Precast concrete structures for buildings

Ir. Arnold Van Acker, Belgium

1. Basic design principles

Every construction material and system has its own characteristics which to a greater or lesser extend influence the layout, span length, construction depth, stability system, etc. This is also the case for precast concrete, not only in comparison to steel, wood and masonry structures, but also with respect to cast insitu concrete. Theoretically, all joints between the precast units could be made in such a way that the completed precast structure has the same monolithic concept as a cast in-situ one. However, this is a wrong approach and one, which is very labour intensive and costly. If the full advantages of precast concrete are to be realised, the structure should be conceived according to its specific design philosophy: long spans, appropriate stability concept, simple details, etc. Designers should from the very outset of the project consider the possibilities, restrictions and advantages of precast concrete, its detailing, manufacture, transport, erection and serviceability stages before completing a design in precast concrete.

2. Precast building systems

2.1. Frame and skeletal systems Portal frame and skeletal systems consist of linear elements (beams, columns) of different shapes and sizes, combined to form the skeleton of a building. They are very suitable for buildings, which need a high degree of flexibility. This is mainly because of the possibility to use large spans and to achieve open spaces without interfering walls. There are two basic types: The portal frame, consisting of columns and roof beams, and used for single-storey retail warehousing and industrial manufacturing facilities. The skeletal structure, consisting of columns, beams and slabs for low to medium-rise buildings with a small number of walls for high rise. Skeletal frames are used chiefly for commercial buildings, offices and car parks, but sometimes also for apartment buildings. 2.1.1. Portal frames The basic components of a single portal frame consist of two columns and a roof beam. The columns are clamped into the foundations and function as moment resisting cantilevers. The beam is simply supported on the columns with pin connections. In this way a stable portal frame is realized, able to take up both vertical and horizontal actions. The total skeleton of the building is composed of a series of basic portal frames placed at a certain distance between each other.

Fig. 1 Precast portal frame systems There exist several variant solutions with regard to types of beams, use of primary and secondary roof beams, roof elements, shed roofs, etc. It is also possible to insert intermediate floors in some parts of the building or over the whole surface. This is commonly achieved by adding a separate beam/column assembly to carry the intermediate floor slabs.

2.1.2. Skeletal structures Multi-storey precast concrete skeletal structures are constructed with columns and beams of different shapes and sizes, stair and elevator shafts, and floor slabs. The system is widely used for multi-storey buildings up to 20 storeys and above. The structural frame is commonly composed of rectangular columns going over one or more storeys. The beams are normally rectangular, L-shaped or inverted T-beams. They are single span beams, simply supported and pin-connected to the columns or concrete corbels, or by specially developed hidden connection details. Prestressed hollow core floor slabs are by far the most common types of floor slabs in this type of structure.

Fig. 2 Precast skeletal frame structure 2.2 Wall frame systems Precast walls are used for internal and external walls, lift shafts, central cores etc. Precast wall systems are mostly used in domestic construction, both for individual housing and for apartments. The solution can be considered as the industrialized form of cast in-situ walls or classical brick or block masonry walls. The precast walls can be load bearing or only partition walls. The surface of the elements is smooth on both sides and ready for painting or wall papering. Precast walls offer the advantage of speed of construction, smooth surface finishing, acoustic insulation and fire resistance. Modern systems belong to the so-called open construction technique, which means that the architect is free to design the project according to the requirements of the client. The trend is to build free open spaces between the load-bearing walls, and to use light partition walls for the internal layout. It offers the possibility to change at a later stage the interior layout without major costs.

Fig. 3 Example of a combined wall frame and skeletal structure 2.3 Floor structures Precast floors belong to the oldest precast products. The market at present offers a large variety of precast floor and roof systems, from which five main types can be distinguished: hollow core floors, ribbed soffit floors, massive slab floors, composite floor-plate floors and composite beam-and-bloc floors. The

principal advantages of precast floors are speed of construction, absence of scaffolding, large variety of types, large span capacity, and economy. Max. span (m) 9 Structural depth (mm) 100 - 300 Most common width(mm) 300 - 1200 Unit weight (kN/m) 2.0 - 4.0

Floor type

Reinforcement Reinforced and prestressed hollow core elements Prestressed hollow core elements Prestressed double-T elements Prestressed inverted-U elements Reinforced and prestressed massive slab Composite floor-plate floors Beam and bloc floors

20

120 - 550

200

2.0 - 4.8

24 (30)

200 - 800

2400

2.0 - 5.0

150 - 300

600

1.5 - 3.5

100 - 250

300 - 600

0.7 - 3.0

100 - 200

600 - 2400

2.4 - 4.8

200 - 300

200 - 600

1.8 - 2.4

Table 1 Indication of the sizes and weights of the main types of precast floors. Precast floors can also be classified according to their manufacture into totally and partially precast floors. Totally precast floors are composed of units, which are totally cast at the plant. After erection, the units are connected to the structure and the longitudinal joints are grouted. In some cases a cast in-situ structural topping screed is added. Partially precast floors are composed of a precast part and a cast in-situ part. Both parts are working together at the final stage to achieve the composite structural capacity. The main totally precast floor and roof types are described hereafter. a. Hollow core floors Prestressed hollow core units have longitudinal cores of which the main purpose is to reduce the weight of the floor. The elements are available in different depths to satisfy the various performance needs for span and loading. The percentage void (volume of voids to total volume of solid slab of equal depth) for HC slabs is between 30% and 50%. The units are normally 1200 mm wide and up to 18 m long. The edges of the units are profiled to ensure adequate vertical shear transfer across the grouted joint between adjacent units. Hollow core floors are often used for large spans and moderate loading, like in offices, apartments, car parks, etc. The main advantages are reduced self-weight, flat soffit, high performances and industrialized production process.

b. Ribbed floors Double-T units usually comprise two ribs joined by a top plate. Normally these components are prestressed. The main advantages in using this type of floor units are: Load bearing capacity in combination with large spans The ends of the units can be notched to form a halving joint to reduce the overall depth Double-T units are manufactured as standard up to 2400 mm wide (actually 2390 mm) or 3000 mm wide, thus reducing the number of units to be fixed on site. Inverted U-elements are usually 600 mm wide. The overall depth of "Double T" units can vary between 150 mm and 800 mm, allowing spans up to 22 m. These units have excellent stability and load-bearing capacity offering a long span unit, able to carry relatively high loads. Where units with a shallow flange depth (40/50 mm) are used, an in-situ reinforced concrete structural topping is normally required to ensure both vertical shear transfer between adjacent units and horizontal diaphragm action in the floor. c. Concrete roof elements Concrete roof elements are mainly used for industrial and commercial buildings, sport halls etc. There are different types of elements such as ribbed units, folded plates, single or double wing-elements etc. The main features of the elements are: Light weight due to slender cross-sections Large spans Smooth soffit Typical cross-sections of concrete roof elements are shown in Figure 6.4. Normally these components are prestressed.

Fig. 4 Concrete roof elements d. Massive slab floors Massive slab units are often made in lightweight or in cellular concrete, to reduce self-weight and improve the thermal properties. They are mainly used in housing and for roofs of industrial and commercial buildings. Precast massive slab units are also manufactured in normal concrete. Both reinforced and prestressed massive slabs are used.

3. Structural stability
3.1 Moment resisting foundations For buildings up to 3 or 4 storeys, horizontal stability may be provided by the cantilever action of the columns. They are normally continuous for the full height of the structure. There are three possible solutions to realize moment fixed connections between precast columns and foundations: pockets, projecting reinforcement and bolting. In the case of pockets, grout or concrete is placed in the annulus between the column and inside face of the pocket. In the solution with projecting reinforcement, projecting bars from the foundation are fixed into grouted openings in the columns. In the bolted connection, the foundation bolts are fixed into steel angles, cast in the column, and protected with grout.

Pocket foundation

Projecting reinforcement Bolted connection

Fig. 5 Moment resisting connections between precast columns and foundations 3.2 Braced structures For multi-storey skeleton structures, braced systems are the most effective solution, irrespective of the number of storeys. The horizontal stiffness is provided by staircases, elevator shafts and shear walls The concentration of all horizontal actions to some selected members permits smaller columns and simpler connections. Precast concrete shear walls have large in-plane stiffness and strength, are easy to erect, and may be integrated with the beam-column system as either infill walls or cantilever walls or boxes. Infill masonry walls and steel cross bracing are also used. Shear walls are also often used to complement the horizontal stiffening action of cores, for example at both ends of a long and narrow building with a central core, or where cores are placed in an eccentrical position. Shear walls Floor diaphragms

Core Fig. 6 Shear walls are needed to balance the torsion induced by the eccentric position of the core.

3.3 Diaphragm action In precast buildings, horizontal loads from wind or other actions are usually transmitted to the stabilizing elements by the diaphragm action of the roofs and floors. By definition, diaphragms are flat horizontal structures, of which one of the principal functions is to transfer horizontal forces acting on different places of the structure, to the vertical stabilizing components. The precast concrete floors or roofs are designed to function as a deep horizontal beam. The structural central core, shear walls or other stabilizing components act as supports for this analogous beam with the lateral loads being transmitted to them (Figure 7). To resist these forces, diaphragm action of the entire floor is achieved either through adequate connections between the floor units, or with the aid of a cast in-situ reinforced concrete topping.

Fig. 7 Force distribution in floor diaphragm Floors made of hollow core units are very appropriate to act as diaphragm, because of their edge profile and the grouting of the longitudinal joints between adjacent units. It is advisable to limit the design value of the average horizontal shear stress in the longitudinal joints between hollow core units to 0.15 N/mm, for regions non-affected by earthquake. The shear stress, calculated on the effective depth of the joint is seldom critical, so that hollow core floors normally provide sufficient diaphragm action without a structural topping, but the units must be restrained from moving apart. In earthquake zones, the usual system to assure diaphragm action with hollow core floors is a structural topping over the whole floor area. However the inconvenience is its complementary weight. A possible solution to omit topping is to realize the shear transfer in the longitudinal joints by a continuous wave profile. The solution enables to absorb large deformations during the reversal load cycles without degradation of the joint.

Fig. 8 Waved profile of hollow core slab edge In precast floors with TT-units without structural topping, shear transfer between the elements is secured by bars welded to plates fully anchored in the units.

4. Architectural concrete facades

The term "Architectural Concrete" refers to precast concrete of high quality with respect to strength, durability, shape and surface finishing. It is generally used for precast facades of buildings, which are intended to contribute to the esthetical expression of the construction. The application of concrete as a facade material dates back to the twenties, at the appearance of Modernism under the impulse of great architects like Le Corbusier, Gropius, Aalto and others. At that time concrete was a new material, already fully in use in civil engineering works. Not only the structural properties but also the rough appearance of the concrete itself appealed to the architects at that time The break-true of the modern architectural concrete is situated in the sixties and based on important innovations and progress in concrete technology, moulding techniques and surface finishing. It is mainly used for facades of all sorts of buildings: apartments, offices, commercial buildings, education and cultural buildings, etc. 4.1 Concept of architectural facades In the first period, facades in architectural concrete were composed of large series of identical precast elements. They were generally dimensioned for one storey height, with a width of 1.50 to 7.20 m. For each building, the facing elements were designed differently, and numerous examples exists of masterworks from this period. However, the complete faade remained fairly flat and also the box shape of the building was mostly kept because of the search for series at the manufacture of the units. In the eighties, a complete change in the architectural concept took place: in stead of spending all attention to single elements, facades in architectural concrete were designed as an entity. Volumes, surfaces, lines and differences in level became increasingly important. Box shaped buildings with facades composed of the same basic elements were abandoned and the design now focuses the total concept of the faade. Also the employed materials exhibit a strong evolution. Instead of exposing the internal concrete structure by water washing, sandblasting or other techniques used in the past, on offer now are finishing types such as reconstructed natural stone, polished concrete and brick or stone veneering. Another phenomenon in the evolution of architectural concrete was the so-called neo-classical and postmodernistic style, which was introduced in the eighties by some famous architects like Boffil, Nuez and others. The facades are characterised by monumental design, sculptural ornaments, and simulated natural stone finishing. Architectural concrete is still frequently applied today. The style and technique is a continuation of the trends initiated during the last decades of the previous century: total faade concept, variety of finishes, combination of different materials, reconstructed natural stone, ornamental details etc. 4.2 Structural systems Depending on their function within the building, architectural concrete cladding can be designed as loadbearing or non load-bearing, either simple skin or double skin. The most common structural systems are described hereafter.

4.2.1. Load-bearing facades Load-bearing facades support the vertical loads from the floors and the structure above. They can also contribute to the horizontal stability of the building. The most classical example is the sandwich faade (Figure 9.a). Sandwich units are composed of two concrete leaves with a thermal insulation in-between. The inner layer carries the weight of the floor and the above facade.

Sandwich frame elements

Load-bearing spandrel elements

Fig. 9 Load-bearing facades in architectural concrete The facade can also be composed of load bearing spandrel panels as shown in Figure 9.b. Here the spandrel elements act like beams, transferring vertical loads to columns. They can be executed as sandwich units, with the exterior cladding in architectural concrete. Another possibility is to precast only the interior skin of the spandrel beam and to finish it on site with brick masonry or any other added finishing material. 4.2.2. Non load-bearing facades Non load-bearing facades fulfil only an enclosing function. The units are fixed to the structure of the building, either individually, or they can be self-bearing. In the first case the exterior columns or beams and floors of the building structure support the self-weight of the cladding elements. In the second case the faade is supporting itself and the elements are only anchored horizontally to the structure. In principle, the shape of the units can be designed without any restrictions. Non load bearing sandwich elements are generally used in skeleton structures or for sidewalls of load-bearing facades. Single skin elements are mostly used for facings of columns, spandrel panels etc.

Non bearing faade

Self bearing facade

Fig. 10 Principle of self bearing and non bearing facades 4.2.3 Twin skin faade It concerns a sandwich facade construction in which the two concrete leaves, i.e. the inside leaf and the outside leaf, are fabricated separately and erected separately. The load bearing leaf of the facade consists of simple framed panels placed with the smooth moulded side towards the interior of the building. The precast floor units are supported on these elements. In a following step, an airtight joint sealing is applied and the insulation layer is attached to the exterior face of the framed panels. Finally the exterior cladding is erected. It can be made in precast concrete or in another cladding material.

load-bearing internal skin

thermal insulation

exterior cladding

Fig. 11 Principle of the twin skin faade system The solution offers several advantages over the classical sandwich panels: Large flexibility in the design of the exterior facade. Complete freedom with respect to size, shape and materials used. Possibility to use other materials for the exterior cladding The precast units are simple. The internal panels are rectangular storey-high elements with a large repetition. The exterior cladding is mostly made of flat panels. The connections are very simple. The insulation is continuous over the facade without any single weak thermal point, inclusive at the panel joints. The facade comprises a ventilated cavity between the exterior cladding and the insulation. The outlook of the facade can be totally different from one building to another, without major difference in the interior structure and used elements. The joint pattern in the facade is unobtrusive.

A handicap of the solution is that it needs more individual precast units, which means more handling, storage capacity, transport, connections etc. However, it is merely compensated by the more simple production of the individual units. 4.2.4 Special elements Architectural concrete can also be used for decorative purposes inside buildings. As a matter of fact, all precast components can be made in architectural concrete when needed. There exist numerous examples of such realizations, e.g. balcony units, cornices, parapets, plinths, string courses, special columns in large entrance halls, floors with decorative underneath profiles, suspended decorative ceilings, internal walls, central cores, polished stairs etc.

5. Tendencies in precast concrete

Structural efficiency: The ideas here are to design structures and develop systems so that the building offers maximum efficiency to the user. For example create maximum exploitation capacity of the available building space by using more slender building components like in slim floor structures etc. Competition between different construction materials and systems is more and more judged in terms of performances and costs. Systems offering more floor area inside the building volume are increasingly competitive. Flexibility in use: Certain types of buildings are frequently required to be adaptable to the users needs. This is especially the case with offices, but housing might also need to be more adaptable in the future. The most suitable solution to this effect is to create a large free internal space without any restriction to possible subdivisions with partition walls. Optimum use of materials: Each construction material possesses specific properties and optimum applications. Until recently, the structure of a building was mostly built in the same material. Now, the

tendency is to use a combination of different construction materials that are best suited for the particular function within the project. Speed of construction: Because of the slowness of traditional in-situ construction methods, long construction delays have been accepted. Today, the demand for a speedy return on investment is becoming more and more important: the decision to start the work is postponed until the last moment, but the initially agreed construction delay has to be met. In addition, projects are getting more complex, which is not in favour of short construction delays. One of the solutions taken by the general contractor is to put more responsibilities on precasters. Quality consciousness: Quality has a broad meaning. Not only do the quality of materials and execution have to respond to higher standards than before, but also the quality in the domain as regards user friendliness, comfort and aesthetics is becoming more important. Several precasting companies have already obtained the ISO-9000 label, and a lot of work is being done in the field of European Standardisation. Adaptability: In the future, there will be much less demolition of entire buildings and more demands to adapt older buildings to the new market requirements. The principal reasons for this attitude will be the high costs for demolition due to regulations regarding noise, dust, traffic problems and many other inconveniences. On the other hand, after 30 to 50 years, an office building becomes less attractive for renting, and the owner will look for renovation, for example getting a more modern faade for his building. The design concept should facilitate such renovations, without demolition of the rest of the structure. The initial concept of the entire building will therefore have to take account of the life span of the different components of the building: load bearing structure: up to 100 years and more; facade: 30 to 60 years; services: 20 years. Consequently everything apart of the main structure should be designed replaceable and renewable within the normal building life to avoid early termination. Periodic refurbishment, major modifications, replacements and improvements throughout the building life shall be possible. Protection of the environment: in many countries the design of buildings and structures continues to be determined solely by the factors of "capital" and "labour" employed by ecologically unregulated market economies. This will become expensive when "nature" is added as the third market-determining factor with the full cost required to be paid. Preserving the environment is becoming globally increasingly important. In Europe, some governments are already imposing regulations as regards the disposal of plastic, recovering of packaging, recycling of waste, ground pollution by chemicals, etc. It is expected that more severe restraints will be imposed in construction, e.g. with respect to emissivity of materials, shortage of raw materials, waste dumping, noise and dust, energy consumption etc.

6. Conclusion
Prefabrication has a great potential to respond to new market demands. Possible solutions lie not only within the classical advantages related to working conditions, technology and speed of construction, but also in new developments of materials such as high performance and self-compacting concrete, buildings systems such as mixed structures, manufacturing technology, automation, service integrated products and others.