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AIRCRAFT DESIGN: Market analysis technical requirements ( payload typically the main purpose of the aircraft is to transport payload,

d, range longest distance that can be flown without refueling, speed, maximum altitude, endurance amount of time an aircraft can fly without refueling. Typical requirement for reconnaissance aircraft, takeoff and landing distance length of runway needed to accelerate, lift-off and climb to prescribed obstacle height; descend from a specified height of 50ft, touchdown and rest. Use of thrust reversers not considered), cost, airworthiness, others Noise: restriction to operation. Case of Concorde. Requires advances in airframe and engine technology. Radar Detectability: use of radar absorbing material, shape tailoring for radar cross section reduction.) -> Aircraft Design conceptual design (can the design meet the specifications? Design process starts with a set of requirements for a new aircraft. Driven by a desire to implement new ideas or technology. Concept overall shape, estimates of size, weight, performance. Outcome sketches of computer drawing of the aircraft configuration. Major drivers are aerodynamics, propulsion and flight performance. Structural and control system considerations are not dealt in detail), preliminary design (only minor changes are made to the configuration. Serious structural and control system analysis and design. CFD and wind tunnel testing, if undesirable aerodynamics/stability characteristics are shown, a rethink to config layout. At the end, config layout is fixed. Lofting is carried out where the precise shape of the outside skin of the aircraft is defined precisely, making sure that all sections of the aircraft fit properly.), detailed design (nuts and bolts phase of the aircraft design. All analysis completed in preliminary design phase (aerodynamics, propulsion, structures, performance, flight control) how to manufacture rib, spar, skin design; fasteners, rivets, welded joints; manufacturing methods, composite,etc.) Aircraft design is a compromise of various requirements. Final decision depends on costs and projected income. The aircraft needs to be certified (Federal Aviation Authority) before operation. ENGINEERING GRAPHICS: Third angle projection (1) project view onto wall nearest to viewer (2) open box towards you. First angle project (1) project view onto opposite wall (2) open box away from you. Clearance fit the shaft size is always smaller than the hole size for all possible combinations within their tolerance ranges. Relative motion between shaft and hole is always possible. Transition fit the limits of sizes specified for a matching hole and shaft allow either a clearance fit or interference fit. Tolerance zones for both hole and shaft overlap. Interference fit always results in the min. shaft size being larger than the max hole size for all possible combinations within their tolerance ranges. Relative motion between shaft and hole is impossible. Trimming of Aircraft:Pilot action to set elevator deflection to get needed or CL to fly at certain flight conditions. Parameters: Flight speed V. Flight altitude h. CL. Engine throttle setting. Weight. V changes by pilot initiating nose up or nose down pitching moment. Done by elevator deflection causing upward or downward load behind Aircraft CG. Net F & M on a/c in trimmed flight = 0. A/c in equilibrium. Elevator up: Pitch up (position control-maintain position) Left aileron up: Roll left (rate control-roll &change back) Rudder deflected left: Yaw right (position control) Static Stability: Initial tendency of the body to return to equilibrium state after disturbance. (Energy dissipated) Static Instability: No tendency. Any disturb from equi leads to larger disturbance, motion divergent. E added to sys. Neutral Static Stability: Boundary b/w stable and instability. No tendency to return. Does not diverge. Level Flight Spd: Vmin Vmax and Flight Envelope Assumptions:fix Aircraft W, fixed engine setting /RPM. Absolute ceiling climb rate=0(Vmax=Vmin), Service ceiling climb rate=0.5m/s, performance ceiling =1m/s. For given W, D polar changes with h. For given RPM, thrust avail changes with h. Vmin & Vmax changes with h Lvl flight V b/w Vmin and Vmax, pilot must reduce engine setting or engine RPM(throttle down) (h vs V 18, flight envelope w/ additional boundaries) Mission Statement Range, speed, payload(pax/freight), T/O & landing req, manoeuvre/acceleration req, design standards or specification. Basis for Sizing Possible Design Drivers: Minimise life cycle cost, flyaway cost, direct op cost, fuel cost, TO gross W. Cost is real Design Driver but hard to estimate in early phase. For a given class of aircraft, Cost/kg is similar. Minimise WTO good choice of design drivers and useful criterion for comparing alternative design. WTO = WSTRU + WPROP + WFUEL + WFIX WFix = WTO [1 (WStru + WProp + WFuel)/ WTO] WTO = WFix / [1 (WStru + WProp + WFuel)/ WTO] Typical Values 0.29 + 0.15 + 0.31 WTO ~ 4 WFix WFix = Wsys + Wcrew + WPL Crew, equip, payload Given in a/c mission statement WFuel = 1.1 WMission Fuel Estimated from Mission analysis Also to provide reserve fuel, account for unusable or trapped fuel in system WEmpty = WStru + WProp Basic Structures (fuselage, wing,tails) & Propulsion Initial guess from statistical Rel: WEmpty = KS*A* WTOB KS: Structural Technology Factor Transport A/C: Wempty=0.911WTO0.947 Transport A/C turbulent: Wempty=0.5WTO0.9876 Mission Analysis for Fuel mission fuel= WTO WLAND mandatory to provide reserve fuel (5-7% of mission fuel) & unusable or trapped fuel (2-3%) WFUEL=1.1WMISSION FUEL Determine WEmpty WFix(mission statement) WFuel (mission analysis) known. Select 6-8 values of WTO in range of 3-5times WFIXED. Calculate WEmptyAvail=WTO-WFUEL-WFIX Using same WTO, find WEmptyReq from statistical curve. Assume KS. Plot Wempty vs WTO to get intersection Impt inputs for est. gross WTO fixed W, mission fuel, correlation b/w WEMPTY & WTO Impt Design Parameter Stall Speed Vstall = [(2/) (W/S) (1/CLmax)]1/2 W/S: WL Load Factor n = L/W Thrust to Weight Ratio = T/W (Thrust Loading) Take-off (take off dist-clear obstacle of 50ft) Acc Force a = T - D (W-L) Before TO, W = L As a increases, D increases but (W-L) decreases a is constant throughout At t=0, L=D=0, a = (T ) / (W/g) = (T/W )g VTO = 1.2 VStall = 1.2[(2/) (W/S) (1/CLmax)]1/2 T/W = [2.44 / (s1 K g CLmax) ] (W/S) + ; s1 = VTO2/2a => Thrust Loading is linearly related to Wing Loading Landing Deceleration Force = D + (W-L) + F F: Reversed Thrust or Drag chute Force d = [ D + (W L) + F ]g/W ~ Fg / W L & D become small during landing VLand = 1.3 VStall = 1.3[(2/) (W/S) (1/CLmax)]1/2 (W/S)Land = (d s2 CLmax ) / (1.69kapp); W=kAPPWTO => Wing Loading is independent of Thrust Loading Cruise (fly at flight V just below drag diverg:q=const) Drag D = CD0qS + kCL2qS W=kcruise WTO T/W = (CD0q)/(W/S) + (k/q)(W/S) T=cruise TmaxSL = (CD0q/cruise)/(W/S) + (k/q)(k2cruise/cruise)(W/S) => Low cruise speed T/W ~ 1/(W/S); high cruise speed T/W ~ W/S) Climb W=kclimb WTO W=climb TmaxSL T/W = sin + 1/(L/D)max = (kclimb/climb)[sin + 1/(L/D)max] => T/W is independent of W/S Constraint diagram: feasible design space

CMCP = C MAC + CL (XCP XAC) = 0 XCP = XAC CMAC / CL (+ve cambered, CMAC <0) Flap Effectiveness No Flap Def: CL = CL( L0) With Flap Def: CL = CL( L0) + (CLdf) f = CL{( L0) + f } = CLdf / CL CL=CL f

Engine Power and Thrust with speed and Altitude Propeller Aircraft: Power remains constant with V Turbo Jet Aircraft: Thrust remains constant with V (Power = Thrust * Speed) (graph of p vs V)

Dynamic Stability: positive,

negative,

neutral Excess Thrust in Steady Climb max engine setting and flight Vmin<V<Vmax, thrust in excess of drag, (T-D) avail for climb;climb rate=(T-D)V/W=(PA-PR)/W=SEP Plot SEP in speed range; get max climb rate and corresp V; find variation of max climb rate for different h. Time to Climb from SL to Altitude T =h0 1/(R/C)dh Plot inverse of climb rate 1/(R/C)vs.h. Area=climb time If R/C Linear, R/C=(a + bh): from h=SL to h0 T = 1/b * [ln(a+bh0) ln a] Assume W=constant, engine setting fixed Range & Endurance of Jet Powered Aircraft Range: Ground dist transverse with full tank. Endurance: Time of flight with full tank.(loiter time) Thrust Specific Fuel Consumption TSFC cT: Fuel consumed by engine per unit thrust generated in unit time.[Kg/(Ns)] Rate of change of A/C weight = Rate of fuel consumed. dW/dt= -TR CT g ;TR=D, L=W (Level Flight) E=WiWf (CL/CD)(1/CT g)dW/W R==WiWf {2/(S)}1/2(CL1/2/CD)(1/CT g)(1/W1/2) dW Assumptions:constant with constant CL & CD, fixed engine setting with constant TSFC, constant h cruise E = (CL/CD) (1/ cTg ) ln(Wi/Wf) R= 2(2/ S)1/2 (CL 1/2/CD) (1/ cTg ) [Wi - Wf] Max E: Fly with (CL/CD)max & min TSFC & max fuel; Dmin throughout flight. Max R: Fly with (CL 1/2/CD)max at high altitude with min & min TSFC & max fuel; (D/V)min instantaneous. (graph of max endurance and range )

Airfoil Geometry: Max camber: Max b/w chord and mean camber Terminologies: Lift L: Force perpend to free stream Drag D: Force parallel to free stream Pitching Moment Mc/4: Moment about c/4 point Aerodynamic Centre AC: Point on airfoil chord about which pitching moment constant with or CL. c/4:thin airfoil Centre of Pressure: Point on airfoil chord about which pitching moment is 0(varies with ). Lift only acts at CP

Downwash w eff = - i Cl = a0 eff = a a < a0 Di = Leff i Lift Curve Slope & Induced D 3D Wing a=a0/[1+a0/eAR]:Oswalds efficiency Factor(0.85-1) Aircraft Total Drag Zero- L/Parasite D: CD0 = CD0 SF + CD0 Form Induced/ Lift Dep D: CDi = kCL2 = CL2/(eAR) Drag Due Compressibility/Wave D: CDwave=CDwave(M) Total D: CD = CD0 + CDi + CDwave Skin Friction Drag Cf,lam = 0.664/ReL (local) CF,lam = 1.328/ReL (averaged or total) CF,Tur = 0.074/ Re0.2 (averaged or total) CF turb = 0.455/(log10 Rel)2.58 (total) DF,Tur = CF,Tur Swet q Boundary Layer Thickness (/L)lam = 5.2/ReL0.5 Flow over Airfoil & Aerodynamic Force (/L)turb =0.37/ReL0.2 Flow over airfoil results in normal Pa and tangential (viscous) Zero Lift Drag for Wing shear stress on surface of airfoil. Results in Lift, Drag & CD0 = CD0 SF + CD0 Form Pitching Moment. (By integration over area) = CF Swet/Sref + k CF Swet/Sref FormD /SkinFricD= k =0: Separation pt near TE. Narrow wake. Skin friction D. = (1+k) CF Swet /Sref (1+k): Form Factor for Wing Increase : Separation pt moves forward. Narrow wake. Skin k is function of t/c(k is fn of Length/dia for fuselage) Fric D. At stall angle, Separation pt moves forward a lot. Swet = 2.003 Sexposed for t/c <0.005 Widening wake. Pressure D dominates. Post stall regime: flow Swet =2[1.997+0.52(t/c)] Sexposed for t/c >0.005 fully separated over upper surface. Wake wide. Pa D predom. Aircraft Drag Polar 2 CL max at stall, CL slope dependent on Reynolds number CD = CD0 + CDi = CD0 + kCL k = 1 /(eAR) Streamlined: SF D dominates (ZLL: zero lift line) Bluff: Pa or Wake D dominates

Aircraft Sizing Based on estimated WTO & optimum values of T/W and W/S chosen in feasible design space, meeting all design requirements, can get max engine thrust T at SL and wing area S. Objective in determining gross TO weight, Max engine thrust at SL and Wing area S have been met. Design process can now proceed in terms of 1) Engine selection and installation in airframe considering envelop, weight. Tradeoff b/w range and payload max payload: 2) aerodynamic design of wing (airfoil selection, AR, Fuel,max gross W,Range; Max gross W:payload, taper ratio) structural layout. Process is iteratively using fuel,range; max fuel:payloadgross W,range mission analysis, fuel W, empty W & gross W Fuselage Layout Driven by passenger seating Design Flow Chart-problem definition, information arrangement, cabin amenities and housing a/c sys retrieval, A/C requirements, configuration options, avonics, elec, hydraulic. Cabin layout done for mix of initial sizing, baseline evaluation, constraint analysis, passenger in 2/3 classes. Guidelines: Head room, aisle refined baseline, parametric analysis, final baseline width, seat width, emergency door. Built in functional design, baseline analysis, A/C type specification modules,front centre rear. Accommodating wing root (design flexibility) joints, landing gear bracket. Int Pressure of cabin Airfoil Drag Polar maintained at 5-8psi for passenger comfort. Profile D: Total drag of airfoil Fuselage Aerodynamics Configuration 2D Profile D: Skinfr D, Pa D, Wave D (Trans/SupersonicV) Fineness ratio of norm 10 to accommodate payload. 3D Parasite D: 2D profile + Induced D In cruise, horizontal for comfort and min frontal area. At low speed and moderate For max L/D, CD0=kCL2 (d(CL/CD)/dCL =0 ) Wing at positive angle wrt FRL so cruise has enough Flow attached to airfoil. Mission Profile-Level acceleration, climb, cruise, loiter, to generate enough L. Rear fuselage with enough Tangent to D polar from origin= (CL/CD)max Narrow wake. Pa D < SF D. take off, landing D = (CD) q S = (CD0 + kCL2) q S --------(1) upsweep angle ~ 12o. for ground clearance at TO and Near stall, flow separated. Fuel = Primary + Diversion + Reserve Level Flight: CL = W / (q S) --------(2) Landing. Wide wake. Pa D > SF D. Subst (2) into (1) (V , parasite D, induced D ) Diversion: In case of landing alternative Longitudinal Stability and Control At certain small +ve , min D. Asymmetric for camber airfoil D = AV2 + B/V2 A = CD0 S / 2, B = 2kW2/ ( S) Reserve:Trapped fuel due to bends in pipe, backup fuel Wing & Tail Angle W=L + L W-B T 2 2 At VDmin, Both components of D equal. AV = B/V . NACA 4 Digit: 4415 4: Max Cam 0.04c Role of Aircraft Mission Analysis in Aircraft Design MCG=MACW-B LW-B(XACW-XCG)+MACT-LTIT 4: Position of Max Camber 0.4c 15: t/c ratio 0.15 A/C design starts with definition of payload and a/c Typically MACW-B<0 LT<0 and tail set to ve 5 Digit: 23015 2: Max Cam 0.02c 30: CL=0.15(2) = 0.30 mission profile. Design process starts with estimation of Tail angle setting iT<0, canard setting iC>0 30: Position of Max Cam = (0.30/2)c 15: t/c ratio 0.15 a/c gross weight(WTO) followed by a/c sizing(W/S) and engine selection (T/W). A/C weight estimated by 3 Flap Effectiveness Measure of effectiveness of deflectable major heading: Empty weight(WE), Payload(WP), surface to enhance CL and represents equivalent incremental Mission fuel(WF). Mission Analysis plays major role in of lifting surface added per unit deflection of flap f. early iterative design process, and in operation phase of o o 1 flap deflection f is equivalent to of . VDmin = {(2/)(W/S)(k/CD0)} ; a/c in planning mission to suit operators requirements in (L/D)max = 1/( 2(kCD0 ) trading off fuel weight or range with payload. Nature of Wing, Fuselage & Tail Cm Characteristics High Lift Device: TE Flap & LE Slat Aircraft in Climbing Flight (Loss of fuel) Civil Transport mission No change in Lift curve slope Climb angle: Angle of Attack: Minor drop in STALL due TE flap Aircraft Attitude: = + SEFF increase with TE flap Lift: Perpendicular to Flight Dir LE slat delays stall Drag: Parallel to Flight Dir Weight: Vertically down (FRL) Boundary Layer Thin layer near body with large velocity Thrust: Propulsive Force along FuselageReferenceLine gradient where viscous effect dominates. From 0 velo at Stick Fixed NP CM=0 Neutral point equation: Military mission profile surface(No slip condi) the flow velo reach freestream velo in a xNP/c= xAC/c-CMf /CLw+VH CLt /CLW (1-d/d) thin layer. Viscous shear stress w at surface known as SF. Integrated over airfoil to give SF D. At Reynolds number above 2k, the flow changes from laminar to turbulent, which promotes efficient momentum transfer b/w free stream and BL flows, delay separation. Turbulent BL thinner with more shear Steady Climb stress compared to laminar BL. T cos D W sin = 0 Aircraft System Aircraft is a system of systems belonging Static Margin SM = XNP - XCG (dist b/w NP & CG) L + T sin W cos = 0 to different discipline. Multidisciplinary Design Flow Separation Low E fluid particles in BL not able to SM > 0. CG Forward Stable Small , Neglect thrust T compared to L Optimization (MDO) and System Integration play a major move forward or remain attached in increasing pressure field SM < 0. CG Backward Unstable role in aircraft design. experienced in decelerating flow(adverse Pa gradient) like in T = D + W sin (T supports D and part of W) L = W cos (Lift nearly = Weight in shallow climb) Control = Sensing + Computation + Actuation = Feedback aft region of circular cylinder or airfoil flow beyond max (T-D)V/W = Vsin = SEP, Load factor=L/W=cos =1 Transport mission profile thickness point. Flow separates from surface forming wide Aircraft Hydraulic System Valve is opened, hydraulic Accelerated Climb low Pa region(wake) behind body. Causes large Pa D or wake flows into actuator and presses against piston causing it to T cos D W sin = W/g * (dv/dt) D(Form D) Turbulent Separation delayed due to efficient move and in turn move attached control surface. (T-D)V/W = Vsin + V/g * (dv/dt) momentum transfer b/w free stream and BL, narrow down Application: Used for flight control, actuation of flaps, = R/C Term (PE) + Acc Term (KE) wake, reduce pre drag and total drag slats weapon bays landing gear. Provide extra force Longitudinal Controls = Specific Excess Power Aircraft Wetted Area Swet Exposed surface area visualized as Elevator Angle e vs CL for Trim and Cg Transverse required to move large control surfaces in heavy aerody loads. Specification: Fluids MIL-H-5606, MIL-H-83282 T a/c ext area that would get wet if dipped in water(Top Gliding Performance (T=0, No Weight Change) Range: -65OF 295 OF. Pressure: 3k5k psi hydraulic system. Bottom ) Req for estimation of SkinFrict D Glide angle: below horizon Problem: Heavy, High maintenance (Cost, Log problem) D = W sin tan = D/ L Aircraft Performance Study of Aircraft motion considering it L = W cos require space. Improvement: Electric actuators: Consists Small Glide Angle as a point mass with aerodynamic, propulsive and inertia Gliding Performance In constant glide for max range, of a small electric motor, pump and actuator ram require cos = 1, L = W sin = tan = D / W forces acting on it flight speed V with h to maintain equilibrium in about 1 pint of hydraulic fluid. Provide significant weight Point Pfm: Vmax Vmin Vstall at various h. Climb rate(SEP). Turn R = h / tan = h (L/D)max = h / (2(kCD0)) savings by eliminating pumps and hydraulic lines. Also Flight Parameter Max R Max E glide() rate. Acceleration in flight ceiling. Absolute ceiling. 3/2 glide angle remain constant, sink rate,dh/dt with h. time Dimensioning 1)parallel D: originate from one decrease needed maintenance. Impact on Design: Need to (L/D)max or (CL/CD) or Dmin (CL /CD)max Field Pfm:Take-off,landing Dist&Time @various Altitude h Optimum allow enough space for required hydraulic system. Weight source. 2)running (superimposed): reduces space. CL(L/D)max = (CD0/k) 1.732CLRange of flight using avg sink rate at interval of h. Path Pfm: Transonic acc time from M = 0.8 to M = 1.2 Time CL Max range: CD0=kCL2, Max endurance: 3CD0=kCL2 of system must be accounted. 3)chain 4)combined CD0 R=2 CD0 2 CD0 R to climb from SL to any Alt or cruise Alt. R&E for given fuel CD Max endurance-max time of flight E=dt=-dh/Vsin Size tolerancing 1)Bilateral 1.250.003. 2)unilateral R = (L/D)max 1.732 R Mission Performance: Fuel & Time req for detailed flight Wing Flow Field Lifting wing modelled as horse shoe 1.250(.001top,.003bottom) 3)Limit form 1.251 1.247 (L/D)max = 1/(2(kCD0)) 0.866 (L/D)R segments of A/C mission profile considering change in A/C (L/D)Range vortex. Induces downwash field at wing resulting eff. Types of fit 1) clearance: space btw mating parts 1.155 R mass due to fuel burnt and dropping of loads/weapons if any. GlideAngle 1/ [(L/D)R] = 2(kCD0) ) 2)interference: need force to assemble 2 parts -reduction in lift, backward tilting of lift 0.76 VR Wing-tip Vortex Formed when high-Pa air on lower surface FlightSpd V {(2/)(W/S)(k/CD0)} SinkRate (dh/dt)R= -VRange * Range 0.878 (dh/dt)R 3D wing exp lower , hence lower lift. Tail higher than 3)transition: may result in either of above spills up over wing-tip into low-Pa space on upper surface. Datum: line or plane servin as global coordinate wing so that flow at tail not affected by wing wake. Range h (L/D)max = h/(2(CD0/k)) 0.866 Rmax frame during design,manu,inspection. L perpen to free stream, Leff perpen to Veff. Leff has Endurance [(CL3/2/CD) / (2W/S)1/2 ] 1/2 dh 1.14 ER component Di = Leff i in free stream velocity direction, Types of tolerances 1)form -straightness, flatness, circularity, cylindricity 2) profile (of a surface) which is known as induced D or Lift Dep D. 3)orientation angularity, perpendicularity, parallelism 4)location -position, concentricity, symmetry 5)runout circular runout, total runout. In level flight, Used only in cylindrical parts Dynamic head q =V2/2 Wing area = S L = q S CL =W D = q S CD = T Re = V l / AR = b2/S Wing Loading = W/S Aerodynamic Centre & Centre of Pressure (nxt column)

MTOW maximum gross weight (mass) at which an aircraft is permitted to take off. It is the heaviest weight at which the aircraft is proved to satisfy all the airworthiness requirements (strength, safety and performance) applicable to it. MTOW does not vary with age or other parameters (altitude, length of the runway, air temperature, condition of runway, weather and visibility); usually specified in kg/ metric tons/ pounds; MPTOW may vary according to flap setting, altitude, air temperature, length of runway, weather condition, aircraft age etc. cannot be higher than MTOW. MTOW (a) empty weight (b) non-expendable payload (c) weight of fuel. Price to pay for high MTOW lower speed, require extended landing distance, pay higher airport landing fee, pay higher airport parking fee. MTOW calculations Assume W0(ready to fly aircraft); W1(Engine start-up & take off) = 0.975xW0, W2(climb and acceleration to cruise)=W1x(1-0.04Ma)[Ma<1] or W1x(0.96-0.03(M-1))[M>=1]; L/D=A+10 [Ma<1] or L/D = 11M^(-0.5) [M>=1]; V=[1036-0.0034(Hc-20,000)]xMa; W3(cruise to destination)=W2/ {exp[RxC/VxD/L]}; W4(loiter)=W3/{exp[ExCxD/L]}; W5(landing)=0.975xW4; W(fuel)=1.06x(W0-W5); Wempty=W0-Wfuel-Wnexpayload; Required Wrempty = S x W0; Westimate = Wrempty + Wfuel + Wnepayload. Yes MTOW ~ Westimate, NO CASTING - process in which molten metal flows by gravity or other force into a mould where it solidifies in the shape of the mould cavity. Used in ingot formation for subsequent re-shaping. Basic features: pattern & mould; melting & pouring; cooling & solidification; removal & finishing. Casting carried out in foundry using moulds. Mould contains cavity, geometry determines shape of cast. Actual size & shape of cavity slightly oversized to allow for shrinkage occurring in the metal during solidification and cooling. Mould material: sand, plaster, ceramic, metal. Metal first heated to high temp, melt, and directed into mould cavity. Open mould- liquid metal poured until it fills the cavity; closed mould- passageway guided the molten metal flow into the cavity. Molten metal into mould, it begins to cool and solidify at right temp. Expendable mould- sand casting, plaster moulding, investment casting. Reusable mould- permanent mould, die casting. Open mould Setup: cast metal, mould. Closed mould: + pouring cup, riser(reservoir-supply molten metal to the solidifying cast(cast shrinks in process), cope, drag, core. Investment casting: 1.wax patterns produced 2. patterns attached to a sprue to form a pattern tree 3.tree is coated with thin layer of refractory material 4.full rigid mould is covered with refractory material 5.mould inverted, refractory heated, melt and drip out 6.mould preheated to high T, remove all contaminants. Helps in smooth flow of liquid metal poured in; not solidify too fast 7.mould is broken away from the finished casting 8.parts are separated from the sprue. Adv: complex and intricate cast, close dimensional control, good surface finish, wax reusable, additional machining not necessary. Disadv: High tooling cost, low production rate, eg high Tm steel alloys, Al. Sand mould: lowest tooling cost, Iron, steel, Cu-base, Al, Mg, Ni alloy. POWDER METALLURGY: a process whereby elemental or alloy powders are mixed and compacted in a die. The resultant shapes are sintered or heated in a furnace under controlled atmospheric conditions in order to bond the particles metallurgically.(if not, metal is brittle, can break by hand) Sintering Temp slightly lower than melting point of metal. Advantages: parts produced close to final dimensions, minimum or no machining; possible to have >97% of the initial raw material in the finished part, minimum scarp- less wastage; used to produce a wide variety of alloy systems; produces good surface finishes; parts can be further heat-treated for increased strength or wear resistance; controlled porosity; useful for manufacturing complex or unique shapes; suited for moderate-to high-volume production; long-term performance reliability in critical applications; cost effective. METAL FORMING these processes exploit the ability of metals to flow plastically in solid state. i.e. stress yield < stress applied < stress failure. Friction at tool-work interface, temperature, rate of deformation are important process parameters. Cold, warm and hot forming processes. Bulk deformation and sheet metal forming. Classification ( by temp)- COLD FORMING: conducted at room or slightly higher temperatures (adv)to create a highly directional grain structure with better tolerances, dimensional accuracy at less cost. (disadv)However, requires higher forces, over-hardening leads to brittleness. HOT FORMING: conducted at temperatures above the recrystallization temperature (~1/2 Tm) of the metal to create a finer grain size (deform and recrystalize) and less grain directionality with lower forces. Significant shape changes achieved. BULK DEFORMATION: (a)Rolling-Compressive deformation process. Thickness of metal slab/plate reduced by 2 opposing cylindrical rolls. Rolls rotate to draw the work into gap between them and squeeze it.(F perpendicular to V) (b)Forging- work piece compressed between 2 opposing dies, so that die shape imparted to the work. Hot (1/2Tm>recrystalized temp) or cold working process. (c)Extrusion- compression process in which work metal is forced through ( pushed into) a die opening, forcing it to take the shape of the opening as its x-section. (d)drawing- diameter of bar reduced by pulling it through a die opening. METAL FORGING- metal forging by hand held hammer, hammer forging by steam/air operated hammer, drop forging by hammering billet into die, press forging by slow squeezing of metal into die, roll forging by hot working action of roll dies. Open die forging- max true strain, = ln(h0/hf), force,F=kf*Yf*xsection, forging shape factor, kf= 1+(0.4D/h), flow stress, Yf= K*^n Barreling effect: workpiece under open-die forging process develops barrel shape. This is caused primarily by frictional forces that oppose outward flow of the material at the contact interface. Also occur in upsetting hot workpieces between cold dies. Material at and near the interfaces cools rapidly. Strength of material decrease with temp, ends of specimen deform less than material at centre. Central portion deforms more than the ends. SHEET METAL FORMING PROCESSES: forming and related operations performed on metal sheets, strips and coils. The surface area-to-volume ration of the starting metal is high. (a) bending straining of a metal sheet to take an angle usually along a straight axis. (b) drawing forming of a flat metal sheet into a hollow or concave shape, by stretching the metal. Sometimes termed as cup or deep drawing (c) shearing although, not strictly a forming process, included as a necessary operation. In shearing, punch first contacts the sheet at the corner of the die(anvil), applies force to pierce through, and finally moves the cut piece down. SHOT PEENING: surfaces of metal parts have tiny defect, fissures, microcracks and high stress areas, induced during manufacturing and machining. When such metal part is stressed and subjected to fatigue loading, these surface defects enlarge and propagate through the part leading to failure. Preventive measure cold working process(room temp) of shot peening. PROCESS: impacting a surface with small shots (~1mm dia. Round metallic, glass or ceramic particles) with force sufficient to create plastic deformation. Each shot functions as a ball-peen hammer. The plastic deformation induces compressive stress in the surface layer and tensile stress in the interior. Surface compressive stresses enhances fatigue resistance and resistance to some forms of corrosion. Tensile stresses deep in the part are not as problematic and less likely to start cracks in the interior. Outcome depends on hardness of the metal and the shots, size, velocity, duration and angle of impingement. FLAT ROLLING ANALYSIS: Draft = t0-tf (thickness ); Reduction = d/t0; Spreading = Wf-W0(width); Wf = (t0.W0.L0)/(tf.Lf), (by constant vol); max true strain, = ln (t0/tf); average flow stress, Yf = (K^n)/(1+n), ,K:strength coeff(MPa), n: strain hardening exponent; coeff of friction, = (dmax/Roll radiusR)^0.5; roll contact length,L = [R*(T0-Tf)]^0.5; roll force,F = Yf * W0 * L; Torque req,T = 0.5 * F * L CASTING IN AEROSPACE- aluminium: used for lightly loaded secondary structures (chair hand rests, door handles etc.); high shrinkage upon solidification (up to 6%); common used alloys: A357 high Si(7%), easy to cast; A201 high Cu(5%), higher strength. Titanium: difficult to cast, reacts with atmosphere and the casting mold, investment casting followed by hot isostatic press helpful. HOT ISOTATIC PRESS(HIP) for POWDER METALLURGY: Powder of mixture of several elements placed in a steel can and subjected to elevated T and high vacuum to remove air and moisture from powder. Container sealed and compacted under high inert gas Pressure(argon) from all sides at elevated T, results in removal of internal voids and creates a strong metallurgical bond throughout material. End product is a clean homogeneous material with uniform fine grain size and near 100% density. Applications: Superalloys, Engine parts, bladed rotors, Beryllium: unalloyed Be used in high value optical components and precision instruments that require excellent stiffness, low thermal expansion, low distortion and high stability against thermal stresses. ROLLING IN AEROSPACE: Produce Al sheets (0.15-0.63mm thick) and plates (>0.63mm thick) for fuselage and wing skins, stringers and bulkheads. Consists of hot rolling (400-450Centigrade) an ingot (weighing over 20T) to form up to 200mm thick slab. Slabs may be spray quenched to harden and stretched to relieve stresses. These thick plates can be further cold rolled to form sheets and plates of desired thickness. FORGING IN AEROSPACE: Aluminium(support frames, highly loaded parts) Machining may result in distortion due to residual stress generated during forging. Titanium: difficult to forge. (jet engine parts) Open die forging is carried out prior to closed die forging. Beta forging: high fracture toughness, but reduced fatigue life. Alpha+Beta forging gives optimum results. ALUMINIUM FORGING: Mostly produced in closed dies. Hydraulic presses (strain rate<0.1s-1) are preferred over hammer forging (strain rate>10s-1) All 2XXX and 7XXX forged alloys are heat treated after forging. Residual stresses generated during forging and subsequent heat treatment can cause significant distortion when the part is machined. Application: compressor discs, turbine discs, helicopter rotor hubs, aircraft landing gear, aircraft wheels and brakes. SUPERPLASTIC FORMING: Solid crystalline metal sheet is given desired shape by forming it super plastically. Super plasticity is a state which solid crystalline metal is deformed by large % beyond breaking pt. Single sheet process uses a single sheet of metal sealed around its periphery between upper and lower die. Lower die is given desired shape of the final part. Die and sheet are maintained at SPF Temp and argon gas Pa used to form the sheet down over the tool. Lower cavity is maintained under vacuum or can be vented to the atm. After the sheet is heated to its superplastic T range, gas P is injected in the upper die. This pressurizes cavity above the metal sheet forcing it to superplastically form to shape of lower die. Gas P applied slowly so that the strains in the sheet are maintained in the superplastic range and Pa is varied during the forming process to maintain required slow strain rate. Adv: Excellent precision, fine finish, no residual stresses/ spring back, products can be made larger to reduce weight/ eliminate assemblies. Adv for Ti for SPF: Able to make parts that are not possible by other methods, reduced forming stresses, improved formability, reduced cost, no spring back. Ti: SPF with diffusion bonding. COMPOSITES MANUFACTURING controlling parameters: 1.material properties ie resins, fibres, core materials. 2. Form and complexity of the product, tooling and processing costs, required properties of product. Steps in Manu Process: Fabrication of moulds. Cutting and laying up of fibrous reinforcement. Impregnation of the fibrous media by resin. Curing of resin saturated lay-up. Finishing and trimming of composite part s (a) Hand Lay-up: simple, low-cost moulds, no restriction on part size; popular for low-temp glass/polymer composite application (small boats, automobile bodies, furniture, sinks, diving boards, septic tanks), labour intensive and messy, limited production rate; Use of gelcoat: expoxy or unsaturated polyester resin applied to moulds to produce high quality finish on the visible surface of a fibrereinforced composite material (b) Spray Lay-up: open mould process, uses mechanical spraying and chopping equipment for depositing the resin and chopped reinforcement on the gel coat that was applied to the mould, the materials are left to cure under standard conditions, allows a greater production rate and more uniform parts than hand lay-up, complex parts can be fabricated, low moulding/tooling costs, possibility for small series, parts tend to be resin-rich and heavy, mechanical properties limited by the use of short fibres, health and safety precautions necessary, low viscosity resins can only be used, has very little application in aerospace, being used to join back-up structures to composite tools, also has some limited use for producing transfer tools; (c) Vacuum Bag Moulding: an extension of wet lay-up, in order to improve consolidation of a laminate laid-up by hand or spray, pressure of up to 1atm is applied, mostly autoclave curing is used, moulding prepregs=vacuum bag prepreg moulding , better control over resin content, cleaner and neat process, expensive, used mainly for primary and secondary structural components, LAYER SEQUENCE: vacuum bag, caul plate*, breather material, release film (perforated), bleeder material*, release fabric, peel plies*, composite lay-up, release fabric*, release film*, tool, envelope vacuum bag*. Peel Ply : applied to lay-up surface. Removed from cured laminate prior to bonding, leaves behind a clean surface. Breather: loosely woven material acts as continuous vacuum path. Protects vacuum line from resin (d) Filament winding: primarily used for hollow, generally circular or oval sectioned products, fibres can be either dry or pulled through a resin bath before being wound onto the mandrel, winding pattern is controlled by rotational speed of the mandrel and movement of the fibre feeding mechanism, Helical very versatile, fibre carriage traverses back and forth, cross-over winding; Polar simpler, constant speed, no traversing of carriage, excellent for spherical shapes; Hoop simplest, often combined with polar, good for cylindrical shapes. Any kind of continuous fibres and resin can be processed, fast process, low material cost (fibres straight from the creel are used. No need for fabric or perform), structural properties can be very good, resin content can be controlled reliably, limited to convex shaped components, mandrel costs can be high, difficult to lay fibres along component length, external surface of the component cosmetically unattractive, typical applications chemical storage tanks, gas cylinders, fire-fighters breathing tank, etc. Prepreg: Prepreg stands for pre-impregnated, which basically means already impregnated. Got resin, no curing. (e) Pultrusion a dry fibrous preform is taken through a resin bath to saturate it, the wet lay-up is subsequently passed through a heated die to cure sufficiently before it is cut into the require lengths. Extremely cost-effective for making long parts, restrictions on having a constant cross-section, limited choice for fibre orientation, suited for continuous fibre reinforcement, minimal scrap, high initial set-up cost, parts can have higher porosity and void content, used in floor beams for aircrafts. (f) Resin Transfer Moulding: resin is injected under pressure into a pre-compacted fibrous media (preform) enclosed in a mould. The saturated perform is then cured under specified temperature conditions. The process can be simulated using the empirical Darcys law that defines fluid flow rate (V) to the pressure gradient (P/L), viscosity of the resin (n) and the permeability of the porous medium (K) as V=Q/A=K/n * P/L.Q:resin flow rate, A:x-section of fibre. Advantages: a relatively high performance production method, the fibre-to-resin ration achievable is about 60%, not as high as prepregs, makes production of complex structures relatively easy, double sided mould helps to obtain the surfaces of high quality finish and within certain tolerances, workers are less affected by the chemicals compared to other production methods, suitable for various types of fibres/fabric and different types of resin systems; Disadvantages: matched tooling could be very expensive, trials not affordable, entire component has to be scrapped because of a small manufacturing defect, cannot be used for one-shot sandwich structures where the cells are open and can get filled up with resin, injection ports and air vents shall be located suitably to avoid weld-line defects. Plastics Thermoforming: process in which flat thermoplastic sheet is heated and deformed into the desire shape, consists of two main steps: heating and forming, heating usually accomplished using radiant electric heaters, located on one or both sides of the plastic sheet, heating cycle depends on the type of polymer, its thickness, glass transition temperature and melting temperature. VACUUM ASSISTED - use negative pressure to draw a preheated sheet into a mould cavity, vacuum holes of the order of 0.8mm in diameter, hold time is very important, cycle may last from 30sec to a few minutes. MECHANICAL ASSISTED matching +ve and ve molds are brought together against a plastics sheet forcing it to assume the shape of a mould cavity, better surface detailing and control over dimensions, no air pressure used, higher mould cost. PRESSURE ASSISTED pressure up to 3 to 4 atm are common, vent holes necessary to allow the trapped air out, even cool down with ve molds, uniformly controlled thinning, possible to use +ve molds. PLASTIC INJECTION MOULDING thermoplastics granules are heated, homogenized, melted and injected under pressure into metal moulds. When the molten plastic hardens into a designated shape, the mould opens and the newly formed part is removed. Uses: complex, intricate and near net shape parts. Typical moulding cycle: mould closed, melt injected into cavity, screw is retracted, mould opens and part ejected. Shrinkage polymers have high CTE and shrink significantly while cooling, expressed as the reduction in linear size that occurs during cooling from molding to room temperature (mm/mm or %), volumetric shrinkage could be up to 10%, crystalline polymers shrink more than amorphous, fillers tend to reduce shrinkage, mould design shall account for shrinkage (cavity generally larger than the actual part) Dc=Dp+Dp*S D: dimension; c: cavity; p: part; S: shrinkage Applic: windscreens, windshields, inner outer cabin windows, a/s toilet, wingtip lenses, instrument panels; Properties: Optically clear, lightweight, thermal shock and heat resistant, increased resistance to solvent attacks and water absorption, improved dimensional stability after heating MACHINING & MACHINE TOOLS: it is group of material removal processes in which a sharp cutting tool is used to cut away material to leave the desired part shape. Material removed is called CHIP. Adv: Can be applied to a wide variety of work materials (all solid metals, some plastics and composites, except ceramics. Variety of part shapes and geometric features such as flat planes, round holes, cylinders (even screw threads, T-slots) can be created. Good dimensional accuracy. Some can achieve tolerances of 0.025mm. capable of creating very smooth surface finishes, roughness values less than 0.4 microns can be achieved. Disadv: wasteful of material, time consuming. CUTTING ACTION relative motion required, achieved by means of a primary motion, cutting speed (v) and a secondary motion, feed (f). rake angle () angle at which chip is oriented, relief angle: flank surface orientation angle. MATERIAL REMOVAL rate = v * f * d, d = depth of cut. TURNING straight turning, taper turning, contour turning. Req single cutting edge tools, rotating work piece. DRILLING through hole, blind hole. Tool has 2 cutting edges, workpiece held stationary while tool rotates. MILLING peripheral milling, face milling. Tools with multiple cutting edges, tool moved slowly relative to the material to generate a plane or a straight surface. Types of Drilling Operations: (a) Reaming to slightly enlarge a hole, to provide better tolerance on hole diameter, and to improve its surface finish. Tool has straight flutes (b) Tapping performed by a tap, used to provide internal screw threads on an existing hole (c) Counterboring provides a stepped hole, larger diameter follows smaller diameter (d) Countersinking similar to counterboring, except that the step in the hole is cone-shaped for flush-fitting of screws and bolt heads (e) Centering drills a starting hole to accurately establish its location for subsequent drilling using twist drill (f)spotfacing- similar to milling, used to provide a flat machined surface on the workpart in a localized area. Drilling composite laminates more difficult than metals due to their low sensitivity to heat damage, and weakness in the through-thickness direction. Very susceptible to surface splintering that can occur at both the drill entrance and exit side of the hole. Drill induces peeling force on top piles during entry, induce punching forces on bottom plies during exit. Milling Machine: column supports the spindle, and knee supports the work table. Arbor is a shaft that holds the milling cutter and is driven by the spindle. Overarm is provided on horizontal machines to support the arbor. On vertical machines, milling cutters can be mounted directly in the spindle without an arbor. Universal mills have a table that can be turned in a horizontal plane to any angle to facilitate cutting of angular shapes. In a ram mill, ram can be adjusted in and over the worktable to locate the cutter relative to the work. Face Milling Operations conventional, partial face, end, profile, pocket and surface contouring. Peripheral Milling Operations slab milling, slotting, side and straddle milling. NON-CONVENTIONAL MACHINING, CUTTING AND JOINING: conventional removal of material by forming a chip from the work by shear deformation using a cutting tool. Non-conventional removal of excess material without using a cutting tool, instead, various techniques involving mechanical, thermal, electrical or chemical energy are used. MECHANICAL erosion of material by high velocity stream of abrasives of fluid. ELECTRICAL reverse of electroplating plating, use of electrochemical energy. THERMAL material removed by vaporisation and/or fusion. CHEMICAL selective removal of material by chemical attack. Electrical Discharge Machining: material removal by the eroding action of small electrical sparks, Cathodic tool anodic metal work, dielectric fluid as media. Slight overcut for easy fluid flow. Sparks jump over intentionally maintained gap between tool and work piece. Dielectric fluid does not conduct electric current under normal circumstances. For EDM, the dielectric fluid insulates & cools the electrodes & workpiece, conveys spark, flush away removed metal Applicable to any conductive material. Work piece hardness is no concern. Electro Chemical Machining material removal by etching away unwanted material, an electrode (cathode) and workpiece (conductor) are places in an electrolyte and a potential voltage is applied. The anode side of the metal molecules loses electrons and breakfree of the workpiece and travel thru the electrolyte to the electrode. Practically any material that conducts electricity can be machined. A high capital expenditure (a 10,000A machine costs over US$100k) Possible tolerances: 0.03mm. No damaging effect to the work-piece from heat and no residual stresses. Electron Beam Machining: uses high velocity stream of electrons focused on a work surface to remove material. Electron stream accelerated to 75% of speed of light (3x10 8 m/s), carried out in vacuum chamber. Material removal by a melting and vaporizing action caused by a high-velocity stream of electrons, well suited for micro-machining of thin materials and small-dia hole drilling, cumbersome and expensive process, performance is independent of material hardness and electrical conductivity, suitable for all metals and alloys, adaptable to ceramic, plastic and glass. Laser Beam Machining: laser (light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation) is monochromatic (has single wavelength) and highly collimated (light rays in the beam are almost parallel), these properties allow laser to be focused, using optical lenses unto a very small spot with resulting high power densities uses light energy from a laser to remove material by vaporization and ablation(heat assisted erosion), drilling small dia holes possible down to 0.025mm, not a mass production process, generally used on thin workpiece, suitable for almost all materials (metals with high hardness and strength, soft metals, ceramics, glass, wood, glass composites, plastics, rubber, cloth) Water Jet Cutting: uses a fine, high pressure, high velocity stream of water directed at work surface to cut into it, to obtain the fine water stream, a small nozzle of 0.1-0.4mm dia is used, to provide sufficient energy pressures up to 400 Mpa and jet velocities of 900m/s are used, to minimize dispersion of the fluid a typical standoff distance of about 3.2mm(0.125in) is adopted effective for thin and soft materials such as polymers, sheets of aluminium, thin composite laminates etc, for using WJC for thick and relatively hard metallic parts, abrasive particles are usually added to the water jet to facilitate cutting, abrasive type, grit size and flow rate must be controlled, typical abrasive materials are aluminium oxide, silicon dioxide, and garnet, grit size ranges from 60 to 120 microns, particles(assisting cutting) are added after jet leaves the nozzle, nozzle orifice is larger whereas standoff distance is lower than normal WJC. Friction Stir Welding: operates by generating friction heat between rotating tool and workpiece, solid state welding process for aluminium joining weld is created by combined action of frictional heating and plastic deformation due to the rotating tool, a tool with a knurled probe of hardened steel or carbide is plunged into the workpiece creating friction that heats a cylindrical column of metal around and underneath the probe, rotation of the probe stirs the material into a plastic state creating fine grain microstructural bond. Advantages minimal or no joint preparation, ability to weld the difficult to fusion weld 2XXX and 7XXX alloys and also to join dissimilar alloys, elimination of cracking and no weld porosity, no filler or shielding gas required, better mechanical properties than other, distortion is significantly less. Disadv: produces thermo-mechanically affected zone(TMAZ) JOINING PROCESSES: various processes that are used to join two or more parts into an assembled entity welding, brazing, soldering, riveting, bolting and adhesive bonding. Welding: two or more parts are coalesced at their contacting surfaces by a suitable application of heat and/or pressure. Filler- material added to facilitate coalescence, weldment- the assemblage of parts that are joined by welding. Commonly associated with metals, also used for plastics. Adv: Provides permanent joint, joint can be stronger than parent material, economical material usage and cost, field or a shop process, disadv: manual requires skilled labour, use of high energy safety essential, leads to heat affected zone (HAZ). Heat Affected Zone- extends from the fusion line to the parent metal where temp has not been raised sufficiently to change the original micro-structure. Fusion Welding uses heat to melt the base metal: ARC WELD(AW) heating of metals achieved by an electric arc between electrode and the metal work. Most use a filler metal. RESISTANCE WELDING(RW) heat from electrical resistance to the flow of a current passing between faying surfaces held under pressure is used for coalescence. OXY FUEL GAS(OFW) mixture of oxygen and acetylene is used to produce hot flame for melting base and/or filler metals. Acetylene combined with oxygen burns at 3200-3500celcius. Flux, Shielding Slag: Consumable electrode coated in flux (chemical cleaning agent ZnCl, borax which facilitates welding by removing oxidation from the metals to be joined) is used to lay the weld. As weld is laid, the flux coating of the electrode disintegrates, giving off vapours that serve as shielding gas (He,Ar,CO2, N2 that protects weld area from atm gases) and providing a layer of slag (cooled flux mixed with some metal oxides), both of which protect the weld area from atm contaminations. Solid-state welding coalescence results from application of pressure alone or a combination of heat (below the melting point of the metals being welded) and pressure. DIFFUSION WELDING surface held together join due to solid fusion under pressure and heat. ULTRASONIC WELDING two parts held together join under joint action of vertical ultrasonic wave and horizontal small amplitude vibrations. FRICTION WELDING: coalescence is achieved by frictional heat (induced by mechanical rubbing between two surface) combined with pressure. Brazing: a filler material is melted and distributed by capillary action between faying surfaces of metals parts being joined. Only filler material (paste, filler rod, wire, strips, power) melts. Cleanliness and joint clearance (0.025-0.25mm) important. Joint types: butt, lap. Adhesive bonding filler material (adhesive) is used to join closely space parts together. Adv: used as Liquid/film adhesive. Results in lighter structures. Smooth external surfaces. Permanent joints. Disadv: Bonds generally need curing, time consuming. Disassembly not easy lead to complete replacement for small fault. Quality much more sensitive to surface preparation. Susceptible to environmental degradation. Mechanical Joints: Riveted, formed (difficult to dissemble), bolted, screw (easy for assembly and dissembly). Fastener: Types: Rivets, Pin and collar, bolts and nuts, blind fasteners. Preferred Fastener Material: Ti for all materials unless for Al to Al then use anodized Al. MACHINING AND JOINING IN AEROSPACE- Relative ranking in order of decreasing machinability Magnesium, Aluminium, Low alloy steels, Stainless steels, hardened and high alloy steels, nickel based superalloys, Titanium. Machining Al & alloy: good machinability, high thermal conductivity readily conducts heat away from the cutting zone allowing high cutting speeds, low modulus may lead to distortion, over-heating may lead to dull tools or soft spots in the component, high speed steel and carbide tools are preferred. Machining Titanium: difficult to machine metal very reactive and chips tend to weld to the tool tip, causes premature tool failure due to edge chipping, tool materials react chemically with Ti when T>480celcius, low thermal conductivity causes heat build-up at the tool-workpiece interface, relatively low modulus E=116GPa causes excessive workpiece deflection when machining thin walls, maintains its strength and hardness at elevated temperatures, contributing to cutting tool wear, very high mechanical stresses occur in the vicinity of the cutting edge. Guidelines: use slow cutting speeds (minimizes tool edge temperature and prolongs tool life), maintain high feed rates, use generous quantities of cutting fluid (coolant helps in heat transfer, and wash away chips), maintain sharp tools (as the tool wears, metal builds-up on it lead to poor surface finish and excess workpiece deflection), avoid tool dwelling(while machining, tool holding assembly does not traverse efficiently) ie stop tool movement. Hole Drilling for Aircrafts Fighters Usually have a lot of thickness variations in the skins and substructures. Require a variety of fasteners, grip lengths, and diameters. Smaller airframes limit access for drills. Civilian plane: Much more fasteners, however have more fastener commonality. Access is not much of a problem. But size of the parts make them difficult to handle. A variety of hand, power feed, or automated drills used. Drilling Composite Laminates: More difficult than metals due to their low sensitivity to heat damage, and weak in the through-thickness direction. Fibres damaged while drilling. Susceptible to surface splintering that can occur at both the drill entrance and exit of the hole. Process of drilling generates sig amt of heat. Unlike metals, fibre reinforced polymer composites are bad conductors of heat, causing localized build up of heat leading to localized heat damage around the drilled area. Laminated composites get damage easily due to high content of weak resin in inter-ply region. Susceptible to ply delamination starting at the edge of the cut out due to force by drill. Compare Mech/Bonded Joints: Mech: bonded joints- uniform stress dist, uniform stress transfer, smaller unstiffened area, decrease buckling, mech joints: stress raisers, larger unstiffened area. Welding of Al Alloys Though Al low melting T, it can be rather difficult to weld as: Need to remove the stable surfaces oxide before welding by chemical action or wire brushing. High coefficient of thermal expansion can result in residual stresses leading to weld cracking and distortion. High solidification shrinkage may lead to cracking. High solubility for hydrogen in molten state may lead to cracking. Welding Suitablity: Fusion weldable AA2014,2195,2219,2519.2319 used as filler. 6xxx prone to hot cracking. 7xxx except 7004,7005,7039 are not fusion weldable. Thin sheets of 2xxx and 7xxx easy to use resistance welding. Election Beam Welding Very Narrow HAZ Low distortion. Clean weld(Vacuum) High penetration(75mm). High cap equip cost. Used on F-14 and F-22 for Ti parts. Laser Beam Welding Narrow HAZ. High precision and quality applic. Penetration 10-12mm. conducted in open atm with appropriate shielding. Magnesium (alloy) Joining Weldable by gas shielded arc welding (tungsten electode, magnesium filler and argon/helium for shielding) and resistance spot welding (cannot withstand fatigue/vibrations) welds characterized by fine grains (<0.025mm) in riveted joints, rivets made of galvanically compatible materials (e.g. AA5056) are used. Joining Ti for Aerospace Highly weldable, but cleanliness impt. Arc welding commonly used. Ceria or lanthana (instead of tungsten) electrodes are recommended to avoid contamination. Contributing factors to weldability: low conductivity, low CTE, low young modulus. Cleaning: Use touluene or methyl ethyl ketone (MEK). Physical cleaning using stainless steel wire brushes, grit blasting etc. high electrical sensitivity contributes to its ability to be resistance welded. Brazing often used to fabricate sandwich assemblies with Ti facesheets and core. Carried out in vacuum or inert atmosphere. Nickel, C-steel used as fixture materials. Material Formation- casting and moulding, Material Deformation- forging and forming, Material Removal- Cutting and machining, Material Addition- bonding and joining

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