CNG BI GING

LOGIC HC

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MC LC
KHI QUT V LOGIC HC ...................................................................................3 1. 2. 3. Logic hc v i tng nghin cu .......................................................................3 S lc v s pht trin ca Logic hc: ................................................................3 ngha ca vic nghin cu Logic hc ................................................................4 Khi nim ..............................................................................................................5 Cu trc Logic ca khi nim ...............................................................................5 Quan h gia cc khi nim ..................................................................................5 Cc thao tc Logic trn khi nim .........................................................................6

CHNG I. KHI NIM ...........................................................................................5 1. 2. 3. 4.

BI TP CHNG 1 ...................................................................................................8 CHNG 2. PHN ON ..........................................................................................9 1. 3. Phn on ..............................................................................................................9 Phn on phc ...................................................................................................11

BI TP CHNG 2 .................................................................................................15 CHNG 3. CC QUY LUT C BN CA T DUY ......................................18 1. 2. 4. Lut ng nht: ....................................................................................................18 Lut phi mu thun ..............................................................................................18 Lut c l do y ............................................................................................19

BI TP CHNG 3 .................................................................................................20 CHNG 4. SUY LUN ...........................................................................................22 1. 2. 3. Khi nim v suy lun .........................................................................................22 Suy lun din dch ...............................................................................................22 Suy lun quy np .................................................................................................25

BI TP CHNG 4 .................................................................................................28 CHNG 5. CHNG MINH V BC B .............................................................31 1. 2. Chng minh .........................................................................................................31 Bc b ..................................................................................................................32

TI LIU THAM KHO...........................................................................................33

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KHI QUT V LOGIC HC

1. Logic hc v i tng nghin cu Theo ngha rng: Logic hc tm hiu, nghin cu, vn dng logic ni chung. C th 1.1. i tng nghin cu ca Logic hc l nghin cu nhng tnh tt yu, bn cht, ph bin ca t duy v ca thc t khch quan. Theo ngha hp: logic hc ch nghin cu logic ca t duy: tm hiu, nghin cu, vn dng cc qui lut v hnh thc ca t duy. Theo ngha hp logic hc bao gm: logic hc hnh thc v logic hc bin chng. Logic hc bin chng: nghin cu s hnh thnh v pht trin ca t duy, nghin cu nhng hnh thc phn nh s vt hin tng trong qu trnh bin i v pht trin ca chng. Logic hc hnh thc: nghin cu nhng qui lut v hnh thc cu to chnh xc ca t duy. Logic hc hnh thc khng xem xt ni dung phn nh ca t tng m tp trung vo c cu (hnh thc) logic ca t tng. Tm li: Logic hc l khoa hc nghin cu v cc quy lut v hnh thc ca t duy hng vo vic nhn thc ng n hin thc. 1.2. Nhim v c bn ca LGH l: 2. Lm sng t nhng iu kin nhm t ti tri thc chn thc Phn tch kt cu ca qu trnh t tng Vch ra thao tc logic v phng php lun chun xc. S lc v s pht trin ca Logic hc:

Logic hc ra i vo khong th k th IV TCN do cng ca Aristote (384 322 TCN trit gia Hy Lap) vi tc phm ORGANON (cng c chung ca trit hc, ton hc, khoa hc c th v ca cc lnh vc t duy hay hot ng c th khc). ng khi qut nhng hnh thc c bn ca t duy: khi nim, phn on, suy lun ; tm ra nhng qui lut c bn ca logic hnh thc: ng nht, phi mu thun, bi trung v nhng qui tc c bn ca php tam on lun. Logic hc hnh thc ca Aristote c cng nhn v tn ti ko di sut thi k trung c. n thi k Phc Hng, logic hc c nhng bc nhy vt mi nh cng lao ca F.bacon (xy dng Novum Organon pht trin logic hc qui np lm c s cho phng php thc nghim khoa hc), R.Descarte (hon thin v tip tc pht trin logic din dch). Th k XVII XVIII, Leibnitz k hiu ho v ton hc ho logic to nn logic ton, sau c hon chnh bi Boole v De Morgan. Cng thi gian ny xut hin logic bin chng ca Kant, Hegels (duy tm).
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n th k XIX, Marx, Engels, Lenin xy dng logic bin chng duy vt. Hin nay, ngi ta phn bit: o o o Logic truyn thng ca Aristote (lng v v din t bng li) Logic cin ca Leinitz (lng v v din t bng cng thc) Logic phi cin (hin i): l thnh tu hin i nht ca logic hc, l logic a tr.

3.

ngha ca vic nghin cu Logic hc

3.1. Cng vi ngn ng logic l phng tin con ngi giao tip truyn thng nn nghin cu logic hc gip cho s giao tip truyn thng c hiu qu hn. C th l: Trong hc tp nghin cu logic hc gip chng ta thu nhn cc vn mt cch nhanh chng, chnh xc v ng vi bn cht ca n. Gip chng ta trnh by cc vn mt cch cht ch, r rng, c cn c v c ng ng thi khi cn c th din gii vn mt cch phong ph nhng vn bo m tnh nht qun ca lp lun. 3.2. Tri thc logic nng cao trnh t duy, chuyn qu trnh t duy logic t pht thnh t duy logic t gic ch ng, to ra thi quen suy ngh thng minh, chnh xc hn. 3.3. Logic hc cn thit cho vic pht hin sai lm logic ca bn thn v ca ngi khc cng nh trnh khi sai lm logic do v tnh hay hu . 3.4. Gip cc nh lnh o vn dng t duy logic nhn nh chnh xc tnh hung, a ra cc quyt nh gii quyt c hiu qu trong cng tc qun l. 3.5. Gip nhng ngi lm cng tc gio dc c c s hnh thnh t duy logic cho hc sinh.

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CHNG I. KHI NIM

1. Khi nim 1.1. nh ngha: l hnh thc ca t duy phn nh nhng du hiu bn cht ca s vt hin tng hoc nhng mi lin h ca chng. 1.2. Quan h gia khi nim v t ng 2. Khi nim lun c biu t bng t. Mt khi nim c th biu t bng nhiu t. Nhiu khi nim c th biu t bng mt t.

Cu trc Logic ca khi nim Ni hm ca khi nim: l tp hp cc du hiu c bn, bn cht v c trng ca mt lp s vt hin tng. Ngoi din ca khi nim: l tp hp cc i tng mang y nhng du hiu thuc ni hm ca khi nim. Quan h gia ni hm v ngoi din: Ni hm cng nhiu du hiu, ngoi din cng nh hp. Ni hm cng n gin, ngoi din cng rng ln.

Mi khi nim gm c hai thnh phn:

3.

Quan h gia cc khi nim

3.1. Quan h ng nht: Hai khi nim c quan h ng nht khi chng c cng mt ngoi din. 3.2. Quan h l thuc: Hai khi nim c quan h l thuc khi ngoi din ca khi nim ny l mt b phn ca ngoi din khi nim kia. Trong hai khi nim l thuc, khi nim c ngoi din ln hn c gi l khi nim loi, cn khi nim c ngoi din nh hn gi l khi nim chng. Trong dy cc khi nim l thuc, khi nim c ngoi din rng nht (khng c khi nim no c ngoi din bao trm ln n) c gi l phm tr ; khi nim c ngoi din nh nht (khng c khi nim no c ngoi din nh hn na) c gi l khi nim n nht. 3.3. Quan h giao nhau: Hai khi nim c quan h giao nhau khi ngoi din ca chng c mt b phn trng nhau. 3.4. Quan h tch ri: Hai khi nim c quan h tch ri khi ngoi din ca chng khng c mt b phn no trng vi nhau. 3.5. Quan h ngang hng: Hai khi nim c quan h ngang hng khi chng tch ri v cng l thuc vo mt khi nim loi chung ca chng.
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3.6. Quan h mu thun: Hai khi nim c quan h mu thun khi chng tch ri v tng ngoi din ca chng to thnh ngoi din ca mt khi nim loi ca chng. 4. Cc thao tc Logic trn khi nim M rng khi nim: l thao tc lm cho ngoi din ca khi nim ln hn bng cch bi du hiu c trng thuc ni hm ca khi nim . Thu hp khi nim: l thao tc lm cho ngoi din ca khi nim nhi bng cch thm vo ni hm du hiu c trng ca khi nim mi. Chng ta c th lin tip m rng hay thu hp mt khi nim. Gii hn cui cng ca thao tc m rng khi nim cho chng ta mt phm tr. Gii hn cui cng ca thao tc thu hp khi nim cho chng ta mt khi nim n nht. 4.2. nh ngha khi nim: l thao tc vch r ni hm ca khi nim. Cu trc: Dfd = Dfn Definiendum = Definiens Khi nim c nh ngha = Khi nim dng nh ngha Khi nim c nh ngha l khi nim cn pht hin ni hm. Khi nim dng nh ngha l khi nim bit r ni hm c dng lm r ni hm ca khi nim cn nh ngha. 4.1. M rng Thu hp khi nim

V d: Hnh vung l hnh ch nht c bn cnh bng nhau Dfd o = Dfn Cch thc nh ngha: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. o Thng qua loi v s khc bit chng. Lit k cc khi nim chng ca khi nim cn nh ngha. nh ngha bng li m t. nh ngha theo kiu qui c nh ngha theo kiu nh danh. nh ngha bng trc quan.

Lu : Phn bit hnh thc ging nh ngha Cc qui tc nh ngha khi nim Qui tc 1: Ch dng khi nim bit nh ngha khi nim mi. Li logic: nh ngha vng quanh nh ngha ln qun.

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Qui tc 2: nh ngha tng xng. Li logic: nh ngha qu rng nh ngha qu hp nh ngha lch.

Qui tc 3: nh ngha ngn gn, r rng. Qui tc 4: nh ngha khng pht biu theo li phnh.

4.3. Phn chia khi nim a. b. o nh ngha: Phn chia khi nim l thao tc logic tch mt khi nim thnh Chng ta cn phn bit vic phn chia khi nim vi vic phn tch mt chnh th thnh cc b phn. Kt cu ca phn chia khi nim: Khi nim b phn chia C s phn chia Khi nim phn chia (khi nim thnh phn) Qui tc phn chia khi nim: Quy tc 1: Phn chia trit , khng b st. Quy tc 2: Phn chia rch ri, khng trng lp. Quy tc 3: Phn chia theo mt chun nht qun. Quy tc 4: Phn chia lin tc. nhng khi nim hp hn.

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BI TP CHNG 1
1 2 Tm cc khi nim c quan h ng nht, l thuc, giao nhau, tch ri, Xt quan h gia cc khi nim: a. b. c. 3. Gio vin Tr thc Nh gio dc Ph n Ngi v Ngi m Trng n v Cn b qun l Ngi lao ng tr c X hi t bn l x hi da trn ch ngi bc lt ngi Con ngi khng phi l thin thn cng khng phi l qu s. Tnh bn l mt loi tnh cm gn b gia hai hoc nhiu ngi cng gii hoc khc gii S chn l s chia ht cho hai v tn cng bng 0, 2, 4, 6, 8. Phng php chn mu l cc b m lng SOS. Gio vin l nhng ngi ang cng tc trong ngnh gio dc. L ng l phn t v khng gian c gii hn bi lng ng, m lng ng l phn t v khng gian nm gia hai lng. Hng ho l sn phm lao ng ca con ngi. Thiu y l s quan trong lc lng v trang di trung y, cn trung y l s quan trong lc lng v trang trn thiu y. Ci p l ci lm cho ngi ta p hn. Cc loi bi kim tra gm c: kim tra ming, kim tra vit, kim tra 15 pht, kim tra mt gi, kim tra hc k. Trn mt v ht c ghi ch: c. d. e. Tr em di 6 tui khng c vo rp ht. Tr em trn 6 tui phi mua trn v. ngang hang, mu thun.

Tm li Logic trong cc nh ngha sau y: a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j.

4. Tm li logic trong vic phn chia khi nim sau y: a. b.

Gio dc ph thng gm c bc tiu hc, cp trung hc c s v cp trung hc ph thng. Sinh vt bao gm thc vt, ng vt khng xng sng v ng vt c xng sng. Trong chin tranh c chin tranh chp nhong, chin tranh trng k, chin tranh cc b, chin tranh ton cu, chin tranh xm lc, chin tranh gii phng.

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CHNG 2. PHN ON
1. Phn on 1.1. nh ngha: Phn on l thut ng dng ch mt ngh, mt t tng nh hnh trong t duy. V hnh thc, phn on c biu t di dng mt cu v phn nh ng hay sai thc t khch quan. 1.2. c trng: Mi phn on c 3 c trng: V cht: khng nh hay ph nh. V lng: ton th (mi, tt c, ton th, ai cng, mi mt, bt k, ) hay b phn (mt s, nhiu, mt vi, phn ln, hu ht, ) V gi tr: ng hay sai.

1.3. K hiu Cc mu t P, Q, R, A, B, C, c dng lm k hiu cho phn on. K hiu: P = khi phn on P c gi trng. K hiu: Q = s khi phn on Q c gi tr sai. 1.4. Phn loi Phn on n l phn on hnh thnh t khi nim Phn on phc l phn on c hnh thnh t phn on n. 2. Phn on n 2.1. nh ngha: Phn on n l phn on c hnh thnh t s lin kt gia cc khi nim. V hnh thc phn on n ch c mt ch ng v mt v ng. 2.2. Cu trc K hiu Ch ng: V ng: T ni: S P l (khng l)

S l/khng l P

2.3. Phn loi Theo cht: phn on khng nh phnh Theo lng: phn on ton th b phn. Theo gi tr: phn on ng sai.
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Theo cht v lng: c 4 loi Khng nh Ton th: mi S u l P A: SaP Khng nh B phn: Mt s S l P I: SiP Ph nh Ton th: Mi S khng l P E : SeP Ph nh B phn: Mt s S khng l P O: SoP

2.4.

Quan h gia ch ng v v ng ca cc phn on A E I O SaP: Mi S u l P S v P ng nht hoc l thuc SiP: Mt s S l P S v P giao nhau hoc l thuc SeP: Mi S khng l P S v P tch ri SoP: Mt s S khng l P S v P l thuc hoc giao nhau

2.5. Tnh chu din ca ch t v v t trong cc phn on A E I O nh ngha: Mt thut ng c xem l chu din khi ton b ngoi din ca n c xem xt trong mi quan h vi thut ng cn li. K hiu: S+ nu S chu din S- nu S khng chu din P+ nu P chu din P-nu P khng chu din Tnh chu din ca ch t v v t trong cc phn on AEIO nh sau: o Trong phn on SaP S+ P-(P+ khi S=P) Trong phn on SiP S-P-(P+ khi P hp hn S) Trong phn on SeP S+ P+ Trong phn on SoP S-P+

2.6. Quan h gia cc phn on AEIO Mu thun: Hai phn on i lp nhau v lng v cht c quan h mu thun vi nhau. A mu thun O o E mu thun I A = (s) O = s () E = (s) I = s () L thuc: Hai phn on c cng cht c quan h l thuc vi nhau. A v I l thuc nhau P ton thng P b phn ng: A=I=E=O= P b phn sai P ton th sai I = s A = s O = s E = s. o i chi: Hai phn on c cng lng nhng khc nhau v cht c quan h i chi vi nhau. A i chi E O i chi I E v O l thuc nhau

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A, E khng th cng ng nhng c th cng sai Nu A = th E = s nhng A = s th E c th hoc s O, I khng cng sai nhng c th cng ng. V: Nu O = s v I = s th A = v E = (!) Nu O = s th I = nhng nu O = th I (, s)

Hnh vung logic

3. Phn on phc nh ngha: Phn on phc l phn on c to thnh t cc phn on n thng qua cc php logic c bn. Cc php logic c bn nh ngha: l php logic to ra phn on mu thun vi phn on ban u. K hiu: ~P (phnh P) Bng chn tr: bng lit k cc gi tr chn l ca nhng phn on c lin h vi nhau qua php logic. Bng chn tr ca php ph nh:
P S ~P s

3.1. Php phnh

Cch din t: khng, khng phi, u c, ni P l sai, ni P khng ng, khng ng c P, Lu : ~(~P) = P.

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3.2. Php hi nh ngha: php logic lin kt hai phn on bi lin t v K hiu: Bng chn tr P Q P^Q s s s s s s s Php hi chng khi c hai thnh phn cng ng. Cch din t Cc lin t: m, ng thi, nhng, mc d cng, va va Du phy Lu : 3.3. V i khi khng th hin php hi Php tuyn nh ngha: l php logic lin kt hai phn on bi lin t hoc. C 2 loi php tuyn: tuyn yu v tuyn mnh. K hiu: Bng chn tr Tuyn yu P v Q (P hoc Q) Tuyn mnh P + Q (hoc P hoc Q) A ^ B (A hi B)

P Q P^Q P+Q s s s s s s s Php tuyn yu ch sai khi c hai thnh phn u sai. Php tuyn mnh ng khi hai thnh phn khc gi tr (sai khi hai thnh phn cng gi tr) Tnh cht ca hi v tuyn Giao hon: Kt hp: Phn phi P^Q = Q^P P^(Q^R) = (P^Q)^R (tng ng vi php v, +) (tng ng vi php v, +)

A ^ (B v C) = (A ^ B) v (A ^ C) P v (Q ^ R) = (P v Q) ^ (P v R)

Cng thc De Morgan ~(P ^ Q) = ~P v ~Q ~(A v B) = ~A ^ ~ B

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Cc gi tr c bit P^P=P P^~P=s P^=P P^s=s QvQ=Q Q v ~Q = Qv= Qvs=Q R+R=s R + ~R = R + = ~R R+s= R

3.4. Php ko theo nh ngha: l php logic lin kt hai phn on bi lin t Nu th K hiu: Bng chn tr A B (A ko theo B)

P Q PQ s s s s s Php ko theo ch sai khi thnh phn th nht ng v thnh phn th hai sai. Tnh cht Khng c tnh giao hon: Tnh phn o: C lin h vi php tuyn: Cc gi tr c bit (A A) = (B ~B) = ~B (C ) = (D s) = ~D iu kin : (~B B) = B ( C) = C (s D) = A l iu kin c B, c ngha l: Nu c A th c B Khi c A th c B Nh (do) c A m c B H c A l c B C A chng t c B V c A nn c B Cng thc th hin: A B
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(A B) (B A) (A B) = (~B ~A) (A v B) = (~A B)

iu kin cn iu kin

iu kin cn:

P l iu kin cn c Q, c ngha l Nu khng c P th khng c Q Mun c Q th phi c P Ch khi c P th mi c Q Khng c Q tr phi c P

Cng thc th hin: ~P ~Q 3.5. Php tng ng nh ngha: l php logic lin kt hai phn on bi lin t khi v ch khi. K hiu: A B (A tng ng B) (A B) = (A B) ^ (~A ~B) Bng chn tr ca php tng ng P Q PQ s s s s s s Php tng ng ng khi hai thnh phn cng gi tr v sai khi hai thnh phn khc gi tr Tnh cht: Tnh giao hon: Lin h vi php tuyn: Cc gi tr c bit AA= B ~B = s C=C D s = ~D. AB=BA A B = ~(A + B) Lu : A c xem l iu kin cn v ca B, do :

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BI TP CHNG 2
1. Vit di dng k hiu cc phn on sau 1) Mi ph n u khng yu thch bng . 2) Mt s gio vin l cn b qun l 3) Tt c thanh nin u c l tng cao p 4) Hu ht cha m khng bit cch gio dc con ci 5) Mt s v nhn lm nn lch s 6) Mi lnh tu xut thn t nhu cu lch s 7) Mt s cuc xung t khng phi l chin tranh 8) Tt c cc cuc chin tranh phi ngha u tht bi 9) Hu ht cc loi cy u ra hoa vo ma xun 10) Cha m no m chng thng con 11) Mt s ngi M khng thch chin tranh 12) Mi s thnh cng khng phi do may mn ngu nhin 13) a phn s gi l ngi nc ngoi 14) Mt s quc gia thuc khi ASEAN 15) Mi cng dn u c quyn bnh ng trc php lut 16) Mt s gio vin khng hiu hc sinh 17) a s hc sinh t thnh tch hc tp tt 18) Con ngi khng tn ti mi mi 19) Mt s ca s ht rt hay 20) Chng c hc sinh no thch c sch 21) C nhng hc sinh khng thch trc nht 22) Nhiu hc sinh cn i hc tr 23) Tt c gio vin mm non u l n 24) Rt nhiu ngi thch xem phim truyn hnh nhiu tp. 2. Pht biu phn on mu thun ca cc phn on 1-8 3. Pht biu phn on i chi ca cc phn on 9-16 4. Pht biu phn on l thuc ca cc phn on 17-24 5. Xt quan h gia cc phn on sau y a. Mi kim loi u dn in Mt s kim loi khng dn in b. Hu ht hc vin l ng vin C nhng hc vin khng phi l ng vin
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c. Trong lp ai cng tp trung lm bi Nhiu ngi trong lp ang tp trung lm bi d. Mi s liu u chnh xc Tt c t liu lch s khng chnh xc 6. Da trn hnh vung logic xc nh gi tr ca cc phn on. Bit rng a. Phn on A c gi tr sai b. Phn on I c gi tr sai c. Phn on O c gi trng d. Phn on E c gi trng. 7. Cho phn on Mt s tr em khng thch n trng c gi tr ng. Da trn hnh vung logic hy pht biu cc phn on cn li v xc nh gi tr chn l ca cc phn on . 8. Vn dng cng thc De Morgan bin i cc cng thc sau y: a. ~(P ^ ~Q) b. ~(~A v B) c. ~(R ^ (H v A)) 9. Xc nh gi tr ca cc cng thc sau y, bit rng: P = , Q = s, R = a. (P ^ ~Q) v R c. (R ^ Q) v ~P a. N hc gii c hai mn b. N c hc gii Ton u nhng gii mn Vn c. N khng gii Vn m li gii Ton d. Khng phi n khng gii c hai mn e. N ch gii mt trong hai mn f. N va gii Ton li va gii Vn g. N hc gii t nht mt mn. h. N khng hc gii t nht mt mn. i. Khng th cho rng n hoc gii Ton hoc gii Vn. j. Ch khi gii Ton th n mi gii Vn. 11. Pht biu thnh li cc k hiu sau y a. ~(~P ^ ~Q) b. ~(P ~Q) c. Q ~(~P ^ ~Q) d. (P Q) ^ (Q P) b. (~R v ~ P) ^ Q d. (R + P) + ~Q e. Q + (~P v R)

10. Vit dng k hiu cc phn on sau: vi P = N gii Vn, Q = N gii Ton.

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12. Xc nh gi tr ca cc phn on sau. Bit rng P = , Q = s, R = a. (~P Q) + (Q ^ R) b. (Q R) (~P v Q) c. ~(P ^ Q) + (R ^ ~Q) d. ~(R + P) v (Q R) 13. Xc nh gi tr ca cc phn on sau a. (~P v P) + (P ^ ~P) b. (~Q + Q) (Q ~Q) c. R (~R R) d. (S v (S ^ ~S)) ^ (~S S) 14. Pht biu cc phn on sau di dng iu kin cn hoc iu kin a. Mun qua sng phi lu b. Nu vi phm ni quy th bi thi b hu b c. Ch khi c ti th mi c vic d. H c gng th thnh cng e. Ti i xem bng khi c giy mi f. C y chi xem phim khi c giy mi g. Anh khng n hp kp tr phi i my bay. 15. Xc nh gi tr ca phn on A, bit rng B = , C = s a. A C = s b. A v C = s c. A ^ B = s d. A + C = s e. A C = s f. (A ^ ~B) C = g. (A ^ B) v C = h. (C ^ B) A = i. (A v C) B = j. (~A ^ B) C = s 16. Dng bng chn tr chng minh cc cng thc ng tr sau a. P (Q ^ R) = (P Q) ^ (P R) b. (A ^ B) C = A (B C) AC= AvC= A^B= A+C= AC=

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CHNG 3. CC QUY LUT C BN CA T DUY

1. Lut ng nht: Ni dung: Lut ng nht xut pht t tnh tng i n nh ca cc s vt hin tng trong th gii khch quan v c pht biu nh sau: Mi t tng phn nh cng mt i tng, trong cng mt quan h th phi ng nht vi chnh n. Mi s vt hin tng trong khng gian, thi gian xc nh l chnh n. Cng thc: A = A hoc A A Yu cu: 1 Trong qu trnh lp lun, mt khi nim, mt phn on, mt suy lun no phi c dng theo cng mt ngha, lun phi c gi nguyn. Khng nh tro i tng ca t tng Khng nh tro ngn ng din t t tng T tng ti to phi ng nht vi t tng ban u Gip t duy xc nh v nht qun. Trnh hin tng bt ng ngn ng, ng bin hay ngy bin.

Tc dng:

Lu : Tnh ng nht lun gn lin vi s khc bit v tng i do vt cht lun vn ng v pht trin. V vy t tng phn nh s vt hin tng nhng khng gian, thi gian khc nhau th khng nht thit phi ng nht. Cc s vt hin tng trong hin thc khch quan u c nhng quan h nht nh, nhng nu chng khng c tt c nhng c tnh tiu biu th chng khng ng nht vi nhau. (anh vi em, nc vi ly) Cc s vt hin tng trong hin thc khch quan lun vn ng bin i nhng khi cha biin i hn v cht th n vn l n (subm) Trong lng mi s vt bao gi hm cha nhng mu thun ni ti, nhng l hai mt i lp trong mt th thng nht. Lut phi mu thun Ni dung: Hai phn on mu thun khng th cng ng. Cng thc: ~P(P ^ ~P)

3 4

2.

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Yu cu: Khng th va khng nh va phnh mt t tng. Khng th khng nh mt t tng ri li phnh h qu ca s khng nh . Khng c ng thi khng nh hai yu t loi tr nhau cng mt s vic ang xem xt.

3.

Lut bi trung Ni dung: Trong hai phn on mu thun nhau phi c mt phn on chn

thc, mt phn on gi di, ch khng c kh nng th ba. Hai phn on mu thun khng th cng sai. Cng thc: Yu cu: 4. Xc nh tnh chn thc hay gi di ca mt t tng nh hnh. Xc nh phn on ng trong hai phn on mu thun nhau. P + ~P

Lut c l do y Ni dung: Tt c nhng g tn ti u c l do tn ti. Mt t tng ch c Yu cu: Xc nh gi tr cho mt nghnh hnh. a ra cn c ca s xc nh .

xem l chn thc khi c l do lm cn c.

Tc dng: trnh t duy phi logic, m tn, doan (tin khng cn c).

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BI TP CHNG 3
1. Cc pht biu sau y th hin quy lut g ? a. Hai phn on phnh nhau nu phn on ny ng th phn on kia sai v ngc li. b. Khng bao gi mt phn on v phnh ca phn on l ng thi cng sai. c. Mt s vt l chnh n. d. Mt s vt khng th va l n va khng phi l n. e. Mt s vt hoc c hoc khng ch khng th c trng hp th ba. f. Hai t tng tri ngc nhau khng cng ng. g. Hai t tng tri ngc nhau khng cng ng khng cng sai. h. Mi t tng chn tht u phi c chng minh. i. Mt t tng khng thng thi c hai gi tr logic tri ngc nhau. j. T tung C thng th ni l thng. Khng thng th ni mt ng cho xong. b chi phi bi quy lut g? k. Trong ni dung bn n ch c th kt lun hoc mt b co phm ti, hoc l b co khng phm ti ch khng tha ra kt lun trung gian no khc. l. ng X khng nh: Mi hnh vi nguy him cho x hi u l ti phm. ng Y khng ng v cho rng: Khng phi mi hnh vi nguy him cho x hi u l ti phm. C ngha l Mt s hnh vi nguy him cho x hi nhng khng l ti phm. ng Y a ra nhng chng c chng minh rng kin ca mnh l ng, do , buc ng X phi tha nhn khng nh ca mnh l sai. Nh vy thao tc t duy ca ng Y da trn quy lut no ca t duy ? 2. Xt xem cc on vn bn sau y vi phm quy lt c bn no ca t duy: a. Mt din gi ni vi ngi nghe: i c lut b tr. Khi ngi ta m mt mt th mt kia trng sng hn, khi ngi ta ic 1 tai th tai kia nghe r hn. Nghe vy, c ngi ku ln: Hon ton ng, ti thy khi ngi ta ct mt chn th r rng chn kia di hn! b. () ta khng cn danh vng, Mala, Mi hy thuyt nhng iu vi nhng k hm danh vng. () Thnh t, danh ting, danh d v vinh quang ch l s ho. S thng li ca k ny l tht bi ca ngi kia. y l i qun ca mi, qu d. Ngi hn km khng th khc phc c chng, nhng nu khc phc c ngi y s ng chnh ng an lc. Ta tri c mn xa chin u vi ngi y. Ta th cht vinh trong trn chin, cn hn sng nhc trong u hng.

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c. ci tin vic dy hc phi loi b dn hnh thc ging dy sau y: Kiu dy c thoi Kiu c, chp Gim s gi l thuyt Tng cng hn na s tit v hnh thc dy hc tch cc nh: tho lun, ngoi kho, thc hnh, luyn tp d. Socrate cho rng nhn thc l tin ca o c. Nu mt ngi no khng hiu bit v ngha v, v bn phn th ngi lm sao c o c c ? Ni nh socrate cng ng. Th nhng trong thin h khng phi khng c nhng nh bc hc ti ba nhng o c li chng ra g sao ? Trong i chng thiu g chuyn gia n chuyn gia kia nhng phm cht o c th chng chuyn gia cht no ! ... C cho rng x hi by gi l x hi nhiu chuyn i na, th nhng chng l x hi thi ng Socrate li chng c nghch cnh hay sao? L no nh ng Socrate m li khng bit iu ?... e. Trong kinh Cu c c on ni rng, cha to ra ngi n ng v ngi n b cng mt lc, v c on ni rng cha to ra ngi n ng trc, sau mi to ra ngi n b bng mt chic sn ca ngi n ng f. ng A: Thi c, vy theo ng c tn ti lng tin hay khng? ng B: Khng! Khng bao gi ng A: ng tin chc l nh vy ch? ng B: Chc chn ri!

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CHNG 4. SUY LUN

1. Khi nim v suy lun 1.1. nh ngha: suy lun l qu trnh t duy rt ra phn on mi t nhng phn on c. 1.2. Cu trc Mi suy lun gm c ba thnh phn: Tin : cc phn on lm c s cho suy lun. V nguyn tc tin phi chn thc nhng thc t kh xc minh nn khi suy lun phi ginh l tin chn tht. Lp lun: cch thc lin kt cc tin rt ra kt lun Kt lun: phn on mi thu c t tin thong qua lp lun ca suy lun. Cn c vo cch thc lp lun: Suy lun din dch l suy lun tun theo nhng quy tc logic nht nh bo m rng nu tin ng th kt lun rt ra cng ng. Din dch trc tip: t mt tin Din dch gin tip: t nhiu tin . Quy np hon ton Quy np khng hon ton: ph thng khoa hc.

1.3. Phn loi

Suy lun quy np l suy lun a ra kt lun khi qut t nhng yu t ring l.

Cn c vo s tun th cc quy tc suy lun v quy lut t duy: Suy lun hp logic: lp lun tun th cc quy tc suy lun v cc quy lut t duy. Suy lun khng hp logic: lp lun vi phm quy tc suy lun hoc vi phm quy lut t duy. Suy lun ng l suy lun hp logic xut pht t tin ng. Nu suy lun hp logic a ra kt lun khng ph hp thc t th suy lun da trn tin sai.

2. Suy lun din dch 2.1. Din dch trc tip t phn on n a. Php chuyn ho Chuyn ho hai ln ph nh
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Chuyn ho ngha phnh ca t ni v v t.

Php o ngc: to ra phn on mi t phn on ban u bng cch hon v ch t v v t nhng gi nguyn cht v gi tr. Quy tc chung: thut ng no khng chu din tin th cng khng chu din kt lun. c. d. Php i lp v t: kt hp php chuyn ho v php o ngc. Suy lun da trn hnh vung logic Tin A I E O ~A ~I ~E ~O Kt lun

2.2. Din dch trc tip t phn on phc Suy lun da trn cc cng thc ng tr: De Morgan Phn o Tuyn ko theo Tng ng Tuyn mnh

2.3. Din dch gin tip t phn on n Tam on lun Tam on lun l mt suy lun gm ba phn on, trong c hai phn on tin v mt phn on kt lun. a. Phn loi Tam on lun n. Tam on lun phc: kt hp nhiu tam on lun n

Tam on lun n l mt suy lun gm 3 phn on n lin quan n ba thut ng, trong c mt thut ng xut hin c hai tin c gi l thut ng trung gian.

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b.

K hiu: ch t ca kt lun (S) V t ca kt lut (P) Thut ng trung gian (M). Tin cha S gi l tin nh Tin cha P gi l tin ln S chun: tin ln trn, tin nh di. Quy tc chung ca TL vi phn on n Cc quy tc thut ng: Quy tc 1: tam on lun ch s dng ba thut ng Quy tc 2: thun ng trung gian M phi chu din t nht mt ln. Quy tc 3: thut ng no khng chu din tin th cng khng chu din kt lun.

c.

Cc quy tc tin : Quy tc 4: hai tin khng th ng thi l phn on ph nh. Quy tc 5: nu c mt tin l phn on phnh th kt lun phi l phn on phnh. Quy tc 6: hai tin khng th ng thi l phn on b phn. Quy tc 7: nu c mt tin l phn on b phn th kt lun phi l phn on b phn.

d.

Cc loi hnh tam on lun

Cn c vo v tr ca M, c 4 loi hnh C tt c 256 kiu tam on lun nhng ch c 19 kiu hp logic. e. Cc quy tc cho tng loi hnh Loi hnh 1: Tin ln l phn on ton th, tin nh l phn phn on khng nh Loi hnh 2: Tin ln l phn on ton th, c mt tin l phn on phnh. Loi hnh 3: Tin nh l phn on khng nh. Loi hnh 4: Nu mt tin ph nh th tin ln ton th. Nu tin ln khng nh th tin nh ton th. Nu tin nh khng nh th kt lun b phn.

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2.4. Suy lun din dch gin tip t phn on phc 1) a. Cc quy tc suy lun Quy tc kt lun: PQ P Q b. Quy tc kt lun phn o: AB ~B ~A c. Quy tc bc cu ca php ko theo: AB BC AC d. Quy tc la chn: AvB ~A B AvBvC ~A ~B C 2) a. b. c. Chn phn on n Vit s suy lun Xt tnh hp logic: Cch 1: s dng cc quy tc xem xt. Cch 2: gi nh cc tin ng, xt gi tr cc phn on xc nh gi tr ca kt lun. Cch 3: lp bng chn tr cho tt c tin v kt lun. 3. Suy lun quy np 3.1. nh ngha: l suy lun a ra kt lun c tnh khi qut t nhng tri thc ring l, t khi qut hn. kt lun quy np ng tin cy, cn phi:
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S :

(t1) (t2) (KL) (t1) (t2) (KL) (t1) (t2) (KL) (t1) (t2) (KL)

S :

S :

S :

A+B ~A B P+Q+R ~P ~Q R

A+B A ~B

Cch xem xt tnh hp logic ca mt tam on lun vi phn on phc

Khi qut du hiu bn cht ca lp i tng. Quy np trn cng loi i tng. Si tng ln. Kim nghim kt lun trn thc t.

3.2. Phn loi Quy np hon ton: suy lun a ra kt lun khi qut trn c s nghin cu tt c cc i tng. Yu cu: Bit chnh xc si tng v tng i tng trnh b st hay trng lp. S i tng khng ln. Du hiu ca i tng c th xem xt c.

Quy np khng hon ton: suy lun a ra kt lun khi qut trn c s nghin cu mt s i tng. Kt lun ch c cng nhn sau khi kim chng bng thc nghim khoa hc hay bng suy lun din dch. Quy np ph thng: kt lun khi qut t nhng du hiu trng lp. Quy np khoa hc: kt lun t nhng du hiu bn cht thng qua mi lin h tt yu ca cc i tng trong lp.

Quy np khng hon ton gm hai loi:

a.

Cc phng php quy np khoa hc: Phng php tng hp: phn tch cc yu t dn n kt qu nghin cu ta

thy kt qu ca nhng ln kho st u ging nhau v c mt yu t lun xut hin trong cc ln kho st th yu t l nguyn nhn gy ra kt qu. S quy np: XAB P XCD P XEF P XKL P X l nguyn nhn ca P

b. Phng php sai bit: (so snh cc trng hp c xy ra hin tng cn nghin cu vi nhng trng hp khng xy ra hin tng ). Phn tch mt nhm yu t dn t kt qu nghin cu ta thy khi mt yu t vng mt th kt qu khng xut hin, ta kt lun yu t vng mt l nguyn nhn ca kt qu . S quy np: XAB => P XABC => P ABC => khng c P c. Phng php phn d: Nghin cu mt nhm m yu t dn n n kt qu, ta xc nh m-1 yu t l nguyn nhn ca n-1 kt qu, nh vy yu t th m l nguyn nhn ca kt qu th m.
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X l nguyn nhn ca P

S quy np:

XAB => PQR A => Q B => R X l nguyn nhn ca P

d.

Phng php cng bin: trong cc ln kho st nu tng ng vi s bin i

ca mt yu t trong khi cc yu t khc gi nguyn s dn n s bin i ca kt qu th yu t bin i l nguyn nhn ca kt qu. S quy np: XAB => P XAB => PX AB => P e. Suy lun tng t: xem xt hai i tng A v B ta thy: A c cc thuc tnh m, n, p, q, r v B c cc thuc tnh m, n, p, q th ta c th cho rng B c thuc tnh r. A c m, n, p, q, r B c m, n, p, q X l nguyn nhn ca P X l nguyn nhn ca P

Kt lun tng t cn thc nghim chng minh.

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BI TP CHNG 4
1. Suy lun trc tip t cc phn on n sau y: a. b. Bng php o ngc Tam gic u l tam gic c ba cnh bng nhau. Mi sinh vin u c bng t ti. Mt s thanh nin khng xc nh c l tng sng. Tt c nhng ngi yu ho bnh u khng thch chin tranh. T hnh vung logic Ai cng c khuyt im. Mi s l u khng chia ht cho 2. Khng phi ai cng sng thu vn c nhn. Ni rng c nhiu ph n m bng l sai.

2. Xt xem suy lun nh sau c hp logic khng? a. Khng phi mi ph n u ghen. Do , ch c mt s ph n l hay ghen thi. b. Mt s hc vin trong lp cha lp gia nh. Vy khng phi hc vin no trong lp cng lp gia nh. c. Nu em ly anh th i em khng kh. Nu em khng ly anh th khi em. d. Mun qun l con ngi phi bit yu thng con ngi. nu yu thng con ngi th qun l con ngi c. e. Khng th sng m khng c c lp t do. V vy nu khng c c lp t do th khng sng c. f. Nu khng i mi th cht. V vy khng th no khng i mi m khng cht. 3. Cc tam on lun sau y thuc loi hnh no? Kiu no? Xt tnh hp logic ca chng. a. Bc s l tr thc. Bc s khng phi l nh kinh t. Mt s tr thc khng phi l nh kinh t. b. G khng phi l kim loi. Kim loi l cht dn in. G khng phi l cht dn in. c. Mi ngi u s cht. Mo khng phi l ngi. Vy mo khng cht. d. Mi con c u sng di nc. Con vt ny khng sng di nc. Vy n khng phi l c. e. Khng mt k xu nnh no c lng t trng. Mt s ngi quanh ta l k xu nnh. Vy c nhng ngi quanh ta khng c lng t trng. f. Rn l ng vt. Rn khng chn. Do mt s loi ng vt khng c chn.
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g. Ci v i l ci ng khm phc. ng y trng tht v i. Vy ng y ng khm phc. 4. Xt xem nhng m hnh suy lun no di y l qui tc suy lun: 5. Xt tnh hp logic ca cc suy lun sau: a. Logic kh hoc khng c nhiu ngi thch n. Nu ton kh th logic khng kh. Vy nhiu ngi thch logic chng t rng Ton kh. b. Nu ham hc v c cch hc tt th hc gii. Cu khng ham hc m hc gii. Chng t cu c cch hc tt. c. Nu khng c c v khng c ti th ng l ngi v dng. Anh ta tuy khng c ti nhng hu dng. Chng t anh ta c c. d. Cn b thng yu nhn dn l cn b tt. Ch c thng yu nhn dn mi lm vic chu o. Anh ta khng lm vic chu o. Vy anh ta khng phi l cn b tt. e. C ta u c thng ti. V nu c ta thng ti th th no a em ca ti cng c c ta o b. M hc o b th no n cng khoe vi ti. Nhng u thy n ni g vi ti. f. S vic s khng tr nn phc tp nu An c mt v Bnh ng mt bnh tnh. Nhng rt tic l An khng n, cn Bnh th vn chng no tt y. Bi vy s vic c ri c ln. 6. Xt xem cc suy lun quy np sau y da trn phng php g ? a. Khi quan st s ri ca mt ng xu, mt t giy bc, mt lng chim trong ng nghim chng ta thy chng ri vi vn tc khc nhau. Sau rt ht khng kh trong ng nghim chng ta thy chng ri vi tc nh nhau. Ta kt lun: sc cn ca khng kh l nguyn nhn lm cho cc vt c khi lng v hnh dng khc nhau ri vi tc nh nhau. b. Tri t l hnh tinh c bu kh quyn, c s chnh lch nhit ngy m khng ln v c sinh vt. Ha tinh cng l hnh tinh c bu kh quyn, c chnh lch ngy m khng ln. Do , trn Ha tinh c th cng c s sng. c. Nm 1860, Pasteur em ln ni Alpes 73 bnh ng nc canh ng kn kh trng: mc nc bin, m 20 bnh, t ngy sau 8 bnh h. cao 85m, m 20 bnh, t ngy sau 5 bnh h. cao hn na, m 20 bnh, t ngy sau 1 bnh h Nhng bnh cn li ng kn khng h.

ng kt lun: Cc vi sinh vt lm h bnh nc canh khng phi t nhin m c, chng do bi bm trong khng kh mang vo. S lng vi sinh vt bin thin tng ng vi cao, lnh v km ca kh tri. d. Vit Nam, ngi Vit Nam b bc lt mt cch bo ngc, bn ch Php rt tn
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c. Qua mt s nc Chu Phi, ngi da en b hnh hau n c th xc ln tinh thn, bn t bn Php, Bo Nha, Ty Ban Nha u tn c. Qua mt s nc Chu M, ngi da ang b dit chng, bn da trng Anh, Php, Bo Nha, Ty Ban Nha tn st ngi da mt cch d man. Do nhn thc su sc v trt t ca x hi giai cp, ng ch Nguyn i Quc i n kt lun ngi dn bn x tt c cc thuc a u l nhng ngi b p bc v bc lt nh nhau.

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CHNG 5. CHNG MINH V BC B

1. Chng minh 1.1. nh ngha: Chng minh l mt hnh thc suy lun da vo nhng phn on ng v cc php logic khng nh hoc phnh mt phn on khc. Suy lun khng nh gi l chng minh. Suy lun ph nh gi l bc b. 1.2. Cu trc ca chng minh i) Lun (Kt lun ca suy lun): l phn on m tnh chn thc ca cn c khng nh. Lun c th l: kt lun khi qut t thc tin hay quan st kt lun t suy lun khoa hc(kt qu qui np..) t tng, gi thit, d bo Lun tr li cho cu hi: chng minh iu g?

ii) Lun c (tin ca suy lun): l nhng phn on ng c dung lm cn c xc minh cho lun . Lun c c th l: Cc lun im khoa hc. Cc kt lun, nguyn l khoa hc.

Cc t liu, s kin thc t chn thc Lun c tr li cho cu hi: Chng minh bng ci g? iii) Lun chng (lp lun ca suy lun): l cc thao tc logic lin kt lun c vi lun . chng minh c gi tr, lun chng phi tun theo cc quy tc, quy lut logic. Lun c tr li cho cu hi: Chng minh nh th no? 1.3. Cc quy tc chng minh i) Quy tc i vi lun Lun phi chn thc R rng, khng mp m: din t ngn gn, n ngha, thut ng chnh xc, ni dung trn vn. Lun phi c gi nguyn, khng nh tro lun khc. Chn thc. c lp vi lun (khng vng quanh) Khng mu thun. C lin h vi lun . y . ii) Quy tc i vi lun c:

iii) Quy tc i vi lun chng: Tun th cc quy tc suy lun v quy lut t duy.
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1.4. Cc phng php chng minh o o Chng minh trc tip: chng minh tnh chn thc ca lun trn c s lp lun trc tip t lun c. Chng minh gin tip: chng minh tnh chn thc ca lun bng cch chng minh tnh gi di ca phn lun . C hai cch chng minh gin tip: Phn chng Tha nhn tnh chn thc ca phn lun . Lp lun lin kt cc lun c qui v s mu thun. Loi b phn lun v cng nhn lun . Loi suy: loi dn cc kh nng sai lm khng nh lun l ng.

2. Bc b 2.1. nh ngha: l thao tc logic nhm xc nh tnh gi di hay v cn c ca lun . 2.2. Cu trc: (ging chng minh) Khi bc b ch cn phnh tnh chn thc ca mt trong ba thnh phn ca cu trc. Bc b lun : trc tip loi b lun bng cch chng minh tnh gi di hay khng xc nh ca lun . Bc b trc tip: a ra d kin tri vi lun Vch ra tnh khng chnh xc, khng r ngha ca lun . Vch ra s v l nu chp nhn lun . Chng minh phn lun . S gi di ca lun c S mu thun gia cc lun c S thiu cn c ca lun c S thiu ht, cha y . S khng xc nh, khng r rng S khng lin quan ca lun c vi lun .

Bc b gin tip:

Bc b lun c: tm ch sai trong lun c.

Bc b lun chng: Vch ra tnh thiu logic ca lp lun.

Lu : Nu bc b lun c hay lun chng th ch mi loi b l do, lp lun dn ti lun ch cha bc bc lun . bo v lun th phi tm lun chng hay lun c khc.

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TI LIU THAM KHO

[1] Logic hc T Duy Hp v Nguyn Anh Tun NXB ng Nai 1997 [2] Logic hc Vng Tt t NXBGD 1999 [3] Logic hc Bi Thanh Qut Vin nghin cu pht trin gio dc H Ni 1995 [4] Logic hc L T Thnh [5] Logic hc -Nguyn Chng Nhip (HSP) [6] Logic hc - L Duy Ninh (H Lut) [7] Logic hc -Bi Vn Ma (H KHXHNV) [8] Logic hc ph thng Hong Chng NXBGD 1997 [9] Logic hc nhp mn Trn Hong NXB HQG Tp.HCM 2003 [10] Logic hc L Hu Ngha (ch bin), Hc vin chnh tr quc gia HN 2000.

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