CHAPTER - 1: SOME BASIC CONCEPTS OF CHEMISTRY MEMORY CARD: INTRODUCTION: CHEMISTRY is a branch of science which deals with the

study of compositi on, structure and physical and chemical properties of a matter. According to Daltons theory, atom is the smallest portion of the matter w hich cannot be further divided. Atoms of the same of different elements are comb ined chemically to form molecules, thus chemistry is the study of atoms and mole cules. IMPORTANCE OF CHEMISTRY: Chemistry has a direct impact on our life and h as wide range of applications in different fields. Some of them are as follows; IN AGRICULTURE AND FOOD: To provide food for the huge population of the world, it made the chemists to work for the discovery of hybridised seeds, ferti lizers, insecticides and pesticides etc to help the farmer to produce agricultur al products in large quantity. This has certainly increased the cost of differen t food corps but there is no dearth of them. IN HEALTH: The chemicals which are used in the treatment of various dise ases are called drugs. Wide varieties of drugs are known to us to fight against each & every disease. Only because of the contribution by chemists, we have comp letely eradicated the deadly diseases like Plague, Cholera and Malaria etc. Now, war has been launched to eradicate the polio. Polio vaccination is made twice i n a year for the children up to five years age. The drugs Cisplatin & Taxol are used to cure deadly disease like cancer. AZT (Azidothymidine) is helping the pat ients suffering from AIDS. IN INDUSTRY: The need of mankind for his luxurious life are fulfilled by the industrial growth which in turn depending upon the contribution by the chem ists. The cloths we wear, the shelter we construct, the fuel for the vehicles we use all are the gift by the chemistry. IN CHECKING POLLUTION: Industrial revolution has affected our environmen t. Thus, the eco-friendly chemicals are to be used to protect our environment. F or eg, refrigerants like CFCs have depleted ozone layer & exposed all the living beings to the extremely harmful UV radiations. Chemists are working day N night to discover the substitute for CFCs to reduce the pollution. Similarly, CNG a s ubstitute of petrol is effective in checking the pollution caused by automobiles . Biodegradable polymers are replacing the non-biodegradable polymers like plast ics. NATURE OF MATTER: MATTER is anything that occupies space, possesses mass and can be sensed by one or more of sensing organs. CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER: Matter can be classified into two types: Physical classification of matter. Chemical classification of matter. PHYSICAL CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER: Based on physical state of a matter, it is classified as solid, liquid and gas. SOLID STATE: A solid substance has a definite shape and definite volume. Eg: Metals, wood, bricks, rock, sugar and salts etc. LIQUID STATE: A liquid substance has definite volume but not definite sh ape. A liquid takes up the shape of the container in which it is placed. Eg: Wat er, milk, oil etc. GASEOUS STATE: A gas neither has a definite shape nor volume. It occupie s entire volume of the container & takes the shape of the container in which it is placed. Eg: Air, oxygen, nitrogen etc. These states of matter are inter-convertible by changing the temperature conditi ons. When a solid is heated becomes liquid, which upon further heating changes i nto gas. The change can be reversed by decreasing the temperature. CHEMICAL CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER: Based upon composition, matter has be en divided into two main types, namely pure substances and mixtures.

PURE SUBSTANCES: A single substance (or matter) having fixed composition which cannot be separated into other kinds of matter by simple physical methods . Pure substances are further classified as elements and compounds. An element is the simplest form of the pure substance consisting of only one kin d of particles like atoms or molecules. An element cannot be broken into simpler substances by ordinary physical or chemical methods. Eg: hydrogen, oxygen, carb on, sodium etc. Compounds are the substances formed by the combination of atoms of different ele ments in a fixed proportion by mass. However, the properties of a compound are a ltogether different from those of the constituent elements. Eg: Water, carbon di oxide etc. A molecule of water is made up of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen a tom. The properties of water are different from the properties of hydrogen and o xygen. i.e., hydrogen is combustible; oxygen supports combustion whereas water i s used as a fire extinguisher. MIXTURES: The combination of two or more elements or compounds which are not chemically combined together and may be present in any proportion. The cons tituents of a mixture do not lose their identity and properties. Eg: Air is a mixture of gases like nitrogen, oxygen, CO2, moisture and noble gas es etc. Mixtures are of two types, viz., homogeneous and heterogeneous. HOMOGENEOUS MIXTURE: A mixture is said to be homogeneous if it has a uni form composition throughout and there are no visible boundaries of separation be tween the constituents. The different constituents cannot be seen even by a micr oscope. Eg: Sugar solution, Air, Milk etc. HETEROGENEOUS MIXTURE: A mixture is said to be heterogeneous if it does not have a uniform composition throughout and has visible boundaries of separati on between the constituents. The different constituents can be seen even with na ked eye. Eg: A mixture of sugar and salt, a mixture of sugar, salt and sand etc. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN COMPOUNDS AND MIXTURE: COMPOUND MIXTURE In a compound, two or more elements are combined chemically In a mixture, two or more elements or compounds are simply mixed and they are no t combined chemically. In a compound, the elements are present in a fixed ratio by mass. In a mixture, the constituents are not present in fixed ratio. It can vary. Compounds are always homogeneous. Mixtures may be either h omogeneous or heterogeneous. In a compound, the constituents lose their identities. In a mix ture, the constituents do not lose their identities. In the formation of a compound, energy in the form of heat, light or ele ctricity is either absorbed or evolved. No energy change is noticed in t he formation of a mixture. In a compound, the constituents cannot be separated by physical means. The constituents from a mixture can be easily separated by physical means.

PROPERTIES OF MATTER AND THEIR MEASUREMENT: Every matter is characterise d by its properties. The properties of matter are generally grouped into two bro ad categories: physical and chemical. The main physical properties are colour, o dour, density, melting point and boiling point etc. The Chemical properties of a matter are those which involve the change in chemical composition & occur on ac count of chemical reactions. Some of the main chemical reactions are replacement or substitution, addition, displacement, combustion reactions etc. UNITS OF MEASUREMENT: Any quantitative physical property is represented by a number followed by units in which it is measured. For eg, length of a table is expressed as 2m, where 2 is the number and m (metre) is the unit in which it is measured. SYSTEM OF UNITS: 1. cgs system. 2. fps system. 3. mks system. 4. SI system. SI SYSTEM: The System of International Units was established by 11th Gen eral Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM, i.e in French Conference Generale des Poids et Measures). There are seven base units in SI system. Namely, Length , Mass, Time, Temperature, Electric Current, Luminous intensity, Quantity of mat ter. Fundamental or Basic Units: The units which can neither be derived from other un its nor be further resolved into other units are called as Basic or Fundamental units. Name of the Quantity Symbol for Quantity Name of SI Unit Symbol for SI Un it Length l metre m Mass m kilogram kg Time t second s Electric current I ampere A Temperature T kelvin K Amount of Substance n mole mol Luminous intensity Iv candela cd DEFINITIONS OF BASIC SI UNITS: Metre: It is the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a time interval of 1/299792458 of a second. Kilogram: It is equal to mass of the International prototype of the kilo gram. Second: It is the duration of 9192631770 periods of the radiation corres ponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state o f the caesium - 133 atom. Kelvin: It is equal to 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water. Ampere: It is the constant current, which if maintained in two straight parallel conductors of infinite length of negligible cross-section and placed 1 metre apart in vacuum, would produce between these conductors a force equal to 2 x 107 Nm1 of length. Candela: It is the luminous intensity, in a given direction, of a source that emits monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 x 1012 hertz and that has a radiant intensity of 1/683 watt per steradian. Mole: It is the amount of substance which contains as many elementary en tities as there are atoms in 0.012 kilogram of C - 12. MASS AND WEIGHT: Mass is the amount of substance present in it, while we ight is the force exerted by gravity on an object. Mass of a substance is consta nt whereas its weight may vary from place to place due to change in gravity. Mass of a substance can be determined very accurately in the lab by using an ana lytical balance. The SI unit of mass is kilogram. But in laboratory, its fractio n gram or milligram is used as the small amount of chemicals is used in chemical reactions. VOLUME: Volume is the space occupied by a matter. It has the units of (l

ength)3. In SI system, volume is expressed in metre3 (m3). However, in laborator y, smaller volumes are expressed in cm3 or dm3. A common unit, litre (L) which i s not a SI unit, is used for measurement of volume of liquids. 1L = 1000 mL = 1000 cm3 = 1 dm3. In the laboratory, volume of liquids or solutions can be measured by graduated c ylinder, burette, and pipette. A volumetric flask is used to prepare a solution of known volume. DENSITY: Density of a substance is its amount of mass per unit volume. i.e., Density = (Mass of the substance)/(Volume of the substance) The SI Unit of Density = (SI Unit of Mass)/(SI Unit of Volume)= kg/m^3 or kg m^(-3). As this unit of density is quite large and hence, chemists often expresses densi ty in g dcm^(-3). TEMPERATURE: There are three scales to measure temperature. They are Cel sius scale (oC), Fahrenheit scale (oF) and Kelvin scale (K). Generally, thermome ters with Celsius scale are calibrated from 0oC to 100oC and Fahrenheit scale is represented between 32oF to 212oF. Relation between Celsius scale & Fahrenheit scale: d^oF = 9/5((_^o)C)+32 Relation between Kelvin scale & Celsius scale: K= (_^o)C+273.15 DERIVED UNITS: The units of physical quantities obtained by the combinat ion of basic units are called as derived units. Some of the derived units are as follows; AREA : Length x Breadth = m x m = m2 VOLUME : Length x Breadth x Height VELOCITY = ms 1 ACCELERATION = ms 2 FORCE = Nm PRESSURE : Force/Area = kg m 1 s 2 = Nm 2 = Pascal DENSITY : Mass/Volume d = (kg ms^(-2))/m^2 = kg/m^3 = kg m 3 = ampere x secon : Mass x Acceleration = kg x ms 2 = kg ms 2 = N : Velocity/Time = (ms^(-1))/s : Distance/Time = m x m x m = m3 = m/s

WORK DONE

: Force x Displacement = kg ms 2 x m = kg m2s 2

QUANTITY OF ELECTRICITY = Current strength x Time = C

UNCERTAINTY IN MEASUREMENT: All scientific measurements involve some deg ree of error called as uncertainty in measurement. Precision and Accuracy are th e two important factors connected with the measurement PRECISION: It refers to closeness of various measurements for the same q uantity. ACCURACY: It refers to the agreement of a particular value with the true or correct (i.e theoretical) value. DATA TO ILLUSTRATE PRECISION AND ACCURACY: MEASUREMENT OF A SAMPLE WITH MASS 2.0 g BY THREE STUDENTS A,B & C 1 2 Average Remarks on Results Student A 1.95 1.93 1.940 Results are precise Student B 1.94 2.05 1.995 Neither precise nor accurate Student C 2.01 1.99 2.000 Results are precise & accurate

SIGNIFICANT FIGURES: The uncertainty in the experimental or calculated v alues is indicated by mentioning the number of significant figures. Significant figures are meaningful digits which are known with certainty. The uncertainty is indicated by writing the certain digit with the last uncertain digit. For eg, i n a result as 11.2 mL, 11 is certain and 2 is uncertain & the uncertainty would be 1 in the last digit. RULES FOR DETERMINING SIGNIFICANT FIGURES: All non-zero digits are significant. For eg, in 285 cm, there are three significant figures and in 0.25 mL, there are two significant figures. Zeros preceding to first non-zero digit are not significant. Such zero i ndicates the position of the decimal point. Thus, 0.03 has one significant figur e and 0.0052 has two significant figures. Zeros between two non-zero digits are significant. Thus, 2.005 have four significant figures. Zeros at the end or right side of a number are significant provided they are on the right side of the decimal point. For eg, 0.200 g has three significa nt figures. But, if otherwise, the terminal zeros are not significant if there is no decimal point. For eg, 100 has only one significant figure. 100. has three significant figures and 100.0 have four significant figures. Such numbers are better represe nted in scientific notation. We can express the number 100 as 1x102 for one sign ificant figure. 1.0x102 for two significant figures and 1.00x102 for three signi ficant figures. Counting numbers of objects, for eg, 2 balls or 20 eggs, have infinite s ignificant figures as these are exact numbers and can be represented as by writi ng infinite number of zeros after placing a decimal point. i.e., 2 = 2.000000 OR 20 = 20.0000000

ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF SIGNIFICANT FIGURES: The result should be re ported to the same number of decimal places as in either of the original numbers with least number of decimal places. Eg: 12.11 18.0 1.012 31.122 Here, 18.0 have only one digit after the decimal point and the result sh ould be reported only up to one digit after the decimal point which is 31.1. MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION OF SIGNIFICANT FIGURES: In these operations, the result must be reported with no more significant figures as are there in th e measurement with the few significant figures. Eg: 2.5 x 1.25 = 3.125 Since 2.5 have two significant figures, the result should not have more than two significant figures. Thus, it is 3.1. ROUNDING OFF THE NON-SIGNIFICANT FIGURES: If the rightmost digit to be removed is more than 5, then the preceding number is increased by one. For eg, In 1.386, if we have to remove 6, we have to round it to 1.39. If the rightmost digit to be removed is less than 5, then the preceding number is not changed. For eg, In 4.334, if 4 is to be removed, then the result is round up to 4.33. If the rightmost digit to be removed is 5, then the preceding number is not changed if it is an even number but it is increased by one if it is an odd n umber. For eg, In 6.35, if we have to remove 5, we have to round it as 6.4. Howe ver, 6.25 is to be rounded off as 6.2. DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS: Often while calculating, there is a need to conver t units from one system to other. The method used to accomplish this is called f

actor label method or unit factor method or dimensional analysis. Example 1: A piece of metal is 3 inch long. What is its length in cm? We know that, 1 in = 2.54 cm From this equivalence, we can write (1 in)/(2.54 cm)=1= (2.54 cm)/(1 in ) Thus, both (1 in)/(2.54 cm) and (2.54 cm)/(1 in) are called unit factors. If som e number is multiplied by these unit factors (i.e., 1), it will not be affected otherwise. Say, the 3 in given above is multiplied by the unit factor. So, 3 in = 3 in x (2.54 cm)/(1 in) = 3 x 2.54 cm = 7.62 cm.

Example 2: A jug contains 2L milk. Calculate the volume of the milk in m3. We know that, 1 L = 1000 cm3. And 1 m = 100 cm which gives, (1 m)/(100 cm)=1= (100 cm)/(1 m) To get m3 from the above unit factors, the first unit factor is taken and it is cubed. ((1 m)/(100 cm))^3 d1 m^3/(d10^6 dcm^3 )= (1)^3=1 Now 2 L = 2 x 1000 dcm^3 The above is multiplied by the unit factor, 2 x 1000dcm^3 x d1 m^3/(d10^6 dcm^3 )= d2 m^3/d10^3 =2 x d10^(-3) m^ Example 3: How many seconds are there in 2 days? We know that 1 day = 24 hours or (1 day)/(24 h)=1= (24 h)/(1 day) Then 1 h = 60 min or (1 h)/(60 min)=1= (60 min)/(1 h) And also, 1 min = 60 sec or (1 min)/(60 sec)=1= (60 sec)/(1 min) Thus, for converting 2 days to seconds, the above unit factors can be multiplied in series in one step only as follows, 2 days= 2 days x (24 h)/(1 day) x (60 min)/(1 h) x (60 sec)/(1 min)=2 x 24 x 60 x 60 s= 172800 s LAWS OF CHEMICAL COMBINATION: The combination of elements to form compou nds is governed by the following five basic laws. LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS: It states that matter can neither be create d nor destroyed. This law was given by Antoine Lavoisier in 1789. LAW OF DEFINITE PROPORTIONS OR LAW OF DEFINITE COMPOSITION: It states th at a given compound always contains exactly the same proportion of elements by w eight. This law was given by Joseph Proust. LAW OF MULTIPLE PROPORTIONS: It states that if two elements can combine to form more than one compound, the masses of one element that combine with a fi xed mass of the other element, are in the ratio of small whole numbers. This law was given by Dalton in 1803. Eg: hydrogen combines with oxygen to form two compounds, namely, water and hydro gen peroxide. Hydrogen + Oxygen Water 2g 16g 18g Hydrogen + Oxygen Hydrogen peroxide 2g 32g 34g Here, the masses of oxygen (i.e., 16g and 32g) which combine with a fixed mass o f hydrogen (2g) bear a simple ratio i.e., 16:32 or 1:2. GAY LUSSACS LAW OF GASEOUS VOLUMES: It states that, when gases combine or are produced in a chemical reaction, they do so in a simple ratio by volumes pr ovided all gases are at same temperature and pressure. Eg: H_(2 (g)) + dCl_(2 (g)) 2dHCl _((g)) 1 volume 1 volume 2 volumes (Ratio 1 :1:2) N_(2 (g)) + d3H_(2 (g)) d2NH_(3 (g)) 1 volume 3 volumes 2 volumes (Ratio 1

:3:2) AVOGADRO LAW: Under similar conditions of temperature and pressure, equa l volumes of all gases contain equal number of molecules. DALTONS ATOMIC THEORY: According to Dalton: Matter consists of indivisible atoms (meaning a-tomio=indivisible). All the atoms of a given element have identical properties including ide ntical mass. Atoms of different elements differ in mass. Compounds are formed when atoms of different elements combine in a fixed ratio. Chemical reactions involve reorganisation of atoms. These are neither cr eated nor destroyed in a chemical reaction. ATOM is the smallest particle of an element which may or may not have independen t existence. MOLECULE is the smallest particle of a substance (element or compound) which can exist independently. ATOMIC AND MOLECULAR MASSES: ATOMIC MASS: Atomic mass of an element is the ratio of average mass of o ne atom of that element to the one twelfth mass of one atom of C - 12. Atomic mass=(Average mass of one atom of an element)/(1/12 th the mass of an ato m of carbon-12) One atomic mass unit (amu) is defined as a mass exactly equal to one twe lfth the mass of one carbon -12 atom. Now a day, amu has been replaced by u which is known as unified mass. 1 amu = 1.66056 x 1024 g Thus, in terms of amu, the mass of hydrogen = (d1.6736 x 10^(-24) g)/(d1.66056 x 10^(24) g)=1.00781.0080 amu Thus, according to carbon standard, Relative atomic mass of an element = ( Mass of 1 atom of an element )/( 1/12 x Mass of 1 atom of carbon-12) AVERAGE ATOMIC MASS: Many naturally occurring elements exist as more tha n one isotope. When we take into account the existence of these isotopes and the ir relative abundance (per cent occurrence), the average atomic mass of that ele ment can be computed. For eg, carbon has the following three isotopes with relat ive abundances and masses as shown against each of them. ISOTOPE RELATIVE ABUNDANCE (%) ATOMIC MASS (amu) (_^12)C 98.892 12 (_^13)C 1.108 13.00335 (_^14)C 2 x 10 10 14.00317 From the above data, the average atomic mass of carbon will be: (0.98892)(12) + (0.01108)(13.00335) + (2 x 1012)(14.00317 ) = 12.011 u In the periodic table, the atomic masses of elements mentioned represent their average atomic masses. MOLECULAR MASS: Molecular mass of a substance is the ratio of average ma ss of one molecule of that substance to the one twelfth mass of one atom of C 12. Molecular mass=(Average mass of one molecule of a substance)/(1/12 th the mass o f an atom of carbon-12) However, the molecular mass of a substance is calculated as the sum of a tomic masses of all the constituent atoms in a molecule of that substance. For example: 1. Molecular mass of methane, CH4 is calculated as, (CH4) = (12.011 u) + (4*1.008 u) = 16.043 u. 2. Molecular mass of water, H2O is calculated as, (H2O) = (2*1.008 u) + (16.00 u) = 18.016 u. FORMULA MASS: An ionic compound such as sodium chloride consists of Na+ and Cl ions. The formula of NaCl does not represent a molecule of sodium chlorid e. It simply gives the ratio of the constituent ions. i.e., Na+ & Cl ions & repre sent a formula unit. Hence, instead of gram molecular mass or molar mass we use the term gram formula mass which is the mass of 6.022 x 1023 formula units.

Thus, formula mass of sodium chloride c mass of chlorine)

= (atomic mass of sodium + atomi

= 23 u + 35.5 u = 58.5 u MOLE CONCEPT AND MOLAR MASSES: In SI system, mole is the unit to express amount of substance. It is defined as the amount of substance which contains as many particles or entities as there are atoms in exactly 12 g (or 0.012 kg) of C 12 isotope. In order to determine this number precisely, the mass of a carbon-12 atom was de termined by a mass spectrometer and found to be equal to 1.992648 x 10 23 g. Know ing that one mole of carbon weighs 12g, the number of atoms in it is equal to: (12 g / mol (_^12)C)/d1.992648 x 10^(-23 g / (_^12)C-atom ) =6.0221 367 x d10^23 atoms / mol. This number of entities in 1 mol of substance is given a separate name & symbol. It is known as Avogadro Constant or Avogadro Number & denoted by NA. Hence, 602213670000000000000000 numbers of entities (atoms or molecules or ions or any other particles) constitute one mole of a particular substance. For eg: 1 mol of hydrogen atoms = 6.022 x 1023 atoms. 1 mol of hydrogen molecules = 6.022 x 1023 molecules. 1 mol of water molecules = 6.022 x 1023 water molecules. 1 mol of sodium chloride = 6.022 x 1023 formula units of sodium chloride. The mass of one mole of a substance in grams is called its molar mass or 1 gram molecular mass. For eg: 1) Molar mass of water (or 1 gram molecular mass of water) = 18.02 g mol 1. 2) Molar mass of sodium chloride (or 1 gram molecular mass of sodium chloride) = 58.5 g mol 1. PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION: Percentage composition of a compound is the rela tive mass of each of the constituent element in 100 parts of it by mass. Molecul ar mass of a compound is obtained by adding atomic masses of all the atoms prese nt in it. Percentage of each element in a compound is calculated as follows: For eg, 1. Molecular mass of calcium nitrate, Ca(NO3)2 = Atomic mass of Ca + 2 x Atomic mass of N + 6 x Atomic mass of O = 40 + 2 x 14 + 6 x 16 = 40 + 28 + 96 = 164 u Percentage of calcium (Ca) = (Mass of Ca)/(Molecular mass of Ca(dNO_3 )_2 ) x 100 = (40 u)/(164 u) x 100 = 24.39 Percentage of nitrogen (N) = (Mass of N)/(Molecular mass of Ca(dNO_3 ) _2 ) x 100 = (28 u)/(164 u) x 100 = 17.07 Percentage of oxygen (O) = (Mass of O)/(Molecular mass of Ca(dNO_3 ) _2 ) x 100 = (96 u)/(164 u) x 100 = 58.54 2. Molecular mass of Water, H2O = 2 x Atomic mass of H + Atomic mass of O = 2 x 1 + 16 = 2 + 16 = 18 u Percentage of hydrogen (H) = (Mass of H)/(Molecular mass of H_2 O) x 100 = (2 u)/(18 u) x 100 = 11.11 Percentage of oxygen (O) = (Mass of O)/(Molecular mass of H_2 O) x 100 = (16 u)/(18 u) x 100 = 88.89 3. Molecular mass of ethanol, C2H5OH = 2 x Atomic mass of C + 6 x Atomic mass of H + Atomic mass of O = 2 x 12 + 6 x 1 + 16 = 24 + 06 + 16 = 46 u Percentage of carbon (C) = (Mass of C)/(Molecular mass of C_2 H_5 OH) x 100 = (24 u)/(46 u) x 100 = 52.18 Percentage of nitrogen (H) = (Mass of H)/(Molecular mass of C_2 H_5

OH) x 100 Percentage of oxygen (O) OH) x 100 = (6 u)/(46 u) x 100 = 13.04 = (Mass of O)/(Molecular mass of C_2 H_5

= (16 u)/(46 u) x 100 = 34.78 By knowing the percentage composition of a given compound, we can arrive at the empirical formula and molecular formula. EMPIRICAL FORMULA AND MOLECULAR FORMULA: An empirical formula represents the simplest whole number ratio of various atoms present in a compound whereas the molecular formula represents the exact number of atoms of different elements present in a molecule of a compound. If the mass per cent of various elements present in a compound is known, its emp irical formula can be determined. Molecular formula can also be obtained if the molar mass is known. Example 1. A compound contains 4.07 % hydrogen, 24.27% carbon and rest i s chlorine. Its molar mass is 98.96 g. What are its empirical and molecular form ulae? Solution: Given, Per cent mass of H = 4.07, Per cent mass of C = 24. 27 Per cent mass of Cl = 100 (4.07 + 24.27) = 71.66 Element Percentage At. Mass Percentage/(At.Mass) (Number in Col.4)/(Smallest no.in col.4) Simple Ratio Hydrogen 4.07 1.008 (4.07)/(1.008)=4.04 (4.04)/(2.02)=2 2 Carbon 24.27 12.000 (24.27)/12=2.02 (2.02)/(2.02)=1 1 Chlorine 71.66 35.450 (71.66)/(35.45)=2.02 (2.02)/(2.02)=1 1 Thus, empirical formula = C:H:Cl::1:2:1 OR CH2Cl Now, Molecular Formula = (Empirical Formula)n Where, n = (Molar Mass)/(Empirical formula mass) Where, Empirical formula mass = Sum of atomic masses of all atoms present empi rical formula. = 12 + 2 x 1 + 34.45 = 48.45 Therefore, n = 98.96/48.45=2.04 2 Hence, Molecular Formula = (Empirical Formula)2 = (CH2Cl)2 = C2H4Cl2. Example 2: A compound contains 42.3913% K, 15.2173% Fe, 19.5652% C and 2 2.8260 % N. the molecular mass of the compound is 368 u. Find the molecular form ula of the compound. Step 1: Determination of empirical formula: Element Percentage At. Mass Percentage/(At.Mass) (Number in Col.4)/(Smallest no.in col.4) Simple Ratio K 42.3913 39 (42.3913)/39=1.087 (1.087)/(0.2717)=4 4 Fe 15.2173 56 (15.2173)/56=0.2717 (0.2717)/(0.2717)=1 1 C 19.5652 12 (19.5652)/12=1.63 (1.63)/(0.2717)=6 6 N 22.8260 14 (22.8260)/14=1.63 (1.63)/(0.2717)=6 6 The empirical formula of the compound = K4FeC6N6. Step 2 : Determination of molecular formula: Empirical formula mass = 4 x 39 + 56 + 6 x 12 + 6 x 14 = 156 + 56 + 72 + 84 = 368 u Molecular mass = 368 u (given) n = (Molar Mass)/(Empirical formula mass)= 368/368=1 Therefore, Molecular formula = (Empirical formula)n = (K4FeC6N6)1 = K4[F e(CN)6]. STOICHIOMETRY AND STOICHIOMETRIC CALCULATIONS: Stoichiometry deals with the quantitative relationship in terms of molec ules, masses, moles and volumes of the reactants and the products in a reaction. (Meaning: stoicheion = element, metron = measure) and it literally means the me asurement of amount of elements (or compounds).

The stoichiometric calculations are of three types: Calculations involving Mass-Mass relationship: In these, mass of the one of the reactants or products is given and that of the other is calculated. Calculations involving Mass-Volume relationship: In these, Mass/volume o f one of the reactants or products is given and that of the other is calculated. Calculations involving Mass-Volume relationship: In these, volume of one of the reactants or products is given and that of the other is calculated. In order to do stoichiometric calculations, the following general procedure is f ollowed. Write the balanced chemical equation in the molecular form. Select the symbols and formulae of the species (atoms or molecules) whos e weights or volumes are either given or to be calculated. Write the atomic masses/molecular masses/moles/molar volumes of the sele cted species involved in calculations. Calculate the quantity of the desired substances by simple mathematical calculations. Examples: Based on Mass-Mass relationship: What mass of copper oxide will be obtai ned by heating 12.35 g of copper carbonate? (atomic mass of Cu = 63.5) SOLUTION: The chemical equation for the reaction is: CuCO_3 (( Heat ) ) CuO + dCO_2 63.5 + 12 + 48 63.5 + 16 = 123.5 g = 79.5 g 123.5 g of copper carbonate upon heating give CuO = 79.5 g 12.35 g of copper carbonate upon heating give CuO= 79.5/123.5 x 12.35=7.95 g Based on Mass-Volume relationship: KClO3 on heating decomposes to give K Cl and O2. What is the volume of O2 at NTP liberated by 0.1 mole of KClO3? SOLUTION: The chemical equation for the decomposition of KClO3 is 2KClO_3 (( Heat ) ) 2KCl + 3O_2 2 mol 3 mol (3 x 22.4 L = 67.2 L) 2 moles of KClO3 evolve O2 at NTP = 67.2 L 0.1 mole of KClO3 evolve O2 at NTP = 67.2/2 x 0.1 L=3.36 L Based on Mass-Volume relationship: What volume of oxygen at NTP is neede d to cause the complete combustion of 200 mL of acetylene? Also calculate the vo lume of CO2 formed. SOLUTION: The chemical equation for the combustion of acetylene is 2C_2 H_2 + 5O_2 (( Heat ) ) 4dCO_2 + 2H_2 O 2 vol 5 vol 4 vol 2 mL 5 mL 4 mL Calculation of the volume of oxygen needed. 2 mL of C2H2 at NTP require O2 = 5 mL 200 mL of C2H2 at NTP require O2 = 5/2 x 200 mL = 500 mL Calculation of the carbon dioxide formed. 2 mL of C2H2 at NTP form CO2 = 4 mL 200 mL of C2H2 at NTP form CO2 = 4/2 x 200 mL = 400 mL LIMITING REAGENT: It is the reactant present in lesser proportion in a r eaction and limits the participation of the other reactants in the reaction. For eg: In the combustion of methane with oxygen, methane is the limiting reacta nt because oxygen (or air) is always available in excess. The amounts of carbon dioxide and water formed in the reaction also depend upon the amount of methane and not oxygen. REACTIONS IN SOLUTIONS: The majority of reactions in the laboratories ar e carried out in solutions. Therefore, it is important to understand as how the amount of substance is expressed when it is present in the form of a solution. T he concentration of solution or amount of substance present it its given volume can be expressed in any of the following ways. Mass per cent or weight per cent (w/w %) Mole fraction Molarity

Molality Normality Parts per Million (PPM) Mass per cent or weight per cent (w/w %): Mass per cent= (Mass of solut e)/(Mass of solution) x 100 Eg: A solution is prepared by adding 2 g of a substance A to 18 g of water. Calc ulate the mass per cent of the solute. SOLUTION: Mass per cent of A = (Mass of A)/(Mass of solution) x 100 = (2 g)/(2 g of A+18 g of water) x 100 = (2 g)/(20 g) x 100=10 % Mole fraction: It is the ratio of number of moles of a particular compon ent to the total number of moles of the solution. If a substance nA moles solute A is dissolved in nB moles of solvent B. Then the mole fractions of solute and solv ent can be calculated as, Mole fraction of A = (Number of moles A)/(Total number of moles)= (Number of mo les A)/(Number of moles of solution)= n_A/(n_A + n_B ) Mole fraction of B = (Number of moles B)/(Total number of moles)= (Number of mo les B)/(Number of moles of solution)= n_B/(n_A + n_B ) Molarity: It is defined as the number of moles of solute present in 1 li tre of the solution. It is denoted by the symbol M. Thus, Molarity (M)=(No.of moles of solute)/(Volume of solution in litres) Molality: It is defined as the number of moles of solute present in 1 kg of solvent. It is denoted by the symbol m. Thus, Molality (m)=(No.of moles of solute)/(Mass of the solvent in kg) Normality: It is defined as the number of gram equivalents of a solute p resent in 1 litre of solution. It is denoted by N. Thus, Normality (N)=(No.of gram equivalents of solute)/(Volume of solution in litres) PPM: It is defined as the number of parts by mass (or by volume) of solu te present in million parts by mass (or by volume) of a solution. Thus, OR (Volume of solute)/( PPM=(Mass of solute)/(Mass of solution ) x d10^6 Volume of solution ) x d10^6