Hypothalamus: About the size of a pearl, the hypothalamus directs a multitude of important fun ctions in the body.

It is the control center for many autonomic functions of the peripheral nervous system. Connections with structures of the endocrine and ner vous systems enable the hypothalamus to play a vital role in maintaining homeost asis. For example, blood vessel connections between the hypothalamus and pituita ry gland allow hypothalamic hormones to control pituitary hormone secretion. As a limbic system structure, the hypothalamus also influences various emotional re sponses. Function: The hypothalamus is involved in several functions of the body including: Autonomic Function Control Endocrine Function Control Homeostasis Motor Function Control Food and Water Intake Regulation Sleep-Wake Cycle Regulation Location: Directionally, the hypothalamus is inferior to the thalamus. It is posterior to the optic chiasm and bordered on the sides by the temporal lobes and optic tract s.

The pituitary gland is a small endocrine system organ that controls a multitude of important functions in the body. It is divided into an anterior lobe, interme diate lobe and posterior lobe, all of which are involved in hormone production. The pituitary gland is termed the "Master Gland" because it directs other organs and endocrine glands such as the thyroid, adrenal glands, ovaries and testes to generate or suppress hormone production. The pituitary gland is located in the middle of the base of thebrain, just below the hypothalamus. The anterior lobe of the pituitary produces hormones such as prolactin (stimulates milk production), growth hormone, FSH (stimulates ovaries and testes) and ACTH (stimulates adrenal glands). The intermediate lobe produces melanocyte-stimulating hormone to control skin pigmentation. The posterior lobe produces ADH which causes the kidneys to increase water absorption into the blo od. It also produces oxytocin which induces contractions during childbirth. Pineal Gland: The pineal gland is a pine cone shaped gland of the endocrine system. A structur e of the diencephalon of the brain, the pineal gland produces several important hormones including melatonin. Melatonin influences sexual development and sleepwake cycles. The pineal gland is composed of cells called pinealocytes and cells of the nervous system called glial cells. The pineal gland connects the endocri ne system with the nervous system in that it converts nerve signals from the sym pathetic system of theperipheral nervous system into hormone signals. Function: The pineal gland is involved in several functions of the body including: Secretion of the Hormone Melatonin Regulation of Endocrine Functions Conversion of Nervous System Signals to Endocrine Signals Causes Feeling of Sleepiness Influences Sexual Development Location: Directionally, the pineal gland is situated between the cerebral hemispheres, at tached to the third ventricle. The thyroid gland or simply, the thyroid in vertebrate anatomy, is one of the l

argest endocrine glands. The thyroid gland is found in the neck, below (inferior to) the thyroid cartilage (which forms the laryngeal prominence, or "Adam's app le"). The isthmus (the bridge between the two lobes of the thyroid) is located i nferior to the cricoid cartilage. The thyroid gland controls how quickly the body uses energy, makes proteins, and controls how sensitive the body is to other hormones. It participates in these processes by producing thyroid hormones, the principal ones being triiodothyroni ne (T3) and thyroxine (T4). These hormones regulate the rate of metabolism and a ffect the growth and rate of function of many other systems in the body. T3 and T4 are synthesized from both iodine and tyrosine. The thyroid also produces calc itonin, which plays a role in calcium homeostasis. Hormonal output from the thyroid is regulated by thyroid-stimulating hormone (TS H) produced by the anterior pituitary, which itself is regulated by thyrotropinreleasing hormone (TRH) produced by the hypothalamus. The thyroid gets its name from the Greek word for "shield", due to the shape of the related thyroid cartilage. The most common problems of the thyroid gland con sist of an overactive thyroid gland, referred to as hyperthyroidism, and an unde ractive thyroid gland, referred to as hypothyroidism. The parathyroid glands are small endocrine glands in the neck that produce parat hyroid hormone. Humans usually have four parathyroid glands, which are usually l ocated on the rear surface of the thyroid gland, or, in rare cases, within the t hyroid gland itself or in the chest. Parathyroid glands control the amount of ca lcium in the blood and within the bones. The parathyroid glands are four or more small glands, about the size of a grain of rice, located on the posterior surface (back side) of the thyroid gland. The parathyroid glands usually weigh between 25mg and 40mg in humans. There are typi cally two, one above the other, on the left lobe of the thyroid and similarly on the right. The two parathyroid glands on each side which are positioned higher (closer to the head) are called the superior parathyroid glands, while the lower two are called the inferior parathyroid glands. Occasionally, some individuals may have six, eight, or even more parathyroid glands. The parathyroid glands are named for their proximity to the thyroid but serve a completely different role than the thyroid gland. The parathyroid glands are qui te easily recognizable from the thyroid as they have densely packed cells, in co ntrast with the follicle structure of the thyroid.[1] However, at surgery, they are harder to differentiate from the thyroid or fat. In the histological sense, they distinguish themselves from the thyroid gland, a s they contain two types of cells:[2] Name Staining Quantity Size Function parathyroid chief cells darker many smaller manufacture PTH (see below). oxyphil cells lighter few larger function unknown.[3]

Thyroid and Parathyroid Glands The thyroid gland is shaped like a butterfly and usually weighs less than one ou nce. The thyroid cartilage covers the larynx and produces the prominence on the neck known as the "Adam's Apple". The thyroid gland controls the rate at which t he body produces energy from nutrients. If the body does not get enough iodine, the thyroid gland cannot produce a proper amount of hormones for this conversion process. The result can be a goiter, an enlargement of the thyroid gland. In so me parts of the world, iodine is so scarce that most of the population have goit ers. The parathyroid glands are four small oval bodies located on either side of and on the dorsal aspect of the thyroid gland. These glands control the level o f calcium in the blood. The thyroid gland secretes hormones which regulate energ

y, and emotional balance may rely upon its normal functioning. When the rate of production is excessive, the results can be weight loss, nervousness, or even em otional disturbances. If the rate of production is excessively low, a slowing of bodily functions may result. The parathyroid glands, located behind the thyroid , control the blood-calcium level. Calcium is important, not only for bones and teeth, but also for nerve functioning, muscle contractions, blood clotting and g landular secretion. If we don't have enough calcium for these functions, the bod y will take it from the bones, causing them to easily fracture. It may also caus e twitching, spasms, convulsions and even death. Too much calcium may cause a we akening of muscle tone and kidney stones. Thymus The thymus is a gland that forms part of the immune system. It is situated in th e upper part of the chest, behind the breastbone, and is made up of two lobes th at join in front of the trachea. Each lobe is made of lymphoid tissue, consistin g of tightly packed white blood cells and fat. The thymus enlarges from about th e 12th week of gestation until puberty, when it begins to shrink. Its function i s to transform lymphocytes (white blood cells developed in the bone marrow) into T-cells (cells developed in the thymus). These cells are then transported to va rious lymph glands, where they play an important part in fighting infections and disease. Swelling of lymph glands and fever are a signal that immune cells are multiplying to fight off invaders of the body: bacteria, fungi, viruses or paras ites. Edward Jenner showed his faith in vaccination by injecting his own son wit h cowpox, therefore immunizing the child against smallpox, a deadly disease at t hat time in history. Pancreas The pancreas is a long. tapered gland which lies across and behind the stomach. The "head" (the right-hand end which is the broadest part of it) lies within the curve of the duodenum. This gland secretes digestive juices which break down fa ts, carbohydrates, proteins and acids; it also secretes bicarbonate, which neutr alizes stomach acid as it enters the duodenum. Some cells in the pancreas secret e hormones which regulate the level of glucose in the blood. Most of the pancrea s consists of tissues which are embedded in "nested" cells. These cells secrete the digestive enzymes into tubes which meet to form the main duct. This duct joi ns the "cystic" duct (which carries bile from the gallbladder) and forms a small chamber which opens into the duodenum. The cells of the pancreas are surrounded by many blood vessels into which they secrete hormones (glucagon and insulin) i nto the blood. Insulin regulates the use of glucose into all the body tissues ex cept the brain. If the pancreas fails to produce insulin or secretes it in low q uantities, the result is a serious disease called diabetes mellitus. The Greek n ame "pancreas", meaning "all flesh" or "all meat", is descriptive of the protein composition of this powerful organ which resembles a fish with a large head and a long tail. Inside, the organ's appearance resembles a stalk with clusters of grapes attached to it. The "stalk" is a long duct which runs down the center of the pancreas and the "grapes" are clusters of cells which flow into this duct an d later into the duodenum for digestion of proteins, fats and carbohydrates. If the ducts leading from the pancreas are blocked in some way, the digestive fluid s build up in the pancreas and may then become activated so that they digest the pancreas itself! This condition is known as acute pancreatitis. Pancreatic canc er has the worst prognosis of all the types of cancer. This is probably because of the spongy, vascular nature of this organ and its vital endocrine and exocrin e functions. Pancreatic surgery is a problem because of the soft, spongy, tissue it consists of that make it extremely difficult to suture. By the way, Webster' s Dictionary says the "pancratium" was an ancient Greek athletic contest involvi ng boxing and wrestling. Isn't that interesting? Gonads:

The gonad is the organ that makes gametes. The gonads in males are the testes an d the gonads in females are the ovaries. The product, gametes, are haploid germ cells. For example,spermatozoon and egg cells are gametes. Although scientifical ly, the term "gonad" can refer to either male gonads (testes) or female gonads ( ovaries), the vernacular, or slang, use of "gonads" (or "nads") usually only ref ers to the testes. [edit]Regulation The gonads are controlled hormonally by luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-st imulating hormone (FSH) secreted by the anterior pituitary gland. This secretion is, in turn, controlled by the hypothalamus' gonadotropin-releasing hormone. Ovaries The ovaries are a pair of oval or almond-shaped glands which lie on either side of the uterus and just below the opening to the fallopian tubes. In addition to producing eggs or "ova," the ovaries produce female sex hormones called estrogen and progesterone. The ovaries produce a female hormone, called estrogen, and st ore female sex cells or "ova." The female, unlike the male, does not manufacture the sex cells. A girl baby is born with about 60,000 of these cells, which are contained in sac-like depressions in the ovaries. Each of these cells may have t he potential to mature for fertilization, but in actuality, only about 400 ripen during the woman's lifetime. Pregnant and prenatal both come from the same Lati n roots. "Prae" means "before" and "nascor" means "to be born". Nascor is also t he derivative of nature, innate and native. Only a few years ago, the word, "pre gnant" was seldom used in mixed company. Polite society referred to a pregnant w oman as "expecting" or "being in the family way." Testicles The scrotum is a sac that hangs under the penis and holds the testes. It is divi ded internally into two halves by a membrane; each half containing a testis. It has an outer layer of thin, wrinkled skin over a layer of tissue which contains muscle. The testicle lies inside the scrotum and produces as many as 12 trillion sperm in a male's lifetime, about 400 million of which are ejaculated in one av erage intercourse. Each sperm takes about seventy-two days to mature and its mat urity is overseen by a complex interaction of hormones. The scrotum has a builtin thermostat, which keeps the sperm at the correct temperature. It may be surpr ising that the testicles should lie in such a vulnerable place, outside the body , but it is too hot inside. The sperm production needs a temperature which is th ree to five degrees below body temperature. If it becomes too cool on the outsid e, the scrotum will contract to bring the testes closer the body for warmth.