Professional Documents
Culture Documents
_
,
Continuity equation
A
v
x
+vB
y
x
+B
y
t
=q
Methods
Full hydraulic method complete equations
Diffusion method
f 0
S = S -
y
x
Kinematic Wave
Sf = So
10
Storage routing
I(t)
O(t)
I - inflow O - outflow S - storage
O = f1(S) or S = f2(O)
Muskingum
O (t1) = O1I (t1) = I1
O (t2) = O2I (t2) = I2
2 1 1 1 1 2 2 1
O =O +C ( I - O )+C ( I - I )
1
2 1
2 1
C =
2( t - t )
2K( - X) +( t - t ) 1
2
2
1
C =
2( t - t ) KX
2K( - X) +( t - t )
2 1
2 1
=
p / - p / +h +
hv
gr
v / 2g
a v
2
2
cos
Where:
pa = atmospheric pressure
pv = vapor pressure
= specific weight of water
g = acceleration of gravity
r = radius of curvature
Cavitation criterion: > cr
cr = critical value for incipient cavitation
For fairly smooth surfaces cr = 0.25
aeration
If cr cavitation may occur. A good control of cavitation is aeration of flow
Buckingham theorem:
F (qa /q, Fr, Eu, Re, We, tg, tg, t/h) = 0
/geometry \
qa- specific air discharge (m
3
/s/m)
q = vh - specific water discharge
20
Fr = v/gh - Froude number Inertia/Gravity
Eu = v/p/ - uler number Inertia/Pressure difference
We = v/ /L - Weber number Inertia/Surface tension force
= surface tension
Re = vh// - Reynolds number Inertia/Viscous forces
See numerical values pp. 630 - 632 Advanced Dam Engineering
21
3.10 Control Gates
Plane:
Slide - low pressure
Roller - medium pressure - high pressure
Caterpillar - very high pressure (outlets)
Radial:
Tainter
Sector
Flap gates
Operation mechanisms
Cable
Chains
Pressurized hydraulic hoist (oil driven piston)
Rough estimation of weight for different type of gates can be done using correlation-derived formulae
compiled by Davis. Values can be used in very preliminary phases of projects and can be considered as
slightly conservative, but nonetheless useful in first assessment of the cost estimate.
Radial (tainter) gates:
( )
35 . 1
) (
9 . 1
) (
25 ) (
m m
H L kg W
Gives the weight of moving part of the gate, while weight of embedded parts like anchorage, sills and steel
plates can be taken as 35% of this (actually varying from 10% to 50% for small and large gates respectively).
Weight of fixed-type hoist can be roughly estimated as W (kg)=300 Capacity (tons), where capacity may
vary from 75% to 150% of the gate leaf weight. For traveling type hoists W (kg)=167 Capacity (t)
1.33.
Vertical-lift (sliding) gates:
( )
75 . 1
) (
5 . 1
) (
9 . 25 ) (
m m
H L kg W
Gives the weight of moving part of the gate, while weight of embedded parts like anchorage, sills and steel
plates can be taken as 35% of this (actually varying from 10% to 50% for small and large gates respectively).
Weight of two-drum hoist can be roughly estimated as W (kg)=225 Capacity (tons), where capacity may
vary from 120% (for fixed-wheel gates) to 150% (for sliding gates) of the gate leaf weight. Capacity exceeds
22
the weight of the gate leaf by 10-20 % for lifting beam and the rest is difference due to friction. For single
drum hoists W (kg)=68 Capacity (t).
Rolling gates and Hoists:
( )
67 . 1
) (
5 . 1
) (
9 . 55 ) (
m m
H L kg W
Gives the weight of moving part of the gate, while weight of embedded parts like anchorage, sills and steel
plates can be taken as 20% of cylinder weight. In average loading condition (depending on submergence of
the gate) the weight of the fixed-hoist unit with lifting chains can be taken as 30% of the cylinder weight.
Drum gates:
( )
33 . 1
) ( ) (
332 ) (
m m
H L kg W
Gives the weight of the gate including moving and embedded parts, operating mechanisms and piping.
Travelling Gantry Crane
(Given in Anglo-American system of units)
Enclosed TVA type: W = 59.5 f (W)
0.74
(in tons)
Open utility type W = 28.9 f (W)
0.456
(in tons)
Where:
,
_
+
+
S
B A S C
W f
2
1
1000
) ( ;
C = maximum hoist pull, tons;
S = span runway rails, ft;
A and B = respective lengths of upstream and downstream legs of crane (ft), measured from runway rail to
hoist platform or trolley rails.
For more details on this matter consult Handbook of Applied Hydraulics by Davis, fourth edition 1993,
McGraw-Hill, New York.
23
24
4 Outlet Works
As the spillways convey excess water from the reservoir in order to maintain safety of the dam, outlet
works convey required water to fulfill demand(s) downstream such as water supply, irrigation,
hydropower, etc In other words, outlet works are responsible for safe delivery of the projects product
which is water that should meet demand(s) in terms of both quantity and quality. In many cases outlets are
used for water evacuation, like during flushing operations or reservoir emptying, or can contribute to
increase evacuation capacity during floods.
4.1 Concept hydraulic structures used to convey water from a reservoir to a
point downstream of a dam.
(Outlet works embankment dams, sluices concrete dams)
4.2 Classification: Components
According to function
Irrigation
Municipal (potable), industrial water
Flood control
Power generation
River flows
Additional spillway capacity
Diversion during construction
Emergency drawdown emptying time of
the reservoir for given constant inflow:
y
ydy
c
A
g a
H
T
a
a
H
H
y
H
H
y
a
1
2
2
2
2
1
1
A = reservoir area A(H)
a = Control section outlet area
Ha = steady reservoir level for given inflow
c = discharge coefficient (can be assumed constant)
25
Here
D
L
f
c
1
Where f is friction head loss coefficient (can be obtained from Moody diagram or assuming highly developed
turbulent flow for hydraulically rough pipes quadratic region and equating Darcy-Weisbach and
Mannings formulae for given n
3 2
6 . 124 D n f ). For details on this consult lecture-notes Basic
Hydraulics or chapter 7 of these lecture-notes.
is sum of local head loss coefficients (such as trash rack, intake, bends, contractions, expansions,
branching, etc. including exit loss coefficient which is equal 1.0 if outflow is to still or slow-flowing water
or air).
Combination of functions
Type of flow
Pressure flow
Free surface (gravity) flow
Combination
Components all or some of the following:
Inlet Channel
1
Intake or
Intake
Structure
2
Conduit
Waterway
Tunnel
3
Gate Chamber
or
Downstream Gate
Structure
4
Chute
5
Energy
Dissipator
6
Outlet Channel
7
Conveyance - (1), (3), (5), (7)
Control - (2), (4)
Energy dissipation - (6)
4.3 Inlet and Outlet Channels
Consideration of following important points
26
Clogging (sliding or deposition of rock masses or Plugging sediment)
Adequate location
Stabilization of slopes
Adequate operation
Sediment transport (erosion, abrasion)
Channel lining
Channel stabilization
Traps
4.4 Intakes
Important points
Location with respect to water levels
Control or not (gates)
Special functions (for instance, selective withdrawal multiple level intakes for water supply)
Provision of trash-racks (in most cases)
Shape of hydraulic passages
4.5 Control Structure
Important points:
Location of structure (intake, mid-structure, downstream)
Type of gates, valves
Plane gates:
Slide
Roller
Variations
Radial gates:
Tainter
Top-seal radial
27
Valves:
Needle valves, tube valves (Can operate submerged, expensive, unstable for small openings
cavitation)
Hollow jet, C=0.7 (not suitable for submerged outflow)
Butterfly
Howell-Bunger (Cone) up to 250 m of head, A=0.8Apipe, C=0.85-0.9; better dissipation with
ring (fixed large hollow cylinder) placed downstream of the cone ring jet valve C=0.75-
0.80
Gate valves
Spherical valves
Operational safety redundancy operation gate, revision gate, operation, maintenance
Planning all operations with gates assembly, erection, disassembly, removal
Structure:
Intake structure
Gate shaft or tower
Gate chamber
4.6 Conveyance Structure
Important points:
Cavitation (due to high velocities), aeration
Shape of transitions, slots
Lining
4.7 Terminal Structures
Important points:
Energy dissipation
Stilling basin (special case impact structure)
Dispersion of jet
Plunge pool, flip bucket
28
No energy dissipation
Shapes of hydraulic passages
4.8 Hydraulic Problems and Their Prevention
Cavitation:
Improvement of shape of water passages
Increase of pressure in affected areas
Aeration
Abrasion:
Special lining (concrete, steel)
Particular problem in stilling basins
Scouring:
Lining
Rockfill protection
Structural vibration:
Influence on supports of elements
Elastic properties
Masses (Ex. Trash-racks)
Vortices:
Design modifications of intakes
Anti-vortex devices
Other problems
Back current
Hydrodynamic loads
Uplift
29
30
5 Energy Dissipaters
Energy dissipation process can be
considered in 5 separate stages:
1. On the spillway (outlet) surface
2. In the free falling jet (if any)
3. At impact into the downstream
pool
4. In the stilling basin (bucket,
pool)
5. At the outflow into the river.
5.1 Energy Dissipation on Spillways
The energy loss on the spillway surface:
e = v
2
/2g where v is velocity at the end of the spillway, is
the Coriolis coefficient, and is the head loss coefficient related to
the velocity coefficient (ratio of actual to theoretical velocity) as:
+ 1
1
2
Relative head loss:
2
1
E
e
After Novak and abelka (1981) for S/H<30 and smooth spillways:
1 1 0.0155S/H
The value of can be increased ( decreased) by using rough
spillway surface (e.g., stepped spillway, or baffles). Aeration should
be provided to prevent cavitation damages.
5.2 Ski-jump and Flip Bucket
Ski-jump can be used at the end of chute or tunnel spillway. Most of energy dissipation is achieved along
13 (spillway surface, jet, impact) and if jet is conveyed far enough in geologically suitable condition,
stilling basin (usually plunge pool for ski-jump spillways) can be avoided by letting the jet to do pool
excavation (by erosion) as needed. Ski-jump is used in 1951 for the first time, and its use is growing
ever since.
Head loss in the jet up to 12%.
Can be enhanced by more jets colliding
31
Impact (phase 3) provides main benefit in energy dissipation
Intensively aerated jet before impact increases efficiency
Optimal dissipation in the jet itself is obtained for S/S 0.6
Best results are for disintegrated jet, which occurs at distance L 6q
1/3
from the crest.
Theoretical throw distance of the jet:
,
_
+
+
+
sin
5 . 0 '
sin ) cos( 2
0
2
2
0
2
H
y S
H L
Where
H0 = S + H Sy/2 energy to the middle of the off-taking jet.
is take-off angle
And y = depth at the off-take of the ski-jump
can be assumed approximately as 1.0
Flip bucket is special version of the ski-jump usually placed at river bottom. Main parameters are R
(radius) and (take-off) angle.
At low flows bucket acts as stilling basin downstream protection against erosion is necessary
Proper operation for high flows with a jet
For v < 20 m/s air resistance can be neglected
For v = 40 m/s throw distance reduction up to 30%
Theoretical throw distance L = (v
2
/g) sin 2
Major concern is to throw the jet as far as possible from the structure.
Protection against retrogressive erosion
3-D forms of flip bucket to skew jet into desired direction.
Tailor made hydraulic scale models
5.3 Stilling basins
Hydraulic jump stilling basins
Type I IV Stilling basins with chute blocks and baffles (USBR)
Plain or slotted roller buckets (USBR)
Spatial hydraulic jump basins (change in width, change in depth, flow from lateral channels)
32
Hydraulic jump stilling basin:
Depth of water entering stilling basin y1 can be obtained from:
2
1
2
2
1
2 y g
q
y E
+ and then second conjugate depth for rectangular basin:
,
_
+ +
3
1
2
1
2
8 1 1
2 gy
q y
y
Depth of the stilling basin respecting need for certain submergence as safety measure:
D = y2 y0
y0 is normal depth in the river downstream of the stilling basin usually obtained for computation from tail
water flow-rating curve.
is submergence coefficient and should be grater than 1.10, i.e., downstream conjugate depth should be
more than 10% submerged. This is stilling the jump surface and preventing cavitation on the apron slab.
As with computation of required depth, available energy for computation of y1 changes (increases)
computation should be iterated until all values fit.
Length of the stilling basin can be adopted as: L = K (y2 y1), where 4.5 < K < 5.5 for 10 > Fr1 3
respectively.
Above formulae are valid for rectangular basin with horizontal bed. At the end of basin simple end sill can
be provided with slope of 1:3, where the basin length includes this sloped sill. Basin has to be safe for
whole range of discharges (not only the high design flow).
Better efficiency for higher Froude Number.
Efficiency for low Froude number can be as low as 50%
Fluctuation of pressure in the basin (cavitation, forces on apron slab)
Structural concerns:
Uplift drainage, anchorage, weight
Abrasion
Vibration
Cavitation
33
Design flow for stilling basin computation need not necessarily be equal to that of the spillway (and/or
outlet). Lower flows can be considered for economical reason, allowing some damage of the basin itself
and just downstream in very exceptional cases. However, spillway structure (or dam) should be designed
for higher flows.
Above there are two examples of USBR stilling basins. Although those types allow shallower and
somewhat shorter basins therefore saving in terms of excavation and sometimes concrete as well, they
have some serious disadvantages compared with simple hydraulic jump stilling basins. Construction of
baffle teeth-blocks requires filigree work in terms of reinforcement and formworks. In operation,
however, these types of stilling basins have proven to be vulnerable to devastating cavitation effects partly
induced by teeth themselves. Extensive repair works might be required usually involving use of expensive
epoxy-materials.
5.4 Downstream Erosion
After stilling basin
No stilling basin can dissipate 100% of the incoming energy. Erosion downstream of stilling basins or
flip-buckets and ski-jumps is to be expected.
Control of the position and magnitude of erosion
Rip-rap
Concrete aprons
Expected erosion (scour depth) can be roughly estimated using Novaks expression:
1
1
1
]
1
,
_
0
3
1
90
0 05 25 . 0
*
6 55 . 0 y
d
y
q H y
s
Where
34
H* is difference between upstream and downstream levels
Y0 is tailwater depth
q is specific discharge per meter width
d90 is 90% grain size of sediment in the river bed
Required length of downstream riprap (or apron) bed protection for low head structures after US War
Department:
3
3 4
435 . 1
,
_
d
o
y
v H
L
, Ho = H+S (available energy see figure at the beginning of the chapter), yd =
tail water depth, and v is tail water velocity. (This formula gives rather high values)
After ski jump
Scour of (in the) plunge pools can be expressed in general by equation of Locher & Hsu:
0
8
y
d
H Cq
y
z
w y x
s
C = coefficient 0.65<C<4.7
x, y, w, z = exponents
0.5 < x < 067; 0.1 < y < 0.5; 0 < z < 0.3; 0 < w < 0.1
Wild variation of coefficients could be simplified like in case of Martins formula:
0
1 . 0
*
6 . 0
5 . 1 y H q y
s
for ski-jump
Neglecting the impact angle and elevation of the take-off, as well as composition of the riverbed can be
criticized. However, for most cases, according to experiments, major influence on scour hole is by unit
discharge, and then by total available head (which also represents jets velocity). In Russian practice
(Zamarins formula) more emphasis is given to position of the out-coming jet, angle of impact, jets
velocity and allowable velocity (the one that will not cause any scour which might be difficult to
determine in practice). Still major influence is by q in this formula as well.
35
After flip bucket
For flip buckets simplification by Tarjamovichs expression could be considered:
1
tan 6
cr s
y y
1 = upstream angle of the scour hole as a function of flip bucket exit angle
For 10
0
< <40
0
14
0
<1 <24
0
One has to be aware that all these formulae can just give an idea about possible location and order of
magnitude of the scour hole, so that necessary precaution measures can be foreseen. They might be useful
in comparison of different alternatives showing differences taking into account equal assumptions.
5.5 Dissipation at Bottom Outlets
Size and position of the outlet (above or below tail water level), importance of the structure and
downstream conditions can influence type of energy dissipation for bottom outlets.
Aeration and dispersion of the jet above tail water, by means of gates or valves (e.g., hollow jet).
Reduction of specific discharge as it enters the stilling basin (gradual expansion, and/or deflectors).
Sudden expansion energy dissipaters possible cavitation effects that should be drifted away from the
boundaries of the structure.
By direct impact of the jet against the wall or in the vertical stilling wells (for small-capacity outlets).
36
This figure shows comparison of the model and actual situation
Example of Spillway, Outlet Works and Stilling Basins (at Friant dam, USA):
37
Example of Spillway, Outlet Works and Stilling Basins (at Friant dam, USA)
38
6 Navigation Locks
6.1 Concept
Navigation locks are hydraulic structures that are provided
to allow navigable connection between two water bodies
having different water levels. In this way concentrated
heads on canalized rivers and canals are usually overcome.
They normally appear in association with dams or similar
structures in natural streams or man-made channels.
6.2 Types and Classification
According to the type of structure, height of lift and capacity, locks may be classified as follows:
Inclined planes
Ship elevators
Chamber locks for small to large barges of convoys
Small lift - up to approximately 20 m
Medium to large lift - from 20 to 35 m
In recent navigation practice, associated with current transportation requirements, most of the navigation
locks are of chamber type. Navigation locks of this type make it possible for ships to move from one part
(level) to the other by the operation of movable elements (gates, valves). These structures usually include
heads (at the ends) equipped with gates, and chamber(s) that can contain ships to be locked through. There
are filling (emptying) systems as well equipped by valves. Water level in the chamber is increased or
decreased to match upstream or downstream levels. Usual dimensions of chamber are in following range:
Length - from 20 to 200 m
Width - up to 35 m
Lift - from a few meters to 35
6.3 Lock Cycle
In a chamber lock, a typical operation to transpose a vessel(s) from low level to high level consists of the
following steps:
With the chamber empty, opening of downstream gate
39
Entry of vessel in the chamber, mooring (securing) and closure of downstream gate
Filling of the lock chamber
Opening of upstream gate and exit of the vessel
This is followed by descending operation (from upper level to lower level).
A complete cycle usually requires from 20 min to 2 hrs, depending on the chamber dimensions and lift
height.
The lock operation uses water! In each cycle the equivalent of the chamber useful volume is conveyed
towards downstream.
Figure 1
The lower gates are closed; the drain valve is closed; the filling valve is open allowing the lock chamber to fill to the upper level;
and the upper gates have been opened allowing the towboat to enter the lock chambers.
Figure 2
Now the towboat is in the lock chamber; the upper gates and the filling valve are closed; and the drain valve is open allowing
water to drain out into the lower level. The towboat is lowered as the water level lowers.
Figure 3
When the water level reaches the lower level, the lower gates are opened allowing the towboat to leave the lock chamber and
proceed on down the river to the next lock and dam where it will go through the same procedure.
6.4 Relevant Hydraulic Aspects
From a general point of view, the main objective of an appropriate planning, design, construction and
operation of a navigation lock is to achieve an economic, safe and operationally reliable solution.
Filling time:
40
Adh dt gh ca Qdt 2
For instantaneous complete opening:
g ac
H A
h
dh
g ac
A
dt T
H
T
2
2
2
0
0
A is lock area in plan; a is filling system area (valve); c is outlet coefficient (function of time, but could be
taken as constant; h is head (difference in water levels); H is total locks head.
For gradual linear opening in time T1 (a=atT1/t)
1 1
0
2
hT
H t
T
h a
dh
g c
A
dt
( )
1
1
0
1
2
2
T
T
h H
g ca
AT
tdt
( )
g ca
h H A
T
T
2
4
1
1
If the opening is gradual but not linear, step method has to be used:
( )
i i
h h
g ca
A
t
1
2
2
for adopted t hi can be computed and from there discharge as well
i i i
gh ca Q 2
41
Other types of overcoming head difference for navigation purposes:
Thrift locks (saving water, but expensive and slower, heads up to 30 m)
High head elevators (up to 100 m, horizontal water filled troughs)
Lifts (up to 100 m in length, low water usage, high travelling speed relatively high
capacity)
Inclined planes (as above but trough is mounted on special leveling undercarriage which
travels along or normal to troughs axis)
Usually boat is settled at the bottom of the trough by releasing some water prior to lifting operation. Ac-
celeration and deceleration during operation must be kept within acceptable limits. Lifts (vertical or in-
clined) are more prone to damages and are more sensitive in operation than standard locks. They are usu-
ally more expensive to build and maintain. Their capacity per lifting operation is much lower. Neverthe-
less, if high head is to be overcome, alternative between single lift and multi-step locks should be com-
pared, and the former might have advantages (especially if the space is limited).
Example of part of the Navigation notice NO. 1-1997 (February 1997), from Ohio River
Division, North Central Division, Lower Mississippi Valley Division, regarding safety of navigation:
SAFETY
1. Commercial and recreational craft shall use the locks at all
times except for navigable pass dams, and authorized fixed weir
passages.
2. Vessels shall not pass under gates in the dam when they are
out of the water and the river is flowing freely through the gate
opening.
3. Lockage of leaking or listing vessels may be refused.
Leaking or listing vessels shall be moored in a location outside
of the channel so as not to interfere with passing navigation.
4. All craft and tows approaching a lock, within a distance of
200 feet of the upper or lower lock gate, shall proceed at a
speed not greater than two miles per hour (rate of a slow walk).
5. All tows entering the lock shall be properly aligned with
the guide or lock wall. Tows may be required to stop prior to
entering certain locks at which unusual conditions exist.
6. When an amber flashing light is displayed and approval is
given by lock personnel, a descending or ascending vessel may
approach and moor with a backing line to the guide wall;
however, the head of the tow shall be no closer than 100 feet
from the near end of the lock gate recess.
7. Burning fenders shall be dropped overboard immediately
rather than being placed on the deck of a barge or towboat.
Fenders shall not be secured to cleats or timberhead and left
unattended.
8. When tows are underway in the lock approaches or lock
chamber and there is a potential for damage to the structure a
minimum of two deckhands with fenders shall be stationed at the
head end of every tow 100 feet or greater in width. One deckhand
42
with a fender shall be required at the head end of tows less than
100 feet in width. Additional personnel shall be required at the
aft end if the lock operator determines that it is necessary to
protect the lock and guide walls from damage.
9. It is the responsibility of the vessel operator to provide
adequate mooring lines. The lock operator may require mooring
lines to be replaced with satisfactory lines before lockage is
made if the lines appear to be of such quality, size, or
condition that would make safe lockage questionable.
10. Mates and deckhands, when preparing to moor within the lock
chambers, shall not throw heavy mooring lines onto the walls, but
shall wait for a heaving line.
11. All towboat crews, while locking or moving a tow into or out
of a lock chamber, must station themselves to preclude the
possibility of being injured by the parting of a cable or line
under strain. Single lines only will be used to check a moving
tow. During inclement weather conditions (snow and ice) the
working area of the tow where lines are used shall be free of
snow and ice to prevent injury to towing industry personnel.
Working lines shall be kept dry and in working condition (not
frozen) to allow lines to be worked properly and to prevent
injury to personnel.
12. Towboat crew members shall not jump between moving tows and
lock or guide walls while preparing for lockage, locking, or
departing lock. Use of lockwall ladder ways is permitted
only after tows are securely moored and the chamber is at upper
pool.
13. Tabulated below are the minimum number of vessel personnel
required for handling lines during lockages. The captain/pilot
can not act as a deckhand.
TYPE OF VESSEL MINIMUM MINIMUM MINIMUM
OR TOW NUMBER OF NUMBER OF NUMBER OF
PERSONNEL LINES USED EMERGENCY
USE LINES
Towboats with up to 1 1 1
one barge length and
all other vessels less
than 65 feet
All other vessels requiring 2 2 1
single lockage
Tows requiring double 3 2 1
lockage (one deckhand
to remain with first cut)
Set-over tows 3 2 1
Knock-out tows 2 2 1
14. All vessels, when in the locks, shall be moored and/or moved
as directed by the lock operator.
15. Commercial towing companies shall ensure that vessel
operators and boat crew members have received orientation and
43
training in all aspects of deck work and lockage procedures to
ensure the safety of personnel, floating plant, and structures.
16. All cylinders or containers holding gases or liquids under
pressure or any other chemical or substance shall be securely
fastened to the hull of the vessel to prevent their rolling
overboard into the lock chamber.
17. All containers holding paint, gasoline, or other volatile
materials shall be securely fastened with tight fitting covers.
Other Instructions and data (such as operational aspects, etc.) are usually given in this kind of notices.
44
7 Pumping Stations and Pipeline Conveyance
7.1 Pumping Stations
7.1.1 Usage and Classification
Most large pumping stations pump water from open surface sources (rivers, lakes, canals, and basins,
i.e., sumps).
Groundwater abstraction by smaller units (submerged pumps)
Usage:
Dewatering (drainage) behind a dike, or cofferdam
Lowering a water table (or groundwater table)
Pumping sewage or storm water (or sewer) flow to treatment plants
In water supply networks to supply to higher elevations, or (booster pumps) to boost pressure
heads
In Pump-Storage Hydropower schemes reversible pump-turbine units are used. In the past
separate units, for pumping and generation, were more common.
Abstraction from boreholes (or wells)
Different uses and purposes usually require different pumps. Common types of pumps are:
Type Discharge Head Application
C
e
n
t
r
i
f
u
g
a
l
Rotodynamic pump
Radial-flow type
Low High
>30m To pump water or sewage; Pumping clean
water with higher efficiency; Sewage
pumps are usually with slow speed.
Axial flow type High Low
<15m
Mixed-flow type Medium Medium
2330m
Reciprocating pump Low Medium Viscous fluid pumping; Borehole
pumping; leakage.
Air-lift pump Low Low Inefficient but used for GW recovery from
skewed wells, sands and silt.
Table continues
45
Continued
Type Discharge Head Application
Jet pump Low Medium Combined with centrifugal pump,
borehole abstraction inefficient
Screw pump High Low Archimedes screw principle; Low speed;
Mud or liquids with silt.
Helical rotor pump Low Low Helical rotor and stator elements; for
sewage or liquids with suspended matter.
7.1.2 Pump Parameters
Most common pump type is centrifugal rotodynamic. Most important parameter that characterizes this
sort of pumps is specific speed of rotation:
4 5
H
Q
N N
s
Where Q is discharge (l/s), H is manometric head (m) and N is the rotational speed (rpm).
Manometric head is gross head that includes difference in elevation of water levels in the sump and upper
basin plus head losses in suction part of the conveyance (from sump to the pump) and in distribution part
of the conveyance (from the pump on). Pump has to develop even higher head to overcome the impeller
(in)efficiency p. H = Hm / p
Required power to operate the pump would be:
m
QH
P 81 . 9
[in kW]
46
For clean water and Hm (m), Q(m
3
/s), and =pmt<1.0 (overall efficiency including pump, motor and
transformer if needed).
Mostly pumps operate under varying conditions of discharge and head. Then:
Q2 = Q1(N2/N1), and H2 = H1(N2/N1)
2
Pumps can be operated in parallel or in series. Later must be operated simultaneously. Pump with
impellers in series is called multistage or booster pump.
Pressure at the pump impeller inlet (ps) is usually below atmospheric pressure (pa). From Bernoullis
equation between the sump and this section:
ps/g = pa/g (hs + Hs + vs
2
/2g)
Here Hs is position of the pump (above sump water level), Hs is head loss in suction pipe, and vs is flow
velocity there.
If ps < pv (vapor pressure) cavitation occurs. This can be dealt with by increasing intake and pipe
dimension (decreasing losses and velocity) and by limiting suction head (pump position):
,
_
g
v
H
g
p p
h
s
s
v a
s
2
) (
2
,
_
+ +
g
v
H h
g
p p
NPSH
s
s s
v a
2
) (
2
,
_
50
10
1
1
4
,
_
t t
LV
gAH
gAV
LH
Q H H
0
0
0
0
0 0
sin
0
0
0 0 min
gAV
LH
Q H H
From here Vmax can be computed:
Vmax
1.2
Hmin=V0
1.2
H0
Period of oscillation is:
0
0
2
LV
gAH
T
Including losses in the pipeline and (entrance into/exit from) the air vessel, computation gets somewhat
more complicated and is usually solved by finite difference equation or by using design graphs for given
(or assumed) head losses. For pipelines with changing diameters equivalent length (one diameter length
that would have same head losses as original pipe) can be used in simplified computations.
50
7.2 Pipelines
Pipelines are used for water or sewer conveyance usually under pressure, but also with free flow. They can
be made of various materials such as: Steel, cast iron, concrete, wood (obsolete), vitrified clay (obsolete),
asbestos cement (recently considered environmentally dangerous), plastic materials (PVC) and other
materials for special purposes (brass, copper, lead, glass, rubber, etc.).
7.2.1 Hydraulics
Basic hydraulic problems for steady flow through pipelines can be solved by 2 formulae:
Continuity (mass conservation): Ai vi = Constant
Bernoulli (energy conservation):
2 1
2
2 2
2
2
1 1
1
2 2
+ + + + + H
g
v
g
p
Z
g
v
g
p
Z
H is the sum of head losses between sections of interest. They include linear friction losses along the
pipe and local or minor losses (in bends, elbows, joints, valves, contractions, expansions, etc.).
Numerous formulae are available to compute linear friction losses. Probably the most universally used is
Darcy-Weisbach formula:
g
v
D
L
f H
f
2
2
(in USA practice Hazen-Williams expression is more
commonly used)
Here f is Darcys friction coefficient. Different researchers have determined its value in the past. There are
various experimentally obtained expressions used to determine f.
There are different flow regimes possible in the pipes, dependent on Reynolds number:
Re = v D/ or ReR = v R/ R =
D
/4 is Hydraulic radius of the pipe. is kinematic coefficient of
fluids viscosity (for water: t = 20
o
= 1.01
x
10
-6
m
2
/s, and t = 10
o
= 1.3
x
10
-6
m
2
/s)
For Re<2320 there is laminar flow regime in the pipe, and then Darcys coefficient is:
R
f
Re
16
Re
64
In turbulent flow there are three regimes:
Hydraulically smooth pipes (Re<27(D/)
8/7
, approximately is absolute average pipe
wall roughness)
Among many used formulae (like Nikuradze, Prandtl-Karman, etc.) Colebrooks formula is given
here as probably the most practical:
7
Re
log 8 . 1
1
f
51
Transition turbulent flow (27[D/]
8/7
< Re < 21.6 CD/, where C is Chezy coefficient =
[8g/f])
Then another formula of Colebrook can be used:
,
_
+
D
f f
7 . 3
Re
51 . 2
log 2
1
For even higher values of Re f = f() and does not depend on Re itself anymore (quadratic
region of flow resistance). Then for instance Nikuradzes formula can be used:
( ) [ ]
2
715 . 3 log
25 . 0
D
f
For all regions with limited accuracy (t 5%) for /D<0.01 and f<0.05, Moodys formula can be used:
( )
3
6 4 3
Re 10 10 2 1 10 5 . 5 + +
D f
Material and the state of pipe (10
-3
m)
Concrete rough 1-3
Concrete smooth 0.3-0.8
Steel (welded) new 0.04-0.1
Steel (welded) used, stained, incrusted 0.15-1.5
Cast iron 0.25-1.5 (4)
More detailed list can be obtained from different handbooks. As most practical problems in hydraulic
(civil) engineering occur in the region of quadratic resistance (full turbulence), even manning formula
could be applied with reasonable accuracy. Then better known values for n can be used and/or converted
to f. As given before for this case:
3 2
6 . 124 D n f
Minor or local losses are calculated based on experience and experiments. Some coefficients to
calculate local losses are given here:
Entrance: sharp =0.5, rounded =0.2, bell-mouth =0.05, pipe sticking into
reservoir =1
Sudden expansion:
2
2
2
1
1
,
_
,
_
D
D
in regard to in-flowing velocity. If expansion is
gradual then this coefficient would be diminished (by multiplier k<1) depending on the angle of
expansion (for 5
o
k=0.13, 15
o
k=0.27, 25
o
k=0.62)
52
Sudden contraction:
1
2
1
2
1
D
D
, (based on out-flowing velocity) for gradual
contraction coefficient would depend on angle and ratio of diameters.
Elbow:
,
_
,
_
+
5 . 3
2
85 . 1 13 . 0
90
1 . 0
R
D
or
R
D
R
L
o