Best Practices for Inclusion Running Head: Best Practices for Inclusion: Differentiated Instruction and Assessment

Best Practices for Inclusion: Differentiated Instruction and Assessment Celestina Akinkunmi Isabelle Emery France Goulard Johanna Hirons APSY 503 Andrea Lampi University of Calgary

Best Practices for Inclusion Best Practices for Inclusion: Differentiated Instruction and Assessment

There are a variety of perspectives from which special education can be viewed. Inclusion is the term used to describe a growing educational movement where learning disabled students are schooled in the same classroom environments as their non-disabled peers. This movement has been lead by growing acceptance and recognition that students, the community, and society at large benefit from inclusive schools (Jordan, 2007). Inclusive classrooms benefit all students when approached in a conscientious manner and with a comprehensive understanding of the Best Practices available to teachers. Using the Interactional/Socio-Political Model of special education and research to support Best Practices, a model of inclusion that can support all learners is possible when teaching and assessment is differentiated. Models of Inclusion Inclusion has a markedly different philosophical foundation that the special education delivery of the past. Historically, special education delivery has been based upon the assumption that learning disabled students were unable to meet their learning needs in the regular classroom and should be taught in a segregated setting. This model of disability, the Medical Model (Gill, 1994; Baglieri & Knopf, 2004), promotes the underlying assumption that disability is a deficiency in the individual which must be fixed by the school system. Disability should be seen as a negative attribute which must be altered so that the individual can fit into society. Although some students benefited from remedial instruction in segregated settings, it was nonetheless the case that many students suffer[ed] inappropriate school experiences and fail[ed] to acquire the knowledge and skills necessary for post school adjustment (Andrews et al. 2000, p. 258). Furthermore, the adoption of this deficit-based model of special education resulted in the creation of a system that

Best Practices for Inclusion 3 stigmatize[d] children with a medical label that result[ed] in marginalized placement in a completely separate educational system (Philpott, 2007, p. 9). In essence, because difference is conceptualized as being static, unchanging and debilitating, it is the conceptualization itself that creates the barriers to success in school, and henceforth in society. The Medical Model of special education, now understood to be a deficit-based model, is in discord with the growing body of research that supports the practice of including special education learners in the community classroom (Ainscow, 1999, Salend & Duhaney, 1999, Villa & Thousand, 2000 as cited by McGieRichmond, Underwood & Jordan, 2007). Proponents of inclusion believe that learning disability is simply a difference in the manner of perceiving or knowing and that by changing the context in which individuals interact with society, they can achieve success within their learning environment. This Interactional/SocioPolitical Model (Gill, 1994) of disability promotes the notion that students can be offered an effective school program within their community classroom if the school setting is designed to meet their needs. This model demonstrates the underlying belief that disability is simply a difference, rather than an abnormality. Inclusive education emerges as a philosophy of community development and educational programming that strives to create environments which embrace all differences (Sands, Kozleski & French, 2001, Smith 1998, Stainback & Stainback, 1992, Thomas 1997 as cited in Baglieri & Knopf, 2004). This type of conceptualization impacts not only how students are educated in their schools but also how society as a whole views individuals who are considered disabled. Differences are pervasive, ordinary, and acceptable. Inclusion of all students in general education is critically important for creating societies that recognize and embrace human variation (Thomas & Loxley, 2001, Wand & Reynolds, 1996, as cited in Baglieri

Best Practices for Inclusion 4 & Knopf, 2004, p. 526). The Interactional/Socio-political Model of special education espouses that difference is the norm, a view that lends itself to a broader societal acceptance of disability. Perhaps the strongest argument in support of the Interactional/Socio-Political Model is that all students have the right to benefit from the Best Practices that are needed for educating special education students. Every student, whether identified as having a learning disability or not, should have access to the best instructional practices, learning activities and assessment practices. As Baglieri & Knopf (2004) state: Our work, then, becomes that of creating a discourse of difference in which all students are allowed access, valued for their unique characteristics, and provided with opportunities to learn and perform in myriad ways that address individual needs and personal goals. (p. 527) In accordance with this philosophy, children can be educated in an inclusive setting if teachers change their teaching and assessment strategies to meet the variety of learning needs in the classroom. Recent research has strengthened this argument. Alton-Lee (2003) has found that up to 59% of the variance of student achievement scores are the direct result of teachers being able to create effective learning environments. This statistic emphasises the importance of ensuring that teachers have knowledge of, and access to, the most effective teaching practices available. Best Evidence Synthesis Approach That differentiated instruction is the best practice for all students, not just those identified as having special needs, is supported by the Best Evidence Synthesis Approach outlined by Alton-Lee (2003). In order to see the correlation between the ten characteristics of quality teaching listed by Alton-Lee and the concept of differentiated instruction, it is helpful to look at the ten characteristics of best practice as subsets of the four different ways to differentiate instruction.

Best Practices for Inclusion 5 The first way of differentiating instruction is to differentiate the content of instruction. In characteristic # 7, Alton-Lee addresses the need to ensure that curriculum goals, resources including ICT usage, task design and teaching are effectively aligned (p. 7). Hall (2002) drew our attention to research by Fisher et al. (1980) which found that students learned more, and their selfesteem improved, when curricula were designed so that students were able to achieve about 80% accuracy. The belief that curricula needs to be proactively developed so that students work at what Vygotsky called the zone of proximal development (ZDP), presupposes that curricula must be differentiated for all students, as every student will have a unique ZDP (Hall, 2002). A second method of differentiating instruction that Alton-Lee describes is differentiating the environment. Characteristic #2, which is that pedagogical practices enable classes and other learning groupings to work as caring, inclusive, and cohesive learning communities (p. 22), fits naturally with differentiating the classroom environment, as does characteristic # 3, in which AltonLee states that effective links are created between school cultural contexts and other cultural contexts in which students are socialized to facilitate learning (p 32.). Once again these best practices are in keeping with an Interactional/Socio-political Model of education, and once again, these best practices require differentiated instruction for all students based on their cultures and their unique needs. One cannot have a caring community unless difference is not merely tolerated but proactively celebrated. The third, and most commonly thought of way to differentiate instruction is to modify the process of instruction, and indeed the majority of the five characteristics of quality teaching fall into this category. These include, #4 quality teaching is responsive to student learning

processes, (Alton-Lee, 2003, p.45), #5 opportunity to learn is effective and sufficient, #6, multiple task contexts support learning cycles, (Alton-Lee, 2003, p.53) #8 pedagogy scaffolds

Best Practices for Inclusion 6 and provides appropriate feedback on students task engagement, (Alton-Lee, 2003, p.73) and #10, teachers and students engage constructively in goal-orientated assessment (Alton-Lee, 2003, p.86). Although the rationale for differentiation of process has most commonly been to assist the student with special needs, when a proactively designed approach to responsive teaching was developed in Texas it resulted in a substantial district-wide reductions in achievement gaps coupled with increased achievement for even the highest achieving students Protheroe, 2002, as cited in Alton-Lee, 2003, p.51). Finally, the fourth method of differentiating instruction is to differentiate the product of instruction. Two of the ten best practices fit naturally into this category. They are characteristic #1 which states that quality teaching is focused on raising student achievement (including social outcomes), and facilitates high standards of student outcomes for diverse learners (Alton-Lee, 2003, p.16) and characteristic #9, which claims that pedagogy promotes learning orientations, student self-regulation, metacognitive strategies and thoughtful student discourse(Alton-Lee, 2003, p.79). The inclusion of social outcomes as a best practice in curriculum development supports an Interactive/Socio-political Model of education for all students, not just those with special needs. Perhaps more interesting is the claim that the raising of student achievement is the aim of good pedagogy, rather than imparting a specific body of knowledge or skills. The focus on increasing achievement encourages teachers to start from wherever the student is at a particular moment in time, be it at, above, or below grade level. The importance of characteristic #9 cannot be overstated in any discussion of differentiated instruction. Rather than viewing the desired product of learning as being a specific body of knowledge or set of skills, the sheer volume of data generated in the modern world, and the ever (Cawelti &

Best Practices for Inclusion 7 changing set of skills required to function effectively in society, necessitates a change in focus towards teaching students to become effective, self-regulated learners. It is important, however, to note that evidence-based strategies emerging from the research suggest the importance of ensuring the approaches are used in ways that support specific curricular goals (Alton-Lee, 2003, p. 81). Differentiated Instruction Differentiated Instruction is an educational philosophy that is designed to provide appropriate opportunities for the growth and success for all students in the classroom. It is about teaching things differently according to observed differences among learners (Westwood, 2003, p.5). One size does not fit all is a notion supported by educational research. Each student brings with them a unique background, learning style, aptitude, interest and modality preference and should therefore have multiple options for taking in information and making sense of ideas (Sizer, 2001). Based on this knowledge, differentiated instruction is used to stop students from modifying themselves for the curriculum. On the contrary, it requires teachers to be flexible in their approach to teaching, adjusting the curriculum and style or mode of presenting to the students. By applying this theory, all students are given opportunities for academic growth because learning must be differentiated to be effective. The concept of differentiating is not new; it has been utilized for more than two decades with gifted and talented students (Theroux, 2004). However, it is now recognized as an important tool for engaging students and addressing their own individual needs. There are generally several students in a classroom who are working below or above grade level and these levels of readiness will differ by subjects in school. It is important to offer students learning tasks that are appropriate to their learning needs rather than just to the grade and subject they are being taught. This means providing three or four different learning tasks from which to choose. Providing students with

Best Practices for Inclusion 8 choices facilitates engagement; the students, by choosing what is appropriate for their learning style and of individual interest, are consequently more engaged in their own learning. There are four ways to differentiate instruction in a classroom: through content, process, product or environment (Tomlinson, 2000). Differentiating the content refers to varying the knowledge, skill set and attitudes that students are required to learn. It requires that students are pre-tested to allow the teacher to identify individual students needs. Once these needs are established, the content of instruction should address the same concepts with all students but be adjusted by the degree of complexity for the diversity of learners in the classroom (Theroux, 2004). Differentiating the process refers to the teacher presenting a variety of learning activities or strategies which consequently provide students appropriate methods in which to explore new concepts. To manipulate the ideas embedded within new concepts, it is important to give students alternative paths. For example, altering the complexity of a graphic organizer can effectively facilitate different levels of cognitive processing for students with different abilities (Theroux, 2004) Differentiating the product refers to manner in which students demonstrate their knowledge as well as the complexity of the product that students create. Students working above grade level may be asked to produce work that requires more complex or advanced thinking while students below grade level may have reduced performance expectations. Offering a variety of mediums (posters, reports, dioramas, brochures etc) to display knowledge allows students to tap into their preferred modalities of learning and demonstrate their mastery of a subject in a manner that is meaningful (Theroux, 2004)

Best Practices for Inclusion 9 Differentiating by manipulating the environment is very important for all students in a classroom setting. Teachers need to optimize the use of sound and light, eliminate visual distracters and provide a more casual seating arrangement for students. This scenario is needed to create an ideal setting that is inviting and nurturing for all students. See appendix B for a list of strategies used to help with differentiating in the classroom (ASCD, 1998). Differentiated Assessment With differentiated instruction comes the need for differentiated assessment. Effective instruction that has been differentiated to meet the diverse needs of students depends principally on assessing a students knowledge and skills (Rock et al, 2008). This is a continuous process, not just a simple evaluation of a students performance. Assessing students knowledge before a new concept is taught is a valuable tool to gage learning. Pre-assessment can be described as checking for prior knowledge and gauging a students readiness of content or skill that is about to be taught (McTighe & OConnor, 2005). This can be done by the use of formal or informal observations, using simple checklists or surveys. Preassessment helps the instructor know the needs of the student before introducing the content or skill. Formative assessment is designed to inform the instructional process. Summative assessment occurs after the content has been taught and it is used to measure student achievement based on a predetermined standard (Brimijoin et al, 2003).This form of assessment is like a check in with students to determine what students have learned, and what knowledge or skills still need to be acquired (McTighe & OConnor, 2005). Examples of summative assessment activities are teacher-made, end of unit, or chapter tests, which can be modified to meet the level of different

Best Practices for Inclusion 10 students based on their unique abilities. Other examples of summative assessment include standardized or norm-referenced tests. When students are assessed using standardized, high stakes and/or norm-referenced tests, there is much to be concerned about within inclusive classrooms. There are comprehensively documented (Armour-Thomas, 1992, Cummins, 1984, Kauffman & Kauffman, 1983, Lewis, 1998, McLellan & Nellis, 2003, Naglieri, 1982, as cited in Philpott, 2007) problems with standardized tests which conclude that: Children from low-income, race/ethnic, and linguistic minority backgrounds do less well on these measures than their affluent, culturally dominant peers[and results are reflective] more of the experiences and contexts inimical to the development and expression of academic competence than in some underlying deficiency in academic ability (GopaulMcNichol & Armour-Thomas, 2002, p. 72). Criticisms of standardized testing have been centered on culturally and linguistically diverse populations which historically have been over-represented in the special education demographic (Artiles, 2003, Donovan & Cross, 2002, Gersten, Baker & Pugach, 2001, as cited in Philpott, 2007). Much of the work that has been done in regards to differentiated assessment has been as a reaction to the inclusion of culturally and linguistically diverse groups within mainstream classrooms. Sattler (1992) suggests that assessment measures in diverse classrooms must become more holistic and must ensure that students are given multiple avenues through which to demonstrate their knowledge. In Nunavut, Canada, the type of assessment used with diverse, inclusive groups is described as monitoring and reflects the dynamic interaction between the teachers, the students and the learning process. The assessment philosophy developed and promoted by the Nunavut

Best Practices for Inclusion 11 Department of Education (2005) espouses the following seven key principles for assessment used with diverse populations. Assessment: supports continuous learning for all students; shows respect for al learners; recognizes each students unique talents and skills; emphasises the interdependence, growth and success of the group; needs to be out-come based; has different purposes; is authentic, meaningful, and builds on student strengths (Curriculum & School Services, p.7, as cited in Philpott, 2007) Many of the assessment goals and practices defined above are supported by the Best Practice Synthesis as defined by Alton-Lee (2003). Conclusion Inclusive classrooms are classrooms in which there resides a wide variety of skills, talents, knowledge and attributes. Inclusive classrooms, based upon the philosophy of the Interactional/Socio-Political Model, demonstrates the underlying belief that disability is simply a difference, rather than an abnormality. It promotes community development and educational programming that attempts to embrace and celebrate individual diversity. Inclusive classrooms can achieve the most success when the content, process, product and environment are differentiated to allow learners of all levels to access the curriculum. Alton-Lee (2003) outlines ten Best Practices for teaching which, based upon comprehensive research, have proven to facilitate the most success for students designated as special education, as well as students who have not been identified as such. However, while best practices support the use of differentiated instruction, students with co-morbities, especially those with an ADHD or behaviour disabilities may not be adequately helped by the best practices available in the regular classroom (Otaiba & Fuchs, 2006).

Best Practices for Inclusion 12 Differentiated Instruction, because it is a model of pedagogy that is rooted in the needs and learning styles of the individual student, does not preclude the use of specialized interventions such as the recent move to professionally trained facilitators (Matals) in Israeli schools. These

specialists collaborate with classroom teachers to design the optimal mix of inclusive and special needs interventions for identified students (Gumpel & Sharoni, 2007). The key is to challenge and motivate students while giving them the skills that are needed for them to succeed. Students with specific needs or weaknesses should be presented with learning activities that offer opportunities to display individual strengths to develop the skills they will need to succeed in life. Advanced level students need to be challenged by working on various activities that require higher level thinking and greater complexity to satisfy their thirst for knowledge. Differentiated learning activities can help students of all levels and abilities find success in their community classrooms.

Appendix A: Characteristics of Differentiated Instruction

Best Practices for Inclusion Area of Differentiated Instruction Content Environment # 7 2 3 Process 4 5 6 8 10 Product 1 9 Pedagogy promotes learning orientations, student self-regulation, metacognitive strategies and thoughtful student discourse. Alton-Lee, 2003 Description of characteristic

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Curriculum goals, resources including ICT usage, task design and teaching are effectively aligned. Pedagogical practices enable classes and other learning groupings to work as caring, inclusive, and cohesive learning communities Effective links are created between school cultural contexts and other cultural contexts in which students are socialized to facilitate learning. Quality teaching is responsive to student learning processes. Opportunity to learn is effective and sufficient. Multiple task contexts support learning cycles. Pedagogy scaffolds and provides appropriate feedback on students task engagement Teachers and students engage constructively in goal-orientated assessment. Quality teaching is focused on raising student achievement (including social outcomes), and facilitates high standards of student outcomes for diverse learners.

Appendix B: Strategies for Differentiation in the Classroom

Best Practices for Inclusion Strategies for differentiating in the classroom Learning buddies Multiple texts Compacting Independent study/ expert journals Anchoring activities Adjusting questions Flexible grouping Multiple supplementary materials Small-group instruction Varied graphic organizers to support learning Activity choice boards Tiered products Tiered activities Learning contracts Varied journal prompts Skill-based mini lessons Interest-based mini lessons Readiness grouping Varied rubrics Mentorships Negotiating criteria for success/excellence Jonassen et al, 1998; Theroux, 2001; Tomlinson, 2000; Sizer, 2001; Westwood, 2003

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Best Practices for Inclusion

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