x
1
|, |y
1
| l l (3.3)
sinh ra x
1
, y
1
e
*
c di l
sinh ra x
2
, y
2
e
*
c di chn
vi x
2
, y
2
e
*
v |x
2
|, |y
2
| l chn (3.4)
- 68 -
(ii) Ngn ng L gm tt c cc t c di chn c sinh bi vn phm chnh qui
suy rng nh sau:
G = ({S, A}, , {S a
i
A | A, A a
j
S, 1 s i, j s n}, S).
(iii) Ngn ng L gm tt c cc t c di l c sinh bi vn phm chnh qui
suy rng nh sau:
G = ({S, A}, , {S a
i
A, A a
j
S | A, 1 s i, j s n}, S).
V d 3.21 i vi mi s t nhin n = 0, 1, 2, ta c th biu din n di dng
nh phn n = 111, trong c (n + 1) ch s 1. Khi vn phm chnh qui sau
s sinh ra tp cc s t nhin
G = ({S}, {1}, { S 1S | 1}, S)

nh l 3.1 Cho trc vn phm G. Tn ti vn phm G
1
tng ng vi G v c
cc qui tc dng o |, vi o, | e V
N
*
(c hai v ch cha cc bin) hoc A a
vi A eV
N
v a e (v tri l mt bin v v phi l k hiu kt thc).
Chng minh: Chng ta xy dng G
1
nh sau: Vi mi qui tc o | trong G, khng
tho iu kin trn, ngha l trong o, | c mt s k hiu kt thc. Trong c o v |,
thay nhng k hiu kt thc, v d a e tng ng bng C
a
eV
N
v chng ta c 2
xu mi o', |'. Tip theo thay qui tc o | bng o'|' v C
a
a, vi mi a
trong o v mi a trong |. Tp cc bin ca G
1
bao gm tt c cc bin ca G v
c b sung thm nhng bin mi C
a
. K hiu bt u v tp k hiu kt thc ca
G
1
chnh l k hiu bt u v tp k hiu kt thc ca G. D nhn thy G
1
tho
mn iu kin nu trn v tng ng vi G (L(G) = L(G
1
)). Tip tc phng
php trn chng ta a mi vn phm v c dng nh trong nh l 3.1.
nh ngha 3.7 Vn phm G = (V
N
, , P, S) l n iu nu mi qui tc ca P
u c dng o | vi |o| s ||| hoc S A khi S khng xut hin v phi ca
bt k qui tc no ca P.
nh l 3.2 Mi vn phm n iu G u tng ng vi vn phm loi 1 (cm
ng cnh).
Chng minh: Da vo nh l 3.1 chng ta xy dng c G
1
tng ng vi G.
Tip theo chng ta xy dng vn phm cm ng cnh G
2
tng ng vi G
1
nh sau:
Xt qui tc A
1
A
2
A
m
B
1
B
1
B
n
vi n > m trong G
1
. Nu m = 1 th qui
tc ny l loi 1.
Gi s m > 2. Tng ng vi nhng qui tc A
1
A
2
A
m
B
1
B
1
B
n
m m > n,
chng ta a thm cc bin C
1
, C
2
, C
m
v cc qui tc mi.
A
1
A
2
A
m
C
1
A
2
A
m
,
C
1
A
2
A
m
C
1
C
2
A
3
A
m
,
C
1
C
2
A
3
A
m
C
1
C
2
C
3
A
4
A
m
, . . .
C
1
C
2
C
m-1
A
m
C
1
C
2
C
m
B
m+1
B
n
,
- 69 -
C
1
C
2
C
m
B
m+1
B
n
B
1
C
2
C
m
B
m+1
B
n
,
B
1
C
2
C
m
B
m+1
B
n
B
1
B
2
C
3
C
m
B
m+1
B
n
,
B
1
B
2
C
m
B
m+1
B
n
B
1
B
2
B
m
B
m+1
B
n
.
Trong cch xy dng nh trn chng ta thay A
1
bng C
1
, A
2
bng C
2
, ..., v
A
m
bng C
m
B
m+1
B
n
. Sau tip tc thay C
1
bng B
1
, C
2
bng B
2
, Mi ln
ch thay th 1 k hiu v hin nhin l tt c cc qui tc trn u l loi 1.
Tp bin ca G
2
bao gm tt c cc bin ca G
1
v cc bin mi C
1
, C
2
, ...; tp cc
qui tc bao gm nhng qui tc thuc loi 1 ca G
1
v nhng qui tc mi nh
trn. Tp cc k hiu kt thc v k hiu bt u ca chng l ging nhau.
Nh vy, G
2
l cm ng cnh v L(G
2
) = L(G
1
) = L(G).
Vn quan trng tip theo cn quan tm l xc nh mi quan h gia cc lp
sinh bi cc loi vn phm nu trn.
Chng ta k hiu
0
,
1
,
2
,
3
cho tp cc ngn ng loi 0, ngn ng cm ng
cnh, ngn ng phi ng cnh v ngn ng chnh qui tng ng.
Chng ta c cc tnh cht sau:
Tnh cht 3.1 T nh ngha suy ra
3
_
2
;
2
_
0
v
1
_
0

Tnh cht 3.2
2
_
1

Quan h bao hm thc ny khng trc tip suy ra c t nh ngha ca vn phm
phi ng cnh v cm ng cnh ca Chomsky v trong vn phm phi ng cnh cho
php s dng A A, ngay c khi A = S, cn vn phm cm ng cnh ch cho
php S A. Trong chng 5 chng ta s chng minh rng vn phm phi ng cnh
G c cha qui tc dng A A l tng ng vi vn phm phi ng cnh G
1

khng cha cc qui tc nh th (ngoi tr S A). Hn na, khi G
1
c S A th S
khng c xut hin v phi ca bt k qui tc no khc. Do vy, G
1
l vn
phm cm ng cnh, ngha l ngn ng phi ng cnh cng l ngn ng cm ng
cnh.
Kt hp 2 tnh cht trn chng ta c.
Tnh cht 3.3
3
_
2
_
1
_
0

Chnh xc hn, ta c:
Tnh cht 3.4
3
c
2
c
1
c
0

Trong chng 4 chng ta s ch ra rng tn ti nhng ngn ng phi ng cnh
nhng khng phi l chnh qui; c nhng ngn ng cm ng cnh nhng khng
phi l phi ng cnh (chng 5) v nhiu ngn ng loi 0 nhng khng xy dng
c vn phm cm ng cnh sinh ra chng.
Ch :
(i) Cc vn phm cho cc v d 3.1, 3.2, 3.5 l phi ng cnh nhng khng
phi l chnh qui; vn phm v d 3.6 l chnh qui.
- 70 -
(ii) Vn phm xy dng v d 3.10, 3.11 khng phi l cm ng cnh (trc
tip da vo cc qui tc) song chng l n iu nn theo nh l 3.2 c
th xy dng c vn phm cm ng cnh tng ng.
(iii) Hai vn phm thuc hai loi khc nhau c th sinh ra cng mt ngn ng.
V d, vn phm G
1
c S aS | bS | a | b l chnh qui, cn vn phm G
2

c S SS | aS | bS | a | b khng phi chnh qui (phi ng cnh) nhng
sinh ra cng ngn ng L = {a, b}
+
v S SS khng dn xut thm c
xu no khc v ngn ng s c loi cng loi vi vn phm c loi cao
nht, tc L l chnh qui.
(iv) Loi ca mt vn phm cho trc c th d dng xc nh c da vo
bn cht ca cc qui tc dn xut. Tuy nhin, kiu ca mt tp con ca
*

th kh xc nh hn nhiu. Trong ch (iii) chng ta thy c nhng
tp cc xu c sinh bi nhiu vn phm c kiu khc nhau. chng
minh c mt ngn ng cho trc khng phi l chnh qui, hay khng
phi l phi ng cnh th phi s dng cc b Bm (Pumping Lemma)
c gii thiu cc chng sau.
Ngoi cch phn loi vn phm, ngn ng hnh thc ca Chomsky, ngi ta cn
phn ra loi vn phm tuyn tnh v khng tuyn tnh.
nh ngha 3.8 Vn phm phi ng cnh m mi qui tc ca n c v phi khng
qu mt k hiu khng kt thc (bin) c gi l vn phm tuyn tnh.
nh ngha 3.9
(i) Vn phm tuyn tnh m mi qui tc c k hiu khng kt thc nm
pha bn phi ca v phi, c gi l tuyn tnh phi.
(ii) Vn phm tuyn tnh m mi qui tc c k hiu khng kt thc nm
pha bn tri ca v phi, c gi l tuyn tnh tri.
V d 3.22
(i) Vn phm phi ng cnh G
1
c cc qui tc S aCa, C aCa | b l vn
phm tuyn tnh.
(ii) Mi vn phm chnh qui u l vn phm tuyn tnh phi. V d vn
phm chnh qui G
2
c cc qui tc S aC, C aC | a.
(iii) Vn phm phi ng cnh G
3
c cc qui tc S Aa, A c | Ba, B abc l
vn phm tuyn tnh tri.
3.4 Tnh qui v cc tp qui
Khi nim tp qui c s dng trong nhiu lnh vc khc nhau. nh ngha
tp qui chng cn nhc li khi nim th tc v thut ton.
Mt th tc gii mt bi ton l mt dy cc cu lnh x l cc d liu vo (dy
vo) cho ra cc kt qu (output) mong mun. Tp d liu vo c th l tp rng.
- 71 -
Mt thut ton l mt th tc c thc hin v kt thc sau hu hn cc bc i
vi mi d liu vo.
nh ngha 3.10 Tp X l qui nu c mt thut ton kim tra c mt phn
t c thuc X hay khng.
nh ngha 3.11 Tp X l c nh s qui nu c mt th tc kim tra c
mt phn t c thuc X hay khng.
Hin nhin l tp qui s c nh s qui (cn gi l qui m c).
nh l 3.3 Ngn ng cm ng cnh l qui.
Chng minh: Cho G = (V
N
, , P, S) l ngn ng cm ng cnh v w e
*
.
Chng ta cn xy dng thut ton kim tra xem w e L(G) hay khng.
Nu w = A, w e L(G) S A c trong P. Vic kim tra xem S A c trong P
lun thc hin c sau hu hn ln v lc lng ca P l hu hn.
Gi s |w| = n > 1. Thut ton s c thit lp da trn vic xy dng dy cc tp
con {W
i
} ca V
N
. W
i
n gin l tp tt c cc xu dn xut ra bc th i v
c di nh hn hoc bng n. Dy ny c xy dng qui nh sau:
(i) W
0
= {S},
(ii) W
i+1
= W
i
{| e (V
N
)
*
| -o e W
i
sao cho o | v ||| s n},
Cc tp W
i
tho mn cc tnh cht sau:
(iii) W
i
_ W
i+1
, vi mi i > 0,
(iv) -k sao cho W
k
= W
k+1
,
(v) Nu k l s nguyn nh nht W
k
= W
k+1
th
W
k
= {o e (V
N
)
*
| S
*
o v |o| s n}
Tnh cht (iii) suy ra t (ii). chng minh (iv), chng ta xt N l s tt c cc xu trn
V
N
c di nh hn hoc bng n. Nu |V
N
| = m th N = 1 + m + m
2
+ ... + m
n

bi v m
i
l s cc xu c di i trn V
N
. N c xc nh v n ch ph thuc vo
n v m. Hin nhin l |W
i
| s N, vi mi i. T suy ra (da vo nguyn l chung b
cu) W
k
= W
k+1
, vi k s N.
T (ii) v t (iv) W
k
= W
k+1
ko theo W
k+1
= W
k+2
. Vy chng ta chng minh c
tnh cht (v) v
{o e (V
N
)
*
| S
*
o v |o| s n} = W
1
W
2
... W
k

W
k+1
...
= W
1
W
2
... W
k
= W
k
(t (ii)).
Tnh cht (v) khng nh w e L(G) (S
*
w) khi v ch khi w e W
k
. Chng ta bit
l W
1
,W
2
, ..., W
k
c to ra sau hu hn bc.
- 72 -
Thut ton kim tra w e L(G) c thc hin nh sau:
1. Xy dng W
1
, W
2
, ..., W
k
nh trong (i) v (ii) v W
k
= W
k+1
.
2. Nu w e W
k
th w e L(G), ngc li w e L(G).
V d 3.23 Cho vn phm G c S 0SA
1
2, S 012, 2A
1
A
1
2, 1A
1
11.
Kim tra
a/ 00112 e L(G)?. kim tra w = 00112 e L(G) hay khng, chng ta hy
xy dng W
1
, W
2
, ..., W
k
bit rng |w| = 5.
W
0
= {S},
W
1
= {012, S, 0SA
1
2},
W
2
= {012, S, 0SA
1
2},
W
1
= W
2
v nh vy k = 2 (mc d 0SA
1
2 0012A
1
2, nhng khng th b sung
0012A
1
2 vo W
2
v n c d di ln hn 5). 00112 khng nm trong W
2
vy n
khng c sinh bi vn phm trn.
b/ w = 001122 e L(G)?. V |w| = 6 nn chng ta c
W
0
= {S},
W
1
= {012, S, 0SA
1
2},
W
2
= {012, S, 0SA
1
2, 0012A
1
2},
W
3
= {012, S, 0SA
1
2, 0012A
1
2,001A
1
22},
W
4
= {012, S, 0SA
1
2, 0012A
1
2, 001A
1
22, 001122},
W
5
= {012, S, 0SA
1
2, 0012A
1
2, 001A
1
22, 001122},
D kim tra c 001122 e W
4
, suy ra w e L(G).
nh l sau kh th v v mt l thuyt tp qui v cc ngn ng hnh thc.
nh l 3.4 Tn ti tp qui nhng khng phi l ngn ng cm ng cnh trn
tp {0,1}.
Chng minh:
t = {0, 1}. Cc phn t (xu) ca
*
c vit thnh dy w
i
, i = 1, 2, v c nh
s: A, 0, 1, 00, 01, 11, 000, ... V d w
10
= 010 l phn t th 10 ca dy.
Bit rng mi vn phm u c tp cc k hiu (cha kt thc v kt thc), tp cc
qui tc l hu hn, nn tt c cc vn phm cm ng cnh xc nh trn c th
vit thnh dy G
1
, G
2
, ... sao cho G
i
c cha w
i
.
Chng ta nh ngha X = {w
i
e
*
| w
i
e L(G
i
)} v chng minh rng X l qui.
Nu w e
*
th chng ta c th tm c i w = w
i
. Qu trnh tm i lun kt thc
sau hu hn bc kim tra (s bc ph thuc vo |w|). V d, w = 0100 th
w = w
20
, i = 20. V G
20
l vn phm cm ng cnh, do vy chng ta (c thut ton)
kim tra c xem w e L(G
20
) hay khng (theo nh l 3.3), suy ra X l qui.
- 73 -
Vn cn li l chng minh X khng phi l ngn ng cm ng cnh. Chng ta
chng minh bng phn chng. Gi thit tn ti n sao cho X = L(G
n
). Xt phn t
th n ca
*
(tc w
n
). Theo nh ngha ca X, w
n
e X ko theo w
n
e L(G
n
). iu
ny mu thn vi X = L(G
n
). Ngc li, nu w
n
e X s ko theo w
n
e L(G
n
), li
mu thn vi X = L(G
n
). Do X = L(G
n
) vi mi n v X khng c sinh bi vn
phm cm ng cnh no c.
3.5 Cc php ton trn cc ngn ng
Ngoi nhng tnh cht ca cc lp ngn ng nh kho st phn trc, nhiu
tnh cht khc nh kh nng thc hin cc php ton tp hp trn cc ngn ng
(xem nh tp cc xu, hay cc t) cng rt quan trng v c nhiu ng dng trong
vic nghin cu hnh vi ca cc h thng, trong c l thuyt chng trnh dch.
Gi s A v B l hai tp cc xu bt k. Ghp ca hai tp A, B l AB = {uw | u eA
v w eB} (uw l ghp hai xu nh chng 1 nh ngha). Cho trc tp A cc
xu,
A
0
= A (t rng)
A
1
= A,
A
n+1
= A
n
A = AA
n
, vi mi n > 1 v
A
T
= {u
T
| u e A} tp cc t o v (soi gng) ca A.
Gi s L l ngn ng trn , phn b ca L l ngn ng, k hiu l L
C
=
*

- L.
nh ngha 3.12 Ta ni ngn ng
i
ng vi php ton nu
L
1
, L
2
e
i
th L
1
L
2
e
i
, i = 0, 1, 2, 3.
nh l 3.5 Cc lp ngn ng
0
,
1
,
2
,
3
ng i vi php hp .
Chng minh. Gi s L
1
, L
2
e
i
, i = 0, 1, 2, 3. p dng nh l 3.1 chng ta xy
dng c hai vn phm G1 = (V
N
1
,
1
, P
1
, S
1
), G2 = (V
N
2
,
2
, P
2
, S
2
) thuc loi
i sinh ra L
1
, L
2
tng ng. Cc qui tc trong P
1
, P
2
c dng o |, vi o v |
ch cha cc bin hoc c dng A a, vi A l bin cn a l k hiu kt thc.
Khng mt tnh tng qut, chng ta c th gi thit V
N
1
V
N
2
= C (bng cch t
tn cc bin khc nu chng xut hin trong c hai tp).
Chng ta nh ngha vn phm mi
G = (V
N
1
V
N
2
{S} ,
1

2
, P, S), trong
S l k hiu mi khng thuc V
N
1
V
N
2
v
P = P
1
P
2
{S S
1
, S S
2
} vi i = 0, 1, 2
Ring i vi trng hp cc ngn ng chnh qui (i = 3) th
P = P
1
P
2
{S a | bA, S c | dB} nu c S
1
a | bA v S
2
c | dA
P = P
1
P
2
{S aS, S bS} nu c S
1
aS
1
v S
2
bS
2
- 74 -
Chng minh L(G) = L
1
L
2
c th tin hnh nh sau: Nu w e L
1
L
2
th S
1
*
1 G
w
hoc S
2
*
2 G
w. V c S S
1
v S S
2
, nn S
G
S
1
*
1 G
w hoc S
G
S
2
*
2 G
w,
suy ra w e L(G), ngha l L
1
L
2
_ L(G).
chng minh chiu ngc li L(G) _ L
1
L
2
, hy xt cu w e L(G), S
*
G
w.
Nu s dng qui tc S S
1
th cc bc dn xut sau ch s dng cc qui tc
trong G1 v cc bin c th xut hin v tri dn xut c ca hai vn phm
l ri nhau. Do vy
S
G
S
1
*
1 G
w, suy ra w e L
1
.
Tng t i vi trng hp khi s dng S S
2
s dn ra
S
G
S
2
*
2 G
w v w e L
2
.
Cui cng chng ta c L(G) = L
1
L
2
.
Hn na, d nhn thy, nu G1 v G2 l loi 0 hay loi 2 th G cng l vn phm
thuc cng loi v tt c cc qui tc trong P cng loi vi P
1
v P
2
. Nu A e L
1
L
2
v
G1, G2 cng loi 1 hoc 3 th G cng s cng loi . Khi A e L
1
L
2
v G1, G2
cng loi 1 hoc 3, gi s Ae L
1
( tng t i vi A e L
2
) th chng ta nh ngha
G = (V
N
1
V
N
2
{S} ,
1

2
, P, S), trong
N
1
V
N
2
v
P = (P
1
- {S
1
A}) (P
2
- {S
2
A}) {S S
1
, S S
2
, S A}.
Hin nhin l A e L(G) v G cng s cng loi vi G1 v G2.
0
,
1
,
2
,
3
ng i vi php ghp .
Chng minh: Gi s L
1
v L
2
l hai ngn ng loi i, i = 0, 1, 2, 3. Ging nh trong nh
l 3.5 c th xy dng hai vn phm G
1
= (V
N
1
,
1
, P
1
, S
1
), G
2
= (V
N
2
,
2
, P
2
, S
2
) thuc
loi i sinh ra L
1
, L
2
tng ng. Chng ta s chng minh rng L
1
L
2
cng l ngn ng
loi i.
Vn phm mi c nh ngha nh sau:
G
C
= (V
N
1
V
N
2
{S} ,
1

2
, P
C
, S), trong
N
1
V
N
2
v
P
C
= P
1
P
2
{S S
1
S
2
} vi i = 0, 1, 2
Ring i vi trng hp chnh qui (i = 3) th
P
C
= P
1
P
2
{S aS
1
| aS
2
} nu c S
1
aS
1
| a
- 75 -
Trc tin cn chng minh L
1
L
2
= L(G
C
). Nu w = w
1
w
2
e L
1
L
2
th S
1
*
1 G
w
1
v
S
2
*
2 G
w
2
. V S S
1
S
2
c trong P
C
, nn S
Gc
S
1
S
2
*
Gc
w
1
w
2
= w, suy ra w e L(G
C
).
Do L
1
L
2
_ L(G).
chng minh chiu ngc li, hy xt w e L(G
C
), S
Gc
S
1
S
2
*
Gc
w. V V
N
1
V
N
2
= C
nn w = w
1
w
2
v S
1
*
1 G
w
1
v S
2
*
2 G
w
2
. T suy ra L
1
L
2
= L(G
C
).
Vn cn li l chng minh G
C
cng loi i vi G
1
v G
2
.
Nu G
1
v G
2
cng loi 0 hoc 2 th tt nhin G
C
cng cng loi .
Trng hp A e L
1
L
2
v G
1
, G
2
cng loi 1, 3 th hin nhin G
C
cng s cng
lai ging nh G
1
v G
2
.
Xt trng hp A e L
1
hoc A e L
2
v G
1
, G
2
cng loi 1 hoc 3. t L
1
' = L
1
- {A},
L
2
' = L
2
{A}. Khi
L
1
'L
2
' L
2
' nu A e L
1
v A e L
2

L
1
L
2
= L
1
'L
2
' L
1
' nu A e L
1
v A e L
2
L
1
'L
2
' L
1
' L
2
' {A} nu A e L
1
v A e L
2

Nh chng minh nh l trc, cc lp ngn ng u ng vi php hp, nn
L
1
L
2
s l lai 1 hay 3 thu thuc L
1
v L
2
l loi 1 hay 3 tng ng.
Ch :
Php ghp cc ngn ng khng giao hon, ngha l L
1
L
2
=

L
2
L
1
.
Php ghp c tnh kt hp vi php hp v php giao
L
1
(L
2
L
3
) = L
1
L
2
L
1
L
3

(L
1
L
2
)L
3
= L
1
L
3
L
2
L
3

L
1
(L
2
L
3
) = L
1
L
2
L
1
L
3
(L
1
L
2
)L
3
= L
1
L
3
L
2
L
3
0
,
1
,
2
,
3
ng i vi php o v.
Chng minh. Gi s G = (V
N
, , P, S) l vn phm loi i, i = 0, 1, 2, 3 v
L = L(G). Chng ta cn ch ra rng L
T
cng l loi ngn ng i.
Xy dng vn phm G
T
= (V
N
, , P
T
, S), trong P
T
gm nhng qui tc t P v
o ngc li c v tri v v phi ca chng.
P
T
= {o
T
|
T
| o | e P}
Nh th nu G l loi 0, 1, 2 th kim tra ngay c G
T
cng l loi 0, 1, 2. i vi
vn phm chnh qui chng ta chng minh chng sau.
Nhn xt: T tnh cht ng ca cc lp ngn ng i vi php o v, ta o
ngc tuyn tnh tri s to ra tuyn tnh phi v ngc li.
- 76 -
Ring i vi php giao v php ly phn b ca cc ngn ng th tnh ng l kh
xc nh hn. tham kho y chng ta ch nu kt qu cn phn chng minh
c th tham kho ([4], [6]).
nh l 3.8
(i) Cc lp ngn ng
0
,
1
,
3
ng i vi php giao.
(ii) Lp
3
ng vi php ly phn b.
(iii) Lp cc ngn ng phi ng cnh khng ng vi php giao v php ly
phn b.
Tnh ng ca
3
i vi php giao v php ly phn b s c chng minh
chng sau.
V d 3.24 Giao ca hai ngn ng phi ng cnh c th khng phi l phi ng cnh.
Xt hai ngn ng:
L
1
= {a
n
b
n
c
i
| n, i > 1}
L
2
= {a
n
b
i
c
i
| n, i > 1}
L
1
, L
2
l hai ngn ng phi ng cnh v tn ti hai vn phm phi ng cnh
G
1
= ({S, A}, {a, b, c}, {SA | Sc, Aab | aAb}, S) v L(G
1
) = L
1
G
2
= ({S, A, B}, {a, b, c}, {S AB, A a | aA, B bc | bBc}, S) v L(G
2
) = L
2
Tuy nhin, L
1
L
2
= {a
n
b
n
c
i
| n, i > 1} {a
n
b
i
c
i
| n, i > 1} = {a
n
b
n
c
n
| n > 1} khng
phi l ngn ng phi ng cnh (xem v d 5.12).
V d 3.25 Phn b ca ngn ng phi ng cnh c th khng phi l phi ng cnh.
Tht vy, xt hai ngn ng phi ng cnh L
1
, L
2
cho v d 3.24. Nu ngn ng
phi ng cnh ng vi php ly phn b th L
1
C
, L
2
C
s l cc ngn ng phi ng
cnh. Bi v lp cc ngn ng phi ng cnh ng vi php hp nn L
1
C
L
2
C
cng l phi ng cnh. Tng t, suy ra (L
1
C
L
2
C
)
C
l ngn ng phi ng cnh.
Mt khc, theo lut De Morgan's th L
1
L
2
= (L
1
C
L
2
C
)
C
, vy mu thun vi kt
lun nu trn, v v d 3.24 khng nh L
1
L
2
khng phi l phi ng cnh.
3.6 Ngn ng v tmt
Trong cc chng sau chng ta s kho st v xy dng 4 loi thit b: my Turing,
tmt tuyn tnh gii ni, tmt y xung v tmt hu hn on nhn cc
lp ngn ng loi 0, cm ng cnh, phi ng cnh v chnh qui tng ng ([2], [3],
[4], [5], [6]). Hnh H3-1 m t mi quan h gia cc ngn ng v cc tmt.
- 77 -

Error!

Hnh H3-1 Cc ngn ng v cc tmt tng ng
Bi tp v vn phm v cc ngn ng sinh
3.1 Tm ngn ng sinh bi cc vn phm sau:
(a) S 0S1 | 0A1, A 1A | 1
(b) S 0S1 | 0A | 1B | 0 | 1, A 0A | 0, B 1B | 1
(c) S 0A | 1S | 0 | 1, A 1A | 1S | 1
(d) S 0A | 1S | 0 | 1, A 1A0 | 1S |1
3.2 Xy dng vn phm sinh ra cc ngn ng sau:
(a) Tp tt c cc xu trn {0, 1}, trong s cc ch s 0 bng s cc ch s 1.
(b) {0
n
1
m
0
m
1
n
| m, n > 1}
(c) {0
n
1
2n
| n > 1}
(d) {0
n
1
n
| n > 1} {1
m
0
m
| m > 1}
3.3 Xy dng vn phm G sao cho L(G) = { a
n
ba
m
| n, m > 1}.
3.4 Nu G c qui tc S aS | a hy ch ra rng L(G) = {a}
+
.
3.5 Tm vn phm sinh ra ngn ng L = {a
k
b
n
c
n
| n > 1, k > 0 }
3.6 Xy dng
(a) Vn phm cm ng cnh nhng khng phi l phi ng cnh,
(b) Vn phm phi ng cnh nhng khng phi l chnh qui,
(c) Vn phm chnh qui sinh ra {a
n
| n > 1}.
3.7 Xy dng vn phm phi ng cnh sinh ra:
(a) {0
m
1
n
| m =n v m, n > 1}
(b) {0
m
1
n
| 1 s m s n}
Loi 0
Cm ng cnh
Phi ng
cnh
Chnh qui
My Turing
tmt Tuyn
tnh gii ni
tmt y
xung
tmt
hu hn
- 78 -
(c) {a
l
b
m
c
n
| l + m = n}
3.8 Xy dng vn phm chnh qui sinh ra:
(a) {a
2m
| m > 1}
(b) Tp tt c cc xu trn {a, b} kt thc bng a
(c) Tp tt c cc xu trn {a, b} bt u bng a
(d) {a
l
b
m
c
n
| l, m, n > 1}
3.9 Chng minh rng G
1
= ({S}, {a, b}, P
1
, S), trong P
1
= {S aSb | ab} l
tng ng vi G
2
= ({S, A, B, C}, {a, b}, P
2
, S), vi P
2
= {S AC,
C SB, S AB, A a, B b}.
3.10 Xy dng vn phm sinh ra {(ab)
n
| n > 1} {(ba)
n
| n > 1}.
3.11 Chng minh rng vn phm gm cc qui tc A xB | y, trong x, y e
*

v A, B l cc bin l tng ng vi vn phm chnh qui.
Cho ngn ng phi ng cnh L = {a
n
b
n
0, c
m
1
k
d
m
| n > 0, m > 0, k > 0}
(i) Hy tm vn phm phi ng cnh sinh ra L.
(ii) Hy a ra dn xut chng t t a
2
b
2
0, c
3
1
1
d
3
c sinh ra bi vn phm
tm c trong cu (i).
n
0
k
b
n
c
m
d
m
| n > 0, m > 0, k > 0}
(i) Hy tm vn phm phi ng cnh G sinh ra L.
(ii) Hy kim tra xem cc t a
3
0
2
b
3
c
2
d
2
, a
2
0
2
b
2
c
2
d c c sinh ra bi vn
phm G tm c trong cu (i)?
3.14 Ch ra rng tp {abc, bca, cab} l ngn ng sinh ca mt vn phm chnh qui
c bng ch ci l {a, b, c}.
3.15 Xy dng vn phm sinh ra
(i) L
1
= {(ab)
n
| n > 0}, L
2
= {(ba)
n
| n > 0}
(ii) L = L
1
L
2

(iii) L = L
1
L
2

3.16 Gi s G = ({A, B, S}, {0, 1}, P, S), trong P c cc qui tc S 0AB,
A0 S0B, A1 SB1, B SA | 01. Ch ra rng L(G) = C.
3.17 Nhng pht biu sau ng hay sai, ti sao?
(a) Nu G
1
v G
2
tng ng vi nhau th chng cng mt loi.
(b) Nu L l tp con hu hn ca * th L l ngn ng phi ng cnh.
(c) Nu L l tp con hu hn ca * th L l ngn ng chnh qui.
- 79 -
3.18
*
Xy dng vn phm sinh ra tt c cc s chn nh hn 998.
3.19
*
Xy dng vn phm phi ng cnh sinh ra ngn ng
L = {x e {a, b}
+
| s ln xut hin ca a ln hn s ln xut hin b trong x}
3.20
*
Xy dng vn phm phi ng cnh trn = {a, b, c, d, e} sinh ra ngn ng
1. L = {w e
*
| w bt u bng abc, kt thc bng cde, cha ng 3 v tr ca
c v w c di chn}
2. L = {w e
*
| w bt u bng abc, kt thc bng cde, cha ng 3 v tr ca
b v w c di l}
3. L = {w e
*
| w khng cha t bcd}
3.21
*
( thi cao hc nm 2001, cu 3 mn thi c bn: Ton hc ri rc)
Cho ngn ng L = {a
n
cb
m
cd
k
| n > m > 0, k > 0}
1. Xy dng vn phm G c loi cao nht sinh ra L
2. Ch ra mt dn xut trong G chng t cbbcdd l c sinh ra bi G.
3. Xy dng tmt y xung sinh ra L.
3.22
*
Cho trc tmt M c biu din di dng th chuyn trng thi nh hnh sau:

a/ Tm ngn ng on nhn c bi M
b/ Xy dng vn phm chnh qui G sinh ra ngn ng c on nhn bi
tmt nu trn.
c/ Xu w = 1abba c c sinh ra trong G hay khng?, ti sao?
3.23
*
Cho trc ngn ng L = {a
m
cb
n
c, a
n
cb
m
d, | m, n > 0}
a/ Tm vn phm G c loi cao nht sinh ra L, G l vn phm loi no?
b/ Xy dng tmt M tng ng vi G on nhn L.
c/ Ch ra rng xu aacbbbd l c on nhn bi M.
3.24
*
Cho trc ngn ng L = {a
m
b
n
| 1 s n s m}
a/ Tm vn phm G c loi cao nht sinh ra L.
b/ Tm dng chun Chomsky ca vn phm G sinh ra L.
c/ Xy dng tmt M tng ng vi G on nhn L.
q
0 q
1 q
2
q
3 q
4
a

a

b

b

0

1

- 80 -

CHNG IV
Tp chnh qui v vn phm chnh qui

Chng bn cp n:
Tp chnh qui v tmt hu hn trng thi,
Cc tnh cht ng ca cc tp chnh qui,
Quan h gia tp chnh qui v vn phm chnh qui.
4.1 Cc biu thc chnh qui
Biu thc chnh qui thng c s dng biu din tp cc xu trong cc cu
trc i s. Biu thc chnh qui m t nhng ngn ng on nhn c bi tmt
hu hn trng thi.
nh ngha 4.1 Biu thc chnh qui trn bng ch c nh ngha qui nh
sau:
1. Mi k hiu kt thc a e , A v C (tp rng) u l biu thc chnh qui. Khi
mt k hiu a e th biu thc chnh qui tng ng s c k hiu l a.
2. Hp ca hai biu thc chnh qui R
1
v R
2
, k hiu l R
1
+ R
2
, cng l biu
thc chnh qui,
3. Ghp hai biu thc chnh qui R
1
v R
2
, k hiu l R
1
.R
2
, cng l biu thc
chnh qui,
4. Bao ng bc cu (gi tt l bao ng) ca mt biu thc chnh qui R, k
hiu l R
*
, cng l biu thc chnh qui,
5. Nu R l mt biu thc chnh qui th (R) cng l biu thc chnh qui.
6. Biu thc chnh qui trn bng ch l tp tt c cc hng thc c xy
dng mt cch qui trn c s ch p dng cc qui tc t 1 5 nu trn.
Ch :
(i) Chng ta k hiu x (in m) cho biu thc chnh qui phn bit vi k
hiu (hoc xu) x thng thng.
(ii) Cp ngoc n ( v ) trong qui tc 5 c s dng xc nh th t
thc hin cc php ton ca cc biu thc chnh qui.
(iii) Khi khng c cc cp ngoc n th th t thc hin trong biu thc
chnh qui c qui nh nh sau: Bao ng, php ghp ri n php hp.
nh ngha 4.2 Tp biu din cho mt biu thc chnh qui c gi l tp chnh
qui. Nu a, b e th
- 81 -
1. Biu thc chnh qui a xc nh tp {a}, ni cch khc tp {a} c biu
din bi a,
2. Biu thc chnh qui a + b xc nh tp {a, b}, hoc {a, b} c biu din bi
biu thc a + b
3. Biu thc chnh qui ab xc nh tp {ab}, hoc {ab} c biu din bi
biu thc ab
4. Biu thc chnh qui a
*
xc nh tp {A, a, aa, aaa, ...}, hoc {A, a, aa, aaa,
...} c biu din bi a
*

5. Biu thc chnh qui (a + b)
*
xc nh tp {a, b}
*
, hoc tp {a, b}
*
c biu
din bi (a + b)
*
.
hiu r hn vic tnh ton cc biu thc chnh qui chng ta cn xt k hn ba
php ton nu trn. Gi s R
1
v R
2
l hai biu thc chnh qui.
(i) Mt xu trong R
1
+ R
2
l mt xu trong R
1
hoc R
2
.
(ii) Mt xu trong R
1
R
2
l mt xu trong R
1
c ghp vi xu ca R
2
.
(iii) Mt xu trong R* l mt xu c xy dng t php ghp n cc phn t
ca R, vi n > 0.
Tm li:
(i) Tp c biu din bi R
1
+ R
2
l hp ca hai tp biu din bi R
1
v bi R
2
.
(ii) Tp c biu din bi R
1
R
2
l ghp ca hai tp biu din bi R
1
v bi R
2
.
(iii) Tp c biu din bi R
*
l {w
1
w
2
... w
n
| w
i
l tp con biu din bi R v n > 0}.
V d 4.1 Xc nh cc biu thc chnh qui biu din cho cc tp sau:
(i) Tp {101} c biu din bi biu thc 101,
(ii) {abba} c biu din bi biu thc abba,
(iii) {01, 10} c biu din bi biu thc 01 + 10,
(iv) {A, ab} c biu din bi biu thc A + ab,
(v) {abb, a, b, bba} c biu din bi biu thc abb + a + b + bbaa,
(vi) {A, 0, 00, 000, ... } c biu din bi biu thc 0
*
,
(vii) {1, 11, 111, ...} c biu din bi biu thc 1(1)
*
.
V d 4.2 Xc nh cc biu thc chnh qui biu din cho cc tp (ngn ng) sau:
(i) L
1

l tp tt c cc xu cha 0, 1 v kt thc bng 00,
(ii) L
2

l tp tt c cc xu cha 0, 1 c bt u bng 0 v kt thc bng 1,
(iii) L
3

= {A, 11, 1111, 111111, ...}
Gii:
- 82 -
(i) Mt xu bt k ca L
1
s c xy dng t php ghp ca xu xc nh
trn {0, 1} vi xu 00. {0, 1} biu din cho 0 + 1. Vy, L
1
c biu din
bi (0+1)
*
00.
(ii) Mi phn t ca L
2
u nhn c t php ghp 0 vi cc xu xc nh trn
{0, 1} v ghp tip vi 1, nn L
2
s c biu din bi 0(0+1)
*
1.
(iii) Mi phn t ca L
3
hoc l A, hoc l xu cha chn ln cc s 1, ngha l
nhng xu c dng (11)
n
, n > 0. Vy L
3
c th c biu din bi (11)
*
.
4.2 S tng ng ca cc biu thc chnh qui
nh ngha 4.3 Hai biu thc chnh qui P, Q c gi l tng ng, (ta vit l
P = Q) nu P v Q cng biu din cho cng mt tp cc xu.
Cc biu thc chnh qui c cc tnh cht sau:
I
1
C + R = R
I
2
CR = RC = C
I
3
AR = RA = R
I
4
A
*
= A v C
*
= A
I
5
R + R = R
I
6
R
*
R
*
= R
*
I
7
RR
*
= R
*
R
I
8
(R
*
)
*
= R
*

I
9
A + RR
*
= A + R
*
R = R
*

I
10
(PQ)
*
P = P(QP)
*
I
11
(P + Q)
*
= (Q
*
P
*
)
*
= (P
*
+ Q
*
)
*
I
12
(P + Q)R = PR + QR v R(P+Q) = RP + RQ
Lu : Cn phn bit A vi C, A k hiu cho mt xu (t) rng (mt s ti liu
khc s dng c k hiu cho xu rng), cn C k hiu ca tp rng).
nh l sau y rt hu dng trong vic xc nh cc biu thc chnh qui tng
ng da vo php thay th.
nh l 4.1 (nh l Arden) Gi s P v Q l hai biu thc chnh qui trn . Nu
P khng cha A th phng trnh sau
R = Q + RP (4.1)
c nghim duy nht l R = QP
*
Chng minh: Thay R = QP
*
vo v phi v theo tnh cht I
9
chng

ta c
Q + (QP
*
)P = Q(A + P
*
P) = QP
*
Ngha l R = QP
*
tho mn ng thc (4.1).
- 83 -
chng minh tnh duy nht ca R, chng ta hy th R bng Q + RP mt s ln
nh sau.
Q + RP = Q + (Q + RP)P
= Q + QP + RPP
= Q + QP + RP
2
. . .
= Q + QP + QP
2

+ . . . + QP
i
+ RP
i+1
= Q(A + P + P
2

+ . . . + P
i
)

+ RP
i+1

Vy t (4.1) chng ta c
R = Q(A + P + P
2

+ . . . + P
i
)

+ RP
i+1
(4.2)
Nu R tho mn (4.1) th n cng tho mn (4.2). Gi s w l mt xu c di l i trong
tp R. Khi w s thuc tp c xc nh bi Q(A + P + P
2

+ . . . + P
i
)

+ RP
i+1
. Bi v
P khng cha A nn RP
i+1

s khng c cc xu c di i. Do vy, w phi thuc
Q(A + P + P
2

+ . . . + P
i
), ngha l thuc QP
*
.
Ngc li, xt xu w thuc QP
*
, tc l w thuc QP
k
, vi k > 0, t suy ra n cng
thuc Q(A + P + P
2

+ . . . + P
i
).
Nh vy chng ta chng minh c l R v QP
*
biu din cho cng mt tp hp. iu
ny khng nh tnh duy nht ca li gii phng trnh (4.1).
V d 4.3 Chng minh rng R = A + 1
*
(011)
*
(1
*
(011)
*
)
*
v (1+ 011)
*
l tng ng.
Tht vy, t P = 1
*
(011)
*
chng ta c:
R = A + PP
*
= P* (theo I
9
)
= (1
*
(011)
*
)
*
(p dng nh l 4.1 vi Q = A)
= (P
1
*
P
2
*
)
*
(t P = 1, P
2
= 011)
= (P
1
+ P
2
)
*
(theo I
11
)

= (1 + 011)
*

V d 4.4 Hy ch ra rng
(1+00
*
1) + (1+00
*
1)(0+10
*
1)
*
(0+10
*
1) = 0
*
1(0 + 10
*
1)
*
Bi v (1+00
*
1) +(1+00
*
1)(0+10
*
1)
*
(0+10
*
1) = (1+00
*
1)(A+(0+10
*
1)
*
(0+10
*
1) (theo I
12
)
= (1 + 00
*
1)(0 + 10
*
1)
*
(theo I
9
)
= (A + 00
*
)1 (0 + 10
*
1)
*

= 0
*
1(0 + 10
*
1)
*
(theo I
9
)
4.3 tmt hu hn v biu thc chnh qui
Chng hai chng ta nghin cu cc tnh cht ca tmt hu hn, trong
hm chuyn trng thi ch thay i trng thi khi c d liu u vo v ch c mt
- 84 -
trng thi bt u. ph hp cho vic m hnh ha cc biu thc chinh qui,
chng ta m rng tmt hu hn thnh h chuyn trng thi (Transition System).
nh ngha 4.4 H thng chuyn trng thi (gi tt l h chuyn trng thi) l b
S = (Q, , o, Q
0
, F), trong
(a) Q, v F _ Q l tp hu hn trng thi khc rng, bng ch vo v tp
hu hn trng thi kt thc,
(b) Q
0
_ Q l tp cc trng thi khi u,

khc rng, |Q
0
| > 1
(c) o: Q
*
Q. Ni cch khc, o (q
1
, w) = q
2
, ngha l trn th
chuyn trng thi c mt ng i bt u t q
1
n q
2
v cc nhn ca
cc cung ghp li thnh w, w c th l A

.
Lu : H chuyn trng thi c hm chuyn trng thi c m rng nh
(c) chuyn t mt trng thi sang trng thi khc ngay c khi khng nhn
c d liu u vo (trng hp w = A).
nh ngha 4.5 H chuyn trng thi S = (Q, , o, Q
0
, F) chp nhn (on
nhn) xu w trong
*
nu
(a) C mt ng i trn th trng thi, bt u t mt nh khi u (nm
trong Q
0
) v kt thc ti mt nh kt thc (nh thuc F),
(b) Cc nhn trn cc cung trn ng i ghp li to thnh w.
nh ngha 4.6 Ngn ng on nhn c bi h chuyn trng thi S = (Q, , o, Q
0
,
F), k hiu l L(S), l tp tt c cc xu on nhn c bi S.
L(S) = {w e
*
| -q e Q
0
, o(q, w) F = C}
L(S) l tp tt c cc dy k t vo trn tt c cc ng i t mt nh bt u n
mt nh kt thc.
V d 4.5 Cho trc h chuyn trng thi c m t nh hnh H4-1.

Hnh H4-1 th chuyn trng thi ca h chuyn trng thi S
1

q
0
q
3
0

0

q
1
q
2
1

0

1

1

- 85 -
Trong Q
0
= {q
0
, q
1
} v F = {q
3
}. D nhn thy h thng trn on nhn dy
w = 1100 v c ng i t q
0
, q
0
,

q
2
,

q
3
s c cc nhn ghp li thnh w. Ngn ng
on nhn c bi S l L = {1
n
01
m
0, 1
n
01
m
11, 1
n
01, 1 | n, m > 0} c biu din
bi biu thc chnh qui 1
*
01
*
0 + 1
*
01
*
11 + 1
*
01 + 1.
Lu : Mi tmt hu hn M = (Q, , o, q
0
, F) u c th xem nh mt h chuyn
trng thi S = (Q, , o', Q
0
, F), trong Q
0
= {q
0
} v o' = {(q, w, o(q, w)) | q e Q,
we
*
}.
Nhng ngc li th khng c, v d khi h chuyn i c tp cc trng thi khi
u nhiu hn 1. Tuy nhin, phn sau chng ta s ch ra rng cho trc mt h
chuyn trng thi S chng ta c th xy dng c mt tmt hu hn M tng
ng vi S (cng on nhn mt ngn ng L(S) = T(M)).
4.3.1 Cc h bin i v cc biu thc chnh qui
nh l sau khng nh mi quan h gia cc h bin i v cc biu thc chnh qui.
nh l 4.2 (Thut ton Thompson) Mi biu thc chnh qui u on nhn c
bi mt h chuyn trng thi, ngha l nu w l mt xu trong tp R th tn ti mt
ng i t trng thi bt u n trng thi cui vi gi tr l w trn th chuyn
trng thi.
Chng minh: Chng minh nh l qui np theo s cc k t trong R. K t ca
biu thc chnh qui R, chng ta hiu l gm cc phn t ca , C, A, ., *, +.
V d, R = A + 10
*
11
*
0, c cc k t A, +, 1, 0, *, 1, 1, *, 0 v s cc k t s l 9.
C s qui np: Gi s s cc k t ca R l 1. Vy, R = A, R = C, hoc R = a
i
,
a
i
e . Cc h bin i hnh H4-1 s on nhn cc biu thc c 1 k t.

R = A R = C R = a
i
Hnh H4-2 Cc h bin i on nhn cc tp chnh qui c s
Bc qui np: Gi thit rng nh l trn ng vi nhng biu thc chnh qui c s
k t nh hn hoc bng n. Chng ta phi chng minh rng n cng ng vi
nhng biu thc R c n+1 k t.
Theo nh ngha ca biu thc chnh qui th
R = P + Q, hoc R = PQ, hoc R = P
*

Trong P, Q l hai biu thc chnh qui c nhiu nht l n k t. Theo gi thit qui
np, P v Q l c on nhn bi hai h chuyn trng thi G v H nh trong hnh
H4-3.

Hnh H4-3 (a) H chuyn trng thi G on nhn P
a
i
A
A
G
A
A
A
A
- 86 -

Hnh H4-3 (b) H chuyn trng thi H on nhn Q
Chng ta c th xy dng nhng h chuyn trng thi on nhn R nh cc hnh H4-3
(c), 4-3 (d) v 4-3 (e).

Hnh H4-3 (c) H chuyn trng thi on nhn P + Q

Hnh H4-3 (d) H chuyn trng thi on nhn PQ

Hnh H4-3 (e) H chuyn trng thi on nhn P
*
Do vy, nh l c chng minh bng qui np v k thut xy dng cc h
chuyn i trng thi tng ng.
Trong chng minh nh l 4.2, chng ta a ra cch xy dng mt h chuyn
trng thi on nhn mt tp chnh qui.
Nhn xt: H chuyn i trng thi v tmt hu hn khc nhau ch th biu
din h chuyn i trng thi c cc cung vi nhn rng A v s lng cc trng
thi bt u c th ln hn 1.
Tip theo, chng ta s nghin cu cch chuyn mt h chuyn i trng thi
on nhn biu thc chnh qui v tmt hu hn (bng cch loi b i nhng cung
c nhn l A) on nhn chnh biu thc . Ngha l, nu P l biu thc chnh
qui th lun xy dng c mt tmt hu hn trng thi M on nhn biu
thc chnh qui .
G
A
A
A
A
A
A
H
A
A
A
A
A
A
P
A A
A A A A
A
H
A
A
A
A
G
A
A
A
A
A
A
H
A
A
A
A
A
A
- 87 -
Trc tin chng ta cn xc nh mi quan h gia tmt hu hn v biu thc
chnh qui.
nh l 4.3 Mi ngn ng on nhn bi tmt hu hn M u biu din c
bi mt biu thc chnh qui.
Chng minh: Gi s M = ({q
1
, q
2
, ..., q
m
}, , o, q
1
, F).
Nu w e
*
c on nhn bi M, ngha l c mt ng i t q
1
n mt trng
thi kt thc m gi tr trn ng i l w. Vi mi trng thi kt thc q
j
, s xc
nh tng ng mt tp con ca
*
cc gi tr trn ng i t q
1
n

q
j
(dy cc
nhn trn ng i). Cc tp con lun biu din c bi cc biu thc chnh
qui.
Gi s P
ij
k
k hiu cho tp tt c cc gi tr ca cc ng i t q
i
n q
j
. P
ij
k
c
xy dng qui nh sau:
P
ij
0
= {a e | o(q
i
, a) = q
j
} (4.3)
P
ii
0
= {a e | o(q
i
, a) = q
i
} {A} (4.4)

P
ij
k
= P
ik
k-1
(P
kk
k-1
)
*
P
kj
k-1
P
ij
k-1
(4.5)
Da vo qui np, chng ta c th chng minh c cc tp xc nh t (4.3), (4.4)
v (4.5) biu din c di dng cc biu thc chnh qui.
4.3.2 Loi b cc A- dch chuyn trong cc h thng bin i trng thi
Cc h chuyn trng thi c th c nhng A- dch chuyn (c nhng cung vi nhn
A trong th chuyn trng thi). Nhng dn xut loi ny c th xut hin khi p
dng vi h thng khng c d liu u vo.
Trong thc t, chng ta c th chuyn mt h chuyn trng thi c cha cc A-
dch chuyn v h thng tng ng m khng c cc A- dch chuyn.
Thut ton loi b A- dch chuyn t nh v
1
dn ti v
2
c thc hin nh sau:
Thut ton 4.1: Loi b A- dch chuyn t nh v
1
dn ti v
2
trn th chuyn trng thi.
1. Loi b A- dch chuyn t nh v
1
dn ti v
2
v tm tt c cc cung xut pht t v
2

2. Sao p tt c cc cung tm thy bc 1, sang bt u t v
1
vi nhn
khng thay i n cc nh tng ng.
3. Nu v
1
l trng thi bt u th v
2
cng c xem nh l trng thi bt u.
4. Nu v
2
l trng thi kt thc th v
1
cng c xem nh l trng thi kt thc.
V d 4.6 Hy loi b cc A- dch chuyn trong tmt hu hn sau:

Hnh H4-4 tmt hu hn c cha A- dch chuyn
q
0
1

2

A

A

0

q
1
q
2
- 88 -
a/ Trc tin ta loi A- dch chuyn t q
0
n q
1
. C hai cung bt u t q
1
: t q
1
ti
chnh n c nhn 1 v t q
1
n q
2
c nhn A. Theo bc 2, t q
0
s sao p cung t q
0
n q
1
cng nhn 1 v t q
0
n q
2
c nhn l A. V q
0
l trng thi bt u nn q
1
cng
s tr thnh trng thi khi u. Hnh H4-5 (a) cho kt qu va thc hin.

Hnh H4-5 (a) Loi b A- dch chuyn t q
0
n q
1
b/ Tng t, loi b A- dch chuyn t q
0
n q
2
c kt qu nh hnh H4-5 (b).

Hnh H4-5 (b) Loi b A- dch chuyn t q
0
n q
2
c/ Cui cng loi b A- dch chuyn t q
1
n q
2
c kt qu nh Hnh H4-5 (c).

Hnh H4-5 (c) Loi b A- dch chuyn t q
1
n q
2
4.3.3 Chuyn cc h chuyn trng thi khng n nh v h thng n nh
chuyn mt h chuyn trng thi khng n nh (trn th chuyn trng thi, t
mt nh c nhiu hn mt cung i ra c cng nhn v c th c nhiu nh bt u) v
h chuyn trng thi n nh, s c thc hin tng t nh thut ton chuyn
TK v T tng ng, chng ta c th thc hin theo thut ton sau.
Thut ton 4.2: Chuyn h chuyn trng thi khng n nh v h chuyn trng
thi n nh.
1. Chuyn h chuyn trng thi cho trc sang bng chuyn trng thi, trong
mi trng thi ng vi hng v cc k hiu vo ng vi ct,
2. Xy dng bng chuyn trng thi tip theo ca phn t t bng trc bng cch
xc nh tt c cc tp con cc trng thi t c t tp cc trng thi khi
u,
3. th chuyn trng thi ng vi bng chuyn trng thi thu c s cho h chuyn
trng thi n nh tng ng. Nhng trng thi kt thc ca h chuyn trng thi
A
q
0
1

2

1

A

0

q
1
q
2
q
0
1

2

1

A

0

q
1
q
2
q
0
1

2

1

2

0

q
1
q
2
2
2
- 89 -
n nh l nhng trng thi c cha t nht mt trng thi kt thc ca h chuyn
trng thi khng n nh ban u. Nu h chuyn trng thi thu c cha cc tiu
th c th s dng thut ton cc tiu ho loi b nhng trng thi d tha.
Lu : Vic xy dng cc bng chuyn trng thi thc hin tng t nh i vi tmt
khng n nh chuyn v n nh., ch khc l trc y ta bt u t {q
0
} th y ta bt
u t mt tp cc phn t khi u.
V d 4.6 Cho trc h chuyn trng thi khng n nh c th chuyn trng thi nh Hnh
H4-6.

Hnh H4-6 th chuyn trng thi S khng n nh
Trc tin chng ta xy dng bng chuyn trng thi ca h thng bin i nu
trn.
Bng 4.1 Bng chuyn trng thi ng vi th H4-6
Trng thi \ a b
q
1
, q
2

q
1
q
0

q
0
, q
1
Tip theo, ta xy dng bng chuyn trng thi t cc phn t k tip, bt u t tp
hai trng thi bt u {q
0
, q
1
}, k hiu l [q
0
, q
1
]. T bng 4.1 chng ta thy, t [q
0
,
q
1
] c th i n c [q
0
, q
1
, q
2
] qua cc cung vi nhn b, v khng c ng i
bt u bng cung nhn a. Tng t, [q
0
, q
1
, q
2
] i theo cung c nhn a th n
c [q
0
, q
1
] v i theo cung c nhn b th quay li chnh n. Vi mi phn t
a e , ta cho tng ng Q
a
c bng chuyn trng thi tip theo.
Bng 4.2 Bng chuyn trng thi tip theo
Q Q
a
Q
b
[q
0
, q
1
] C [q
0
, q
1
, q
2
]
[q
0
, q
1
, q
2
] [q
0
, q
1
] [q
0
, q
1
, q
2
]
C C C
Da vo bng 4.2 chng ta xy dng h chuyn trng thi n nh nh sau.

q
0
q
2
a
q
1
q
0
b
b
b
a
q
2
- 90 -

Hnh H4-7 H chuyn trng thi n nh tng ng vi h hnh H4-6
Lu :
a/ th chuyn trng thi ca h chuyn trng thi c th c nhiu hn mt
nh bt u, cn th ca tmt hu hn trng thi th ch c mt nh bt
u.
b/ H chuyn trng thi n nh hnh H4-7 tng ng vi h chuyn
trng thi khng n nh cho trc. N cng chnh l tmt hu hn n
nh. D nhn thy, trng thi C l d tha bi v t trng thi bt u [q
0
, q
1
]
i qua nh C th khng th i tip n c nh kt thc l [q
0
,q
1
,q
2
], do
vy c th b n i c c tmt cc tiu. Ngoi ra, ta cng c th t
tn li cc trng thi, v d thay [q
0
, q
1
] bng P v [q
0
, q
1
] bng Q chng ta
c:

Hnh H4-8 tmt n nh cc tiu tng ng vi
h chuyn trng thi S hnh H4-6
4.3.4 Phng php i s ng dng nh l Arden
nh l Arden nu phn trc c th s dng xc nh biu thc chnh qui
c on nhn bi tmt hu hn trng thi.
p dng nhng thut ton nu trn, chng ta hy xt tmt hu hn c biu
din bng th chuyn trng thi vi nhng gi thit nh sau:
(i) Khng c A-dch chuyn trong th chuyn trng thi
(ii) C mt trng thi bt u l q
1

(iii) Tp cc nh l q
1
, q
2
, , q
n

(iv) K hiu q
i
, i = 1, 2, , n l nhng biu thc chnh qui i din cho cc
dy on nhn c bi tmt ngay khi i n trng thi kt thc q
i
.
(v) a
ij
k hiu cho biu thc chnh qui i din cho tp cc nhn trn cc
cung t q
i
ti q
j
, i, j = 1, 2, , n. Nu khng c cung no ni gia chng
th a
ij
= C.
b
[q
0
,q
1
,q
2
]

C

[q
0
, q
1
]

a
b
a
b
a
b
P

Q
- 91 -
Da vo th chuyn trng thi, chng ta c th xc nh c h phng trnh
theo q
1
, q
2
, , q
n
, vi q
1
l trng thi bt u nh sau:
q
1
= q
1
a
11
+ q
2
a
21
+ + q
n1
+ A
q
2
= q
1
a
12
+ q
2
a
22
+ + q
n2
. . .
q
n
= q
1
a
1n
+ q
2
a
2n
+ + q
nn
Thc hin lp li mt s ln php th v s dng nh l Arden (nh l 4.1), chng
d dng biu din c q
i
bng cc biu thc a
ij
v cc php ton (+, ., *).
Nhn xt: Tp on nhn c bi tmt hu hn s tng ng vi biu thc
chnh qui l hp ca tt c cc biu thc q
i
ng vi tt c cc trng thi kt thc
ca tmt.
V d 4.7 Xy dng biu thc chnh qui tng ng vi biu trng thi sau

Hnh H4-9 Cho trc th trng thi
Da vo th chuyn trng thi, chng ta c th xc nh c cc phng trnh
theo cc trng thi nh sau:
q
1
= q
1
0 + q
3
0 + A, (4.6)
q
2
= q
1
1 + q
2
1 + q
3
1, (4.7)
q
3
= q
2
0 (4.8)
Thay (4.8) vo (4.7) chng ta c
q
2
= q
1
1 + q
2
1 + (q
2
0)1 = q
1
1 + q
2
(1 + 01)
p dng nh l 4.1
q
2
= q
1
1(1 + 01)
*
(4.9)
Tng t q
1
= q
1
0 + q
3
0 + A = q
1
0 + q
2
00 + A. Thay (4.9) vo ta c
= q
1
0 + q
1
1(1 + 01)
*
00 + A
= q
1
(0 + 1(1 + 01)
*
00) + A
Li p dng nh l 4.1
q
1
= A(0 + 1(1 + 01)
*
00)
*
= (0 + 1(1 + 01)
*
00)
*

0
q
1
0
1
1
q
3
1
0
q
2
- 92 -
Bi v, q
1
l trng thi kt thc nn biu thc chnh qui tng ng vi h chuyn
trng thi c th trng thi nh Hnh H4-8 s l (0 + 1(1 + 01)
*
00)
*
.
V d 4.8 Cho trc tmt hu hn trng thi M c m t bi th chuyn
trng thi nh hnh H4-10. Hy chng minh rng M on nhn tt c cc xu trn
{a, b} c s cc ch a bng s cc ch b v trong mi dy u ca mi xu th
hoc s cc ch a hn s cc ch b nhiu nht l 1 hoc s cc ch b hn s cc
ch a nhiu nht l 1.

Hnh H4-10 tmt hu hn M
Gii: p dng phng php nu trn, chng ta c h phng trnh sau:
q
1
= q
2
b + q
3
a + A
q
2
= q
1
a
q
3
= q
1
b
q
4
= q
2
a + q
3
b + q
4
(a +b)
Bi v q
1
l trng thi kt thc, vy ta s gii h phng trnh trn tm q
1
. Th q
2
,
q
3
vo phng trnh u tin chng c:
q
1
= q
1
ab + q
1
ba + A
p dng nh l Arden, ta c
q
1
= A(ab+ba)
*
= (ab + ba)
*

y chnh l biu thc chnh qui biu din cho tt c cc xu on nhn c bi
M, trong tho mn tt c nhng iu cn phi chng minh. Tht vy, nu dy x
c on nhn bi M th n s c to ra t cc dy ab v ba ghp vi nhau,
trong s cc ch a lun bng s cc ch b. Mi tip u ng x
1
ca xu x tha
mn cc tnh cht sau:
C s cc k hiu l chn th d nhn thy chng c s cc ch a lun
bng s cc ch b,
Hoc c s cc k hiu l l th ta c th vit x
1
= ay, hay x
1
= by. Hin
nhin y c s cc k hiu l chn, vy chng c s cc ch a lun bng s
cc ch b.
T suy ra mi dy u ca mi xu c on nhn bi M, th hoc s cc ch
a hn s cc ch b nhiu nht l 1 hoc s cc ch b hn s cc ch a cng nhiu
nht ch l 1.
a
b
a
b
q
1
q
2
q
3 q
4
b
a
a, b
- 93 -
V d 4.9 Tm biu thc chnh qui on nhn bi tmt

Hnh H4-11 tmt M c hai trng thi kt thc
Tng t nh trn, ta thit lp c h phng trnh sau:
q
1
= q
1
0 + A
q
2
= q
1
1 + q
2
1
q
3
= q
2
0 + q
3
(0 + 1)
p dng nh l 4.1 vo phng trnh u tin, ta thu c
q
1
= q
1
0 + A = q
1
0 + A = 0
*
Thay vo phng trnh th hai
q
2
= q
1
1 + q
2
1 = 0
*
1

+

q
2
1 = (0
*
1)1
*

Phng trnh ng vi q
3
khng cn thit phi gii v n khng t n c t
trng thi kt thc.
Vy, biu thc chnh qui oan nhn c bi tmt M hnh H4-10 l
q
1
+ q
2
= 0
*
+ (0
*
1)1
*
= 0
*
+ 0
*
(11
*
) = 0
*
(A + 11
*
) = 0
*
1
*
(ng dng I
9
)
Ni cch khc, cc t on nhn c bi M l tt c cc xu c cc tip u ng
gm cc ch s 0 vi s lng bt k sau l dy cc ch s 1 ty (c th l
rng).
4.3.5 Thit lp tmt hu hn tng ng vi biu thc chnh qui
Cho trc mt biu thc chnh qui, chng ta c th xy dng mt tmt hu hn
trng thi tng ng, ngha l ngn ng n on nhn biu din cho biu thc
chnh qui cho trc.
Thut ton 4.3 Xy dng mt tmt hu hn trng thi tng ng vi biu
thc chnh qui cho trc.
1. Thit lp th trng thi (h chuyn trng thi) tng ng vi biu
thc chnh qui cho trc (s dng nh l 4.2).
2. Xy dng bng chuyn trng thi theo phng php gii thiu mc 4.2.2.
3. Thit lp tmt hu hn (n nh) tng ng v loi b nhng trng
thi d tha.
V d 4.10 Xy dng tmt hu hn M tng ng vi biu thc chnh qui sau:
(0 + 1)
*
(00 + 11)(0 + 1)
*

0, 1
0
q
1
q
3
1
1 0
q
2
- 94 -
Gii:
Bc 1: Xy dng th trng thi tng ng c cha cc A- dch chuyn theo nh
l 4.2 v sau s dng thut ton 4.1 loi i cc A- dch chuyn s thu c

Hnh H4-12 (a) tmt M tng ng vi (0 + 1)
*
(00 + 11)(0 + 1)
*
+ Loi b i nhng php ghp trong biu thc chnh qui bng cch thm hai trng
thi q
2
v q
3
s thu c:

Hnh H4-12 (b) tmt M tng ng vi (0 + 1)
*
(00 + 11)(0 + 1)
*
+ Loi b php lp (bao ng) ca th Hnh H4-12 (b) bng cch thm hai trng
thi q
4
v q
5
.

Hnh H4-12 (c) tmt M tng ng vi (0 + 1)
*
(00 + 11)(0 + 1)
*
+ Loi b tip cc php ghp v php hp + trong biu trn bng cch thm hai
trng thi q
6
v q
7
.

Hnh H4-12 (d) tmt M tng ng vi (0 + 1)
*
(00 + 11)(0 + 1)
*
+ Cui cng loi b i cc A- dch chuyn theo thut ton 4.1 s thu c tmt
hu hn (khng n nh). Lu , cc trng thi c th t li tn tu ca bn.

Hnh H4-12 (e) tmt M tng ng vi (0 + 1)
*
(00 + 11)(0 + 1)
*
q
1
q
0 q
2
q
3
(0 + 1)
*

(00 + 11)

(0 + 1)
*

q
1
q
0 q
2
q
3
0 + 1

00 + 11

0 + 1

q
4
A

A

q
5
A

A

A

q
6
q
3
q
1
q
0 q
2
0, 1

q
4
A

q
5
A

A

q
7
0

0

1

1

0, 1

1

0, 1

q
f
0, 1

q
0
1

q
2
0

0

q
1
(0 + 1)
*
(00 + 11)(0 + 1)
*

q
0
q
1
- 95 -
Bc 2: Xy dng bng trng thi chuyn tmt khng n nh v tmt
hu hn v n nh (thut ton 4.2).
+ Trc tin chng ta xy dng bng chuyn trng thi ng vi th trn.
Bng 4.3 Bng chuyn trng thi ng vi th H4-12 (e)
Trng thi \ 0 1
q
0
, q
1
q
0
, q
2

q
1
q
f

q
2
q
f

q
f
q
f

+ Tip theo xy dng bng phn t k tip t trng thi bt u t [q
0
]. T bng
4.3 chng ta thy [q
0
] i theo cung c nhn 0 th n c [q
0
, q
1
] v i theo cung
c nhn 1 th n c trng thi [q
0
, q
2
]. Tng t, [q
0
, q
1
] i theo cung c nhn 0
th n c [q
0
, q
1
, q
f
] v i theo cung c nhn 1 th n c trng thi [q
0
, q
2
].
T trng thi [q
0
, q
2
] i theo cung c nhn 0 s chuyn n [q
0
, q
1
] cn i theo cung
c nhn 1 s n [q
0
, q
2
, q
f
]. Tip tc xt s chuyn trng thi t [q
0
, q
1
, q
f
] theo
cung c nhn 0 s dn n chnh n cn i theo cung c nhn 1 s n [q
0
, q
2
, q
f
].
Tng t vi trng thi cn li, [q
0
, q
2
, q
f
]. Vi mi phn t a e xc nh tng
ng Q
a
c bng chuyn trng thi tip theo.
Bng 4.4 Bng chuyn trng thi tip theo
Q Q
0
Q
1
[q
0
] [q
0
, q
1
] [q
0
, q
2
]
[q
0
, q
1
] [q
0
, q
1
, q
f
] [q
0
, q
2
]
[q
0
, q
2
] [q
0
, q
1
] [q
0
, q
2
, q
f
]
[q
0
, q
1
, q
f
] [q
0
, q
1
, q
f
] [q
0
, q
2
, q
f
]
[q
0
, q
2
, q
f
] [q
0
, q
1
, q
f
] [q
0
, q
2
, q
f
]

Da vo bng 4.4 chng ta xy dng tmt hu hn n nh tng ng.

Hnh H4-13 (a) tmt n nh tng ng vi (0 + 1)
*
(00 + 11)(0 + 1)
*
q
0
q
f
1

q
0
0

0

[q
0
,q
1
]

[q
0
,q
2
]

[q
0
,q
1
,q
f
]

[q
0
,q
2
,q
f
]

1

1

0

0

1

1

0
- 96 -
+ Cui cng chng ta th ti gin cc trng thi nu c th. Ngay trong bng 4.4 chng ta
thy hai dng ng vi hai trng thi [q
0
, q
1
, q
f
], [q
0
, q
2
, q
f
] l nh nhau, do vy c th ng
nht chng lm mt. tmt hu hn ti gin tng ng vi tmt Hnh H4-12 (e),
hoc tng ng vi biu thc chnh qui (0 + 1)
*
(00 + 11)(0 + 1)
*
c m t
hnh H4-13 (b).

Hnh H4-13 (b) tmt hu hn ti gin tng ng vi
(0 + 1)
*
(00 + 11)(0 + 1)
*

4.3.6 S tng ng ca hai biu thc chnh qui
Hai biu thc chnh qui P v Q l tng ng nu chng biu din cho cng mt
tp hp. Ni cch khc, hai biu thc chnh qui tng ng vi nhau khi v ch
khi cc tmt hu hn tng ng on nhn cng mt ngn ng.
chng minh biu thc P tng ng vi Q, chng ta c th thc hin mt
trong ba cch sau:
+ Hai tp c xc nh tng ng l bng nhau,
+ S dng cc tnh cht v s tng ng chng minh chng tng ng,
+ Xy dng hai tmt hu hn M
1
, M
2
tng ng v chng minh chng
tng ng vi nhau.
V d 4.11 Chng minh rng (a + b)
*
= a
*
(ba
*
)
*
.
Gii: K hiu P v Q l hai biu thc (a + b)
*
, a
*
(ba
*
)
*
tng ng.
S dng cc thut ton nu trn xy dng tmt hu hn on nhn P:

Hnh H4-14 (a) tmt cho biu thc P = (a + b)
*
Tng t tmt hu hn cho biu thc a
*
(ba
*
)
*
c thit lp theo thut ton, sau
loi b cc A - dch chuyn th nhn c tmt Hnh H4-13 (b):
0

0, 1

q
0
0

[q
0
,q
1
]

[q
0
,q
2
]

[q
0
,q
1
,q
f
]

1

0

1

1

a, b

a, b

A

A

- 97 -

Hnh H4-14 (b) tmt cho biu thc a
*
(ba
*
)
*

D nhn thy, hai tmt cui cng nu trn l tng ng (chng ging nhau).
Chng ta kt thc phn ny bng nh l Kleene.
nh l 4.4 (Kleenes Theorem) Lp cc tp chnh qui trn bng ch E l lp R
nh nht cha {a} vi mi a e E v ng vi php hp, php ghp v ly bao ng
phn x, bc cu ca E.
Chng minh: Tp {a}, a e E c biu din bi biu thc chnh qui a. Vy {a} l
tp chnh qui vi mi a e E. R l lp nh nht cha cc tp chnh qui, v ng vi
php hp, php ghp v ly bao ng. Theo nh ngha ca tp qui suy ra R
nm trong lp cc tp chnh qui.
Mt khc, nu L l mt tp chnh qui th cn ch ra rng L cng nm trong R. L l
tp chnh qui, do vy tn ti mt tmt hu hn M on nhn L, ngha l
L = T(M), M = ({q
1
, q
2
, ..., q
m
}, E, o, q
0
, F)
Theo nh l 4.3
L =
n
j
m
f
j
P
1
1
=
, trong F = {q
f1
, q
f2
, . . ., q
fn
}

v
m
f
j
P
1
nhn c t cc
php hp, ghp, php ly bao ng i vi tng phn t ca E. T suy ra L nm
trong R.
4.4 B Bm i vi cc tp chnh qui
Tip theo chng ta xt iu kin cn kim tra xem mt xu u vo c nm
trong tp chnh qui (v hn) hay khng, ngha l tp cho trc c phi l chnh qui
hay khng. chnh l b Bm, n cn c s dng ch ra nhng tp hp
khng phi l tp chnh qui.
Lu : Mi tp hu hn lun l tp chnh qui.
nh l 4.5 (B Bm) Gi thit M = (Q, E, o, q
0
, F) l tmt c n trng thi
v L l tp chnh qui on nhn c bi M. Gi s w e L, |w| > m. Nu m > n, th
tn ti x, y, z sao cho w = xyz vi y = A v x y
i
z e L vi mi i > 0. y chnh l
iu kin cn on nhn ngn ng v hn l chnh qui.
Chng minh: Gi s w = a
1
a
2
. . . a
m
, m > n
o(q
0
, a
1
a
2
. . . a
i
) = q
i
vi i = 1, 2, ..., m; Q
1
= {q
0
, q
1
, q
2
, . . ., q
m
}
b

A

A

A

A

a

a

a, b

- 98 -
Trong , Q
1
l dy cc trng thi tun t trn ng dn sinh ra w = a
1
a
2
. . .
a
m
. V M ch c n trng thi khc nhau, vy theo nguyn l Chung b cu
(nguyn l Dirichlet) phi c t nht hai trng thi ca Q
1
trng nhau. Trong s cc
cp trng nhau , ta chn cp u tin, q
j
v q
k
(q
j
= q
k
). Khng mt tnh tng qut
chng ta c th gi thit 0 s j < k s n.
Xu w do vy c th tch ra thnh ba xu con:
x = a
1
a
2
. . . a
j

y = a
j+1
a
j+2
. . . a
k
, v j < k nn y = A.
z = a
k+1
a
k+2
. . . a
m

Bi v k s n nn |xy| s n.
ng dn sinh ra w c th minh ho nh Hnh H4-15.

Hnh H4-15 Cc xu on nhn c bi M
D nhn thy l t trng thi bt u q
0
i n q
j
xc nh c x, duyt tip theo y
s t c n trng thi q
k
(q
j
= q
k
). Nh vy, nu c tip tc duyt theo y
i
, vi
i > 0 s vn i n q
j
, sau c th tip tc duyt theo z i n trng thi kt
thc q
m
. iu ny khng nh xy
i
z e L vi mi i > 0.
4.5 ng dng ca b Bm (iu kin cn ca ngn ng chnh qui)
nh l 4.5 c th ng dng kim chng nhng tp cho trc khng phi l tp
chnh qui. khng nh mt tp (v hn) khng phi l chnh qui, chng ta c th
thc hin theo thut ton sau.
Thut ton 4.4: Kim tra mt tp khng phi l chnh qui
1. Gi s L l chnh qui v n l s trng thi ca tmt hu hn on nhn L.
2. Chn mt xu w e L sao cho |w| > n. S dng b Bm vit w = xyz,
vi |xy| s n v |y| > 0.
3. Tm mt s nguyn i sao cho xy
i
z e L. iu ny mu thun vi gi thit,
t suy ra L khng phi l chnh qui.
V d 4.12 Chng minh rng L = {
2
n
a | i > 1} khng phi l tp chnh qui.
Gii:
(i) Gi s L l chnh qui v tn ti tmt hu hn c n trng thi on
nhn L.
(ii) t w =
2
n
a . Hin nhin |w| = n
2
> n. Theo b Bm chng ta c th
vit w = xyz vi |xy| s n v |y| > 0.
q
0 q
j
=q
k
q
m
x

y

z

- 99 -
(iii) Xt xy
2
z. Hin nhin, |xy
2
z| = |x| + 2|y| + |z| > |x| + |y| + |z| v |y| > 0.
Ngha l
n
2
= |xyz| = |x| + |y| + |z| < |xy
2
z|. Bi v |xy| s n v |y| s n nn
|xy
2
z| = |x| + 2|y| + |z| = (|x| + |y| + |z|) + |y| s n
2
+ n. T suy ra
n
2
< |xy
2
z| s n
2
+ n < n
2
+ n + n + 1 = (n + 1)
2

V n
2
< |xy
2
z| < (n+1)
2
, suy ra s cc k t ca xy
2
z khng th l bnh phng ca
mt s nguyn, ngha l xy
2
z e L, iu ny mu thun vi gi thit.
V d 4.13 Chng minh rng L = {a
p
| p l s nguyn t} khng phi l tp chnh
qui.
Gii:
(i) Gi s L l chnh qui v tn ti tmt hu hn c n trng thi on
nhn L.
(ii) Chn p l s nguyn t ln hn n. t w = a
p
. Hin nhin |w| = p > n.
Theo b Bm chng ta c th vit w = xyz vi |xy| s n v |y| > 0. Cc
xu x, y, z c thit lp t mt phn t a, nn c th vit y = a
m
vi m > 1
v m s n.
(iii) t i = p + 1. |xy
i
z| = |xyz| + |y
i-1
| = p + (i - 1)m = p(1 + m). Theo b
Bm th xy
i
z e L. Nhng |xy
i
z| = p(1+m) v p(n + 1) khng phi l nguyn
t nn xy
i
z e L, iu ny mu thun vi gi thit.

V d 4.14 Ngn ng L = {a
2n
| n > 1} c phi l chnh qui khng?
Gii: Ta c th vit a
2n
= a(a
2
)
i
a, vi i = n - 1. Bit rng {(a
2
)
i
| i > 0} biu din cho
(a
2
)
*
l chnh qui. Vy, ngn ng L biu din bi biu thc a(P)
*
a, l chnh qui,
trong P biu din cho {a
2
}.

4.6 Cc tnh cht ng ca cc tp chnh qui
Trong mc 4.1 khng nh lp cc tp chnh qui (ngn ng chnh qui) ng vi
cc php hp, php ghp v php lp (ly bao ng bc cu). Cc tnh cht ny
cng c th suy ra t s tng ng ca vn phm chnh qui vi biu thc chnh
qui v cc tnh cht ng lp cc ngn ng chnh qui.
Lu : Ta c th tng qut ha v d 4.14. Nu L l tp chnh qui bt k th
L
+
=
=1 n
n
L cng l tp chnh qui .
Tht vy, ta d dng nhn thy L
+
= LL
*
. T tnh ng ca tp chnh qui i vi
php ghp suy ra L
+
l chnh qui.
y chng ta chng minh cc tnh cht da vo s tng ng ca tmt
hu hn v biu thc chnh qui.
nh l 4.6 Nu L l chnh qui th L
T
cng l chnh qui.
- 100 -
Chng minh: Khi L l chnh qui th n s c on nhn bi tmt hu hn
M = (Q, E, o, q
0
, F), T(M) = L.
Da vo th ca tmt M chng ta thit lp h chuyn trng thi S, trong
cc cung ly chiu ngc li ca cc cung tng ng ca M v F tr thnh tp cc
trng thi khi u cn q
0
li tr thnh trng thi kt thc duy nht. Ngha l,
S = (Q, E, o', F, {q
0
}). Nu w e T(M), tc chng ta c mt ng i t q
0
n mt
trng thi kt thc thuc F vi cc nhn to thnh w. Bng cch i ngc li ng
i th chng ta c ng i trong th ca S v c c w
T
e L(S).
Tng t chiu ngc li, nu w e L(S) th w
T
e T(M). T suy ra L(S) l chnh
qui v L
T
= L(S).
Lu : Trong chng 3 chng ta ni vn phm chnh qui (theo nh ngha
Chomsky) l vn phm tuyn tnh phi. T nh l 4.6 suy ra, vn phm tuyn tnh
tri (l o v ca vn phm tuyn tnh phi) c cc qui tc dng A Ba | a c th
xem nh l vn phm chnh qui v tt nhin n sinh ra tp chnh qui.
V d 4.15 Xt tmt M c cho nh sau:

Hnh H4-16 tmt M cho trc
p dng phng php gii h phng trnh nh thc hin v d 4.9, ta nhn
c T(M) = {0
i
1
j
| i, j > 0}. Ngn ng ny biu din cho biu thc chnh qui 0
*
1
*
.
Vy, T(M)
T
= {1
j
0
i
| i, j > 0}. H chuyn trng thi S c xy dng bng cch o
chiu cc cung trong th nh sau:

Hnh H4-17 H chuyn trng thi S on nhn T(M)
T

Tng t nh trn, p dng thut ton 4.2 chuyn h chuyn trng thi S v
tmt n nh cc tiu M tng ng.

Hnh H4-18 tmt cc tiu M on nhn T(M)
T

nh l 4.7 Nu L l tp chnh qui trn E th E
*
- L cng t tp chnh qui.
q
2
q
0
q
1
1
0
0, 1
0
1
q
2
q
0
q
1
1
0
0, 1
0
1
Q
0
0
Q
1
1
1
- 101 -
Chng minh: Khi L l chnh qui th n s c on nhn bi tmt hu hn
M = (Q, E, o, q
0
, F), T(M) = L.
Chng ta thit lp tmt M' = (Q, E, o, q
0
, F'), vi F' = Q F. Vy M v M' ch
khc nhau cc trng thi kt thc. Mt trn thi kt thc ca M' th li khng kt
thc ca M v ngc li. th ca hai tmt nh nhau v ch khc cc
trng thi kt thc.
w e T(M') khi v ch khi o(q
0
, w) e F' = Q F, ngha l w e L. iu
khng nh rng T(M') = - L l chnh qui.
nh l 4.8 Nu X, Y l chnh qui trn E th X Y cng t tp chnh qui trn E.
Chng minh: Theo lut De Morgan trn cc tp hp,
X Y = E
*
- ((E
*
- X) (E
*
- Y)).
Theo nh l 4.7, E
*
- X v E
*
- Y l chnh qui nn (E
*
- X) (E
*
- Y) l chnh qui.
Mt ln na p dng nh l 4.7 suy ra X Y cng l chnh qui.
4.7 Cc tp chnh qui v vn phm chnh qui
Chng ta chng minh c rng cc tp chnh qui chnh xc l c on nhn
c bi tmt hu hn n nh. Phn tip theo chng ta ch ra rng lp cc tp
chnh qui trn E cng chnh l cc ngn ng chnh qui trn bng ch ci kt thc E.
4.7.1 Xy dng vn phm chnh qui tng ng vi T cho trc
Cho trc M = (Q, E, o, q
0
, F) l tmt n nh hu hn trng thi. V Q l tp
hu hn nn ta c th vit Q = {q
0
, q
1
, q
2
, . . ., q
n
}. Nu w l mt t trong T(M) th
n s nhn c t cc php ghp cc nhn ca mt s cc php chuyn trng thi
t trng thi q
0
n mt trng thi kt thc no trong F. Tng t, mt xu c
sinh ra trong mt vn phm cng c xy dng da trn cc ch ci v cc qui tc
dn xut lin tip t k t bt u. Do chng ta c th xy dng vn phm G
sinh ra T(M) nh sau:
G = ({A
0
, A
1
, A
2
, . . ., A
n
}, E, P, A
0
)
Trong , P gm cc qui tc:
(i) A
i

aA
j
e P nu o(q
i
, a) = q
j
e F
(ii) A
i

aA
j
v A
i

a e P nu o(q
i
, a) = q
j
eF .

Chng ta c th s dng cch thit k P ch ra rng L(G) = T(M). Theo cch
thnh lp P th:
A
i

aA
j
khi v ch khi o(q
i
, a) = q
j

A
i

a khi v ch khi o(q
i
, a) = q
j
e F
Do vy, A
0
a
1
A
1
a
1
a
2
A
2
. . . a
1
a
2
...a
k-1
A
k
a
1
a
2
...a
k-1
a
k
khi v ch khi
o(q
0
, a
1
) = q
1
, o(q
1
, a
2
) = q
2
, o(q
1
, a
3
) = q
3
, ..., o(q
1
, a
3
) e F.
- 102 -
iu ny khng nh w = a
1
a
2
...a
k
e L(G) khi v ch khi o(q
0
, a
1
a
2
...a
k
) e F, ngha
l khi v ch khi w e T(M).
V d 4.16 Xy dng vn phm chnh qui sinh ra tp chnh qui c biu din
bi E = a
*
b(a+b)
*
.

Gii: Trc tin chng ta xy dng tmt hu hn M on nhn E.

Sau khi loi i cc A- dch chuyn, chng ta c tmt n nh hu hn nh
hnh sau:

Hnh H4-19 tmt hu hn M on nhn a
*
b(a+b)
*

t G = ({A
0
, A
1
}, {a, b}, P, A
0
), trong P gm:
A
0
aA
0
, A
0
bA
1
, A
0
b, A
1
aA
1
, A
1
bA
1
, A
1
a, A
1
b
Hin nhin, G l vn phm chnh qui, sinh ra ngn ng chnh qui v ngn ng
cng chnh l tp chnh qui E.
4.7.2 Xy dng T hu hn tng ng vi vn phm chnh qui G
Cho trc vn phm chnh qui G = ({A
0
, A
1
, A
2
, . . ., A
n
}, E, P, A
0
). tmt hu
hn M = ({q
0
, q
1
, q
2
, . . ., q
n
, q
f
}, E, o, q
0
, {q
f
}) tng ng c xy dng nh sau:
(i) Tp cc trng thi l tp cc bin (k hiu cha kt thc),
(ii) Trng thi khi u l A
0
,
(iii) A
i
aA
j
e P th o(q
i
, a) = q
j
e F v A
i
a e P th o(q
i
, a) = q
f
.
T cch xy dng nh trn d nhn thy:
A
0
a
1
A
1
a
1
a
2
A
2
. . . a
1
a
2
...a
k-1
A
k
a
1
a
2
...a
k-1
a
k
trong vn phm G

khi v ch khi tn ti mt ng dn trong th M i t A
0
n trng thi kt thc
q
f
c c a
1
a
2
...a
k-1
a
k
. T suy ra L(G) = T(M).
V d 4.17 Cho trc G = ({A
0
, A
1
}, {a, b}, P, A
0
), trong
P = {A
0
aA
1
, A
1
bA
1
, A
1
a, A
1
bA
0
}
Xy dng tmt hu hn M on nhn L(G).
Gii: t M = ({q
0
, q
1
, q
f
}, {a, b}, o, q
0
, {q
f
}), trong q
0
, q
1
l hai trng thi
tng ng vi cc bin A
0
, A
1
v q
f
l trng thi kt thc mi c b sung. Theo
cch xy dng nh trn chng ta c tmt M nh sau:
A
A

A

A

a, b

a

b

a, b

a

q
0
b

q
f
- 103 -

Hnh H4-20 tmt on nhn L(G)
D nhn ra L(G) = (ab)
*
b
*
a.
4.8 iu kin cn v ca ngn ng chnh qui
Trong phn ny chng ta xt cc iu kin cn v ca ngn ng chnh qui (tp
chnh qui).
4.8.1 Quan h tng ng bt bin phi
Gi s tp X = C.
nh ngha 4.4 Quan h nh nguyn R trn tp X, R _ X X, c gi l quan h
bt bin phi nu:
x, y, z e X, xRy xz R yz
nh ngha 4.5 Quan h nh nguyn R trn tp X c gi l quan h tng
ng bt bin phi nu R l quan h tng ng v l bt bin phi.
Trong chng I (nh l 1.1) khng nh l cc lp tng ng ca mt quan
h tng ng s to ra mt phn hoch ca tp X.
nh ngha 4.6 S cc lp tng ng ca quan h tng R c gi l ch s
tng ng ca R trn tp X.
4.8.2 iu kin cn v : nh l Myhill - Nerode
nh l 4.9 (nh l Myhill Nerode)
Ngn ng L l chnh qui khi v ch khi n l hp ca mt s lp tng ng bt
bin phi vi ch s tng ng l hu hn.
Chng minh:
a/ iu kin cn
Gi s L l ngn ng chnh qui. Khi tn ti mt tmt n nh y (hm chuyn
trng thi xc nh i vi mi phn t ca Q) M = (Q, , o, q
0
, F) on nhn L, T(M) = L.
(i) Xy dng quan h tng ng bt bin phi vi ch s hu hn.
a/ Trn tp
*
xc nh quan h R nh sau:
x, y e
*
, x R y o(q
0
, x) = o(q
0
, y)
b/ Quan h R c nh ngha nh trn l tng ng. Tnh phn x, i xng v
bc cu l hin nhin (suy trc tip t cc nh ngha).
a

b

a

q
0
q
1
q
f
b

- 104 -
c/ R l bt bin phi. Tht vy,
x, y, z e
*
, x R y o(q
0
, x) = o(q
0
, y)
o(q
0
, xz) = o(o (q
0
, x), z) = o(o (q
0
, y), z) = o(q
0
, xz)
xz R yz
Vy R l bt bin phi.
d/ R c ch s tng ng hu hn.
Gi s tp X c phn hoch thnh X
1
, X
2
, . . ., X
m
cc lp tng ng ca R.
Vi mi trng thi q e Q, xc nh tp
D(q) = { x e
*
| o(q
0
, x) = q}
Xt X
i
, vi i = 1, 2, , m. Do X
i
= C nn -y e X
i
. V tmt M l y nn
-q' e Q o(q
0
, y) = q'. Khi x e X
i
, ta c o(q
0
, x) = o(q
0
, y) = q', ngha l x e D(q').
T suy ra X
i
_ D(q').
Nh vy, mi lp tng ng trong phn hoch trn u cha trong mt tp D(q)
vi q l trng thi no ca Q. M ta bit rng tp cc trng thi l hu hn, vy suy ra
m s |Q|, ngha l ch s tng ng ca R l hu hn.
(ii) L l hp ca mt s lp tng ng.
V L _
*
v
m
i
i
X
1 =
=
*
nn L phi cha trong hp ca mt s lp tng ng
trong phn hoch trn.
Gi s
1
t
X
,
2
t
X
,
k
t
X
l nhng lp tng ng trong cc lp phn hoch ca
*
m c giao vi L khc trng. Khi hin nhin l:

k
n
t
n
X
1 =
_ L
Chng ta cn chng minh chiu ngc li
k
n
t
n
X
1 =
_ L. (4.10)
Tht vy, v
n
t
X
L = C, vi 1 s n s k, nn -x e (
n
t
X
L). Suy ra
x e
n
t
X
L = C, vi 1 s n s k, (4.11)
V x e L nn ta c: o(q
0
, x) e F. (4.12)
Gi s -y e
n
t
X
, vi 1 s n s k . Khi theo (4.11) v (4.12) ta c:
o(q
0
, x) = o(q
0
, y) e F
nn y e T(M). Do y e L. Bi vy,
n
t
X
_ L, n = 1, 2, , k. T ta suy ra (4.10).
b/ iu kin
Gi s R l quan h tng ng trn
*
v L l hp ca cc lp tng ng
X
1
, X
2
, . . ., X
n
(4.13)
- 105 -
Theo k hiu ca cc lp tng, nu x e X
i
, i = 1, 2, , n, th X
i
= [x].
(i) Xy dng tmt hu hn trng thi:
M = (Q, , o, q
0
, F)
Trong :
Q =

q
0
= [A]
F = {[x] e Q | x e L} v hm chuyn trng thi c nh ngha nh
sau:
o([x], a) = [xa] vi a e v x e
*
. (4.14)
(ii) Chng minh M on nhn L
a/ Qui np theo di ca y, chng ta c th chng c rng
o([x], y) = [xy] vi y e
+
v x e
*
. (4.15)
Tht vy, nu |y| = 1, ngha l y = a e . Theo (4.14) ta c
o([x], y) = o([x], a) = [xa] = [xy]
Gi s (4.15) ng vi mi t y c di |y| s k. Xt y = y'a, trong |y'| = k.
o([x], y) = o([x], y'a) = o(o ([x], y'), a) (theo tnh cht ca hm o)
= o([xy'], a) (theo gi thit qui np)
= [xy'a] = [xy ]
Tt nhin khi x = A, th t (4.15) suy ra o(q
0
, y) = [y], vi mi t y e
+
. (4.16)
b/ Chng minh rng T(M) = L.
Gi s x l t bt k thuc
*
.
+ Nu |x| = 0, ngha l x = A. Do A e L q
0
= [A] e F nn ta c A e T(M) AeL.
+ Nu |x| > 1 th t (7) ta suy ra x e T(M) o(q
0
, x) = [x] e F x e L. Do ,
T(M) = L, ngha l L l ngn ng chnh qui.
Bi tp v biu thc chnh qui
4.1 Biu din cc tp sau bng cc biu thc chnh qui
(i) {0, 1, 2}
(ii) {w e {a, b}
*
| w ch cha mt ln xut hin a}
(iii) {a
2,
a
5
, a
8
, ...}
(iv) {a
n
| n chia ht cho 2, 3 hoc n = 5}
(v) Tp tt c cc xu trn {a, b} m bt u v kt thc bng a.
{X
1
, X
2
, , X
n
}, nu A e L

{[A], X
1
, X
2
, , X
n
}, nu A e L

- 106 -
4.2 Tm tt c cc xu c di bng hoc nh hn 5 trong tp chnh qui c biu
din bng:
(i) (ab + a)
*
(aa + b)
(ii) (a*b + b*a)
*
a
(iii) a
*
+ (ab + a)
*

4.3 Chng minh ng thc sau:
(a
*
ab + ba)
*
a
*
= (a + ab + ba)
*

4.4 Xy dng tmt hu hn tng ng vi cc biu thc chnh qui sau:
(i) (ab + c
*
)
*
b
(ii) a + bb + bab
*
a
(iii) (a + b)
*
abb
4.5 Tm cc h chuyn i (hoc tmt hu hn) tng ng vi cc biu thc
bi tp 4.2.
4.6 Tm cc biu thc chnh qui biu din cho cc tp sau:
(a) Tp tt c cc xu trn {0, 1} c nhiu nht mt cp s 0 hoc nhiu nht
mt cp s 1.
(b) Tp tt c cc xu trn {a, b}, trong s cc ln xut hin ca a chia ht
cho 3.
(c) Tp tt c cc xu trn {a, b}, trong c t nht hai ln xut hin ca b
gia hai k t a.
(d) Tp tt c cc xu trn {a, b} kt thc bng 00 v bt u bng 1.
4.7 Hy ch ra rng khng tn ti mt tmt hu hn on nn tt c cc t
Palindromes trn tp {a, b}.
Lu : Palindrome l mt xu m vit xui v vit theo th t ngc li u nh
nhau, v d malam. Nu mt palindrome c di chn th c th nhn c t
php ghp ca mt xu vi o v ca xu .
4.8 Tm biu thc chnh qui tng ng vi th trng thi sau

4.9 Loi b A- dch chuyn trong tmt hu hn sau:
0
q
1
1
0
1
0
1
q
2
q
4
0
1
q
3
- 107 -

4.10 Chng minh rng L = {ww | w e {a, b}
*
} khng phi l tp chnh qui.
4.11 Chng minh rng cc tp sau khng phi l tp chnh qui
(i) {a
n
b
2n
| n > 0}
(ii) {a
n
b
m
| 0 < n < m}
(iii) {a
n
b
n
| n > 0}
(iv) {a
n
b
m
| n, m l nguyn t cng nhau, UCLN(m, n) = 1}
4.12 Cho trc vn phm G c cc qui tc dn xut S aS | a, tm ttomt M
on nhn L(G).
4.13 Xy dng mt tmt hu hn on nhn L(G), khi G c cc qui tc dn
xut: S aS | bA | b, A aA | bS | a v A aA | bS | a
4.14 Xy dng tmt n nh hu hn tng ng vi vn phm c cc qui tc
sau: S aS | aA , A bB, B aC, C A
4.15 Nhng khng nh sau ng hay sai, nu ng th chng minh, cn sai th cho
v d,
(i) Nu L
1
L
2
l chnh qui v L
1
chnh qui th L
2
l chnh qui,
(ii) Nu L
1
L
2
l chnh qui v L
1
chnh qui th L
2
l chnh qui,
(iii) Nu L
*
l chnh qui th L chnh qui.
4.16 Cho ngn ng chnh qui trn bng ch ci {0, 1}, gm tt c cc t cha hai
k hiu 0 ng lin nhau.
(i) Hy biu din ngn ng bi biu thc chnh qui
(ii) Hy tm vn phm chnh qui sinh ra ngn ng
(iii) Hy xy dng tmt hu hn on nhn cng ngn ng trn.
4.17 Xy dng tmt hu hn n nh tng ng vi biu thc chnh qui
10+(0+11)
*
1.
4.18 Cho ngn ng L trn bng ch {0, 1} c cc t cha chn ln s 0 v chn
ln s 1.
(i) Tm biu thc chnh qui biu din cho L.
(ii) Xy dng vn phm sinh ra ngn ng L.

0

q
2
0

A

1

1

0

q
4
q
2 q
0
1

q
1
1

q
3
q
4
- 108 -
Cho ngn ng L = {x
n
(10)
m
y
k
| n, k > 1, m > 0}
(i) Hy tm vn phm chnh qui G sinh ra L (L(G) = L).
(ii) Xy dng tmt hu hn trng thi M sao cho T(M) = L(G).
(iii) Hy kim tra xem cc xu xx10y, x101 c c sinh ra bi vn phm G
v c on nhn bi tmt M trong cu (i), (ii)?
Cho vn phm chnh qui G = (V
N
, , P, S), vi tp cc qui tc
P = {SaA | bE, AxB | b, ByC, CzA, EaF, Fb}
(i) Tm ngn ng L(G) sinh ra bi G.
(ii) Xy dng tmt hu hn trng thi M sao cho T(M) = L(G).
(iii) Cho xu w = axyzb. Hy ch ra G sinh ra xu w v w cn c on
nhn bi M.
Cho tmt hu hn M vi hm chuyn trng thi c cho nh hnh sau:

(i) Xy dng vn phm chnh qui G L(G) = L(M).
(ii) Hy ch ra G sinh ra w
1
= 1xyyx, w
2
= 0yx v M cng on nhn c w
1
,
w
2
.
Cho trc bng ch ci = {a, b}.
(i) Xy dng tmt hu hn trng thi M trn on nhn tt c cc xu
c cc ch a l s chn v ln hn 0.
(ii) Xy dng vn phm chnh qui tng ng vi M m anh (ch) ch ra.
(iii) Xc nh biu thc chnh qui tng ng vi ngn ng sinh bi G.

q
0
1
y
y
x
q
1
q
4
0
x
q
3
q
2
- 109 -

CHNG V
Cc ngn ng phi ng cnh

Ni dung ca chng nm cp n:
Cy dn xut v cc phng php xc nh vn phm phi ng cnh,
Tnh nhp nhng v qu trnh gin lc vn phm phi ng cnh,
Cc dng chun: dng chun Chomsky v dng chun Greibach,
B Bm (iu kin cn) cho cc ngn ng phi ng cnh v mt s
thut ton quyt nh c.
5.1 Cc ngn ng phi ng cnh v cc cy dn xut
Ngn ng phi ng cnh thng c s dng trong thit k cc b chng trnh
phn tch c php. N cng c s dng m t cc khi cu trc trong cc
ngn ng lp trnh. Trong phn ny chng ta s dng cy dn xut biu din cho
ngn ng phi ng cnh.
Trc tin chng ta nhc li nh ngha ca vn phm phi ng cnh. G l phi ng
cnh nu mi qui tc dn xut u c dng:
A o, trong A e V
N
v o e (V
N
)
*

V d 5.1 Xy dng mt vn phm phi ng cnh G sinh ra tt c cc s nguyn.
Gii. Gi s G = (V
N
, , P, S), trong
V
N
= {S, <dau>, <chu so>, <So nguyen>}
= {0, 1, 2, . . ., 9, +, - }
P bao gm cc qui tc: S <dau><So nguyen>,
<dau> + | -,
<So nguyen> <chu so> <So nguyen> | <chu so>
<chu so> 0 | 1 | 2 | . . .| 9.
D dng kim chng c l L(G) l tp tt c cc s nguyn.
Mi dn xut ca mt vn phm c th biu din di dng mt cy, dc gi l cy
dn xut.
nh ngha 5.1 Cy dn xut (cn gi l cy phn tch c php) cho vn phm phi
ng cnh G = (V
N
, , P, S) l cy tho mn cc tnh cht sau:
(i) Cc nh u c gn nhn l bin, k t kt thc hoc A,
- 110 -
(ii) Gc c nhn S,
(iii) Nhn cc nh bn trong (khng phi l l) l cc bin,
(iv) Nu cc nh n
1
, n
2
, ..., n
k
c vit vi cc nhn X
1
, X
2
, ..., X
k
l cc con ca
nh n c nhn A th trong P c tng ng qui tc A X
1
X
2
...X
k

(v) nh n l l nu nhn ca n l a e hoc l k hiu rng A.
V d 5.2 Cho trc vn phm G = ({S, A}, {a, b}, P, S), trong P gm:
S aAS | a | SS, A SbA | ba
Cy dn xut ca G sinh ra xu w = aabaa s l:

Hnh H5-1 Cy dn xut cho vn phm G sinh ra xu w = aabaa
Sp xp cc nh l t tri qua phi
+ Cc nh con ca nh gc c sp xp t tri qua phi, ngha l cc nh
mc 1 c sp xp t bn tri,
+ Nu hai nh v
1
, v
2
mc 1 v v
1
bn tri ca v
2
th ta ni rng v
1
bn tri
ca tt c cc nh con ca v
2
v cc nh con ca v
1
cng l bn tri ca v
2
,
ng thi cng bn tri ca cc nh con ca v
2
.
+ Lp li qu trnh trn cho mc 2, 3, ..., k.
iu m chng ta quan tm nht l s sp xp cc l ca cy dn xut.
V d: trong cy Hnh H5-1 th cc nh l c sp xp t tri 10-4-7-8-9 cho
gi tr l xu aabaa v xu ny c sinh ra bi G.
nh ngha 5.2 Kt qu ca mt cy dn xut l dy ghp cc nhn ca cc nh l
t tri qua phi.
V d: Kt qu ca cy dn xut Hnh H5-1 l aabaa.
S dng cc qui tc ca vn phm G:
S SS aS aaAS aabaS aabaa
Vy kt qu ca mt cy dn xut cng l mt t c sinh ra bi vn phm G.
nh ngha 5.3 Cy con ca cy dn xut T l mt cy c
(i) Gc ca n l mt nh v ca cy T,
1
S
2
S
10
a
3
S
4
a
5
A
6
S
9
a
8
a
7
b
- 111 -
(ii) Cc nh ca n cng l con chu ca v cng vi cc nhn tng ng,
(iii) Cc cung ni cc con chu tng ng ca v.
V d: cy trong hnh H5-2 l cy con ca cy hnh H5-1

Hnh H5-2 Mt cy con ca cy T hnh H5-1
Lu : Cy con cng ging nh cy dn xut, ch khc nhau l nhn ca cy con c
th khng phi l k hiu bt u S. Nu nhn ca gc ca cy con l A th cy con
c gi l A-cy.
nh l 5.1 Gi s G = (V
N
, , P, S) l vn phm phi ng cnh. Khi
S
*
o khi v ch khi tn ti cy dn xut T ca G T c kt qu l o.
Chng minh:
Ch cn chng minh rng A
*
o khi v ch khi A-cy c kt qu l o. (4.17)

Gi s o l kt qu A-cy T
1
. Chng ta chng minh A
*
o bng phng php qui

np theo s cc nh bn trong ca T
1
.
C s qui np: Nu T
1
ch c mt nh bn trong, ngha l tt c cc nh con ca
gc u l l. Khi cy T
1
c dng:

Hnh H5-3 (a) A-Cy c mt nh bn trong
Theo (iv) trong nh ngha 5.1 suy ra A A
1
A
2
...A
m
= o l mt qui tc trong G.
Vy A o.
Gi thit qui np: Gi s (4.17) ng vi cc cy con c k 1 nh bn trong, k > 1.
Chng ta xt A-cy T
1
c k nh bn trong (k > 2). Gi thit gc ca T
1
c v
1
, v
2
, ...,
v
m
l cc nh

con c gn nhn tng ng X
1
, X
2
, ..., X
m
. Theo (iv) trong nh
ngha 5.1 suy ra A X
1
X
2
...X
m
l mt qui tc trong P. Do vy,
A X
1
X
2
...X
m
(4.18)
Bi v k > 2 nn trong s cc nh con ca A c t nht mt nh l nh bn trong.
Nu v
i
l mt nh bn trong th li xt tip cy con ca T
1
c gc chnh l v
1
. Hin
3
S
4
a
5
A
8
a
7
b

A

A
1

A
m

A
2
. . .
- 112 -
nhin l s cc nh bn trong ca cy con gc v
i
l nh hn k, vy theo gi thit
qui np suy ra X
i
*
o
i
, X
i
l nhn ca v
i
.
Nu v
i
khng phi l nh bn trong, th X
i
= o
i
.
S dng (5.1) chng ta nhn c:
A X
1
X
2
...X
m

*
o
1
X
2
...X
m
. . .
*
o
1
o
2
. . . o
m
=

o

Ngha

l A
*
o.
chng minh chiu ngc li, chng ta gi thit rng A
*
o. Chng ta i xy
dng A-cy c kt qu l o. Thc hin iu ny bng phng php qui np theo
s bc trong dn xut A
*
o.
Khi A o, A o l qui tc trong P. Nu o = X
1
X
2
...X
m
, A-cy cho kt qu o c
th xy dng d dng v c dng nh hnh H5-3 (b).

Hnh H5-3 (b) Cy dn xut cho dn xut mt bc
Gi s dn xut A
*
o thc hin qua k bc, k > 1. Khi ta c th chia n thnh

A X
1
X
2
...X
m

1
k
o. Dn xut A X
1
X
2
...X
m
ko theo A X
1
X
2
...X
m
l
mt qui tc trong P. Cn trong dn xut X
1
X
2
...X
m

1
k
o th:
(i) Hoc X
i
khng chuyn trng thi sut trong qu trnh dn xut, X
i
= o
i

(ii) Hoc X
i
bin i trong qu trnh dn xut. Gi s o
i
l xu nhn c
t X
i
, X
i
*
o
i
.
Cy dn xut cho kt qu o = o
1
o
2
. . . o
m
c xy dng nh sau:
Khi A X
1
X
2
...X
m
l mt qui tc trong P, ta xy dng cy c m l: X
1
, X
2
,
..., X
m
. T X
i
suy dn ra o
i
c thc hin nh hn k bc, vy theo gi thit qui
np th X
i
-cy s cho kt qu l o
i
. Do , A-cy s cho kt qu l o.
V d 5.3 Xt vn phm c cc qui tc S aAS | a, A SbA | SS | ba. Ch ra rng
S
*
aabbaa v xy dng cy dn xut cho kt qu aabbaa.

Gii:
S aAS aSbAS aabAS a
2
bbaS a
2
b
2
a
2
, ngha S
*
a
2
b
2
a
2
.

A

X
1

X
m

X
2
- 113 -
Cy dn xut cho kt qu trn l:

Hnh H5-4 Cy dn xut cho kt qu a
2
b
2
a
2

Trong cc dn xut trn chng ta nhn thy bin bn tri nht lun c th p dng
mt qui tc no trong P dn xut tip.
nh ngha 5.3 Dn xut A
*
w l dn xut tri nht nu ch p dng qui tc dn

xut cho bin bn tri nht trong mi bc dn xut.
nh ngha 5.4 Dn xut A
*
w l dn xut phi nht nu ch p dng qui tc dn

xut cho bin bn phi nht trong mi bc dn xut.
Lu : Trong v d 5.3, xt dn xut S aAS, bin bn tri nht ca dn xut ny
l A. Mt khc trong G trn c qui tc A SbA, p dng vo dn xut ta c dn
xut tri nht aAS aSbAS.
nh l 5.2 Nu A
*
w l mt dn xut trong vn phm phi ng cnh G th s tn

ti mt dn xut tri nht cho w.
Chng minh:
Chng ta chng minh bng qui np theo s bc dn xut trong A
*
w.
Bc c s: Nu ch dn xut qua mt bc th A w, ngha l v tri ch c mt
bin, suy ra l dn xut tri nht.
Gi thit: nh l 5.2 ng vi k bc dn xut, ngha l nu A
k
w th tn ti
dn xut bn tri nht dn ra w.
Xt A
1 +
k
w. Ta c th chia dn xut ny thnh A X
1
X
2
...X
m
k
w. Tng t, c
th tch w = w
1
w
2
. . .w
m
v X
i

*
w
i
qua nhiu nht l k bc. Theo gi thit qui
np, tt c cc dn xut X
i

*
w
i
u tn ti dn xut bn tri nht, do vy:
A X
1
X
2
...X
m

*
w
1
X
2
...X
m

*
w
1
w
2
X
3
...X
m
*
w
1
w
2
...w
m
= w
H qu 5.1 Mi cy dn xut ca w u to ra dn xut tri nht ca w.

S

a

S

X
2
S

b

a
A

b

X2

a

a

- 114 -
V d 5.4 Cho trc vn phm G c cc qui tc S 0B | 1A, A 0 | 0S | 1AA,
B 1 | 1S | 0BB v cho bit w = 00110101.
(i) Tm dn xut tri nht,
(ii) Tm dn xut phi nht,
(iii) Xc nh cy dn xut.
Gii:
(i) S 0B 00BB 0011S 0
2
1
2
0B 0
2
1
2
01S 0
2
1
2
010B 0
2
1
2
0101
(ii) S 0B 00BB 00B1S 0
2
B10B 0
2
B101S 0
2
B1010B
0
2
1B10101 0
2
1
2
0101
(iii) Cy dn xut cho 0
2
1
2
0101 l

Hnh H5-5 Cy dn xut cho kt qu 0
2
1
2
0101
5.2 S nhp nhng trong vn phm phi ng cnh
i khi chng ta gp phi s nhp nhng trong dn xut cc xu trong mt vn phm G.
nh ngha 5.5 w e L(G) c gi l nhp nhng nu tn ti nhiu hn mt cy
dn xut sinh ra w (hoc c nhiu hn mt dn xut tri nht).
V d 5.4 Xt G = ({S}, {a, b, +, *}, P, S), trong P c S S + S | S * S | a | b.
C hai cy dn xut cho a + a * b:

Hnh H5-6 Hai cy dn xut cng cho kt qu a + a * b

0

S

B

B

0

1

1
S

B

X2

S

B

1
1
0
0
B

S

S

S
S

*
a
S

+
a
b

S

S
S

+

*
a
S
a

S
b
- 115 -
nh ngha 5.6 Vn phm phi ng cnh G l nhp nhng nu c w e L(G) l nhp
nhng.
V d: Vn phm v d 5.4 l nhp nhng.
5.3 Gin lc cc vn phm phi ng cnh
Trong vn phm phi ng cnh c th c nhiu yu t d tha, v d c nhng k
hiu trong V
N
khng c s dng, khng xut hin trong cc qui tc ca P,
hoc c nhng qui tc dng A B ch lm mt thi gian suy din m khng cho
c nhng thng tin g mi.
V d 5.5 Xt vn phm G = ({S, A, B, C, E }, {a, b, c}, P, S), trong
P = {S AB, A a, B b, B C, E c | A}
D nhn thy l L(G) = {ab} v G c cc d tha sau cn phi loi b:
(i) Nhng bin khng dn ra cc xu kt thc, v d C.
(ii) Nhng bin khng xut hin v phi, hoc khng xut hin v tri
ca cc qui tc, v d E khng xut hin v phi v khng dn n
c t k hiu bt u S.
(iii) Cc qui tc rng, v d E A.
(iv) Cc qui tc dng A B (suy din gia hai bin vi nhau), v d
B C.
Vn phm rt gn s l G' = ({S, A, B}, {a, b}, P', S) vi
P' = {S AB, A a, B b}
Hin nhin, L(G') = L(G).
Lu : Nhng bin sau c gi l cc bin d tha
+ Nhng bin khng dn ra c xu kt thc c gi l bin v sinh.
+ Nhng bin khng dn xut ra c t S c gi l khng dn n c.
V l cn loi b cc bin d tha m khng lm nh hng ti qu trnh sinh ra
cc ngn ng ca vn phm phi ng cnh.

5.3.1 Lc gin cc vn phm phi ng cnh
nh l 5.3 Nu G l vn phm phi ng cnh v L(G) = C th c th tm c vn
phm G' tng ng sao cho mi bin trong G' u c th dn xut ra xu kt
thc.
Chng minh: Cho vn phm G = (V
N
, , P, S).
Chng ta nh ngha G' = (V
N
', , P', S) nh sau:
(i) Xy dng V
N
'. nh ngha W
i
_ V
N
bng qui:
+ W
1
= { A e V
N
| nu tn ti A w v w e
*
}
- 116 -
+ W
i +1
= W
i
{ A e V
N
| nu tn ti A o v o e ( W
i
)
*
}
Theo nh ngha qui trn th W
i
_ W
i +1
vi mi i. Bi v V
N
l hu hn, nn tn
ti k s |V
N
| W
i
= W
i +1
. Cui cng t V
N
' = W
i
.
(ii) Kin thit P'. P' = {A o | A, o e ( V
N
'

)
*
} P
Chng ta cn ch ra G' chnh l vn phm cn tm.
Trc tin, S thuc V
N
', v nu S e V
N
' th L(G) = C, iu ny mu thun vi gi
thit l L(G) = C.
Tip theo cn chng minh:
(i) Nu A e V
N
' th A
*
' G
w, w e
*
v ngc li nu A
*
G
w th A e V
N
'
(ii) L(G') = L(G).
chng minh (i) chng ta lu rng W
k
= W
1
W
2
... W
k
. Chng minh qui
np theo i = 1, 2, ..., k, A e W
i
ko theo

A
*
' G
w vi

w e
*
.
Nu A e W
1
th A w v w e
*
, do A
G
w. Theo nh ngha th A w cng

thuc P' (c s qui np ng).
Gi s n ng vi i < k.
Xt A e W
i +1
. Theo nh ngha th
+ Hoc A e W
i
. Khi A
*
' G
w, w e
*
theo gi thit qui np.
+ Hoc tn ti A o v o e ( W
i
)
*
. Theo nh ngha th A o s
thuc P'. Ta c th vit o = X
1
X
2
... X
m
, X
j
e W
i
. Nu X
j
e W
i
th theo
gi thit qui np suy ra X
j

*
' G
w
j
, w
j
e
*
. Cui cng dn ti
A
*
' G
w
1
w
2
...w
m
e
*
.
Chiu ngc li chng minh tng t qui np theo cc bc suy dn trong dn
xut A
G
w.
chng minh (ii) th chng ta thy ngay L(G') _ L(G) bi v V
N
' _ V
N
v P' _ P.
Chng minh chiu ngc li phi da vo b :
A
*
' G
w nu A
*
G
w v w e
*
(4.19)

B ny c th chng qui np theo s bc trong dn xut A
*
G
w.
p dng (4.19) cho trng hp A = S suy ra L(G) _ L(G') .
nh l 5.4 (Loi b cc k hiu khng dn n c)
- 117 -
Cho trc vn phm phi ng cnh G = (V
N
, , P, S), chng ta xy dng vn phm
G' = (V
N
', ', P', S) tng ng sao cho vi mi k hiu X e V
N
' ' u tn
ti o, | e V
N
' ' S
*
oX|, ngha l mi bin u dn n xu kt thc v

xut pht t S.
Chng minh: G' = (V
N
', ', P', S) c xy dng nh sau
(a) Xy dng W
i
vi i > 1
+ W
1
= {S}
+ W
i +1
= W
i
{X e V
N
| nu tn ti A o v o e W
i
v o cha X}
Tng t nh trn W
i
_ V
N
v W
i
_ W
i+1
nn s tn ti k W
k
= W
k+1
.
+ V
N
', ', P' c xy dng nh sau:
V
N
' = V
N
W
k
, ' = W
k
v P' = {A o | A o e P, A e W
k
}
Vi cch xy dng chi tit tng t nh trn, chng ta c L(G') = L(G).
nh ngha 5.7 Vn phm phi ng cnh G = (V
N
, , P, S) c gi l ti gin
(khng c k hiu d tha) nu mi k hiu trong V
N
u xut hin t nht
trong mt dn xut dn n xu kt thc. Ngha l, vi mi X trong V
N
, tn ti
mt dn xut S
*
oX|
*
w e L(G).
nh l 5.5 Vi mi vn phm phi ng cnh G lun tn ti vn phm G' ti gin
tng ng.
Chng minh: Xy dng vn phm khng d tha theo hai bc.
Bc 1. Xy dng vn phm G
1
tng ng vi G sao cho mi bin u dn xut
ra cc xu kt thc (nh l 5.3).
Bc 2. Xy dng G' = (V
N
', ', P', S) tng ng vi G
1
sao cho mi k hiu
trong V
N
' ' u dn n c (nh l (5.4).
V d 5.6 Tm vn phm khng d tha tng ng vi vn phm G c cc qui
tc sau:
S AB | CA, B BC | AB, A a, C aB | b
Gii:
Bc 1. W
1
= {A, C} bi A a v C b
W
2
= {A, C} {A
1
| A
1
o, o e ( {A, C}
*
}
= {A, C} {S} bi S CA
W
3
= {A, C, S} {A
1
| A
1
o, o e ( {A, C, S}
*
}
= {A, C, S} C
Vy W
3
= W
2
. Do ,
- 118 -
V
N
' = W
2
= {S, A, C}
P' = {A
1
o, o e (V
N
' {a, b}
*
} P
= {S CA, A a, C b}
Kt thc bc 1: G
1
= {{S, A, C}, {a, b}, {S CA, A a, C b}, S}
Bc 2. p dng nh l 5.4 cho G
1
.
W
1
= {S}
W
2
= {S} {A, C} bi v S CA v S e W
1
.
W
3
= {S, A, C} {a, b} bi v A a, C b v A, C e W
2
.
Tng t W
4
= W
3
= V
N
' , ng thi P'' = {A
1
| A
1
o, A
1
e W
3
} = P'.
Vy, G'

= {{S, A, C}, {a, b}, {S CA, A a, C b}, S} l khng d tha.
5.3.2 Loi b cc qui tc rng
Vn phm phi ng cnh c th c cc qui tc dng A A c gi l qui tc rng.
Qui tc ny ch s dng xo cc bin trong qu trnh dn xut. Trong phn ny
chng ta mun loi b nhng qui tc rng.
nh ngha 5.8 Bin A trong vn phm phi ng cnh c gi l bin c rng
ho nu A
*
A.
ng l 5.6 Nu G = (V
N
, , P, S) l vn phm phi ng cnh th c th tm c
vn phm phi ng cnh G
1
khng c qui tc rng sao cho L(G
1
) = L(G) - A.
Chng minh: Xy dng G
1
= (V
N
, , P', S) nh sau:
Bc 1. Xc nh tp W cc bin rng ha
+ W
1
= {A e V
N
| A A trong P}
+ W
i +1
= W
i
{ A e V
N
| nu tn ti A o v o e W
i
*

}
V V
N
hu hn v W
i
_ W
i+1
nn tn ti k s |V
N
| W
i
= W
i+1
. t W = W
i
l tp
tt c cc bin c th rng ho.
Bc 2. Kin thit P':
+ Mi qui tc m v phi khng c bin rng ho s c a vo P' .
+ Nu A X
1
X
2
...X
k
thuc P th b sung cc qui tc dng: A o
1
o
2
...o
k
,
trong o
i
= X
i
nu X
i
e W, hoc o
i
= X
i
, A nu X
i
e W v o
1
o
2
...o
k
= A.
n y th G
1
= (V
N
, , P', S) s khng cn cha cc qui tc rng v c th chng
minh c rng L(G
1
) = L(G) - A.
H qu 5.2 Tn ti thut ton kim tra xem A e L(G) vi G l vn phm phi ng
cnh.
- 119 -
Chng minh: A e L(G) S e W, ngha l S l c rng ho, W c xy
dng nh trong phn chng minh nh l 5.6. Theo nh l trn, vic xy dng tp
W l kt thc sau hu hn bc (nhiu nht l |V
N
| bc). Vy thut ton kim tra
A e L(G) c thc hin nh sau:
(i) Xy dng W
(ii) Kim tra xem S e W.
H qu 5.3 Nu G = (V
N
, , P, S) l vn phm phi ng cnh th lun tm c vn
phm phi ng cnh G
1
= (V
N
', , P
1
, S
1
) khng c qui tc rng, ngoi tr qui tc
S
1
A khi A e L(G). Khi S
1
A thuc P
1
th S
1
khng xut hin v phi ca
cc qui tc.
Chng minh: T h qu 5.2 chng ta bit c A thuc L(G) hay khng.
a/ Nu A khng thuc L(G) th G
1
nhn c t nh l 5.6 l tng ng
vi G.
b/ Nu A e L(G) th xy dng G'

= (V
N
, , P', S) theo nh l 5.6 v chng
ta c L(G') = L(G) - A. Sau nh ngha G
1
= (V
N
{S
1
}, , P
1
, S
1
), trong
P
1
= P' {S
1
S, S
1
A}. Hin nhin l S
1
khng nm trong V
N
v do vy s
khng xut hin v phi ca mi qui tc ca P
1
, ng thi L(G
1
) = L(G).
5.3.3 Loi b cc qui tc n v
Trong vn phm phi ng cnh c th c cc qui tc dng A B, A, B e V
N
v cn
phi loi b chng.
nh ngha 5.9 Qui tc n v (qui tc dy chuyn) trong vn phm phi ng cnh
l qui tc dng A B vi A, B l cc bin e V
N
.
nh l 5.7 Nu G = (V
N
, , P, S) l vn phm phi ng cnh th lun tm c
vn phm phi ng cnh G
1
khng c qui tc rng v khng c cc qui tc n v
sao cho L(G
1
) = L(G).
Chng minh: p dng h qu 5.3 chng ta xy dng c G'

= (V
N
', , P
1
, S
1
)
khng c qui tc rng v L(G') = L(G).
kh cc qui tc n v suy c t bin A, chng ta lm nh sau:
Bc 1: Xc nh tp cc bin c dn xut t A. nh ngha W
i
(A) qui nh
sau:
W
0
(A) = {A}
W
i+1
(A) = W
i
(A) {B e V
N
| C B thuc P vi C e W
i
(A)}
Tng t nh trn, qu trnh ny dng sau k s |V
N
| bc, W
k+1
(A) = W
k
(A). t
W(A) = W
k
(A) l tp tt c cc bin c dn xut t A.
Bc 2: Kin thit cc A-dn xut trong G
1
. Cc A-dn xut trong G
1
c th l:
+ Nhng qui tc khng phi dng n v trong G'
- 120 -
+ A o khi B o l qui tc ca G vi B e W(A) v o e V
N
.
Vn phm cn xy dng l G
1
= (V
N
, , P
1
, S), trong P
1
c xy dng nh
bc 2. cho mi bin A e V
N
.
S dng phng php qui np chng ta chng minh c rng L(G
1
) = L(G).
V d 5.7 Cho trc vn phm G c cc qui tc S AB , A a, B C | b,
CD, D E, E a. Tm vn phm tng ng khng c cc qui tc n v.
Gii:
Bc 1. W
0
(S) = {S}, W
1
(S) = W
0
(S) C. Vy W(S) = {S}.
W(A) = {A}, W(E) = {E},
W
0
(B) = {B}, W
1
(B) = W
0
(B) {C} = {B, C},
W
2
(B) = W
1
(B) {D} = {B, C, D},
W
3
(B) = W
2
(B) {E} = {B, C, D, E} v W
4
(B) = W
3
(B).
Vy W(B) = {B, C, D, E}. Tng t:
W(C) = {C, D, E}, W(D) = {D, E}.
Bc 2: Xy dng G
1
c cc qui tc c xc nh nh bc 2. ca nh l 5.7:
S AB , A a, B b | a, E a , C a, D a
Hin nhin G
1
khng cha qui tc n v v L(G
1
) = L(G), nhng vn cn cha
nhng bin khng dn n c c th loi b i nh C, D, E.
5.4 Cc dng chun ca vn phm phi ng cnh
Trong nh ngha vn phm phi ng cnh, v phi ca mt qui tc c th l mt
xu bt k c c cc bin v cc k hiu kt thc. Khi cc qui tc tho mn mt s
rng buc chng ta c th a cc vn phm v dng chun.
5.4.1 Dng chun Chomsky
nh ngha 5.8 Vn phm phi ng cnh G dng chun Chomsky (vit tt l
CNF) nu cc qui tc u c dng:
A a hoc A BC, v S A nu A e L(G), vi S, A, B, C e V
N
, a e .
Khi A thuc L(G) th S khng xut hin v phi ca mi qui tc.
V d: Vn phm G c cc qui tc S AB | A, A a, B b l dng CNF.
Nhn xt: dng CNF, cc v phi ca mi qui tc ch c th l mt k hiu kt
thc (hoc k hiu rng A) hoc hai bin.
Vn quan trng t ra l c th chuyn mt vn phm phi ng cnh bt k v
CNF? nh l sau tr li cho cu hi ny.
nh l 5.8 (Lc gin v dng chun Chomsky). Vi mi vn phm phi ng cnh
G, u tn ti vn phm G
2
tng ng dng chun Chomsky.
- 121 -
Chng minh: Xy dng G
2
CNF tng ng vi G.
Bc 1: p dng nh l 5.6, 5.7 loi b cc qui tc d tha, cc qui tc rng
ho v qui tc n v. Gi s vn phm thu c l G = (V
N
, , P, S).
Bc 2: Loi b bt cc k hiu kt thc v phi ch li 1 k hiu. nh ngha
G
1
= (V
N
', , P
1
, S) nh sau:
+ Tt c cc qui tc dng A a hoc A BC a vo P
1
, tt c cc bin
ca V
N
u a vo V
N
'.
+ Xt nhng qui tc c dng A X
1
X
2
... X
n
, trong c mt s phn t l
k hiu kt thc. Gi s X
i
= a
i
l k hiu kt thc, th b sung thm bin mi,
k hiu l C
ai
vo V
N
' v b sung qui tc C
ai
a
i
vo P
1
. Lp li qu trnh
trn cho tt c cc bin X
i
nu l cc k hiu kt thc.
Bc 3: Hn ch bt cc bin v phi. Theo cc cch xy dng nh trn, P
1
l
gm cc qui tc c v phi l mt k hiu kt thc (hoc k hiu rng A) hoc bng
hay nhiu hn hai bin. Xy dng G
2
= (V
N
'', , P
2
, S) nh sau:
+ Tt c cc qui tc ca P
1
a

vo P
2
nu dng CNF v tt c cc bin ca
V
N
' u a vo V
N
''.
+ Xt nhng qui tc c dng A A
1
A
2
... A
m
, trong n > 3. To ra mt s
qui tc mi A A
1
C
1
,

C
1
A
2
C
2
,

... C
m-2
A
m-1
A
m
v b sung vo P
2
,
cn cc bin mi C
1
, C
2
, ... C
m-2
b sung vo V
N
''.
D nhn thy G
2
l dng CNF tng ng vi vn phm G cho trc.
Vn phm G
2
tng ng vi G c gi l dng chun CNF ca G.
V d 5.8 Tm dng chun CNF ca vn phm G c cc qui tc S aAbB,
A aA | a, B bB | b.

Gii: G khng c cc qui tc d tha, vy c th b qua bc 1 v thc hin t
bc 2.
Bc 2: t G
1
= (V
N
', , P
1
, S), trong V
N
', P
1
c xy dng nh sau:
+ A a, B b a vo P
1
.
+ S aAbB, A aA, B bB chuyn thnh cc qui tc
S C
a
AC
b
B, A C
a
A, B C
b
B, C
a
a, C
b
b b sung vo P
1
.
V
N
' = {S, A, B, C
a
, C
b
}
Bc 3: Trong P
1
cn qui tc S C
a
AC
b
B cn phi chuyn v CNF. Qui tc ny
c thay bng: S C
a
C
1
, C
1
AC
2
, C
2
C
b
B.
Cui cng, dng CNF ca vn phm trn s l
G
2
= ({S, A, B, C
a
, C
b
, C
1
, C
2
}, {a, b}, P
2
, S), trong P
2
bao gm:
S C
a
C
1
, C
1
AC
2
, C
2
C
b
B, A C
a
A, B C
b
B, C
a
a, C
b
b,
Aa, v B b
- 122 -
5.4.2 Dng chun Greibach
Mt dng chun khc ca vn phm phi ng cnh l dng chun Greibach cng
c s dng nhiu trong cc chng minh hay thit k cc vn phm.
nh ngha 5.9 Vn phm phi ng cnh G dng chun Greibach (vit tt l
GNF) nu cc qui tc u c dng:
A ao, trong o e V
N
*

v a e (o c th l A), v S A nu Ae L(G).
Khi A thuc L(G) th S khng xut hin v phi ca mi qui tc.
Trong dng chun Greibach, v phi ca mi qui tc u bt u bng mt k hiu
kt thc.
V d: Vn phm G c cc qui tc S aAB | A, A bC, B b, C c l dng
GNF.
Vn quan trng t ra l c th chuyn mt vn phm phi ng cnh bt k v
GNF? Trc khi chng minh nh l tr li cho cu hi ny chng ta xt hai b
b tr sau.
B 5.1 Gi s G = (V
N
, , P, S) l vn phm phi ng cnh. Cho trc A B
l A-dn xut trong P v B |
1
| |
2
| | |
k
. t
P
1
= (P - {A B}) {A |
i
| 1s i s k}
Khi G
1
= (V
N
, , P
1
, S) l vn phm phi ng cnh tng ng vi G.
Chng minh: Nu p dng A B trong dn xut w e L(G) th chng ta s
phi s dng B |
i
vi i no bc tip theo. Vy A
*
G
|
i
. Kt qu ca vic
s dng A B v loi b B khi P trong G th hon ton tng ng vi vic
s dng A |
i
trong G
1
. Do vy L(G
1
) = L(G).
Lu : B 5.1 c s dng xo b bin B xut hin v tr u tin ca cc
A- dn xut.
B 5.2 G = (V
N
, , P, S) l vn phm phi ng cnh. Gi s tp cc A-dn xut
l A Ao
1
| Ao
2
| Ao
n
| |
1
| |
2
| |
m
, trong |
i
khng bt u bng A. Z l
mt bin mi. t G = (V
N
{Z}, , P
1
, S) vi P
1
c xc nh nh sau:
(a) Tp cc A-dn xut trong P
1
l A |
1
| |
2
| |
m
, v
A |
1
Z

| |
2
Z

| |
m
Z,
(b) Tp cc Z-dn xut trong P
1
l Z o
1
| o
2
| o
n
v
Z o
1
Z

| o
2
Z

| o
n
Z
(c) Cc qui tc i vi cc bin khc

cng thuc P
1
. Khi G l vn phm
phi ng cnh tng ng vi G.
Chng minh:
chng minh L(G) _ L(G) chng ta ch cn lu ti nhng xu cui c dn
xut bn tri nht w trong G. Ch cc qui tc trong P - P
1
l A Ao
1
| Ao
2
| Ao
n

- 123 -
c s dng. Nu A Ao
i
c s dng th sau A |
j
no cng phi s
dng c c w. Ngha l A
*
' G
w.
Chng minh chiu ngc li L(G) _ L(G) tng t.
V d 5.9 p dng b 5.2 cho cc A - dn xut: A aBD | bDB | c, v
A AB | AD
Gii:
v d ny o
1
= B, o
2
= D, |
1
= aBD, |
2
= bDB, |
3
= c. Vy cc qui tc mi l:
(a) A aBD | bDB | c, A aBDZ | bDBZ | cZ
(b) Z B, Z D, Z BZ | DZ
Lu : B 5.1 c s dng loi b bin A khi v phi ca cc qui tc
A Ao.
nh l 5.10 (Chuyn v dng chun Greibach). Mi ngn ng phi ng cnh L
u c th c sinh bi vn phm phi ng cnh G

dng chun Greibach.
Chng minh: Chng minh nh l theo hai trng hp: L khng cha v sau
m rng khi c cha .
Trng hp 1: e L(G)
Bc 1: Loi b cc qui tc rng v sau xy dng vn phm phi ng cnh G
dng CNF sinh ra L. Gi s G = ({A
1
, A
2
, , A
n
}, , P, A
1
).
Bc 2: c c cc qui tc dng A
i
a hoc A
i
A
j
vi j > i, th phi
chuyn A
i
-dn xut v dng A
i
A
j
sao cho j > i. iu ny thc hin c
bng phng php qui np theo i v s dng b 5.2. Cui cng chng ta c
A
i
A
j
, vi i = 1, 2, , n-1 v j > i hoc A
i
a. A
n
- dn xut s c dng
A
n
A
n
hoc A
n
a.
Bc 3: Chuyn A
n
-dn xut v dng A
n
a. y s dng b 5.2 loi qui
tc dng A
n
A
n
.
Bc 4: Chuyn trng thi A
i
-dn xut v dng A
i
a vi i = 1, 2, , n - 1 (s dng b
5.1). Cui bc 3 ta thu c A
n
a. Cc A
n-1
-dn xut c dng A
n-1
A
n

hoc A
n-1
a. p dng b 5.1 loi i nhng qui tc A
n-1
A
n
v
ch cn li nhng qui tc dng A
n-1
a. Lp li tng t i vi A
n-2
, A
n-3
,
, A
1
.
Bc 5: Bin i cc Z
i
-dn xut. Mi khi p dng b 5.2 ta s c mt bin mi,
thm bin Z
i
khi p dng b vi A
i
-dn xut. Khi Z
i
-dn xut c dng
Z
i
o | A
k
, vi k no . Sau bc 4, v phi ca mi A
k
-dn xut u bt
u bng mt k t kt thc. Ta p dng b 5.1 loi b Z
i
A
k
. Kt
thc bc 5 ta nhn c vn phm dng GNF.
- 124 -
Trng hp 2: Xy dng G sinh ra L c cha . Trong trng hp 1 chng ta
xy dng c vn phm phi ng cnh G

= (V
N
, E, P, S) L(G) = L - .
nh ngha G
1
= (V
N
{S
1
}, E, P {S
1
S, S
1
}, S
1
)
Qui tc S
1
S c th c loi b theo nh l 5.7. Hin nhin L(G
1
) = L.
V d 5.10 Tm vn phm phi ng cnh dng GNF tng ng vi vn phm
G c cc qui tc: S AA | a, A SS | b.
Gii:
Bc 1: Vn phm G dng CNF. t A
1
= S, A
2
= A cc qui tc trn chuyn
thnh: A
1
A
2
A
2
| a, A
2
A
1
A
1
| b v khng c qui tc rng.
Bc 2:
(i) A
1
- dn xut c dng ng theo yu cu: A
1
A
2
A
2
| a
(ii) A
2
b l tho mn iu kin bc 2 trn. S dng b 5.1
chuyn A
2
A
1
A
1
v dng: A
2
A
2
A
2
A
1
, A
2
aA
1
. Vy A
2
-dn
xut s l: A
2
A
2
A
2
A
1
, A
2
aA
1
, A
2
b.
Bc 3: p dng b 5.2 cho cc A
2
-dn xut. Thm Z
2
v chuyn A
2
A
2
A
2
A
1

v dng yu cu:
A
2
aA
1
, A
2
b, A
2
aA
1
Z
2
, A
2
bZ
2
, Z
2
A
2
A
1
, Z
2
A
2
A
1
Z
2
Bc 4: (a) A
2
- dn xut l A
2
aA
1
| b | aA
1
Z
2
| bZ
2
.
(b) Trong s cc A
1
-dn xut ch cn li A
1
a v A
1
A
2
A
2
b loi b
theo b 5.1. Cc A
1
-dn xut sau khi chuyn i s l:
A
1
a | aA
1
A
2
| bA
2
| aA
1
Z
2
A
2
| bZ
2
A
2
.
Bc 5: Nhng Z
2
- dn xut cn bin i l: Z
2
A
2
A
1
, Z
2
A
2
A
1
Z
2
p dng b 5.1 ta nhn c:
Z
2
aA
1
A
1
| bA
1
| aA
1
Z
2
A
1
| bZ
2
A
2
,
Z
2
aA
1
A
1
Z
2
| bA
1
Z
2
| aA
1
Z
2
A
1
Z
2
| bZ
2
A
2
Z
2
Cui cng vn phm cn tm l: G = ({A
1
, A
2
, A
3
}, {a, b}, P
1
, A
1
}, trong P
1
c:
A
1
a | aA
1
A
2
| bA
2
| aA
1
Z
2
A
2
| bZ
2
A
2

A
2
aA
1
| b | aA
1
Z
2
| bZ
2

Z
2
aA
1
A
1
| bA
1
| aA
1
Z
2
A
1
| bZ
2
A
2
,
Z
2
aA
1
A
1
Z
2
| bA
1
Z
2
| aA
1
Z
2
A
1
Z
2
| bZ
2
A
2
Z
2

5.5 B Bm cho ngn ng phi ng cnh
chng minh mt ngn ng cho trc l phi ng cnh th c nhiu cch. Mt
trong cc cch l xy dng mt vn phm phi ng cnh (hay xy dng tmt
y xung s c trnh by chng sau) sinh ra (on nhn) ngn ng .
- 125 -
Song, mun chng minh mt ngn ng khng phi l phi ng cnh th kh hn
nhiu. Ta khng th xt c tt c cc vn phm phi ng cnh chng t ngn
ng cho khng c sinh bi cc vn phm phi ng cnh. khc phc kh
khn ny, ngi ta a ra mt s tiu chun c trng ca ngn ng phi ng
cnh v da vo xem xt kh nng tha mn ca ngn ng cho trc.
Sau y chng ta xt mt s tnh cht quan trng ca ngn ng phi ng cnh da
vo b Bm. Da vo chng ta c th khng nh kh nhiu ngn ng khng
phi l phi ng cnh.
B 5.3 Gi s G l vn phm phi ng cnh dng CNF v T l mt cy dn
xut ca G. Nu di ca ng i di nht trong T nh hn hoc bng k th mi
kt qu sinh ra ca T u c di nh hn hoc bng 2
k-1
.
Chng minh: Qui np theo di k, di ca ng i di nht trong s tt c
cc A-cy dn xut (cy dn xut vi gc c nhn l A).
Bc c s qui np: Khi k = 1, tc l gc ca cy dn xut ch c mt nh con m
nhn ca n l k hiu kt thc. Nu nh gc c 2 nh con th nhn ca chng s
phi l bin bi G l dng chun Chomsky. T suy ra kt qu sinh ra c di
l 1 s 2
1-1
= 1.
Bc gi thit qui np: Gi s kt lun trn ng vi mi k 1 ( k > 1).
Ta cn chng minh n ng vi k, tc nu T l A-cy dn xut c cc ng i di
nht nh hn hoc bng k th mi kt qu sinh ra ca T u c di nh hn hoc
bng 2
k-1
. Bi v k > 1 nn nh gc ca T c ng hai cy con A
1
v A
2
c cc
ng i di nht l nh hn hoc bng k 1.
Theo gi thit qui np mi kt qu w
1
, w
2
sinh ra trn hai cy dn xut A
1
v A
2

tng ng u tha mn | w
1
| s 2
k-2
,

| w
2
| s 2
k-2
. Kt qu sinh ra bi T khi c th
l w
1
w
2
v | w
1
w
2
| s 2
k-2

+

2
k-2
= 2
k-1
. l iu cn phi chng minh.
nh l 5.10 (B Bm cho ngn ng phi ng cnh). Nu L l ngn ng phi
ng cnh th s tn ti s t nhin n sao cho:
(i) z e L vi |z| > n u c th vit c di dng: z = uvwxy, vi u, v,
x, y l cc xu no
(ii) |vx| > 1
(iii) |vwx| s n
(iv) uv
k
wx
k
y e L vi mi k > 0.
Chng minh:
T h qu 5.2 ta c th kim tra c A e L hay khng. Khi A e L th ta xy dng
vn phm phi ng cnh G

= (V
N
, E, P, S) dng chun Chomsky sinh ra
L {A} (trng hp A e L th xy dng vn phm G

= (V
N
, E, P, S) dng
chun Chomsky sinh ra L).
Gi s |V
N
| = m v t n = 2
m
. Ta ch ra rng n l s cn tm b trn.
- 126 -
Vi z e L, |z| > n ta i xy dng cy dn xut cho z. Nu di ng i di nht
trong T nhiu nht l m th theo b 5.3, ta c |z| s 2
m-1
. Nhng |z| > n = 2
m
>2
m-1
.
Vy T s c ng i, v d I, c di ln hn hoc bng m + 1. I c t nht
m + 2 nh v ch c nh cui cng l l. Nh th trn I s c m + 1 nh c nhn
l cc bin. Bi v |V
N
| = m nn mt s nhn s phi lp li.
Chng ta chn nh c nhn b lp li nh sau: bt u t l i ngc ln n khi
gp nh u tin c nhn b lp li, v d l nhn B. Gi s v
1
v v
2
l hai nh
c cng nhn B, vi v
1
gn gc ca cy T hn. Trn on ng i I t v
1
n l
ch cha ng mt nh c nhn B b lp 1 ln, do vy di ln nht ca on
l m + 1.
Gi s T
1
v T
2
l hai cy con tng ng vi hai nh gc v
1
v v
2
, T
1
sinh ra z
1
v
T
2
sinh ra w. Theo b 5.3 suy ra |z
1
| s 2
m
.
Bi v z l xu c sinh ra bi cy T v T
1
l cy con thc s ca T, nn c th
vit z = uz
1
y. Mt khc, T
2
li l cy con thc s ca T
1
, nn ta vit c z
1
= vwx.
| vwx| > |w| suy ra |vx| > 1. Do vy, z = uvwxy vi |vwx| s n v |vx| > 1. n y ta
chng minh c cc iu (i) (iii).
Bi T l S-cy dn xut v T
1
, T
2
l hai B-cy dn xut, ngha l S
*
uBy,
B
*
vBx v B
*
w. V S
*
uBy uwy = uv
0
wx
0
y e L. Vi k > 1, S
*
uBy
*

uv
k
Bx
k
y
*
uv
k
wx
k
y e L. iu ny chng minh iu kin (iv) ca b Bm.
V d 5.11 Ch ra rng L = {a
p
| p l s nguyn t} khng phi l ngn ng phi
ng cnh.
Gii: Gi s L l phi ng cnh. Theo b Bm th s tm c s n tho mn
cc iu kin ca nh l 5.10.
z = a
p
, p l s nguyn t v p > n. Ta c th vit n di dng z = uvwxy. Chn k = 0,
theo b Bm ta c uv
0
wx
0
y e L. Suy ra |uwy| = q l s nguyn t. t |vx| = m v xt
tip dy uv
q
wx
q
y e L. N c di |uv
q
wx
q
y| = q + q * m = q*(1 + m), li khng phi l
s nguyn t, do mu thun vi gi thit.
B Bm c s dng ch ra mt ngn ng khng phi l phi ng cnh.
Trc tin, gi s L l ngn ng phi ng cnh. p dng b Bm th dn n
mu thun.
Thut ton p dng b Bm kim tra xem L c phi l phi ng cnh
khng.
1. Gi s L l phi ng cnh v n l s t nhin nhn c t b Bm.
2. Chn z e L sao |z| > n. Vit z = uvwxy theo b .
3. Tm mt s k sao cho uv
k
wx
k
y e L. iu ny l mu thun, do vy L khng
phi l phi ng cnh.
- 127 -
V d 5.12 Hy ch ra rng L = {a
n
b
n
c
n
| n > 1} khng phi l ngn ng phi ng
cnh m l ngn ng cm ng cnh.
Gii:
Bc 1. Gi s L l phi ng cnh va n l s nguyn nh trong b Bm nu trn.
Bc 2. Chn z = a
n
b
n
c
n
. Khi |z| = 3n > n. Theo b ta vit c z = uvwxy,
trong |vx| > 1, suy ra t nht l v hoc x s khc rng.
Bc 3. uvwxy = a
n
b
n
c
n
. V |uwx| s n nn suy ra 1 s |ux| s n. D dng thy rng, v
v x khng th cha tt c ba ch a, b, c. Khi ta c
1. v hoc x c dng a
i
b
j
(hoc b
i
c
j
) vi i + j s n, i, j > 1.
2. v hoc x ch cha mt trong ba ch a, b, c.
Trng hp 1. Nu v = a
i
b
j
(hoc x = a
i
b
j
) th v
2
= a
i
b
j
a
i
b
j
(tng t x
2
= a
i
b
j
a
i
b
j
)
vi i + j s n. Bi v v
2
, x
2
l hai xu con ca uv
2
wx
2
y, nn ua
i
b
j
a
i
b
j
wa
i
b
j
a
i
b
j
y khng
th vit thnh dng a
m
b
m
c
m
c, ngha l uv
2
wx
2
y e L. Tng t i vi trng
hp v = b
i
c
j
(hoc x = b
i
c
j
).
Trng hp 2. Nu v, x ch cha mt trong ba ch a, b, c ( v d v = a
i
v x = b
j
,
hoc v = b
i
v x = c
j
vi 1 s i, j s n), th xu uwy s cha ch th ba cn li, gi l
a
1
. Hin nhin a
1
n
s l xu con ca uwy v a
1
khng xut hin trong v v x. Bit
rng uvwxy = a
n
b
n
c
n
nn s cc hai ch khc vi a
1
trong uwy l nh hn n, ngha
l uwy e L. Mt khc uv
0
wx
0
y = uwy e L.
Vy L khng phi l phi ng cnh.
Trong v d 3.10 chng ta xy dng vn phm cm ng cnh on nhn L.
5.6 Thut ton quyt nh c i vi cc ngn ng phi ng cnh
Cc tnh cht nu trn gip chng ta xy dng c cc thut ton gii quyt
nhng vn sau:
(i) Ngn ng phi ng cnh L c rng hay khng?. Theo nh l 5.3 ta c th
xc nh V
N
= W
k
v L khc rng S e W
k
.
(ii) Ngn ng phi ng cnh L c hu hn hay khng?. Xy dng vn phm
phi ng cnh khng d tha G CNF sinh ra L - {}. Xy dng
th nh hng tng ng vi G. Nu A BC thuc P th c hai cung
nh hng i t A n B v t A n C trong th . L l hu hn khi
v ch khi th tng ng ca vn phm G l phi chu trnh.
(iii) Ngn ng chnh qui L c rng hay khng?. Xy dng tmt n nh
hu hn on nhn c L. Xc nh tp tt c cc trng thi t c t
trng thi u q
0
. Tm cc trng thi t c t q
0
qua mt ln p dng
k hiu vo. Tt c cc trng thi ny c sp xp theo hng tng ng
vi k hiu vo. Cng vic trn kt thc sau hu hn bc. Nu c trng
thi kt thc xut hin trong bng trn th L l khc rng, ngc li l
ngn ng rng.
- 128 -
(iv) Ngn ng chnh qui L c v hn hay khng?. Xy dng tmt n nh
hu hn M on nhn c L. L l v hn khi v ch khi M c chu trnh.
Bi tp v ngn ng phi cnh
5.1 Cho trc vn phm G c cc qui tc: S S + S | S * S, S a | b. Tm cy
dn xut cho kt qu a * b + a * b thuc L(G).
5.2 Cho trc vn phm G c cc qui tc: S 0S0 | 1S1 | A, A 2B3, B2B3 | 3.
Tm L(G)?
5.3 Cho trc vn phm G c cc qui tc: S aB | bA, A aS | bAA | a,
BbS | aBB | b. i vi xu w = aaabbabbba, hy tm:
(i) Dy dn xut bn tri nht ca w,
(ii) Dy dn xut bn phi nht ca w,
(iii) Cy dn xut ca w.
5.4 Ch ra rng vn phm G c cc qui tc S SbS | a l nhp nhng.
5.5 Ch ra rng vn phm G c cc qui tc S a | abS | aAb, A bS | aAAb l
nhp nhng.
5.6 Xt vn phm c cc qui tc sau: S aB | bA, A aS | bAA | a, B bS |
aBB | b. i vi t w = aaabbabbba, hay tm
(i) Dn xut tri nht ca w
(ii) Dn xut phi nht ca w
(iii) Cy phn tch c php ca w.
5.7 Xy dng vn phm khng d tha tng ng vi vn phm G c cc qui
tc sau:
(i) S aAa, A Sb | bCC | DaA, C abb | DD, E aC, D aDA
(ii) S aAa, A bBB, B ab, C aB
(iii) S AB | CA, B BC | AB, A a, C aB | b
5.8 Tm vn phm ti gin tng ng vi vn phm c cc qui tc:
(i) S 0S0 | 1S1 | A, A 2B3, B2B3 | 3
(ii) S aAa, A Sb | bCC | DaA, C abb | DD, E aC, D aDA
(iii) S a | abS | aAb, A bS | aAAb
5.9 Chuyn cc vn phm c cc qui tc sau v dng CNF:
(i) S a | b | cSS
(ii) S 1A | 0B, A 1AA | 0S | 0, B 0BB | 1S | 1
(iii) S abSb | a | aAb, A bS | aAAb
- 129 -
5.10 Tm dng chun Chomsky ca vn phm c cc qui tc sau: S aAD,
AaB | bAB, B b, D d.
5.11 Tm dng chun Greibach ca vn phm c cc qui tc sau: S AB,
ABS | b, B SA | a.
5.12 Chuyn cc vn phm c cc qui tc sau v dng GNF:
(i) S SS, S 0S1 | 01
(ii) S AB, A BSB, A BB, B aBb, B a, A b
(iii) S A0, A 0B, B A0, B 1
5.13 Nu w e L(G) v |w| = k, anh (ch) c th ni g v s bc dn xut dn ra
w, khi
(i) G l CNF
(ii) G l GNF
5.14 Hy ch ra rng nhng ngn ng sau khng phi l ngn ng phi ng cnh.
(i) L = {a
n
b
n
c
n
| n > 1}
(ii) L = {a
m
b
n
| n = m
2
}
(iii) L = {a
m
b
m
c
n
| m s n s 2m}
(iv) L = {
2
n
a | n > 1}
5.15 Mt vn phm phi ng cnh c gi l t nhng nu tn ti bin A sao cho
A
*
uAv, trong u, v e E
*
, u, v = A. Hy ch ra rng mt ngn ng phi
ng cnh l chnh qui khi v ch khi n c sinh ra bi mt vn phm khng
t nhng.
5.16 Ch ra rng mi ngn ng phi ng cnh khng cha A u c sinh ra bi
mt vn phm phi ng cnh c cc qui tc dng A a | aob.

- 130 -

CHNG VI
tmt y xung

Chng ny cp n:
tmt y xung,
Hai kiu on nhn ca tmt y xung,
Chng minh rng tp cc kt qu on nhn ca tmt y xung
chnh l lp cc ngn ng phi ng cnh.
6.1 Cc nh ngha c s
M hnh ton hc thc s hu hn c nghin cu trong cc chng trc vn
cn cha tho ng vi phn ln cc mc tiu ca cc lnh vc khoa hc, c bit
l khoa hc my tnh. N khng c kh nng on nhn ngay c mt ngn ng n
gin nh L = {a
n
b
n
| n > 1} v n khng th m c s ch a c c trc khi
ch b u tin c tnh n. Khng th xy dng tmt hu hn trng thi
on nhn c L bi v cc xu ca n c dng a
n
b
n
vi n l tu v sinh ra
chng th phi c v hn trng thi. Tuy nhin, vic m rng trc tip tmt hu
hn bng cch cho php n c v s cc trng thi r rng l khng phi l m hnh
tnh ton ph hp. N qu tng qut v khng tho mn yu cu ch yu v tnh
hiu qu ca khoa hc tnh ton.
Vy tmt loi no thch hp on nhn c nhng ngn ng nh th?. Cu
tr li chnh l tmt y xung.
Mt cch t nhin tm kin thng tin t bng lm vic da trn nguyn tc ngn
xp vo trc ra sau (hay vo sau ra trc). Mt bng lm vic nh vy
c ni n nh mt bng (kho) y xung. Mt tmt y xung l mt tmt
hu hn km theo mt bng y xung v hn tim nng.
tmt y xung hot ng nh sau: N c bng ch (k hiu) vo, c trng thi
iu khin, trng thi bt u, kt thc ging nh tmt hu hn. Ngoi ra, n cn
c kho (b nh) y xung. Mi ln thay i trng thi n c th c, ly ra t nh
xung y hoc ghi mt k hiu vo kho y xung. tmt y xung c nh
ngha hnh thc nh sau.
nh ngha 6.1 tmt y xung (PDA) l b by:
A = (Q, E, I, o, q
0
, Z
0
, F), trong
(ii) E l tp hu hn khc rng cc k hiu vo, bng ch ci,
- 131 -
(iii) I l tp hu hn khc rng cc k hiu y xung trong ngn xp,
(vi) q
0
l trng thi bt u, q
0
e Q,
(vii) Z
0
e I k hiu y xung c bit c gi l k hiu khi u,
(viii) F _ Q l tp cc trng thi kt thc,
(ix) o: Q (E {}) I Q I
*
.
V d 6.1 A = (Q, E, I, o, q
0
, Z
0
, F), trong Q = {q
0
, q
1
, q
f
}, E = {a, b},
I = {a, Z
0
}, F = {q
f
} v o c xc nh nh sau:
o(q
0
, a, Z
0
) = {(q
0
, aZ
0
)}, o(q
1
, b, a) = {(q
1
, )}
o(q
0
, a, a) = {(q
0
, aa)}, o(q
1
, , Z
0
) = {(q
1
, )}
o(q
0
, b, a) = {(q
1
, )}
Lu : 1. Ta c th vit o(q, a, Z) _ Q I
*
l tp con hu hn, c th l tp rng, cc
k hiu y xung c lu tr trong ngn xp hay b nh y xung
(PDS).
2. mi thi im, PDA trng thi q c k hiu vo a v k hiu y
xung Z nh (u ngn xp). Hm o chuyn t trng thi q sang q
v vit xu o sau khi ri khi Z, tc l (q, o) e o(q, a, Z). Khi o =
th k hiu trn nh b xo i.
3. Hnh vi ca PDA l khng n nh v hm chuyn trng thi o(q, a,
Z) l tp con, trong phn t tng ng vi mt cp trng thi v
mt dy k hiu kho y xung PDS.
4. o xc nh trn Q (E {}) I, PDA c th vn chuyn c sang
trng thi khc m khng c k hiu vo no (o(q, a, Z) = |). Nhng
chuyn trng thi nh th c gi l - dch chuyn.
5. PDA s khng dch chuyn c khi PDS l tp rng.
6. Khi vit o = Z
1
Z
2
Z
m
PDS th Z
1
l nh, di l Z
2
,
nh ngha 6.2 A = (Q, E, I, o, q
0
, Z
0
, F) l PDA. Mt hnh trng hay mt m t
hin thi ID l b (q, x, o), trong q e Q, x e E
*
, o eI
*
.
V d: (q, a
1
a
2
a
n
, Z
1
Z
2
Z
m
) l ID. N m t hot ng ca PDA trng thi
hin thi q, c dy cc k hiu vo a
1
a
2
a
n
theo th t t tri qua phi. PDS ca
n l Z
1
Z
2
Z
m
, trong Z
1
l phn t nh, Z
2
l phn t th hai,
nh ngha 6.3 Hnh trng bt u l (q
0
, x, Z
0
), ngha l PDA lun bt u t
trng thi q
0
, x l xu vo x khi PDS ch c mt k hiu khi u Z
0
.
Lu : i vi tmt hu hn, c th m t dng cng vic bng dy chuyn i
trng thi. Trong trng hp PDA, cn c thm cu trc kho y xung, do vy
m t hot ng ca PDA phi s dng dy chuyn trng thi cc hnh trng ID.
- 132 -
nh ngha 6.4 Cho A l mt PDA. Quan h chuyn i gia cc hnh trng ID (k
hiu l ) c nh ngha nh sau:
(q, a
1
a
2
a
n
, Z
1
Z
2
Z
m
) (q, a
2
a
n
, |Z
2
Z
m
) (6.1)
nu o(q, a
1
, Z
1
) cha (q, |). Quan h chuyn i cc hnh trng s to thnh dy
bin i hnh trng.
PDA trng thi q vi cc k hiu y xung Z
1
Z
2
Z
m
PDS c k hiu vo a
1
.
Sau chuyn i hnh trng trn th xu vo cn x l l a
2
a
n
.
Nu | = Y
1
Y
2
Y
k
th quan h (6.1) c th m t nh sau:

Z
1
Z
2
.
.
.
Z
m

Hnh H6-1 M t quan h chuyn trng thi ca PDA
Lu : Chng ta c th nh ngha bao ng bc cu ca quan h l
*
nh sau:
(q, x, o)
*
(q, y, |) nu tn ti n > 0, q
1
, q
2
, , e Q; x
1
, x
2
, eE
*
,
o
1
, o
2
, e I
*
(q, x, o) (q
1
, x
1
, o
1
) (q
2
, x
2
, o
2
) (q, y, |).
Hai tnh cht sau thng c s dng trong kin thit cc PDA v chng minh
cc nh l quan trng v tmat y xung.
Tnh cht 6.1 Nu (q
1
, x, o)
*
(q
2
, , |) th vi mi y eE
*

(q
1
, xy, o)
*
(q
2
, y, |) (6.2)
Ngc li, nu (q
1
, xy, o)
*
(q
2
, y, |) th (q
1
, x, o)
*
(q
2
, , |)
Chng minh: Nu PDA trng thi q
1
vi dy cc k hiu y xung o, n chuyn
xung di ln lt sau khi x l xong dy k hiu vo x chuyn v trng thi
q
2
vi dy k hiu y xung |. PDA s hot ng tng t khi nhn u vo xy,
nhng ch x l x, phn y s vn gi li nh hnh H6-1.
Tnh cht 6.2 Nu (q, x, o)
*
(q', , ) (6.3)
Y
1
Y
2

Y
k
Z
2
Z
3

Z
m
q q

a
1
a
2
. . . a
n
a
2
a
3
. . . a
n
- 133 -
th vi mi | e I
*
, (q, x, o|)
*
(q', , |) (6.4)
Chng minh: Theo nh ngha, dy (6.3) c vit nh sau:
(q, x, o) (q
1
, x
1
, o
1
) (q
2
, x
2
, o
2
)

(q', , )
Xt (q
i
, x
i
, o
i
)

(q
i+1
, x
i+1
, o
i+1
). t o
i
= Z
1
Z
2
Z
m
. Khi chuyn trng thi, Z
1
b
xo i v mt xu no c thay vo trc Z
2
Z
m
. Nh vy, Z
2
Z
m
khng b
nh hng. Nu ta c | ng sau Z
2
Z
m
th Z
2
Z
m
| cng khng b thay i. T
suy ra (q
i
, x
i
, o
i
|)

(q
i+1
, x
i+1
, o
i+1
|), ngha l
(q, x, o|)

(q
1
, x
1
, o
1
|)

(q
2
, x
2
, o
2
|)

(q', , |)
Lu : (6.4) khng suy ra (6.3). Xt trng hp:
A = ({q
0
}, {a, b}, {Z
0
}, o, q
0
, Z
0
,C) vi
o(q
0
, a, Z
0
) = {(q
0
, )}, o(q
0
, b, Z
0
) = {(q
0
, Z
0
Z
0
)}
(q
0
, aab, Z
0
Z
0
Z
0
Z
0
) (q
0
, ab, Z
0
Z
0
Z
0
)
(q
0
, ab, Z
0
Z
0
Z
0
)
(q
0
, b, Z
0
Z
0
)
(q
0
, , Z
0
Z
0
Z
0
)
Ngha l (q
0
, aab, Z
0
Z
0
Z
0
Z
0
)
*
(q
0
, , Z
0
Z
0
Z
0
). t o = Z
0
Z
0
Z
0
, | = Z
0
, = Z
0
Z
0

th (6.3) suy ra (6.4), nhng ngc li th khng dn ra c bi v
(q
0
, aab, Z
0
) (q
0
, ab, ) v sau khng chuyn trng thi c tip v PDS l
rng.
nh ngha 6.5 PDA A = (Q, E, I, o, q
0
, Z
0
, F) l n nh nu
(a) o(q, a, Z) hoc l tp rng hoc ch c mt phn t,
(b) o(q, , Z) = C th o(q, a, Z) = C, a e E
6.2 Cc kt qu on nhn bi PDA
nh ngha 6.6 Cho A = (Q, E, I, o, q
0
, Z
0
, F) l mt PDA. Tp on nhn c
bi A vi trng thi kt thc (c A on nhn vi trng thi kt thc), k hiu
T(A), c nh ngha nh sau:
T(A) = {w eE
*
| (q
0
, w, Z
0
)
*
(q
f
, , o) vi q
f
e F v o eI
*
}
V d 6.2 Cho A = ({q
0
, q
1
, q
f
}, {a, b, c}, {a, b, Z
0
}, o, q
0
, Z
0
,{q
f
}), trong
o(q
0
, a, Z
0
) = {(q
0
, aZ
0
)}, o(q
0
, b, Z
0
) = {(q
0
, bZ
0
)}, (6.5)
o(q
0
, a, a) = {(q
0
, aa)}, o(q
0
, b, a) = {(q
0
, ba)}, (6.6)
o(q
0
, a, b) = {(q
0
, ab)}, o(q
0
, b, b) = {(q
0
, bb)}, (6.7)
- 134 -
o(q
0
, c, a) = {(q
1
, a)}, o(q
0
, c, b) = {(q
1
, b)}, (6.8)
o(q
0
, c, Z
0
) = {(q
1
, Z
0
)}
o(q
1
, a, a) = o(q
1
, b, b) = {(q
1
, )} (6.9)
o(q
1
, , Z
0
) = {(q
f
, Z
0
)} (6.10)
Trc tin chng ta xt hnh trng u (q
0
, bacab, Z
0
)
(q
0
, bacab, Z
0
) (q
0
, acabb, bZ
0
) theo (6.5)
(q
0
, cab, abZ
0
) theo (6.7)
(q
1
, ab, abZ
0
) theo (6.8)
(q
1
, b, bZ
0
) theo (6.9)
(q
1
, , Z
0
) theo (6.10)
(q
f
, , Z
0
) theo (6.10)
Ngha l (q
0
, bacab, Z
0
)
*
(q
f
, , Z
0
), do bacab eT(A).
Tng t chng ta c th chng minh c rng wcw
T
eT(A).
Vy L = {wcw
T
| w e {a, b}
*
} _ T(A).
chng chiu ngc li, T(A) _ L ta ch cn ch ra rng L
C
_ T(A)
C
( phn b
ca chng cng bao nhau). Gi s x e L
C
. Xt tip hai trng hp:
Trng hp 1: x khng cha k t c. Khi PDA A khng th chuyn i t trng
thi q
0
n q
1
v n q
f
c. Vy x e T(A)
C
.
Trng hp 1: x c cha k t c, x = w
1
cw
2
, w
1
T

= w
2
.
(q
0
, w
1
cw
2
, Z
0
)
*
(q
0
, cw
2
, w
1
T
Z
0
) (q
1
, w
2
, w
1
T
Z
0
)
Bi v w
1
T

= w
2
nn (q
1
, w
2
, w
1
T
Z
0
) khng th chuyn v c (q
1
, , Z
0
) kt
thc (q
f
, , Z
0
). T cng suy ra x e T(A)
C
.
Kt lun T(A) = L.
nh ngha 6.7 Cho A = (Q, E, I, o, q
0
, Z
0
, F) l mt PDA. Tp on nhn c
bi mt kho rng ca A (c A on nhn vi kho y xung l rng), k hiu
N(A), c nh ngha nh sau:
N(A) = {w e E
*
| (q
0
, w, Z
0
)
*
(q, , ) vi q e Q}
V d 6.3 Xt tip PDA A c cho v d 6.2. Nu chng ta b sung thm
o(q
f
, , Z
0
) = {(q
f
, )} th
N(A) = {wcw
T
| w e {a, b}
*
}
- 135 -
nh l 6.1 Nu A = (Q, E, I, o, q
0
, Z
0
, F) l mt PDA on nhn L bng kho y
xung rng th s tm c PDA B = (Q, E, I, o, q
0
, Z
0
, F) on nhn L bng
trng thi kt thc, ngha l L = N(A) = T(B).
Chng minh: Xy dng B sao cho:
(a) Chuyn ng bt u ca B t c t hnh trng khi u ca A,
(b) Chuyn ng kt thc ca B t c tng ng n trng thi kt thc
ca A,
(c) Mi chuyn ng trung gian trong B ging nh trong A.
PDA B c xy dng nh sau:
B = (Q, E, I, o, q
0
, Z
0
, F), trong
q
0
l trng thi mi khng c trong Q
F = {q
f
}, q
f
cng l trng thi mi khng thuc Q
Q = Q {q
0
, q
f
},
Z
0
l k hiu khi u mi ca PDS,
I = I {Z
0
} v
o c cho theo ba qui tc:
R1: o(q
0
, , Z
0
) = {(q
0
, Z
0
Z
0
)}
R2: o(q, a, Z) = o(q, a, Z) vi mi (q, a, Z) e Q (E {} I
R3: o(q, , Z
0
) = {(q
f
, )} vi mi q e Q
Chng minh chi tit tham kho ti liu [4].
Theo cch thit k nh trn th B l n nh khi v ch khi A n nh.
V d 6.4 Xt PDA A = ({q
0
, q
1
}, {a, b}, {a, Z
0
}, o, q
0
, Z
0
, C), vi o cho trc
nh sau:
R1: o(q
0
, a, Z
0
) = {(q
0
,aZ
0
)}
R2: o(q
0
, a, a) = {(q
0
, aa)}
R3: o(q
0
, b, a) = {(q
1
, )}
R4: o(q
1
, b, a) = {(q
1
, )}
R5: o(q
1
, , a) = {(q
1
, )}
Xc nh N(A) v kin thit B T(B) = N(A).
Gii: Trc tin chng ta c th ch ra N(A) = {a
n
b
n
| n >1 }. Tht vy
(q
0
, a
n
b
n
, Z
0
)
*
(q
0
, b
n
, a
n
Z
0
) bng cch p dng R1 v R2

*
(q
1
, , Z
0
) bng cch p dng R3 v R4
- 136 -

(q
1
, , ) bng cch p dng R5
Suy ra a
n
b
n
e N(A). Chiu ngc li c dn ra t cc tnh cht ca cc qui tc
R1-R5.
Tip theo chng ta xy dng PDA B = (Q, {a, b}, I, o, q
0
, Z
0
, F), trong
Q = {q
0
, q
0
, q
1
, q
f
}, I = {a, b, Z
0
}, F = {q
f
} v
o(q
0
, , Z
0
) = {(q
0
, Z
0
Z
0
)} o(q
0
, a, Z
0
) = {(q
0
, aZ
0
)}
o(q
0
, a, a) = {(q
0
, aa)} o(q
0
, b, a) = {(q
1
, )}
o(q
1
, b, a) = {(q
1
, )} o(q
1
, , Z
0
) = {(q
1
, )}
o(q
0
, , Z
0
) = {(q
f
, )} o(q
1
, , Z
0
) = {(q
f
, )}
Kt lun T(B) = N(A) = {a
n
b
n
| n >1 }.
nh l 6.2 Nu A = (Q, E, I, o, q
0
, Z
0
, F) l mt PDA on nhn L bng trng
thi kt thc th s tm c PDA B = (Q, E, I, o, q
0
, Z
0
, F) on nhn L bng
kho y xung rng, sao cho L = N(A) = T(B).
Chng minh: Vn chnh l xy dng PDA B tho mn iu kin trn.
B c xy dng nh sau:
B = (Q {q
0
, d}, E, I {Z
0
}, o, q
0
, Z
0
, C), trong
R1: o(q
0
, , Z
0
) = {(q
0
, Z
0
Z
0
)}
R2: o(q, a, Z) = o(q, a, Z) vi mi a e E, q e Q, Z e I
R3: o(q, , Z) = o(q, , Z) {(d, )} vi mi Z e I {Z
0
}, q e F
R4: o(d, , Z) = {(d, )}, vi mi Z e I {Z
0
}
Chng ta c th khng nh L = T(A) = N(B).
V d 6.5 Xy dng PDA on nhn c tp cc xu trn {a, b} trong s
ch a bng s cc ch b.
Gii: B = ({q}, {a, b}, {Z
0
, a, b}, o, q, Z
0
, C), trong
o(q, a, Z
0
) = {(q, aZ
0
)}, o(q, b, Z
0
) = {(q, bZ
0
)}
o(q, a, a) = {(q, aa)}, o(q, b, b) = {(q, bb)}
o(q, a, b) = {(q, )}, o(q, b, a) = {(q, )}
o(q, , Z
0
) = {(q, )}
Chng minh c rng N(A) = L l tp tt c cc xu trn {a, b} trong s cc
ch a bng s cc ch b.
6.3 tmt y xung PDA v ngn ng phi ng cnh
nh l 6.3 Nu L l ngn ng phi ng cnh th s tn ti PDA A on nhn L
bng kho y xung rng, N(A) = L.
- 137 -
Chng minh: Da vo vn phm phi ng cnh G sinh ra L xy dng PDA A.
Bc 1. Xy dng PDA M. L = L(G), trong G = (V
N
, E, P, S) l vn phm phi
ng cnh. PDA c xy dng nh sau:
A = ({q}, E, V
N
E, o, q, S, C), trong o c nh ngha nh sau:
R
1
: o(q, , A) = {(q, o) | A o thuc P}
R
2
: o(q, a, a) = {(q, )} vi mi a e E.
Nu w e L(G) th n c dn xut tri nht ra t S
S u
1
A
1
o
1
u
1
u
2
A
2
o
2
o
1
w,
nn A c th c kho y xung l rng. Trc tin A thc hin A- chuyn
dchtng ng vi S u
1
A
1
o
1
. tmt A s xo S v lu vo kho u
1
A
1
o
1
. Sau
A li s dng cc qui tc R
2
xo i nhng k hiu (kt thc) trong u
1
v k hiu
cn li trn nh ca kho y xung l A
1
(k hiu khng kt thc). Tip tc s
dng dn xut A
1
u
2
A
2
o
2
v thc hin tng t nh trn cho n khi i A kho
y xung l rng khi c xong ton b w.
Bc 2. Phn cn li l chng minh L(G) = N(A) bng phng php chng minh
qui np theo cc qui tc kin thit.
Trc tin ta chng minh L(G) _ N(A). Gi s w e L(G), suy ra n c th l kt
qu ca mt dn xut tri nht. Trong mi bc ca dn xut tri nht lun c
dng: uA, vi u e E
*
, A e V
N
, e (V
N

E)
*
. Ta cn chng minh rng nu c
dn xut S
*
uA th
(q, uv, Z
0
)
*
(q
0
, v, A), v e
*
(6.11)
Ta chng minh tnh cht trn qui np theo cc bc trong dn xut ra uA. Nu
S
0
uA, th u = = A v A = S. Hin nhin, c s qui np l ng. Gi thit

(6.11) ng vi dn xut qua n bc.
Ta xt S
1 +
n
uA l mt dn xut tri nht. Tt nhin ta c th vit thnh
S
n
u
1
A
1
uA. bc cui ta p dng A

1
-dn xut: A
1
u
2
A
2
, vi
u = u
1
u
2
, =
1
2.
p dng gi thit qui np vi n bc u, ta c
(q, u
1
u
2
v, S)
*
(q, u
2
v, A
1
) (6.12)
Bi v A
1
u
2
A
2
l mt qui tc trong G, nn theo R
1
ta xy c
(q, , A
1
)

(q, , u
2
A
2
). p dng cc tnh cht ca hm chuyn trng thi,
(q, u
2
v, A
1
1
)

(q, u
2
v, u
2
A
2
1
)

(q, v, A
2
1
)
- 138 -
Ngha l, (q, u
2
v, S)
*
(q, v, A
2
1
) (6.13)
Do u = u
1
u
2
, =
1
2
, nn kt hp (6.12) vi (6.13), ta c
(q, uv, S)
*
(q, v, A)
Tip theo ta chng minh L(G) _ N(A). Gi s w e L(G), suy ra c mt dn xut
tri nht
S
*
uAv
uu'v = w.
T (6.12) suy ra
(q, uu'v, S)
*
(q, u'v, Av)
V A u' l qui tc trong P, nn (q, u'v, A)
*
(q, u'v, u'v)
Theo qui tc R
2
, ta c (q, u'v, u'v)
*
(q, , ), ngha l w = uu'v e N(A) khng
nh L(G) _ N(A).
Tip theo ta chng minh chiu ngc li L(G) _ N(A).
Tng t, ta chng minh mt tnh cht b tr
Nu (q, uv, S)
*
(q, v, ) th S
*
u (6.14)
Chng minh (6.14) qui np theo cc bc dch chuyn trng thi ca PDA.
Bc c s qui lp l hin nhin ng, v nu (q, uv, S)
0
(q, v, ) th u = ,
S = , th tt nhin S
0
.
Gi s (6.14) ng vi n bc dch chuyn. Ta xt trng hp vi n + 1 bc dch
chuyn trng thi
(q, uv, S)
n+1
(q, v, ) (6.15)
Trong bc dch chuyn trng thi cui cng trong hnh trng (6.15) ca PDA c
th nhn c t mt trong hai dng sau: (q, , A)

(q, , ') hoc (q, a, a)

(q, ,
). Theo trng hp u th (6.15) c th vit thnh
(q, uv, S)
n
(q, v, A
2
)

(q, v,
1
2
) = (q, v, )
Theo gi thit qui np th S
*
uA
2
u
1
2
= u
i vi trng hp th hai ta c th chia ra
(q, uv, S)
n
(q, av, a)

(q, v, )
Ta c th vit u = u'a, vi u' e E. Do vy (q, u'a v, S)
n
(q, av, a) suy ra (theo
gi thit qui np) S
*
u'a = u.
Kt hp c hai trng hp, ta chng minh c tnh cht (6.14).
- 139 -
Phn cn li ta phi chng minh nu w e N(A) th w e L(G).
Tht vy, w e N(A), tc l (q, w, S)
*
(q, , ). t u = w, v = = v p dng
(6.14), ta nhn c S
*
w = w, ngha l w e L(G).
Cui cng ta chng minh c L(G) = N(A)
V d 6.6 Xy dng tmt y xung A tng ng vi vn phm phi ng cnh
c cc qui tc: S 0BB, B 0S | 1S | 0. Kim tra xem 010
4
e N(M)?
Gii: nh ngha PDA A nh sau:
A = ({q}, {0, 1}, {S, B, 0, 1}, o, q, S, C), trong o c nh ngha nh sau:
R
1
: o(q, , S) = {(q, 0BB)}
R
2
: o(q, , B) = {(q, 0S), (q, 1S), (q, 0)}
R
3
: o(q, 0, 0) = {(q, )}
R
4
: o(q, 1, 1) = {(q, )}
Ta kim tra xem 010
4
e N(A)? Bi v
(q, 010
4
) (q, 010
4
, 0BB), theo qui tc R
1

(q, 10
4
, BB), theo qui tc R
3

(q, 10
4
, 1SB), theo qui tc R
2
bi v (q, 1S) e o(q, , B)
(q, 0
4
, SB), theo qui tc R
4
(q, 0
4
, 0BBB), theo qui tc R
1
(q, 0
3
, BBB), theo qui tc R
3

*
(q, 0
3
, 000), theo qui tc R
2
bi v (q, 0) e o(q, , B)

*
(q, , ), theo qui tc R
3

Vy 010
4
e N(A).
nh l 6.4 Nu A = (Q, E, I, o, q
0
, Z
0
, F) l mt PDA th s tn ti vn phm phi
ng cnh G sao cho L(G) = N(A).
Chng minh: Xy dng vn phm phi ng cnh G sao cho L(G) = N(A).
Bc 1: Xy dng G = (V
N
, E, P, S), trong
V
N
= {S} {[q, Z, q
1
] | q, q
1
e Q, Z e I} cn P c cc qui tc:
R
1
: S- dn xut: S [q
0
, Z
0
, q] vi mi q trong Q
R
2
: Vi mi (q
1
, ) e o(q, a, Z) th [q, Z, q
1
] a e P
R
3
: Vi mi (q
1
, Z
1
Z
2
Z
m
) e o(q, a, Z) th
- 140 -
[q, Z, q'] a[q
1
, Z
1
, q
2
][q
2
, Z
2
, q
3
] [q
m
, Z
m
, q'] e P vi mi
trng thi q',

q
2
, q
m
e Q.
Bc 2. Chng minh L(G) = N(A).
Da vo cc qui tc kin thit vn phm chng minh tnh cht b tr (6.16) qui
np theo cc bc dn xut trong vn phm v cc ca chuyn hnh trng trong
tmt y xung, tng t nh trong chng minh nh l 6.3.
[q, Z, q']
*
w khi v ch khi (q, w, Z)

*
(q', , ) (6.16)
w e L(G) S
*
w
S [q
0
, Z
0
, q']
*
w
(q
0
, Z
0
, q')
*
(q', , )
w e N(A).
V d 6.7 Xy dng vn phm phi ng cnh G sinh ra N(M), khi
M = ({q
0
, q
1
}, {a, b}, {Z
0
, Z}, o, q
0
, Z
0
, C), v o c xc nh nh sau:
o(q
0
, b, Z
0
) = {(q
0
, ZZ
0
)}
o(q
0
, , Z
0
) = {(q
0
, )}
o(q
0
, b, Z) = {(q
0
, ZZ)}
o(q
0
, a, Z) = {(q
1
, Z)}
o(q
1
, b, Z) = {(q
1
, )}
o(q
1
, a, Z
0
) = {(q
0
, Z
0
)}
Gii: Xy dng G = (V
N
, {a, b}, P, S), trong
V
N
= {S, [q
0
, Z
0
, q
0
], [q
0
, Z
0
, q
1
], [q
0
, Z, q
0
], [q
0
, Z, q
1
], [q
1
, Z
0
, q
0
], [q
1
,Z
0
, q
1
],
[q
1
, Z, q
0
], [q
1
, Z, q
1
]}
P bao gm nhng qui tc sau:
P
1
: S [q
0
, Z
0
, q
0
]
P
2
: S [q
0
, Z
0
, q
1
]
Bi v o(q
0
, b, Z
0
) = {(q
0
, ZZ
0
)} nn
P
3
: [q
0
, Z
0
, q
0
] b[q
0
, Z, q
0
][q
0
, Z
0
, q
0
]
P
4
: [q
0
, Z
0
, q
0
] b[q
0
, Z, q
1
][q
1
, Z
0
, q
0
]
P
5
: [q
0
, Z
0
, q
1
] b[q
0
, Z, q
0
][q
0
, Z
0
, q
1
]
P
6
: [q
0
, Z
0
, q
1
] b[q
0
, Z, q
1
][q
1
, Z
0
, q
1
]
V o(\q
0
, b, Z
0
) = {(q
0
, )} nn
P
7
: [q
0
, Z
0
, q
0
]
V o(q
0
, b, Z) = {(q
0
, ZZ)} nn
- 141 -
P
8
: [q
0
, Z, q
0
] b[q
0
, Z, q
0
][q
0
, Z, q
0
]
P
9
: [q
0
, Z, q
0
] b[q
0
, Z, q
1
][q
1
, Z, q
0
]
P
10
: [q
0
, Z, q
1
] b[q
0
, Z, q
0
][q
0
, Z, q
1
]
P
11
: [q
0
, Z, q
1
] b[q
0
, Z, q
1
][q
1
, Z, q
1
]
o(q
0
, a, Z) = {(q
1
, Z)} nn ta c
P
12
: [q
0
, Z, q
0
] a[q
1
, Z, q
0
]
P
13
: [q
0
, Z, q
1
] a[q
1
, Z, q
1
]
o(q
1
, b, Z
0
) = {(q
0
, )} nn ta c
P
14
: [q
1
, Z, q
1
] b
o(q
1
, a, Z
0
) = {(q
0
, Z
0
)} nn ta c
P
15
: [q
1
, Z
0
, q
0
] a[q
0
, Z
0
, q
0
]
P
16
: [q
1
, Z
0
, q
1
] a[q
0
, Z
0
, q
1
]
Lu : C th s dng k thut nh chng 5 lc b nhng bin, qui tc d
tha trong vn phm G.
6.4 Phn tch c php v tmt y xung
tmt y xung PDA c s dng nhiu trong phn tch c php ca cc ngn
ng t nhin v cc ngn ng lp trnh. C hai cch phn tch c php: phn tch
trn / xung v di / ln.
6.4.1 Phn tch c php trn / xung
Trong phn ny chng ta nghin cu k thut phn tch c php trn / xung c
ng dng trong mt s lp con ca ngn ng phi ng cnh.
V d 6.8 Cho G = ({S, A, B}, {a, b}, P, S), trong P c S aAB, S bBA,
A bS, A a, B aS, B b v w = abbbab e L(G).
Suy din bn tri nht sinh ra w:
S aAB abSB abbBAB abbbAB abbbaB abbbab
thc hin c cc dn xut nh trn th phi xc nh c nhng qui tc no
s c p dng ln lt. Mt trong cc k thut c s dng trong phn tch c
php trn / xung l thnh lp bng t vng.
tin li chng ta k hiu cc qui tc p dng c suy dn trn: S aAB,
A bS, S bBA, A a, B aS, B b tng ng l P
1
, P
2
, , P
6
. K hiu E
cho li khi xu vo khng nm trong L(G).

- 142 -
Bng 6.1 Bng phn tch t vng
a b
S E P
1
P
2

A E P
4
P
3

B E P
5
P
6

Nu A l bin bn tri nht trong dn xut v bin u tin trong dy con cc k
hiu vo cha c x l l b th s dng qui tc P
3
.
Vn phm c tnh cht trn, ch cn tm v pha trc mt k hiu vo th quyt
nh c qui tc no cn p dng tip theo, c gi l vn phm LL(1).
V d 6.9 Cho trc vn phm phi ng cnh G c cc qui tc: S F + S | F * S | F,
F a. Xc nh dy phn tch c php trn / xung cho xu w = a + a * a.
Nu ch tm v pha trc mt k hiu th chng ta s khng phn tch c w. i
vi xu w, c th p dng F a sinh ra a. Nhng nu a ng sau du + hoc *
th khng th p dng sinh ra a c. Ngha l chng ta phi nhn v pha trc
2 k hiu.
Bt u t S chng ta c th p dng ba qui tc S F + S | F * S | F. Hai k hiu
u ca a + a * a l a +. Do vy chng ta ch c th p dng S F + S, sau c th
p dng F a. Vy S F + S a + S. Phn cn li ca xu cha c phn tch
s l a * a. Tng t hai k hiu u cn li l a*. p dng tip S F * S, F a ta
c S F + S a + S a + F * S a + a * S. K hiu cn li l a, do c
th p dng S F v F a phn tch xong c php xu a + a * a. Vy, dy dn
xut tri nht sinh ra w s l:
S F + S a + S a + F * S a + a * S a + a * a.
Tip theo chng ta xy dng mt bng h tr xc nh dn xut tri nht i vi
cc xu u vo. K hiu P
1
, P
2
, P
3
, P
4
cho cc qui tc S F + S, S F * S, S F,
F a v E k hiu li c php.
Bng 6.2 Bng phn tch c php cho v d 6.9
A a + * aa a+ a*
S E P
3
E E E P
1
P
2

F E P
4
E E E P
4
P
4

+a ++ +* *a *+ **
S E E E E E E
F E E E E E E
V d, nu bin tri nht l F v hai k hiu tip theo cn x l l a+ th p dng
qui tc P
4
. Khi gp phi hai k hiu tip theo l *a th c li E.
- 143 -
Vn phm c tnh cht: phi cn c vo k k hiu pha trc mi quyt nh
c qui tc no cn p dng trong dn xut tip theo, c gi l vn phm LL(k).
Vn phm v d 6.9 l vn phm LL(2).
Trong qu trnh phn tch c php, vn khng tt nh gy ra khng t kh khn.
l trng hp c hai A-dn xut, v d A o| v A o. Vn nhp
nhng ny c gii quyt bng k thut phn tch thnh th s nh sau.
nh l 6.5 Vn phm phi ng cnh G c hai A-dn xut: A o| v A o.
Nu thay A o| v A o bng A oA', A' | | vi A' l bin mi th s
c vn phm tng ng vi G.
Chng minh: S tng ng ca hai vn phm trn d dng c ch ra bng
cch thay v p dng A o| v A o, ta s dng A oA', A' | | v
ngc li.
Mt vn khc hay gp phi trong phn tch c php l qui tri. Bin A c
gi l qui tri nu n c dng A Ao. Khi gp phi trng hp qui tri th
b phn tch c php c th ri vo chu trnh lp v hn. nh l sau cho php loi
b qui tri.
nh l 6.6 Cho G l vn phm phi ng cnh c tp tt c cc A-dn xut l:
{ A Ao
1
, , A Ao
n
, A|
1
, , A|
m
}. Vn phm G
1
c xy dng t G
bng cch thm bin mi A' v thay cc A-dn xut trong G bng A |
1
A', ,
A |
m
A', A' o
1
A', , A' o
n
A' v A' l tng ng vi G.
Chng minh: Tng t nh i vi b 5.3.
nh l 6.5 v 6.6 ch p dng dng hiu qu xy dng b phn tch c php
top/down cho mt s vn phm phi ng cnh, khng phi cho tt c cc trng hp.
Chng ta khi qut qu trnh xy dng b phn tch c php top/down nh sau:
Xy dng b phn tch c php top/down (trn / xung)
1. Loi qui tri bng cch s dng nh l 6.6 cho tt c cc bin qui tri.
2. p dng nh l 6.5 loi b s nhp nhng khi cn thit.
3. Nu vn phm thu c l LL(k) vi k l s t nhin th p dng k
thut nh nu hai v d trn phn tch qua k bc trn/xung.
V d 6.10 Xt ngn ng gm tt c cc biu thc s hc vi php +, * trn cc
bin x1 v x2. Vn phm sinh ra L c dng:
G = ({T, F, E}, {x, 1, 2, +, *, (, )}, P, E), trong P c cc qui tc:
E E + T F (E)
E T F x1
T T * F F x2 T F
Xy dng b phn tch c php cho L(G).

- 144 -
Gii:
Bc 1: p dng nh l 6.6 loi b qui tri: E v T. Thay E E + T v
E T bng E TE', E' + TE' v E' , E' l bin mi b sung. Tng t
thay T T * F v TF bng T FT', T' + FT' v T' . Vn phm mi G
1

tng vi G l:
G
1
= ({T, F, E, E', T'}, {x, 1, 2, +, *, (, )}, P', E), P' c cc qui tc:
E TE' F (E) T FT' T'
E' + TE' E' F x1 F x2
T' * FT'
Bc 2: p dng nh l 6.5 loi b s nhp nhng bng k thut phn tch
thnh tha s. Thay F x1, Fx2 bng F xN, N 1 | 2. Kt qu c vn
phm G
2
tng ng:
G
2
= ({T, F, E, E', T'}, {x, 1, 2, +, *, (, )}, P'', E), P'' c cc qui tc:
P
1
: E TE' P
6
: T'
P
2
: E' + TE' P
7
: F (E)

P
3
: E' P
8
: F xN
P
4
: T FT' P
9
: N 1
P
5
: T' * FT' P
10
:N 2
Bc 3: Xy dng bng phn tch t vng cho vn phm LL(1) ( bc 2)
Bng 6.3 Bng phn tch t vng
x 1 2 + * ( )
E E P
1
E E E E P
1
E
T E P
4
E E E E P
4
E
F E P
8
E E E E P
1
E
T' P
6
E E E E P
5
E P
6

E' P
1
E E E P
2
E E P
1

N E E P
9
P
10
E E E E
6.4.2 Phn tch c php di / ln
Phn tch t di ln trn da ch yu vo cy dn xut i vi dy u vo cho
trc. i vi lp cc vn phm quyn u tin yu chng ta c th xy dng PDA
n nh nh l b phn tch c php phn tch c php cho nhng xu on
nhn bi vn phm .
Trong phn tch c php di / ln ta cn phi o ngc cc qui tc cui cng
nhn c S. PDA hot ng nh b phn tch di / ln:
(i) o(q, , o
T
) = {(q, ) | c qui tc A o}
- 145 -
(ii) o(q, o, ) = {(q, o) | vi mi o trong E }
p dng (i) thay o
T
bng A khi c qui tc A o. K hiu vo o c ly ra
khi kho bng cch s dng (ii). c on nhn ta cn mt s dch chuyn khi
PDS c S hoc Z
0
nh ca kho y xung.
Trong phn tch c php di / ln, chng ta cn xy dng PDA on nhn
L(G)$. y chng ta c hai thao tc:
(i) Chuyn dch k hiu vo ln nh ca kho Stack.
(ii) Thay th o
T
bng A khi c qui tc A o trong G.
mi bc chng ta phi quyt nh xem thc hin thao tc no. la chuyn
vo Stack (i) hay thay th (ii), chng ta s dng quan h R c gi l quan h th
t u tin.
Nu (a, b) e R, trong a l k hiu nh ca kho Stack, b l k hiu vo th
thc hin thay th (ii), ngc li thc hin chuyn vo Stack (i).
V d 6.11 Xy dng b phn tch c php di / ln cho ngn ng L(G)$ , trong
G c cho v d 6.10.
Gii:
G c cc qui tc E E + T, F (E), E T, F x1, T T * F, F x2, T F.
Trc tin ta xy dng quan h th t u tin R. Trong bng 6.4, ta k hiu a c
quan h R vi b l \ tng ng.
Bng 6.4 Quan h th t u tin
K hiu kho/ x ( ) 1 2 + * $
K hiu vo
Z
0

x
(
) \ \ \ \
1 \ \ \ \
2 \ \ \ \
+
*
E
T \ \ \
F \ \ \ \
S dng bng 6.4 thc hin cc thao tc cn thit. V d, nu k hiu Stack l
F v k hiu vo tip theo l * th thc hin thay th thay th (ii). Nu k hiu
kho l E th t cc k hiu vo nh ca kho Stack.
tmt y xung n nh hot ng nh mt b phn tch c php c xy
dng nh sau:
- 146 -
A = (Q, E, I, o, p, Z
0
, C), trong
E= E {$}, Q = {p} {p
o
| o e E}
I = {E, T, F} E {Z
0
, $}
o c xc nh nh sau:
R
1
: o(p, o, ) = (p, )
R
2
: o(p
o
, , o) = (p, oo), vi mi o, o e R
R
3
: o(p
o
, , T + E) = (p
o
, E), khi (T, o) e R
R
4
: o(p
o
, , To) = (p
o
, Eo), khi (T, o) e R v o e I - {+}
R
5
: o(p
o
, , F * T) = (p
o
, T), khi (F, o) e R
R
6
: o(p
o
, , Fo) = (p
o
, To), khi (F, o) e R v o e I - {*}
R
7
: o(p
o
, , EC) = (p
o
, F), khi (), o) e R
R
8
: o(p
o
, , 1x) = (p
o
, F), khi (1, o) e R
R
9
: o(p
o
, , 2x) = (p
o
, F), khi (2, o) e R
R
10
: o(p
$
, , E) = (p
$
, )
R
11
: o(p
$
, , Z
0
) = (p
$
, )
B phn tch c php di / ln cho xu vo x1 + x2 c cho nh bng 6.5.
Bng 6.5 Phn tch c php ca x1 + (x2)
Bc Trng thi Dy vo Kho Stack Lut Qui tc
Cha c c s dng p dng
1 p x1 + (x2) Z
0
-
2 p
x
1 + (x2) Z
0
R
1
3 p

1 + (x2) xZ
0
R
2

4 p
1
+ (x2) xZ
0
R
1

5 p

+ (x2) 1xZ
0
R
2

6 p
+
(x2) 1xZ
0
R
1

7 p
+
(x2) FZ
0
R
8
Fx1
8 p
+
(x2) TZ
0
R
6
TF
9 p
+
(x2) EZ
0
R
4
ET
10 p

(x2) +EZ
0
R
2

11 p
(
x2) +EZ
0
R
1

12 p

x2) (+EZ
0
R
2

13 p
x
2) (+EZ
0
R
1

14 p

2) x(+EZ
0
R
2

15 p
2
) x(+EZ
0
R
1

16 p

) 2x(+EZ
0
R
2

17 p
)
$ 2x(+EZ
0
R
1

18 p
)
$ F(+EZ
0
R
9
Fx1
- 147 -
19 p
)
$ T(+EZ
0
R
6
TF
20 p
)
$ E(+EZ
0
R
4
ET
21 p

$ )E(+EZ
0
R
2

22 p
$
A )E(+EZ
0
R
1

23 p
$
A F+EZ
0
R
7
F(E)
24 p
$
A T+EZ
0
R
6
TF
25 p
$
A EZ
0
R
3
FE+T
26 p
$
A Z
0
R
10

27 p
$
A A R
11

Suy ngc li cc qui tc c p dng, chng ta c dy cc dn xut phi nht
on nhn x1 + (x2) nh sau:
E E + T E + F E + (E) E +(T) E + (F) E + (x2) T + (x2)
F + (x2) x1 + (x2).

Bi tp v tmt y xung
6.1 Xy dng PDA on nhn bng kho y xung rng cc ngn ng sau:
(a) {a
n
b
m
c
n
| m, n > 1}
(b) {a
n
b
2n
| n > 1}
(c) {a
m
b
m
c
n
| m, n > 1}
(d) {a
m
b
n
| m > n > 1}
6.2 Xy dng PDA on nhn bng trng thi kt thc cc ngn ng nh trong
bi 6.1
6.3 Xy dng vn phm phi ng cnh sinh ra cc ngn ng sau v sau xy
dng cc PDA on nhn chng bng kho y xung rng:
(a) {a
n
b
n
| n > 1} {a
m
b
2m
| m > 1}
(b) {a
n
b
m
c
n
| m, n > 1} {a
n
c
n
| n > 1}
(c) {a
n
b
m
c
m
d
n
| m, n > 1}
6.4 Xy dng tmt y xung n nh trn {a, b} on nhn tt c cc dy
Palindrrome c di l chn theo kho y xung (ngn xp) rng.
6.5 Ch ra rng tp tt c cc xu trn {a, b} c s k t a bng s k t b, c
on nhn bi mt tmt y xung n nh.
6.6 Ch ra rng {a
n
b
n
| n > 1} {a
m
b
2m
| m > 1} khng th on nhn bi mt
tmt y xung n nh.
- 148 -
6.7 Ch ra rng mi tp chnh qui c on nhn bi tmt hu hn vi n trng
thi s c on nhn bi tmt y xung n nh vi mt trng thi v
n k hiu y xung.
n
cb
m
cd
k
| n > m > 0, k > 0}
(i) Tm vn phm phi ng cnh G sinh ra L (L(G) = L).
(ii) Ch ra mt dn xut chng t t a
3
cb
2
cd
2
c sinh ra bi G m anh (ch)
ch ra trn.
(iii) Xy dng cy c php ca t a
3
cb
2
cd
2
.
(iv) Xy dng tmt y xung M on nhn L cho trc trn.
(v) Ch ra mt dn xut chng t t a
3
cb
2
cd
2
c on nhn bi M m anh
(ch) ch ra trn.
Cho vn phm phi ng cnh G c tp cc qui tc P = {S aSa | bSb | cSc | d}
(i) Tm ngn ng sinh L = L(G).
(ii) Xy dng tmt y xung M on nhn L cho trc trn theo
ngn xp rng, L(G) = L(M).
(iii) Cho w
1
= aababbccdccbbabaa v w
2
= ababbcccdbbabaa. Ch ra rng
w
1
e L(G) v w
1
e L(M), cn w
1
e L(G) v w
1
e L(M).
(iv) Xy dng cy c php ca xu w
1
i vi vn phm G nu trn.

- 149 -
CHNG VII
Vn phm LR(k)

Chng VII gii thiu v vn phm LR(k), mt tp con ca lp cc vn phm phi
ng cnh. Vn phm LR(k) ng vai tr quan trng trong vic nghin cu cc tnh
cht ca ngn ng lp trnh v thit k chng trnh dch ([3], [4], [5]). V d, ngn
ng lp trnh truyn thng h ALGOL c b phn tch c php tng ng vi vn
phm LR(1).
7.1 Vn phm LR(k)
Trong cc chng trc, chng ta cp n cch s dng cc qui tc dn xut
ca mt vn phm sinh ra cc xu, cc cu ca ngn ng v cch kim tra xem
mt t c thuc ngn ng sinh bi vn phm hay khng. Trong thit k cc
ngn ng lp trnh v thit k chng trnh dch, vn rt quan trng l phi pht
trin k thut phn tch c php, k thut tm dn xut ngc trong ngn ng phi
ng cnh, ngha l tm cy dn xut ca cc cu w cho trc trong ngn ng phi
ng cnh. Hu ht cc ngn ng lp trnh bc cao nh Pascal, ngn ng C u l
ngn ng phi ng cnh. Qu trnh phn tch xc nh xem mt biu thc, mt
cu lnh c chnh xc v mt vn phm hay khng, ngha l n c phi mt cu suy
din hay khng, l cng vic rt quan trng ca cc chng trnh dch, thng dch.
xc nh c cy dn xut cho mt cu (xu) w cho trc, chng ta phi bt
u phn tch w v thay nhng dy con w
1
ca w bng bin A, nu c A w
1
l
mt qui tc dn xut. Chng ta lp li qu trnh thay th ny cho n khi nhn c
bin bt u S. Thng thng trong mi ln tm cc xu con thay th, chng ta
c mt s kh nng la chn v ch chn mt trong s . Nu chng ta chn mt
qui tc dn xut v sau mt s bc c th khng chn c qui tc no thay
th tip th khng nhn c k hiu bt u S. Trong nhng trng hp nh th,
chng ta li phi quay li ln th trc v th tip vi nhng xu con khc.
Trong mi trng hp, vic quay lui m khng nhn c k hiu bt u th c
li c php, ngha l w khng c sinh ra bi vn phm ca ngn ng cho.
Nh vy, qu trnh suy din ngc ca cc vn phm phi ng cnh l khng xc
nh. Mt cu hi t ra l liu c nhng lp con ca cc vn phm phi ng cnh
m qu trnh thay th ngc l n nh hay khng? Cu tr li l c nhng lp
con cc vn phm phi ng cnh nh th, chnh l nhng vn phm c gi l
LR(k).
Vn phm LR(k) l loi vn phm c cc xu k t vo t tri qua phi sinh ra
xu theo dn xut tri nht bng cch c k k hiu u vo.
Trc khi tho lun chi tit v vn phm LR(k), chng ta phn tch mt s cu trc
c php ca xu k t bc u hiu c ngha ca cc cu sinh bi ngn
ng lp trnh.
- 150 -
Xt nhng cu dng o|w ca vn phm phi ng cnh G, trong o, | e (V
N
E)
*
v
w e E
*
. Chng ta quan tm n vic tm mt qui tc dn xut c p dng ln cui thu
c o|w. Nu G c qui tc A | v n c p dng ln cui bng cch duyt qua k
k t bn phi ca | trong o|w, vn phm nh th c gi l LR(k). Qui tc
A | c gi l qui tc iu khin v | l cn iu khin.
Chng ta vit o
*
R
| nu | c dn xut t o bng dn xut phi nht. Trc
khi a ra nh ngha v LR(k) chng ta xt mt vn phm c th phn tch c
php vi mt k hiu.
V d 7.1 Gi s G c cc qui tc S AB, A aAb, A A, A Bb, B b.
D nhn thy L(G) = {a
m
b
n
| n > m > 1}. Mt s mu cu ca G nhn c bng
qui tc dn xut phi nht l AB, ABb
k
, a
m
Ab
m
b
k
, a
m
b
m+k
, vi k > 1. Bi v
S AB. Hin nhin AB l cn iu khin ca AB hoc ABb
k
.
+ Nu p dng cho AB th chng ta c ngay S
R
AB.
+ Nu p dng cn iu khin vi ABb
k
th nhn c Sb
k
R
ABb
k
. Khi
khng c qui tc no p dng tip S
*
R
ABb
k
.
Do vy, quyt nh xem AB c phi l cn iu khin hay khng th phi c k
hiu bn phi ca AB. Nu k hiu l rng A th AB l cn iu khin. Ngc
li nu k hiu tip theo l b th AB khng phi l cn iu khin.
Chng ta xt tip a
2
b
3
. Duyt ln lt cc qui tc t tri qua phi chng ta thy qui
tc iu khin A A l c th p dng. Khi a
2
A b
3

R
a
2
A b
3
= a
2
b
3
, nn c th
chn A A l qui tc iu khin vi vic c ch mt k hiu (bn phi ca A).
nh ngha 7.1 Gi s G = (V
N
, E, P, S) l mt vn phm phi ng cnh, trong
S
n
S ch khi n = 0. G l vn phm LR(k), k > 0 khi

(i) S
*
R
oAw
R
o|w, vi o, | e V
*
N
v w e E
*
,
(ii) S
*
R
o'A'w'
R
o'|'w', vi o', | 'e V
*
N
v w' e E
*
,
(iii) |o|| + k k hiu u ca o|w v o'|'w' l trng nhau th o = o',
A = A' v | = |'.
Lu :
1. Nu o|w hoc o'|'w' cha t hn (|o|| + k) k hiu th c th b sung
thm cc k hiu c bit nh $ chng hn vo bn phi.
2. nhn c cy suy din, chng ta mun s dng nhng suy din theo
th t ngc. T o|w v nu c qui tc A | th chng ta phi quyt
nh xem qui tc ny c c p dng bc cui trong suy din tri
nht hay khng. Xt k k hiu pha bn kia ca | trong o|w chng ta
c th chn qui tc A | bc cui theo yu cu. Nu c o|w
tho mn iu kin (iii) v c th p dng A' |' bc cui ca suy
- 151 -
din phi nht i vi o'|'w'. T nh ngha suy ra A = A', | = |' v
o = o'. Vy, A | ch l qui tc c th p dng v vn ny c
quyt nh trn c s xem xt k k hiu pha bn kia ca |. Chng ta
lp li qu trnh ny cho n khi nhn c S.
3. Nu G l vn phm LR(k) th n cng l vn phm LR(k') vi mi k' > k.
V d 7.2 Cho G l vn phm c cc qui tc S aA, A Abb | b. Hy ch ra rng
G l vn phm LR(0).
Gii: D dng nhn thy L(G) = {ab
2n+1
| n = 0, 1, 2, ...}. Mi mu cu sinh bi vn
phm ny u l aA, aAb
2n
, ab
2n+1
. Gi s chng ta cn tm qui tc cui c p
dng c c ab
2n+1
. Trong s v tri ca cc qui tc: aA, Abb, b th ch c qui
tc A b l c th p dng c. Vic p dng ny c quyt nh m khng
cn xt bt k k hiu no bn phi ca b. Tng t nh vy i vi hai trng
hp trc , c th quyt nh chn ngay S aA hoc A Abb tng ng
p dng. Vy, G l vn phm LR(0) .
V d 7.3 Xt vn phm G c cc qui tc suy din nh trong v d 7.1. Hy ch ra
rng G l vn phm LR(1) nhng khng phi l LR(0) v tm cy suy din cho t
a
2
b
4
.
Nh trong v d 7.1, chng ta khng nh rng cc cu suy din ca G c xc
nh bc cui theo suy din phi nht vi mt k hiu. Do vy, G l vn phm
LR(1). Tip theo chng ta ch ra rng, S AB l qui tc c p dng suy ra
cu AB nhng khng p dng suy ra c ABb
k
. Ni cch khc, qui tc ny (l
duy nht) khng th p dng m khng cn xt ti ng cnh ca t nht mt k
hiu. T suy ra G khng phi l LR(0).
nhn c cy suy din ca a
2
b
4
, chng ta hy c t tri qua phi. Khi c a,
chng ta phi xem xt k hiu tip theo. Nu k hiu tip theo li l a th c tip
tc, ngc li, nu k hiu tip theo l b c th chn qui tc A A lm qui tc
iu khin v khi bc cui suy din phi nht ca a
2
b
4
l:
a
2
Ab
4

R
a
2
Ab
4
Tng t, phn tch a
2
Ab
4
t tri qua phi v nhn thy aAb c th s dng suy
din m khng cn xt tip.
aAbb
2

R
a
2
Ab
4

Tip tc s dng aAb mt ln na chng ta thu c
Ab
2

R
aAbb
2

tip tc suy din ngc c, chng ta li phn tch Ab
2
. Qui tc B b c th
c p dng i vi b u tin gp k t tri qua phi ch khng phi l b cui.
ABb
R
Ab
2
Sau s dng B b l qui tc suy din iu khin
AB
R
ABb

Cui cng p dng S AB
- 152 -
S
R
AB
Nh vy, chng ta c cc suy din ngc nh sau:
a
2
Ab
4

R
a
2
Ab
4
bng cch duyt mt k hiu tip
aAbb
2

R
a
2
Ab
4
, khng cn xt tip bt k k hiu no c
Ab
2

R
aAbb
2
ABb
R
Ab
2
AB
R
ABb, khng cn xt tip bt k k hiu no c
S
R
AB, bng cch duyt mt k hiu tip.
v cy suy din ca t a
2
b
4
c dng:

Hnh H7-1 Cy dn xut on nhn a
2
b
4

7.2 Mt s tnh cht ca vn phm LR(k)
Trong phn ny chng ta gii thiu mt s tnh cht quan trng ca cc vn phm
LR(k) [4] s dng hiu qu trong phn tch c php v trong nhiu ng dng khc.
Trc tin chng ta nhc li khi nim nhp nhng ca mt vn phm. Vn phm
G c gi l nhp nhng nu tn ti t w e L(G) m c hai cy dn xut khc
nhau. Tnh cht sau khng nh tnh khng nhp nhng ca vn phm LR(k).
Tnh cht 7.1 Mi vn phm LR(k) u l vn phm khng nhp nhng.
Chng minh: Chng ta cn ch ra rng vi mi x e E
*
, tn ti duy nht mt dn
xut phi nht suy ra x. Gi s c hai dn xut phi nht cho x:
S
*
R
oAw
R
o|w = x (7.1)
S
*
R
o'A'w'
R
o'|'w' = x (7.2)
Bi v o|w = o'|'w', nn t nh ngha ca vn phm LR(k) suy ra o = o', A = A'
v | = |'. T suy tip, chng ta c w = w' v oAw = o'A'w'.
A
S
A
B
B
b
A

b

a

a

A

b

b
- 153 -
Bc cui trong hai dn xut (7.1) v (7.2) l ging nhau. Lp li cch thc hin
nh trong (7.1) v (7.2) cho cc cu dn xut khc, chng ta i n khng nh l
(7.1) v (7.2) l mt. V th, G l khng nhp nhng.
Trong cc chng trc chng ta cng ch ra rng tmt n nh v tmt
khng n nh c cc hnh vi nh nhau khi xt v kh nng on nhn ca chng.
Trong chng 6 chng ta cn chng minh rng mi tmt y xung u on nhn
ngn ng phi ng cnh v ngc li vi mi ngn ng phi ng cnh u c th xy
dng tmt on nhn ngn ng phi ng cnh . Sau y chng ta xt mt s
tnh cht xc nh mi quan h gia vn phm LR(k) v tmt y xung.
Tnh cht 7.2 Nu G l vn phm LR(k), th s tn ti tmt y xung n
nh A on nhn L(G).
Tnh cht 7.3 Nu A l tmt y xung n nh, tn ti vn phm LR(1) sao
cho L(G) = N(A).
Tnh cht 7.4 Nu G l vn phm LR(k), vi k >1, tn ti mt vn phm G
1
l
LR(1) v tng ng vi G.
nh ngha 7.2 Ngn ng phi ng cnh c gi l n nh nu n on nhn
c bi mt tmt y xung n nh.
Tnh cht 7.5 Lp cc ngn ng n nh l lp con thc s ca lp cc ngn ng
phi ng cnh.
Lp cc ngn ng n nh k hiu l
dc0
.
Tnh cht 7.6 Lp cc ngn ng n nh ng vi php ly phn b nhng
khng ng vi php hp v php giao.
Tnh cht 7.7 Mt ngn ng phi ng cnh c on nhn bi vn phm LR(0)
khi v ch khi n c on nhn bi tmt y xung v khng c mt dy con
tip u ng thc s no ca xu trong L li thuc L.
Tnh cht 7.8 Tn ti thut ton kim tra xem mt vn phm phi ng cnh c
phi LR(k) hay khng, vi k l s t nhin cho trc.
7.3 Cc tnh cht ng ca cc ngn ng
Trong chng 3 v chng 4 chng ta tho lun mt s tnh ng ca cc ngn
ng vi cc php hp, ghp, ... Phn ny chng ta tho lun v tnh ng ca php
giao, php ly phn b ca ngn ng. Nh k hiu
0
,
l
,
2
,
3
cho lp cc
ngn ng loi 0, cm ng cnh, phi ng cnh v ngn ng chnh qui.
Tnh cht 7.9 Cc lp ngn ng
0
,
l
,
2
,
3
ng vi cc php hp, php ghp,
php ly bao ng v php o v (Tnh cht 3.5 3.7).
Tnh cht 7.10 Lp ngn ng
3
ng vi cc php giao v php ly phn b
(Tnh cht 4.7 4.8).
Tnh cht 7.11 Lp ngn ng
2
khng ng vi cc php giao v php ly phn
b.
- 154 -
khng nh tnh cht 7.11 chng ta c th ly v d minh ho.
Nh chng ta bit, L
1
= {a
n
b
n
c
i
| n > 1, i > 0} v L
2
= {a
j
b
n
c
n
| n > 1, j > 0} l
hai ngn ng phi ng cnh. D nhn thy, L
1
L
2
= {a
n
b
n
c
n
| n > 1} khng phi
l ngn ng phi ng cnh (xem chng 6). Do vy,
2
khng ng vi php giao.
S dng lut De Morgan, chng ta c th vit L
1
L
2
= (L
1
c

L
2
c
)
c
. Tnh cht
7.10 khng nh
2
ng vi php hp. Nu
2
ng vi php ly phn b th
L
1
c
, L
2
c
s l ngn ng phi ng cnh khi L
1
, L
2
l cc ngn ng phi ng cnh v
hp ca chng cng s l phi ng cnh. Suy tip ra phn b ca hp cc phn b l
phi ng cnh, mu thun vi iu khng nh trn. Ngha l
2
khng ng
vi php ly phn b.
Tp cc ngn ng chnh qui l tp con ca cc ngn ng phi ng cnh ng vi
php giao, cn lp cc ngn ng phi ng cnh li khng ng vi php giao. Vy
vn t ra l giao ca mt ngn ng phi ng cnh vi ngn ng chnh qui s
thuc lp no? Tnh cht sau s cho ta cu tr li .
Tnh cht 7.12 Giao ca ngn ng phi ng cnh L vi ngn ng chnh qui R l
mt ngn ng phi ng.
Chng minh:
Gi s L
1
l ngn ng phi ng cnh, L
2
l ngn ng chnh qui. Khi tn ti
tmt y xung
M = (Q
1
, E, I, o
1
, q
0
, Z
0
, F
1
) vi T(M) = L
1

v tmt hu hn A = (Q
2
, E, o
2
, q
0
', F
2
) T(A) = L
2
.
Khi xy dng mt tmt y xung (khng n nh, sau chuyn v n
nh), k hiu l M
G
on nhn L
1
L
2
cn phi lu rng:
+ Mi php chuyn m M
G
thc hin u phi tng ng ng thi vi cc
php chuyn ca hai tmt M v A.
+ Mi t x c on nhn bi M
G
th cng c on nhn ng thi bi M
v A.
T xc nh c
M
G
= (Q
1
Q
2
, E, I, o', [q
0
, q
0
'], Z
0
, F
1
F
2
), trong hm o' c xc nh
nh sau:
Vi q
1
, q
1
' e Q
1
, q
2
, q
2
' e Q
2
, A e I, X e I
*
v a e E
(i) ([q
1
', q
2
'], X) e o'([q
1
, q
2
], A, a) nu (q
1
', X) e o
1
(q
1
, A, a) v q
2
'eo
2
(q
2
, a)
(ii) ([q
1
', q
2
'], X) e o'([q
1
, q
2
], A, C) nu (q
1
',X ) e o
1
(q
1
, A, C) v q
2
' = q
2

Qui np theo s cc php chuyn c th chng minh rng:
x e T(MG) khi v ch khi x e T(M) v x e T(A).
Vy, T(M
G
) = T(M) T(A).
!
- 155 -
Bi tp v vn phm LR(K)
7.1 Chng minh rng vn phm G c cc qui tc S aAb, A aAb | a l LR(1).
N c l LR(0)?
7.2 Hy ch ra rng S 0A2, A 1A1 | 1 khng phi l LR(k), k > 0.
7.3 Cho trc vn phm S AB | a, A aA | aB | a, B b, tn ti mt s
nguyn k no vn phm ny l LR(k)?
7.4 Hy ch ra rng {a
n
b
n
c
m
| n, m > 1} {a
n
b
m
c
m
| n, m > 1} khng phi l
LR(k) vi mi k nguyn dng.
7.5 Nhng pht biu sau c ng khng, ti sao?
(a) Nu vn phm G l nhp nhng, G l LR(k) vi k no .
(b) Nu vn phm G l khng nhp nhng, G l LR(k) vi k no .
7.6 Vn phm G c cc qui tc: S C | D, C aC | b, D aD | C c phi l
LR(0)?
7.7 Vi mi qui tc A | ca vn phm phi ng cnh G v w e
*
$
k
($ e V
N
),
nh ngha R
k
(w) tp tt c cc xu dng o|w sao cho A | l iu khin
cho o|ww vi we
*
$
*
v S$
*
R
oAww
R
o|ww. Chng minh rng
R
k
(w) l tp chnh qui.
7.8 Chng minh rng vn phm phi ng cnh G l LR(k) nu v ch nu xu
trong R
k
(w) tng ng vi qui tc A
1
|
1
l xu con ca o trong R
k
(w)
tng ng vi qui tc A
2
|
2
suy ra = o, A
1
= A
2
, |
1
= |
2
.

- 156 -
CHNG VIII
My Turing, tmt gii ni v nhng bi ton P, NP

Chng cui gii thiu:
Hot ng ca my Turing,
S tng ng gia vn phm loi 0 v my Turing,
tmt tuyn tnh gii ni v vn phm cm ng cnh,
Nhng bi ton quyt nh c,
phc tp tnh ton v nhng bi ton NP-y
8.1 M hnh my Turing
My Turing l m hnh ton hc cho my tnh tng qut, l nn tng ca qu trnh
x l ca my tnh hin i, c Alan Turing gii thiu vo nm 1936. Ni cch
khc, my Turing m hnh c tt c nhng kh nng tnh ton ca my tnh,
ngha l n c th thc hin c mi tnh ton ca bt k my tnh no. Ngy nay,
my Turing c coi l mt m hnh ton hc thch hp nht din t khi nim
thut ton v nh , cc khi nim v "s tnh c", "gii c" hay tnh quyt
nh c xc nh mt cch hnh thc ([2], [4]).
My Turing MT gm mt b iu khin vi tp hu hn thng thi Q v mt u
c/ghi (R/W), chuyn ng trn mt bng v hn c v hai pha. Bng c chia
thnh tng , mi cha mt k hiu thuc mt bng k hiu hu hn I, bao gm
c k hiu trng B (Blank). My MT c bng ch vo , c I v B e . Ti thi
im bt u hot ng, d liu vo ca MT l dy k t thuc , c ghi trn
cc lin nhau ca bng, cc cn li ca bng ghi k hiu trng B, u c nhn
k t bn tri nht ca dy k t vo v b iu khin mt trng thi khi u q
0

sau c th chuyn sang cc trng thi tip theo. V d mt m t hot ng ca
my Turing nh hnh 8-1.
Hnh H8-1 - M t mt my Turing
Mi bc chuyn ca my Turing, ph thuc vo k hiu do u R/W c c t
bng d liu v trng thi ca b iu khin, my s thc hin cc bc sau:
1. Ghi mt k hiu mi trn bng ti ang duyt (ngha l thay k hiu
c c trn bng bng k hiu no ).
2. Dch chuyn u R/W (sang tri (L), sang phi (R) hoc ng yn (C)).
B

a
1
a
2
a
3
a
4
a
5

a
n
B

q
k
u R/W
- 157 -
3. Chuyn sang trng thi tip theo.
Nh vy, bng c th c xem nh va l knh vo / ra va nh l b nh v hn
tim nng. Nhng s khc nhau c bn gia my Turing v cc loi tmt khc
c th m t vn tt nh sau. Mt tmt hu hn ch c th c b nh trong c
xc nh bi tp cc trng thi hu hn, bng vo khng c dng nh b nh b
sung. Trong tmt y xung, vic nhn thng tin trong b nh ngoi cng b hn
ch.
Do , r rng l my Turing l tng qut hn cc m hnh tnh ton khc m ta
nghin cu. Vic khng nh rng my Turing l mt m hnh ton hc tng
qut cho khi nim trc gic v tnh hiu qu gii c thng c gi l lun
Church, c cp phn sau.
Mt cch hnh thc, ta nh ngha mt my Turing nh sau:
nh ngha 8.1. My Turing l mt h thng gm 7 thnh phn MT = (Q, , I, o, q
0
, B, F),
trong :
Q: tp khc rng, hu hn cc trng thi.
I: tp khc rng, hu hn cc k t c php vit trn bng.
B: k hiu thuc I, k hiu trng (Blank) trn bng.
: tp cc k t u vo v l tp con ca I, B e I.
o: hm chuyn: Q I Q I

{L, R, C}
q
0
e Q l trng thi bt u
F _ Q l tp cc trng thi kt thc.
Lu : + o() l hm b phn, c th khng xc nh i vi mt s phn t ca Q I.
+ Dy cc k t c xem nh l mt kt qu tnh ton (xu on nhn c) ca
MT nu nh n chuyn c t trng thi bt u t ti trng thi kt thc.
8.2 Biu din my Turing
My Turing c th c m t theo ba cch:
(i) Cc m t hin trng
(ii) Bng chuyn trng thi
(iii) Biu ( th) chuyn trng thi.
8.2.1 Biu din bng cc m t hin thi
Mt bc nh chp (Snapshot) hot ng ca MT c th c s dng m t v
my Turing. Nhng bc nh chnh l cc m t hin thi ca MT.
nh ngha 8.2 Mt m t hin trng (th hin) (ID) ca my Turing MT l dy
o

q |, trong q l trng thi hin thi ca MT; o| e I
*
l ni dung c trn bng,
c tnh t u bng (nhng k hiu khc B) cho ti k hiu khc B (Blank) bn
phi nht ca bng v u c ang nhn k t bn tri nht ca |. Gi s k hiu
- 158 -
di u R/W l a, k hiu u tin ca |, th o l dy cc k hiu bn tri ca a.
Nu | = c th k hiu u c l B.
V d 8.1 Xt mt th hin ca mt MT c cho nh hnh H8-2.

Hnh H8-2 Mt m t tc thi ca my Turing
K hiu di u R/W l a
1
v trng thi hin thi ca MT l q
2
. Nhng k hiu
khc B l dy a
4
a
1
a
2
a
3
c ghi bn tri ca q
2
v nhng k hiu khc du B
bn phi ca a
1
l a
2
a
4
a
3
. Vy m t hin trng ca MT trn l
a
4
a
1
a
2
a
3
q
2
a
1
a
2
a
4
a
3
Dy bn tri Dy bn phi
Trng thi hin thi K hiu u R/W
Hot ng ca my Turing M
Tng t nh tmt y xung, khi hm chuyn ca MT thay i trng thi khi
c mt k hiu bng d liu th m t hin trng ca n cng s thay i theo.
Ti mi bc, my MT mt trng thi q, u c nhn k t s, hot ng ca my
s ph thuc vo b chuyn c xc nh bi hm chuyn o(). Hot ng ny bao
gm vic ghi mt k t mi ln k t m u c ang nhn, chuyn u c
sang phi hay sang tri mt , ng thi b iu khin chuyn sang mt trng thi
mi.
Php chuyn ca cc th hin ca MT c nh ngha nh sau:
nh ngha 8.3. Gi s o(q, x
i
) = (p, y, L) v x
1
x
2
... x
i-1
q x
i
... x
n
l m t hin
thi ID ca MT. Sau khi x l x
i
th MT chuyn sang th hin
x
1
x
2
... x
i-2
p x
i-1
y x
i+1
... x
n

- Nu i > 1 th s bin i hin trng ca MT c vit nh sau:
x
1
x
2
... x
i-1
q x
i
... x
n
M

x
1
x
2
... x
i-2
p x
i-1
y x
i+1
... x
n

- Nu i - 1 = n th X
i
l B.
- Nu i =1 th khng c ID k tip, ngha l u c khng c php vt
qua cn tri ca bng.
+ Tng t, o(q, x
i
) = (p, y, R) th th hin ca MT c bin i nh sau:
x
1
x
2
... x
i-1
q x
i
... x
n
M

x
1
x
2
... x
i-1
y p x
i+1
... x
n

+ Trng hp o(q, x
i
) = (p, y, C) thc hin nh sau:
a
4
a
1
a
2
a
3
a
1
a
2
a
4
a
3
B

q
2
u R/W
B

- 159 -
x
1
x
2
... x
i-1
q x
i
... x
n
M

x
1
x
2
... x
i-1
p y x
i+1
... x
n

8.2.2 Biu din bng th chuyn trng thi
My Turing MT c th biu din bng th nh hng c gn nhn, trong
+ Tp nh l tp cc trng thi,
+ T nh q
i
c cung ni vi q
j
v c gn nhn (o, |, ) nu
o(q
i
, o) = (q
j
, |, )
+ nh bt u ng vi trng thi bt u, c mi tn i vo v nhng nh
kt thc c nh du bng hai vng trn bao nhau.
V d 8.3. Cho my MT c biu din bng th chuyn trng thi nh hnh
8.3, hy xc nh dy tnh ton ca MT x l u vo 0011.
Hnh H8-3 th chuyn trng thi ca MT
Hin nhin trn bng d liu ta c B0011B. Trng thi bt u ca MT l q
1
v k t
u c l 0. T hnh H8-3 suy ra c mt cung i t q
1
n q
2
vi nhn l (0, x, R). Khi
, k t 0 s c thay bng x v u R/W chuyn sang phi mt , ng thi b
iu khin chuyn sang trng thi q
2
. Tng t nh vy, ta c dy tnh ton nh
sau:

q
1
q
2
q
3 q
5
q
6
q
4
(y, y, R)
(y, y, L)
(y, y, R)
(0, 0, R)
(0, 0, L)
(0, 0, L)
(x, x, R)
(0, x, R)
(1, y, L) (x, x, R) (B, B, R)
(B, B, R)

B0011B Bx011B
(0,x,R)

Bx011B
(0,0,R)
q
1
q
2
q
2

Bx0y1B Bx0y1B
(0,x,L)

Bx0y1B
(x,x,R)
q
3
q
4
q
1

(1,x,L)

Bxxy1B Bxxy1B
(y,y,R)

BxxyyB
(1,y,L)
q
2
q
2
q
3

(0,x,R)

BxxyyB BxxyyBB
(B,B,R)
q
5
q
5

(y,y,R)
- 160 -

Chng ta hy xt my Turing MT = (Q, , I, o, q
0
, B, F). Mt tnh ton ca MT
vi dy k t vo e e
*
, l dy hin trng C
0
, C
1
, , C
n
, sao cho C
0
= q
0
e;
C
i
MT C
i+1
, vi 0 s i < n; v trng thi ca C
n
l trng thi kt thc. My MT khng
on nhn e nu n hoc dng trng thi khng c on nhn (trng thi khng kt
thc) hoc ni chung l khng dng.
Nh vy, bng v hn c th xem va nh knh vo / ra, va nh mt b nh
ngoi v hn tim nng ca MT.
Ta ni, MT on nhn (chp nhn) dy (xu) vo e, nu dy tnh ton ca MT vi
u vo e l dng hin trng cui cng c cha trng thi kt thc, ngha l MT
dng hin trng chp nhn.
Mt cch hnh thc, ta nh ngha tp hp cc dy c on nhn bi MT l tp
L(MT) = {w , w e I* v q
0
w MT* o
1
p o
2
vi p e F cn o
1
o
2
e I*}
Trong , MT* l bao ng bc cu ca MT.
8.2.3 Biu din bng bng chuyn trng thi
My Turing MT c th c biu din thng qua hm chuyn di dng mt bng
chuyn trng thi, trong cc hng l cc trng thi v cc hng l cc k hiu
trn bng, k c k hiu trng B.
V d 8.4. Xt my MT c cho nh trn bng 8.2.
Bng 8.2
Trng
thi

K t trn bng
0 1 x y B
q
1
q
2
q
3
q
4
q
5
q
6

xRq
2
0Rq
2
0Lq
4
0Lq
4

yLq
3

xRq
5
xRq
1

yRq
2
yLq
3

yRq
5
bRq
5

bRq
6

M t hot ng ca MT khi x l (a) 011, (b) 0011, (c) 001. MT on nhn c
dy no trong ba dy trn?
(a) Xt dy th nht: q
1
011 xq
2
11 q
3
xy xq
5
y1 xyq
5
1.

BxxyyB BxxyyB
(x,x,R)

BxxyyB
(y,y,R)
q
3
q
5
q
5

(y,y,L)
- 161 -
Bi v o(q
5
, 1) khng c nh ngha v MT dng trng thi khng kt thc nn
011 khng c on nhn bi MT.
(b) q
1
0011 xq
2
011 x0q
2
11 xq
3
0y1 q
4
x0y1 xq
1
0y1
xxq
2
y1 xxyq
2
1 xxq
3
yy xq
3
xyy xxq
5
yy
xxyq
5
y xxyyq
5
B xxyyBq
6
.
MT dng trng thi kt thc l q
6
, vy 0011 l t c MT chp nhn.
(c) q
1
001 xq
2
01 x0q
2
1 xq
3
0y q
4
x0y
xq
1
0y xxq
2
y xxyq
2
.
MT dng trng thi q
2
khng phi l trng thi kt thc, nn 001 khng on
nhn c bi MT.
8.3 Thit k my Turing
xy dng mt my Turing ta c th thc hin theo s hng dn di y:
1. Mc tiu ca vic c k hiu ca u R/W l cn bit xem ci g my
Turing cn thc hin bc tip theo. My phi ghi li nhng k hiu
c qua.
2. S cc trng thi phi l cc tiu. iu ny thc hin c bng cch ch
thay i trng thi khi c s thay i k t cn ghi vo bng hoc khi c s
thay i hng chuyn dch ca u R/W.
V d 8.5. Thit k my Turing MT on nhn tt c cc dy c chn cc s 1.
MT c xy dng nh sau:
(i) T trng thi bt u q
1
, MT c 1, chuyn sang q
2
v ghi B (k hiu trng)
(ii) trng thi q
2
, MT c 1, chuyn v q
1
v cng ghi B.
(iii) q
1
cng l trng thi kt thc.
Vy, MT = ({q
1
, q
2
}, {1, B}, {1, B}, o, q
1
, B, {q
1
}), trong o c nh ngha
nh trong bng 8.3.
Bng 8.3
Trng thi 1
q
1
q
2
Bq
2
R
Bq
1
R
D dng kim tra c 11, 1111, l cc dy (chn cc s 1) c MT on nhn
v 111, 11111, , s khng c MT chp nhn.
V d 8.6. Thit k MT on nhn ngn ng L = { 0
n
1
n
, n > 1}
- 162 -
Khi u MT cha 0
n
1
n
bn tri nht trn bng sau l v hn khong trng B.
MT lp li qu trnh sau:
MT thay 0 bn tri nht bng X ri chuyn sang phi ti 1 tri nht, MT
thay ch s 1 ny bng Y ri dch chuyn v bn tri cho ti khi gp X phi
nht n chuyn sang phi mt (ti 0 tri nht) ri tip tc lp mt chu trnh
mi.
Nu trong khi dch chuyn sang phi tm 1 m MT gp B th MT dng v
khng on nhn dy vo. Tng t, khi MT thay ht 0 bng X v kim
tra cn 1 trn bng th MT cng dng v khng on nhn dy vo.
MT on nhn dy vo nu nh khng cn k hiu 1 no na trn bng.
t MT = (Q, , I, o, q
0
, B, F) vi cc thnh phn:
Q = {q
0
, q
1
, q
2
, q
3
, q
4
}; = {0, 1}; I = {0, 1, X, Y, B} v F = {q
4
}.
Ta c th hnh dung mi trng thi l mt cu lnh hoc mt nhm cc cu lnh
trong chng trnh. Trng thi q
0
l trng thi khi u v n lm cho k hiu 0
bn tri nht thay bng X. Trng thi q
1
c dng tin sang phi b qua cc s
0 v Y tm 1 bn tri nht. Nu MT tm thy 1 n thay 1 bng Y ri i vo trng
thi q
2
. Trng thi q
2
a MT tin sang tri cho ti X u tin v i vo trng thi
q
0
, dch chuyn sang phi ti 0 bn tri nht v tip tc mt chu trnh mi. Khi
MT tin sang phi trong trng thi q
1
, nu B hoc X c tm thy trc 1 th dy
vo b loi b (khng chp nhn) v c cha nhiu k hiu 0 hn 1 hoc dy vo
khng c dng 0
*
1
*
.
Trng thi q
0
cn c vai tr khc. Nu trng thi q
2
tm thy X bn phi nht v
ngay sau l Y th cc s 0 c xt ht, do trng thi bt u mt chu
trnh mi q
0
khng tm thy k hiu 0 no thay th thnh X m ch gp Y th
MT i vo trng thi q
3
duyt qua cc Y kim tra c hay khng c k hiu 1 cn
li. Nu theo ngay sau cc Y l B, ngha l trn bng nhp khng cn k hiu 1 no
na th MT s i vo q
4
(trng thi kt thc) on nhn dy vo. Ngc li dy
vo b loi b.
Hm chuyn o c cho trong bng sau:
Bng 8.4
Trng thi K hiu
0 1 x y B
q
0
(q
1
, x, R) - - (q
1
, x, R) -
q
1
(q
1
, x, R) (q
2
, x, L) - (q
1
, x, R) -
q
2
(q
2
, x, L) - (q
0
, x, R) (q
2
, y, L) -
q
3
- - - (q
2
, y, L) (q
4
, B, C)
q
4
- - - - -
- 163 -
Cc php chuyn hnh thi ca MT i vi dy vo 0011:
q
0
0011 Xq
1
011 X0q
1
11 X q
2
0Y1 q
2
X0Y1 X q
0
0Y1 XXq
1
Y1 XXY q
1
1 XX
q
2
YY X q
2
XYY XX q
0
YY XXYq
3
Y XXYYq
3
XXYYq
4
.
Tng t, chng ta c th kim tra c 0
n
1
n
, n = 1, 2, c MT on nhn.
V d 8.7. Thit k MT on nhn ngn ng L = {1
n
2
n
3
n
, n > 1}.
Trc khi xy dng MT, chng ta hy tm th tc x l dy 112233. Sau khi x
l xong, chng ta mun MT hin trng BBBBBBq
7
. Th tc c thc hin
nh sau:
(i) T trng thi khi u q
1
, u R/W c v thay 1 bng B, chuyn dch
sang phi, ng thi chuyn sang q
2
. Trong trng thi q
2
nu k t u
R/W l 1 th n chuyn sang phi.
(ii) c k t 2 tri nht, u R/W c v thay 2 bng B, chuyn dch sang
phi, ng thi trng thi chuyn sang q
3
. Trong trng thi q
3
nu k t
u R/W l 2 th n chuyn sang phi.
(iii) c k t 3 tri nht, u R/W c v thay 3 bng B, chuyn dch sang
phi, ng thi trng thi chuyn sang q
4
. Trong trng thi q
4
nu k t
u R/W l 3 th n chuyn sang phi.
(iv) Sau khi c ch 3 phi nht, u R/W c chuyn dch sang tri cho n
khi gp ch s 1 tri nht.
(v) Cc bc (i) (iv) c lp li ln lut thay tt c cc ch s 1, 2, 3
bng B.
Dy tnh ton ca MT x l 112233 l:
q
1
112233 Bq
2
12233 B1q
2
2233 B1Bq
3
233 B1B2q
3
33
B1B2Bq
4
3 B1B2q
5
B3 B1Bq
5
2B3 B1q
5
B2B3
Bq
5
1B2B3 q
6
B1B2B3 Bq
1
1B2B3 BBq
2
B2B3
BBBq
2
2B3 BBBBq
3
B3 BBBBBq
3
3 BBBBBq
4
B
BBBBBBBq
7

Vy, q
1
112233
*
BBBBBBBq
7
. q
7
l trng thi kt thc nn 112233 c MT
on nhn.
T , chng ta c th xy dng MT on nhn L = {1
n
2
n
3
n
, n > 1} c hm
chuyn c cho nh trong bng 8.5.

- 164 -
Bng 8.5
Trng
thi
K t trn bng
1 2 3 B
q
1
q
2
q
3

q
4
q
5
q
6
q
7

BRq
2
1Rq
2

1Lq
6

1Lq
6

BRq
3
2Rq
3

2Lq
5

BRq
4
3Rq
5

BRq
1
BRq
2
BRq
3
BLq
7
BLq
5
BRq
1

8.4 Ngn ng on nhn v Hm tnh c
Ngn ng c on nhn bi mt my Turing c gi l ngn ng qui m
c [4]. l mt lp ngn ng rt rng, n thc s cha ngn ng phi ng cnh
v nhng ngn ng khng th xc nh c cc thnh phn mt cch my mc.
8.4.1 My Turing nh l mt my tnh hm s nguyn
My Turing cng c th c xem nh l mt my tnh ca cc hm s nguyn (i t
tp s nguyn n tp s nguyn). Mi s nguyn ta vit di dng s trong h nht
phn (unary), tc l vi mt s i = 0 ta vit thnh chui 0
i
(gm i ch s 0). Nu hm f()
c k i s i
1
, i
2
, ..., i
k
th ta vit ln lt cc s nguyn ny trn bng ca MT ngn cch
nhau bi 1, ngha l dy vo c dng 0
1
i
10
2
i
1 ... 10
k
i
. Nu MT dng (on nhn hoc
khng on nhn dy vo) vi bng 0
m
th ta ni f (i
1
, i
2
, ..., i
k
) = m.
Ch rng, ta cng c th tnh c hm ch c mt i s. Nu f() xc nh vi
mi b i s i
1
, i
2
, ..., i
k
th ta gi f() l hm qui ton b. Mt hm f() tnh c
bi my Turing ta gi l hm qui b phn. Hm qui b phn tng t nh
ngn ng qui m c, bi v n tnh c bi my Turing, nhng c th
khng dng vi mt s i s no . Hm qui ton b tng t nh ngn ng
qui v MT s dng trn mi dy vo.
V d 8.8. Thit k my Turing tnh ton php tr ring
Ta nh ngha php tr ring nh sau:

f(m, n) = m \ n =

+ Dy vo: 0
m
10
n

+ Dy ra: 0
m\ n
MT lp li vic thay th ln lt tng s 0 u bng bng B ri tin sang phi,
sau 1 v tm 0 ri thay 0 ny bng 1. MT li chuyn sang tri cho n khi gp B
m n, nu m > n
0, ngc li m < n

- 165 -
u tin th dng li, tr v trng thi bt u v tip tc vng lp nh trn. MT
dng nu:
i) Khi sang phi tm 0 bn phi, MT gp B. Lc ny MT thay n s 0 bn
phi chui dy vo 0
m
10
n
thnh 1 v n + 1 s 0 bn tri thnh B, trng
hp ny xy ra khi trong chui dy vo c m > n. Do vy, MT phi thay
li tt c n + 1 s 1 sau thnh B, v sau dch tri thay tr li mt B v
thnh 0, cui cng trn bng cn li kt qu php tr l m - n s 0.
ii) Khi bt u mt vng lp mi, MT khng tm thy 0 i thnh B, lc
ny m s 0 u b i thnh B, trng hp ny xy ra khi n s m. Khi
, MT thay tt c cc s 1 v 0 trn bng thnh B cho kt qu php
tr l 0 (biu din gm ton k hiu B trong h nht phn).
Ta xy dng MT nh sau: MT = ({q
0
, q
1
, ..., q
6
}, {0, 1}, {0, 1, B}, o, q
0
, B, {q
6
}).
MT s bt u bng 0
m
10
n
trn bng v kt thc vi 0
m\n
trn bng. Cc php
chuyn trng thi c nh ngha nh sau:
1) o(q
0
, 0) = (q
1
, B, R)
MT thay 0 u bng bi B.
2) o(q
1
, 0) = (q
1
, 0, R)
o(q
1
, 1) = (q
2
, 1, R)
MT di chuyn sang phi qua 0 tm 1.
3) o(q
2
, 1) = (q
2
, 1, R)
o(q
2
, 0) = (q
3
, 1, L)
MT di chuyn sang phi vt qua 1 n khi gp 0, i 0 thnh 1.
4) o(q
3
, 0) = (q
3
, 0, L)
o(q
3
, 1) = (q
3
, 1, L)
o(q
3
, B) = (q
0
, B, R)
MT dch tri ti khi gp B, tr v trng thi q
0
v bt u mt vng lp mi.
5) o(q
2
, B) = (q
4
, B, L)
o(q
4
, 1) = (q
4
, B, L)
o(q
4
, 0) = (q
4
, 0, L)
o(q
4
, B) = (q
6
, 0, C)
Nu trng thi q
2
sang phi tm 0 thay thnh 1 nhng ch gp B th ta xt
trng hp kt thc i) trn: MT i vo trng thi q
4
v chuyn sang tri i tt c
1 thnh B cho ti khi gp mt B bn tri u tin. B ny s c thay li thnh 0
ri MT i vo trng thi kt thc q
6
v dng.
6) o(q
0
, 1) = (q
5
, B, R)
- 166 -
o(q
5
, 0) = (q
5
, B, R)
o(q
5
, 1) = (q
5
, B, R)
o(q
5
, B) = (q
6
, B, C)
Nu trng thi bt u vng lp mi q
0
gp 1 thay v gp 0, th khi cc s 0 bn
tri xt ht, y l trng hp kt thc ii) nu trn: MT s i vo trng thi q
5
,
xo phn cn li ca bng ri i vo trng thi kt thc q
6
v dng.
Chng hn MT tnh ton php tr 2\1 (tc dy vo 0010 ) nh sau:
q
0
0010 B q
1
010 B0q
1
10 B01q
2
0 B0q
3
11 Bq
3
011 q
3
B011
Bq
0
011 BBq
1
11 BB1q
2
1 BB11q
2
BB1q
4
1
BBq
4
1 Bq
4
Bq
6
0.
Tng t, xt tnh ton 1\2 (tc dy vo 0100):
q
0
0100 Bq
1
100 B1q
2
00 Bq
3
110 q
3
B110 Bq
0
110
BBq
5
10 BBBq
5
0 BBBBq
5
BBBBq
6
.
8.4.2 Cc chng trnh con
Cng ging nh mt chng trnh my tnh hin i, my Turing c th ng vai
tr tng t nh bt k mt kiu chng trnh con no trong ngn ng lp trnh,
bao gm th tc qui hoc hm s. tng chung l: ta vit mt phn chng
trnh ca MT nh l mt chng trnh con. N s c thit k nh mt h thng
c cha mt trng thi khi u v mt trng thi tr v. Trng thi tr v l trng
thi khng c php chuyn k tip v n s ng vai tr l trng thi khi u ca
mt my Truring khc hoc l mt trng thi no trong mt my khc. Ngha l
t trng thi tr v ca my ny ta tip tc cc php chuyn ca mt my khc, s
kin ny c ngha nh l li gi mt chng trnh con khc hoc tip tc thc
hin chng trnh cp trn. Lu , cc trng thi ca chng trnh con phi phn
bit vi chng trnh cp trn ca n trong cu trc phn cp ca cc chng trnh
con.
V d 8.9. Thit k MT thc hin php nhn 2 s nguyn m vi n.
+ Dy vo: 0
m
10
n

+ Output: 0
m n
MT bt u vi 0
m
10
n
trn bng v kt thc vi 0
m n
trn bng c bao quanh bi
cc B.
tng chung: l t thm s 1 sau 0
m
10
n
ri chp khi n s 0 sang phi m ln,
mi ln xo mt con 0 bn tri ca 0
m
. Ta c kt qu cui cng l 10
n
10
m n
.
By gi ta ch vic xo 10
n
1 ta s c kt qu 0
m n
.
- 167 -
Phn chnh ca thut ton trn l th tc COPY chp n s 0 sang phi. Th tc
ny c xc nh bng cc hm chuyn sau:
Bng 8.6
Trng
thi
K t trn bng
0 1 1 B
q
1
q
2
q
3
q
4
q
5
(q
2
,2,R)
(q
2
,0,R)
(q
3
,0,L)
(q
4
,1,L)
(q
2
,1,R)
(q
3
,1,L)
(q
5
,1,R)

(q
1
,2,R)
(q
4
,0,L)

(q
3
,0,L)
trng thi q
1
nhn thy 0, MT i 0 thnh 2 v i vo trng thi q
2
. trng thi
q
2
, MT dch phi ti B, ghi 0 ri dch tri trong trng thi q
3
. Khi trng thi q
3
m
gp 2, MT i vo trng thi q
1
tip tc lp li qu trnh trn cho ti khi gp 1.
Trng thi q
4
c dng bin i 2 thnh 0 v th tc dng ti q
5
.
lm y chng trnh ta phi thm cc trng thi bin i hnh trng khi
u q
0
0
m
10
n
thnh B0
m-1
1q
1
0
n
1. Tc l ta cn ba qui tc:
o(q
0
, 0) = (q
6
, B, R), o(q
6
, 0) = (q
6
, 0, R), o(q
6
, 1) = (q
1
, 1, R)
Sau , ta li thm cc php chuyn v trng thi cn thit bin i t hnh thi
B
i
0
m-i
1q
5
0
n
10
n i
thnh B
i+1
0
m-i-1
1q
1
0
n
10
n i
l trng thi bt u li vic COPY,
ng thi kim tra i = m hay khng (khi tt c cc 0 ca 0
m
b xo). Nu i = m
th 10
n
1 b xo v qu trnh tnh ton s dng trng thi q
12
.
8.5 My Turing khng n nh
My Turing trong m hnh gc nu trn c gi l my Turing n nh v hm
chuyn o() l n tr. My Turing khng n nh c m hnh tng t nh m
hnh gc nhng im khc bit ch l trong mi ln chuyn, my Turing c th
la chn mt trong mt s hu hn cc trng thi k tip (hm chuyn o() l khng
n tr), la chn hng chuyn u R/W, v la chn k hiu ghi vo bng thay
th k hiu va c c.
Lu : my Turing khng n nh vn khng d nh m hnh ho cc hot
ng tnh ton. N ch n thun l mt my ton hc b tr v c th hnh dung
nh mt my kim chng mt phng on c ng hay khng.
8.6 Lun Church
Gi thuyt cho rng khi nim trc gic Hm tnh c c th c nh ngha
bng lp cc hm quy b phn l gi thuyt Church hay cn c gi l lun
Church - Turing. Chng ta khng th hy vng chng minh c gi thuyt
Church cng nh nhng nh ngha khng hnh thc v s tnh c, nhng
chng ta c th cho nhng dn chng v nhng kh nng ca chng. Trong mt
thi gian di, khi nim trc gic v s tnh c t khng gii hn trn s
bc hoc tng s cc php lu tr, c v nh cc hm quy b phn c th tnh
- 168 -
c mt cch trc gic, mc d cng c mt s hm khng th tnh c, tr khi
ta t gii hn cho vic tnh ton sau hoc t nht thit lp c liu c hay
khng c php tnh cui cng.
iu cn khng r l, liu lp cc hm quy b phn c th bao hm tt c mi
hm tnh c hay khng. Nhng nh logic hc a ra nhiu cng thc khc,
chng hn nh php tnh-, h thng Post v cc hm quy tng qut. Tt c
chng nh ngha cng mt lp hm, c th l hm quy b phn. Hn na, cc
m hnh my tnh tru tng, chng hn nh m hnh RAM cng c xem xt
nh mt hm quy b phn.
M hnh RAM bao gm mt s v hn cc t nh, nh s 0, 1, ..., mi mt t nh
c th lu gi mt s nguyn bt k v mt s hu hn cc thanh ghi s hc cng
c kh nng gi cc s nguyn bt k. Cc s nguyn c th c gii m thnh
cc dng thng thng ca cc ch th my tnh. Chng ta s khng nh ngha m
hnh RAM mt cch hnh thc hn, nhng s r rng hn nu chng ta chn mt
tp cc ch th ph hp. RAM m phng mi my tnh hin c. Chng minh rng
m hnh my Turing cng c kh nng tng ng nh m hnh RAM c ch
ra di y hay c th ni: mt my Turing cng c sc mnh nh mt my RAM.

M phng m hnh RAM bi my Turing
nh l 8.1: Mt my Turing MT c th m phng mt RAM, vi iu kin l mi
ch th RAM cng c th c m phng bi mt MT.
8.7 S tng ng gia vn phm loi 0 v my Turing
H vn phm rng ln nht theo s phn loi ca Noam Chomsky l nhng vn phm
c cc qui tc dng o |, vi o, | l cc chui ty cha k hiu vn phm sao cho
o = A. Lp vn phm ny c bit nh l vn phm loi 0, vn phm ng cu hay
vn phm khng hn ch. Trong phn ny chng ta xt mi quan h tng ng
gia vn phm loi 0 v my Turing.
V d 8.10. Cho mt vn phm khng hn ch sinh ra ngn ng
L = {a
i
, i l ly tha ca 2} vi tp qui tc nh sau:
G = ({S, A, B, C, D, E}, {a, A}, P, S)
Vi P = { 1. S ACaB
2. Ca aaC
3. CB DB
4. CB E
5. aD Da
6. AD AC
7. aE Ea
8. AE A }
Trong vn phm trn, bin A v B gi vai tr l k hiu nh du cn tri v cn
phi ca mt chui thuc ngn ng. C di chuyn t tri sang phi qua chui cc k
- 169 -
hiu a nm gia hai bin A v B, v gp i s k hiu a ln theo qui tc (2).
Khi C chm n cn phi B, n s thay th thnh D hay E theo qui tc (3) hoc (4).
Nu D c chn thay th th D li quay v tri theo qui tc (5), cho n khi gp
cn tri A th thay th li thnh C theo qui tc (6) v cho php lp li chu trnh. Cn
nu E c chn thay th, th theo qui tc (4), B s bin mt, sau E quay v
tri theo qui tc (7) cho n khi gp cn tri A th xa A v mt i theo qui tc (8),
cho ra chui c dng 2
i
k hiu a, vi i > 0.
C th chng minh quy np theo s bc dn xut: nu qui tc (4) cha c dng
n th chui trong dn xut c mt trong ba dng nh sau:
(i) S
(ii) Aa
i
Ca
j
B, vi i + 2j l mt ly tha ca 2.
(iii) Aa
i
Da
j
B, vi i + j l mt ly tha ca 2.
Khi qui tc (4) c p dng th ta s c chui dng Aa
i
E, trong i l mt ly
tha ca 2. Sau , ta ch c th p dng i ln qui tc (7) i ti dng cu AEa
i
.
Cui cng, vi qui tc (8), ta thu c chui dng a
i
vi i l ly tha ca 2.
Phn tip theo, chng ta s xt mi tng quan gia vn phm khng hn ch ny
v m hnh my Turing. Chng ta chng minh hai nh l di y th hin mi
tng quan gia lp vn phm khng hn ch v lp ngn ng quy m c
lp ngn ng c on nhn bi mt my Turing. nh l u tin s chng t
rng mi ngn ng loi 0 pht sinh mt tp quy m c. V sau ta s xy
dng mt thut ton m c tt c cc chui thuc vn phm loi 0.
nh l 8.2: Nu L l ngn ng sinh bi mt vn phm loi 0 G = (V
N
, E, P, S) th
L l ngn ng quy m c.
Chng minh:
Thit lp mt my Turing MT khng n nh, hai bng on nhn ngn ng L.
Bng th nht (bng 1) ca MT cha chui vo w, cn bng th hai (bng 2), my
pht sinh cc dng chui o ca G. u tin, chui o c pht sinh trn bng 2 l
k hiu bt u S. Sau , MT lp li qu trnh sau:
(i) Chn mt cch ngu nhin mt v tr i trn o vi 1 s i s , o ,, ngha l MT
xut pht t bn tri chui o ri ty chn gia hai kh nng: hoc chn i l v
tr hin ti, hoc dch chuyn sang phi v lp li qu trnh.
(ii) Chn mt qui tc | trong s cc qui tc thuc tp qui tc ca G.
(iii) Nu chui con | xut hin trong o k t v tr th i, MT thay th chui | bi
(d nhin nu , | , = , , th phi dch chuyn phn cui ca o ch trng
cn cho php thay th).
(iv) So snh chui pht sinh c vi chui nhp w trn bng 1. Nu ging nhau
th chui mi pht sinh s c chp nhn. Nu khc nhau th MT tr v bc
(i). Ta c th chng minh c rng tt c v ch c nhng chui thuc G mi
xut hin trn bng 2 bc (iv).
- 170 -
Vy L(MT) = L(G) = L.
nh l 8.3: Nu L l ngn ng quy m c th L = L(G), vi mt vn phm
khng hn ch G (loi 0) no .

Chng minh:
Gi s ngn ng L c on nhn bi my Turing MT = (Q, , I, o, q
0
, B, F). Ta
s xy dng mt vn phm khng hn ch G m mi chui dn xut ca n pht
sinh theo ba bc nh sau:
(i) G pht sinh mt cch ngu nhin mt chui w thuc E. Chui ny c vit
thnh hai bn: mt s lu gi cho n khi kt thc, mt s thay i trong qu
trnh lm vic ca MT.
(ii) G m phng li qu trnh lm vic ca ca MT trn chui w, bng cch lp li
ng qu trnh lm vic ca MT.
(iii) Khi bc (ii) kt thc, vi s xut hin ca mt trng thi kt thc q e F ca
MT (ngha l chui w c MT chp nhn). Lc G tip tc thu gim
chuyn dng cu c v nh chui w. V nh vy, c ngha l chui w
c G sinh ra.
Mt cch hnh thc, ta thit lp vn phm G = (V
N
, E, P, S
1
)
Vi V
N
= ( (E { c }) I) { S
1
, S
2
, # })
V tp qui tc P c xy dng nh sau:
1. a) S
1
#q
0
S
2
#
b) S
2
[a, a] S
2
#, a e
c) S
2
c
- Nu o(q, X) = (p, Y, R) vi p, q e ; X, Y e I th thm cc qui tc dng
(2.a) v (2.b) sau y vo tp qui tc P:
2. a) q[a, X][b, Z] [a, Y]p[b, Z], a, b e E {c} v Z e I
b) q[a, X]# [a, Y]p[c, B], a e E {c}
- Nu o(q, X) = (p, Y, L) vi p, q e ; X, Y e I th thm cc qui tc dng
(2.c) sau y vo tp qui tc P:
c) [b, Z]q[a, X] q[b, Z]p[a, Y], a, b e E {c} v Z e I
- Nu q e F th thm cc qui tc (3.a-e) sau y vo tp qui tc P:
3. a) [a, X]q qap, a e E {c} v X e I
b) q[a, X] qap, a e E {c} v X e I
c) q# c
d) #q c
- 171 -
e) q c
Dng cc qui tc (1.a-c), ta c dy dn xut:
S
1

G
*
#q
0
[a
1
, a
1
][a
2
, a
2
] [a
n
, a
n
]#
Dy dn xut ny th hin hnh trng bt u ca MT l: #q
0
a
1
a
2
a
n
#. Bt u t
bc ny cc quy tc (2.a-c) c p dng. Lu rng cc qui tc ny trong G phn
nh cc quy tc chuyn trng thi c thit k cho MT. Cho nn qu trnh dn
xut li trong G s m phng li cc bc chuyn hnh thi trong qu trnh lm vic
ca MT. Nu qu trnh chuyn n mt trong nhng trng thi kt thc q e F,
tng ng vi trng hp MT on nhn chui a
1
a
2
a
n
, th trong vn phm G cc
quy tc (3.a-e) s c p dng tip theo v cho php G dn xut ra chnh chui
nhp a
1
a
2
a
n
. Hay ta c: S
G
*
a
1
a
2
a
n

Phn chng minh L(MT) _ L(G) v L(G) _ L(MT) xem nh bi tp.
8.8 tmt tuyn tnh gii ni v vn phm cm ng cnh
8.8.1 tmt tuyn tnh gii ni
nh ngha 8.4: Ta gi tmt tuyn tnh gii ni l mt my Turing khng n
nh v khng c kh nng ni rng vng lm vic ra khi mt tri v mt phi
ca chui vo. K hiu mt tmt tuyn tnh gii ni l LBA.
N phi tha hai iu kin sau:
1) B ch ci vo ca n c cha thm hai k hiu c bit . v $ dng lm
k hiu nh du mt tri v mt phi.
2) LBA khng thc hin php chuyn sang tri (L) t . v khng thc hin php
chuyn sang phi (R) t $, v cng khng vit cc k hiu khc ln . v $.
LBA n gin l mt my Turing, nhng thay v s dng mt bng khng gii hn
cho vic tnh ton, n b hn ch ch trong phm vi bng cha chui vo x vi hai
cha cc k hiu nh du cn u mt. S gii hn ny lm cho vic tnh ton
phi thng qua mt s cc hm tuyn tnh trn di chui, do ta gi m hnh
ny l tmt tuyn tnh gii ni. LBA khng dng cc trng trn bng v pha
tri v pha phi ca chui vo, v vy k hiu khong trng B nh dng my
Turing l khng cn dng y. Tri li, LBA nhn bit c gii hn bn tri
v gii hn bn phi ca chui vo, ta phi a thm vo b ch ci vo S hai k
hiu c bit nh ., $ nh du mt tri v mt phi ca chui. Vy, ti thi im
bt u, chui vo trn bng s c dng . w $, trong w e (- {., $})
*
l chui
cn on nhn. Trong qu trnh lm vic, khi u c duyt ti c cha . hay $,
th php chuyn tip theo sau ch c th l i trng thi, chuyn u c tr li
pha trong phm vi bng (tc chuyn sang phi khi gp . v chuyn sang tri khi
gp $), v khng c php vit k hiu g khc trn bng ti ang c khi gp .
v $. Vy, LBA c th nh ngha mt cch hnh thc hn nh sau.
- 172 -
nh ngha 8.5: LBA l mt h thng MT = (Q, E, I,o,q
o
,., $, F), trong cc
thnh phn Q, E, I, q
o
, F vn nh nh ngha my Turing, cn ., $ e E v
hm chuyn:
o: Q I (Q I { L, R})
phi tha mn iu kin:
- Nu (p, Y, E) e o(q, .) th Y = . v E = R
- Nu (p, Y, E) e o(q, $) th Y = $ v E = L
Ngn ng c on nhn bi LBA
Ta nh ngha ngn ng L(MT) c on nhn bi LBA MT l tp hp:
L(MT) = { w , w e (E - {., $})
*
v q
o
.w$ MT
*
oq| vi q e F v o| e I
*
}
Ch rng cc k hiu nh du hai u mt ngay t hnh trng bt u, chng
c mt trn bng nhp, nhng chng khng c xem nh thuc mt phn ca
chui c on nhn hay khng c on nhn bi LBA. V u c ca LBA
khng th dch chuyn ra ngoi phn chui nhp nn chng ta khng cn nh
ngha cc khong trng (k hiu B) pha bn phi ca $.
8.8.2 Vn phm cm ng cnh (CSG)
Vn phm cm ng cnh, nh trnh by cc chng trc, l mt vn phm
G = (V
N
, E, P, S), trong :
1) V
N
l mt tp hu hn cc bin hay k hiu khng kt thc.
2) E l mt tp hu hn cc k hiu cui, V
N
E = C
3) P l tp hu hn cc qui tc dng o | trong o, | e (V
N
E)
*
,
chui o phi c cha bin v rng buc |o| s |||
4) S e V
N
l k hiu bt u.
Ngn ng do vn phm cm ng cnh G sinh ra l
L(G) = {w , w e E
*
v S
*

w}
L(G) c gi l ngn ng cm ng cnh. Thut ng cm ng cnh c xut x
t mt dng chun ca vn phm dng ny, trong mi qui tc c dng
o
1
Ao
2
o
1
|o
2
vi | = A, cho thy mt bin A ch c th c thay th bi mt
chui | (khc rng) trong ng cnh o
1
- o
2
. iu khng ging nh trong vn
phm phi ng cnh, vi cc qui tc c dng A | (||| > 0), s thay th ny khng i
hi ng cnh.
V d 8.11 Xt vn phm G = (V
N
, E, P, S) vi V
N
={ S, B, C}, ={a, b, c} v P
gm cc qui tc nh sau:
1. S aSBC
2. S aBC
- 173 -
3. CB BC
4. aB ab
5. bB bb
6. bC bc
7. cC cc
Mt cch phi hnh thc, p dng mt s qui tc cho cc chui dn xut sinh ra
ngn ng, ta d thy rng vn phm G sinh ra ngn ng c dng:
L = {a
n
b
n
c
n
| n > 1}
Tht vy, vi qui tc (1) v (2) ta c chui dn xut S
*
a
n
(BC)
n
. Sau , bng
cch p dng qui tc (3), mi bin B s c thay th ln trc cc bin C trong
chui dn xut: a
n
(BC)
*
a
n
B
n
C
n
. Bi qui tc (4) v (5), mi bin B s c thay
th thnh cc k hiu kt thc b, v cui cng vi (6) v (7), mi bin C cng s
c thay th thnh c. Tm li, ta c chui dn xut nh sau:
S
*
a
n
(BC)
n
*
a
n
B
n
C
n
*
a
n
b
n
c
n
.
Bi ton thnh vin vi vn phm cm ng cnh
nh l 8.4 Vi mi vn phm cm ng cnh G = (V
N
, , P, S), tn ti mt thut
ton xc nh xem mt chui vo w e
*
c thuc ngn ng L(G) hay khng.
Chng minh:
Gi s |w| = n. Ta lp th m mi nh l mt chui thuc (V
N
)
*
c di
nh hn hoc bng n, c mt cung t nh o n nh | nu o |. Nh vy, mt
ng i trong th tng ng vi mt suy dn trong G. Vy w e L(G) khi v
ch khi c mt ng i t nh bt u S ti nh w trong th. Dng bt c
thut ton thut no cho php tm ng ni hai nh trong th ( c nhiu
thut ton nh th ([2], [6])), ta s xc nh c phi chng c ng i t nh
S ti nh w.
V d 8.12: Xt vn phm cm ng cnh G = (V
N
, , P, S) vi cc qui tc c
cho nh trong th d 8.11 trn v xt chui vo w = abbc. Ta cn xc nh xem liu
chui w e L(G)?
tm ng i t nh S ti nh abbc trong th ni trn ta c th dng phng
php vt du loang nh sau:
Lp cc R(i), i = 0, 1, 2, theo quy tc sau:
R(0) = { S }
R(i) = R(i -1) {| , o | vi o e R(i -1) v ||| s |w|}
Do R(0) _ R(1) _ _ R(i) _ R(i +1) _ _ tp cc nh, vy tn ti s k no
sao cho:
R(k) = R(k +1) = R(k +2) =
- 174 -
Do , qu trnh thnh lp cc R(i) s c th ngng sau k bc.
V w e L(G) khi v ch khi c i s k cho w e R(i).
Trong v d trn, gi s khi ta xt |w| = 4, ta c:
R(0) = {S}
R(1) = {S, aSBC, aBC}
R(2) = {S, aSBC, aBC, abC}
R(3) = {S, aSBC, aBC, abC, abc}
R(4) = R(3)
Vy chui abbc khng thuc L(G).
8.8.3 S tng ng gia LBA v CSG
Chng ta ch rng, LBA c th on nhn cc xu rng A, cn CSG khng th
sinh ra xu rng. Ngoi trng hp ra th LBA s on nhn chnh xc tt c
cc xu c sinh ra t CSG.
nh l 8.5 Nu L l mt ngn ng cm ng cnh th L s c on nhn bi mt LBA
no .
Chng minh:
Cch chng minh nh l ny cng tng t nh cch chng minh ca nh l
chng trc v s tng ng gia lp ngn ng sinh t vn phm loi 0 vi
lp ngn ng m my Turing chp nhn, ch khc l y khng cn dng mt
bng nhp th hai pht sinh cc dng cu theo xu dn xut ln lt theo cc
suy dn ca vn phm, m ch cn dng bng th hai trn bng nhp ca LBA vo
vic .
Cho G = (V
N
, , P, S) l mt vn phm cm ng cnh, ta xy dng tmt LBA
MT nh sau: Bng nhp ca LBA gm hai bng: bng 1 cha xu nhp vo w vi
cc k hiu nh du ., $ hai u, bng 2 dng pht sinh cc dng cu o. Trng
thi bt u, nu w = A th MT ngng v khng on nhn dy vo, nu khng th u
c vit k hiu S bng 2, ngay di k hiu bn tri nht ca xu w, tip MT thc
hin qu trnh sau:
1) Chn trong s khng n nh mt xu con | ca xu o trn bng 2 sao cho
| l mt qui tc trong P.
2) Thay | bi , nu cn thit ta phi dch chuyn phn cui xu sang phi cho
ch, tuy nhin nu dch chuyn ra ngoi $ th LBA ngng v khng chp
nhn.
3) (Hnh thi hin ti bng 1 l .w$, cn bng 2 l xu o, m S
G
o v
,o, s ,w,). So snh bng 1 v bng 2, nu o = w th LBA ngng v on nhn
w. Nu khng th tr v bc (1).
- 175 -
Nh vy khi MT on nhn xu w, th S
*
w. Ngc li nu S
*
w th mi dng
cu o xut hin trong dy dn xut u tho mn ,o, s ,w,, bi v mi qui tc
| trong vn phm G u tha ,|, s ,,. Nh vy MT c th thc hin dy dn
xut trn bng 2, gia hai k hiu nh du u mt . v $. Vy MT on nhn
xu nhp w.
Tm li MT s on nhn mi xu sinh ra bi vn phm G.

nh l 8.6 Nu L = L(MT) vi mt LBA MT = (Q, E, I,o,q
o
,., $, F) th L {A}
l mt ngn ng cm ng cnh.

Chng minh:
Ta xy dng G theo 3 giai on:
(i) Giai on 1: Vn phm cho php sinh ra mt xu w (xu nhp ca MT), cng
c cha trong ., $ v q
0
.
(ii) Giai on 2: Vn phm lp li cng vic ca MT.
(iii) Giai on 3: Khi xut hin trng thi q e F, ta thu v xu w vi lu rng cc
qui tc o | u c ,o, = ,|,.
Qu trnh m phng li cc qui tc bi cc qui tc ca G s khng c g vng
mc. Ch giai on 3, vic xo i cc k hiu nh du hai u mt . v $, q
khng c php lm rt ngn xu nhp li. gii quyt vng mc ny, ta gn
cc k hiu ., $, q k bn vi cc k hiu ca xu nhp m khng ng ri ra
nh trc.
C th, giai on 1 thc hin bi cc qui tc trong G sau:
S
1
[a, q
0
. a]S
2
S
1
[a, q
0
.a$]
S
2
[a, a]S
2
, S
2
[a,a$]
a e E - {., $}
Cc qui tc trong G cho php thc hin giai on 2, ging nh LBA MT thc hin
(sinh vin t xy dng xem nh bi tp).
Cui cng, giai on 3, cc qui tc sau y s c s dng, vi q e F:
[a, oq|] a
a e E - {., $} v o, | c th c.
Ch rng s qui tc l hu hn, v o v / hoc | ch gm ., $ v mt k hiu
nhp vo. Chng ta cng c th xo thnh phn th hai ca mt bin nu n lin k
vi k hiu kt thc bng cch dng cc qui tc dng:
[a, o]b ab
b[a, o] ba
- 176 -
a, b e E - {., $} v o c th c.
Nh vy cc qui tc va c xy dng m t vn phm l G v c th chng
minh L(MT) - {A} = L(G).
8.9 Bi ton dng ca my Turing
8.9.1 Nhng bi ton khng quyt nh c
Trong khoa hc tnh ton, chng ta thng gp nhng bi ton m cu tr li l
c (yes) hoc khng (no), ng (true) hoc sai (false), c gi l loi bi
ton quyt nh. i vi mt bi ton quyt nh, c nhng b d liu vo c cu
tr li (u ra) l c v cng c nhng b d liu vo c cu tr li khng.
Sau y l mt s bi ton quyt nh lin quan n cc ngn ng (hnh thc, ngn
ng lp trnh):
1. C th vit c chng trnh tm tt c cc s nguyn dng x, y, z v s
nguyn n > 2 x
n
+ y
n
= z
n
. Bi ton t ra l chng trnh ny c dng
hay khng nu v khi no tm thy li gii? (nh l cui cng ca Fermat).
2. Bi ton SAT (Formula SATisfiability). Cho trc cng thc Boole, hi c
mt b gi tr ca cc bin cng thc lun nhn gi tr ng hay
khng?
3. i vi mt ngn ng lp trnh bt k, c xc nh c hay khng:
(a) Mt chng trnh cho trc c th lp v hn vi d liu vo bt k?
(b) Mt chng trnh cho trc c th cho ra kt qu?
(c) Mt chng trnh cho trc c th dng vi d liu vo cho trc?
4. i vi cc ngn ng hnh thc, c xc nh hay khng:
(a) Bi ton tng ng ca cc vn phm phi ng cnh?
(b) Bi ton rng ca ngn ng cm ng cnh?
(c) Bi ton thnh vin ca vn phm loi 0, mt xu cho trc c thuc
mt ngn ng loi 0?
5. Bi ton dng ca my Turing?
6. Bi ton P = NP? (c cp chi tit phn sau).

nh ngha 8.6: Lp cc bi ton vi hai kt qu (c hoc khng) c gi l
quyt nh c (gii c) nu tn ti mt thut ton xc nh v lun dng vi
kt lun (c hoc khng) i vi mi b d liu vo. Ngc li l lp cc bi ton
khng quyt nh c (khng gii c).
Tt c cc bi ton nu trn l khng quyt nh c. Sau y chng ta chng
minh rng bi ton dng ca my Turing l khng gii c.
- 177 -
Theo gi thuyt ca Church, my Turing c xem nh mt h thng tnh ton
tng qut nht. T suy ra, vic tm ra mt thut ton gii bi ton quyt nh
tng ng vi vic xy dng my Turing thc hin thut ton .
Trc khi chng minh nh l v tnh dng ca my Turing, chng ta cn lu
thm mt s biu din ca my Turing. Hm chuyn o() c th biu din thnh b
5, v d: o(q, a) = (, o, |) c biu din thnh (q, a, o, |, ). Tt c cc trng thi
v cc b 5-phn t nh trn c th m ho thnh cc xu (dy k t) trn bng ch
(thng = {0, 1}, vy MT c th biu din bng cc dy nh phn). Mt tp
cc dy m ho MT nh th, s c k hiu l d(MT). Cp (MT, x), trong MT
l my Turing v x l dy vo, c m ho thnh d(MT) * x.
nh l 8.7 (nh l Turing) Bi ton dng ca my Turing trn bng ch
= {0, 1} l khng quyt nh c, ngha l mt my Turing bt k c dng hay
khng i vi dy vo x bt k trong l khng quyt nh c.
Chng minh:
Chng ta chng minh nh l bng phng php phn chng. Gi s MT l mt
my Turing bt k v d(MT) l dy m ho nh phn biu din cho MT. Khi ,
cp (MT, x), x l bt k, s c m ho thnh d(MT)*x. Gi s bi ton dng ca
MT i vi x l quyt nh c, th s tn ti thut ton P tr li xem MT c
dng hay khng. Ngha l,
(a) Nu MT dng i vi dy vo x th P t ti hin trng c chp nhn,
(b) Nu MT khng dng i vi dy vo x th P t ti hin trng khng
c chp nhn.
Chng ta hy xy dng thut ton Q mi da vo P nh sau:
(c) Xem d(MT) l dy vo v sao p thnh d(MT) *d(MT), sau p dng
thut ton P i vi dy vo d(MT) *d(MT),
(d) Q lp li v hn nu P t n hin trng c on nhn v Q dng nu
P t n hin trng khng c chp nhn.
Theo gi thuyt Church, tn ti mt my Turing MT thc hin Q. Bi v thut
ton P, cng nh Q thc hin c trn mi my, vy Q thc hin c trn my
MT v P thc hin c trn MT. Ta c th chn MT= MT.
+ T (d) v (a) suy ra MT lp v hn nu n dng.
+ T (d) v (b) suy ra MT dng nu n lp v hn.
Ngha l, MT dng khi v ch khi MT lp v hn. y r rng l mu thun, vy
tnh dng ca my Turing l khng quyt nh c.
H qu 8.1: Bi ton tn ti mt my Turing quyt nh xem c dng hay
khng khi thao tc trn mt dy vo bt k l khng gii c.
H qu 8.2: Tn ti my Turing MT trn {0, 1} v mt trng thi q
m
sao cho
khng tn ti thut ton quyt nh xem MT c t n q
m
t mt hin trng
no hay khng.
- 178 -
8.9.2 Bi ton v s tng ng ca Post
Bi ton v s tng ng Post PCP (Post Correspondence Problem) c Emil
Post gii thiu vo nm 1946. Bi ton c pht biu nh sau:
Xt hai danh sch x = (x
1
, x
2
, , x
n
) v y = (y
1
, y
2
, , y
n
) ca cc xu khc rng
trn bng ch = {0, 1}. C tn ti hay khng mt dy i
1
, i
2
, , i
m
, 1 s i
j
s n, sao
cho
x
1
i
x
m
i
= y
1
i
y
m
i

Lu : Cc ch s i
j
khng nht thit phi khc nhau v m c th ln hn n.
V d 8.12. Vi hai danh sch x = (b, bab
3
, ba) v y = (b
3
, ba, a) bi ton PCP c
li gii hay khng?
Gii:
Chng ta cn xc nh xem, c tn ti hay khng mt dy con ca x v y tng ng bng
nhau khng. Ta c th chn i
1
= 2, i
2
= i
3
= 1, i
4
= 3, ngha l tn ti dy (2, 1, 1, 3), m = 4
=

Do , PCP c li gii.
V d 8.13. Chng minh rng vi hai danh sch x =(01, 1, 1) v y = (01
2
, 10, 1
2
)
th PCP khng c li gii.
Trc tin chng ta thy, vi mi x
i
e x v y
i
e y, ta c |x
i
| < |y
i
|, vi mi i. Do
vy, xu c to ra bng dy cc xu con ca x s lun ngn hn xu c to ra
bng cc xu con tng ng ca y. V vy, PCP khng c li gii.
Post pht biu nh l sau:
nh l 8.8 PCP trn bng ch vi || 2 s khng quyt nh c.
S dng k thut rt gn chuyn bi ton PCP v nhiu lp cc bi ton quyt
nh trong ngn ng hnh thc. Nhng kt lun sau y c th suy ra c t bi
ton PCP [4].
(i) Nu L
1
v L
2
hai ngn ng phi ng cnh trn bng ch , || 2, th
khng tn ti thut ton quyt nh c nhng kt qu sau ng hay
sai:
a. L
1
L
2
= C,
b. L
1
L
2
l ngn ng phi ng cnh,
c. L
1
_ L
2
,
d. L
1
= L
2
.
(ii) Nu G l vn phm cm ng cnh (loi 1), th khng tn ti thut ton
quyt nh c nhng kt qu sau ng hay sai:
bab
3
b

b

ba

ba

b
3
b
3
a

- 179 -
a. L(G) = C,
b. L(G) l v hn,
c. x
0
e L(G) vi x
0
no .
(iii) Nu G l vn phm ng cu (loi 0), th khng tn ti thut ton quyt
nh xem x e
*
c thuc L(G) hay khng.
8.10 Lp cc bi ton NP y
Vo u nhng nm 60 ca th k 20, cc my tnh c s dng rng ri
gii cc bi ton khoa hc - k thut v cc bi ton kinh t. Cc nh tin hc ng
trc mt vn thch thc rt ln trc nhng cu hi: th no l mt thut ton
tt, hiu qu, hay ngc li, mt thut ton khng tt?, th no l mt bi ton
d, mt bi ton kh? Lc u, phn ln nhn xt theo trc quan, nhanh hay
khng l da vo kt qu thc nghim. Mi cho n 1965 Edmond ln u tin a
tng mi: mt thut ton c gi l hiu qu (tt), nu thi gian thc hin trn
my b chn li bi mt a thc ca mi d liu vo (k c trng hp xu nht).
Cc nh khoa hc (trong c Steve Cook v Dick Karp) khng nh rng yu
cu ti thiu i vi mt thut ton hiu qu l thi gian tnh ca n phi l a thc
u(n
c
), vi c l hng s. Ngi ta cng nhn thy rng i vi nhiu lp bi ton,
vic tm ra nhng thut ton nh vy l rt kh khn, hn na chng ta cn khng
bit l mt thut ton nh th c tn ti hay khng. Chnh v th, Cook v Karp
cng mt s ngi khc a ra nh ngha lp cc bi ton NP-y , m cho
n nay nhiu ngi tin rng (nhng cha chng minh c) khng th c thut
ton hiu qu gii chng.
8.10.1 Cc lp bi ton P v NP
nh gi phc tp tnh ton ca bi ton l xc nh thi gian tnh ton (s cc
php ton c s cn thc hin) ca thut ton tt nht trong tt c cc thut ton
gii bi ton , c nhng thut ton bit ln cc thut ton cn cha bit. Vic
nh gi phc tp tnh ton ca bi ton gi vai tr nh hng trong vic thit
k cc thut ton gii nhng bi ton t ra trong thc t.
nh ngha c lp cc bi ton P v NP chng ta cn nh ngha phc tp
thi gian ca my Turing.
nh ngha 8.7 phc tp thi gian T(n) ca my Turing (n nh) l s php
chuyn cc i ca MT x l mt dy vo bt k c di n.
nh ngha 8.8 Ngn ng L c gi l thuc lp P nu tn ti mt my Turing (n
nh) MT sao cho MT c phc tp thi gian l a thc p(n) v n on nhn c L.
Mc 8.5 chng ta nh ngha my Turing khng n nh. c im ca my
Turing khng n nh l ti mi hin trng bt k, my c php c nhiu kh
nng dch chuyn (hm chuyn khng n tr). nh ngha c lp NP chng
ta cn nh ngha phc tp thi gian ca my Turing khng n nh.
- 180 -
nh ngha 8.9 My Turing khng n nh MT c phc tp thi gian T(n)
nu vi mi dy vo c on nhn c di n, tn ti mt dy nhiu nht T(n)
php chuyn MT t n hin trng chp nhn.
nh ngha 8.10 Ngn ng L c gi l thuc lp NP nu tn ti mt my
Turing khng n nh MT sao cho MT c phc tp thi gian l a thc p(n) v
n on nhn L.
Mc d nh ngha ca lp P v NP l tng t, song chng c s khc bit rt
ln.
Khi L thuc P, s cc bc chuyn ca MT x l dy u vo bt k c
di n l nh hn hoc bng p(n).
Khi L thuc NP, s cc bc chuyn ca MT x l l nh hn hoc
bng p(n) ch i vi nhng dy vo c chp nhn. Nh vy, trong lp
NP, gii hn p(n) cc php chuyn ch c tc dng khi chng ta c th tm
c dy u vo w e L.
Mt cch hon ton tng ng, ta c th hiu P l lp cc bi ton c th gii
c trong thi gian a thc, cn NP l lp cc bi ton, m mi nghim gi nh
u c th kim nh c trong thi gian a thc. Thng th vic tm nghim
kh hn nhiu so vi vic kim chng nghim.
Sau y l mt s tnh cht ng ca lp P v NP [1].
nh l 8.9 Nu A, B e P th A B, A B, AB, A
*
e P
nh l 8.10 Nu A, B e NP th A B, A B, AB, A
*
e NP.
Mt trong nhng bi ton m quan trng nht hin nay ca khoa hc my tnh l
thuyt l P = NP? Ni cch khc, c phi mi ngn ng c on nhn bi mt
thut ton khng n nh vi thi gian a thc th cng c chp chn bi thut
ton n nh no vi thi gian a thc hay khng? y l mt trong nhng bi
ton kh nht t ra trong th k 21 ny cho cc nh ton hc v khoa hc tnh
ton.
8.10.2 NP-y
Hin nhin l P _ NP, nn vic xt mi quan h gia P v NP ni chung l phi
duyt li ton b lp NP. Thay v phi duyt ton b lp NP, ta mun ch duyt
mt b phn nh, thm ch ch mt vi bi ton trong NP m thi. Mun th ta hy
chn ra mt bi ton kh gii nht C theo mt ngha no bt k trong NP ri
kim tra xem n c thuc P hay khng. Nu C khng thuc P th l bng
chng P c NP. Nh vy, mi bi ton kh nht trong NP l cha kho gii bi
ton P = NP?. S. Cook gi nhng bi ton kh nht trong NP l cc bi ton NP-
y (NP-completeness). Vn t ra l nh ngha nh th no bi ton A l
kh hn bi ton B.
gii quyt vn trn, ta c th vn dng khi nim dn c trong l thuyt
thut ton.
- 181 -
nh ngha 8.11 Gi s L
1
, L
2
l hai ngn ng trn
1
v
2
tng ng. Ta ni L
1

dn a thc c v L
2
, k hiu L
1
p L
2
nu
(i) Tn ti mt hm f:
1
*

2
*
sao cho w e L
1
khi v ch khi f(w) e L
2
.
(ii) f() c th tnh c bi mt my Turing c phc tp thi gian l a
thc.
nh ngha 8.12 Ngn ng L _
*
l NP-y nu
(i) L l NP,
(ii) Vi mi ngn ng L thuc NP, L dn a thc c v L.
nh ngha ca lp cc ngn ng P v NP nh trn c th m rng cho lp cc bi
ton. Bi ton C thuc NP-y , nu n thuc NP v mi bi ton B thuc NP
u dn a thc c v C theo ngha ngn ng on nhn bi my Turing gii B
dn a thc c v ngn ng on nhn bi my Turing gii C. Hin nay c
hng trm bi ton NP-y thuc mi lnh vc: tnh ton mnh , l thuyt
th, l thuyt ti u, qui hoch, l thuyt t hp, lp lch, ...
Ta c cc mnh sau:
Mnh 8.1 Nu L
1
p L
2
v L
2
e P, th L
1
e P.
Chng minh: dng nh ngha ca quan h p.
Mnh 8.2 Nu L
1
l NP-y , L
2
e NP v L
1
p L
2
, th L
2
e NP-y .
Chng minh: dng tnh bc cu ca quan h p.
V ngha, mnh 8.2 cho mt phng php c bn chng minh mt bi ton
mi l NP-y trn c s dn c a thc v t nhng bi ton NP-y cho
trc.
nh l 8.11 Gi s L l NP-y , P = NP khi v ch khi L thuc P.
Chng minh dng mnh 8.1.
nh l 8.9 ch ra con ng nhm ti ch P = NP.
Tuy nhin p dng c mnh 8.2, ta cn cn c mt ngn ng u tin l
NP-y . Mt khc, nhng bi ton NP-y cn c nhng tnh cht sau [4]:
Tnh cht 8.1 Khng tm c thut ton thi gian a thc cho bt k mt bi
ton NP-y no.
Tnh cht 8.2 Khng th khng nh c l khng tn ti thut ton thi gian a
thc i vi nhng bi ton NP-y .
Tnh cht 8.3 Nu tm c mt thut ton thi gian a thc gii mt bi ton
NP-y th s tn ti thut ton thi gian a thc cho tt c cc bi ton NP-y
.
- 182 -
Tnh cht 8.4 Nu chng minh c rng c mt thut ton thi gian a thc cho
mt bi ton NP-y th s tn ti thut ton thi gian a thc cho mi bi ton
NP-y .
Do vy, tr li cho cu hi P = NP?, chng ta cn bit y thng tin v
nhng bi ton NP-y . Cook chng minh SAT l NP-y .
nh l 8.12 (Cook Theorem) SAT l NP-y .
Cook l ngi u tin chng minh c bi ton SAT l NP-y vo nm
1971. Mt nm sau , da vo phng php ca Cook, M. Karp ch ra mt lot
khong 20 bi ton ti u t hp c in l NP-y . n nm 1979, hai tc gi
M. Garey v D. Johnson tng kt c khong 300 bi ton l NP-y . T
n nay, con s cc bi ton l NP-y vn tng lin tc hng nm.
Ngoi nhng bi ton nu trn, ta c th nu thm mt s bi ton trong cc
lnh vc sau y l NP-y [1]:
1. Bi ton hnh trnh ca ngi bn hng (Travelling Salesman Problem).
Cho trc n thnh ph, bit khong cch gia chng v mt s D, c tn ti
mt hnh trnh ngi bn hng i qua tt c cc thnh ph vi qung
ng i nhiu nht l D?.
2. Bi ton qui hoch 0-1 (Zero-one Programming Problem). Cho trc m
phng trnh
j
m
j
ij
x a
=1
= b
j
, i = 1, 2, , n
C tn ti cc gi tr 0, 1 tho mn h phng trnh trn hay khng?
3. Bi ton qui hoch nguyn tuyn tnh dng quyt nh. Cho trc ma trn
nguyn A = (a
ij
) kch thc m n, b = (b
1
, , b
m
) l vector nguyn. Hi h
bt phng trnh Ax b c nghim nguyn hay khng?
4. Bi ton tm chu trnh Hamilton ca mt th cho trc. Chu trnh
Hamilton ca th G l chu trnh i qua tt c cc nh ng mt ln, tr
nh u v nh cui.
5. Bi ton tm tp ph cc nh ca th. Cho trc th G = (V, E) v s
nguyn K > 0, liu V c mt tp con Vc c s K (c K nh) sao cho mi
cung e e E c t nht mt nh cui thuc V.
6. Bi ton tm tp c lp trong th. Cho trc th G = (V, E) v s
nguyn K > 0, xc nh xem G c tp c lp c K hay khng?., ngha l
liu c mt tp con V_ V, |V| = K, sao cho u, v e V,{u, v} e E.
7. Bi ton tm tng con. Cho trc mt dy cc s nguyn (a
1
, a
2
, ..., a
n
) v s
nguyn S, xc nh xem c tn ti mt tp I _ {1, 2, ..., n} sao cho E
ieI
a
i
= S.

- 183 -
S phong ph v a dng ca cc bi ton NP-y l mt thun li trong vic
chn cha kho m cnh ca P = NP?
Trong khi ch i cu tr li bi ton quan trng nu trn, ta hy th hi iu g s
xy ra nu P = NP, v nu nh P NP?
Nu nh P NP, cc iu sau s xy ra:
mt ca cc m kho cng khai s c khng nh. Do vy, m kho
cng khai s c trin khai din rng ri hn, ph hp vi xu th pht trin
cc h thng m, nht l thng mi in t ca x hi trong tng lai.
Nhng bi ton NP-y tr thnh cc bi ton bt tr, cho n khi c mt
cuc cch mng mi trong cng ngh thng tin cng vi mt th h my
tnh hon ton mi v nguyn l hot ng, c kh nng siu tng tc tnh
ton. Chng ta nghe ni n nhng tng to bo ca cc nh khoa hc
v mt th h my tnh mi c tn l my tnh lng t. My tnh lng t
s hot ng theo nguyn l chung ca c hc lng t. Hy vng my tnh
lng t s gip chng ta gii c nhng bi ton NP-y .
Ngc li, nu P = NP, ta s c nhng h qu trc tip sau y:
Mi bi ton h kim chng d th gii cng d.
Tt c cc bi ton ti u, t hp thng thng u gii c trong thi gian
a thc.
Mi lo Bng n t hp by lu nay s c gii quyt.
Mt lot cc h m kho cng khai da trn gi thit P NP b v, ...
Ni chung ngi ta tin l P NP.
Bi tp v cc bi ton quyt nh c v lp bi ton P, NP-y
8.1 Xy dng my Turing on nhn {0
n
1
n
| n 1}
8.2 Xc nh dy tnh ton i vi cc dy 1213, 2133, 312 ca my Turing cho
trc v d 8.7.
8.3 Thit k my Turing on nhn tt c cc xu trn {0, 1} c cha chn s 1.
8.4 Xy dng my Turing on nhn ngn ng {a
n
b
n
c
n
| n, m 1}
8.5 Xy dng my Turing on nhn tt c cc Palindrrome chn trn tp {0, 1}
8.6 Chng minh rng vn qui ca vn phm loi 0 l khng gii c.
8.7 Chng minh rng bi ton quyt nh xem mt ngn ng cm ng cnh cho
trc c phi l phi ng cnh hay khng l khng gii c.
8.8 Chng minh rng {x | x l tp hp v x e x} khng phi l tp hp (y l
nghch l Russell).
8.9 Chng minh rng PCP l gii c nu |E| = 1.
- 184 -
8.10 Gi s x = (x
1
x
2
, x
n
) v y = (y
1
y
2
y
n
) l hai xu khc rng trn vi
|| 2.
(i) PCP l gii c vi n = 1?
(ii) PCP l gii c vi n = 2?
8.11 Chng minh rng PCP vi {(01, 011), (1, 10), (1, 11)} khng c li gii.
8.12 Ch ra rng PCP vi S = {(0, 10), (110, 0
3
), (0
2
1, 10)} khng c li gii.

- 185 -
Ph lc: Hng dn v li gii cc bi tp

Chng 1
1.6 Ta c th chng minh qui np theo |w|. Nu w = A, hin nhin abA = Aab. R
rng |w| = 0 l s chn, bc c s qui np c khng nh. Gi s iu cn
chng minh ng vi |w| < n. Ta xt nhng dy w c di n v abw = wab. Bi
v abw = wab nn w = abw
1
vi w e {a, b}
*
. Khi , ababw
1
= abw
1
ab suy ra
abw
1
= w
1
ab. Theo gi thit qui np |w
1
| l s chn. T suy ra |w| = |w
1
| + 2
cng l s chn.
1.9 2. x (( P(x, y) -y Q(y, x)) = (x (P(x, y) v -y Q(y, x))
= x -y (P(x, y) v Q(y, x))
1.10 1. A (x P(x) . x Q(x)) ( (-x R(x) v -x F(x))
Thc hin cc php bin i tng ng i vi A:
a/ Kh php ko theo : A = (x P(x) . x Q(x)) ( (-x R(x) v -x F(x))
= ( (x P(x) . x Q(x)) v ( (-x R(x) v -x F(x))
b/ = (-x ( P(x) v -x ( Q(x)) v (x ( R(x) . x ( F(x))
c/ = -x (( P(x) v ( Q(x)) v x (( R(x) . ( F(x))
= -x y ((( P(x) v ( Q(x)) v (( R(y) . ( F(y)))
d/ Dng chun hi: -x y ((( P(x) v ( Q(x) v ( R(y)) . (( P(x) v ( Q(x) v ( F(y)))
Dng chun tuyn: -x y (( P(x) v ( Q(x) v (( R(y) . ( F(y))
2. a/ Cng thc (-x!) (x
3
= 1) l hng ng cn (-x!) (x
2
3x + 2 = 0) l sai
v x
2
3x + 2 = 0 c hai nghim: x
1
= 1, x
2
= 2.
b/ (-x!) P(x) -x P(x) . x y ((P(x) . P(y)) x = y).
1.11 1. P(x, y) = y = 2x trn trng s Z Z, Z l trng s nguyn.
(x)(-y!) (P(x, y) ((-y!)(x) P(x, y)) l sai v (x)(-y!)(y = 2x) = T nhng
(-y!)(x)(y = 2x) = F.
(-y!)(x) (P(x, y) ((x)(-y!) P(x, y)) l ng v (-y!)(x)(y = 2x) = F.
2. Trng (-x!)(x > 2) ng, v d D = {y | y s 2} {3}.
Trng (-x!)(x > 2) sai, v d D = Z tt c cc s nguyn.
3. (-x ( P(x) v (x ( Q(x)) (X (x P(x) . -x Q(x)))
(-x ( P(x) v (-x Q(x)) v (( X v (x P(x) . -x Q(x)))
(-x ( P(x) v -x Q(x) v ( X) v (x P(x) . -x Q(x)))
- 186 -
(-x ( P(x) v -x Q(x) v ( X v x P(x)) . (-x ( P(x) v -x Q(x) v ( X v -x Q(x))
(-x ( P(x) v -x Q(x) v ( X v x P(x)) . (-x ( P(x) v -x Q(x) v ( X )
(-x ( P(x) v -x Q(x) v ( X ), v -x ( P(x) v x P(x) = ( (x P(x)) v x P(x) = T
(x)(-y) ((P(x) . Q(y)) v ( X).
1.12 1. Cng thc (-x)(x) P(x, y) trn trng M M vi M = {1, 2, 3} dng
khng cn cc lng t -, m ch cn cc php hi, tuyn v cc v t trn
trng cho:
(P(1, 1) . P(1, 2) . P(1, 3)) v (P(2, 1) . P(2, 2) . P(2, 3)) v (P(3, 1) . P(3, 2) . P(3, 3)).
2. A (x P(x) -x Q(x)) v -x ( P(x) v -x ( Q(x) v (((X Y) . ( Y) ( X).
a/ A (( (x P(x)) v -x Q(x)) v -x ( P(x) v -x ( Q(x) v (( ((( X v Y) . ( Y) v ( X)
b/ A (-x (P(x) v -x Q(x)) v -x ( P(x) v -x ( Q(x) v (((X . ( Y) v Y) v ( X)
c/ A -x ((P(x) v (( X . Y))
d/ Dng chun hi: -x (((P(x) v ( X) . ((P(x) v Y))
Dng chun tuyn: -x ((P(x) v (( X . Y)).
1.13 3. Suy lun di y l ng.
( X
1
v X
2

X
3
v ( X
2
X
4
v ( X
3

(( X
4
v X
5
) . ( X
5

( X
1
p dng tnh cht ca qui tc suy din ta c: ( X
1
v X
2
= X
1
X
2
v X
3

v ( X
2
= X
2
X
3
. S dng qui tc suy din bc cu suy ra X
1
X
3
. Tng t X
4

v ( X
3
= X
3
X
4
, ( X
4
v X
5
= X
4
X
5
,

suy ra X
1
X
4
v cui cng X
1
X
5
.
Sau s dng qui tc Modus tollens:
(X
5
X
1
X
5

( X
1

1.15 1. a/ Cng thc tng ng
F = ((x)((P(x) Q(x)) . (-x) (P(x) . (x)(Q(x) R(x)) . (x)(S(x) (R(x))) (-x) (S(x)
Trc khi tm dng chun tuyn, ta thc hin mt s php bin i v rt gn cng
thc. Ta t A = (x)((P(x) Q(x)) . (x)(Q(x) R(x)) . (x)(S(x) (R(x))
= (x)(((P(x) Q(x)) . (Q(x) R(x)) . (S(x) (R(x))).
- 187 -
D nhn thy: S(x) ( R(x) = R(x) ( S(x) . S dng qui tc suy din bc cu
hai ln suy ra A = (x)(((P(x) ( S(x). Do vy,
F = ((x)((( P(x) (S(x) . (-x) ( P(x)) (-x) (S(x)
= ((((x)((P(x) v ( S(x)) v ( (-x) ( P(x)) v (-x) (S(x)
= ((-x)((( P(x) . S(x)) v (((-x) ( P(x)) v (-x) ( S(x)
= ((-x)((( P(x) . S(x)) v (-x) (S(x) v (((-x) ( P(x))
= ((-x)((( P(x) . S(x) v (S(x)) v ( ((-x) (P(x))
= (-x) ( P(x) v (-x) ( S(x)) v ( ((-x) (P(x)) = T
b/ M hnh suy din trn c ng trn trng M. Tng t nh trn, s dng quy tc
bc cu v qui tc Modus Ponens khng nh iu .
2. Hy din t nh ngha gii hn
0
) (
x x
x Limf
= L di dng mt cng thc v t:

c -o x (0 < |x x
0
| < o |f(x) f(x
0
)| < c)
1.16 1. t P(x) = X c bng c nhn v Q(x) = X tt nghip i hc. t
tip R = Lan. T pht biu ca bi ton ta c:
(X (P(X) Q(X)) . P(R)) Q(R) l hng ng.. Ngha l nhng pht biu trn l ng.

Chng 2
2.2 Bi v o(q
1
,a) = o(q
1
,a), nn R l phn x. Tnh i xng l hin nhin. Nu
q
1
Rq
2
th o(q
1
,a) = o(q
2
,a) vi a e , cn nu q
2
Rq
3
th o(q
1
,a) = o(q
2
,a). T
suy ra o(q
1
,a) = o(q
3
,a), ngha l q
1
Rq
3
. Vy R l quan h tng ng.
2.3 Bng chuyn trng thi ca TK on nhn {ab, ba}
Bng A.1
Trng thi/ a b
q
0
q
1
q
2

q
1
q
3

q
2
q
1

q
3

Bng chuyn trng thi ca T tng ng vi bng A.2 l

- 188 -
Bng A.2
Trng thi/ a b
[q
0
] [q
1
] [q
2
]
[q
1
] C [q
3
]
[q
2
] [q
1
]

C
[q
3
] C C
C C C
2.5 tmt khng n nh on nhn c tp tt c cc xu t tp {a,b} kt thc
bng xu con aba c xy dng nh sau

2.6 Bng chuyn trng thi ca tmt n nh tng ng l
Bng A.3
Trng thi/ 0 1 2
[q
0
] [q
1,
q
4
] [q
4
] [q
2
, q
3
]
[q
4
] C C C
[q
1
, q
4
] C [q
4
]

C
[q
2
, q
3
] C [q
4
] [q
2
, q
3
]
C C C C
2.9 Cho trc = {a
1
, a
2
, , a
n
}, tm tmt hu hn on nhn ngn ng
a) L
1
= {x e
*
| x c di l} c on nhn bi tmt c hm chuyn trng thi nh sau
Q\ a
1
a
2
a
3
. . . a
n-1
a
n

q
0
q
1

q
1
q
1
q
1
. . . q
1
q
1

q
0
q
0
q
0
. . . q
0
q
0

c) L
1
= {x e
*
| x c di chn v ln hn 1} c on nhn bi tmt c
hm chuyn trng thi nh sau
Q\ a
1
a
2
a
3
. . . a
n-1
a
n

q
0
q
1

q
2

q
1
q
1
q
1
. . . q
1
q
1

q
2
q
2
q
2
. . . q
2
q
2

q
1
q
1
q
1
. . . q
1
q
1

q
0
q
1
q
2 q
3
a b
a
a, b
- 189 -
2.10* Cho hai tmt sau y:

M
1
: M
2
:

a/ Ngn ng on nhn c bi M
1
: T(M
1
) = {0(1
4
)
n
0 | n 0} {1}
Ngn ng on nhn c bi M
2
: T(M
2
) = {a(cb)
n
b
m
| n 0, m 1} {c
m
| m 1 }
b/ tmt M c ghp t M
1
v M
2
sao cho T(M) = T(M
1
)T(M
2
), c th xy
dng nh sau:

c/ M l hp ca M
1
v M
2
sao cho T(M) = T(M
1
) T(M
2
)

Chng 3
3.1 (a) S
*
G
0
n
S1
n

*
G
0
n
A1
m
1
n
, n > 0, m > 1. A
*
G
1
k
A 1
k+1
, k > 0.
0
m
1
n
e L(G) vi n > m > 1. Vy L(G) = {0
m
1
n
| n > m > 1}
(d) L(G) = {x e {0, 1}
+
| x khng cha hai s 0 lin tip}.
3.2 (a) G =({S, A, B}, {0, 1}, P, S), trong P c cc qui tc S 0B | 1A, A 0 | 0S
|1AA, B 1 | 1S | 0BB. Chng minh cc tnh cht sau qui np theo |w|.
(i) S
*
w khi v ch khi w cha s cc s 0 bng s cc s 1.
q
4
q
0
q
1
q
2
q
3
q
5
0 1
1
1
1
0
1
b
s
0
s
1
s
2
s
4
a
s
3
c
b c
b
c
b
q
4
q
0
q
1
q
2
q
3
0 1
1
1
1
0 1
s
0
s
1
s
2
s
4
a
s
3
c
b c
b
c
b
q
0
0
0
1
a
c s
1
s
2
s
4 s
3
c
b
b
c
q
1
q
2
q
3
q
5
1
1
1
1
q
4
- 190 -
(ii) A
*
w khi v ch khi w cha s cc s 0 ln hn s cc s 1 l 1.
(iii) B
*
w khi v ch khi w cha s cc s 1 ln hn s cc s 0 l 1.
(b) G cc qui tc suy dn S 0S1 | 0A1, A 1A0 | 10. Hin nhin
L(G) _ {0
n
1
m
0
m
1
n
| m, n > 1}. Ngc li p dng qui tc S 0S1 (n-1)
ln, S 0A1 mt ln v A 1A0 (m-1) ln ri A 10 l chng ta
thu c {0
n
1
m
0
m
1
n
}. Ngha l {0
n
1
m
0
m
1
n
| m, n > 1} _ L(G).
(c) G c cc dn xut S 0S11 | 011.
3.6 (a) Vn phm cm ng cnh nhng khng phi l phi ng cnh, v d vn
phm c c cc dn xut: S aS | b, aS aa, B a.
(b) Vn phm phi ng cnh nhng khng phi l chnh qui, v d vn phm
c c cc dn xut: S AS | a, A a.
3.7 (a) G = ({S, A, B}, {0, 1}, P, S), trong P c cc dn xut S 0S1 | 0A,
S 1B | 0 | 1, A 0A | 0, B 1B | 1. S dng S 0S1, S 0, hoc
S 1th nhn c 0
m
1
n
, trong m v n khc nhau l 1. nhn
c s cc ch s 0 nhiu hn s cc ch s 1 ta p dng A 0A | 0,
S 0A lp li nhiu ln, ngc li nhn c s cc s 1 nhiu hn
th p dng S 1B, B 1B | 1 lp li nhiu ln.
(c) G c cc dn xut S aSc | ac | bc | bS
1
c, S
1
bS
1
c

| bc. Mt xu
ca L dng a
l
b
m
c
n
, l + m = n, c th vit thnh a
l
b
m
c
m
c
l
vi l, m 0. p
dng l-ln qui tc S aSc, thu c a
l
Sc
l
. Nu m = th p dng tip S
ac, ngc li p dng S bS
1
c ri s dng (m-1) ln qui tc S
1

bS
1
c, cui cng l S
1
bc.
3.8 (a) G c cc dn xut S aS
1
| aS
2
, S
1
aS, S
2
a
(b) G c cc dn xut S aS | bS | a
(c) G c cc dn xut S aS
1
, S
1
aS
1
| bS
1
| a | b
3.9 Ch ra rng L(G
1
) = {a
n
b
n
| n > 1} = L(G
2
).
3.11 Gi s G
1
l vn phm gm cc qui tc A xB | y, trong x, y e
*
v A,
B. Thay A xB, trong x = a
1
a
2
a
n
bng A a
1
A
1
, A
1
a
2
A
2
, , A
n-1

a
n
B. Nhng dn xut A y, y = b
1
b
2
b
n
c thay bng A b
1
B
1
, B
1

b
2
B
2
, , b
n-1
b
n
. D dng chng minh rng vn phm mi G
2
gm nhng
dn xut mi l chnh qui v tng ng vi G
1
.
3.12 (i) Vn phm phi ng cnh sinh ra L = {a
n
b
n
0, c
m
1
k
d
m
| n > 0, m > 0, k >0} gm
nhng qui tc: S S
1
0 | cSd | cS
2
d | cd, S
1
aS
1
b | ab, S
2
1S
2
| 1.
- 191 -
3.13 (i) Vn phm phi ng cnh sinh ra L = {a
n
0
k
b
n
c
m
d
m
| n > 0, m > 0, k > 0} gm
nhng qui tc: S S
1
S
2
, S
1
aS
1
b | ab | aS
3
b, S
3
0S
3
| 0, S
2
cS
2
d | cd.
3.16 G c cc qui tc S 0AB, A0 S0B, A1 SB1, B SA | 01. D nhn ra
rng S 0AB 0ASA 0A0ABA hoc S 0AB 0A01 0S0B1. Khi
p dng S 0AB th nhn c A trong cc dn xut. Nu mun loi b A th
phi p dng A0 S0B, A1 SB1, khi S li xut hin v phi. Do vy
mt trong hai bin S, A khng th loi b c v phi, ngha l L(G) = C.
3.17 (a) Sai. Nu G
1
gm cc dn xut S SS | aS | bS | a | b l phi ng cnh,
v G
2
c cc qui tc S aS | bS | a | b l chnh qui. Hai vn phm ny tng
ng vi nhau v L(G
1
) = L(G
2
) = {a, b}
+
.
(b) ng. L = {w
1
, w
2
, , w
n
} th vn phm c nhng qui tc sau: S w
1
|
w
2
| | w
n
l ngn ng phi ng cnh.
(c) ng. Ch cn ch ra rng w e
*
tn ti vn phm chnh qui sinh ra w.
3.18 G = ({S, S
1
, A, B}, {0, 1, , 9}, P, S). P gm c S 0 | 2 | 4 | 6 | 8 | AS
1
,
S
1
0 | 2 | 4 | 6 | 8, S ABS
1
, B 1 | 2 | | 9, A 1 | 2 | | 9 .
3.20 Tnh i xng ca cm t trong L th hin ch: trong mi xu th s v tr
k hiu a lun lun nhiu hn s v tr ca b. Do khi sinh ra mt v tr ca b th
cng phi sinh ra mt v tr a v phi sinh thm t nht mt v ca a na. T vn
phm sinh ra L c cc qui tc sau:
S aSb | bSa | aAb | bAa, A aA | a
3.24 V m > n > 1 nn c th vit m = n + k, k > 0. Khi
a/ L = {a
n+k
b
n
| 0 s k, 1 s n} = {a
n
a
k
b
n
| 0 s k, 1 s n}
Vn phm G sinh ra L do vy c cc qui tc
S aSb | aAb | ab, A aA | a
y l vn phm phi ng cnh.
b/ Dng chun Chomsky ca G:
S DB | DC | DM, D a, B SM, M b, C AM, A DA | a

Chng 4
4.1 (i) 0 + 1 + 2
(ii) b
*
ab
*
(iii) aa(aaa)
*

(iv) (aa)
*
+ (aaa)
*
+ aaaaa
4.2 (i) l cc xu:
+ c ghp t hai xu: xu c di nhiu nht l 3 ca (ab+a)
*
v aa
+ c ghp t hai xu: xu c di nhiu nht l 4 ca (ab+a)
*
v b.
- 192 -
l cc xu: aa, aaa, abaa, aaaa, aabaa, abaaa, a
5
, ababb, aaabbb, v a
4
b.
(ii) Tng t nh trn, nhng xu c di nh hn hoc 5 ca a
*
+ (ab + a)
*

l: A, a, ab, aa, abab, aab, aba, a
3
, abaa, aaab, ababa, a
4
, abaaa, v a
5
.
4.5 H chuyn i (hoc tmt hu hn) tng ng vi cc biu thc
(ab + a)
*
(aa + b) c cho bi hnh sau.

Sau tip tc loi b cc cung A s thu c tmt hu hn yu cu.
4.6 (a) (1 + 01)
*
biu din cho tp nhng xu khng cha cp 00. Biu thc
(1 + 01)
*
00(1 + 01)
*
biu din cho tp nhng xu cha ng mt cp 00.
Tng t i vi cp 11. Vy biu thc chnh qui biu din tp tt c cc xu
trn {0, 1} c nhiu nht mt cp s 0 hoc nhiu nht mt cp s 1 l:
(1 + 01)
*
+ (1 + 01)
*
00(1 + 01)
*
+ (0 + 10)
*
(0 + 10)
*
11(0 + 10)
*

(c) b
*
+ (b + abb)
*
ab
*

(d) 1(0 + 1)
*
00.
4.7 Gi s L l tp tt c cc xu Palindrome trn {a, b} c on nhn bi tmt
hu hn M = (Q, , o, q
0
, F). Bi v Q l hu hn nn {o(q
0
, a
n
) | n 1} l tp con
ca Q, ngha l o(q
0
, a
n
) = o(q
0
, a
m
), vi m < n. Mt khc, a
n
b
2n
a
n
e L (l
Palindrome) nn o(q
0
, a
n
b
2n
a
n
) = q e F. V o(q
0
, a
n
) = o(q
0
, a
m
) nn t tnh cht
ca hm chuyn ta c o(q
0
, a
m
b
2n
a
n
) = o(q
0
, a
n
b
2n
a
n
), m < n. T suy ra a
m
b
2n
a
n

e L. iu ny mu thun v m < n nn a
m
b
2n
a
n
khng phi l Palindrome.
4.10 Gi s L = {ww | w e {a, b}
*
} l tp chnh qui, c on nhn bi tmt
M c n trng thi. D nhn thy s k hiu a, b trong cc xu ca L lun l s
chn. Xt w = a
n
b, hin nhin a
n
ba
n
b e L. |ww| = 2(n + 1) > n. p dng b
Bm vit ww = xyz vi |y| = 0, |xy | s n. Hy tm i sao cho xy
i
z e L th s
dn n mu thun.
Tht vy, ta c th chn xu y ch c mt trong cc dng sau:
(i) y khng cha b, y = a
k
, k 1.
(ii) y ch c mt k hiu b.
Bit rng |y| s |xy| s n. Trng hp (i), ta chn i = 0. Khi xy
0
z = a
n-k
ba
n
b
khng thuc L v khng th vit xz thnh dng uu vi u e {a, b}
*
. Tng t
trng hp (ii) cng chn i = 0. D nhin xy
0
z

= xz e L v s k hiu b trong xz
l l, mu thun.
q
4
q
0
q
1
q
2
q
3
q
5
A A
a a
b
a b
a
- 193 -
4.11 (i) p dng b Bm ch ra L = {a
n
b
2n
| n > 0} khng phi l chnh qui.
Gi s n l chnh qui, c on nhn bi tmt M c n trng thi. Xt
w = a
n
b
2n
. Theo b Bm, w = xyz vi |y| > 0, |xy | s n v xz e L. V
|xy | = m s n nn xy = a
m
v y = a
k
vi 0 < k s n. Vy xz = a
n-k
b
2n
e L l mu
thun v n k = n. Vy, L khng phi l chnh qui.
(iii) p dng b Bm ch ra L = {a
n
b
n
| n > 0} khng phi l chnh qui.
Gi s n l chnh qui, c on nhn bi tmt M = (Q, , o, q
0
, F) c n
trng thi. Bi v Q l hu hn nn {o(q
0
, a
n
) | n 0} l tp con ca Q, ngha l
o(q
0
, a
n
) = o(q
0
, a
m
), vi m = n. Do
o(q
0
, a
m
b
n
) = o(o(q
0
, a
m
),

b
n
) = o(o(q
0
, a
n
),

b
n
) = q e F
Suy ra a
m
b
n
e L vi m = n l mu thun.
4.19 (i) Vn phm chnh qui G sinh ra L = {x
n
(10)
m
y
k
| n, k > 1, m > 0} c cc qui
tc sau: S xS | xA | xB, A 1C, C 0A | 0B, B yB | y.
(ii) tmt hu hn trng thi (khng n nh) M sao cho T(M) = L(G)
c biu din nh sau:

(iii) Dy cc qui tc S xS xxA xx1C xx10B xx10y, v vy
xx10y e L(G). Xu x101 khng c sinh ra bi vn phm G v khng c
cch no dn ra c x101 trng thi kt thc.
4.20 (i) Ngn ng L = {a(xyz)
n
b | n > 0} {bab}. Sau chng minh L = L(G).
(ii) tmt hu hn trng thi (khng n nh) M sao cho T(M) = L(G) l

(iii) D dng ch ra c dy cc dn xut xu w = axyzb e L(G) v ch ra
cy dn xut trn th biu din tmt hnh trn n trng thi kt thc q
6

v dy nhn trn n l w.
x
q
3
q
0
q
1
q
2
q
4
x
1
1
y
0
x
y
a
q
3
q
0
q
1 q
2
q
6
a
x
b
b
q
5
q
4
b
y
z
- 194 -
4.21 (i) Vn phm chnh qui G L(G) = L(M) c cc qui tc sau:
S 1A | 0A, A xB | yC, B yA, C x.
(ii) G sinh ra w
1
= 1xyyx, w
2
= 0yx bng cch ch ra hai dy dn xut tng
ng v M cng on nhn c w
1
, w
2
bng cch ch ra hai cy dn xut
tng ng.
4.22 (i) Vn phm chnh qui G sinh ra L = {a
n
cb
m
c, a
n
cb
m
a | n, m 0} c cc qui
tc sau: S aS | cA, A bA | a | c.
(ii), (iii) tng t nh 4.22 (ii) v (iii).
4.23 (i) tmt hu hn trng thi M trn {a, b} on nhn tt c cc xu c
cc ch a l s chn v ln hn 0 c biu din nh sau:

(ii) Vn phm chnh qui tng ng vi M c cc qui tc:
S bS | aA, A bA | aC, C aA | b
(iii) Biu thc chnh qui tng ng vi ngn ng sinh bi G l
b
*
ab
*
(aa)(aa)
*
b
*
.

Chng V
5.2 p dng cc qui tc S 0S0 | 1S1 | A s c S
*
wAw, vi w e {0, 1}
*
. S dng
hai qui tc A 2B3, B2B3 s dn tip ra A
*
2
m
B3
m
, sau p dng B 3 ta
nhn c S
*
w2
m
3
m+1
w. T suy ra L(G) _ {w2
m
3
m+1
w | w e {0, 1}
*
, m 1}.
Chiu ngc li chng minh tng t.
5.4 Xt w = abababa ch ra rng n c hai cy dn xut khc nhau.
5.5 Xu abab c hai dn xut khc nhau: S abSb abab v S aAb
abSb abab.
5.6 (i) S aB aaBB aaaBBB aaabBB aaabbB aaabbaBB
aaabbabB aaabbabbS aaabbabbbA aaabbabbba.
(ii) S aB aaBB aaBbS aaBbbA aaBbba aaaBbba
aaabBbba aaabbSbba aaabbaBbba aaabbabbba.
5.7 (ii) Thc hin theo hai bc
Bc 1. p dng nh l 5.3, ta c W
1
= {B}, W
2
= {B} {C, A},
W
3
= {A, B, C} {S} = V
N
. Vy G
1
= G.
a
q
0
q
1
a
a
b
q
4
b
b
- 195 -
Bc 2. p dng nh l 5.4, s nhn c W
1
= {S}, W
2
= {S} {A, a},
W
3
= {S, A, a} {B, b}, W
4
= {S, A, B, a, b} C. Vy, vn phm ti gin
tng ng s l G
2
= ({S, A, B}, {a, b}, P, S), trong P gm c S aAa,
A bBB, B ab.
(iii) Vn phm ti gin tng ng s l G = ({S, A, B}, {a, b}, P, S), trong
P gm c S AB, A a, B a | b.
5.8 (ii) Thc hin theo hai bc
Bc 1. W
1
= {C} bi v C abb, W
2
= {C} {E, A} v E aC, A bCC
W
3
= {A, E, C} {S} v S aAa. W
4
= W
3
. Vy G
1
= ({S, A, C, E}, P
1
, S),
trong P
1
= {S aAa, A Sb |bCC, C abb, E aC}.
Bc 2. p dng nh l 5.4 i vi G
1
, s nhn c W
1
= {S}, W
2
= {S}
{A, a}, W
3
= {S, A, a} {S, C, b} = {S, A, C, a, b}, W
4
= W
3
. Vn phm ti
gin tng ng s l G
2
= ({S, A, C}, {a, b}, P
2
, S), trong P
2
gm c
S aAa, A Sb | bCC, c abb.
5.9 (ii) Vn phm CNF G = ({S, A, B, C
0
, C
1
, D
1
, D
2
), P, S) tng ng vi vn
phm cho trc, trong P gm c S C
1
A | C
0
B, A 0 | C
0
S | C
1
D
1
,
B 1 | C
1
S | C
0
D
2
, C
1
1, C
0
0, D
1
AA, D
2
BB.
5.10 Vn phm khng c qui tc rng v qui tc n v, do ta c th thc hin t
bc 2.
+ Thay S aAD bng S C
a
AD v C
a
a
+ Thay A aB bng A C
a
B
+ Thay A bAB bng A C
b
AB v C
b
b.
Bc 3 gii hn s cc bin bn phi bng cch
+ Thay S C
a
AD bng S C
a
C
1
v C
1
AD
+ Thay A C
b
AB bng A C
b
C
2
v C
2
AB.
Vn phm dng chun Chomsky tng ng s l:
G = ({S, A, B, D, C
a
, C
b
, C
1
, C
2
}, {a, b, d}, P, S), trong P c cc qui tc
sau: S C
a
C
1
, C
1
AD, C
a
a, C
b
b, C
2
AB, A C
a
B | C
b
C
2
,
B b, D d.
5.12 (i) Bc 1: t li tn cc bin S bng A
1
, xy dng vn phm tng ng
G
1
= ({A
1
, A
2
, A
3
}, {0, 1}, P
1
, A
1
), trong
P
1
= {A
1
A
1
A
1
| A
2
A
1
A
2
| A
2
A
3
, A
2
0, A
3
1.
Bc 2: p dng b 5.2 i vi A
1
A
1
A
1
, ta nhn c bin mi Z
1
v
cc qui tc mi s l: A
1
A
2
A
3
Z
1
| A
2
A
1
A
2
Z
1
, Z
1
A
1
| A
1
Z
1
.
Bc 3: p dng b 5.1 i vi cc A
1
-dn xut, ta thu c:
A
1
0A
3
Z
1
| 0
2
A
1
A
2
Z
1
| 0A
1
A
3
| 0A
3

- 196 -
Bc 4: p dng b 5.1 i vi Z
1
A
1
v Z
1
A
1
Z
1
, thu c:
Z
1
0A
3
Z
1
| 0
2
A
1
A
2
Z
1
| 0A
1
A
3
| 0A
3
Z
1
0A
3
Z
1
Z
1
| 0
2
A
1
A
2
Z
1
Z
1
| 0A
1
A
3
Z
1
| 0A
3
Z
1

Bc 5: Vn phm GNF tng ng vi vn phm trn c cc qui tc:
A
1
0A
3
Z
1
| 0
2
A
1
A
2
Z
1
| 0A
1
A
3
| 0A
3
A
2
0, A
3
1
Z
1
0A
3
Z
1
| 0
2
A
1
A
2
Z
1
| 0A
1
A
3
| 0A
3
Z
1
0A
3
Z
1
Z
1
| 0
2
A
1
A
2
Z
1
Z
1
| 0A
1
A
3
Z
1
| 0A
3
Z
1

5.13 (i) Gi s w eL(G), G l CNF v |w| = k. dng CNF, mi qui tc ch dn ra
hai k hiu khng kt thc hoc mt k hiu kt thc. sinh ra xu w c
di k th trc tin phi p dng (k-1) ln qui tc dng A BC, sau p
dng k-ln qui tc dng A a. Vy tng s bc thc hin l 2k 1.
(ii) Khi G l GNF th s bc dn xut ra w l k (k = |w|) bi v sau mi ln
p dng mt qui tc th s k hiu kt thc tng ln 1.
5.14 (iii) Chn z = a
n
b
n
c
2n
. Theo b Bm ta vit c z = uvwxy, sao cho
1 s |vx| s n. Vy vx khng th cha c ba k hiu a, b, c. Nu vx ch cha a, b
th chn i sao cho uv
i
wx
i
y c nhiu hn 2n ln xut hin ca a hoc b cn c
vn xut hin 2n ln. Vy uv
i
wx
i
y e L, dn n mu thun. Cc trng hp
cn li cng tng t.
(iv) Chn z =
2
n
a , |z| = n
2
. Theo b Bm ta vit c z = uvwxy, sao cho 1 s
|vx| s n (v |vwx| s n). t |vx| = m, m s n. Khi |uv
2
wx
2
y| > n
2
v theo b
Bm uv
2
wx
2
y e L, ngha l tn ti k sao cho |uv
2
wx
2
y| = k
2
. Mt khc
|uv
2
wx
2
y| = n
2
+ m < n
2
+ 2n +1, suy ra n
2
< k
2
< (n+1)
2
, vi k, n l khng th c.
5.15 iu kin cn: L = L(G), G l chnh qui. Vi mi bin A trong G, A
*
o, suy
ra o = uB, vi u eE
*
v B e V
N
. Vy, G khng phi l vn phm t nhng.
iu kin : gi s G l vn phm phi ng cnh khng t nhng. Xy dng
vn phm G
1
dng GNF tng ng vi G. D dng nhn thy G
1
l
khng t nhng. t |E| = n v m l s k hiu cc i ca cc v phi trong
cc qui tc trong G
1
. Gi s o e V
N
+
. Qu trnh p dng nhng dn xut tri
nht ta c th ch ra s cc bin trong o l s nm. Ta nh ngha
G
2
= (V
N
, E, P
2
, S
2
), trong
V
N
= {[o] | |o| s nm v o e V
N
+
}
S
2
= [S
1
]
P
2
= {[A|] b[o|] | A bo e P
1
, | e V
N
v |o|| s nm
D dng nhn thy G
2
l chnh qui v L(G
2
) = L(G
1
) = L(G).
- 197 -

Chng 6
6.1 (a) PDA on nhn {a
n
b
m
c
n
| m, n > 1} c nh ngha nh sau:
A = ({q
0
, q
1
}, {a, b}, {a, Z
0
}, o, q
0
, Z
0
, C}, trong o c xc nh nh sau:
R
1
: o(q
0
, a, Z
0
) = {(q
0
, aZ
0
)}
R
2
: o(q
0
, a, a) = {(q
0
, aa)}
R
3
: o(q
0
, b, a) = {(q
1
, a)}
R
4
: o(q
1
, b, a) = {(q
1
, a)}
R
5
: o(q
1
, a, a) = {(q
1
, A)}
R
6
: o(q
1
, A, Z
0
) = {(q
1
, A)}
Bt u vo t vic xp cc k hiu a vo kho y xung cho n khi gp b
(lut R
1
, R
2
). Khi b xut hin, tmt thay i trng thi nhng vn khng
thay i kho y xung (lut R
3
). Khi cc k hiu b c c ht (lut R
4
),
sau xo i cc k hiu a (lut R
5
).
Vy, (q
0
, a
n
b
m
a
n
, Z
0
)
*
(q
1
, A, Z
0
) (q
1
, A, A), ngha l a
n
b
m
a
n
e N(A).
Sau chng minh N(A) = {a
n
b
m
a
n
| m, n > 1}.
(b) tmt PDA on nhn {a
n
b
2n
| n > 1} c nh ngha nh sau:
A = ({q
0
, q
1
, q
2
}, {a, b}, {a, Z
0
}, o, q
0
, Z
0
, C}, trong o c xc nh bi:
o(q
0
, a, Z
0
) = {(q
1
, aZ
0
)}, o(q
1
, a, a) = {(q
1
, aa)}, o(q
1
, b, a) = {(q
2
, a)}
o(q
2
, b, a) = {(q
1
, A)}, o(q
1
, A, Z
0
) = {(q
1
, A)}.
(c) tmt PDA on nhn {a
m
b
m
c
n
| m, n > 1} c nh ngha nh sau:
A = ({q
0
, q
1
}, {a, b, c}, {Z
0
, Z
1
}, o, q
0
, Z
0
o(q
0
, a, Z
0
) = {(q
0
, Z
1
Z
0
)}, o(q
0
, a, Z
1
) = {(q
0
, Z
1
Z
1
)},
o(q
0
, b, Z
1
) = {(q
1
, A)}, o(q
1
, b, Z
1
) = {(q
1
, A)},
o(q
1
, c, Z
0
) = {(q
1
, Z
0
)}, o(q
1
, A, Z
0
) = {(q
1
, A)}.
6.3 (a) G = ({S, S
1
, S
2
}, {a, b}, P, S) sinh ra {a
n
b
n
| n > 1} {a
m
b
2m
| m > 1},
trong P c cc qui tc: S S
1
| S
2
, S
1
aS
1
b | ab, S
2
aS
2
bb | abb.
tmt PDA on nhn L(G) c nh ngha nh sau:
A = ({q}, {a, b}, {S, S
1
, S
2
, a, b}, o, q, S, C}, trong o c xc nh bi:
o(q, A, S) = {(q, S
1
), (q, S
2
)},
o(q, A, S
1
) = {(q, aS
1
b), (q, ab)},
o(q, A, S
2
) = {(q, aS
2
bb), (q, abb)},
- 198 -
o(q, a, a) = o(q, b, b) = {(q, A)}.
6.4 tmt PDA on nhn L c nh ngha nh sau:
A = ({q
0
, q
1
}, {a, b}, {Z
0
, a, b}, o, q
0
, Z
0
o(q
0
, a, Z
0
) = {(q
0
, aZ
0
)}, o(q
0
, b, Z
0
) = {(q
0
, bZ
0
)},
o(q
0
, a, b) = {(q
0
, ab)}, o(q
0
, b, a) = {(q
0
, ba)},
o(q
0
, a, a) = {(q
0
, aa), (q
1
, A)},
o(q
0
, b, b) = {(q
0
, bb), (q
1
, A)},
o(q
0
, A, Z
0
) = {(q, aS
2
bb), (q, abb)},
o(q
1
, a, a) = {(q
1
, A)}, o(q
1
, b, b) = {(q
1
, A)}
o(q
1
, A, Z
0
) = {(q
1
, A)}.
6.7 M = (Q, , o, q
0
, F) l tmt hu hn on nhn ngn ng tp chnh qui.
nh ngha PDA A = (Q, , {Z
0
}, o
1
, q
0
, Z
0
, F}, trong o
1
c xc nh
bi:
o
1
(q, a, Z
0
) = {(q, Z
0
) } nu o(q, a) = q.
D dng ch ra rng T(M) = T(A).
6.8* (i) Vn phm phi ng cnh G sinh ra L = {a
n
cb
m
cd
k
| n > m > 0, k > 0}
c cc qui tc: S AC, A aB, B aBb | aB | acb, C cD, D dD | d.
(ii) Dn xut sinh ra a
3
cb
2
cd
2
: S AC aBC a
2
BbC a
3
cb
2
C
a
3
cb
2
cD a
3
cb
2
cdD a
3
cb
2
cd
2
(iii) Cy c php ca t a
3
cb
2
cd
2
:

(iv) tmt y xung M on nhn L c nh ngha nh sau:
M = ({q}, {a, b, c, d}, {A, B, C, D, a, b, c, d}, o, q, S, C}, vi
o(q, A, S) = {(q, AC)}, o(q, A, A) = {(q, aB)},
o(q, A, B) = {(q, ab), (q, acb), (q, aB)}, o(q, A, C) = {(q, cD)},
o(q, A, D) = {(q, dD), (q, d)},
S
A C
a
B
c
a
B b
D
d
D
a
c b
b
- 199 -
o(q, a, a) = o(q, b, b) = o(q, c, c) = o(q, d, d) = {(q, A)}
D dng ch ra rng N(M) = L(G).
(iv) (q, a
3
cb
2
cd
2
, S) (q, a
3
cb
2
cd
2
, AC) (q, a
3
cb
2
cd
2
, aBC)
(q, a
2
cb
2
cd
2
, BC) (q, a
2
cb
2
cd
2
, aBC)
*
(q, A, A).
6.9* (i) Ngn ng sinh L(G) = {wdw
T
| w e {a, b, c}
*
, w
T
l o ngc ca w}
(ii) tmt y xung M on nhn L c nh ngha nh sau:
M = ({q}, {a, b, c, d}, {S, a, b, c, d}, o, q, S, C}, vi
o(q, A, S) = {(q, aSa), (q, bSb), (q, cSc), (q, d)},
o(q, a, a) = o(q, b, b) = o(q, c, c) = o(q, d, d) = {(q, A)}
D dng ch ra rng N(M) = L(G).
(iii) w
1
= aababbccdccbbabaa eL(G) v
S aSa aaSaa aabSbaa aabaSabaa aababSbabaa
aababbSbbabaa aababbcScbbabaa aababbccSccbbabaa
aababbccdccbbabaa.
Tng t w
1
eL(M) v
(q, aababbccdccbbabaa, S) (q, aababbccdccbbabaa, aSa)
(q, ababbccdccbbabaa, Sa) (q, ababbccdccbbabaa, aSaa)
(q, babbccdccbbabaa, Saa) (q, babbccdccbbabaa, bSbaa)
(q, abbccdccbbabaa, Saa) (q, abbccdccbbabaa, aSabaa)
*
(q, A, A).
Nhng w
1
e L(G) v khng c dy chuyn trng thi no sinh ra w
1
. Tng t,
khng c dy chuyn trng thi no trong M chuyn w
1
v c trng thi kt
thc, w
1
e L(M).

Chng 7
7.1 L(G) = {a
n+1
b
n
| n > 0}. Vi t dng a
n+1
b
n
, A a c p dng bc cui
khi a ng trc ab. Vy A a l qui tc iu khin khi v ch khi k hiu
bn phi ca a l b. Tng t A aAb l qui tc iu khin khi v ch khi k
hiu bn phi ca aAb l b v S aAb l qui tc iu khin khi v ch khi k
hiu bn phi ca aAb l A. T suy ra G l LR(1) v khng phi l LR(0).
7.2 Vn phm G cho trc khng phi l LR(k), k > 0. Gi s G l LR(k), vi k
no . Hy xt dn xut phi nht ca 01
2k+1
2 v 01
2k+3
:
- 200 -
S
*
R
01
k
A1
k
2
R
01
2k+1
2 o|w (A7.1)
khi o = 01
k
, | = A v w = 1
k
2.
S
*
R
01
k+1
A1
k+1
2
R
01
2k+3
2 o|w (A7.2)
vi o = 01
k+1
, |= A, w= 1
k+1
2. V cc xu c to ra bi 2k + 1 k
t u tin (lu |o|| + k = 2k + 1) ca o|w v o|wl mt, o = o,
ngha l 01
k
= 01
k+1
, dn n mu thun.
7.3 Vn phm G l nhp nhng v ab c hai cy dn xut, do khng c mt s
nguyn k no vn phm ny l LR(k).
7.4 V a
n
b
n
c
n
xut hin trong c hai tp, do s c hai cy dn xut khc nhau.
Vy G l nhp nhng, suy ra khng phi l LR(k) vi mi k nguyn dng.

Chng 8
8.2 Dy tnh ton i vi xu con 12 ca 1213 l
q
1
1213 Bq
2
213 BBq
3
13.
V o(q
3
, 1) khng xc nh nn MT dng. i vi 2133, 312 th my Turing
cho trc v d 8.7 khng bt u c.
8.3 Xy dng M c ba trang thi: q
0
, q
1
, q
f
, trong q
0
l trng thi bt u c
s dng ghi nhn chn s ln s 1 gp v q
1
c s dng ghi nhn
l ln s 1 gp, q
f
l trng thi kt thc. M c xc nh bi bng chuyn
trng thi nh sau:

Trng thi 0 1 B
q
0
0Rq
0
1Rq
1
BRq
f

q
1
0Rq
1
1Rq
0

q
f

8.5 My Turing on nhn tt c cc Palindrrome c di chn trn tp {0, 1} c
xy dng nh sau:
(a) MT c k t vo t bng vo (0 hoc 1), xo k t i v chuyn sang
trng thi khc (q
1
hoc q
2
).
(b) MT c phn cn li v khng thay i cc k hiu trn bng cho n khi
gp du trng B.
(c) u c R/W chuyn sang tri. Nu k hiu bn phi nht ph hp vi k
hiu bn tri nht th k hiu phi nht c xo i, ngc li MT dng.
- 201 -
(d) R/W chuyn sang tri cho n khi gp B.
Bng chuyn trng thi m t hot ng ca MT:

Trng thi
hin thi
K hiu vo
0 1 B
q
0
q
1
q
2
q
3
q
4
q
5
q
6
q
7

BRq
1
BRq
2
BRq
1

0Rq
1
1Rq
1
BRq
3

0Rq
1
1Rq
2
BRq
4

BLq
5
BLq
6
0Lq
5
1Lq
5
BRq
0

0Lq
6
1Lq
6
BRq
0

8.6 Gi s bi ton gii c. Khi s tn ti thut ton quyt nh c mt
t cho trc c thuc L hay khng, ngha l c MT on nhn L. Do vy,
s tn ti G L(G) = L. iu ny suy ra w e L(G) khi v ch khi MT l
dng vi w, ngha l bi ton dng ca MT l gii c, dn n mu thun.
8.8 Gi s S = {x | x l tp hp v x e x}. Nu S l tp hp th S e S hoc SeS.
Nu S e S, theo nh ngha ca S th S e S. Ngc li, nu S e S th theo
nh ngha ca S, S e S. Do ta khng th khng nh S e S hay S e S.
8.9 t E = {a}, x = (x
1
, , x
n
) v y = (y
1
, , y
n
), trong x
i
=
i
k
a , i = 1, 2, , n
v y
j
=
j
l
a , j = 1, 2, , n. Khi
1
) (
1
l
x
2
) (
2
l
x ...
n
l
n
x ) ( =
1
) (
1
k
y
2
) (
2
k
y
n
k
n
y ) ( . Bi c hai v u bng
i i
l k
a ,
ngha l PCP l gii c khi |E| = 1.
8.11 x
1
= 01, y
1
= 011, x
2
= 1, y
2
= 10, x
3
= 1 v y
3
= 11. V |x
i
| < |y
i
|, vi i = 1, 2, 3.
Nn x
1
i
x
m
i
= y
1
i
y
m
i
, vi mi i
j
. Suy ra PCP khng c li gii.
8.12 x
1
= 0, y
1
= 01, x
2
= 110, y
2
= 000, x
3
= 001, y
3
= 10. y tt c cc cp
(x
1
,y
1
), (x
2
,y
2
), (x
3
,y
3
) u khng c phn u (dy con tip u ng) chung
nhau. Vy suy ra x
1
i
x
m
i
= y
1
i
y
m
i
, vi mi i
j
. Suy ra rng PCP vi S =
{(0, 10), (110, 0
3
), (0
2
1, 10)} khng c li gii.
- 202 -

Danh sch cc t vit tt v thut ng
A. Cc k hiu

K hiu ngha

a e A a thuc tp A
a e A a khng thuc tp A
A _ B A l tp con ca B
C Tp rng, tp trng
A Phn t rng, phn t trng
A B Hp ca tp A v B
A B Giao ca tp A v B
A B Hiu ca tp A v B
A
C
Phn b ca tp A
2
A
Tp tt c cc tp con ca A
A B Tch Cc ca tp A v B
C
a
Lp tng ng cha a
R
+
Bao ng bc cu ca A
R
*
Bao ng phn x, bc cu ca A
R
1
R
2
Hp thnh (ghp) ca hai quan h R
1
v R
2

. Hi mnh , php v logic, AND
v Tuyn mnh , php hoc logic, OR
P Q Php keo theo, P suy ra Q
( Php ph nh logic
Php ng nht
Lng t (lng t) ph dng: vi mi
- Lng t (lng t) tn ti
~ Quan h tng ng
f: X Y Hm f t X sang Y
|x| di (s phn t, c) ca xu (dy) x,
(Q, E, o, q
0
, F) Mt tmt hu hn
Mt php chuyn trng thi
(V
N
, E, P, S) Mt vn phm
A o Qui tc, suy din trong vn phm

G
Mt dn xut trong vn phm G

*
Mt dy dn xut ca vn phm
R
1
+ R
2
Hp ca cc biu thc chnh qui R
1
v R
2

R
1
R
2
Ghp ca cc biu thc chnh qui R
1
v R
2
R
1
*
Bao ng (lp) ca cc biu thc chnh qui R
1
v R
2

- 203 -
a Biu thc chnh qui c biu din bi {a}
(Q, E, I, o, q
0
, Z
0
, F) Mt tmt y xung
ID Mt m t, hin trng ca PDA
P Lp cc ngn ng on nhn c bi my Turing n
nh vi thi gian l a thc,
NP Lp cc ngn ng on nhn c bi my Turing
khng n nh vi thi gian l a thc,
p Php dn a thc

B. Danh sch cc thut ng vit tt

T vit tt ngha

M Tp cc mnh
T Gi tr ng (True)
F Gi tr sai (False)
TK tmt hu hn khng n nh
T tmt hu hn n nh
V
N
Tp cc k hiu khng kt thc, cc bin
E Tp cc ch ci, cc k hiu kt thc
L(G) Tp cc xu c sinh bi vn phm G

0
Lp tt c cc ngn ng loi 0

1
Lp tt c cc ngn ng loi 1

2
Lp tt c cc ngn ng phi ng cnh (loi 2)

3
Lp tt c cc ngn ng chnh qui (loi 3)
CNF Dng chun Chomsky
GNF Dng chun Greibach
PDA tmt y xung
PDS Kho y xung
N(A) Tp on nhn bi PDA vi kho PDS rng
T(M) Tp cc xu on nhn c bi tmt M
LL(k) Tp con ca vn phm phi ng cnh, c
trc k k t pha trc
LR(k) Tp con ca vn phm phi ng cnh, c
cc k t t tri qua phi
LBA tmt tuyn tnh gii ni
- 204 -
PCP Bi ton tng ng Post
CSG Vn phm cm ng cnh, vn phm loi 1
CSL Ngn ng cm ng cnh, ngn ng loi 1
SAT Bi ton tho ca cng thc mnh

C. Danh sch cc thut ng

Ting Anh Ting Vit
Absorption law Lut hp th
Associative laws Lut kt hp
Binary operation Php ton nh nguyn
Bottom-up parsing Phn tch c php di ln trn
Commutative law Lut giao hon
Commutative ring Vnh giao hon
Commutative ring with identity Vnh giao hon c n v
Computable function Hm tnh c
Concatenation Ghp xu
Conjunctive normal form Dng chun hi
Constructive dilemma nh kin thit
Context-free grammar Vn phm phi ng cnh, vn phm loi 2
Context-sensitive grammar Vn phm cm ng cnh, vn phm loi 1
Derivation Dn xut, qui tc
Derivation tree (Parse tree) Cy dn xut, cy phn tch c php
Deterministic finite automaton tmt hu hn n nh, T
Disjunctive normal form Dng chun tuyn
Disjunctive syllogism Tam on lun
Destructive dilemma nh i thit
Distributive law Lut phn phi
Emigroup Na nhm
Field Trng
Finite automaton tmt hu hn (trng thi)
Formula SATisfiability Bi ton tho ca cng thc mnh
Group Nhm
Handle Cn iu khin, iu khin
Hypothetical syllogism Suy lun bc cu
Idempotent law Lut lu ng

B0011B

Bx011B
- 205 -
Instance Description Th hin, m t hin trng, ID
Left to Right Tri qua phi, LR
Linear Bounded Automata tmt tuyn tnh gii ni
Monotonic n iu
Nondeterministic finite automaton tmt hu hn khng n nh, TK
Normal Form Dng chun
NP-completeness NP-y
Paradox Nghch l
Post Correspondence Problem Bi ton tng ng Post, PCP
Predicate Tn t, v t
Principal conjunctive normal form Dng chun hi chnh tc
Principal disjunctive normal form Dng chun tuyn chnh tc
Proposition (Statement) Mnh
Pumping lemma B Bm
Pushdown automaton tmt y xung
Pushdown store Kho y xung, ngn xp
Quantifier Lng t
Random Access Machine My truy cp ngu nhin, RAM
Recursive qui
Recursively enumerable qui m c, qui k c
Reflexive Phn x
Regular Expression Biu thc chnh qui
Regular grammar Vn phm chnh qui, vn phm loi 3
Regular Set Tp chnh qui
Ring Vnh
Rule of inference Qui tc suy din
Self-embedding T nhng
Shift register Thanh ghi dch chuyn
String Xu, dy k t
Symmetric i xng
Tautology Cng thc hng ng
Top-down parsing Phn tch c php trn xung
Transition function Hm chuyn trng thi, hm chuyn
Transitive Bc cu
Transition system H thng chuyn trng thi, hay chuyn i
Well-formed formula Cng thc (mnh ), biu thc logic

- 206 -
Ti liu tham kho

[1] Ding-Zhu Du, Ker-I Ko, Theory of Computational Complexity, John Wiley &
Sons, INC, 2000.
[2] Hopcroft J. and Ullman J., Formal languages and their relation to automata,
Addison Wesley, London, 1969.
[3] Johnsonbaugh R., Discrete Mathematics, Macmillan Publishing Company,
1992.
[4] Mishra K. and Chandrasekaran, Theory of Computer Science (Automata,
Languages and Computation), Prentice Hall, 2001.
[5] Nguyn Vn Ba, Ngn ng hnh thc, H Bch Khoa H Ni, 1997.
[6] Rosen K. H., Discrete Mathematics and Its Application, Mc Graw- Hill, NY
1994.

Otomat Và Ngôn NG Hình TH C

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Otomat Và Ngôn NG Hình TH C

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tmt v ngn ng hnh thc

o khi v ch khi A-cy c kt qu l o. (4.17)

o bng phng php qui

o thc hin qua k bc, k > 1. Khi ta c th chia n thnh

aabbaa v xy dng cy dn xut cho kt qu aabbaa.

w l dn xut tri nht nu ch p dng qui tc dn

w l dn xut phi nht nu ch p dng qui tc dn

w l mt dn xut trong vn phm phi ng cnh G th s tn

w. Theo nh ngha th A w cng

oX|, ngha l mi bin u dn n xu kt thc v

uA, th u = = A v A = S. Hin nhin, c s qui np l ng. Gi thit

uA. bc cui ta p dng A

w khi v ch khi (q, w, Z)

S ch khi n = 0. G l vn phm LR(k), k > 0 khi

= L di dng mt cng thc v t:

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