Professional Documents
Culture Documents
IRON AGE
Sally
M Foster
VOLUMEI
submitted of
in
with Faculty M
the of
for
the
degree of
Philosophy September,
University
jg)-9odl
Vbste-r,
TABLE OF CONTENTS VOLUMEI LIST OF FIGURES .................................................... LIST OF TABLES .................................................... ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .................................................... SUMMARY ........................................................... ABBREVIATIONS .................................................... PART I: INTRODUCTION iv ix x xii xiii
CHAPTER 1: STNOPSIS 1 the topic Part I: Defining 1.1 .................................. 2 Part II: Pins, combs and the chronology 1.2 of Atlantic ......... Iron Age settlement in the Iron Age.. 3 Part III: A model for Orkney and Caithness 1.3 CHAPTER2: INTRODUCTION 2.1 theory ............................ Archaeologists and social Social theory and archaeology ............................... 2.2 2.3 Using fields of discourse ................................... 2.4 Area of study .............................................. framework 2.5 The chronological I ............. .................. RESOURCES THE ATLANTIC PROVINCE IN CHAPTER3: ARCHAEOLOGICAL Temporal frequency ......................................... 3.1 Spatial 3.2 extent ............................................. 3.3 Cultural of discourse .............. resources of the fields PART II: OF PINS. COMBSAND THE CHRONOLOGY ATLANTIC IRON AGE SETTLEMENT 5 6 9 13 16
18 25 33
AND GENERALCONSIDERATIONS CHAPTER4: BACKGROUND Pins, combs and the chronology 4.1 of brochs ................... The data base 4.2 .............................................. Dating artefacts 4.3 &........................... ............... The question 4.4 of distribution ...............................
29 37 41 44
CHAPTER5: PINS 47 Classification 5.0 pins ............................ of Scottish Summary of pin forms ....................................... 48 5.1 54 5.2 Analysis of the data'base .................................. Category of material 55 5.3 ....................................... Forms of pin shaft 62 5.4 ......................................... 5.5 Forms of stick in antler or bone (and metal). 73 pin occurring 98 in metal ...................... 5.6 Forms of stick pin occurring 5.6 Manufacture 113 of LIA pins ................................... CHAPTER6: COMBS 6.1 Classification combs .......................... of Scottish 6.2 Summary of comb classification ............................ 6.3 Analysis of data base ...................................... 6.4 Discussion of comb groups ................................. -i115 116 118 119
6.5
in comb 124
CHAPTER7: OVERVIEWOF THE DATING EVIDENCE FOR LIA PINS AND COMBS Overview of classification 7.1 129 ................................ The date range of the pins and combs ...................... 7.2 130 Up-date and revision 7.3 1955 chronology 140 of Stevenson's ....... CHAPTER8: REVIEW OF SETTLEMENTEVIDENCE IN ORKNEYAND CAITHNESS Non-broch LIA settlement 8.1 144 evidence in Orkney ............... Broch sites 8.2 in Orkney ...... 150 with evidence for LIA activity Summary of evidence for LIA activity 8.3 in Orkney ............ 172 8.4 Non-broch LIA settlement in Caithness 180 ..................... 8.5 Broch sites in Caithness ... 185 with evidence for LIA activity Caithness 8.6 sites with only structural evidence for in the broch interior 192 prolonged occupation ................ Caithness 8.7 broch sites with structural evidence for outbuildings date 193 of indetermined ..................... 8.8 Summary of evidence for LIA activity 199 in Caithness ......... CHAPTER9: GENERALREVIEW OF LIA SETTLEMENTIN THE ATLANTIC PROVINCE 204 9.1 Summary of evidence for LIA settlement in Shetland ........ in Sutherland 205 9.2 Summary of evidence for LIA settlement ...... in the Outer 9.3 Summary of evidence for LIA settlement 206 Hebrides, Skye and the Small Isles ........................ in the West Coast 9.4 Summary of evidence for LIA settlement 210 and the Inner Hebrides .................................... 212 9.5 Concluding comments ....................................... PART III: A MODEL OR ORKNEYAND CAITHNESS IN THE IRON AGE
CHAPTER 10. ANALYSIS OF SPATIAL PATTERNSIN BUILDINGS (ACCESS ANALYSIS) AS AN INSIGHT INTO SOCIAL STRUCTURE Summary of structural 10.1 development ........................ in buildings ................ 10.2 Analysis of spatial patterns 10.3 Orkney and Caithness c600 BC-AD 800 ...................... 10.4 Conclusions .............................................. 10.5 Postscript ............................................... IN CHAPTER 11: TRANSFORMATIONS EXTENDEDSOCIAL SPACE 11.1 Ordering of the landscape ................................ in agricultural 11.2 Transformations practice ................. Introduction 11.3 of the Roman church ......................... CHAPTER12: OVERVIEWAND COMMENTS ................... PART IV: APPENDICES 262
APPENDIX Ia: A CATALOGUEOF SCOTTISH IRON AGE AND EARLY NORSERADIOCARBON DETERMINATIONS .................................. Ib: CONCORDANCE SCOTTISH C-14 DATES WITH SITES .............. OF APPENDIX II: NUMBER) CATALOGUE OF PINS AND COMBS (BY RECORD .......
-ii-
APPENDIX IV: SUMMARY MIA AND LIA SETTLEMENTIN THE ATLANTIC OF PROVINCE ........................................................... APPENDIX V: DETAILS OF SPATIAL ANALYSES FOR INDIVIDUAL SITES ....... APPENDIX VI: FIGURES BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................ 102 METALWORK FROMWAREBETH CEMETERY ............... 99
74 87
-iii-
LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. The boundaries study area in of north black. Britain in the Iron Age with Mercer the
Figure
2.
The distribution work by Lamb, Batey, of field Morrison in northeast Scotland. The distribution Scottish of calibrated area, in comparison to the characteristics Trondheim C-14 curve.
and
Figure
3.
by
Figure
4.
Scottish A The distribution C-14 dates, of uncalibrated by area, at the 1-a level; B The distribution of Scottish C-14 dates, by area, at the 1-a level calibrated A Characteristics of the Trondheim C-14 calibration in comparison with B the distribution of C-14 (1-a) for each decade between 3000-950 calibrations with a constant standard deviation of 50 years. pins of post-Roman pins. date, bronze pins. of Atlantic in appendix and bone. curve bp,
Figure
5.
6. 'Roman' 7. 8.
Ring-headed
Loose-ring
MacKiels suggested stages Iron Age material culture. Summary of nature Ii.
in the development
Figure
9.
of entries
of
data
fields
Figure
10. The distribution of Iron Age bone, antler and metal from Orkney and NE Caithness in comparison artefacts land capability, and topography. soil acidity
to
Figure
11. The distribution and metal of Iron Age bone, antler from a part of the Western Isles in comparison artefacts to land capability, and topography. soil acidity 12. Summary of classification 13. Summary of classification pin forms. 14. Fowler E pins. of loose-ring examples. pins. rosette type pins and beaded type heads and of, bone and antler of stick pins stick pins.
Figure Figure
and metal-only
Figure Figure
Figure Figure
Figure Figure
iv-
for different
categories of material
of within
21. Comparison of proportions of category each range of pin lengths. 22. Comparison of lengths swollen shaft S. 23. Pins 24. Pins of groups of groups of groups of groups of groups pin 1-3. 4-8. 8-9. 9-15. 11-34. forms. 1-6. 4-5. 6-8. combs.
Figure
hipped and
Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure
28. Metal-only
of combs of Sroups
33. The distribution 34. The distribution pins. 35. The distribution
of classes C pins
and moulds,
Figure Figure
of class
36. Comparison of the distribution of class I and II symbol stones and LIA combs of groups 4-6. 37. Selected depictions of combs on Pictish
Figure Figure
38. The distribution of C-14 dates for contexts producing to the 2-sigma level). pins and combs (calibrated I 39. Distribution at the Brough of Birsay by phase and Pictish ILIA] moulds. features of LIA fashion
Figure
pins
Broch wall Papa Westray. 43. A St Boniface's, Internal section eroded by sea; B Midhowe. H. outbuilding 44. Plans of Orkney brochs. -v-
Figure
49. Plan of Lingro. 50. Original 51. Original sketch sketch of buildings G and H at Lingro. broch entrance at Lingro by
of area outside
interpreted 52.. Original at Lingro, sketch of excavations the outwork and its the present writer as depicting with later outbuildings relationship 53. Suggested reconstruction faceted of MIA forecourt and perforated at Lingro. head and its
Figure Figure
54. Sketch of pin with location at Lingro. 55. Suggested Midhowe. stages
Figure
in the development
at
Figure
56. Comparison of the distribution in Orkney. activity 57. Plan of Howmae. 58. Plans 59. Plans of Caithness of Caithness of plans brochs. brochs. of extended brochs. brochs. brochs. brochs.
of recognised
60. Comparison 61. Plans 62. Plans 63. Plans 64. Plans
passageways.
65. Comparison of distribution in Caithness. activity 66. Examples of IA sub-rectangular 67. Phased plan of Clickhimin.
of recognised
structures, Shetland.
wags.
broch,
at Jarlshof.
Dun Cuier
of EIA roundhouses
73. A Plan of a small modern house, ground floor only; B Unjustified C Justified access (gamma) map superimposed; access map with labelled spaces. 74. Definition of symmetric and distributed relationships.
Figure Figure
75: A Plan of Bu indicating points of access; B Bu with unjustified access (gamma) map superimposed ; C. Justified spaces. access map with labelled access (gamma) maps for (gamma) maps for MIA nucleated LIA structures.
access
78. Justified access maps for Gurness: A the nondistributed B the distributed system. sub-system; 79. 80. Place-name Scheme for structuring evidence for the early church in Orkney. and the
Figure Figure
Figure
outbuildings
at
Figure
to Gurness
and
Figure
83. The approach to Gurness along through the outbuildings. the 84. The S passage encircling the left outside guard cell. 85. The N passage encircling from outside the right
the
initial
Figure
broch
at Gurness
Figure
Figure
86. Gurness outbuildings 4-6 as viewed looking SE. wallhead, 87. Gurness outbuilding looking SSE. 88. Entrance cells. 3 as viewed
Figure
wallhead,
Figure
the guard
Figure
89. The W chambers of the S and N compartments broch. 90. Overview wallhead. of E half of Gurness broch interior
Figure
-vii-
Figure
91. Gurness broch compartment. 92. Unjustifed 93. Unjustified 94. Unjustified
interior
MIA levels
access
map for
outstructures
and outworks
at
Figure Figure
97. The approach to Midhowe at the entrance through the outworks. 98. The approach outworks. 99. The entrance
Figure
broch at Midhowe from the W. H from the outworks, looking looking W. SW.
the dividing 104. Midhowe broch interior, wall of compartment from Note projection S from the 1.8m level. C, looking support. wall for chamber roof/gallery 105. Compartment C of Midhowe broch Interior, Note entrance to stairway the wallhead. and roof of chamber to W of it. 106. Unjustified 107. Unjustified 108. Unjustified Gurness. 109. Unjustified Howe. 110. Unjustified 111. Two Insular access map for Interior looking NW from level at gallery at Midhowe. at Buckquoy
Figure
features
phase Ib and II
Figure
access
at
Figure Figure
-viii-
LIST OF TABLES Table Table Table Table Table 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Ambiguities in stick pin forms for for for for .... for for for for for for for for ........................... antler possible iron pins ............... antler pins ...... 51 55 56 59
pins ..................
Summary of dating evidence (excluding moulds) ......... Summary of dating Summary of dating Summary of dating Summary of dating evidence evidence evidence evidence evidence evidence evidence evidence
copper alloy pins ...... ................... shaft shaft shaft shaft type type type type a ............. b ............. c ............. e .............
. .
60 63
6. 7. 8. 9.
64 . . 65
10. Summary of dating 11. Summary of dating 12. Summary of dating 13. Summary of dating
-lx-
ACKNOWLEDGENEWS
The
germ
of
this
project Leslie
(part
II)
to to
Professor me to work
Alcock.
place all
he has
improving
directions go
other
colleagues testing,
provided work,
a stimulating,
friendly
in which
Dr Stephen
Pam Graves
I am grateful in
to them for
comments on allowed me
Throughout
particular
of stimulating
discussion,
constantly
appeared John
in
(Foster criticism
- anonymous
colleagues. In the course contact with the this I have had the pleasure other with the professionals exception text. of of coming into and Iain ideas, various Crawford, and/or
of
research
given and/or
and/or
them all:
a 'considerable
Mercer
(Edinburgh
Aitchison,
Graham-Campbell
(Tankerness Field
Simon Buteux
Joanna
Close-Brooks;
Cowie,
Dr
Mike
Spearman,
Dr
Alison
and
Ian
Scott
(Royal
Museum of Art
Scotland, Sill
(Glasgow
Galleries);
Gallery); Peter
Dr John Hunter
Dockrill
(Bradford
Archaeologist) in
Orkney;
(Freswick);
Swanson
for
advice (Strathclyde
aspects A
unfinished (Shetland
Dr Dominic
Tweddle and
Archaeological Yeoman.
Museum)
My thanks financial
also
extend
Alpe
for
and moral
Flat-mates with to
and Marion
and tolerantly to
me and my thesis.
wish
repeat
my gratitude text.
in Glasgow, be evident
in this
SUMMARY
Iron I
Age
is
as
falling of of
four LIA I,
and LIA
known
post-broch these
period. they
analysis
Trondheim survival
history A
archaeological data the more the of base earlier ubiquitous LIA. LIA This settlement in of
previous is
excavation
strategy.
and
following examined and analysed, OL Stevenson (1955), because these are some of A belonging artefacts chronologically sensitive the basis the area in of for a reconsideration Province and LIA, as of the
provides
Atlantic Orkney
a whole, There
Caithness. particularly
problems
recognising
LIA
the
basis
for
study first
of
Orkney
early
millennium for
A scheme is period,
suggested
developments general
and on the is
put is
An attempt with
which its
previous approach. is
sound
methodological of access The shift relation is Pictish extensive examined by which agricultural Christianity to
Archaeological described
application
investigate social
of space structured
changing
demonstrated, kingdom.
development
the move from intensive change reflects Other aspects of social reproduction sources of power. this framework. fit On analogy to see if they within situations elsewhere and land and the evidence tenure, and the to hand, this power may have been exercised, practice specifically ideological
contemporary
are speculated
upon.
-Xii-
ABBREVIATIONS
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-xv-
PART I
CHAPTER 1: SYNOPSIS
- CHAPTER I-
PART I:
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 1:
SYNOPSIS
need is
a clear to However,
of
the
related
theory. untidy
world, which
and poorly
documented,
means that to
be quite
compatible, unless
cannot
be achieved a clearly
within
theoretical
perspective. dissertation Province during of the the first to alms of Iron present that BC to such a social more is the particularly from eighth is around synthesis Orkney the for and early century Scotland, Age,
the
Atlantic
or ninth then
attempts empirical
by firstly
providing
footing.
a clearly if
work,
such they
interpretation
evidence, future
and potential
suggested.
1.1 PART I: After outlined ultimately justified. reasons study in a DEFINING synopsis chapter derived 2. from of THE TOPIC (this In chapter) particular of the the Discourse, Province and is aims of the thesis are stance, and and, the specific to Age the and and broad These part to C-14
methodological is described
Fields the of In
discussed as the
introduced Iron chronological into Iron are (All four Ages. seen in
available the
student
problems which
as and recent
Middle,
most
one, curve.
calibration
relevant
-1-
are
on-the
post-
period
(Late
assigned is
therefore
certain
some of the more ubiquitous belonging to the Late Iron LIA settlement in the throughout study area
"where
distribution
PART II:
PINS,
IRON
AGE
SETTLEMENT In chronology to have broch a Late sought the 1955 the a fact 1955 of RBK brochs that Stevenson (Stevenson published 1955a) a paper where pins thus In Into entitled Pins our would later and attention seem than to the that and he the
considerably effect
sites Iron to
found. Scotland
brochs the
base been
considerably In chapters
developed. post
immediaely to
Iron
Age pins
and
combs
(appendices
emerge,
7 provides
dating-evidence Whilst chapters 8-9 the the and Iron of and of The detail for
suggestions evidence of
and a basis
settlement of this
amplifying the to
knowledge broch
particular up
outbuildings activity of
brought them is
date,
(appendix up
followed
and Caithness
-2-
- CHAPTER I1.3 PART III: Chapter Orkney A MODELFOR ORKNEYAND CAITHNESS IN THE IRON AGE 10 suggests from eighth the a comprehensive structural around the early centuries or ninth century AD. society It in for sequence of the first goes on to and be Orkney
architecture particularly for all social time context, for through as the of tool
man-made space
architecture
in terms can
structuring analysis
agent is the
social
of
structuring
relations data
social of to are
The prehistoric
and Caithness of
survival
ranked
society
Intensive
sources (11)
resources
power of society,
agricultural
basis
focussing
on changing lie
practices the
tenure, society.
might it of its
raised
of the church
as a form of ideological power (metalwork in detail in at Warebeth is described site Issues which are together to much tied the up with the in the same chapter. various in strands and become became it is
appendix changes
raises (chapter In
described
The conclusions of evidence into in Is but discussed terms the more found speculative drawn founded suggested, military,
consider
general could
how it Pictish
how social
authority answer,
centralised* in overlapping
modes of
political, sources of
more particularly
and ideological
- CHAPTER 1-
social
power.
The text is divided into subsections, henceforth 9.
-4-
CHAPTER 2:
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 2:
INTRODUCTION
2.1
ARCHAEOLOGISTS AND SOCIAL THEORY My main aim from But in the In this thesis of write is is to the history therefore write Iron a history Age until to for the first Orkney arrival understand and of
beginning order to
we need
how societies
operate.
There
the need for to develop archaeologists a theory in the of material culture as the initial step analysis of past social and cultural change (Barrett 1981,205) Few archaeologists all use theory, nor But Help concern processes and can claim to work as or such not from theory life' concepts of the yet from-such implicitly, intrinsically specific the is social the to this sciences, a stance; but rarely we
explicity of is
problem be sought
social social of
illumination xvii), us
(Giddens which
1984, presents of
we can most
a theory
and plausible
view
functioning
society:
enables us to decide of theory a strong sense facts, be the key be what might what might to an understanding central of and what marginal We select how a particular, works. society our they data, confirm or reject our see whether hunches, the latter, collect more data, refine between theory across zigzagging and continue a plausible and data until we have established in this time society, account of how this and 'works'. (Mann 1986, vii). place As 'societies we need In concepts my opinion is are much messier which the Giddens' as: methodological particular is' necessarily are is length as - complex; y and allAll are suited then to our theories with to of them' (ibid, 4),
dealing theory
only
current of
Theory
Structuration
described
the rediscovery of competent, in procedures structuring employed (Barrett 1988,8). social practices In the its quest for realism and but the and of objectivity Giddens' of his as it
intricacies
embracing, social
follows. interaction,
Interaction
recognised
situated
-5-
- CHAPTER2in through and/or space and time. their actions All human agents exercise are seen to create some form or of their of but the
(which
materials, life Is
either
otherwise),
are conditioned say all (Barrett codes, Structure' know it cultural practical unconscious) available repetitive, within which to
and constrained
creation,
and Pred's is
'Duality of a recursive nature - Giddens' In using the world people get 'Becoming'. and what they by this discursive of the do in it, how they (carried and which routine a is determined knowledge consciousness material much of and of forms is (cf the also through world which time, can
1987,471)
resources
activity, space
framework
actions
reproducing moment of
Giddens
1984,17) time-space
greatest are
and
these
again
enabling
agreed
are is
the to
object
of
our how
A
understand
material
constitutes
archaeological
database
relates 2.2
to these,
SOCIAL THEORYAND ARCHAEOLOGY Fields of Discourse of to has been derived geography 1982; from (of Pred Structuration there are Theory many
and in
fusion
time-space
which
particularly 1988).
Carlstein
produce
accurately
provide
framework
by which of all
crux theory
social of
historically changes in
major of
relations
power
(the
Romans);
- CHAPTER2introduction melding a new ideology migrant an area in is (Christianity); p9pulation time being (the and the Norse). by virtue action of by the is of and human is of
of
arrival
and
discourse social
communicative the
relations. symbols is
instigated-by authority is
where by the
1989,307).
In areas are
concerned
residues
fixed
historical
Material the culture represents material for was partially universe which available humans to draw upon as a medium for action. It for action is thus both the condition and the As such material is results of action. culture the medium of discourse (the code) by which social are negotiated and reproduced, relations 1989,305) It Is meaningful (Barrett This ideas proposal is better code may have its cannot for be 'contextual in, the past origin in 'ideas (Barrett archaeology'). the implications of specified in people's 1987; contra Rather heads' but these 1986 to it Hodder's than trying remains material to of the
recovered
conditions think
relations, (Barrett
through
by which
code may be possible. 1987; context' spatial as the 1989). should extent, field is be
to 'historical
components are
those
resources 1988,11-12).
transformations
place (Barrett
in the available
resources
reproduced
perhaps
emphasise Fortunately
an
which theory.
Structuration
rather can of
the and
backbone
methodologically represent
secure; history
which
and provide
cannot of
per
1978,
testability
I am working matrix'
from
This
ignore is the
a statement contrast
neatness are to
Thinking parameters'
systems reduced
order S variable,
multiple of
subsystems
regulate is (or
homeostasis
when one of
can be no such general specify (Asad two flux phrase universal 1979,620). dimensionally of with
ideology
which of be
conditions, Social on
discourse represented
- history of paper. is
'uninterrupted most history, changing with are This than such apt
(1985,337)
possibly nature
summarise the
complex
discourse.
Each field
so intimately
others, so
can
generalisations of this
processes, that
does not
approach
affinity
Most theories,
to a limited extent, not least are only testable as Marxism, the relevant in terms of because all aspects may not be measurable correlates. forming into (cf the real-life Fred 1986,12). which should is and Theory, what Rather, questions Fields which Behind considered should world. strongly with the to that foremost clearly of MacKie (refer scholar explain of the the not of in Discourse can it can be seen as a by researchers places hardcore it in is order or of this to be posed actual lies
situations
settled the
Immutable; be done
In bibliography), necessary
- CHAPTER2difference explains selecting repertoire until in most these of our from testing because this fundamental MacKie difference works by
interpretations. anthropological
a model and is
he finds
the archaeological
these to the
situations
which theory
of western
culture. of specific It is
circumstances,
general are
theoretical
notion
of how society and material thus divorced from the limitations on anthropological cannot the ly-derived
circumstances,
diversity of
archaeological of
understanding below).
an awareness
The argument make empirical (see below). not of in at is full which working the been
objective
use of
cannot, to
however,
at
this
stage 1988;
out it,
all
the
details
or the (Barrett
reasoning
as this is in
A point framework to of be
detailed
done.
do not to
Province in
relation to
, 1985,96),
further. of
But this
aspects
apprQach. 2.3 'USING FIELDS OF DISCOURSE Three theory contexts' matters will be addressed use of for the here: how fields evidence; of discourse
empirical
investigation; -9-
- CHAPTER2-
are recognised. By employing the social conditions evidence terms of for the empirical practices (Barrett particular implications of specified on the this Fields examination were of Discourse of material The theory archaeology to is seen as how
evidence within
discover
maintained
particular data
1988,9). social of
social
1987).
empirical
observations Critics as to others. theory from Fields data into 1976) base faults of in in
work must distinguish and calls what the transformation has passed will about always the to and which
apply
discourse order all which trowel, this. to the the but Any from material of that a the the fossil effects record material
account through
(Schiffer
before
be different objectivity
ways of
approach
failure
culture
nature
has
in,
record record;
which
needs
reading
composed of
symbols.
Ultimately
both
as unsatisfactory
the archaeological evidence and suggests that we need a new modelof Fields of of a record. which does not borrow from the concept is such a model because the 'r6le discourse of human beings as historical theories this In than other It Is no less objective agents is recognised. the relative of objectivity and 'associated methodologies, cannot to In its what I be enumerated. but is results can simply be set of for this interpretations. underpinnings., is of that what -this the approach data of of all actually opinion issues, calls are stem as The superiority
previous
method lies
theoretical am saying
as any from a of
Divergences
most fundamental
-
the nature
10
- CHAPTER2the archaeological is a misunderstanding they where social of are itself. Closely that social meaning, bound up with 'Things this issue
record
until 1989),
employed
practice.
through
change is
culture
other
and are
dimension,
for material,
potential of behaviour,
relationship
a prerequisite
study
where described
corpus
in terms of its
parallels and
example,
recognition place to recognise, distinguish 1980,8). do not artefacts material manufacture exchange under Items
I schools'
was classified
In the f irst and , date. because this helps the archaeologist regularities the haphazard initial in the data features so long or and to (Hodson as we of The
significant is a perfectly to or
approach type,.
group
1981,205-6).
also who
of the context of . for whom, through what procured? have in - where and and how did these structuring and
mechanisms
manufactured,
relations? wish to expand upon is the choice is in of the which first investigate. of the him. the The selection researcher, tempered
contexts'
ultimately
archaeological example, it is of
data
currently to from
available investigate
impossible society
social
relations
structure
- CHAPTER2burials Province will in tend where during to these do not the (as in Age). the for the Atlantic
exist Iron
case
most of
Naturally
enough attention culture in which seem distortion resultant to this by more the Age is suggest (the and its all of
focus
to be pre-eminent the
social
specific
approach. fields ulimate deficient themselves best-known reproduced patronage; societies Christianity ideological that
be mitigated the
studied; Iron
will
the Atlantic
certain in of
craft of
society to nature);
relation
(introduced power.
towards
the end of the period) possiblities, avai. lable. is It to discuss and what trying power to
as a form of are
the is
changes
recognised, we are of
elucidate
between alter
societies
and their
can only of
sources
power:
ideological, the
differences
social it
society
reproduces the
are
extending
authoritative
symbols exercised
(Barrett
resource,
material
1985,16;
Mann 1986).
Therefore the
material
culture
be examined
in order
to elucidate codes
different of
manners
in which
power
was organised,
the
and forms
authority
which 'were
- 12-
acted
upon,
society.
order that
between where symbols were In secondary then spatial to for society Structuration such being a primary instituted fields. example, as solely theory r6le, by by the of social thesis the to Change will become extent, An a
were a source authority apparent temporal approach functionalist environmentally denies but
authority,
signalled a study
frequency such as
pertaining with, In
approach
or technologically or the
environmental see
change as
would
aspects
which
might
be affected
and which
described it is
the time
approach
will
to adopt,
AREA OF STUDY S Piggott (1966) provinces: This the Province 460-74): the of counties was it Western Inverness, and is the divides the study of reviewed covers Isles Argyll the one the Atlantic, north of Britain during the Iron and more The (1979, and (the upland the four
Age into
four
North-Eastern, on the
concentrates Orkney by the, and and and Ralston Northern the west and
Ross of
Cromarty); Of
north
the
critical. Piggot's (D
consider
behind
scheme 1982,1), of of
useful
means
geographical an entirety,
-
be studied
realistic
13
- CHAPTER2ambit study of In convenient in a degree a research focuses of terms intended to take three This
project
years.
therefore
of- Orkney and Caithness. these two counties has always conformity. For example, the known broch form the a distinct Orkney form a resulted Various Orkney sites group examples of is Iron by MacKie the
a regional
whose topography and historical this point. more then half of Caithness with two major Scotland
and Caithness
shares
some common charactersitics 1988; compare also building the which with the in
roundhouse perhaps
In Orkney and even further Their for might enough always the times
at Bow in Midlothian is social imply) a is large attract earldom factors Research is reflection diversification greater
and Cockburn Law in Berwickshire. of the terrain; potential these and development in areas where the land and on these thus hilly
maintain to Orkney
a further
of
be divided
field scale as
(which
designed
within
means of laboratory
an individual
and problem-orientated or with thesis therefore Institutions detailed criterium concentration which applied the to new work of
laboratory student), research, research field on the published research based largely and leading theory within (Field the to new syntheses, Archaeol of the 1987,98). latter, it commonly This was
others falls to
an emphasis realistically
on social
scope
persons and choose an area where other done, or are in the process of completing, work. (fig Orkney 2). and Orkney Caithness has both suit from Iron this the Age, benefited on the
resources
mainly
North recently,
-
Services et al
most
14
conjunction of old
with
reinterpretation both
excavations,
most notably and the respective addition this and University) of Sites
(Hedges 1987 11) and Lingro of gazetteers, (Hedges by Hunter Ness are Extra). has
Bradford
been compiled,
by Lamb.
Durham University's
1984) 1981a,
mainly severe
result
the
threats
reafforestation
coastal
erosion.
Edinburgh
and Durham have all their results 1981a; has 1980; (1988) of her 1985;
respect,
and in most cases (Batey addition, sites as University. Naturally, not being shut aspects and by 1986a; in of the in 1984: Swanson a part
Mercer
a; Morrison survey at
undertaken doctoral
extensive research
Edinburgh
on Orkney and Caithness the in Atlantic these of Province, other in the areas
rest
evidence University
then
purposes is
available Uist,
fieldwork in
years.
summary form
and unit
Caithness for
themselves they
as form
a a
convenient geographical
because an area
entity,
manageable recent
proportions,
body of
excavations
-15-
- CHAPTER2which is published, forthcoming and where the with their have kindly
researchers
concerned data
been very
unpublished
and ideas.
2.5 THE CHRONOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK Definition both else of British the Iron Age Is rather blurred In North Britain anywhere 600 it AD with local In of that
chronologically in the
probably traditional it
from circa
BC-AD 400 (RCAHMS 1984,20), might the better be ascribed 1978,76). metal in defining Province
century period, of
(D V Clarke changing
beginning the
of
cultural
and chronological artefactual This when large (in of the the study of
reliance
has been on architectural Age commences from into the BC) to century Iron the
Atlantic
millennium ninth II in
Norse
or early
phases: (NP).
terminating avoid as
introduced such
ascriptions
This
- MacKie (1986) has used MIA describe the period at Howe after and Carter at the these these, Suffice et al Howe terms (1984) but have it refer is been the to to the so LIA,
artefacts, settlement
knowledge, to
that all of
particularly briefly
chapters. Age is
describe refer. is
divisions
recognised point
extended thesis
the arrival
belonging recent
period.
- CHAPTER2for Thus brochs we can have broadly the and utilised basis been in Orkney into the were form, and EIA the
antecedents Caithness.
established this (when LIA in their patterns of present period the (the
two phases,
has
defined to to
the
stance and
this
attempts
defined
boundaries
which
applies.
Chapter
resources a history
empirical (in
need resolving of
part
ID
attempt
Age Orkney
Caithness
17
CHAPTER 3:
PROVINCE
- CHAPTER3-
chapter to the
introduces student of
the the
frequency, is only
and the
assessed in
available We than
resources here
concerned specific
the
details.
However
by way of an Introduction
to part
TEMPORALFREQUENCY Archaeologists are is collation. term historical history emphasis in the traditionally is our concerned sole r6le with (I in the measurement 1988); date
of
time.
some this
a principal
We use
information longues in
processes. temporal
write equal
should be
place
on the
existence defined
history. prescribed
temporal nature,
frequencies or socially
contrived.
3.1.1 "Natural' Since rooted the in the cycles Neolithic Scottish and-there food created, on a that can prehistoric be little of the and society doubt debts that was it deeply was in
process
most enacted,
people took In
reproduced. seasonal
major
balance at of times
place
affecting identify
inheritance. cycles,
archaeologists
- 18-
as
are
available
us
of
considerations. 3.1.2 'Social' Activities which time, returned. circumstances a chain frequently, social 3.1.3 of are the
cycles such as gift-giving being temporal but may create debts of obligation to natural is of that and need bear completed frequency It is
obligation a set
such
necessary
to recognise occur,
such would
almost
certainly
probably of
been
Important
structuring
relations. Historical les longues durdes paragraphs should that not detract is is 1981). and best date
frequencies
discussed,
scale the
reproduced is
and that in
inhabitants of
socialized' historical
recognition 'episodes':
(Giddens' for
1984)
successful
observation
time
and relative
and space we are dependent dating. I am now going of will particular This some of is the the dating be made to the not basis yet the available the for
on the techniques of absolute to discuss in a little more throughout phases describe the will dating the Into Atlantic which It a LIA phases resolution from the IA. is I in four
a distinction to
between these
place
chronological of future
gaps,
attempted derives
the subject
sections,
be highlighted.
present
available
radiometric
of radiocarbon
(henceforth and thermoluminescence C-14 dates (full details of which are to outnumber Thus framework in this it published is that TL dates, the C-14
as yet
and cover wider dates provide the data is applied., the and have
chronological
calibrated 1986;
against Pearson
calibration 1986).
curve
These Include
a number of - 19-
means which
- CHAPTER3been calculated samples technique chi-square series which when two or more determinations cannot norm) that test be assumed to but relate to derive the from have been made from the same object of activity. testing that (1978), (the The
archaeological
same phases
used is
advocated
where the a
statistic
of determinations
found the a series are where of members different from to be insignificantly statistically criteria one archaeological another, and where for may be calculated allow, a pooled mean ... ... determinations Ubid, 30C the mean of the grouped In fig 3 187 of the C-14 in at been dates the presently available of levels. characteristics moved the to undertake of for Scotland The Iron Age and have been
early plotted
Norse by
both
compared curve. I calculated the resultant sections steep as graph of an a of occur dates of these
found notably it in
bracketed curve. curve the curve associated of dates the is in effect date what by of a then range in seems corresponds these cal as AD) of is is On are as
steep that
seemed the
when
sections
calibration calibrated the that spans. only span section number calendar histogram. break with the up into changes EIA curve, certain
mean
that range
radiocarbon whilst
a narrow where
years,
even
they
sections, wider
given
calibrated is that
Another a small of
intercepts may be
represented or end
beginning with
be calibrated and the Is each I MIA that of shall (about for result the
effect
record
largely describe
material BC 800-400),
record. the
AD 200-800). curve,
calibration
essentially
-20-
- CHAPTER3impossible ages lie there which basis until is to resolve between also the radiocarbon dates of any samples whose true and Pilcher the 1983,58). But 650 AD, MIA and about curve, the
400 and 800 BC1 (Baillie gap between of the the be an artefact I have divided into
a significant
calibration from
period have
end of
century to in is
a LIA I and LIA II. which been this is not derived graph, strictly given the from this
Whilst analysis relatively accurate. weighting. manually; which is involved alternative with Marian weighting, distribution whilst the the this
research each to In
because
been
would have been difficult be plotted view of the as a box, large little curves to
same for
number of dates different for date have is to the each (pers an date comm equal Yet
date
routinely calibrated
an unknown
within
1987,103). raised
figure the
not
strictly
accurate, their
concerning
relationship
of C-14 dates,
calibration
record which needed resolving. settlement Subsequent to the compilation of figure of Scottish high Quaternary rev the 2.0). university of dates (261 in calibration Laboratory data, total)'
3 an expanded using
a computerised of Washington
precision Isotope
program-1987, were supplied 4B) to to show the using density the at the a
From this
parts dates
1-a
level
comm Marian
Scott).
same uncalibrated
was also
in appendix 1. Includes all dates listed Dundurn dates (bar GU-1041 and GU-1043).
I with
the exception
of all
2.1 to Dr Marian Scott and Dr Tom Aitchison of the am very grateful The Glasgow University in this Department respect. of Statistics, former discussed issue with me and produced the graphs on which this figs 4 and 5 are based with a programme devised by the latter. -21-
- CHAPTER3The question I and II be on the upheld. of the distribution of 97 dates) then to ask now is basis The of the most the the of distinction the calibration to make is effect into the between curve that a LIA can the
still
point has
on the Orkney (a
Thus in
period
significantly and Sutherland the profile the MIA/LIA the LIA II is and islands I
period the to
coast Into
EIA/MIA,
number of of the
bracket. is
dates
other from
from elsewhere. In each of (as will to the become the of which until which period research,
and low spots/brackets Province? is related, has been The answer naturally considerable the to EIA the
8-10) There
enough,
and MIA,
structures.
substantial in
exceptions,
of about
AD 600 onwards. to Atlantic Province, mainland does span the LIA I. which the Atlantic The source of these dates Province has' few), but largely forms system is which which develop here
when the
two factors
upon these
in general the
graph
is
smoothed is slightly
dating curves
brackets
- CHAPTER3in the MIA and sharp, narrow is due Figure 5 has been
peaks, the
cal
bracketing 5B the
distribution
of C-14 calibrations 950 bp (with plotted curve. ' the was curve in the by the
1-a level)
each decade between 3000of the 50 years) Trondheim the has been
a constant done on
standard in date
deviation of to
against This
calibration of the
examine which
effect not
calibration represented produced fig different multiple None the basis largely of
were
Scottish
Irregular graph
4B, neither
takes
any given of
measure, the
peaks
curve
must have some bearing archaeological this, there is in cal data 'thus both
recognisable between
approximately
distinguish
a LIA I and II, construct stand better the are devised test needed understood to transform
of present from
knowledge,
means of earlier TL
recognising excavations
settlement
dates
the
the
dating
and if the
to Iron is
gaps in
surrounding to
sample
dated.
a reasonable Is of the
a hearth
importance -23-
- CHAPTER3between TL Measures this case of also If has the also to dated used to on the in et al TL,
event been
and
cultural stone
burnt
be taken
remove
was an encouraging stone, used to work Centre pottery date by and vitrified Clark at
TL dates date. et TL al
dating 1985;
(Sanderson
current
Scottish it
and to
Reactor
proves pottery.
date been
recent a
radiometric peceived A
a of revision century. architectural in patterns; MIA continues record the
dates cultural
This
mainly
down
amplify
well the over basis
sequence sequence studies, years. prominent dominate impoverished, culture sequences are crude
been
evolving constructed
to little of
some known of
recent the to is
settlement the
artefactual much of
material
example as exist
best, with
many
unreliable A limited between contexts, long these which centuries area). Some the
other has
problems to
deposition. assigned to in I
artefacts sixth
fourth, C-14
period
major 1963),
gap class
this mobilier
stones dice
constitute group is
period. settlement in
Atlantic where
distribution is necessary
Stevenson's of decade
paper LIA or
considerable
progress
-24-
CHAPTER3reassess to also fix the the meet large date with can of of the body of material relative problems from early the excavations. will curve, examination, context Attempts obviously but some where and art-
artefactual of a finer
chronologies calibration by
be made at relative
chronology
stratigraphy,
archaeological
context.
EXTENT takes how place its is somewhere, location naturally and structured the It that time most is must Certainly which It the is open thus it is that therefore activity. or
3.2
SPATIAL All
architecture, and
activity can
social'interaction. in
dominant to more
be allocated it is
large
archaeologists attributes
describing -
recording which
pertaining to
architecture analytical of
much
easier
recognise
separate in the
into
open-space,
structures exterior
means
they
more
domestic in the
Age. the
Here, wide
despite
subsequent of of natural
unprecedented unrivalled sequence range are both the to of two as locale totally is
prehistoric Isles.
resources, None in
British complete,
variability in which
this
cultural for
resource
discourse
within between
practice
because Institutions
the-places which
activity reflect
the
result 1983,31).
themselves
structure
-25-
- CHAPTER33.2.1 Architecture In order is helpful to and between architecture patterns useful of tool to in
society the way architecture of relations as they structured between are society inhabitants in of is the the a it the
understand look at
patterns
inhabitants itself.
space can be examined and entrances 10). (access The control activity control and
created for
space is the
of of
dependence
sectors organisation the This context and are being and also the
particular their
patterns repetitive
factors, whereby
code
was forms is
world
process
modes of behaviour and where Thus as the to of rules the act day to
(Thrift organisation
as well in order
a structure which
can be investigated per society. the best archaeological it impossible Ideas which to se, the
understand man-made in
architecture
resource
in structuring is as in to
Architecture and,
the
prime
importance. reference
without
provide cultural
Activity Other
a framework resources.
in
against
which
compare
evidence
architecture resources in which buildings, architecture is of by the examining distribution unit can provide and evidence it is in for equally structuring recognisable of thus artefacts be defined the activities to The
take the to
played where
way on
the data.
other just
residential
-26-
- CHAPTER3in terms take of its In it. settlement On the but in terms this work is is will only of the activities possible the for
place of
number
amplify
picture. with in
locales of
society,
Thus it which other derived question not the the the close spatial. can to
be argued
social the
resources
in. nature
that in and in
per
se.
activity
Hillier
archaeological
consider
3.3
(910.2.3).
CULTURAL RESOURCES OF THE FIELDS The availability specified the must main be of contexts resource studied other greater absent. evidence they occur, in in cultural which the
resources
of 0.2,
the
which addition
part
In are of
contexts or lesser
Evidence resources activities, nature weaving, is available); documentary landscapes studies) have of
where
technology
the but
pottery,
agrarian (in
practice; conjuntion
agricultural experience;
may
some
possibly a
with
remote stones,
introduction artefacts
stone sources.
ecclesiatical
structures
-27-
- CHAPTER3(Barrett 1988; of this 1981,215-17; Mallory 1981; Nieke 1988; Nieke dealt apply to on in
publications and Duncan with here. area of the the early In issue
Driscoll literacy
1988a and b) and documentary and so this and there However, which
have
historic/LIA part is
period,
be dwelt
because no early
sources are
any of
verbal
should Christianity
also
considered extant
of the
communication,
communication
involving
developments in the storing, and analysis as the as well of human knowledge, creation Involved between the Individuals relationships (Goody 1977,37) As such it can social onwards.
4*1**
be
expected in
to
have
played
major
role
in
structuring century
relations
the Atlantic
Province
This to the
has of
the
nature Age
of and
the
resources
the
Iron
manner picture
be analysed is
in
not part
particularly
LIA.
knowledge is amplified
throughout
Atlantic of
and distribution
and combs.
-28-
IRON AGE
CHAPTER 4:
- Chapter
PART II: PINS, ATLANTIC
4-
CHAPTER 4:
to
the
of the
a model data
for
Iron I it the in
base is
gaps
period
(the
pins In
seem to have a post-Roman broch sites bridge brochs 1955 on which in of that a LIA to
and were
found. until
between and
ninth In the
Since
expanded developed.
considerably
dating and new absolute and the following chapters post Iron Age pins and stylistic original LIA settlement area of horizons Stevenson's
Iron
immediately
and combs are examined emerge, and Ultimately the AP, but where
and Caithness
4.1
PINS,
4.1.1
A S,-ry Stevenson
being
post-Roman.
amongst these
was a group of
bone ball heads, carved wi th simpl e pins indistinguishable from Romano-British in pins found England, in not pre-Roman and a type Age at SW Scottish England, nor in the Roman Iron They have stems [fig 6.1-26J. that are sites the7 narrow to the point until or parallel-sided half-W87 have a swelling up or higher, made by to the base of the ball. inwards (ibid, whittling 285) Having deemed there was sufficient -29new post-Roman material from
4-
with
review
sites
of
later
sites
had both of to
produced
he ascribed of this
artefact
1890;
expansion
James Curle
Samian and
coin
pins
a swelling, Ireland,
or more of the way down the Examples Hipped and dated perhaps century from and in
presumably
impede were
slipping. quoted.
elsewhere England,
pins
also
occur
few stratified
did not
any with hips; appear to include 5th Roman or a late origin (Stevenson 1955a, 285), but he did the not quote any examples have ornamental hips. example fig pins; (for from
pre-seventh
Some of
examples
considered
from Romano-British
Stevenson
the example
in one of the Burilston inset blue glass pine Insets, which may be compared with green glass differently though in of late shaped heads, 286) Roman pins at Lydney, Glos Ubid, inset heads from Scotland and Ireland More elaborate were also (fig 6.21-22). Carved Sithean produced series it of a bone pins from and wheelhouse were sites noted. to study belong such the as
noted
Phiobaire
These
iron pins
From this
is concluded
by the dating supported of Lagore and Bulilston, the less of Mote of Mark and clear evidence Dunadd, where there were earlier excavations, and by the stratification of Burrian, gives a date, for the than the 7th century earlier not much Scottish and the Anglopins so far considered, -30-
4-
The absence
of
these
pins
from
sites
such
as Gurness suggests a
and Midhowe,
periods
of occupation,
late period not so very far removed post-broch from the 7th century, and that early post-broch to produce be expected occupations ought not broch-builders the them, than. any more distribution The widespread themselves. of the that hipped pins indicates absorption a cultural Ubid, 287) probably was only gradual Comment was suggest. Another only in artefact type Stevenson drew attention to, were few, although is the late summary fashion, toilet because also made on the changes in dress which these pins
excavated
examples
composite
seems to
of native
pins
pins
comprise
ring-headed
pins,
family whose varying kinds cover very long-lived 288) (ibid, 1500 years in Britain nearly (fig 6.27) are a series of iron pins with pins 1I heads about The 12-25 mm across of of both which development
bone and
is
reiterating
and
clarifying
conclusions:
the so-called 'broch-culturel up must be'-broken into eight covering at least, several periods only part of It belonging centuries, and probably two or To the last to the broch-builders ... the Norse settlement three centuries preceding tentatively, at least a can now be ascribed, large proportion of the 'Roman' pins from broch (ibid. 293). and wheelhouse sites The supposed In absence of that these their finds from sites a little to to such as Gurness occupation that but in the a and was wire pot west,
recognised there is
post-broch brochs;
evidence
secondary considered
be early
century
AD:
-
31
- Chapter
It Is ', to the 3rd
4-
simpler ... elaborate potter7 and the between somewhere the wheelhouses in the than later that within these western this sites, later
that the most suppose belong ring-head pins and 7th centuries ... west coming earlier rather 293) span Mid, such as Bac Nhic Connain, produced was first
of which
support (1947; by
Stevenson to the
Scott's AD:
1948a)
dating he
suggesting
later,
a time In
millennium
addition
to the pre-Roman some pins which belong and earlier part of the Roman Iron Age are not known from main broch areas at all yet Ist-2nd ... for the main AD dates remain probable century broch-building Ubid, 294). period Stevenson the third with ends his to ninth few paper with finds the claim AD CLIAI and little to have shifted to the period at of the chasm. of brochs being the
centuries small
(MIA], proved
pottery
present
to belong
to the earlier
period.
4.1.2
of Stevenson's continue to
189) Atlantic
diagnostic most
'Pictish' 'Pictish'
artefacts
Brough of
Birsay and
Curle usually
Interface
as the
it in its by -placing context of knowledge about later contemporary In the same year as its appearance the Iron Age settlement. Atlantic following statement was published:
that we cannot at present point It is unfortunate for dwelling fortress to a single or to a single that it is Pictish burial] say with certainty and is still Without doubt much Pictish material ... doubt, also, much has hidden from us, but without for been discovered what it and not recognised the recognition lies in The problem is. or (Wainwright Identification as Pictish of material -32-
- Chapter 1955,29-30). This School in and, paper in was In view of this fact
4-
delivered
at to
the
theory,
one As it in
step
remedying
af f airs.
was, part
'chasm' the
persisted
This
both
1962
archaeological
historical cited
the -sculpted are those at Jarlshof some Dark Age but pottey', A the Atlantic 1965a; the 1973).
Young of until
recognised 'Dalriadic
stages
II-V the
broch broch
constitute brochs
material share on
although
some of
also
wheelhouses.
centuries 1973,140
extant
centuries
Stage V and the Norse period, but no mention was is the from stage IV - V). This transition made of the unclear MacKie on brochs. assemblage -which Stevenson identified material summarised his suggested sequence of development (fig 8), but in this he ignores a gap the fact, stage as he himself IV, ending pins, admitted, about dating had only pottery the MacKie Iron main that there the about appears the himself them, to be of to to between 300 AD and from
between Iron
presence fifth
Stevenson's century allowing transgress evidence; attempt (1980a) (1987 period other He also
combs the
and
ring-headed in of
stamped with of
'dated' to Alcock
was the
person
culture; work of
LIA to
Hedges a broch 37
specific
Orkneys.
has defined
and. the
have. produced
(excluding
finds, -33-
4-
objects, draws
other
find for
types continuity
from
evidence
Norse been
Theoretical Clarke
approach
such finds
as spiral
an invasion
hypothesis; reports
(1981)
and Foxon of
artefacts
analyses. and in
recognition
still later
continues but
and
wheelhouses, of has
recognition
surprising. been
'secondary sites. by
example,
employed
secondary the
settlement. to have
excavator,
claimed broch,
material
assemblages,
(1974).
ornamented with
composite the
double-sided), a stone 49). Thus, stratigraphic excavation occupation occupation 1882) but to into slab
so-called
Pictish
a cross
for
many be
years, of to a
Burrian broch,
was and
the the of
claim and
evidence
'secondary' at
phases
(Watt
incomprehensible' re-examination of
(Hedges the
suggests
- Chapter separation assumed, original and any detect 'too 70). of not plans break elsewhere. clea*r to cut not less, None the the least finds is
4-
as is indicated of
because less
covers in
occupation Moreover, to
sequence
would the
he considers
division
instinctive
I (MacGregor
Traill's
site
postas BC and
sees
broch
between
century its is
as a purelydomestic but
defensive
place,
comparable
a similar
transition
comparatively 1972,19; 'secondary' consisted necessary from only finds, from about a few of the of and
early
around Hamilton
example
at Burrian at the
or else theory is
phases
coming
Norse.
parallels
from
contexts
be found essentially
(MacGregor the
1974,100).
The bulk
about
the
fifth that
would
present
evidence,
happened period
not
of abandonment),
happening
certainly
which
to the period. The absence of finds can be ascribed to about 300 to 600 AD is a problem already discussed in the Broch
and chronological
properties
of
of
a material
assemblage
and possibly
4-
occupation
place
outside
the
'the occupation,
settlement,
period'
similar
several
sites,
without
justification 1985;
which
buildings so they
and
whole,
reasons (1980)
outlines,
was a self-perpetuating Dryden's 111,144; or less colour-coded Petrie 1890, immortalised. adopted raised prevailing unsolved Opinion vacillate, the under later. fact the on two in
enshrined
events which
Indeed,
stance
Commission
1946, although
problems regarding times in post-broch (RCAHMS1946). the date of fierce types broch debate. of
evidence
'secondary': brochs,
which which
contemporary
A recent
it
view successfully
these:
built into the the Picts be denied that brochs other structures and possibly belief that the long held regular, found the towers buildings around (in the sense of secondary are Is not longer occupation) subsequent representing tenable (Hedges 1983,117), cannot of ruins but the substantial themselves but the antiquarian broch literature is camps rarely does. issue, in the So the and majority it can date opinions of be of the have 'broch, taken as
outbuildings two
between where
outbuildings
mentioned
-36-
4-
and
outbuildings
were
not
considered
contemporary): CONTEMPORARY ----------------------------I --------NOT CONTEMPORARY --------------------------Anderson 1877; 1883 Petrie 1890 Anderson 1901 Callander and Grant RCAHMS 1946 Hamilton 1962; MacKie 1973 Hedges and Bell 1980 Ritchie Hedges 1983 Hedges 1987 11-111 1988 Ritchie and Ritchie 1981 1966
1934
MacKie 1987b
will they
thus
be further
clarifed
broch
sites, are
a consideration
for
of sites
these relate
artefacts
how contemporary
4.2.1 data
collection
and management of
the
pin Iron
of
including is not
many later
(appendix
definitive,
acquired
recorded on pro forma data base (dBase ID. to a computerised artefact is assigned or pockets analysis, a record of which information, and upon which
subsequently Into a
25 'fields', to
be of can be as
any subsequent is
designed
rigidly
applicable
artefact arise
and
eventualities
Take for
4-
fields of fixed
preceding
combination
material, combinations
upon which
is
it
are:
number,
national 1-51context,
object,
breadth/diameter, unpublished
for
context,
published
references arranged
and illustrations,
and finally
a record
number.
These are
TYPE ------
WIDTH
mus: cat: no
site county ngr: sq ngr. east ngr: north material category object qual: l qual: 2 qual: 3 qual: 4 qual: 5 class comments length b: d1am depth weight context date: cont up: ref pub: ref recordno
C
C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C
- -- ------
015
025 005 002 004 004 008 Oil 010 010 010 010 010 010 010 060 004 004 004 005 050 150 020 080 004
field
is
left
blank
where
there
is
insufficient
available
information.
4.2.2
Details Recorded
of the Artefacts details. recorded glass, animal, include a basic to description the material material. are too of it The basic , the is object. made of:
Each either
object metal, of
is
according wood or
skeletal
divisions
plant
Chapter
4-
purposes.
Material
by category, type. * So, horn its in craft, material is given for and the and it for
that
is
description
antler, given
Cetacean specific
own category
attention
Province,
such an essential was limited. which is Qualifiers be more specifically according be to the
artefacts name,
next
constitute described.
prior the
of material, for
above, a
category
marks,
addition of the
what might
components
classificatory
reasons
summarize both
manageable, facts
observed
facts
effectively
Secondly,
them. of
cross-cultural
comparable
discovery in
formulation
cross-cultural
present
The second. and third But mind at all. why all archaeologists even if not 71).
reasons are not what the first reason is will the always spend a their 80-90% of
reason time
classifying,
estimated
by Chang Ubid,
A classificatory pins
scheme has been devised for all the examined below. Prior to examination and combs, and Is described -39-
- Chapter
4-
of
the
artefacts published
the
framework
for
schemes In forms
example
MacGregor of it
case of
combs this
was on
form,
As data subsequently
schema were amended ad hoc order the data avoid in form, had been
complications collected. but the final on will and which the to divisions, Critics detailed analysis after
these
there
analysis
observe traditional
consideration reduce
observable dimensions
observations
relatively basis of
which
a class).
includes
where necessary. employed in of the form of the depth and dimensions: length, breadth/diameter, a. only re describing
sub-groups
artefact
are
weigt. in
in
entered the
within
meaningful
relevance
artefact,
object
potential
distinguising
groups,
or all
elucidating be of invaluable
the
the the
relevance
interpretation
artefact present
another. of
is
associated by
registration
number.
preceded
to the an abbreviation specific For the purposes of this study number, is the which to is has no particular particular that
artefact
cross-referenced there
- Chapter are its those dating. to both describe Context horizontal to a site, it to
4-
which
for where
vertical
context
specific reference
(eight
figures
where possible).
are quoted
details
systemic to the
originally
or alternatively the is
regard dating
evidence
context its
data
horizons. at
evidence
in this quoted
suggested
by the or
relevant in
post taq)
evidence
reliability evidence
a site. data
details
relevant
C-14 dates
are to be found II
in appendix
The artefactual appendix and details base Is context, number the the each
In number,
artefact by site,
listed
In appendix III the data defined, and details of its its to museum accession be found. achieved are Cross by using placed in
published
references
referencing record
between number
easily
site
appendices
4.3 DATING ARTEFACTS In reliable absolute. order to date artefacts sequence, Age site
-
the
essential these
is
a and
chronological An ideal'Iron
preferably for
purposes
therefore
41
4-
with
sequence, three
from per
which phase,
are In
preferably
dates.
decorated tighten
references is a rare
advent
scientific
and documentary Iron Age dating scientific of which for analysis (See Taylor
references reliant on techniques. depends on and the 1987 105and dates). will
a combination the
chronologies
and
material
relationship 46 on
sample
provenance, be high
accuracy precision
will
samples. the of
the same context, a means of results, and some idea means are in to the allow general historic and only
effects
of All I. of period
on individual
enables
true
C-14,
part
dates between
reference are
1987,4) use is
archaeomagnetic
dating
their
now becoming more widespread. In the historic secondary presence (Alcock Britons; find their Mediterranean 1971; 'the In of period to Roman (LIA) other artefacts, usually regarded as the importance coins, or Picts including
methods,
metalwork, documentary
Gaulish
way into
contexts coins
as Orkney
1983).
southern Unfortunately
Scotland, these
brought
4-
are mainly is
absent
in the Atlantic a fairly their into (see for whilst wide period
Iron
Roman artefacts came to particularly 1976). difficulties, historical comparable respect although Imported Fine incorporated unreliable metalwork, scholars grounds. artefects. of because
have
known about
before
archaeological
Samian
often Further
range
of
this
specific to
independent pottery
evidence
necessary
has a limited Is
distribution contender.
Scotland,
stopping sherd
The northernmost
of Eby
accepted recent it is
as such neutron
pers
although
(1986b,
121) does suggest medieval vessel. range. some areas even at date
perhaps of less,
a Scottish
pottery
was' in 1983).
such as exist,
(for
The application neutron is base cultural could is with rarely but Is activation shown to models
as
analysis.
chronologicalalthough 1986b). (Alcock (Curle although Alcock has also 'The sources, (henceforth prestige
on
glass,
Brough
of -Birsay (Alcock
evidenced examples
several
The use of
pins
determining
main
applicable
and
Alcock
1987),
problems to
the
source
and applicability
archaeological
4-
dates
may relate
badly
to
the
artefacts. so that
Where cultural in to
context
needs for
redeposition, recognised recent account placed the of and and the below
residuality, taken
methods, 'dates'; to
emphasis
been
on relative of most If
chronologies. quoted start only data exists. In chapters a matter dating which
nature
discussion, which
a 'dated'
evidence
together.
4.4 THE QUESTION OF DISTRIBUTION Can any significance combs? this A number of can it original derived factors be applied In to the distribution of pins to and the
must be contrasted the absence the present the artefacts. or burial to but the will in
before
question
be answered.
limited are
these
(the Loss
latter, a for
outside
be disregarded
evidence here:
from two areas Orkney high is the and the the distribution area
the
Atlantic of
pins),
10); with
Western
geography of as a the
a high Skye
concentration chosen
adjacent of factors
were
geographical can be In
within
one small
area.
A large
compared simultaneously
because of -44-
use of coloured
overlays.
- Chapter each case the capabilities, and biological Survey is 1982 Soil Classification flexibility criteria agricultural unsure. A second artefacts account figures of also they the is the 10-11 parent pins acidic). to the gauge major the factors also rock factor dictating
4-
base map shows the distribution that is limitations which Scotland in of terms factors of
by the
potential
management. technologies
applied
earlier
practices,
economic
current
distribution I Taking
probable
which
metal are
(on the
absence the
accuracy
least up of
archaeological
build
different
an area
over
distribution
and skeletal
pins,
other
metal
-and Iron
which Orkney; in
excavation
can to
artefacts
enough,
or more likely,
relationship
to the nature
of the archaeological
Not e: Glasgow to Deborah Kennedy (Geology department, 1.1 grateful am Department, Glasgow [Archaeology Amanda Clydesdale University], for Archaeological Trust] [York Jim Spriggs University] and discussion of this problem.
-45-
- Chapter the
4-
which notable
are
All
find of
spots, relatively
with
the good
low land
capability
no artefacts usually
Firstly
Similarly, tandem,
coastal of
erosion in the
discovery
many sites.
better
disposition,
Isles are
North
eighteenth 1978,
confined
without the
inescapable measure
distribution
archaeological artefacts
activity,
example peninsula
notable
concentration
around
an indication metal, of
of E Beveridge's antler
archaeological
and bone artefacts good soil, conditions the which are is more
relatively soil of
also likely
dictating
have also
6 and 7 land
the
possible
N and W Isles,
#*f*f This LIA studies, the has described outlined study. the importance the the general
chapter and
of
pins details
some of In
current
next
two chapters
be reviewed
and up-dated.
-46-
CHAPTER 5:
PINS
- Chapter
5-
CHAPTER5: PINS
5.0
OF SCOTTISH PINS is divisible (qual: on 1) the and basis shaf tf of orm (the see are head be three (qual: latter main 2). may Stick as one
material, occur to
be used forms
make might
which
and
limited
primary on
are
diagnostic stick and Fowler classification, this a is slender skeletal the material. to which pin a has
the as
shafts
(MacGregor pins,
ring-headed
separately. In glance, head. forms much wear As in the from shaft highly or It are the the is cut by case of
Before metal factors complicated prescribed choice reflect metal of the pins, examples being
common more to a
where being
the may
case
of end
a bone has to
opposite a and/or
distinctive ornamented will the is 'point' shaft In general end whole thin of In all
natural head
a finely and of It
version. probability
decorated, as a part
be
process, to
certainly
distinguish arising
confusion Ultimately
ambiguous be
and/or but
and and
polished and to
working the
on
sections. have
Whilst
some as
polished can
functioned
dress
5-
stick
pins
metal-only both
forms. for
All
metal-only in the
are
assigned
names, in
abbreviated metal
entry
and skeletal
to a verbal subdivisions
description). of ten are No Shaft to pin not for four forms, to be pins
With denoted which types, broad being confused with the 1983a), after the type.
Thirty-six a the
head forms
exist, divisions.
one of
sign ificance
can be attached in
the
lower
case, (or
are
only
to simple ringed
or bent out of the pin and Fowler than form denotes other are listed
Fanning
The scheme covers Norse forms which are discussion, of relevant 5.1
subject
5.1.1. Material
Stick
Pin
In
Metal
and Skeletal
12-13) below illustrations Further details Is kept are of of pin to unlikely form form. a minimum, to may provide be provided except in where the
sufficient
section
on analysis
GROUP1: A B C GROUP2:
Simple heads plain tapering plain tapering plain tapering 1-4 transverse
flat top rounded top top conical a conical head appreciably wider
grooves
beneath
by the grooves
are not
-48-
- Chapter
GROUP 3: A B C D E F GROUP 4: beneath head reels head conical or ovoid more-or-less spherical head polygonal head, ornate eg melon vase-headed flame-shaped head reel heads 1-5
5-
head
GROW 5: reel
Group 6: variations on spherical A ball (spherical) B ball with flat top C half ball D globular E globule top with flat GROUP7:
GROUP 8: A B In with no
facetted
cubolds,
i. e. polygonal
heads
heads nail heads expanded marked expanded type fixed A the head
head evolves between out of a smoothly and shaft. expanding In the shaft case of
demarcation
head
type the
B the shaft,
of the
the
shaft
or sit top of
perpendicular the
to
regular
depth. GROUP9: A B C D E F 0 H, I K
GROUP 10: This
transversely disc axe fan crescent rectangle triangle rounded end quatrefoil sub-triangular miscellaneous
small group
flattened
heads
transversely is a distinct
flattened smaller
disc version
heads
articulations natural pig fibulae modified pig slightly pig fibulae perforated bird bone
fibulae
-49-
- Chapter
E F GROUP 13: cattle/deer sheep/goat segmented is the metatarsal ulna heads similar shaft. to group
5-
2,
but
In
this
case
the
segments
GROUP 14: zoomorphic: A animal head B animal head C miscellaneous GROUP 15: A B C D GROUP 16: A B C D E
extends in line
to
the
shaft
heads globular solid variety, usualy hollow, cut from shaft teeth animal metapodial perforated Sub-triangular rectangular trapezoidal discoid miscellaneous expanding 16 expanding
antler of a long
bone
ends
GROUP 17: unperforated A-E as for group GROUP 18: GROUP 19: A B C D macehead flat profile
ends
pins
circular globular rectangular ball half group that (as Is in distinguished profile to the being head from of this group pin 9 is (transversely the same width
opposed heads
slimmer).
heads heads
on spherical
heads
GROUP25:
GROUP26: collared
- Chapter
GROUP 27: knob heads
5-
GROUP28: bucket
GROUP 29:
heads
bun heads
GROUP30:
GROUP 31: GROUP 32: GROUP 33: GROUP 34: GROUP 35:
frustrum
pierced splinters unfinished
heads
heads
pins
miscellaneous needles
GROUP36:
acorn
heads
table
1: Ambiguities IA 2 3E 4
in
stick 6A
pin 6B
6D
x x x
xxx x xx x x xx x x x
similarity
5.1.2
abbreviations)
(fig
13)
Astragaloid Butterfly
-51-
5-
E (fig 14) proto-zoomorphic zoomorphic disc spiral ring head head (spiral-in) (kid r skeu)
skeumorph hd)
(lobed)
(loose (fig 15) ring-head r-hd) kidney-ringed, polyhedral-headed loop-headed knob-ringed, loop-headed plain-ringed, plain-ringed, polyhedral-headed baluster-headed spiral-ringed, loop-headed spiral ringed, stirrup-ringed, crutch-headed This group is with fillets is equivalent used the in to Fanning's to pin this (1983a) because ringed it is pins. less
Loose easily
preference
ring-headed
group.
Lozenge
(lozfillet)
Miscellaneous (misc) bent headed Mushroom Open disc Out-turned Projecting Rectangle head head spiral disc with (mush) (open disc) (spiral disc) out)
Ring-head (r-hd) cast wire corrugated degenerated hand-pin ibex rosette semi-beaded semi-corrugated beads small
16-19)
ibex
-52-
- Chapter This group, which group would is a sub-set also comprise dec) roll)
5-
of
Fanning's
(1983a) group,
ring-headed below.
pin
the ring-head
decorated
(r-hd (spiral
spiral-head
fillets enamel
(tri
fill)
Wheel-headed
(wheel-hd)
5.1.3
the basis
longitudinal
a: the shaft b: the shaft c: the shaft e: the shaft way down.
smoothly
along
its
entire
has straight
parallel hip,
sides,
tapered at about
swelling
mid-length two-thirds of
approximately
(1985) but
includes this is
fifth
(d)
which
have in
omitted
types
can
display
decoration. between shafts c and e Is not have lines always obvious, play. hip, area
The distinction and a degree For example decoration, emphasises pin, just described of
been brought
into
whilst such
and acts to impede the slipping of the does; in these cases the shaft has been
-53-
- Chapter
5.2 ANALYSIS OF THE DATA BASE In chronological three order: (95.3); (95.5), significance. Ultimately primarily data base stick on the record in any prime the the all this primary trends, factors category form of A of which lesser pin basis number of are the groups of the 1933; statistical from are analysis, and to of the the be
5-
is
initially of fashions, in
for are
taken
artefact form or of
made head
distributional also considered. Individually, and including are and although not 35
factor,
2148 31-33
omitted 1, they
miscellaneous all too pin primary amorphous groups E and pin that, groups in are ringare some
obvious a
these
discussed headed treated cases, disparate distribution are record As propositions chronological these The can A-E; very pins as
homogeneous
evidence is
dating
type
considered.
numbers
numbers. a result are of made at the the can weighed contexts broad these The above end considerations of each a number of
whereby all
propositions nature of
against is such
horizons sequential
unfortunately of recognising to
stage. on the
each
contain details
artefacts
appendices
-54-
- Chapter
5.3 CATEGORY OF MATERIAL
5-
5.3.1
Skeletal Skeletal raw products bone is usually are being the the materials most over significant its exact with (363) the commonly whole material context possible and the is of utilised the in IA all
for and
pin
manufacture, it
NP where Antler, to
on the Norse at
contrary, (tables
known,
levels
phase
5 levels at Pool
(1491).
antler
examples
the Interface
exception at and
1510
examples levels
Jarlshof examples.
antler
possible
almost
as common as
bone
table
Summary of dating
evidence
for
antler
Date of context Context ---------------------------------LIA Phase V Phase 5d Interface late 9/early IOC occupation
Ist Ist % 9C % 9C USM Midden
layer
Mhor
late
9/early
IOC
Jarlshof
-55-
- Chapter
5-
table
Summary of dating
evidence
for
possible
antler
pins
Date of Context Context ------------ ------------LIA Phase 4a late 7C Phase 5c Interface Phase 5d 1st % 9C AD usm Ist
lst Ist
Site
Pool Pool Pool Tarlshof Tarlshof Jarlshof
Jarlshof Jarlshof Jarlshof Jarlshof Drimore Pool Jarlshof
Record No
1510 1478,1486 1503,1512 909,915,94344 906,910,917, 919 920
% 9C AD
;6 9C AD % 9C AD
late 9/early late 9/early late 9/early late 9/early 11-13C early 11-13C
Yard paving SW of house Midden scatter on yard paving LSM Midden I Lower level Middle level layer occupation Phase 6bi Phase V
a resource are to
available be found.
anywhere
that
either the
domesticated of Over
In comparison,
availability the
much more limited, and requires (theoretically) was available deer (Fallow G Ritchie 1920, deer became extinct into Scotland Red deer occupied 1920,333). At or the of in this
forethought. from
and roe
earliest Orkney
fpund at is
they
survival the
Shetland.
there
intense
at. a site
on the
Buckquoy
1983,125-27).
Harvie-Brown absence
quoted deer
Whitehead
red
on Orkney
by this
period,
especially
as it
mentioned in no
in Caithness.
are known to have had a wide distribution there is as yet although north as Shetland, were ever present In is Orkney generally U Ritchie interpreted the above species
-56-
1920, as
- Chapter being decline 1961). Reindeer (Ritchi, of J. antler 1920,341), species describes its has reputedly which in NP on the is Scotland basis directly in the to the
5-
related climate,
contemporary
decline
in
tree
cover,
and perhaps
taken up
as evidence until at
indigenous
century, 102),
and possibly
which
summer hunting
More recently
archaeological, such other longevity evidence times. the of The during its
indigenous
points
On examination of reindeer
smallest
well-defined writer
present
appendices
no other the NP it
claim
noted
distinction
Indicate
from Scandinavia). is to given, avoid it rapid deer appears decay that must most utillsed have at the that best (roe antler of times. deer are of such be
been collected
1981,210), that it
activity
suitable)
palaeozoology
potentially prehistoric
management activities recognised Antler was used handles the well diet. fine for
available the
MIA it combs,
implements
At Warebeth the
and exceed
probably
part
During composite of
confined
tool.
reflection antler of
supplies, This
-57-
because the
a more suitable
commodity
served.
may emphasise
5-
combs. for
increase
in usage;
there
combs become increasingly for the ubiquitous by comes from that the back pin. greater the Norse in
common, and
preference of Isles
have
been
Most current It
a resource in the
homeland Scottish
managing This
mainland
herds greater
availabilty the in
supplies, of
could
place
of of
a marked (none
absence is
levels not
mentioned bone to
produce
enough If the
huntingin as
that
was
from
mainland first
supplies Thus in
brought
NP antler
form
of
which
functioned
clothing. helped
to create 5.3.2
antler.
Metal: Evidence
the
use of Fort
pins
the
sites
of Sithean
Bonchester a
to of Iron is limited Berneray (895), Hill (1267,1274), (1791-92), Mills Moredun Laws of (2000), was
(1127), (1442), Monifieth Traprain examined), examples from Monifieth from the
Bruthach
Sithean
(1144), (1455),
Cave
(554),
Boysack Traprain
Law (675-76;
Law collection
and Howe (168,170-71). has a context which and Traprain MIA levels but may there. at be least MIA
other
hillforts
(Bonchester, the
Kaimes,
Law),
example
6B f rom
- Chapter Dunadd Dundurn (1961; (1274) which 1962 is later, a stratified whilst the type in in
5-
addition context it
to
the to
possibly is group of
the 15
globular (707,709),
Buiston
Broch in date.
Burray
and Gurness 4
Summary of dating
evidence
Law
5.3.3.
Metal:
Copper Alloy of
(Cu alloy) copper alloy pins rare, that on sites although it In the can with there stratified are slight a look a large these
unfortunately
rather
end of
stratified these
occur to
E type (see
period the
most common, if
not
when the number of copper of stick LIA pins and the but pins point of to Numerous view. is unstratified, metal moulds confined 4,68,8Bc, forms
versions
ubiquitous typologically
datable at all
any form are not their sites 24A, existence. of Brough 24A and 26),
common, although
Evidence of Birsay
moulds
example
forms
Mote of disc-head
(874-91,1463;
Dundurn 6B),
(1798, Skaill
form include
Ellean
a hand-pin)
(1736-43;
a hand-pin).
- Chapter Dunadd Dundurn (1961; (1274) which 1962 is later, a stratified whilst the type in in
5-
addition context it
to
the to
possibly is group of
the 15
globular (707,709),
Buiston
Broch In date.
Burray
and Gurness 4
table
Summary of dating
evidence
Context Date of context ----------------------------level 3 late 2C AD fiffA ear17 ph'7 DN 106 post 800 AD LIA ph 8
Law
5.3.3.
Metal:
Copper Alloy of
(Cu alloy) copper alloy pins rare, on sites although that in can it the with there stratified are slight a look a large these
unfortunately LIA
rather
end of
stratified these
examples occur in
E type (see
period
most common, if
not
when the number of copper of stick LIA pins and the but pins of to Numerous view.
versions
ubiquitous typologically
ring-headed examples
pins). confirm
datable
any form are not their existence. sites 24A. of Brough 24A and 26),
at all common, although contemporary Evidence for LIA moulds is as yet of Birsay (for Mark example 64-65,1965-73; forms Mote of disc-head (874-91,1463;
Dundurn 6B),
(1798; Skaill
form include
Eilean
a hand-pin)
(1736-43;
forms
a hand-pin).
- Chapter In the MIA (804), Traprain moulds are few: Law (858-61,863), projecting
5-
Jarlshof
(1065), (1736).
Lingro All
(735), these
Reay are
Gurness
examples of various
ring-heads.
table 5 moulds)
Date
Summary of dating
evidence
for
copper
alloy
pins
Record
(exluding
Context of context -------------------------------7C EC-? dun floor Phase IVb mid 3C BC late 3C BC-? Phase V 2-1C BC Pbase Me 2C BC Phase 111b IC BC Phase 11c IA village midden scatter EIA Phase 516 late BClearly AD broch late BClearly AD enclosure I late BC1earl7 AD broch, ph 2 late BClearly AD period 3, encl late BC1earl7 AD period 3, encl late BC1earl7 AD ?period 3 C AD brocb early C AD 4 early period 1-2 C AD level 4 ? 1-3C AD broch'floor ? early 2-3C AD broch filling 2-4C AD Layer I 2-4C late late AD 2C-? 2C 4C AD unknown Phase 3 level 3 level I level 2 level I broch levels broch/post-broch post-broch c3-8C late LIA LIA LIA LIA 8C or later 819C on stylistic grounds Norse Ist 9 9C AD 7C AD wheelhouse Phase Phase Phase Phase long 5c IV 7 8 cist burial
Site ----Dun Dun Dun Dun Dun 'Dun ------------Lagaldh Nor Va ul Mor Vaul Mor Vaul Mor Vaul Mor Va ul
Jarlshof Howe Crosskirk Crosskirk Crosskirk I Crosskirk I Vb Crosskirk Crosskirk Clickhimin Crosskirk Traprain Law Hurley Hawkin Hurley Hawkin Covesea Traprain Leckie Traprain Traprain Traprain Traprain Gurness Gurness Gurness Clickhimin Law Law Law Law Law
mid-late
no ---------------1692 1686-87 1684 1663,1688 1665 1682 1051 172 1624,1626 1627 1628 1629-30 1631 1632 1724-25 1633 631-32,834 1438 1439,1806 351,354.64649,653 660-71,673-74, 1649-50 672,679,682 683 826, .628,830 629 156-57 155,158 614 1727-28,1730, 1732 2002 1120 368 143-44,173-75, 177-78 167,169,161011 1570 727 1812-13 1056-5.9,1064
4C early 4C AD mid-late
Pool
Bac Mic Connain 6 Cheardach Mor Howe Howe Machrins Golspie Howe Tarlshof - 60-
Phase 9 V phase I
- Chapter late 9-2nd A610C LN M V phase III Norse grave Area III Area VII N grave House I N grave N Grave Phase 6c
5-
Brough of Birsay Brough of Birsay Tarlshof Buckquoy Brough of Birsay Brough of Birsa7 Kirkcudbright Tarlshof Carn-nan-Bherraich Moran Ba7 Pool
late 9-2nd MIOC 10C 3rd M IOC AD Norse Norse Norse Norse Norse Norse 11-13C
1923,1926, 1929 1931 1055 117 1927-28 1785 1573 1575 1581 1583 1807
5.3.4
Comparison
of pin
length is
and material It can be seen that materials the longer (fig (bone the range the in the period LIA the most mm; is Each between 20), (bone, 40-49 a pin 21).
Such a comparison common length metal the more likely is for 70-89mm; antler it used is is over that
informative. varies
a pin to
90-99mm; fig
and that
have been made from metal slightly it different but in the all the ranges cases length
material antler
30-169mm metal technology and fashion pins mainly LIA. spring were
20-249mm),
material,
or necessarily of pin,
which
metal
projecting
than
although the
and
two
mind,
namely metal
more more
and/or
the
was preferred
larger,
such as brooches. (distinctively the Norse) NP, but the pins reveals tendenc7y was of metal length where in are the both that later, pins here the lower few, all and
pins
(<69mm) were made in 20). indicating which fig long forms pins 20). compares
be shorter
LIA thus
by preference stick
than
metal-only spiral
are probably
early, rule
that
head and
The exception
-
61
- Chapter
5-
known to be post-medieval. comes from an unstratified examples of a projecting Hawkin (1805). can be made: Norse, therefore this period and Hurley
Crannog
(716)
all
pin the
groups late
which
- most iron century AD 5.3.5 Conclusions Antler manufacture exceptions, this implies for is of for
exceptions
predate
seventh
pins
being
NP (with
example
possibly and in
shaft),
special fore
available in
manufacture
periods,
pins,
and/or
presence,
prominent although
example
period
Long
metal b.
of the preference and c they are hipped were contrary. suprising Dowel-
pins from
exception to the is
are
despite
not
view
of
preservation
several
comparable
81. W77).
5.4
- Chapter 5.4.1 Type a: the No real shaft is form because this (table tapers
5-
shaft 6).
smoothly significance of
along can
its be
entire
attached
examples for
form
three 892,
Udal;
Jarlshof;
table
evidence
for
metal
shaft
type
Record no 1812
table 6b: Summar7 of dating type a Date of Context Context ------------------------------Phase 4 IBA' Phase 516 EIA Phase 6 EIA Phase IIIb EIA MIA early ph 7 'broch' early C AD
evidence
for
shaft
Record no -- ----------------21 20 2.9 16.73 14.30 1710,1716-17, 1719 Phase I A Cheardach Mor 348 ?LIA Late phase 7 Howe LIA 12 Phase 718 Howe LIA 4 Howe Phase 8 LIA 10 Phase I Buckquoy 66 early 7C AD Phase 4c Pool LIA 1544-45 Phase 5d Pool 1504,1507.1511, Interface Site 2 Skaill 230 Interface Phase 9 Howe 27 ?Xorse 906-9,932-33, V phase I Tarlshof Ist 9 9C 956-57.964,976 69 Phase III Buckquoy early 9C AD Saevar Howe 194-96 Phase Ilb 9C AD 74 Buckquo7 Phase IV ?9110C AD 946-49,981.987 JOC V phase III late 9learly Jrarlshof 141 Drimore IOC Norse house late 9learly Brough of Birsay 52 late 9-2nd 0 JOC Lower Norse 217-18,221-23 11C AD Site 2, midden I Skaill probably 1936 Whithorn 11-12C AD 1551 Pool Phase 6c 11-13C 1547-48,1550 936,1025 Tarlshof V phase V2TI 13-14C AD - 63 -
- Chapter
5-
Type b:
the
Shaft
has Straight
Parallel
Sides,
Tapered
only
at
No
chronological in all
on this even
shaft
type metal
as
occurs show.
the 'few
examples table
evidence
for
metal
shaft
type
Date of context Context -----------------------------MIA Phase 3 LIA Phase 8 late 9-2nd 0 JOC Lower Norse late 9-2nd 0 10 Middle Norse 11-12C AD Upper Norse 2nd Af 10-12C
table 7b: Summary of dating type b Date of context ---------------c6-5C BC LIA LIA LIA LIA LIA LIA 6 -7C AD late 7C early 7C AD ?6C AD early 8C AD late 8C AD -? Interface Context
evidence
shaft
Site - -------------- ----- -- ---'IA farmstead' Clickhimin Pool Phase 4a Pool Phase 4dle Pool Phase 4S Howe Phase 7 Phase 8 Phase Phase Phase Phase Phase Phase Pictish III 1A 5c I ja 11
Phase 5d
Interface Ist 9 9C AD
Site 2 V Phase I
?early 9C AD Phase 1`11 late 9-2nd 9 JOC Lower, Norse late late 9-2nd 0 10C Middle Norse 9learly 10C V phase III
Record no -- - ---- ----------------1706 1524 1477,1540 1500,1559 7-6,16-17,23, 28 Howe 3,5-6,11,22, 24 A Cheardach Xbor 352-53,357-58 Dundurn 1795-96 Pool 1478,1533 Buckquoy 67-68 Saevar Howe 189 Buckquoy 72 Brough of Birsa7 36,45-46,1842, 1848 Pool 1505-6,1509. 1515,1522,15.05, 1528,1531-32, 1538,1558 1561 62,1564 Skaill 231 Jarlshof 907,913,916, 922,924,929-30, 942,965 62 Buckquoy Brough of Birsa7 1826,1847,186768 Brough of Birsa7 47,62,1915 979,984,993, Tarlshof 64 -
- Chapter
5-
late 91ear17 IOC late 9C AD ?early IOC AD 11-13C 11-13C 11-13C 11C AD ? 13C AD 13-14C AD Norse
Drimore Norse house Phase Ilc Saevar Howe Phase V Buckquoy Phase 6bi Pool Phase 6bil Pool Phase 7 Pool Skaill Site 4 V phase VI Jarlshof V phase VII Jarlshof Site 2, midden 2 Skaill has a Pronounced fairly metal Norse Mark the Swelling
1033 142,1778-79 192-93 90 1554 1535,1537,1560 1527,1536 235-6 955,961 939 228-29,234
5.4.3 Middle
Type c: Expanded
Shaft
(Entasis)
Around
its
shafts
antler but
pins.
However,
Mote of is for
shafts, are
possibility 1315
made of
material (table
specific
on stratigraphic
possibly the
head suggests
within
bracket
the wheelhouse
phase.
table
Date
evidence
Site -----
for
metal
shaft
type
c
no
Record
----------------
Phase 8 LIA 9C AD V phase I Ist .4 9-2nd M IOC Lower Norse late 11-12C AD Norse Area III
table 8b.- Summary of dating type c Date of context ---------------MIA c3-8C AD early 7C AD late 7C Context
evidence
for
shaft
Site ---------------------------Howe Early phase 7 Clickhimin 'wheelhouse' Buckquoy Phase I Pool Phase 5b - 65 -
- Chapter
7-? 6C AD late 8C AD-? Phase Pictish I
5-
Dunollie Brough of Birsay Pool Jarlshof Buckquoy Buckquoy Saevar Howe Brough of Birsa7 Brough of Birsay
Interface Ist M 9C AD
?early 9C AD Phase ?9110C AD Phase late 9C AD Phase late 9-2nd m JOC Lower late 9-2nd AgIOC Middle
1309 1820,1835-37, 1841,1865,1868 1479,1482,1487, 1502,1514,1523 944, 914,926, . 995 78 73,61,86,94 190-91 1844,1846,1864, 1866 41,47,1917, 1919-20 1780 989,1015,1027 1935,1937 1840
swollen there is
shafts in
are
a common Roman feature no suggestion function Fig 22 reveals swollen are that (except that
(for the
example Scottish
certainly
examples
where the pin on the basis pins around has form two 40-49mm
can be shown to be a Roman import). of pin metal, bone and antler versions be then are
and antler
examples
whilst and
and more likely by reference that longer the to pins pin hips
the
rather
a means of swellings.
securing,
which
As a result
propositions
made and tested: the - all metal pins with c shafts > 70mm long are Norse (excluding few groups recognised formerly to be distinctively MIA) - all metal pins with c shafts 30-70mm long are pre-Norse - all Taking evidence exception levels There at are to to the bone pins the with c shafts < 70mm long with are pre-Norse there There pin from is is no one Norse known contexts
evidence
several
exceptions
proposition
- 66 -
- Chapter
1593,1840,1844,1864,1935,1937), that these are all forms evidence residuality the date length as might of (6A, for or bone 6B#,
5-
but 6D,
it 7,8B, in
may
be
no 190) that
considerable the None problems the less, of shafts There shafts eleventh century square tend to pins below
other of
of shafts were
not antler
such pins
indicator similar
(335,702,1320,1491,1917), excavations in stick the later Dublin pins that which expanded span the
early
metal and in
frequently
changes
mid-portion
(6 Rahilly
1973,94).
5.4.4
Type e: Hipped Shafts Hipped shanks occur in both LIA and NP levels; examples which and 1501 from number of examples 9b). certainly the 4g, Pool; there there late table is a three century Whilst Scottish
possible there of
934) only
and only one of the use levels native were Norse stick fashion, serves with to the with
antler
examples
(336,472,1084,1486).
context the
As we have seen above, and it recovered they example, cannot from reflect the There is Norse the
be discounted
residual, to
Norse
(97.3.3). which
certainly
hipped
native
by the of
then
subsequent Decoration
population.
an added means of impeding with the exception (227), no hipped as the - 67 which pins sixth
hipped
Pool fact
(table the
century
- Chapter significant. Metal possible proportions 715) activity) Links from on hipped the pins basis occur of that in head
5-
it
is
below) pin
nail-headed material
Crannog
other
and a transversely
rectangular c/e
head from Freswick short length lower often pin shafts 1060,
Ge? -*; 778) are pre-Norse (in addition to from Kildonan: 394,8B#; Bernera Sands: 332,8B* The Buiston a rare pin (715) of is, on the basis pin is of
9A).
of head,
example
to thirteenth
metal for
pins. type
evidence Site
bone shaft
Date of Context
?LIA LIA LIA
Record no
1047 1476,1485,1501 1484.1490.
late
Interface
Phase 5d
Pool Jarlshof Brough of Birsa7 Brough of Birsa7 V phase III Buckquo7 Buckquo7 Brough of Birsa7 Skaill Pool Brough of Birsa7
1492,1496,1499 19,25 65,68-69 37,40,43,161619,1822-23, 1830,1634,1839, 1843,1851, '1652, 1854-55,1858-61, 1863,1867,186970,1873-75, 1878, 1660,1862 1481,1483,1494, 1498 926,1048 38-39,42,1853, 1856-57,1672, 1861 1831 larlshof, 934 71,75-76,79, 83-84 96-97 1782 227 1480 1877,1879
68 -
- Chapter
5-
table type e
evidence
for
possible
antler
shaft
Record no 1466
table antler
evidence Site
Pool Pool Pool Skaill
for
decorated
Date of context
LIA late 7C Interface probably
As a result last thirty years do appear 287). late Scotland 1955a, in the
of in is
the
It to
can now be noted show that century for at the hipped AD (pace their Pool
that pins
the in
have
seventh but
evidence only
dated
sequence
possibly until
earlier Norse
manufactured in
had
observed to
1955, but
hipped they
are
not
a the
confined (for
occur
throughout
and postfig
contexts The
1985,121, on a literature
discussion
exhaustive. a few
communications hipped,
are
late
which fine
are
necessarily
short.
Examples
may belong
zoomorphicHipped pins the end of had made an and had a in the Thus hipped
century, the
for ms of in
record forms
about
eighth
this,
period, in
current. dating to
a number of
Anglo-Saxon - 69 -
the
latter
- Chapter the
5-
part
of
seventh they
century appear UH
(Matthews at the
'and
1985,99).
In
domestic such as
contexts at (which
earliest the
Williams
Southampton
end of
Addyman and Hill from the mundane Rahtz linked and Somerset; of three
94.18)
elaborate
eighth pl from
century
from Witham (Wilson alloy 41). might zoomorphic The latter favour from
18) or the
Waltham Norse,
1976,
possibly in
a pre-Norse York
comparison fig
(Waterman
1959,
square date
shafts, variety
are assumed to be Norse. occurs in contexts Examples to eighth site unusual this with occur centuries of Lagore 'toilet a at England. sixth
In Ireland broadly Ballindery AD (Hencken (Hencken implements' shafts). Warner similar II,
to Anglo-Saxon reoccupied
22.489) 104-5; in
and have
the
classic the
addition
note to
103 which
unique, that
attempts argued
original century,
suggestion AD at the
a start times
part
earliest,
good.
tenth'century
abandoned by hipped
of the millennium. knows of no Manx nor absent from Dinas Welsh examples of pins Powys: Alcock 1987b).
5.4.5
Comparison Fig
basis
Although
in Scotland
the Anglo-Scandinavian and medieval and the here hip levels is not
(Waterman
and in
Norse pins,
(6 Rahilly for
1973). lack of is
either
we have swelling
a fashion for a
a simple
can provide
or else
- Chapter Bone hipped favouring constitutes fastening record above tested: to which bone hipped are either shafts residual all are the
5-
pins
nearly
all LIA
fall is
between
20-69mm, but
There
a very
group
where
< 50mm do not appear comm S Ross). propositions a distinctively the hipped
observations
can LIA
be proffered form,
exceptions for in
into
another
manner, this Is
therefore
groups trend
were present
groups
without
examples
shafts
used in
no examples
(unless
c or irrefutable:
virtually current in
groups
were definitely
the
LIA: 10,
14A,
19,23,24A.
24B. 24C, 25.27,28,30,34,36. proposition pin is not would so secure. not have On the basis of in it the
stick therefore,
Norse:
dome,
inturned
lozenge
with there
fillet is
which
probably 12 occurs
seventh
AD (1544);
LIA, - although pre-dating in many LIA levels, for 16A occurs In possible LIA levels. 1531,1538, is an unusual last LIA at in
(1307)
1525,1530,, there
a very
miscellaneous
group,
5-
only this
shafts
Groups
possibly
12,13,16,17,20,21,22,29, lobed, mushroom, with which (1511); and the at levels Pool at small fillet. dome, The
and triangle associations evidence Clickhimin LIA the levels Interface cited at Pool
(sometimes
addition
contradict 1A from above); 1B from the wheelhouse (1544); 12 and MIA and at The that is
occurs in
Pool at Pool
c or ring this is
2,3D,
and kidney
can be, is
sought ring
other or small
exacerbated this
proposition ICA,
the that
although
be an additional then.
means of
confirming 5.4.6
groups
on the Evidence a and both metal examples evidence would b bear both tend was to shafts are points
Types chronological the significance. -and the fabric being Norse, LIA or but NP. LIA, Roman
impede
are nearly
all
either being
a late to
which the
suggest Norse,
only
being all
function.
c shafts to be
shorter for
versions
tending shafts).
steadfast
bone swollen
- 72 -
- Chapter
5-
shanks the
have
af
ixed
not
early seventh
century
as the
century there
residual. they
manufactured in antler.
as late Decorated
Bone hipped
pins,
which
hipped from
a group
distinctively or
(especially
swollen
shafts), hips).
had no swollen
residuality
assignation
of shaft rare, of is
above these
context
wheelhouses
examples context.
from
of
Burrian
were supposedly
a secondary
5.5 23-27)
FORMS OF STICK
(figs
5.5.1
Group This,
1: the
simple
heads of and in all occurs pin in forms, contexts has a widespread the MIA
simplest
NP where shaft
a plain dated at
Bu
and the
examples Whithorn
Interface Form 1B is 73 -
(1511) the
common;
- Chapter is from the 1BA1 phase IV at fort at Clickhimin, at A Cheardach phase 7 at being the
5-
there contexts
are at
from (797)
the and
'Iron the
Age'
(346-47). There
Howe (15).
assemblage (981).
from
although
form
the early an
Roman examples
green, but
emulate
examples,
in Scotland. shafts end. either There (for gradually over examples the of is whole 1A and at A
whole the
or
'shafts 345;
example
wheelhouse which
phase
unknown
(MacGregor versions
metal (1290),
including the
a mould Broch of
presumably which
Burrian context
can be presumed to
always
simple (for
and example
to
Incised
around Freswick
the
top
the' shaft
Covesea,
Links).
5.5.2
beneath of this
context
a metal these
example
from
limited
examples. being 13 is
group
LN at the Brough of Birsay). similar group both 2 exists metal Made in and bone,
and on the
continent.
74 -
- Chapter it with type spans Vc, the late in first the late to
5-
century part
the
mid
fourth
century
a floruit 'simple
of the grooved
AD (Cool
from Colchester
green beneath of
(Crummy 1979,21).
5.5.3
Group 3: This is
head 13 examples is of where the 24; heads vary by the its single 'disc but
a small
group the
all depth
have and
underneath from
distinguished group
should
also
be distinguished in profile
from a fillet,
which is
a sub-triangular group in
with half
more or both
spherical with
are
(38,80);
are covered
overall'
a melon head comes from other pin with 34 (504) and likewise There century is
under, from
group
context
28 does
has Roman antecedents. (Crummy 1983,24). into into two types, a stilted where the the those conical resulting to the
Examples
of
3A tend
to
shafts
sub-divided grooves
cutting
have This
grooves the
Ubid
applicable
study.
shows that half of fourth of late series probable Examples MacGregor range,, period. dispersed from this coin
22 examples
century hoard
occupation with
which of
a closing suggest
sites to
a fourth corroboration
century for
further 'that
and
consider
this, form
survives
- 75 -
- Chapter
5.5.4 Group This to the at bone shaft which and is 4: Reel heads group where
5-
reel heads
lies
angle both in
from (12
the
shaft. in
antler
metal). ILIA] at
Only
examples Birsay Of
dated
and Buckquoy examples probably has century was being at exact of is the
Traprain AD.
Law, This
but form
and
dated
to 1983, to all
the type
fourth form
Colchester in the
(Crummy late
sixth
eighth
material to
presumed also
been
in
the
produced at
There
an example
context
Cool's
type
IV
(1983) to the
which shaft,
heads generally
in
set in
being
often first
decorated quarter
a simple second
pattern century
the
fourth
AD)
5.5.5
reel form
and bead head has produced top only eight in the to Scottish of to Of or examples, all Members of this and bottom, underneath late eighth found to the at least one group 3 where seven century bone AD
either the
the tenth
belong
horizon
example date to
and on the- basis although from the dots. A similar than one bead, is date range second cave. to
of
alone
century versions
AD finds (37.502)
dominate
Decorated
are covered
where there
sometimes
baluster-shaped.
(Crummy 1983,24).
- 76 -
- Chapter 5.5.6 Group 6: variations This element there is group comprises head. in spherical a large
5-
same as for
beneath
the head.
from of
the
perfectly
to
the
crude. are
43 examples
which
and three to
and must be Norse. phases at the at AD on the horizon are also basis
4a and 4S at
seventh an example
(1841,1860-65).
from
and Jarlshof. this range None of the Burrian the form 24A, which
Buckquoy, -the Brough of Birsay DOn an Fheurain does not contradict to compare the date range of and come from LIA contexts come from Historic useful (but contexts, to the note the although broch, second and to from group
interesting
metal
example
supposedly
secondary
be Early
fourth
AD examples suggests
particularly
There are Roman antecedents the early fourth second end of at Colchester century
AD (Cool
metal
found
levels,
pre-200 between
overall
break period
until 1986,26) In
discusses
Anglo-Saxon up
contexts tothe
and
believes
that
some continuity
be demonstrated
Norman period.
77 -
- Chapter Group 6B: This metal. Norse. seventh LIA date ball is heads with flat tops
5-
survive occur in
in are
Antler
dated
post
and Norse contexts. length whether are likely this that is the to
are most commonly c a bone. hipped prior also Metal metal to the
examples examples Norse, this Further Clatchard eighth, pins tops form
be Norse,
made in
as witnessed for
by the
mould
moulds
come from
Mote of and it
possibly (the
metal flat
which
much elaborated,
of which
Rosemarkie and/or
most
incised
on shaft
Unusually
seems also
at Dunadd (1274). 24B, which not consists a collar, these bone and to a LIA of having
group
same form,
only
be decorated. contexts,
none of of
come from is Is
useful
although
as well
as the as it
existence is
of hips, this.
point
no evidence unusual
Freswick thistle
a pre-Norse rare.
and any form of naturalistic Crude metal versions of this form GT5 (1986), squashed Ball
with flattened
Caple's or slightly
spheres. heads points In (39). an and to this being a LIA at form, but hipped and
evidence
Norse There
contexts is only
Saevar
B. rough
antler of factors
(334) are
unknown all
context are
on Uist.
majority
hipped
examples
suggesting
a LIA context. - 78 -
- Chapter Group 24C, ball and Norse contexts, A similar century Group 6D: This late century e), but date but heads with the hips (Caple form
5-
collars, again
are favour
found
at
Birsay origin.
in
LIA
a pre-Norse
metal range.
to tenth
Globular is
heads common form to the NP, The majority length (31 examples) although possibly hailing early date is from the
seventh
at Pool
as yet and no in
particularly in
favoured
examples
A similar mid-late
bone form
Roman contexts
and as metal
Saxon contexts
(Caple
1986, GTO
Group 6E: Globules Only with antler, hipped either so four c they
with
flat of
examples or
a variation
However, half e shafts. of these , in the NP, were being manufactured toadditional earlier circulation.
example
points
5.5.7
cuboids listed, Isles, seven are metal although versions linear (for the feature, none of with. a distribution these has any direct with ring and and in
to
ornament,
examples These
(1670,1761)
and functional
and a post LIA date is metal pins are long, late). Examples decorated is also peculiarly obvious milling brambling Links, with ornament, such as 577 from Freswick are related to the terminals are tenth are both Cool V; of century loose at ring-headed the earliest polyhedral (Fanning 4; heads, 1983a). which Metal fig fashion in Scotland facetted 20,
pins
a Roman (Crummy 1979 type 1983 type XVID 1986 type - 79 GD, but
1983.22-23,
(Laing
Caple
no suggestion
- Chapter of continuity to 12). 117) angled ring both thirteenth between century of the lower a florult (for later of while in example
5-
the
fourth
century
York: are
examples the
surface
head the
is
than
face
examples in
are
decorated, undated
appear in distinct
suggests the
(20-59mm and 90-129mm), to be bone. these bone examples earlier are NP they (he are Continent at pins,
8: forms
shorter the
versions with
of which presence
are more on
of hips
trend.
there the
any firmly
dated to
post-Roman have
which
missed
example),
major in
Scandinavian
settlements. On the manufacture decorative known bone, metal and (moulds unusually for for Hedeby: Waller
In wood (Hedeby:
Nail of heads nail head are
5.5.8
Group Both
common throughout
the
whole
of
the
Atlantic
Province.
Group 8A: Expanded nail This and copper they two common form alloy.
heads has 92 examples enough also the appear and is antler in the made In pins antler, appear In bone the
Norse contexts.
LIA levels
are more likely groups pins than Hipped a Norse Eight from on are this, pins
The group to be short. (< and basis of length more likely and metal are rare, to pins be bone. tend also
rarely longer
which also
fashion,
although
metal
examples the
examples
unspecified
somewhere between
second
- Chapter The only Clickhimin belong suggest to that There are from metal. the 'context' (1732). a period this are as such is Moulds around decorated the for
5-
from
the
at
from the
probably and
form is nine
contemporary
examples example
They Interface
include at Pool
(1509.1513)
and an early
example levels
(964).
has a hipped
Group 8B: marked expanded head This examples contexts. there shorter are 6). there rare, are than a group small shares
, with antler prevalent LIA dated group and in 8A. hail Of the from 79 are of Norse levels-, tend for to be LIA
many similarities
proportion
also
earlier
hips
the
and the
dated for
Norse (985where as is
contexts,
where variants
occur.
unusual
example
knobs below the head. relatively from numerous moulds are sixth late (17 examples),
versions
the
evidence
Both
the
Dunadd and Mote of providing Metal come from diameter Howe. There a general Traprain heads.
fragments the
E-ware, AD.
in
century
examples
examples large 7 at
phase
from the
the group. examples Crosskirk decorated forms and little where are pin tenth
A possible phase
exception
to this
This
later seems to have more in common'with investigation. is worth further exact context with of Roman forms the to head this metal (for is latter example large; fashion. from Cool the diameter
nicely decorated It
beers IV)
comparison the
Traprain Whilst
pins
related
decorated
example
several
decorated
bone pins
5-
at LIA
(984-86,1779), at Pool (1484), The motifs 1973 type 9A. pin a pin
and but
there
is
unfortunately
little
have much in is compatible decoration comparisons the Broch Clickhimin not basis fully
such as 332,398
a LIA date of
Compare also
draws at at is
of
examined to
described reason
by Hamilton,
little
On the assume they are related. 0984,116-17) Fairhurst compares the example, although his discussion is
confused: it undoubtedly came from the horizon of a samian Although sherd and a fragment of Roman glass ... during the pin ... may have been lost casual in Early Christian times, and use of the site the in become incorporated stratification the context itself seemed secure subsequently, horizon close and would suggest a chronological Certainly to that example. of the Clickhimin the Crosskirk object pin is the only portable from the site as a whole to which a date as late be AD could century possibly as the eighth ascribed Several of the nail of large an inset the held heads had insets, from most of these Pool that (1484). it , too being metal a bone example Howe pin The concave may have
with
the
exception of
surface originally
suggests
Mould evidence
with the yellow paste. and was filled suggests that form 8B was also contemporary
with
8A, 6B and 9A (1287-88) 5.5.9 Group 9: Transversely This head forms shaft Birsay bird for on group is probably but the flattened related depth heads to group of this these is 19 where similar, shape the from
no narrower its
than
mould
(1965)
evoking thesite,
attachments
made at
1982, illus
- 82 -
- Chapter Group 9A: transversely This undoubtedly metal 1936a, is from the form the flattened in disc antler,
5-
occurs
examples building
small
group
examples 'floor
The Jarlshof
example, of
has a Norse depositional at Whithorn similarities flattened. swelling motifs. (1939). with
an example
group not
169 from is
8),
although
related, 1695,
shafts
mid-part
repertoire
design
Likewise
may be related. metal pins ranges in from and for length, The real context manufacture the of 67-78mm, which the but majority there is is be this LIA pins, 50-60mm
is of
slightly the
longer
which form
no evidence how far informative. form and at late The decoration billeting, (621) the
question cannot of
and here
there ninth
site
Dunadd (1287-88,1292)
sixth
of Mote of Mark (882) on some its form wide of faces milling but or Anglo-
decorated usually
around is normal
example
a brooch Just
Wilson
(1973)
before
AD St originally
(contra
Rynne 1965). At
by a chain.
this shafts
swollen
to contradict evidence later. are LIA, longer versions to Stevenson and it pins 1959, (1955a)
hypothesis
Contrary
and Laing to
(1973),
this
was not
known
(MacGregor
and Radford 1943, fig 13.4 and 7) Laing (1973) sees this group 11.1-3). - 83 -
5-
of
he assigns later
in
to that
the the
which than
brochs
somewhere between
Group 10 is
a collection
of particularly swollen
small
versions shanks;
of this
20-30mm long
and with
or hipped
a LIA date
suggested. flattened which the could Pictish axe heads possibly levels of be Interpreted at this the Brough form as an axeof Birsay are Norse (although 1983 type period known Dublin,
dated
bold
to be long,
example
110-19 mm long.
are varying
transversely
of Roman axe head pins flattened, for example Cool in the Immediately times bone examples in bronze of NP miniature pins
parallels types
Aggersborg
1980,60).
Bronze textile of
axe-headed production,
such
as cutting
cloth of the
otherwise
possible that
symbolism
century,
In
the
Christianity
Hawkes 1985,99). A decorated an unstratified 1974, fig variation context 3). theme of Western the Isles axe heads comes from (Close-Brooks and
Maxwell
pelta/fan metal and one possibly in the antler Lower (Dun are Norse (1620,1749,1923-24) occurs
379). precise
examples example
- 84 -
- Chapter levels the LIA definite mainly at Birsay (1489), antler This exceptions, Roman period form for (1923; Interface versions, had Laing
1973 type
F).
appear
in
There versions,
suggested. distribution
predominantly 1985,119).
example
and Swindon)
and is
absent
(MacGregor
Group 9D: transversely This and none of Laing headed pins. two groups, (1396) longer and the metal small which class has
crescent 5 examples, context. in of basis two of The form general pin length Broch of which to are his metal, to disc be
1973 type
H which
relates
terms
Burrian
shorter
metal (for
examples
flattened amorphous
rectangle group there of six examples, or early with all tenth bone, century and in the ninth are
a single
Jarlshof
(1027).
examples
swollen
shafts
<70mm long
are earlier. triangles the metal examples (779-80; Neither but 1960) of the iron Of the
Group 9F: transversely On the are the a distinct examples basis class from of
Links
example at
while to ninth
Dundurn
century
pre-Norse
wheelhouse other
of hearth (Buckquoy:
examples
at
71; Jarlshof:
993,939;
Whithorn:
flattened group
rounded of of
consists neither
Isles
(464,1174)
a specific
- 85 -
- Chapter
5-
flattened group of of
quatrefoil two examples are very from similar. North Uist (335) and The Uist
which
antler
example is
Norse,
but the Pool example comes from a LIA context. flattened group of forms examples from the
Group 91: transversely This Western context. each face. 5.5.10 Group 10: small See discussion is a small
amorphous
Isles,
particularly
North decorated
a useful design on
Example 1232 is
a multiple
transversely 9A.
flattened
disc
heads
5.5.11
a sphere
with
or
disc
above,
possibly
more
Norse
basis.
small
heads Ubid) There it appears are (1032), but two that antler bone a hip) as the is also 1981). a C-14 date not all short from from
(695) at
and with
particularly projections.
of eight (GU-1369;
Jonathon's
of AD 1010not
of the examples
have cross-hatching heads this of class which at are Pool the -86-
or brambling.
three
of
appear theory
Interface contradict
do nothing
is
a peculiarly
- Chapter Norse form. 919). In metal 5.5.12 some respects (Caple this form is Some examples
5-
are particularly
elaborate to head').
(for
example
similar
an Anglo-Scandinavian
form
'baluster
a whole
Province. natural c.
possess usually
minimal a or together.
modification but
only
b shaft,
occasionally
Groups
be discussed
Groups 12A and B: unmodified The degree distal end of the of bone.
modified these
pig cases
modification
Province, On the
groups. Age,
continent
pre-Roman
Iron
Ireland also
Christian to It late as
1985,121). England.
Roes (1963,
describes and at
type of pin common on Frisian a Scandinavian Schwarz-Mackensen (1976,41-42; Dorestad. quoted in estimates that about one tenth fibulae. these In of all It the Is a were made from pigs' presence of pig
indication
respective
economies. Group 12C: perforated To discussion a very below. fibulae extent this overlapswith group 16A; see
pig
large
bone the least inspiring of thin, of all light nearly pin groups, this form
long
lengths
bone, all
polished.
There informative
examples,
-87-
- Chapter Group 12E: cattle/deer There are a very crude Jarlshof pins in the (1011).
5-
metatarsals few examples levels at of the rare (14) use of these and Norse bones as levels at LIA Howe
Group 12F: sheep/goat There unattractive at Jarlshof 5.5.13 are form (996) five in
u1nae examples the of the use of this early clumsy Norse and LIA at Howe (13) and the
period
Group 13: segmented heads This form, which recalls Anglo-Saxon segmented 2 beads (MacGregor has been discussed
1985,119)
5.5.14
on the
basis pins
(1956,115) to tend
observation
on normal to axis.
'native' shaft,
be arranged
whereas
Furthermore,
and the
carving A wide
displays range of
represented: as well
pigs,
and totally
abstract
forms. pins Later one were a fourth thinly Irish head throughout bronze century the Roman fashion Roman province are date are fig rare, for Armstrong these. (Cool of
Zoomorphic group
Norththey
examples
and where
century (Hencken
and toilet
a distinctive 105.1306).
may be as early
as 600 or as late
as 1000 AD. to the shaft Kerrera, are (it Lorn. All at made from (1062) has not
head extends
perpendicular is
The most dynamic unfortunately the interior to its bone or antler of find
either from
exception or its
Jarlshof
adjacent of
wallheads context).
been possible
Hamilton's
5-
about not
angle
of
the
shaft
being
indicative
of from
correct they to
contexts, are
and pin
pointing
I have not
examined a mould from Birsay Group 14B: animal There at Jarlshof shorter century prefers pins date are head aligned five examples Howe. 14A. Jarlshof century pin Dublin.
(1968;
with of Their
shaft this long form, all Is from Norse contexts to the a ninth (1980, ' 60) crutchparallels length in contrast suggested
(1956,129) but
Graham-Campbell of an associated
(1057)
to more recent
Group 14C: miscellaneous There more than is an a strange abstract bone. a high
zoomorphic example
forms from Dundurn of for this an (1795) animal find date, which is little from a 608
made
modified
- 30 AD from AD 420-769
wiggle-matched
on the
basis
of two standard
C-14 dates
1042).
5.5.15
antler, the
bone and possibly With the possible whalebone. exception, of examples from the Mote of Mark (869) all the Jet/shale examples not be incompatible have not Garry with a second for (130: the having Gurness). jet or to fourth retained With shale century an the iron context. shank, of not are they
would Most
although found in
bone is
exception
an example
examples that
Atlantic
Province,
which
may suggest in
examples occasional
of groups example
Western Scotland
throughout
mainland of
examples the
Crannog
and Mote
Mark,
Clatchard
examples
are found
on
5-
sites,
examples
which for
tend
to
be unusual,
that-
they
are in
example the Mote of Mark example its fine surface (870), incised horizonal
which lines
impressed
and another
from Buiston
encircling
are
generally "native"
as
pins this
(f or
Stevenson recently may have or just that this (Hencken Traprain Crichle believes found similar collection front held
292-93,
function
(Close-Brooks
been used as pegged playing stuck ground. occurs fig 22.26 form often 1942,53, Law (1462; there (for in large
boards, is noted
In support
of this
assemblages:
example and
- with wooden peg); 865-66) and 13 knobs Inglis 1984,57; At Dorested 26 similar
Ralston
together sets of
from
similarly varying
decorated
dimensions
16mm, averaging
Newgrange,
concentrated
of the monument (Carson and O'Kelly substantial Although shanks, but the so O'Kelly in there
suggests is
recovered as finds
an area no
discovered,
contextually similar
related, at first to
Newgrange.
artefacts the
Scotland,
use of
materials.
possible these
boss from Dundurn (17971 may be such a piece. it is They perhaps unlikely been that pins' are may have
Thus, pins.
evidence
that
their
Another Hill
be sought, Traprain
numbers
suggest
some form
pieces, -go-
a tallying
- Chapter The use of Newgrange) against iron is in not use one and the
5-
shafts
Irish
from
their
as decorative for
apparent
may be masking
changes
globular
heads of this, form have been examined, Burrian, are primary Freswick dating but are date example this is the this usually Sands. from Burray,
examples contexts
Lamaness and Kettleburn. whether later apart and the the sixth
no reliable or later,
may be
relevant.
There
atypical
decorated
examples
suggested
in of
atypical
nature
from
considered
manufacture
(605:
Graeme 1914,44).
form is
found
in MIA and LIA levels. Group 15B: This 18 examples associated Age fort from which (1648). Leckie on the hollow form is heads of hollowed of which are out from long bone, and with Iron
globular
were dating
contexts the
examples basis
are from
(1714-15), of
at Howe (33), of
GX-2779 may be as late somewhere around the and Norse or residual example from All Clatchard in the a bone shaft. from in the these
An eighth evidence
Clatchard
in having
examples
Orkney
Craig Early
examples. period
also
found
Ireland
(MacGregor At Leckie
evidence -91-
for
manufacture
(1648).
Here the
5-
not
complete (pers
core
with
comm) that
a means of
reinforcing
perforating
and inserting
three
form,
from
broch
sites
in
contexts
(630,1380,1390).
'globular' of this
form form from phase 9 Morse) heads not in the because at of Howe its
example it
with
the
globular
centre,
presumably
to receive 5.5.16
of some form. heads 17 is probably 1985,120), tine inspired but the by the
Group 16: perforated The shape of the this pig form that
of
fibula
(MacGregor an antler
derived
to making it of
weaving, needles
(Waterman
problem the
were used As
in
clothes, as
concerned
coarse.
early
1923
suggested
that
this
form
functioned illustrated
brooch by Wilson
a cord,
a suggestion
recently
(1983)
Group 16A: sub-triangular Although majority floruit in of bone evidence the known in
head form existed and are found. in the In LIA, to the a the
examples
context)
point England
Scandinavian
(MacGregor
-92-
- Chapter Group 16B: rectangular Of the seven from Norse horizons. head this
5-
perforated examples of
form,
the
two
dated
ones are
head examples (282), of the this other form, from one the from the
sands at
Freswick
Lower Norse
at Brough of Birsay
(1905).
are all
perforated
examples where
including known.
a Norse closely
context
Covesea is
paralleled
at British
(Mann 1982.11)
5.5.17
heads same as for 'the majority group of 16, with available there (67). are At
which, evidence
although
from Buckquoy
form is
exclusively
Interface
5.5.18
Group The
18:
maceheads; from Jarlshof passage consists house II 1956, of a (the fig ball with latest 39) writer. of Birsay but numerous pre-Norse further A further (2148).
from by not
Bruce been
this
have from
present Brough
comes
the
Pictish
the
5.5.19
profile group 9, of
pins 11 examples, flattened is there very similar heads. in all from but The form was an
transversely
NP because at Skaill
an antler
example
century
context
(230)
also
occur
-93-
- Chapter in Norse horizons. 169) where there also in is to the But it are
5-
was also
prevalent
in
the LIA
(for
example shafted
hipped
examples.
Moreover
to be short. form with a plain (Caple vertical 1986 group Ubld, atop but this a short a direct type is Saxon contexts highly unlikely
metal
considering
that 35).
heartland
but are
there four
no reason metal
dated at
examples, (1952,1957)
eleventh from
Whithorn (1928).
and one is from Jarlshof A Norse date stirrup-ringed In but has held
house
contra distinctive
unexpected, @ as the ring-head head in the the form None pin type T
class
cases
crutch
a ring, sockets
which of the of
In Ireland 1983a,
el eventh Metal
or twelfth this
century full
of the Scottish has a date. (1973) The other (1629) the date and the cru tch
examples pins
crutch-headed to Laing
of
a crutch
is
from
Crosskirk With
form.
exception for
confirms shafts
a Norse
of swollen
and possile
use of antler).
5.5.21 Group There (as supported pins). most worthy 21: Cross heads examples possible (1985) these of use this of form, antler all and a tenth from the or Norse contexts absence century of
total eleventh
MacGregor all
considers examples.
likely'for of
The Christian
connotations
speculation.
5.5.22
group
which
includes
the
5-
metal (1975),
pin
(727) 'Janus'
in
detail from
by
a very
late
Norse example
Millya
from Pool,
knave!
(1518).
resemblance
are
generally
After
period 5.5.23
was otherwise
Group 23: open rings There are four examples of this form. The Birsay example comes from a has come from fig the ninth Pictish century at levels (1821) and the Saevar Howe example form 1959,84,
from late
context Clifford
(199). Street,
A similar York
unknown 14.15;
levels quoted
(Waterman
in Hedges 1983).
5.5.24
suggest some of
date
these pins
hipped (for
are as the
example pin
to 651-766 mould
Dunollie, a single
example
was recovered
a Norse
context,
which
probably 5.5.25
residual. Group 25: dome heads and bone and antler was NP, is manufactured and with those in hipped groups distinct pins from form antler, shafts which types. Roman or occurring and in In LIA metal the and LIA.
This Norse
is
levels.
(long
one of
seems to
OT4 (1986),
to the
Romano-British
from heads
Traprain than
Law (848,850).
which suffient
a form.
manufacture
A similar,
5-
also
appears D). ,
at
Whithorn
(1941,1945;
Laing
1973, type
5.5.26
collared in metal is
heads Western neither Isles being levels (1769) from at and bone at informative (1969),
(1606),
unfortunately a mould
from Pictish
Birsay
for
Group the
27: five
knob
heads of this or form swollen is none is from a dated the context, latter
examples have
majority be long,
hipped
shafts, suggested.
although
so a LIA
and NP date
5.5.28
bucket
heads NP on the there which form basis are are also of the use of LIA the antler, basis and
metal
swollen of length,
bone hipped
examples short
probably from
on the latest
including (1987).
an example
at Eilean
5.5.29
Olabhat
Group This Is
29: a
bun heads small of group which absence of is of of two examples a known is of not this from context. enough group to is the Western The Isles of
from hips
presence
exclude few
because are
number <70mm)
examples
5.5.30
frustrum
heads common form, with the but is the Jarlshof relevant to of which examples of the to that is is all one only the the come from dated other short,
from
the
dubious
exception this
example
how
There
no reason
versions longer
form correspond
to Laing
M (1973). -96-
- Chapter
5-
5.5.31
Pierced
heads,
splinters, they
unfinished
pins in all
subsequent 5.5.32
analysis.
Group 34: miscellaneous This small group to includes the all this from is unusual classification, is the the Lower forms or types which did
not
quite
above
segmented
above
no doubt is
related
to examples Vallay
also
a mould
Skaill (295)
peculiar
Cattlefold,
parallels,
a pin.
But the outstanding with a Pictish and only ox phalanges fig is graves 16).
the wide flat rare Broch of this form period pl sets round 28f), of example
(1493)
decorated
in Scotland,
very
Norwegian
from
Merovingian also
period triangular
example
could of
coiffure the
consisting pin,
two
sometimes 1903,160,
placed pl
recorded
In
appendix
1.
this
group
is
omitted
from
and discussion. Group 36: acorn heads this form, all bone and with lengths either
are
three
swollen
their
short
and contexts
suggest
a LIA circulation.
-97-
- Chapter
5.6 FORMS OF STICK
5-
28)
5.6.1
Astragaloid This form of its to example (358). Lewis was so-designated to the by Laing (1973,71), bone. 30) of presumably He assumed a which the only is a there
frustrum-headed early
although the of
from
the
The length
these
pins,
swollen
a Norse date.
of
this Uist.
form Its
(1215) length
Illeray, a post
head the from
5.6.3
Crook None of
three a dated
and
(371,555, Atlantic
1654)
comes
Province.
See discussion
ring-headed
5.6.4
Disc heads with This form is and lozenge points the at to total
fillets obviously heads with a NP date absence type grounds to or the twelfth example to of (1954). closely fillets. on the hipped basis shafts related For of to these swollen and the of to are, he dates There spatulate to date thirteenth would rectangular, groups, shafts presence this all and In
contexts
The nine which 57). rounded twelfth century (pers a very Ubid,
examples
group
G (1973)
6 Rahilly's dates
(1973) late
which an for
century, be form
eleventh
Whithorn
implement Greenfield
Roman levels
1977, fig
-98-
and zoomorphIc
penannular
and of
(1980b), This
Kilbride-Tones of pins
category brooches
includes the
pins, the
occasional by a Its
without to
mainly
limited
Law (654,679-81,834, Vallaquie in the Its the form, swan's whilst (Fowler Votadinian period, to of create snake-
Newstead Pool
with
second
decoration bored
evidence
1956),
planes to
on the
front,
Traprain, lowest,
proto-zoomorphic 1956,138,169),
(Burley validity
that
on Into and
comes
external
of
rampart, with
belonging at is la,
period
4, and is
associated
Pool
contrary residual.
suggested
and is
most probably
The zoomorphic
terminal
an abstract
animal
with
squared
- Chapter back and its exist: four (Kilbride-Jones three face from to the inside. an
5-
Only
a few
fully
zoomorphic from
pins
Traprain;
unprovenanced
example
Ireland
three metal examples from Chesters; 1980a , fig 4.4); 6 at Skaill new unstratified examples from the Iron Age site and a new example presumably residual, from the Norse as it levels at Howe (1813), than upper does so much later belong to the
accepted There
examples E pins;
shaft suggest
from they
an example
at Howe (1813)
has a
twisted
In-turned There is
Jarlshof but to
(1058).
seventh York
century,
Redfearn
Anglo-Scandinavian A similar B6
appears 1971,
Dublin
R16rddin
ring is
skeuomorph obviously in in or a derivative on Dublin tenth of the kidney-ringed where it loose Ireland has a long
occurs
sites
starting
the late
twelfth
century ot eleventh and lasting (6 Rahilly 'non1973.26, century There (1927) Isles Is and an example three from Norse from
functional levels at
examples
uniformative
5.6.8 Lens There the the filled through Sands head
contexts
head is of is only Bracon, composed lead lower or
in the Western
(331,418,1953).
one Yell of
noted
occurrence Caple
of 1986,
form ff),
(1079; two
dishes shaft
edge
with the
solder. metal
wire is
pushed to the
sheet
-100-
5-
or twelfth Ubid).
century,
but
there
was a floruit
in the sixteenth
Lobed This
head Scottish (1973) in group her incorporates study of the pins various from forms Dublin, and groups form and of all mid
described and
includes
club-headed, distinction is
typology
on the to
basis
decoration
belongs In the
a large these
Dublin late
eleventh
latest. example but in been the all (1061) the Western comes from an alleyway come recently levels (Pers from a at Comm)
Jarlshof
seven
examples
recovered
which to
eleventh
thirteenth
5.6.10
or ringed bronze In or
loose
swivel
ring
a loop
deeply
form a simple pin 1983b) Armstrong 5) groups under Thus, plain the for
dress-fastener form
1983a, 324). by Fanning Man and 1975; (but see 1983a; also Scotland
Ireland,
1922 and Hencken 1951 for Ireland). Fanning (1983a, 324. the Scottish pins, of which there are about sixty examples, main of main Irish ring-forms types loopringed, and Ireland are: types, which are arrived balusterat by means of of pin-head and the on the basis forms.
combination the
loop-headed; loop-headed; in
ringed,
and polyhedral-headed; crutch-headed is all the these plain classes -10115). with
knob-ringed
ring of
However,
of
ringed
pin,
only
spiral
5-
either
with
or 325).
occur exist
in in
(Fanning a seventh
Several
or eighth
century pin
from date
Young head
century at
the
loop
phase these of
a hut - floor a contemporary several the 325) fifth sites or does not of
entrance). of
suggests from
forms, this
origin
form may have been in 330). link Mid, Scottish colonisation sixth century as part out of
1983a, to
consider spiral
examples of
supposed to
Dalriatic
about
500 AD and the Columban mission other diffusion trade fashion. form was not (1640), at confined with York of ringed pin fashions and Viking in
spread
movements a
settlement
remained to
exclusively is
metal.
from This
an incised on metal
(Waterman alloy
12.1).
staining ring
head which
a bronze
5.6.11
fillets examples Brough of of this Birsay form from the lower and upper to at at
(1929,1932),
P (1973). 1959,
(Waterman
Redfearn,
where they
Anglo-Scandinavian 1030s;
comm D
although type
considers
basically
5.6.12
Miscellaneous This is and a relatively indistinct, bent ends large for of no amorphous example fixed group ranging and a from group the of (for
mundane
177, chronological
miscellaneous
horizon
-102-
- Chapter example Quoybanks, of a field to be seen Lillevang literature 832,1271,1675,1792) Orkney. (Cursiter in This unusual from (Vedel to
5-
the
unique, time
for
example during
piece
was recovered
1887),
parallels cemetery
hairpins
a Migration/Viking fig
period
on Bornholm search
yielded is is
be assumed that islands. (Grieg 1940,169) Both metal notched, glass, known LIA pins, piece
a by-product reported
A similar Freswick
(781)
and
have end
produced of which
long is of to E
shafts
tapering
(Smith bear
et al forth), to
phase
Howe
a pin to
with
a wide
over might
into
be related 1934,
fourth
about
golf -club-shaped pieces there Although presumably bent stems, than In But these which is the the
Isles
there
fine
at Howe. form is
swirling familiarly
unique
Bronze
Age disc
headed (see
similar
pins
Eogan 1974,82).
to have conical example, A MIA date common throughout 1980b, 57). has
projections, the
much more pronounced designs, triskele over not itself swirling being
most
Dundurn, equidistant
(1798)
an oval It from is
head similar
with in
bosses. example
eighth
ninth also
century
tenth
century
boss and four equidistant has a central ' (Crawford 1977, pl and Switsur moulding -103-
- Chapter xiva). AD for motif this area The stratification mould are or this (Alcock
5-
a date Small
in
the
seventh
penannular
either
as as a of
Although
unparalleled
out of place
in an assemblage has
LIA metalwork. An unusual pin phase (1938) terms fourth of 7 levels Smith 3a, form in it at Howe (168) (pers which is date. glass is not an iron the later (1983) the head. type its
paste
century XVIII,
century the
by winding
a trail
top of a type
marvering for
Heads of
tend to be mushroom-shaped, The final Norse bronze moulding horizon example at the disc dots.
cubic
pin'from which
the
Middle of a
Brough with
consists a
Although Cool
this
similar are I in
1983,
Petersen
there
sometimes
metal
links
perforations. 5.6.13 Mushroom head There the Western are seven examples dated of this distinctive only form, "mainly Tarlshof All
from (1059)
Isles, (1959)
but
examples
domed head
sometimes
especially
has ring of is
cross-hatching
swollen shafts, pronounced hip (868). some respects but is this had a prominent there to
although form is
similar
to
related and
form,
ornamental shaft
has a round
section
rectangular
5-
section Dublin
This eleventh
form century
appeared well
in into
the thirteenth.
5.6.14
head form from Skaill, but of the billets simple is Aldclune we have Curle Sandwick decorative (1695) motif seen in (Stevenson comes of other 1985;
from
an Pictish there
unknown rings is
an element brooch
design).
A mould from Mote of Mark (876) a collar shaft (Caple is below. also A found SP4) similar in
form roughly
pierced
top
contemporary
5.6.15
Anglo-Saxon
contexts
1986,36,
spiral three examples On all of as which to these is the them period, However, would Yet (1967,74, which see this of this the top into of this form of an (1757-58,1764) the shaft is all divided spiral or from into S-
contexts. half
each
rolled date
Opinion
form of
Armstrong to eighth to
characteristic and the them Laing most as dated recent falling form 1) the
them
analogy Caple
study in
(1986, to
simple pl xiv.
example Age:
South
represents
It
is
but the type is ultimately origin, of oriental D Europe in Hallstatt it appears in Central in bent iron wire at Lough Faughan crannog. found imitated 1955, fig 9.37).
Co
Down (Collins
5.6.16
Projecting This is
disc
head pin form, most probably with pins at late Bronze Age.
a very
early
At Hurley (1805:
Hawkin our
example to belong
pre-broch Traprain
Taylor
1982,229)
5-
are
parallels
at
Heathery
Burn
Cave in
Northumberland
(Greenwell
5.6.17
pins form
1963,
fig
been much discussed neck fifth pin (Dunning at BC. the spiral scarce that to the this
been the
swan's in
shaft into
head,
may be to
beaded, at right
rolled shaft.
ensuing
and this
suggests
remained
The true
ring-head swan's
pin
(Dunning
fig by about
possibly fourth
the
190).
the
Joined ornately
shoulder. (see
and some were very decorated). in one the at right involuted (the
In the
third
two variant
to the' stem, is
which
a small
Somerset -Oxf ordshi re region, the latest than the second century not earlier probably related to contemporary A variant (G537) Butt involuted on the brooches standard where the 1. pins east in Scotland in fig but ' (Dunning the 57). owing region There to of is 1963,157).
and
(Dunning
1934,280; occurs in
at Colchester, at
shaft
on a pin
Road separates
on the
and Tay (Kilbride-Jones manufacture scattered sought at Traprain' distribution outside Scotland
evidence scanty
their
associations, 1968).
an origin A peculiarly
and Simpson
-106-
5-
version (555:
of itself fig
crook example
ring-head
16).
continued exist
ring-heads North
Scotland,
have
by Simpson and Simpson (1968). peculiarly which of the British (1955a, pin, part inherently on or bent century of this coastal Angelsey. wire, to more mid development 288) the projecting Stevenson involuted played this is its
suggests the DV
was made under sunflower Clarke as the the pin (1971a) two forms simplest were AD,
inspiration
although too.
however,
unlikely
overlap are in
forms
millennium or is
earlier
bracket
(see below).
The group within Iron easy is Age which For of basis form
as a whole has an essentially reach of the the an sea (Kilbride-Jones most chronologically extremely wide
1980b,
probably pins, as
date
within ambiguous.
developments
bevelled
sections;
suggested of
a couple
centuries with
are considerable (1987,58) in date pre-broch levels, early dates than the
much earlier appeared in broch as the the very could Traprain to fourth on
century to
pins the
century 2a,
(1974.128-30). at the
1956)
and Covesea
second
AD horizons
are suggested.
-107-
Similar
- Chapter other Hawkin dating 664) is broch as Midhowe, the Crosskirk but at on
5-
sites
such
Ness,
have also
(Fairhurst levels of
clear, AD dates
have
been and
assigned
125-150
pottery in
example At
broch
levels
post-broch AD.
may be as they
millenium
were found
which
impressed
with f IS
plain 44.9,
projecting f IS 5 1.1);
ringthe pl
common in
(1963-64) (1447;
at Howe (Smith sites Mhor, Bruthach also Lewis until continuity badly of
et al in the
Phiobaire.
sites
an example present
Scotland the
demonstrating with
decorating impressions
indistinct
which type of pin was used de novo, seventh apparently century Brough of Birsay pottery evidence AD, that such until sherds is the impressed to
Orkney example
Buckquoy, pins or
produced Elsewhere of
confined fourth
early 288)
century.
(1955s,
explain
particular on the
apparent has'been
wire
century with
rosette
5-
all being
around in the
rim,
always
without
separating
the pin
with
3-6 beads on the upper part plate and the 1980b, The rosette Ubid, 193);
second
third
number of beads.
was reduced hand pin typologically had nicks from ring, century (652) all
and finally
to three for
Once the
The version earliest, beads, upper 1955a, Smith (Stevenson usually part for fig is
beads
true
ring-heads
A fourth lower
variety, part to
corrugated. type.
A second
fourth
suggested
this
One of the Covesea examples concave side century a first type Traprain, in beads. They Jope BC, but
(Stevenson by RA
(1905,350) a date
suggests of Stevenson
from a
the
examples to (Fowler is
contradict
1963,123).
of the
without this
at all pins
The period Is
is- a matter
a much corroded also a version 194) points pellets 97, is This or fig a
to a group of similar beads (see British the 106) to which further testimony Province of
Ireland
Guide pin is
to Early
obviously
between
Atlantic
Britain,
Covesea Miss
Benton's
a chronological
5-
would beads,
prefer
to
them
as showing
the
between
The proto-hand-pin, and beads Traprain and fourth ante From continuing or fifth the
consisting curve of
of the
a lower ring
plate basis of
was,
and other
evidence, centuries;
probably
second
the hand-pin
hand-pin row of
examples into
probably are
fourth or
century sixth
although
majority
and continue
a degenerate 129-9;
1963,126;
these
have at
(1459), at Eilean
broch (1589)
levels
(1739), type'at
(1459). seventh
eighth is
example
(GU-2327), of a in
earliest As the
known dating hand pin was not of which but evolved lost,
the
the
ring
ring-pins in have in
some forms
below).
not
passing in
(1963,125-29).
5.6.18
with
under disc
5.6.19
RIng-head Plain versions above. -110of this form have been discussed under projecting
ring-heads
--Chapter
5.6.20 Decorated Ten Scottish by Simpson will and
5-
ring-heads decorated Simpson be versions (1968) made and of comes disc take of this form have been discussed so of Howe.
only
here
examples
(153),
from has
moulded is
circular as ring a is to Seaby and short that as is the not the the there
enamel. on the
shaft.
shoulder pins
constant
feature (1934,282,
Irish 8) first
ring-headed belong to this to second 'one, statement. known for time to the range, writer. a Scottish have the
Dunning (1964) Simpson of the first possible first northern are the use
late
dates
them
to
the
century perhaps
but
consider
M MacGregor survived as
bosses But a
group the
a whole,
being in
known
the
Ireland, from
favours York
origin,
although
analogous
forms
and London
(Dunning
1934,282).
Rolled
spiral
head form consists of over unknown a to metal form context. form on the shaft a loop. which There has Is been only a
example attention to
Dunning continent,
a similar pin.
be related
ring-headed
5.6.22
dome three and The examples Balevullin of this form the least from contexts may be or Traprain of none Law of to metal (827), which Caple pins
(1128)
known. GT4
related domed
(1986;
mushroom sites.
post-Roman
5.6.23
Spiral This
head and later especially countrywide form has been the subject 131-172; between -IIITylecote the thirteenth of It to recent is a
study
(Caple
1972).
common form
nineteenth
- Chapter
5-
They were made either by twisting the shaft or- some additional wire around the top of the shaft, which may or may not have been subsequently moulded into a spherical In Scotland shape. their manufacture was a home industry (Mitchell 1889). century.
5.6.24 Square plate is on Lewis. with projections example of to this with the distinctive its upper form from or of Galson finials
a unique
plate
resemblace heads
(Cool
1983,
group Just
manufactured fortuitous.
Swan's Neck See discussion under ring-headed fillets under disc with fillets. pins
5.6.26
with
5.6.27
Wheel-head There is form was rectangles a from single Birsay or version (1925), Norse. and of but this it The blue is ring ornate, not is Irish, known fixed A close pl 16; enamelwhether and the filled parallel quoted in
Pictish of
Lower
yellow, in
white Ireland
enamel. 1922,
found
in
a crannog = Laing
(Armstrong V).
1982,62;
1973 type
5.6.28
Glass Whilst
pins wholly glass pins were In insets known in the but example Roman period, or to paste form a 715), no was the been discovered pins as both and Scotland, (for
have
glass
ornament head
(168), beautiful
possibly example
exquisitely to
there is as bosses; from Dundurn (1797), from which from an iron is very
single to Rocks
a context similar
post boss
glass
1922,80, levels
from Early
County
1984,101-102). use in a
does not
5-
more
elaborate
object Irish
form 1980b,
of
the
wide
flat
base
is
dissimilar
to the
(Alcock
347).
5.7
MANUFACTURE LIA PINS OF Techniques of the manufacture compilation of were the not data metal, are considered base. in any less pins. consisting usually have has Most bone which removed shows that great some
detail useful
during
None the
observations Unfinished
fairly
of
blade,
by the the
Modern
been
as 20 minutes
manufacture were
by Crummy 1981,283). probably Iron fulfilled the of points. head or with pumice.
many pins
on Scottish
were perhaps notable suggest the head which the globular lines
by turning
against head
a hand-held from
(564-65
on the is
Particularly which
encircling were
Bone pins special required been found at (Crawford 77). the All Brough 1973);
In
to their
metal 28),
pins the
Evidence
cat
no
1986, cat
As in
moulds, There is
more than
can be shown to have been used for also a stone forth, mould, cat from Howe (Smith has an interesting has been suggested -113-
possibly fig
no 4302,
of a dress
Roman period
5-
as recently were
century being
in
Ireland
similar the
rings small
together, pin,
pulled
through
usage
with
the
number of yet no
shape;
certainly in
evidence
moulds
although
some of
may be imports
homeland, manufacture
the manner.
**4*#
type will
in
this
chapter.
conclusions
will
be up-dated. be discussed.
Before
-114-
CHAPTER 6:
COMBS
- Chapter
6-
CHAPTER 6: COMBS
6.1
CLASSIFICATION OF SCOTTISH COMBS The subject of this chapter is combs, toothed or of In implements position comb has be mainly which hair been a MIA of
used from
to
disentangle, The
confine variety
1969,5). discussion Is
because thus of
known to value
exclusively
evolution
comb is the
1985,82-94). of is on re,, analysis their more the limited. general 1988; or more
as the of here is
pins
despite
complicated the
actual
1969;
strictly
on the in
form,
, evidence the
base
attribution of but
examination sorting,
chronological
as they
stand. are coarse, to these largely (1969; based 'on 1988). 5 per thickness then advocated by Dunlevy or The teeth may be f ine, 1976). even been is
averaging
between teeth
guidelines, to which In
recorded recorded
as coarse/fine.
assigned combs,
comb-
recorded. covers all known Scottish Medieval varieties IA toilet which, comb are
therefore some
Norse/later
to aspects
of discussion. -115-
- Chapter
6.2 SUMMARY OF COMB CLASSIFICATION (fig
6-
29)
6.2.1
Late a
Bronze Age type of teeth. small single-piece is commonly combs, usually with
The top
decorated
6.2.2
Group 1: 'Roman' Roman type combs may be either with one set is This but distinction the single-piece of teeth tend later In to a feature or markedly be short and 'native' widely composite, coarser In early but than
they the
double-sided
of some later
medieval to
compared form
types,
(MacGregor
were
profiling
common on these
combs, (ibid.
may also
incorporate
Group 2: Germanic
single-sided combs (MacGregor in from 1985,77) are invariably north Irish forms in bone, , antler and iron (Dunlevy 1988, pre-Roman times common and The the teeth. back the Is sides thick
and
A1-2). or for
are
flared. towards
cross-section,
back creates
Group 'Celtic'
3:
'Celtic' miniature
miniature single-piece, acting as single-sided a handle and (Dunlevy functionally combs 1988, from often class have A3).
a grip They
or can
an open
back
culturally 1985,78).
'Germanic,
miniature
6.2.5
4Celtic' composite connect ing-plat combs with e. The high backs backs are
which
may extend
-116-
- Chapter either
6-
simple
or
sinuous,
consist 1985;
of
or
zoomorphic their
motifs long
Dunlevy
class
es are
short in
edges,
some instances
of the margins
of the end-plates. Dark Age type double sided combs in are closer (MacGregor class A are distinguished
from
Anglo-Saxon
double-sided they
distribution. short is is in
to height Dunlevy
1985,94;
1988 Irish
plate a
perforated
solid
zones
usually
no differentiation I (Alcock
1987,130).
6.2.7
two Dark Age comb types (type B, which (or shares DI-2),
some similarities 5 is
when compared to group are only very extend band for but less slightly to the
and the
usually bevelled,
and semi-
and overall
is
Group 7: Norse single-sided This group three corresponds decorative and no border orientated to
with
Ambrosiani
which
there'are Al
no decoration vertically
A2 A3
ring
and dot motifs ornament, often in the -117form of a central band, flanked
interlaced
- Chapter by elongated All these es In connect ing-plat upper prof Ile 6.2.9 edge. fields combs with section
6-
the shape of the connecting the lower side characteristic edges and a a have >3.5: 1. low of gently
plates
plano-convex
and a ratio
of depth
to thickness
with
thick
at es of which
Ambrosiani
there B1 B2 B3 B4
varieties:
or multiple lines
no ornament. are generally shallow is and thicker than 7 and the Group
group 6.2.10
of depth
to thickness
<3.5: 1.
Norse
single-sided
rectangular from
section 7
connecting-plates , and 8. section, face is MacGregor (1985, - 90-91) The connecting-plates although profiled the with edges distinguishes group groups in crossprincipal invariably alloy
rounded
straight. rivets
6.2.11
Copper
popular
examples.
combs from
with the
'winged'/double other.
convex
6.2.12
Group
11:
Miscellaneous
Norse
and medieval
6.3
ANALYSIS OF THE DATA BASE This study thus does not necessitate to the same type the pins. by group, of 'multiveriatel IA comb Scottish Norse and
as needed to
be examined
group
evidence
circulation. -118-
- Chapter be
6-
medieval briefest
groups of terms.
will
only
discussed
in
the
most
general
and
6.4
DISCUSSION OF COMBGROUPS(figs
30-32)
6.4.1
Bronze Age type of this form come Ireland. similar from LBA/EIA contexts (1963,164) the comb at
The only at is
parallels
basis
which from
to be associated fragment
LBA activity
long
been recognised
bronze
ring-money,
a swan's
(Benton
1931; Shepherd
1983,333)
Group 1: 'Roman' Specifically Roman type mainly on the fig fig combs of Ledaig in form Scotland rather with are are than their the rare differing two examples activity with (Henshall fourth a and for
is
basis
context,
Crannog
32).
1984,115). profiling
The decorative
particularly 1971,
the
examples in Clarke, to
12 out is 84,
such examples
similar
Lankhill
6.4.3
single-sided possibly south. three Of these examples the of this form in Langbank (659;. Dunlevy
all
class are
examples
Ghegan Rock (215, fig 29; ibid Irish class and because of their the most well-known ornately -119-
- Chapter decorated suspension 'Earlier probably date backs. and they Iron-age belong to 21 the Their are
6-
have
perforations of
versions first
1983,168-69). millennium
centuries basis
range
suggested
their
decoration,
artefacts fort at (Gelling Loughcrew closely continent a cave copper century However, to tenth
comb from
ceased no less
1925) to which
Scottish
examples (685)
1983,168),
of enamel, 1876; to
AD samian
(W B
examples
similar
centuries. 1988,252-53).
bone
movement towards
(Dunlevy
6.4.4
Group This is
3: a
brochs There
in are
Orkney two
(2,256,600,619,1458,1625,2007). contexts:
examples
'dated'
Table
Date
evidence
for
Site
group
3 combs
Record ---------------1625 2007 no
-- ------------------Crosskirk Howe
these this
dates
contradict to late
the
overwhelming
evidence times
which
Continental
and post-Roman
small
symbolic,
interpretation
(MacGregor
1985,78).
6.4.5
(fig the
6-
examples
are
with than
AP sites artefact
for types,
'Dated' appear
has not
(1975a,
300) argue
ornament In this
these belt
can be made between combs and late Roman/early (such the fifth are is as Hawkes and century no scientific the case, no 'Dated' is in
buckles
there if this
found
Anglo-Saxon
contexts.
examples
evidence
for
group
4 combs Record no ----------201 2009,2013 247-48 2010-12, 2014-15 100,101, III of see
Date of context Context ----------------------------------LIA Ph Ib LIA Zone 4 Interface Site 2, midden 3 late 9-2nd 1/2 IOC Lower Norse late Norse phase V
Further group
evidence class
for I
a LIA Pictish
date
exists
in (Curle
representations 1982,95-96;
4 combs on It is
stones
discussion
in 97.2.1). postulated century class that the silver comb reported (2008) from early
nineteenth to this
excavations
at Burgar
(Graham-Campbell
1985,252-53).
6.4.6
A (fig the
29-30,
fig
throughout mainland,
AP as far
Orkney,
also
southern which
Buiston.
examples
may belong
to either
5 or 6 serve contexts
this
distribution.
The examples
'dated'
-121-
- Chapter
6-
Table
evidence
for
group
5 combs Record no -----------160 1305 710-12 202 56.2029-30, 2041 2056 1997 203 104 106 108-110 and it for for which phase is a 8
Date of context - --------------LIA 7-8C ? 7/8C ?8C 'Pictish' 'Pictish' LIA 9C early 9C ? 9/10C early 10C None of only levels 1757), the far the
Context --------------------Ph 8 Pre-rampart A Phase Ib Zone I&4 LIA Site 6, latest level last LIA phase Phase IIb Phase III Phase IV Phase V these combs are
Site ------------------Howe Dunollie Buiston Ssevar Howe Brough of Birsay Skaill Loch na Berie Saevar Howe Buckquoy Buckquoy Buckquoy with
associated but
example
from
possibly (GU-1749),
pre-seventh at
date cal
be suggested.
cal
AD 530-648
(GUin as
and cal
As combs of this may be that appear long (for 4 combs, has they
same levels back as the (Curle on sites even Prior could AD, from
on class
symbol also or
stratigraphy Howe example be extended the third directly Dunlevy of the are
insecure there
any
further
one to
examples century. to
(1154)
they
B (fig is
a small in
may fall
ambiguous found
distribution
mainly
Western Castle
Isles.
A recent
example
Edinburgh later
inbetween
medieval -122-
comm P Yeoman)
6-
outlier;
also
confirms
that teeth.
LIA
combs,
as
have differentiated
The possibility
in which case Anglo-Saxon cannot be discounted, actually At. it forms part of small assemblage of Anglo-Saxon found in artefacts A to the seventh century Anglian takeover southern Scotland and related of this Table area. 'Dated' examples are as follows: for group 6 combs Record no --- ---------2035 163-64 249-51, 2050-53 107 105 57-58,203234,2036-39, 2026 a resemblance were All that is imported. suggests but to one say preform on to tenth a LIA
Date of context Context Site - ---------------------------------------------------'Pictish' Brough of Birsay Zone 1 , LIA late ph 8 Howe Site 2, E wall house I Skaill post mid 8C early IOC 9/10C late 9-2nd Phase V Phase IV 1/2 IOC Lower Norse Buckquoy Buckquoy Brough of Birsay
Curle to
points but
out
that
this
form that
bears they
believe
examples
they of only II
Norse
native
manufacture.
from Norse
come from
1988,359)
parallels,
be suggested.
Group 7:
Norse
with
deep thin
connect ing-plates
The earliest comb are northern 22, fig found England, 11.1), (1750). late not
Scandinavian islands
Scottish
example
Drimore
Scotland
they
between the
and eleventh,
twelfth,
-123-
- Chapter 6.4.9 31) This Continent. rare BI form was widely distributed Group 8: Norse
6-
single-sided
with
thick
(fig
In in
the the
period
Ambrosiani in
suggests
an origin
S Baltic,
Scotland 900 to
fig-11.2). tenth
eleventh
century
(Danielsson into
they
may survive
Norse
comb with
rectangular
section
connecting-plate This settlement, (MacGregor the form was widespread from the In Dublin 1969,62-3). and thirteenth butterfly widely There similar Yell, in early to medieval the thirteenth Scandinavian century of belong
examples
pre-date at
Normans
eleventh
(2126,2128-29).
Scandinavia,
of
to
sometimes
(Batey (2135Carn
and Hamilton
combs found
and at Freswick.
and Medieval here., and Norse. this in that is an unusual is cave, cave another which can be and
6.4.12
Norse
example Cave of
piece
from
Keil piece
group
'that into
activity two
associated
combs
chronologically
phases,
Roman
6.5
SOMECOMMENTS MATERIALS AND TECHNIQUES IN COMBMANUFACTURE ON Wood, antler, bone, of horn and various combs, but metals antler combs. might Its be used for almost
the
manufacture for
single-piece manufacturing
was used
exclusively
composite -124-
superior
- Chapter in with
6-
comparison the
to
bone
(MacGregor
and
demands of resulted
fashion in the
raw material
1985,28-9). LIA combs are antler. was not the NP. used for Several It has been shown but its usage
extant antler in
de riguer the
were suggested mainland raw Scottish or without or red her A Isles of be the very used, 1987, importing With with
products the
second case is of
much easier
(whether
reindeer
antler);
Ambrosiani
and B combs were being (1981,31-40, material worthwhile, British for 18); the used for, imitations fig for in 11).
absence
be entirely
evidence
of combs at Whithorn possibly forth); and there no 287). sites 1919), connecting of an of is
Pool
comm I Hunter);
at Birsay
Road sites the type the Brough comb (1263) holes, It may local, of LIA
a clamp of at
from the Lower Norse horizons 20, to cat the Smith Pre-Norse Caird's
evidence Cave,
for
manufacture Castle Hill. where a long suggesting alternatively Scotland for the
Rosemarkie;
(546; of
Dunadd
apparent part in
forms of
a comb case. it
antler
comb manufacture,
presumably
very
simple reason that Its non-usage to use. suprising, because superfluous been
the most suitable was technically for LIA pins is perhaps therefore all tines, to the appropriate comb-making were for not for pins, would More
have the
process. the
LIA
households a by
bone pins
a craft
metalworkers casting
could of
or
even
borrowed.
-125-
- Chapter replicas. Whilst entails describes rectangular direction on either antler Rivets with a requiring fairly in some some dexterity, simple detail). side process Thin by side
6-
of
combs
with
teeth.
with
strips. secure
at right
angles
all
plates
Subsequently
An example from Dun Culer (1154) has lightly a saw and shaped. scatched lines intended at the butt end of the teeth, possibly as a for the person using the saw. guideline Where necessary toothany plate above and dots, the connect ing-plates as required. with designs. Before is cut off or takes incised shaped, the lines, must and decoration ring applied Decoration a bit-like iron as form of or have
usually
achieved
implement,
Open work
tools. of
tools these
the
manufacture
combs such
impossibility. Rivets material used were iron combs, where used in in the to its the secure general the combs very. is the and it main was
because of
pre-Norse Ireland,
Bone rivets examples, has bone and on native period, (see in Norse full
pre-Viking repaired
rare
although
rivets
(1689).
Copper
popular
increases
dramatically,
in LIA Scotland, combs, if they ever existed are Fortunately, however, a few wooden combs have common for AD levels at Ledaig toilet nor combs in the at Newstead; in there Roman period J Curle 1911,
Wood was particularly second century examples no extant alloy, But Pictish LIA silver
survive
metal
copper casting.
or gold,
any moulds to
documentary
records
of the
lost
mention
6-
rounded, this
1985),
group by the
Cuerdale
silver
were known in
NW Europe on the
end of to
we are dependent contains 258, note occur from Munro at least 23).
occasional
reference;
early
one reference Copper alloy in the British closely An 1905, 1929, 100.14).
a silver
examples, Isles
anon
(Christison
and heavy
valuable they
so valuable 1969,87).
(Dunlevy repaired.
often harm's
suggest or out
suspended
some of held
examples,
on Pictish There
Leather are
or
several 16),
(61,2024-25), (Wainwright
1962, pl
an example
77.8). plate,
A riveted from
may possibly
also
f*f*f
in
this
evidence
- Chapter
6-
pins
and
combs, dating
and
will
provide
an
up-date
and
summary
of
the
available
evidence.
-128-
CHAPTER 7:
- Chapter
7-
CHAPTER 7: OVERVIEWOF THE DATING EVIDENCE FOR LIA PINS AND COMBS
In and
the
last
the
dating These
evidence chapters
for took
individual into
pin account
the the
IA to
example)
LIA. examples
an overview for
provided
detailed
artefacts
limitations
available for
because
subsequent
evidence.
are made as to
limitations
be ameliorated.
7.1
OVERVIEWOF CLASSIFICATION
7.1.1
Overview By weighing
of
Scottish
Pins of into propositions several made In discrete chapter (data 5, the base
up the can
series
pin field A.
data
base
be divided
groups
= class): definitely for MIA pins forms, decorated Roman-style bone or although ring-heads pins metal pins, commonly and 36 of a general and Irish projecting Sea with hipped not necessarily type of E local
example or
and Fowler
- short
province, groups
ring-head
pins loose
which
tend
to
belong
to
an-Irish heads
for heads
ring-heads, 16-17.
disc/lozenge
and groups
imports of C each and of D these are groups potentially has been relevant plotted to in any
figs
33-35. on of
- Classes LIA
discuss.
settlement.
- 129-
- Chapter
7.1.2 Overview were 4-6 are Scottish into and Combs
7-
of
divided (LIA);
group
0 (LBA); and
groups
2-3
7-11 to has
potentially distribution
discussion plotted
and the
7.2
THE DATE RANGE OF THE PINS AND COMBS Up to now of the LIA to pins date, and yet In combs have simply 3.1.3 parts, it LIA been was I described suggested and LIA II, need as that on to
potentially the either ask I. 2. 3. are: What are Do these If In obviously manufacture presents implications. recognisable developments nature of There typology,
by scientific,
LIA
about
The questions
we therefore
the
date
ranges the
of
artefacts? LIA break these earliest I and II? division? classes latest bracket it date of is of
respect why,
so,
evaluating necessary and different The LIA over native/Norse are or two
range
consider of
artefacts, has
which
began, latest
The interaction.
main
means the
of
dating In
the
these they
artefacts, were
of
by
by dating means
A
context
by
which
typology
occasionally
other
associated
artefacts.
Dating terms
and Combs by Typology are dating very disappointing, significance unusual pins (pers of can from comm) ogam. around and be Pool that In the
exceptions, basis.
on this attention.
Several
contends display
examples
versions in a circle
unintelligibly
to ogam is undeniable, so is a resemblance Note also a whorl from the to other geometric designs of this era. decoration Broch of Burrian ogam (MacGregor 1974. cat resembling with - 130-
7-
been
on the
at Buckquoy 1972,13).
(A Ritchie Irish
no 84,
Elphinstone
(Padel
suggest
they
(Padel for
1972,13-14).
A similar, scratches
some unintelligible
Ogam inscriptions is an
on portable no 84),
objects
altogether inscription handles, 1962,96) 1987 11, not date. There of the flat late.
unintelligable 1977,181, at
eighth
post-broch which
Gurness
no 252, these
Padel
(1972,12)
inscriptions
that
front
from Pool are remnants a 'notched Pool, This and Is dated unfortunately fifth on art for date the
of Pictish
rectangle distinct
and rectangle). at
pin-producing
The excavator ,
one
Age levels or
on the
(pers of
bronze,
(Stevenson the
problematic Class
above to
of
them belong
typical helpful
typological
have
made to
decoration
on the combs, or the sculptured they arecommonly on the back of group places 1988,356-57; Laing
stones
upon which
Irish century
Q6.4.5),
which the
very
by the
- Chapter seventh from ninth century. the The Irish fourth to fifth
7-
suggests
that
the in
form the
about
centuries, of of
possibly
as the which
to deposits probably
produced
too
early
(Dunlevy
1988,357). 5 and 6
there
distinctive
decoration
on the class
combs to which any chronological significance can be attached. Turning to the symbol stones, in conjunction combs, often mirrors, are two of the most common Pictish Cecil symbols. (1982,95-96) and II on class believe similar innovation. been made symbol 1. that observes stones that differ, the that II (fig representations is the 37). groups There of
with Curle I
combs on class
group
6 on class
4 and 5 appear only Is further reason to for group groups whether extend I to they appear in 6 was a later 5 and 6 or the not has the
archaeological
exceptions (fig
37.35)
37.34)
extend
Maiden Stone
perhaps I
displayed (fig
on class
double-sided
apparently
a Roman
majority
examples to group
immediately
recognisable
4 are obvious,
must be emphasised that be found. Some of can rarely (fig the are relatively 'and ornately decorative these are need artistic not be therefore is perhaps 37.10)
such as Easterton
paralleled, examples or
otherwise In part
is
because
stylish,
which this
considering addition be
the range
of extant 'range
representing in
examples
manufactured
perishable of group
materials,
may be prototypes'
- 132-
- Chapter
come down to But symbol the
7-
us. next questions they the the to ask to are date what the is are the date of the
stones,
and can to
of symbol its
majority should
(Thomas
1963)
contemporary, at leat suggest decline is important forms in This circulation, is the even comb upon that three that
form.
that
would whose
has
example it
implication
the
other relegated
symbols form in
more is of from
suprising
considering is
a form
only
centuries handle
AD (Fox
1949). 1976,
Bac
Mhic
(M MacGregor
unstratified. this (recently I dates example century 4 and raises the whole question in late with 1955b, Ralston fifth associated 1976). then If of the and (Thomas C-14 date Inglis 1963; date) of class I and II
stones Class recent eighth class tpq there the group Brough suggests for is early 6
Pool
date
which
this
supply are is
Class date
range,
suggest from
evidence sculpted
evidence
the
stones are in
combs mutually
is
4 combs overlap
a greater Class II
degree sculpture
distribution
may go
which Often
same contexts,
- 133-
- Chapter
scientific 'dated' late which centuries Ritchie 1983), grounds seventh Area II by seventh can be (see 1977) there for dates
7-
are
These never
sites/contexts any of further absence fifth such Saevar there earlier of as back of
are than
often the
typological century
because to Thus
the
the at
Buckquoy Howe
(Hedges
any
than the
century. is
most
activity
considered and
although
(Hunter
suggests of Fowler
earlier class F,
occupation possibly
century late
(which levels In at
be
scrap; cat
a similar no 1, fig
forth, the
conclusion, 4-6 combs Despite In the that century by the the AD. same and
typological is
date
of is been any be is
seventh It
AD, to be
combs discrepancy
seen dates.
evidence
scientific
First of
Use of
LIA
Pins C-14
and Combs by Scientific scientific LIA pins most that 660, dates and striking so many of and no of are
only
combs,
rarely
coincides calibration inversion the upon either in the Atlantic this side date
calibration two to
up into seems
AD 600. which
context
combs
come
- 134-
7-
would
appear the
However, that
it
question
the of
these context,
samples, the
and of
context in
relationships
Taylor date
the
sought
event to
sought; date
the with
and the
to ensure
observations for
relevant to record
samples,
laboratories
emphasise is real,
gap In dates Is it
the for
archaeological
later
Howe can be seen to predate that Howe's later phases, pins, in the extend at Atlantic as the far time as these terminate
produce being
mid-seventh
be totally later
nature absence).
activity basis
of C-14 data
LIA pins
these
associated century
1 A Suggestion
the
Date of
the
First
Appearance
and Combs Techniques of C-14 dating antler to (0.2-0.5gm date from part of of
very ideally
small
of is
a pin
As both their
skeletal
samples
where
samples
submitted context
the
between
associated. could
be usefully
Secondly,
examples assumed
be tested
such as Buckquoy,
7-
seventh
century
Whilst
that this
curve
may yet
we can ever
appeared. Into
Obviously
imperative is
a LIA I and/or
LIA II
Use of LIA Pin and Comb Types may have one of four possible life cycles by archaeologists:
form
recovery
-----------IPeriod of Imanufacture I -----------1 LIA I -----------121 LIA I --- I -----------131 LIA I --- I -----------141 NP I --- I ------------
[---I
I ----------IPeriod of I use I ----------I LIA I ----------I LIA I ----------I LIA + NP I ----------I NP I -----------
I I I I
TIME
LIA
and
Norse in
contexts most
does of
not the
differences
aspects
are profound. 1, an artefact Norse, NP. the It which is LIA in fashion and use, is by nor does it to be manufactured
by the
continue
an abrupt change in perhaps suggests However, examples of such artefacts aspects of the material culture. 2 or 3 if scenario be found in a Norse context might, none the less, occurs. In deposited Norse earlier context two detail pins sites scenario in 2 an artefact context, of is issue because is but rubbish LIA in fashion finds or the and use, its and is a of a LIA ultimately survival, way Into
context, from
disturbance
strata.
Is residual
recovered of
where
residuality produced
because over
have both
sequence
and Pool.
7-
(1986)
of Birsay
did
relevant these
artefacts, finds,
earlier
no problem the
vertical so various
so
phases
might
distribution
artefacts levels, In
settlement;
to estimate in five
of the to
appears
unsystematic investigate were indeed with No save a AD Ibid, Included which 57). were The
of
be attributed in the
1982,15). with
The area as a whole, working late the St Ninian's objects pin extant perhaps of of Isle
zone
with
material; use. of
modelled
some of
activity.
concentrated them.
pins of this kind are very rare in the The pins in Zones 1-3 and 5 may just current archaeological record. be a tell activity area, brought up into later off from this central horizons therefore recognisable pins by Norse disturbance of earlier strata. of whether record, are but area, III, None of residuality or whether LIA it fashion is not this is these pins known to our understanding archaeological into houses activity -137the in Area in this life Norse
contributes in
the domestic
NP. There
there
indeed
known LIA
7-
site the
still is
not an
very
extensive
residuality involved
inherently where is
pre-Norse excavating
periods, earlier in
middens late
dwellings. type
disturbance
Pictish
techniques,
whilst
involving the
involved
ground. studied
the
been
between known LIA and NP levels. levels, in only four definitely levels,
the 25 forms
appearing have
groups
subsequent of the
these
opinion
excavator
earliest the
site, of the
would
exacerbate
period
be assessed. a LIA-fashion the It form artefact may also with be found the natives is in a NP context Incoming by the
was still
popular is
and/or or re-used
This
virtually by the
archaeological at of Its
except
deposition,
deposition. scenario Norse is where a LIA natives, can only levels. for in the date of LIA pins but later This proves to to
with
surviving In the
period.
where
are
of this that
Class
Norse
contexts,
antler, them.
they could
by the
although
being were not have continued to any period at the as likely by itself class In C is Brough to this pins
Evidence
A fragment (Hunter
of worked cat
1986,
no 1344,
hipped prove
shaft; that
be manufactured
Norse
period.
conclusion
- 138-
- Chapter there LIA forms evidence dilemma. especially culture nature is to prove or that immediately sites the the with that
7-
fashion in
natives
period. help
cases
Pool,
material
evidence
example, it
the true must be examined before between natives and incomers can be how long does it take for a fashion to and how long to date the before discarded items
why should is to
cease,
become incorporated
record? period Group when class 15 pins well be D pins such the form into
a diverse
period,
even worrying
whether
difficult or
A large
number of
manufactured
we have
examine pins
combs
processes
either in
discard
become or
record
complete However,
processes 2,
of the or It near
primary
context,
an argument
could
examples the
therefore appearing
majority
Otherwise,
7-
significantly disrepancy.
from
phase
to
phase
it
7.3
REVISION
To recapitulate, 1. in 2. 3. third hipped early certain date certain wire' to composite projecting seventh pins; as the that first short
C3 are
combs
are
of are
late
Roman or to
post-Roman brochs,
secondary
and thus
may be contemporary them pins century the may, are however, fourth date period
with
ibex-headed to eighth
[group
between
the
and the seventh to the first respect is very century had its little
has pins no
been did
Scottish or fifth
Roman Roman or
although pins
there are as
post-Roman there
II,
grounds the
for
pins they
seventh as
because
typological
grounds,
combs at
6,07.2)
there
were
not
many
these that
suggested 1),
some of they
Roman-style century early combs, evidence Group example illustrated in the early as AD. the
and that
combs
group is
therefore
types.
a single form Is
comes
the to
on class eighth to
symbol AD.
commence
century
With
regard
wire-projecting - 140-
ring-heads
(5.6.7),
this
form
7-
most
Insensitive
of
all
metal
IA
pins,
found in as the
millennium in the
recent
have been found Stevenson, part broch in the III they why it
same context
C pins, remains in
need not
was that
produced it having
pre-broch I date
been produced in
which
a post-LIA
been found
association to a may
C pins. heads are rare. has is no new evidence century at with which Stevenson's version be as late fourth recognised to ninth late century. Craig is date, Dunadd,
although which
suggested majority
date-range:
century,
are
eighth the
A possible
of a hand-pin
at Clatchard
assumed to be eighth similar date. and is Olabhat. AD 90-340 correct, this 15: artefact 95.5.15),
example early
(2-0,
associations to
sample
suggested pins in
globular
(group
certainly levels
manufactured which As
are but
rarely they
may be LIA I
the may overlap but there is century, this. to suggest that and that heads
associated Stevenson
century
be recognised heads],
on brochs,
century
activity pin
where and
impressed
he claimed,
wheelhouses
was previously
- Chapter extending , activity present century into the second half on it but broch is the now the
7-
of sites
first until to of
possible
recognition
of pins
chapter
the
dating
evidence knowledge
and combs.
present
re-examine
the
evidence
- 142-
CHAPTER 8:
- Chapter
CHAPTER 8:
8-
This and in
chapter in
reviews the
the
evidence chapter
for
in
Orkney of LIA
Caithness; in
following
settlement its
the whole
Province which
contemporary
context.
have produced
first, because these have direct and combs are discussed the date 'and *nature on broch and alternative of activity forms. With regard is necessary to the brochs it to between the activity and the 94.1.2). the and activity to attempt has been the two in the broch itself, Is it the date of with to
outbuildings, combs nature product, remains, Once each form incorporating artefacts, is these detail but (see of
necessary and
assess
which
the
combs are
distinguishing site
earlier the
evidence
within
counties which
not
produce
relevant. 11.3,
evidence use of in
subject
discussed
comment must be made here has The first taken a to chronological, recorded mean those as first the al that
the
use of and
the
term
which
geographical basis
On the
the coincided with historical Alcock sources, prepared Scotland, f ow how back A A Ritchie use of to the this consider Caledoni term that et
retaining
the
a more conservative the that 'in considers ought not earliest'. to use I the the
-143-
state "Pictish"
knowledge, prior to
sixth
at
only
use this
- Chapter where under are is has been applied although term. what other I the by another it leave authors Is not it
8-
specific
features
discussion, using
discussion
use of and
to avoid
to apply.
8.1
SETTLEMENT EVIDENCE IN ORKNEY particularly LIA-only possible this 2). basis to to sites, recognise re-examine are discussed distinctively the later first. LIA levels
By
examining
it and
is on
(in
68..,,
8.1.1
HY 239 285 the largest AP. of There Birsay number of LIA pins have since to have the been fairly with that 1934, to and combs extensive earlier standing lower Hunter has been
from
any
restrict
themselves
archaeological
a 10% sample
mainly the
concentrated
around
ecclesiatical first
eleventh were
century found
church, its
to be
foundations
under
wall
which had been demolished century. set of be badly church being Two layers on the
before
eleventh lower
graves orientation
these
an extensive, with
believed are of
enclosure N side
remains situ
stones
Cruden
(1965,24) He also
a series within
small
cells. level
with surface.
beneath
present
church
8-
of or
features early
Is
as (1983) of An fine
Norse
enclosed
possibly
associated Earl
complex, of
period
figures
the
enclosure.
accounts
these - Least reliably at the head of a triple contained and over However, three skeletons its find with Otherwise two of the
opened in
bodies spot
boulders within is
an irregular there
may be pre-Norse
no 274). taking is into account to disprove it evidence the monastic 1986,27-30 metalworking pins in from elsewhere hypothesis, thoroughly attested in on nor
nothing to
prove the
recorded a secular
LIA or does
exception as activity
no structures Curle
pre-Norse,
suggest
status noble
witness general
metalworking, of interpretation
farming of
island. settlement
as a simple LIA
unsatisfactory In
structures of
junctures
(1986),
8) and earlier
combine large
suggest
the
extent
a community
aiming-to
-145-
be self-sufficient
- Chapter Brough. record, thoroughly which The structures both in plan VII
8-
on sites
robbed
1986,37-45; type of
are similar
in form to the (see below), and II In are it there , the The century; at a the
buildings
form has been recognised is assumed to at the cells. this Celtic be LIA Orkney of
on site but
17) which
Circular huts are common in the architectural, cannot be proved, At this mid-seventh metalworking, but these are no features
novel
period, Certainly
repertoire
church.
which site
there at
LIA II
hinted Fowler
by a penannular but
class
F (Curle
1963,103-7),
may be scrap.
Buckquoy This site all Into three) 1977). HY 243 282 produced of the which sea, phases Each of small benches are the two is 6 is the numerous are but of comb fragments LIA to by IL. and bone/antler the were site two (A of with 41c, forms
8.1.2
pins, had
nearly eroded
Much of
be excavated a Norse
the
distinctive
phase
cellular, II
that house
surrounded to
phase the
a figure
emphasise
cell is
are used
Henceforth order to
discrete or without
cellular
settlements
of
- Chapter below). recognised they LIA dated. the finds At Buckquoy there
8-
no
absolute Phases
dates
for
any LIA
of
the
1 and 2 are be
because
precede artefact
phases none is of
although
Ritchie
phase I
with for
eighth inscribed
century whorl.
known of is not
therefore
very
type-site, century.
before
native buildings
architecture of the
(see below)
HY 28 25 provenance in the 'Kirkie of of a metal nail-headed which pin and handpin to 11, the IA no whole is 3) of is a or a
unknown. small
may relate
chapel
(RCAHMS 1946 which out of site into Kirbister is the 'a covers the
item the of
alternatively small, about Of turn the of low-lying 400 yards two the
Knowe promontory
NW of
the this
likely.
excavation with
discovered several
chambers',
the
from which most of the chambers were entered ran direction, in and a north-east and south-west tabout 9.7m] In length to over 32 feet extended . (about 3.6m] 12 feet to The breadth from varies (Spence 1903) rabout 2.4m] about 6 feet The when Royal the Commission 'farmer with walls records more another as the five floor recent excavations chamber 1.5m] a of in clay iron on of the S side,
disc, plans
polycellular
may be of
-147-
- Chapter
8.1.4 Pool Pool (apparently settlement revealed and byres is HY 610 378 an example of a type
8-
of
settlement It fig
-developed form of a
sites. 1982,
(Hunter
prehistoric to thirteenth
roundhouse AD
structure,
(D and E 1988). adjoining and found. prior It This to contracts been but the recovered. there is the and is is
developed
Interconnecting at this the arrival (pers stage settlement of comm, I Perhaps certainly vicinity. LIA pins eighth/? pin (type 15) (not the from the
smaller
cells, are
Hunter). most no
reason
In
immediate numerous
produced more
the
site's ninth-
early
levels (from
and belong
symbols, of typical
horizon. phases
form,
were
produced
immediately
pre-Norse
horizons.
8.1.5
Skaill, Gelling's
HY 58 at
LIA
1984, LIA
6 South a period
roundhouse abandonment
courtyard
level structure
area.
been
(B-763) this
cal including
530-890 several
(B-762). Fowler E
combs
-148-
- Chapter pins (2104-6). The only zoomorphic giving LIA the pins, pins from site their is not 2 are having
8-
a pair with
of
discovered of I
together,
impression house
structure,
particularly
combs were associated There was also settlement centre with traces
with a pin of
is area, close
both and
of
prehistoric of possibly to each that broch the of LIA date sotype the
settlement contemporary other the site, nearest continuity horizons. in main for
relatively It in the
proximity
shifted
evidence to
presumed
possible
fifth
century the in
on site ultimate 6.
penannular level
occupation of
(North) which
Neither
contexts
dates, would
otherwise
may therefore
be residual. parallels
remains
enough to suggest
HY 23 18 pin,
Sandwick
for been
which
LIA
II,
recorded has
from
Say
always
been
earlier settlement
(Morris there
some chapel to
slight in the
an early a dedication
suggestively 9 11.3).
associated
with
Saint
comm R Lamb;
8.1.7
St Bonifacels,
Papa Westray
- Chapter
8-
vicinity LIA
of
St
Boniface's
church,
an into
area the
rich
in
monuments covering settlement, a monastic of have been to with having fabric back,
one hectare.
which-is-medieval, NE of related
including
a structure
Picts House situated to an underground close .. Church. It has only and west of the Established been excavated but one passage underground partly has been laid it not explored open and altho In for the seems to penetrate some distance direction of the Church (ONB 1680, no 26 1879, 11). The whole massive (f ig 43). complex was probably is presently centered visible in on a broch the eroding (SMR no 847); cliff section a
structure
8.1.8
Saevar Both
Howe'
HY 246 270 and twentieth produced No artefacts although a result LIA century combs have excavations and pins in this large 1862; suggest layers the remains hall-houses particularly can be
settlement 1868;
Hedges
1983).
been did
horizon, As
excavations of the
century
seven
archaeological of Norse
confusing,
fully date
A LIA
before of pins
steatite is
evidence
derived
the
presence
of
and combs.
8.2
BROCH SITES
ACTIVITY
IN ORKNEY
- 150-
- Chapter
8.2.1 Broch Ayre pin HY 470 013 head that (605) activity pins are and on
8-
of
A globular (1447) the and head bronze 31, is no fig also may suggest LIA.
a sherd this
of broch
pottery into
early
known pin
from
descriptions sphere unknown; 1914,44, for and a a no which there is are the The E and whilst This Howe is and (see set in
a bone 1 7/8"
flattened context
head' hint at
(Graeme LIA II
activity, Whilst
suggested toboth
the of of
remains. internal
reason
outbuildings, of activity
phases shows F)
as excavated
outbuildings
broch.
encircles 0 are
broch,
suggested. Midhowe, is
Gurness, date an
suggested (H)
G is I is
a sub-rectangular described
aumbry
as a passage
proceeds
In a winding into direction an open chamber 9 feet the hand side of this wide. On the right original wall was very low, and a second wall had been built behind it, so that above and slightly Near the centre of the chamber a bench was left. The was found a curious of flagstones. grouping tunnel, in a small chamber concluded which led T?I, the sides being the wall A [at out through guarded with slabs, and It was roofed with flags, the hole being about 2 feet Mid, 36). square Graeme records passage Associated these suggest for is are the layers that I, several distinct three do not up, but if layers of the archaeological (Ibid, of 50-1, time length is strata fig in 16). which does I including artefacts built there out 'tunnel' of horizons
over it
section
reliable, at LIA
then
were two occupation use. are in not the its These may relate easily
horizons to
had fallen
established, the
although Wall
Unfortunately
structures plan.
connecting A is
and A
excavator's
interesting.
to the other relationship stratigraphical of bears little but its plan resemblance to them. It Is most house. foundations the of eight' of a LIA 'figure as
- 151 -
8-
two
courses,
and B,
strong the
cellular
structure
which
abuts
a small plan at
larger
building, with
favourably
post-broch
structures there
the
exception which TL
of dating
are
no LIA The
artefacts it but F in
might
However, of is
described
some this
recovered
a layer
which
appears
to post-date
HY 227 168 excavations but in Including produced two with a group heads' 3 comb, type
(2),
addition
comb of
Several
bone pins,
from Tankerhouse
Two phases of occupation in the were recognised 1882). - No description is recorded of the lowest level large number of flags on edge crop out above the secondary as being an interior side inside and at occupation filled debris. about 7 feet The whole of this 3 feet Cc 0.9m] 6 feet Cc 2.1m] interior of
described
up with its
stones, high
circular
wall,
about
Cc 1.8m] is
widest
constructed
of the broch: Level with this between the two a wall crosses walls forming an oblong chamber, with an entrance it A similar at the east end. chamber adjoining is 12 feet [c 1.5m] Ic 3.65m] long and 5 feet is wide at the centre, and the partition wall between 3 and 4 feet [c 0. 9-1.2m] high Ubld, . 445).
as to whether or to its
the
from
this
chamber To the
led east
to of
intramural
of stone head.
level, had
leading subjected On
These
heat, of
particularly Watt's
on the east
basis
the
available
- 152-
8i
record, was.
cannot the
shown there
how are
late
this
secondary of an
Outside
suggestions
through is
structure,
entrance of
there S of
structural Inside
activity
Here a small cell, due to cliff now almost unrecognisable looks as if it is a part of a larger cellular structure, of of the the but looked type seen at Buckquoy within the the of (above). outer Watt wall the maintains that with or An Roman
was covered
no record With
exception
and combs
which
1882,449,
a piece
(Bell
of
Burgar
HY 352 277 century its a hoard findspot imaginative Descriptions vessels, six of silver silver by it of precious In 1852, the objects a plan pl xvii, now with beads, hoard (1985) century no reason Whilst which was of
early
eighteenth of Burgar,
at
the'Broch
which
rather 441).
hoard,
eight as
combs been
several
recently
the
subject
paper for
forward buried
argument of Norse
attacks. with
any -contemporary plan does-indicate to to be LIA. be primary, the -As broch. Petrie when the but coarse
their no it is
was in
(Petrie
a polished sherds of
about site
thirty
recovered
(D and E 1980,24).
- 153-
- Chapter
8.2.4 East Early LIA II pins Broch Burray at
8-
of
ND 490 988 this site and may hint the of the comb the produced a at comb several fragment distinctively (1096). activity. simply unspecified chamber 1857,6). fig 1; fig 46B) for a to Royal is with the wall, is and (A not a recorded pin which Two The as was lies
excavations
fragment but
broch, well
rubble to
passage
immediately
broch
entrance
The internal are long one not life of the out of for place the
features in
recorded
argues
but was
that not
door to
able
support support
therefore indication of
to
There button
place. second
piece
samian 1970).
respectively
Robertson
NE of the wall
the Royal
broch,
where
the have
the
Commission This it is
face.
probably
the
activity
Recently recovered
pottery, rubble in
probably in this
eroded their
there enclosed
construction
S of
8.2.5
Broch As the
of
BurrIan
HY 763 514 example of a broch with LIA settlement, In artefacts an addition such this to as
classic
site
has
some it
coverage also
numerous
produced pebbles.
ox-phalanges,
painted
ogam-incised
be emphasised
that
there - 154-
is
no
reason
to
believe
that
8-
was continuous are typically and possibly fig 2-3. fig note horizon; both
the with
broch their
itself. internal
(Traill clear
always in the
painted
pebble
which
levels. floor
levels
broch,
secondary earlier suggest suggest respective Jo mound which 216). probably the feasible returning centuries globular levels, cells the cell (see
walls
'are horizon,
period
time
phases. almost almost this up to the a settlement SMR no date, records It is 100m (Stromness mound suggest Traill from HY 761 513, a prehistoric (1890,344) this along around finds, in found area. the it,
extends
Visible
discovery
settlement and
namely these
broch small
A to the pins
be from
uncovered for
which room is
to
a larger
than
one of
broch
at
ogam and possibly eighth south slab from between considered. century: side the of the
fragmentary
MacGregor broch.
the far
was not
of the
surface an
relationship is
apparent
No burials
of
Deerness of
A fragment
a group
Chapter
8-
the of
broch the
of
Deerness, at
probable
broch
to 629).
the In
buildings
have
been is 1985;
area
activity 1984;
attested Buteux
extensive
Skaill
forth).
8.2.7
Broch
HY 613 379 may pre-date There are or is the LIA II no surviving to House linear activity to suggested of the the 336). running (Hunter the
mound A to and
structure, was an
9 by 8m with as Norse an
features chapel
chapel
preceding turf
parish
until, were
the to into
structure. site
a tradition which
and exposed
concealed
was not
Howe This
explored
HY 275 109
reburied.
was
excavated
between
1978
and of
1982, a et (fig
and
the
most
large-scale is
Scotland;
sequence into by
commences of
the
(phase
enclosed 7 (f ig 48)
and lying
probable within of
In was
phase
area the
and
drystone entrance
as
intramural of
interior
furnishings passage,
consisted which
a circular into
encircling On the
outside the
of
doorway their
was built,
surrounding
broch
associated
- 156-
8-
arrangement. between
for
this
average
5 unaveraged later
suffered
resulted buttresses,
the
outbuildings,
interior ditch
terminals,
The tower
although in
plan place,
outbuildings
to the
earlier
purposes. used for industrial r(ap`pe_nd-I`xITu_)Lphaseq calibrates 5 unaveraged from dates span the by the is
AD 132-324, cal
period big
distinguished tower.
MIA ones
next
of
the
settlement
essentially broch
a single
domestic
still cleared
workshop.
Some of
outbuildings r6le. of
or sheds.
orthostatic
N wall, tower;
collapsed
W end of
building was
was an
double
hearth.
abandoned before In domestic structures although circular of the late unit. there cell. post-broch reuse In almost shed or the of
completely
evolve two
as
single These
stage
hearths.
essentially settlement at
cellular an there
rectangular
phase of structures
comparison
Gurness,
where
similar
features.
An earth-house
to one of the yards. very stages form (fig a new domestic 411). with structure in a hearth and associated vicinity,
polycellular byre.
8-
area
south former
building of the
and then
open to some questioning. (GU-2347) than the There calibrates date are alloy in from
for
the
AD 690-980, context to
considerably of cal
1757)
such a late 6
a copper
which
may be LIA II (163-64), Smith Is and suggests for the is date. was in
(97.3),
some
less
identified 164 is
(pers
comm) that
equally
forward
account
and the
excavated if
chronologically on this
to 'the
pathways
are seen to be leading ring-heads iron levels body of broch pin with from
including (32-34)
spherical
(168)
contribute there
overwhelming of the
evidence on this
continuity
settlement
for
some
considerable 8.2.9
period'after HY 382
primary
period.
mound at Gurness/Aikerness has only stratigraphy Just been published. and the poor
but of
structural
recognised
possibly buildings;
horizon
polycellular,
and sub-rectangular The site 'as all we see it enclosed with the a,
and a'Norse of of -
by and
complete of
gatehouse. broch
chronological as the
outworks
is, not
known,
- 158-
8-
gatehouse the
probably it they
on
line
of
the
original entrance
defences, suggesting
how the
broch
of as an entity. of the early because without identified, end Midhowe. belong these
development
cannot descriptions
argument
but
necessarily in
structural
E MacKie stone
earliest visible
as a massive
acted
or roof;
towards for
post-holes.
post-holes, of belong
be discovered and at
central
1.8m and scarcement started to in the W of the which may still in;
broch
superstructure
A set At the
stairs the
interior, be in
stairs
were built,
the-intra-mural
1.8m level
space all
Intra-mural
extant 294),
features guard
phase, broch
as well the
outside the
entrance from
erection
village
nature
writer present nor the of most of the broch internal on several earliest central in counts: broch hearth. style There in its to the is
Nothing was
period In
interior other
a well than
present to
no reason original
scarcement
was not
capacity
as either
- 159-
- Chapter
8-
a gallery2. 'are
or roof-support. structures later Even if have felt mass of There to that to than which the abut broch of either tower, side but of of the are the broch not original entrance
necessarily plan, no low buildings have been an broch broch a pivot the broch. to any stage broch is
conceived the
compelled broch.
these this
towering
inconvenience, is
evidence
ceased
indicates Alterations
intra-mural
relate to
of the broch of the these at the layout chambers' the 1987b). as the
surrounding the
broch,
have which
Hedges acknowledges not later 0.15m internal identified excavator, broch, based on the from the two, broch, which hearth,
level,
if
phases
secondary This
dissimilar with
bore a resemblance Hedges argues and secondary In built path the logical after and whole the path that
scheme). both
which Its
were
would
suggest
the
as a unity. sequence of
radial
disposition,
use of - 160-
and ordered
8-
construction we see
a pre-conceived and
plan. of
as the
rebuilds
extensions
writer
agreement [the
with
16) have
no reason there
during
broch'.
less,
are problems of
remain
an unknown takes
element place 2.
unless
The
lower
of
radial them,
outbuildings that
not
been
possibility cannot
be discounted.
during were no
and Ubid,
found of
mention
any
the
LIA
phases the
of
These of inner
some of
suggests
However,
architectural
dramatically whether of
needs
be considered after
changes A the
abandonment. areas of
structures unfortunately
various
relationships 'Shamrock' of the type structure can the with and seen an
unknown. to floor,
Buckquoy.
end and paved (see below). other There at the of cellular is also
LIA
parallels are
To the
north
remains to
structures, a small of
some The a
which
appear
sub-rectangular present
Burrian.
comprising
cellular
be contemporary.
In addition
outbuildings
The passage and areas of paving. walling, level, and still gave a higher was used at - 161-
- Chapter to the broch. to the the Here a staircase interior, to of the but the the
8-
partly level
access
wall
To the is unknown,
remains
whose date
but may be Norse. of a LIA horizon to accompany it: site are 6C* two pins, for its
Despite surprisingly and 8B?, (149). date. MIA/LIA lowest of the This There I
coming from the floor constitute several pins interior one could the sufficient however, globular
of the rectangular proof which atypical and several [1291 may belong example from
period: of
levels
the
broch
although were
be traced
examples (154-55), context (1739) projecting unstratified knife 2.22, stone with cat slab
projecting from a
broch/ post -broch a mould for a handpin annex; Great cat various Ditch; nos 218-9), Ubid, fig and a which 3 two a
ring-head penannular
area level
symbols floor
and is types
associated simply to
with
Shamrock. the
found
be common to Is
levels. fourth century pins, in date argued fifth fig by Close-Brooks century to seventh cat of the a late with both 2.85, are line date
and a date
penannular larger of
brooches
F2 Ubid, eighth
(1969,131) stone,
argues
century
these
a ninth
Inscriptions
centuries
Ubid,
- 162-
8-
of
evidence fourth
it
is
possible
to
suggest broch
on this
from the
centuries not
reliable,
feasible,
whether
of some of
the multi-cellular
century.
Lingro HY 435 088 excavated J Anderson of in the 1870s, very little has 11, been item is published no 406) in
death (Hedges
now
and the
particularly plan with Not have fig the all been 220; by more
because broch
of
Gurness those U
outbuildings in at
recorded
RCAHMS 1946 11, George fatihful between and see Petrie to walls the
230). Henry
these but
are plan
based in the I
on originals is
Anderson few
originals, the
relationships Petrie to
have
examined
Dryden's if any
MSa;
Petrie as to
could lettering to
of
the
each plan
the and
applied
below. site the plans foundations (fig of 49) note only which wall one runs piece NE-SW, of can made loose an
phasing: be seen up of
to
underlie
buildings and
was
wall in a
corner, to
entrance traced
does
appear edge of
been
the
outer irregular,
the
continuous, settlement.
circuit walling of
The outer
building
- 163-
- Chapter of the which may also their be related in plan would to are
8-
wall. been
Even outbuildings
if
the on the
outbuildings site,
recorded extent
earliest
probably This is
dictated
by
Interesting ground 418-19), with (the (NMR and such (the a few was:
been
photographs
outbuildings Ayre).
which However,
was not
enclosed of did
being after
the compilers
ONB, writing
the excavation
of the site,
note
that
now in a ruinous condition with the exception the large outer circle and the Inner circle tower Is in which still a fair state preservation, which can perhaps of being are wall sketched orthostats be related it G. There of an older of to be interpreted enclosed. in one plan building referred being (Petrie 0. It to. MS c, is If as implying that the site
appearance
through is
section of
the
apparent
(aligned the
passageway an earlier, of
may relate In
unspecifed, on
SW corner stretch
published
a V-shaped terms of
of walling
seems to (which
the
there
also the
pre-date rooms G knobs MSS (for in to of front the these sure the its guard
vessel
feature 51) is
example Dryden and Petrie of right features whether site's broch the are these entrance entrance. indicated, features
guard to
shown. or
an earlier or it However,
development, by the
or
an the
unclear
partial appears
excavator.
post-dates
passage which
- 164-
encircled
- Chapter the wall broch, but was now blocked. its northern evidence for but
8-
There wall.
are
suggestions
that
the
SE
several which
phases
of
activity the
and planned
rebuilding features: 1.
outbuildings, R there
To the S of building
is
a box which
stone about 11311 thick. a bed of clay and rotten The bottom of the bed or layer is on a level with the foundation of wall of chamber and it extends A bed of ashes 6 upwards halfway on side of box. bed on to 10 Inches thick on this clay rests floor and on top of the layer of ashes Is a stone floor the surface of which Is I foot above edge MS a, ORD1182111). of box (Dryden and Fetrie is indicated by Petrie this relative stratigraphy sketch. floor level in Certainly in plan. and accompanying with the 'old stony schematic wall, but (fig of the building interior 52; longitudinal and may R. of it). 'later relate Petrie to this the'implication building, but is that that only there the
in
an
accompanying one
was at lowest
a wall
MS c, the
However,
I see earlier
foundation
some problems the plan, MSS drawing. because stones', walling schematic excavators; illustrated 3.1 the the
L and H (which overlie the break in the wall, roughly is of with the as those interior 'backed drawing is
There are in
as indicated the by in
would
external
which is only
apparently included implying it was 51) across buildings site, the this. of the
here.
A break
section the
the outer
circuit later
of the site. than majority of have several in may therefore There of 0. their are
on the with
outworks
location of
otherwise building
access in its
would
been through
- 165-
- Chapter plan seen G shares at sites of more in such the site Gurness. way to
8-
which
are
original
suggested If
G and H are relationship now be relationship does in this several to the the show area. features site, that
as a unity,
the
outwork
outwork
various
in- any of in
final
In room E (Dryden
planned)(ibid); left
which the
G, H and F up towards
entrance Into
where until
passage
past
entrance
ORD 182/3). alignment, leading tank two. in any great (1982,129-77), also in to
an un-named feature to Interior divisions from Lingro enter room F, dividing will there
passageway Into
up to D. the
was was 'an additional, the broch not be discussed by Bell objects, by Petrie
of their to of those
extensive
treatment the
addition contexts
describing
and listing
articles
described
a few specific it is
comments can be made concerning with that the regard a rotary broch of Pius is to the date to note and that Y,
the dating of
artefacts. relevant
Firstly,
later
A large
number including
denaril
Antoninus
Attempts Royal
Museum
MIA context.
- Chapter Warebeth, ring-headed continued the in Ayre pin the and Howe (Bell and globular LIA I, but donation parts of rings forth). headed they
8-
for
may suggest It
original
notes
apparently
(Donations of
1872,360). activity
indication
unknown)
a facetted MS a), it
and perforated in
on or, in the NE wall an area where the However, the form a Roman type the fourth
probably 54).
(group
was primarily
similar period,
pins
although
have a collar
seems more li kely this pin is early , It Is the sole evidence at Lingro for century, at the wall, although site. is there Its indicative was obviously later, location, of
of
HY 372 306 were broch, conducted Although at at the broch 5 or of Mldhowe by Grant path 1934, have
activity, into
been recognised some of which The site defined ditches does not on two
These encompass many phases be extended today sits deep 48). broch and on the and with
activity,
low of the
geos,
and is
the not
rampart stones
ring-marked
incorporated - 167-
structures,
8-
unknown,
and
there
are
no
recognised belong to
as at Gurness, or of
dispute with
as to earlier are to
both broch
probably
respects its
earlier
As at Gurness, stages as by
a well
Internal
18 inches not
material they
presence 455).
Ubid,
at least structures
level
obvious
from the way in which be established encircles C the interior covers the its are
substantially Some of secondary additional scarcement longer gallery. the broch the the
compartment
obviously an the
suggesting function
scarcement
fulfilling
support
a roof are
alterations outbuildings
the
encircle extensive.
probably these
Both changes to to
MacKie
and
Callander
and
internal
broch the
collapse.
MacKie, masonry,
happened, lintels
intra-mural it parts in Is
passageway fact
outbuildings the
of
broch,
were stacked
encircling - 168-
passage,
new entrances
had to
- Chapter be found construction cells cells outside to the outbuildings. internal main broch to a phase
8-
MacKie fittings
(pers to the
the
original entrance
entrance redundant,
original
seems correct, of
whether
construction
contemporary Grant is
with
of the changes in the broch The chronology regard to the relative In oval the of to is the of
Callander of the
dating primary
broch the
internal broch
outbuildings. series of
period
and linear
outbuildings of a part
were constructed. entailed Infilling specific hearth areas-of had to buttressing a result blocked of in cutting a part the
vicinity
Both these activities the -inner ditch. are The Idea of radially disposed of house H. With the exception from period was of of the the an industrial investigated broch tower and As was the same
main wallsIn
house any of be
around the
outbuildings, time, some of time. Callander stratigraphically entrance I late' The extant this
At the
outbuildings. built at
secondary
were being
and to the
were
unable
to
relate at
suggested
phasing:
through
parts tower,
whilst
buildings
S and SE of
cannot the
be established. broch
constructed,
are not
necessarily
strictly
- 169-
- Chapter
the Interior The lower the gallery
8-
exact cistern
nature or
of cellar.
of
broch
is
unknown, and
but almost
there
was a
completely (they two feet From N led to also then internal led
encircled do not
interior. the
but . at a doorway
below here
level)
and
led to
to
access
an intra-mural level,
gallery, and
down to the
which
access
gallery
The stairs
upper
been an
intra-mural viaa
passage small
Ingress
raised
SSE. stage series of the in the brochs's development, (E, of wall ditch. F the of and G: if fig not from 55A) its were layout wall little
an early a
inception, constructed respected which inferior 3. which than wall this outer The had building of room
around the
broch. G being
Their a strong is
followed to that
Their
masonry
broch were
(RCAHMS 1946 11,198). extended to from of the the by SW. the That addition, this Joint of building where The the the building is later H,
curving of of the
H is also
G (fig of
of
inner wall It
defensive infilling
northern ditch.
general from
disposition
outbuildings the
entrance
was constructed 4. It
was In to
became
dismantle
parts
as the to
storeys prior to
became unsafe. this, to filled parts of the into access Outside but this it
a phase of
features was
belong
carefully slabs,
around
upright and
blocking changed
- 170-
8-
parts the
of
encircling doorways
passage, to the
acting
as
As a result,
original
up, and new entrances extant. The broch and the in An entrance entrance original
created
in areas into
was knocked
was probably
the
and much of
appearance
satisfactorily. a new structural to might had identify any built sequence of in on date the The the the and
be associated.
suggest
secondary feet
accumulated the
The main phases of second century penannular was late as the and three
Robertson with
its
8.2.12
HY 323 no
173 LIA finds from this broch, plan the broch only of a
definitely
pin
which
shows
encircling
around to the
might
expected, line
enclosure common to
direct
entrance was
feature
observed is
he of
did Traill's
and , to not
belongs enclosure
was
use.
position
Broch
171
- Chapter
8-
267 pin from this site refers is to not chronologically Roman pins, information almost forward the of Only other any a a
possible the
were
not
reputedly of the
that the
may be contemporary Nothing outbuildings (1960,168, may distinctive 291) date: and is (fig fig
were type
suggest finds
broch
interior.
clamped
renowned efforts
potentially this
circulation to its
testify settlement.
by itself only
this
distinctive
with cist
(S Laing
IfY 713 436 (group this been is 5) a has been found site, a well at but this the site. only
no
broch-type is
feature
which
has
recognised
(SMR no 276).
8.3
SUMMARY OF EVIDENCE FOR LIA Orkney is of broch II, but first at the LIA area in the
IV
evidence and
all
coming in the
sites in
cases
themselves, brochs in
function, or very
seen
assumed
case.
-172-
- Chapter Little Midhowe, suggestion extant differences. prolonged, fittings no and both is known the best the known
8-
of they it is
earliest brochs In
internal Orkney.
at to
Gurness is
there
that
features,
case of Midhowe that brochs revision in broch pins was of the towers
But there
within be
repeated the
during however,
LIA. still
evidence, form
resideniial some
LIA At
although is
and combs indicate a the only at the series insertion a single site of (see of for is
broch
became
workshops. of
Unlike
wheelhouses
excavated
example be
a possible
wheelhouse the
Howmae, North seem below). With the itself. leading narrow space exist. evidence Mldhowe that radial to
Ronaldsay broadly
I Traill
would
regard These
to the are
a case has been made that contemporary with the broch fashion,
examples
a regular is full
broch, is Its
which very
usually
surrounded
these
exclusively
Howe (Carter
(Callander
1934).
estimates evidence
20 out
oU 52 of outbuildings,
Orkney
broch
well-ordered illus
44-46,48. tend to
On the
evidence, although of
to be of the non-radial distinguish the two on even, be obvious as was the that some of in
fieldwork
may not of
features,
except pers
presence work in
rubble,
Howe (B Smith
suggests
outbuildings
associated because
Orkney
broch, some of
afterthoughts, broch
outbuildings areas,
systematic, (1987
and furnishings
comparable
98.2.2). -173-
8-
non-radial
LIA, the
the LIA
debate
after it
outbuildings
cannot
radial modified
problem on these to
assessing there if
te rms this Course, to yet broch span can be dated be either too to
recognise.
argument will In
there
be a tendency the
the settlement of sites us If extended unit has as may be some life been (pers
addition,
sample
small.
Both
settlements suprise
expected
outbuildings Pool to
centuries for
at
Howe Is into
evidence not
broch
always but
changes seen at
on broch buildings,
sites
because
Howe is
sub-circular for
no evidence positive
any more
evidence
settlement
1, Burray
Howe, and Gurness well the Burgar possibly previous postulated possibly Burgar at
there of
suggestions lasting
a period
centuries.
are
structures
Burrian probably
Lamaness to deposit
was simply.
reused
a hoard.
-174-
- Chapter site
8-
where
structural have
evidence This
suggests Is at to 98.8).
LIA
activity,
no the
LIA long
artefacts rectilinear
structure
an apsidal similar in
aligned at
with the broch entrance, , Pool'and Howe (discussed What are the still in use and 'determined sites LIA not factors which
recognised
determined be in
which II?
sites it
abandoned LIA
after
the
MIA?
which
would
be reused Of the
14 sites the
with broch
these
havedefences. known of
Three at
adjacent and
Skaill; not it
hoard site.
deposited
Burgar,
appears no
similar the
buildings
enclosing of
can be suggested a
majority
radially of
nucleated Roman to
around
them,
structural for
appear
the apogee of MIA settlement. evidence defences. LIA The LIA burial Of the 39 other 20 is of
19 sites
possibly possibly
structures, question
these we
whether sites
seeing
which were more important application would and even did these not of names which that they in
word were
places
suggest where
towers former
were not
importance
sites
have been most extensively, previous skilled number them is Gurness shows, recognise LIA the
artefacts extent
post-broch
with
artefacts. excavated
evidence
excavated.
8-
sites of
could the
on further type IV
excavation at on the
nucleated and
villages
Lingro
As appendix
a considerable
number of
similar
words, the
of
unexcavated or to have In of
which
might
be expected LIA I,
developed
MIA nucleated
settlements selected
LIA II,
a period
perhaps
preference and
have
outworks
surrounding there
may have been of especial be emphasized brochs. for burial are at that
in the
However,
excavation Sites to
be inland
almost the
affecting and
choice
had probably
adjacency
sites Account;
receive
special Statistical is of
mention to
2nd Statistical
Brand
Gurness reach
next
Alkerness day
Stromness
are on either Stromness and Linklet Rousay where considerable fact that Midhowe
Burrian
situated. in
That
naval
considerations
LIA Scotland
ships was wrecked off the a fleet of one hundred and fifty Aberdeenshire Annals c 729), and that the coast in AD 729 (TISernach Southern Picts were capable of launching several seaand Dalriadans borne attacks (Tigernach in the sixth Annals c and seventh centuries 682; that 719; 733). It is also sites therefore possessed (or their places, -176not a totally unreasonable have assumption the Orcadians Twenty-two evidence for reuse a large number of boats. environs) produced be identified
immediate which
as burial
can sometimes
- Chapter as LIA there cists, is Norse. evidence Very for little burial of is
8-
or
LIA in
burial both
practice, long
but
and of cremations long cists the - cists (RCAHMS 1946 11, of midden the found
at the of
of
Ork
a long-cist at in
an unaccompanied close to
Breckness 1887 at
1905,60); of
inhumations which
were
1812 and
extended in long-cists same and were probably Hedges 1987 111,101-2). (Cursiter 1923,52; sections the (Petrie with of the 1874, broch at Oxtro 4,76). now lost. pin which clearly as Other may have on the of and is One of
broch,
which fig
are
described
containing
an eagle,
a Norse
copper-alloy were
excavations 'short
concentrated
and amongst a considerable of (Watt cists, most 1882,449-50). (1975,210) certainly the south their broch. burials. burial are
no mention cists
short
at Golspie cremation
pagan LIA. of broch wall discovery surfaces cannot No Iron rite, Bronze not which Age, be Age is and any
immediately
at of
area
K) records the
bone, of this
nearly
known from
Scotland possibility
pre-date Norse
cannot
be discounted.
does
resemble
burial Finally
known to the writer. a number of from ditch sites Burrian at there are unspecific Stackrue references (ONS 17: 1880, skull 1934, infill item no Burrian 5 (ONB 17: 1880,182); I
to
278);
(MacGregor (Callander
fragments 514); at
Midhowe
fragments
Ingshowe a large
322);
skulls
In the
- Chapter nineteenth and other 111,81-3); 1863,106); 1914,49); item no 579) set Furnished inferred the Oxtro and at (Hedges cist LIA, at Knoll the right Skulzie
8-
century
at
of from
(ibid, cell
item at
no 1072); Lingro
bones from
(Hedges
the there
are slabs
a large can
area of the site. and presence 1987 111,49); pin fig from 67); is (Hedges
graves a glass
linen
at Stackrue
(Olsen
possibly
Viking graves have been recorded a number of furnished 1987 11,72-4, WN 1969). fig 2.15-6; Robertson, Unfurnished are intrinsically or even later from impossible medieval. IV b that if a site was used for used as a burial the of to date, as they are possibly
graves late It
Norse,
appendix
the LIA it
ground all the sites. had had LIA been 500 mere a large
same time-span. have been both exception that reused but for' associated they
grounds
and abandoned
MIA (with
possible Norse
course had
possibility The
on these
preferred this
which at
period,
case is
least
by now grassy
howes
(the
The implication were grassy although broch that is is at the not where it
therefore
sites
came LIA
sites,
presence
Immediate
vicinity of
of the
The collapse so the much debris mound, which this (as into
convenient
archaeologists
Both
factors sites.
around
on non-broch
sites:
lower
8-
at triple
of
of the
east-west, grave,
many two
1965,25);
probably
cuttings
a male, to the north perhaps fig is pre-dates 3, pl 11b, by graves (Kaland dated 1977,
a long cist .1-2); of the domestic site at Buckquoy cemetery 183-84); to on the at Brough of Westness, the Rousay, fifth and
BY areas
the c;
Birsay
cemetery
between
centuries
nineteenth (Bourke
cemetery forms
Norse
rather
1983,141). Distinctive structural are exclusively sites. Settlement can be seen on sites which can also forms farms on be
evidence
LIA II
in date,
and these
on broch
Take for
example the structural with-extant N Ronaldsay surface the areas mainly remains product leads to of the work
seen on
settlement are
mounds.
mounds (often
particularly
common In Sanday, 5m deep and cover and are are varied to be found
may be up to a complex
stratigraphy,
organicallyThe of of
material,
structures. sequence
of a long
single
accumulation at (Hunter
Westbrough, pers
comm) suggests that burnt peat. Hunter fertiliser an alternative LIA about settlement the to the
suggests fields
because of the wide availabilty on these such f if th is site of also islands. as Pool centuries paralled
of seaweed as
any The
settlement Traill
Howmae U
Traill
1885).
in Orkney),
- Chapter
8-
at
Pool
(see below).
Howmae is to
assemblage of this
contradict
The absence of
course that
is
nothing
affirm
either. LIA
number
domestic at a
been but
unknown, a
presence
degree
amorphous plans. LIA II structural are and be discovered Unfortunately throughout no tight and the us why it
most distinctive
polycellular at the to
exemplified applied at the detect structures such that remains. recognition always in is
examples. serve
These,
Brough
to remind
non-broch are
non-set t1 ement -mound occupation: and because building relatively slight would later focus picture suggest has the fact leave theresettlement of the the is structures at on present broch totally a bias
techniques
robbing
without
physical
Therefore, of
sites,
been the
settlement. this
remedy
Whilst sites
recognising their-
that
do not is
Richards
comm). potential
the least,
phosphate
survey
sensing features
to recognise
are otherwise
on the ground.
NON-BROCHLIA SETTLEMENTEVIDENCE IN CAITHNESS In Caithness we meet for the first time the problem of deflning
-180-
- Chapter the forms opposed here are limits the to when can it multi-period has Freswick brochs will along be at
8-
of its the
a site: for
in
an area site,
focus
settlement? Birkle
Relevant and
and
Sands separate
Wester. but
sites, is
with
we are
extent
Atlantic
Province,
particular
problems
nature
of
subsidiary
and secondary
settlement
be seen. Links Links ND 37 67 consist of an area is of sandy hollows about half best focus known for of attention its for and gullies long and
to
the-north of Norse
House,
measuring
a mile
quarter late
archaeologists, Batey. site, in the finds, the Batey which area the eroding
(1939)
and more recently of for large casual the LIA activity number finds
reappraisal
also
of
often
None the of
are about
and a couple The majority hand-pin which (773) might date which are Curle's by Edwards the wattle little
combs which
point
to LIA activity
are specifically at earlier 135-36; to the or 1920s is any activity. 2.2.1-2, these wattle of the two pennanular
brooches
possible
(Batey
unknown, building
(Edwards
but
she
suggests
earth-houses there.
However,. the
evidence -181-
- Chapter outwith of the Atlantic in as at 1984). with dating for Province, the late early as first the
8-
mainly
suggests
for
the
use
earth-houses until
sixth
Newmill
extended later
ninth (such
rare
cases
structures they is
no definite
Caithness
totally
associated fig 3) is
1925,
identical
structure at
post-broch
structures
(fig
a small
sub-circular
chamber, ten
passage,
a small
annex.
A second, six via its inches a low From walls had a from and very
structure
creep, here
about access
level.
converging corbelled either a saddle helpful by fire indicating earth-house exteriors long from plain, the of for
a child, B, not
compartment
dating.
case the compartment stone Edwards also consisted which to 6). close the There of
had been blackened soil, possibly a third their from directly produced hint pin a
Links.
two
plastered (Edwards but pottery. three In to the are of Barry no 34; suggestive Interior
passage
structure,
middens from
items Its
broch
itself
which
at head
activity 791)
immediate
may belong
fourth
and fifth
excavated
by Tress
by I There
are the
on the as
activity. of
describes which
secondary apparently
divisions
whilst
more substantial
recognised
8-
sites
as primary, no it Is the
may none the archaeological casing If wall this facing itself. broch cell; of the the
less
be similar. to to
appears case,
this
need not
be much later
The excavated entrance, the on the in intramural entrance, thus large this
guard left
staircase position
broch
a cell
extramural from
coeval.
was probably Is
8.4.2
Reay
ND 96 for a projecting Reay area which ring-headed is of possibly the find pin of is (804) fourth is the century but Links, only or was
the
The exact
provenance for
unknown, (Mercer
as at Freswick activity Achvaresdal, away from which this for village comes from a second
there
1981,44and and
structures, of
all There
a couple is,
evidence the
1903 111,36;
no 340), in 'near
most site
symbol
seashore' item
settlement an ancient on the sand links fig 26; RCAHMS and Anderson 1903 111,29-30, This may be related basis of Whilst to a pre-Norse of the cemetery Edward's
no 407). (1929,138-39).
can be postulated
on the
a reassessment
excavations found
a group about
of four
1.2m)
In
breadth, similar
four
(c 0.3m)
and other
structures
-183-
- Chapter west which 8.4.3 of the Drill Hall kerbed sound as if cairns.
8-
a LIA cemetery
included
Birkle
ND 339 584 (alternatively sandy links that Laing feet (c near there describes 12.2m) This is high the Castle Keiss, 1901), had the and site Linglas) which is a name given
1894-95 account
(.T Anderson
been
mound as roughly
no 513; produced
excavated finds,
no structures of typical
which were distinctively period Norse feet (598,601-2). (c 9.15-12.2m) broch, or has (c
to
possibly
was surrounded and on the the Anderson The other, f eet wide. foundations 1901).
landward of
between or nine
were been
small of
second
mound, high,
the 30
lower
and smaller.
was about
(c 91.5m) collection
(c 27.5m) containing which were their spindle weight midden a Later structure stone building at
base
Implements
1866,10-18), investigated,
partly
and at
a series with
passages type of
was discovered, and bone fishing outside II find. stone a Norse pin
covered
of the
stone
Barry
included
a symbol
and Allen
1903,27). the
1987b, activity
stone to
do hint
vicinity, artefacts
which
- Chapter
8.5 BROCH SITES WITH EVIDENCE FOR LIA
8-
ACTIVITY
IN
CAITHNESS'
8.5.1
Bowermadden Unfortunately
ND 254 635 very little by a the is known of this site, less not even its
plan,
as
it
farmer.
a projecting to this
activity
century
8.5.2
ND 025 701 the best excavated of of the The where and its most fully recorded are IA and broch
In
The
implications
development of
summary is
Fairhurst
divided
Period to
promontory are
some indications calibrates age the at sherd of at could earlier both core the to the the to built of the a
activity
the BC
a C-14
which
level-to broch
(SR-269), one
about are
hundred to the
area
which
similar
pottery
Clickhimin even Mid, gallery consisted reasons collapse. excavators: outside, contain platform wall. the pre-date 165; and of
Presumably about
activity not
BC, - if
59C),
broch to
argued
one of started
why
early
different
noted
by
0.3-0.75
the
buttress
indicate experience
a series of the
structural in
weaknesses constructing
reflect
inadequate
builders
(1988). -185-
Chapter
8-
This
is
as it they at
helps the
even
are
Anomolous in a cist
observed the of
include
hearth
enclosure recess
1 Ubid,
a pillar into
which
by orthostats sub-divided
each
by radial function is
very
a residential but it in
broch
originally
stood
alone, around
shortly
a and a were
number of outbuildings
were built
went through several stages of modifications . slight extension of the broch passageway. circular, cell sub-circular, the brochs sub-rect Similar of Caithness. by further at the foot angular, appended to it.
in period
can be observed
many of
Meanwhile and it
the interior
staircase.
appears Skirza
Works. the
second MacKie
doorway (1973)
would sites at is
Only cells
one of
possible the
which
significant It Is
modification
material
to observe
on the
the
outbuildings outbuildings
contexts
the
- Chapter at Lingro). But before postulating between the the there site then is follows reoccupied of for an in
8-
period 4.
of The there
abandonment period
as follows: in
Roman finds
of There
period is
structures of between
ignorance gap
features. 3 and It
late
period It
3 enclosure
techniques
tradition
quern).
or common but As
on sites
suggesting Keiss
a later West, of
None the
less,
was reconditioned sole entrance. it now blocked, and from there 60a). The hollow or
passage
was extended
gateway extending
further dictated been access. Yarrows outbuilding passage excavators Crosskirk this itself, were activity been not for
an earlier produce be
similarities can
than rather animals the extensive with However, to period this level,
passage
Here at primary. of being appearance for display, and thus monument was not being preserved a monument as the broch which was almost as dominating be removed. It group the in of the Structures is not to known dates century century the south it of this the rampart phase of have how long
investigated. -a about
C-14
suggests AD.
than
second fourth
AD, although
Roman Castor is
ware suggests
activity
Certainly
-187-
8-
evidence
suggest the
site burials
was
anything were
more
grassed-over probably
mound when
long-cist century.
inserted
in about
a single,
pin
(1624) shown,
seventh/eighth form, but the an horizon as late as the with Roman levels in
also pin
horizon 3 levels
broch,
until little
The example it
comparsion
one of In the
a series form
processes long-cist
discussion
this of
evidence to
graves the
outbuildings passage).
(on a platform of
area
4 extended excavator
tentatively illus a
period
graves which
symbol
discovered
just the enclosure of the burying ground outside to the ancient of St Mary at attached church Lybster in Reay (Allen and Anderson 1903,30). 8.5.3 Cairn of Elsay (Staxigoe) site ND 387 520 by Tress Barry in about hipped might broch in 1902 produced of group shaft 6 (557).
at this suggest
and
no distinctively
structures
these. of fig
broch,
entrances. by the
on
plan
concave
sides,
described feet
Commission
as secondary. level,
(c 2.4-7m)
whether walling,
masonry, the
area the
which
(Swanson of the
extension
on the
8-
not
exist.
of
the
unstratified is
are
of
broch ground
on the
whether
the
apparent or in the
enclosed feature.
south
a cist-like
Everley A projecting
ND 370 683 ring-headed LIA pin as late by Tress (562) as the Barry. of of suggests fourth This broch, In addition glass the and broch that century, activity'on but there its usual (A was
this is
horizon.
prolonged,
because I Anderson
(1901,142)
describes and
flooring in the entrance passage secondary traces of a secondary paving of the area.
8.5.5 Hillhead A single are finds 61A) the the all there ND 376 514 bone is to pin (579) and LIA broch which broch entrance which is (which group 5 or at The 6 comb Hillhead, plan LIA. steps point early. of
suggest
down to to the
diverging
broch outbuildings
passage, are
unrecognised
plausibly
8.5.6
Kilmster A projecting
(Skitten)
ND 323 566 pin activity the Tress of with Museum is seventh Barry the the by (809) here and and two as eighth bone ate as pins the (807-8) fourth This Colder
may then
centuries. and
numbers
numbers
1948.142), any.
then
no mention
Unfortunately
exact
provenance
-189-
- Chapter unknown. .; I prolonged indicative several the later interior the wall, The structural occupation of layers LIA evidence of the (fig from site,
8-
Calder's
although
settlement
59B).
broch
extended
chambers
and the
back walling
suggested
was an paving:
insertion;
and a broken
Structurally, therefore, all the compartments are but from the the broch, than somewhat later layer under absence of any pronounced occupation had the floor it erection would seem that their improvements furnishing taken place as necessary the primary in occupation at an early stage (Calder 1946,132). These which spatially The broch against chamber excavator this this I to which (Calder limited the observations radial seem rather a weak basis on
divisions
are secondary. earthwork. broch footings, to Set up was the that the In
1948,137)
suppose
with
was probably
broch
which
investigated),
chamber
so the 8.5.7
period of building of the latest was undoubtedly as the chambers had encroached through the debris into the original wall right of the strengthening and no where these had become ruinous rampart 137). Mid, longer required late in date. is that this may be fairly implication
Ness This
ND 381 667 promontory site, in now the much 1890S. Ingot -190eroded and overgrown, the finds, from was which the Amongst moulds
excavated included
Barry alloy
ingots,
and a chain
8-
cell, late
(801), is
which divided
may by
compartments of
two
any secondary to to
here. 5;
plan
(RCAHMS 1911a,
appear back
cut
building. constructed it
understand
building
broch the
exterior,
unless broch
perhaps
was constructed
after
original was
Certainly only a
enclosed proportion
area
probably
indicates side of
a well
original outside to
plan the
defended in a which
composed
neither, This
cell
has a small
Age date.
bisected,
may be late
because
outside it in
of the broch. presence for has been detected (Lamb 1980a, on this 96), site, Lambaborg 82-83): mentioned
Saga (chapters
The fortress a StOut17 with stood on a sea-cliff The landward. to buil t cliff wall stone the coast along a distance quite stretched .
8.5.8
Nybster A 'bronze
ND 370 631 pin the with from a fixed the annular is by Tress not recorded This occupation _191head set recorded Barry as in being on a short asl the having 1890s donated rightbeen (RCAHMS to the
stalk'
no 518),
Museum U pin,
Anderson suggesting
ring-headed
- Chapter
8-
into which
the is
The broch Is situated ' landward side by a substantial AD. of a gallery; it thus 20). qualifies (Lamb 1980a, survey of
on a wall for
stairways
and the
suggestion
outbuildings
A relative Is
structures
parallels are
elsewhere.
cells
passages are
earth-houses of walling
possibly The
stretches
are best
paralleled 60b).
amorphous
structures
complex
and attendant 9)
This, at
reminiscent
XI. 2: to which
a sub-circular have
f ig
54). them,
appended to Howe (fig complex series planned from side. structures, relationship the
48).
where similar is
There are vague hints an extended accessible depicts their some of passage from
of a
leading either
outbuildings of no In interior of
excavation but to
plan is
orthostatic
each other.
but others the broch, may be co-eval with probably later activity ring-headed suggested by the projecting no other artefactual evidence to suggest later activity.
represent pin.
8.6
CAITHNESS SITES
OCCUPATIONIN THE BROCHINTERIOR On the of the basis for of 98.4-5, it is now possible on broch to sites review which the rest
evidence
extended
settlement -192-
have not
- Chapter produced rebuilding accompanying 8.6.1 any LIA artefacts. and secondary This
8-
consists in
evidence interior
for
structures
and/or
of undetermined
Coghill
fig
31;
fig
are which
terminates
no
evidence although
support.
example roundhouse
similar
1987 D, radial
central
sub-circular
8.6.2 Skirza This the 1984, irregular (Swanson a tank-like opposite CAN
service
Head is side 050, width 1988;
compartments.
site
dubious
chevaux 1980a, or
on
south
(Lamb revetment
Batey of
CAN on the
internal of the
broch points of
Is to the
possibly the
MacKie construction
occurrence
of
possible there
Anderson up the
dividing
no plan
8.7
OF UNDETERMINED DATE
8.7.1
Hill There
of Works is
ND 290 626 to believe that the internal of divisions facing wall of does
the
broch
should
length the
appear
on plan
intramural
cell/stairway
A passageway appears to encircle joins to an three quarters the broch, at the broch entrance of and A subone door check. at least extended passageway which includes (RCAHMS 1911a, 61E). -193-
8-
to the right
of the broch
entrance.
No
stratigraphic 8.7.2
are available. ND 354 612 of the broch is divided of (fig by orthostats which 61D). although 3 Anderson feet about are Into further to three subthe (1973) is no in (c has
Keiss
North
The Interior long divided straight believes strat1graphic describes diameter 0.6m) as chambers, by wall these the
two
western
examples or
radial of
partitions
about the
seven at
broch
above
passage buildings
been added to side either relative building reason Keiss (Swanson side is why South of
passageway is
relatively
contemporary
broch. the
broch buildings.
remains is
of
rectangular
N broch
possibly
related
(Batey
1984,
Keiss
South
ND 353 61o (1901,125) levels of layers of seven to and S Laing (1866,24-25) the broch, record and a the three hearth,
Anderson of or to three
show of
class
rude few
forms
the
finer This
pottery change in 3 in
bone
periods recorded of
Presumably Anderson
the also
a guard
chamber
SE entrance,
-194-
8-
Commission
plan If
fig
39; was
correct, two
among Caithness sees different broch integral was partly the the might
having as
guarded Young
entrance
which
disprove scheme).
(Swanson Swanson
suggests wall
suggests t. o, be at
secondary
rather the
some stage,
can be seen a structures overlaps which series The be gauged, at the is of exact but to a
circular Freswick Links broch floating structures relationship there product pottery exclusively 8.7.4 Keiss is wall (or both
passage
similar which
and Yarrows,
a structure
partly
a rectangular the to NE
structure and a
spatially these to
chronologically,
immediately of the
structures believe
no reason of
any of
Roman nothing
and
LIA in date.
West
ND 349 615 of the broch but recorded primary. blocked in the the (fig 62D) is divided of these by orthostats features to (Anderson the
by the original
(1901,135)
describes of
masonry. it is
but
feature.
sides subbe
passages
of
each other.
a curving
that the
chronological
about
metres,
obviously
post-dates
because it
- Chapter
8-
founded of the courses partiall7 on the lower to the exterior wall of the broch ... addition two of debris on an accummulation and partiall7 U Anderson feet [c 0.75m] in height and a half 1901,137). In the centre of the circular aligned court is the remains further phasing the to of walling of the to the which broch, the SE.
forms and
roughly a hollow
ESE entrance
extent (because
no direct the
Joints that as S
by vegetation of court
on the
passage remains
stage a higher
ENE are
(Swanson 1988). Laing massive as (1866,19-20, which out, describes the foundations as a broch. the mound shows the of it a
But,
Swanson to It
whereas broch
present a later
possible
Laing
building pass
four
church). 8.7.5 ND 349 519 plan fig for this 59F). walls, which a facing site is very early, and highly is full of schematic thick of There to and the is the
(Rhind irregular
1853,185; dividing
Interior not
orthostatic
divisions for
which
reminiscent account*
enclosed around
was investigated,
extends
the site.
8.7.6
ND 327 545 by Tress to the Barry 'NW of -196In 1903 uncovered the entrance (fig a broch 62B). and an In the
8-
only
radial
are
indicated,
but
from
the
there entrance runs an extended passage with door checks and buildings It from either Originally there were running off -side. probably buildings also external on the W and SW side of the broch (Swanson 1988). The recorded structures are rectilinear with regular orthostatic 8.7.7 divisions.
Thing's Nothing
Va is
ND 081 682 known of the nature 58A). of the of external a secondary buildings casing on wall
this
site,
but
there item
is
the fig
possibility
(RCAHMS 1911a,
no 432;
8.7.8
ND 303 413 of the pre-existing cellular 1985,101; mound has structures fig 63A), on its with surface occasional date of a
of walls
irregular visible
amorphous (Mercer
and the
unknown.
ND 133 510 was excavated in the This and 1950s Is even by Murray Thriepland, as there passage no the 105). exterior of but are and The of the
8.7.9
no
details
outworks section
segment the
From at
surface debris;
are is are
situated not to
within exclude
one, the
fallen
possibility
outbuildings,
but
apparent.
ND 308 440 site, lying projecting (fig at the into 62E). foot the The of a shallow loch, interior was slope was on a
extensive
Anderson the
openings above it
although face
to
have the
None
appears
respect
intra-mural
features.
-197-
- Chapter The E entrance possibly present a couple Anderson is lined large the
8-
with
slabs, original
which
are at only
nor bar-holes
partitioning
on plan.
states
Partition walls were met with at three different levels, the dividing internal area on three different the last being plans, a partial partition utilising on17 one side of the area at floor had become covered a time when the original feet of stones and rubbish (Anderson with eight 1883,229). It is not clear but from his it* is of feet descriptions obvious later above the that what the primary in found broch the at surface was looked
like,
occupation was
broch
Evidence or nine
occupation floor:
scarcement
later we found evidence occupation of this and building to subsequent adaption of the original purposes in the remains of two walls cutting off a portion on the inner of the area, and abutting at different wall of the broch as to form cells feet levels, 'the one having been seven or eight ten or eleven feet of the debris and the other formed by the ruin their of the broch under foundations (Anderson 1670,234), respective From a second be gained orthostats, were byres. of at into (but primary: of Mercer long 1985,103) amorphous bays. also very the broch It entrance structures, is probable from of a the access often that long, could with these wide 4
a series -to
gained reminiscent
periodaligned
Crosskirk through
entrance this
entrance here.
outworks), known,
relationship
passage
structures of by'how
C, D and E are post-date Mercer structures broch the broch, the notes at
plausibly
cannot
secondary
(Mercer
1985,102-3;
need not
necessarily
galleried
structures. -198-
- Chapter Structures apart from the F, G and H (fig rest of the by opposite at site, the 42g-h)
8-
smaller
structures
consisting
(sometimes appended post-broch exact are their structure bones believe dates seen at they to
orthostats)
Gurness
unknown. and
long
passages no
There the of
reason structures;
contemporary
galleried their
distinctive
any finds:
a steatite
(Anderson In addition,
1890,136),
and again
do not help to
which
remodellings. IV
SUMMARY OF EVIDENCE FOR LIA ACTIVITY IN CAITHNESS (Appendix a few broch (fig two adjacent can brochs there is and in
As in hint that
there
are can
only
sites 65); of
be expected combs,
produced probably There with there itself, artefacts Kilminster, exceptions virtually outbuildings. Caithness the radially are this
LIA relate
pins to
and
these to the
attested
indicate
prolonged,
were
(multi-phase)
Bowermadden, at
and
possibly II
artefacts a LIA
there of
equally
none of
disposed for an
settlements encircling
to exhibit of lack
range
recognised
-199-
- Chapter to compare the chronology is the case This buildings of for the
8-
nothing the known. the There interiors, In factors activity outworks, there coastal activity than best is
with,
vital is
where not
relative
virtually fully
recorded
evidence
the
insertion
wheelhouses
as in Shetland. of physical have rather structure led to it the is not possible for to identify
might
preference
a wall,
were
or near of any
as known reflects Tress there structure status tended in Barry, seems (for for to
earlier for
other
preference the
terms indicate
others. produced
In Orkney the reused Roman artefacts, to those these are sites sites possibly not the with
to be those Roman
exclusive
have produced of
use
as
burial is
there have
these
there they
been
occupation, tend to
grassy
stage. have
purpose
is
of
rather
even
MIA.
unfurnished
male burial of enclosure There proximity have levels long-cist Sandwick: quick an is no to been at
to the
fire-place
evidence the
to suggest areas
domestic
1986). also
burial us
at
Skaill,
Account
1799,459)
cautions -200-
against
8--
graves the
addition
following
cists: mound,
Wester there
Inserted of the
the in remains
sand the of
bones
item the of
at Brounabon
one of
stairs
and a long
was close in
broch
where long
door - human bones were also found two standing stones appear (Anderson aforementioned cists in the burial, period 5 there levels was a at
addition
the
of
heaped 502); at
up against an Achingale in 2,
burial a cist at -Thrumster was in the the outside of the broch (RCAHMS 1911a, cist containing in the 1850s, human item no bones 473); was an bones 1841 (RCAHMS 1911a,
unspecified Dale
cist
at
contained at
was found
Dunbeath and a in
at Latheron
Wheel Ubid);
near
Green Tullochs
1871 (RCAHMS1911a, short an IA date. miscellaneous product of late Achvarasdal skeletons South fig the from at Lodge were the cists: item RCAHMS 1911a,
remains no 199);
at Achavar their
(Anderson which
only
context
(some
of
which In
interior of
lying item
chamber
within
(RCAHMS 1911a,
a child's midden B at
at Keiss
secondary
marked X (Laing
36);
Kettleburn
pieces
of human cranium
were embedded in
ashes of
the excavator suggests this is evidence for chamber 0fragments (Rhind 1853,216-17); of mixed human remains 1948); (Calder human bones were the debris at Kilmster outbuilding vessel one case in broch, G at Yarrows, along with fragments of (Anderson a short in cist 1890,136) (Anderson opening from the at the
from
and also
1870,229); up against
Ousedale outside
was found
the narrow
(MacKay 1892,354);
excavations
8-
which skulls
are no records,
produced
the remains
of
protruding
S edge of
and querns a burying 1890,186); skulls 184). There Kettleburn burial 320); item at were
and at
and reburied
are
graves 139;
near a
to
the
broch
of
(Batey Castlehill
513);
furnished item
cist no
RCAHMS 1911a,
at Housel 142).
may be Norse
(RCAHMS 1911a,
mention which Is
must
be made of by Laing
another with
cemetery the
from
the and
links
at
probably
Ackergill
described
Excavations
Kists with wonderful were found In every Instance feet Ic 4.6m] apart, regularity at about fifteen The7 were all In the central line of the mound. human skeletons, undisturbed and and contained consisting of were all of the same structure, from the beach, with walls of unhewn flagstones flat but covered stones. with large no floor, The kists lay north and south, or at a generally of the mound and slight angle to the direction laid full The skeletons were all seashore ... length, except one, in which the head and legs crumpled up ... above seem to have been partially cairn of stones or pile each kist was a small from the beach, from one to three feet [c 0.3lay in a the kists In one instance 0.9m] high ... double tier, one over the other All in these one. graves were unfurnished, cairn distinguished which these with the exception 'Chief's of grave a of a dog bone Kist' , and of figs stone The central to have been was described on were found can -202as the the in the
basis
number (Ibid,
stone but
implements all of
nearly
be dismissed
as natural
8-
and stone In
identify drawing. to
figure
9 positively definitely
as a LIA
conclusion, on any of
impossible
identify although
settlement pin
in Caithness, there
and comb may suggest Most identified context, prolonged absence impression this activity buildings and Forse 1948), are but
was unrecognised are credible in interiors artefacts occupation place as around (fig use during
structures when the LIA probably known the broch LIA domestic took
in a broch at least in
were perhaps
use.
recognisable
confirms
wags
these, 1912;
excavated
examples long
(A 0 Curle estate
1946;
recent
survey
suggests to be and now LIA phase example Howe is contra is not Orkney
examples to but
(Morrison
Caithness, an
more particularly increasing number where the fig a and other Orkney there
parishes
Dunbeath,
similar is levels of
discovered from
In sixth Hunter
evidence at Birsay
pedigree: 8 at
century 66).
Howe; 15,
and
possibly
Brough
(for at
domestic al for
rather
byre such
possible are
examples
dated), recognisably
##*4*
no structural
which
are as yet
and distinctively
It
to
examine fit
in
the of
study LIA
area
of
Orkney in the
Caithness
Atlantic
Province.
settlement %
-203-
CHAPTER 9:
- Chapter
CHAPTER 9:
9-
SETTLEMENT IN
PROVINCE
briefly
examines in
the the
evidence Atlantic
for
LIA
Province Inner
Outer
West Coast,
appendix
summarised adjacent
9.1 e-f)
closer
to the study
SETTLEMENT IN
It LIA I,
can be shown that possibly its LIA II, is A wheelhouse circumference, and the thus
activity
Inside
brochs are is of to
continues inserted
into into
when wheelhouses a roundhouse whose function create a series roofs. this then with
of radial the
support
roof
of The
spaces. piers as an
often
known (fig
brochs
inserted,
supported no evidence
1985,63). divisions
ClickhImin
whether
or outside wheelhouse
Hamilton in
3) describes century
as beginning
second or third
though latterly In economic decline, until Islands when the centuries eighth-ninth by Norsemen. colonised Yet there into the
to be constructed is no evidence that wheelhouses, continued LIA H. LIA II artefacts Rather, at both Clickhimin and tend to be associated with semi -subterranean associated that many of the sub-circular middens. identified or their
Jarlshof huts
- Chapter broch which 4m) little f orms. to bear Jarlshof foundations a residential (2-5m
9-
sites
of
less
may have to
function.
to be circular oblong
chronological However,
significance
be attached
the mode of semi-subterranean significance, Some of brochs, rather radiating but the albeit
subsidiary
contemporary
on present,
evidence in
function; both
9.2 g-h)
IV
is
on or in
brochs In
in
few sites
investigated, that In
either
or recent sites
possibility
a very disposed,
or is
contemporary Anderson
with is
a few the
cases
evidence
a site
was reused
probably
LIA period;
at Carn Liath
shallow,
the broch, and there was were found outside but note a human skeleton on top of the scarcement (Joass 1890,104; Love 1986); at BA cist the recently discovered on the site: also Carrol places to overlie was found at various a series of skeletons cists the structure the (Joass in 1890,107-9); and around burials the and at broch included of Kintradwell (Ibid, a total At of 14 bodies last was found site 99-101). this a a LIA these
identified with
only
stones, As it is
- Chapter automatically these burial burials as Norse. in The excavator when the grave
9-
believed broch
that
at least links:
some of Another
was dilapidated.
was noted
on the neighbouring
Many such interments there at a depth of occur from three to four feet. The body generally lies bent, and the whole the limbs partly on the side, set round and packed with small slabs and stones. Occasionally there is a covering of slabs, and generally a paved circular space, about four feet In diameter, a few inches under the turf over each Internment. Cases of burial in short cists occur in the same sandy terrace ffoass 1890,100) basis of, description alone these bear, a resemblance rites date. of burial and (for This LIA example amounts date, in Close-Brooks to a in large area. the 1984), and may have of stone adjacent an
to
LIA
and Anderson
1903,43) (Joass
I. H), which in
Anderson
total
a quarter
of a mile with
name of
with
Triduana suggests
1926),
presence
in this
vicinity
9.3
SUMMARY OF
LIA
of
IA broch, pin of
sites dun,
is
wide;
we
looking fort of
evidence as well
lengthy for
sites these of
evidence
date, LIA
structural these
forms.
to
also, to be
assumed LIA of
despite Pottery
other
used
presence Atlantic
other
Province, rich
between 1983,5)
N Lewis
always
been
a ceramic in
excavations, In 1966
Orkney,
a sequence
9-
of
wares her
work
on which into
sites
although at
mainland.
A small
polygonal
7m across,
and is the
Norse rather
pins
ubiquitous
very to
archaeological in their an
contexts in interiors. of
brochs,
relatively activity
few in'number
W, there Loch na
evidence a
structure, at is the
example
scarcement example of
level where
(Topping a broch
1987).
another
can now be shown to 1956; Armit But Stevenson suggest previously millennium were being seems the pedigree wheelhouses by Barber the late first the 1988a; fig
phases
later
real
issue of
in the
that
assumed, AD.
LIA II
or even LIA I
probably
Their a
suggested Point
a LBA structure.
ma7 have produced BC1 (Barber in litt). Iron is Age, his divides broch
(1965a), culture
material
wheelhouses other
were devised
stage. to
that carried IV
regions.
He dates
wheelhouses
which
embraces the wheelhouse stage the late broch phase and all in the west, though not perhaps In Shetland. By the time the composite combs and pins of stage V -207-
- Chapter
9-
There
is,
appear, In the 6th centur7, or later, most of the brochs and wheelhouses were probabl7 In ruins or Ubid, 132). debris choked with occupation however, not sufficient evidence from the W to suggest are of consistently only later present are Province distinction and in than brochs, which In to 110)z with terms Skye are the
that the of No
wheelhouses exception material throughout satisfactory free-standing between aisled kinds, anything settlements associated Foshigarry at both as
culture,
wheelhouses Atlantic
virtually
brochs
chronological wheelhouses
as
recessed/subterranean
examples. associated with (Scott as addition, 1931) or the outbuildings 1947,22), MIA of 'various but never broch and at
sometimes
as in
and Callander
recent
form, at
detail,
wheelhouses not
went
through
occupation, modifications
albeit
necessarily as at 1960;
A Cheardach
Mhor (Young and Richardson artefacts later and at Bac Mhic Connain reuse of the the Callander of 1932) remains for the
In no cases primary
associated LIA
For example,
and combs were associated with Interior for (Beveridge metalworking a group pier be for 5 comb was found and Callander of broch the reuse (Beveridge
Foshigarry wheelhouse
on top
scant,
subject
unknown for and has not been thoroughly for LIA settlement of brochs pressure energetic (1948a, the in
-208-
purposes. Isles is
Nor is and
there
mainland an Udal, of
henceforth settlement
comprehension
Chapter
thirty only
years
under the
the have
of
reports
following along
migrated Three
(US) to
the
associated
systems,
stages
development
XIV-XIII
satellite revetted
hearths platform.
take
'ladybird-like'
oval
chamber,
a satellite on one end, a doorway hearth, framed by opposed revetted post-holes. Crawford describes this
on the
other,
platforms.
as a ventral
The third
with minor satellites, house above embellished phase sees the ventral Many of 41a). house (fig hence the polyventral [here polycellularl these by timber enclosures, later palisaded houses were enclosed at least going through important, which were obviously one example ten along replacements. the machair A sequence of adjacent enclosures these 2.4m not is strung out but no details of their ridge, At all periods are yet available. 'four by minor buildings, posters', hearths. Crawford Elsewhere in The latter that this have believes the chronological buildings square, is interwere with
slab-lined
been
recognised probably
elsewhere. Scottic.
settlement ventral
and polycellular date forms can as yet only be ascribed or later century, a seventh the date is very 08.1). In the case of Deer Park Farm, Antrim, (Lynn from two wooden uprights tpq of 648 AD derived precise -a 1989). Few, if any, of the Dark Age artefacts at the Udal can be
AP and Ireland.
None the less, Crawford (1986, from IA forms. shown to have derived forms as a 12) bids caution these new settlement before interpreting direct from D&I Riata in the early of Scotti result of the Invasion sixth century AD. Lane (1983) suggests a break in the chronological
sequence. A new type of IA settlement form has recently been discovered At Tungadale, upon investigation on Skye which may be LIA in date. it was found to be entered from a long of a supposed souterrain, a doorway in the rectangular building with one apsidal end, and
-209-
9-
not this
absence
of that
piers,
this in
form date in
is
very West
wags in
Caithness, site
may be LIA
08.8). the
least
calling structures
revision
fieldwork as
been considered
9.4
SUMMARY OF EVIDENCE
FOR LIA
SETTLEMENT IN
IV l-n) and to in the Inner Hebrides are rare in forts, Argyll, Hebrides largely are in also the to the main and types of
duns
brochs. being
despite
common
Outer belong
(RCAHMS 1980, the few, area. pre-Roman and These duns are
as are al
seem to
1987,131). of fortified
Brochs sites
constitute defined
majority
defensive structure, a comparatively small but not always sub-circular or oval on usually thick dryplan, and with a disproportionally exceeds stone wall enclosing an area that rarely 375 m-- (RCAHMS1971,16). A more detailed form and function discussion can be found of their elsewhere (ibid. not (Alcock and that Alcock 1987,132-34). duns in Argyll Alcock and Alcock but 134) estimate 29% of all had outworks
The walling outbuildings. of the dun was sometimes timberlaced, The earliest duns and on occasion this has become vitrified. BC, but the founded in the sixth were possibly or seventh century majority Alcock probably and Alcock (ibid, were built in the first that to 85% of third century AD. 131) estimate occupied in the vated exce , duns in
first AD, and that mainland Argyll millennium were 70% were certainly AD or modified after and many were built occupied, features 500. Forts sometimes share some architectural with duns, the distinction being their size, In a few cases forts as at Belfield, are sometimes but the Cullen Doon and Nin Skeig (RCAHMS1971, nos 159,162,165), have dates of either Very few internal form are unknown. structures In a few been recorded In either by fieldwork duns or forts alone.
-210-
not
their
function.
9-
with
the
walling,
as at DOn Tealtig,
DOn Uragaig
and DOn Meadhonach (RCAHMS1984.22). There is as yet no definite evidence for LIA, use of broch sites, except perhaps at However, there
LIA
II
on both dun activity of/continued in the LIA, to be constructed fort and sites, some of which continued as at Dunadd (Christison et al 1905; RCAHMS 1988, no 248) and Dunollie Dunadd and Dunollie (Alcock and Alcock 1987). are both high 1974). was reuse status lesser Peltenburg in the LIA. there sites, but there is also such being (ibid. 208) evolution With the structures work has evidence as that Kildonan or at sites of least In a slightly 1939; at to (Fairhurst
monumental 1982).
constructed from
remodelled Kintyre
Peltenburg Is no
emphasises one
how,
internal Little
can be associated
been done on crannogs in activity. this area, but at least one of them has been shown to be LIA in date, at Loch be shown to be contemporary; and many more will probably Glashan, was structure a rectangular excavated, only partially detected on the crannog platform (RCAHMS1988, no 354). A problem recognition However, Kerrera associated structures, Machrins 1988, no (fig of common to settlement the whole of the Atlantic of a Province monumental is the was not 1903,1-3; there to the Ritchie 'are nature. and
which
(Beveridge
(RCAHMS 1975,22) a souterrain, similar JNG Despite structures the 41f; the
activity domestic
and presumably
perhaps 350).
houses seen at both single-roomed (RCAHMS 1981) and Bruach an Dr4ein in scale and sites method of these two last exemplify
differences at both
to be remains which survive structural nature of the thought discovered Ritchie (1981,268) by the archaeologist. flimsy nature of the stonework at Machrins suggested little more than stances in for impermanent suggests structures, that although the sequence of hearths or on a number of and certainly course of the some houses occupation, be lost, Much evidence may therefore in the discovering such settlements prolonged survey are slight. -211Chances of
occasions. chances of
archaeological
discovery
- Chapter
reduced obviously fragile 1983), perhaps either It settlement be noted, in the not nature but a scale is In it greater or not this absence one of is which the of is enclosing confined at
9-
outworks. to later
is the
structures more of
Ardnave: here,
Welfare that in
certainly proportion
acute settlement
seems
was
not
monumental
nature. possible region, from (but There is to but nuclear generalise the diversity through enclosed), no evidence about in the nature of forms structurally or grouped, LIA can
forts
units
Atlantic each
Machrins retaining
own entrances.
9.5
CONCLUDING COMMENTS This survey which (1955a) has are rightly activity emphasised to be found observed, on many the diversity of the is sites, settlement IA in the for the types AP. As
and
patterns
Stevenson
evidence but is
seventh of
century or later both broch-orientated and slightly Brochs the LIA varies area of AP, II and reuse. from region more are it is
picture
and non-broch complex particularly mainly even to area, here here and the From role. and might were at at in than
perhaps
N and evidence on
of
But
from
study in
Orkney
and
Caithness areas.
settlement inception,
shares of the
more
other
their
brochs of the
Rebuilding
and
By the
sometimes level na is
(domestic unrecognised). Of
reuse,
but the
evidence the
wheelhouses
interior
interpretation
that was when the wheelhouse t7pe of structure Orkne7 already had an adequate stock of current, -212-
- Chapter
buildings
9-
fie this large CaPacit7 This leads that to the suggestion roundhouses]. the abandonment In their form of brochs primary in Shetland than in of use was a later event Orkney, developed the from and that wheelhouse ideas the dispersal from broch to old after the in had become well -established outbuildings Isles. (1985,64) more southerly of His view is by based some evidence is on the more assumption that period suggest were broch of (98.2). outbuildings time than However, the at post-date present Howmae
would
some suggestion study area, But the the W, but (1955a) and
there
free-standing will
wheelhouses reveal
undoubtedly
more comes
cases. from
used had a
the
AD, later
built true, In be
there
seemed have
been brochs of
shown to in
LBA predigree. surrounded arranged with in a gap integrated Sutherland, parts with of but the the in by in the its in
Orkney
were commonly
co-existed early of
creates area.
existed is
a few say
other
brochs
often
they
associated
domestic Here, as
agricultural and
Orkney
which
areas
sites
province.
subject all
discussion settlement
9-
the
province that
duns
and
forts
continued also
Orkney appear
perhaps monumental
Shetland
would in
be constructed
the LIA, in
nor were new types the AP, the such perhaps sometimes problem slight double, grouped
recovering single,
remains. units,
sometimes for
individually
enclosed,
At Buckquoy.
example, the walling was often laid onto totally would leave the former structure Structures enveloped absence or identify of the which by them, it are are is dug into usually rarely of the
preserved,
excavation precise
nature
f*f**
last in
two the
chapters
have
summarised
the
evidence derived
for
LIA a
heavily
on information
from
of the
picture subject of
exists part
The and combs found at many of these sites. This area now forms for Orkney and Caithness. An attempt thesis. is made in III of this of the profound last chapters. changes in the in these
chapter settlement
11 to explain record
the significance
described
-214-
PART III:
CHAPTER 10:
(ACCESS
ANALYSIS)
Chapter
10
PART III:
CHAPTER 10:
ANALYSIS
OF SPATIAL
(ACCESS
ANALYSIS)
AS AN INSIGHT
chapter
will
the
way architecture BC to
structured the
the
first
century arrival
witnessed in
findings
which
must therefore
be made. On the basis is put is of general At the investigate changing trends observed, the the a social of forward. used to these same time how social technique use of
space
and reproduced
relations.
10.1.1
THE EARLY IRON AGE Lobate multi-cellular an (such still architectural as Scord occurs In of buildings, tradition Brouster, late otherwise whose Shetland: Bronze fig have at Age, origins Whittle such These to in be courtyard lie et al houses, in the
the
Jarlshof cellular the where generally roundhouse taking walls with Jarlshof changes sometimes two sited period a
10).
continued
Shetland
large as thick
been
recognised with
71):
isolated and in
situations to exist
thinner II in
best
(Sharples material
many attributed
aspects to
population
-215-
Chapter
10
In
Orkney (Ovrevik
thin-walled 1985,148,
have and
been
Skaill further
forth)
where they
with
structures
roundhouses roundhouses
highlights continuedthe
that
development
from thinner of
to thicker
A series
in Sutherland
(Fairhurst
same number at
represent
a succession from
The slender of -structures on one site. these sites may be used to suggest a horizon construction The units, the in north the of Scotland is of prior relatively from both to impression whilst shifting have have Calf
roundhouse 1985,73).
500
domestic/agricultural and Kilphedir area. Thicker Orkney 1987 D, Pierowall early broch walled
evidence settlement
may suggest
within
recently
been
1979),
as a roundhouse Bu, Quanterness established for recently an EIA a further this of the these later At by a
clear that
structures Tofts
seventh walled by
century
Dockrill,
this is
(Archaeol
structures, is that in it
roundhouse,
roundhouse: roundhouses brochs, several broch-like Most ephemeral both thin both sites
pedigree interior of
features.
roundhouse
acquired
features. roundhouses outbuildings, and thicker were save agricultural possessed perhaps for a few
probably walled
function. souterrains
Many , or
structures -216-
Chapter
10
entered the
from of
their these
is as
increasing isolated to
monuments in
were usually, of a domestic from both from Crosskirk and that the Most probably
ancillary
an above ground in for Orkney: storage The chronicled roundhouse roundhouse becoming addition 1985,98). is to Haigh
of food direct at in
products At
and see.
resembled Shetland It
at the of
in
precedes increasingly
(Hamilton
later (Mercer
palimpsest 'mound
settlement not
upon mound'
one which
so common In Orkney,
same probably
here also.
10.1.2
THE PUDDLE IRON AGE Brochs represent a major monumental of as divergence native the that of period the out of an (cf broch (for
tradition defined
covers
structures in
differing terms of
best
considered to cover'
'social
practices
designed
(Scott
1947,
of
the but
of
this
form
is
not
Crosskirk, of
Howe and Dun Mor Vaul use the the fourth second
suggest
a broad
horizon
probably
concentrated
were enclosed by outworks. and Caithness When the respective sometimes incorporating a blockhouse. entrances it may suggest that the broch and outwork were conceived are aligned as a unity and the 'in may have been planned is the at the same time. for The maJority in positions (cf Fojut At Clickhimin activity, brochs defence for and Crosskirk, outworks and Orkney where there may pre-date Caithness not the are prime Shetland -217-
pre-broch of
situated brochs).
where 1982 in
consideration
similar
on the
A number are
Chapter
totally fortalice occur where in
10
Mercer sometimes
calls They
when hillforts
there
hillforts. 1986)
Auchmithie, sometimes
(Ralston
a roundhouse,
century
primary 28)
internal
broch 48)
fittings suggest
at that
Crosskirk in these
and Howe (fig a domestic had similar at features Whilst in the nature case casing need of the broch
known best
internal
that features,
many of Midhowe
were
differences. in
which
be late; of
Crosskirk
construction inadequate
a series
builders
can be divided
were
period This. is
contrast
non-radial
in phase 6 at Howe). little for there is the evidence radially Orkney, despite in the fact that seen common in an the each area. However, and side building of there is for
equally
evidence are
passage, on either
common, but to It is
and tend
range later
of Iron and
seen in Orkney. to
broch of
Artefacts Roman or
more
contexts
Chapter
10
have never
been ascribed
to
examples almost
of
radial
dating from
rests 1984),
Howe (Carter
Gurness Hedges'
Midhowe suggests
1934).
associated of because
contemporary
some of
furnishings about
outbuildings
cannot
and outbuildings
a unity. Contemporary roundhouses obvious and with more are the have which been some not so withlived fragile particularly to which
settlement
are
on the
ground,
associated
vicinity
of brochs
THE LATE IRON AGE I The LIA I marks the time when the brochs ceased to be occupied or this at use. manner, forms seventh as foundations of for the for broch example function time, Howe and
other
than domestic
monumental
outworks although continued The LIA distinctive of which on broch (Fairhurst that about I
Settlement
on the is
broch Often
novo elsewhere.
similar end in is
taken
to
century
artefacts least
The LIA I is
settlement as a fourth At
element
is
probably
present to
from Crosskirk
present such
sites, or fifth
extend AD.
back
centuries -219-
As yet
sample of sites
Chapter
10
is
too
small, to fill
outbuildings at Pool
extended unit
small
to have been occupied It form on is not but always sites the broch
possible
changes
reuse of a
general
Howe is
interconnecting is
sub-circular no evidence
sub-rectangular.
rooms of
a couple
de novo on some nonmound has revealed Norse halls Extra; and byres Hunter pers
broch
sites.
At Pool prehistoric to in
thirteenth about
centuries,,
centuries a probable
associated
associated site.
Neolithic, a
middens
no reason Indeed
characteristic which is
settlement.
unknown,
courtyards their
a degree, of'. complexity plans. It rectangular of Caithness. has recently With Sorms LIA. the in
immediately
been
recognised
certain these
oblong,
buildings
no structural distinctively
10.1.4
THE LAW IRON AGE II To date the most distinctive -220LIA II structural forms are the
Chapter
10
(figs on
41-42) de novo
discovered settlements.
throughout At the
primarily
were enclosed
by timber going
palisades, through is at on at
which least
significant, A sequence
strung present
ridge,
but
settlement
difficult
slightness
structures robbing
form has been recognised 1986, structure VII at Birsay from further as at the 21, it On site
on site ill is
at the is to ill
which Ubid,
interesting
perhaps
between have is
settlements,
constructed, the
to the one site. basis also of pins and combs discussed on broch the preference sites for part II there In of in LIA II. reuse settlements, Importance the there Caithness has been
On'the was evidently Orkney sites sites the we are which which MIA.
perhaps
selective
have both
outworks
emerges
be emphasised broch-sites.
PATTERNS IN BUILDINGS a means society. of investigating As of presented Hillier between are the below and relationship this is (1984), and the use a
gamma analysis of
Hanson
Inhabitants In by
inhabitants space,
strangers terms of
This 1978)
approach because of
particularly organisation
extreme of
function
-221-
Chapter
10
believe
that.
without to
taking
the
full this
Hillier formal to
but
by adopting
technique that
can be demonstrated spatial order There interpretation architecture, space Gilchrist architectural for brief theorists themes, (for ultimately (such
some value
some social to an
a social To
by analysis this
as JT
and Yiannouli
1988). circles
extent
and
Gregory from
Ceds]
Structuration work: is
behind-much that
of this
human1y-encl osed space social However, what remains. basic and his of Hillier are not basis 1986). of that observed of space degree
both
produced
by,
and to
produces
and reproduces
relations. Just'as
meaningful, needs. to
opinion might be
as to from the
how, , or
social
archaeological
wider the
colleagues
suppose.
using in
demonstrated
similarities interaction, is
emphasised
analysis. technique this technique of to access the of 'analysis, elucidation Fields of and of social
through
medium of
analysis
Discourse
now be discussed. THE THEORYAND TECHNIQUE A building is made up of walls which define a series of
-222-
Chapter
10
the
between to
which another.
may be
broken
by
effectively any
spaces
based different of
syntactic spaces as
relations,
terms
Inhelder
Norberg-Schulz
1971), autonomy, of
important of the
because of its and level its to and physical of space lowest inhabitants type of
application, very
exposition
relate and
vary to of
which culture,
as a conspicuous
be compared
on a similar
best where
with Each
the use of the example of floor of has space, been taken including as a dot that 73B). is a The access an (fig point of reach in outside 73C), the
ground unit Is
and
carrier), equally
stranger any to
By justification been
points
carrier,
values depth,
to
connect
two levels
separated an aid to
one level
decipherment procedures
of the
pattern, Buildings
and could
be combined pursued
quantification are
than
settlements
because
open
Chapter
10
spaces (Hillier
cannot
be
so
into richness
analytical in
elements
differentiation information are in defined. by a A all are three about needed. define be a cf the
carry
more social
part spaces.
diagram
showing
interconnections Is
analysis formal
map with
marked. the
intentions of as intention
many ideas
about
formal style) In
of space and the boundaries (the is purpose virtually (Markus Hanson of buildings) impossible Ced] (1984) of be
embraced. distinction Johnson interactive belief However, consideration The problems stimulating the period English the in
of
these
spatial
brought analysis
value, of access
to be appreciated. primary for most studies data of access analysis of create (led] some nd on on the that (albeit for The success edited illuminating 1982)
by Markus or by Graves
(1989) fact
medieval
alterations), In
architectural
exist
realised. of society,
whose construction for these are periods of values technique the relevant observed social
and relationships
fully
something
already
known of the
structure,
retrospect to do not
relate
accounts,
Chapter
10
studies a body
of of
the
populations
they
are
studying, which
but may
provide It will
evidence
other
evidence;
within
a clearly structure
understanding
and social
are related.
SOCIAL INFERENCE FROM ACCESS ANALYSIS -is of with suggested the that examination of for Hillier of access and maps and the In
techniques evidence
other
architectural at three
social
information
the
considered in at from.
appropriate
spatial the
complex Imparts
spaces or
realities and
visiting,
where
encounters - and
occupants
and/or
these and In
encounters
can
terms
importance
a space
segregation
integration:
be : symmetric 'In gamma two spaces a and b will to c, If a Is to b as b is to a with respect permeability that neither a nor b control meaning if a Is not to b as b to each other; asymmetric that the in one controls Is to sense 8, to the other from some third space permeability than Is there if one more distributed C; from a to b including passing independent route c (I e if a space has more through a third space to respect locus with than control of one is some there if and nondistributed another); through which any route from a to b must space c, 148). Ubid, pass' As which need investigating. This spatial suggests patterns network in terms of use or form it is possible labelling space of a result -225-
Chapter
10
to
observe Interior
whether
particular
labels
to
particular
syntactic locales,
positions
further. the most common the places therefore of a to (Barrett organisation Access
space probably
or settings
activity
the way that intervene some part the be considered can therefore as knowledge
organisation acting
discourse reproduction
social
same time
as the
be a tool of where,
articulating
architectural The information temporal but yet 2. patterns thought question, will
physical into
crucial.
and cannot
discourse
construction, time-space
is
of The
value
potential
paths,
of social of the
variant the
of of
of in
may be space
generic different
and which
can be referred a
undoubtedly
actual properties
of these the
rules). rule
generic
observed is not
a oneFor space
between
organisation boundary
and society. and control and What type status) relations and repetitive investment of
expressions relations of of
reflecting
physical
autonomy
sectors example
might
spatial is
order organised?
and
on which nature
occurrence an increased
of patterns
be representing is
acknowledgement If
of a code of symbols of
whereby authority
sustained?
-226-
- Chapter
10 -
formality
into
the
ordering this if
of
the
landscape
(cf
Boast
and Evans by
and so on. and Hanson, principle, of social This different number rules (1984), cause works forms
of Hillier or
basic spatial
organising
complex, that
organisation is because
relations, (ibid,
summary in as suggested
reflect in best
social of is
social large
variables:
integrated;
mechanical has no of
is most to
(Leach
1985), involving
discussion.
OF ACCESS ANALYSIS of a space a low ascribed kerb depends or on the physical It also it
ramparts. of
function area
an area; sleeping
obviously then
an enclosed place. of
where
with
hearths even
are if as
recognition period
zones, been on is
defined
another
might
described a technique
obvious
progression It it
upstanding furniture
'historic' In terms
justifiable because it
to is
spaces
creates
immovable. If we take 1987 D as an example then be some of seen more by the for the the recently archaeological clearly. excavator, the Each modern space In excavated EIA house of we 75B-C in fig see at Bu
(Hedges technique
this the
can
suggested as is
and in building is
adopted run
described
through.
usually
an area
-227-
10 through the doorways access 'service hearth section 1.57) lines area' (z); is it partly (as in may (7) is
enclosed 75Bb
with
access (W
either where to
kerbs walls.
therefore is defined
appear
be Jumping
divided
into
because of
north fig
distribution half
artefacts
to the
northern orthostat
space because the central space floor two distinct which are deposits
designed of
components, more or
because specific
to this
As there was enclosed, access complex produce there buildings points history
may be some uncertainty the degree to which it were valid, - there will
about
whether
or
not
relevant, be phases is
impossible
any form
of
analysis). notably
be phases are
pattern
on a virgin patterns
When comparisons
made of these
10.3
changes then
ORKNEY AND CAITHNESS, c 600 BC-AD 800 In figs 76-77 various maps with types Interior access properties areas. architectural The presented the lived or middle in of result in the' is types an of of settlement have been of access. is to be drawn as to
access the
extended space of
vocabulary
space maps of
in
V.
therefore the
spatial of some
Moreover types,
open
different
indicated.
convenient early
population be sited in or
thick-walled In small
increasingly as competition
ultimately pre-eminence
broch, certain
the 111).
residential
(Hedges
1987
-228-
of
roundhouse in scale
were
being
amount
signifying is almost
primary 1984,121).
agricultural
resources, of been
emphasizes
storage social
development than
would other
greater Province
and land
areas
because
maintain and
large
populations to
resources
discrete (1985,63)
which The
well-endowed
social
explicitly of power
would tribute'. of in
be implicit as
brochs
this
adding
extra
to
walls not
These
buildings and/or
warmth and/or
defence actors
but together
were this
authority broch,
the
or creating
on which
was the
have
social developed to
groupings, fully
fledged
muster units.
resources
social
at Gurness
of domestic infilling
groups, at
amalgamated. Quanterness
roundhouses conflict
between
lineages -229-
result
Factors
as
raiding for
or these
are
not for
changes,
could Pred,
be catalysts and society for sites example existing are relatively to be sites settlement pattern
was enacted, of
exhibit this
Caithness
new
maintained to
impetus 1985,10).
(Mercer
broch
roundhouse land-
and/or
thus
under within
powerful
The fact
proprietal
communities the
10). aspects, visual level, and domestic settlements use of some general (such (fig space. and spaces the which 76) The can fig
immediate
as Bu,
nucleated
deeper area is
Upper galleries are from the the may have Included which parts the original functions
deepest. storage,
spaces. facilities
Unfortunately least is
about or
always
number'of and
known. upper
storeys
nature it'
can never
be assessed
plans floor
us
(although
that
was the
forum). access maps, then and it the is more helpful abstract to break and them
larger they
become to
analyse. -230-
10 distributed (as Gurness, the inside interior, and outside rather than features. 'guardhouse' outside is world or to Cringy') fig are 78).
and On
outside, the
governing the
earthworks even in
between create to
'completed'
proper the
sanctioned. which of
ingress
to
both
outbuildings
Howe and Lingro 48) the entrance which large - spaces they in must
walling:
settlement here
entrance
enhanced
qualities a
and between
of the
narrow which
gained
next This
a passageway is at the
encircles where
(except be level.
at Howe). to Ringy
gained Access to
further
a slightly
deeper
some apartments is
the
as some If/when
an elaborate
doorway
tunnel, the
a series then
addition
guard
cells The
means of is
extending it
heightening
Once
inside
structure
encountered,
-231 -
which is
quite (the
case of
double
units
at Gurness.
areas)
non-distributed
fashion
to the outbuildings. point of view in to to of the have strangers, broch. the overall hierarchical to and the their is differences admission unlikely form have done nothing Therefore, role in its interior
layout
architectural
encourage rIngy immediate articulating where they have played From observations
system
stranger-inhabitant the existed. a similar the relationships The ringy role, component. point of the view
relations, between
domestic outbuildings
but
a greater
emphasis
the non-distributed
of basis
social of the
number
of
can be made on the with most Important importance, for the its double with from degree which
information. obviously
some similarities out its it the as the spatial were not spaces differ
because
domestic upper
levels
would
earlier
are
segregated, new relations established to emphasise and latter internal the the a outbuilding distinction cells factor broch
suggest founded
social strict
on which
required
observed between
systems the
inequalities
are of than
except Thus
and all
transpatial
other
words the by
emphasis
on spatial and
determined of
genotypic even
rules though
restrictions
encounter, -232-
each
physical
of is
rules
more,
arrangements and
positioning
and Hanson 1984,238). settlement because the they may feel share nature of those in of and were laid rather thus a a of the the the out than to a of
sense
of
whole in this
Furthermore,
repetitive
patterns
may be representing case their The use of spatially authority layout further of
a code of
symbols, broch
sustained
inhabitants outbuildings
suggest broch
that
these
under result
the of
authority
inhabitants, of
cumulative Their
outbuildings is a part
of
a part derived if
similar
values. than of
map,
Caithness Pytheas
cape
Orkneys
(1955,135) a
Orkneys. shared
seems likely
each of
social
groupings
common, although
unknown. a carrying a broch the size of capacity in of the Shetland. the land of about 100-200 Unfortunately and the realised of
extent
carrying
capacity
Orkney
Caithness,
number of
support.
could
muster
resources
out formal
and
circumstances, Early
settlements, of this
and not
equal
varied
necessarily have
of great
between elite
groups,
was in
interests
accommodate
to their more dependents them where they *Could be easily to land as the it have
accounted
with
access
main consideration is presumed that'all in the Ultimately a renegotiation authority authoritative longer continued known of been involved
(Scott
1947,1948a;
Fojut
1985).
inhabitants, production
there of
change in the broch was a relations, cultural (cf Barrett which resources, 1989). of the there
system,
of the
of certain symbols
occupied, the
although
seems which
record, date
certainly
can be differentiated The exact attempt of this it the to relate Yet this any there as
grounds not
Roman of the
from in
source Although
cannot in
Romans never
exercised
control
suggests
considered the
worth
conquering this.
supports
1985 casts of
to topple
suggested demands
brochs to
dependents, local
from the the renegotiation of relations was result The only broch sites which bases to more distant ones. power -234-
were in
where
social
elite
continue sites
power Fifth
presumably
the major
centres. general of the was experiencing withdrawal there not Pict the Is of the a time of
post-Roman earlier
England,
structure the
survive, is
applied
applied
Burghead, the
and
coastal
century of
fort the
a part
throughout fig is
was
of C-14 dates which from from series burials, correlation from Orkney the coastal , is are peak between the of
mainland
Province.
The data
about
area come
diverse
construction
the S of northern
Pictland,
(GU-1822,
N-328,
elsewhere certainly
(although sites in
emphasis
on access
and the
use of
aggression of the Picts against northern the late third AD onwards, century which were able to produce between them
components
of society with.
to be reckoned is
Very regulus
known of describe
the Orkney
term who
rex potentissimus
AD 565 (A
1922 1,56-57).
of a system
of
with
one, stones
or
possibly
presence 189).
symbol
throughout
emphasises area
was a certain
cultural
cohesion
throughout
(A Ritchie
seventh at
there
is
body of of
having the
individual, (Morris
discrete 132).
units,
such important
around
can be put
forward basis of
a particularly finds, than The island (Hunter mainland therefore providing not forms There evidence sites for be
importance
distinguishing
structures also as
interpretation
farmstead
settlements to find
typical
elsewhere
in Orkney in
changing
of
sites,
only
In Orkney the purposes MIA (98.3) structure 77) shallow units which domestic the
secular
ecclesiastical
Bradley
access
which LIA
some of of
fences, in
even terms
bound together
strongly degree
of access. walled
In spatial
difference
between of
structures
monumentality. In space, the LIA the is emphasis a trend changes internal less to external spatially and there
more egalitarian,
- Chapter In
10 terms this
on-site local
of
evolution
corresponds
eighth
century
developing
some of which
widespread appearance perhaps backed reference exactores, anno 728; worked also being
kingdom, of a state,
was
with
more
boundaries,
tribute
(Annals
Anderson
and it to
probable
such officers Taxes were Ireland and 1972; kings people tribute, derived
as the
throughout eighth
century
England
(Charles-Edwards Pictish These exacting which is thus state, Agents several (Tigernach to those part of Jackson or they
1986,167),
1961,402-3). were
enhanced
as agents its
between
sea-borne Annals c 729). mormaer Pictland, 102-110) officials revenues of the Birsay
centuries
c 682),
and which
are thus
northern
century
that highest
magnates included
rank
whose
a district. and administering depicted on the main warrior (C L Curle 1982, ill the this 59a).
whilst in
south
of
monumental symbol of
a material
acceptance Orkney of
of authority, these
sources
-237-
- Chapter power no is in
manner.
longer
regulated
physically
maintain
longer
expressed In than
enhanced
encounter
contributes
extensive controls
social
effect
constitutes level
scale That is
on access, of by the
the
long-distance king
was difficult reputed Orcadies resulted or attempts aggressive significance to sway Bede's of the to have delete from to or
suggested le
that
destroyed sunt
(Tigernach which
Bruldhe,
Skene
dissatisfaction
over
which
attempted
authority. In a later kingdom eighth Histor-y (Dumville century Orkney 1976), or ninth century to the by version of the (Davies Ecclesiastical Pictish century 70). sources area in be a part end king in the of
eighth 1984,
may have been consolidated The general is probably comparison absence of mention
of Caithness
a reflection to the
of Orkney
accessible
10.4
and strategically
placed
in the Atlantic
CONCLUSIONS
access
analysis, its
as described of the
above, relationship
as
specific from to
social
reproduction. were
a ranked the
society remote In
ultimate of the
authorities central
based
more Norse.
sources
authority
development
of Orkney his
the
power,
(1986) power.
forms intensive
where there of
was the
to organize from
mobilisation
commitment -238-
where over
was This
ability
territories
engage of
necessary
which
(1988a, refer an in
justifiable or
southern was
state felt
kingdom,
institution (chapter
whose 11).
influence
in Orkney
and Caithness
POSTSCRIPT Subsequent to my entitled particular in this belief compare the formulation A room of with the a to ideas view. expressed an in this of (Reid
chapter
examination Britain
reference Oxford
a discussion own ideas context their primary emphasizing down. relationships size and it results.
in two
is
useful The
very
differences in a
Reid
fashion, record that places and space which access more less plays
spaces and
emphasis In
spaces
structuring
society. the internal has width face a of of social the the peripheral main function. to with present multiple recognises The at the centuries one towards broch same the radial wall to On zone establish this basis between when he in
created
function that
(sleeping) roundhouses is at
similar no
(there the
evidence
secondary he
Midhowe
which multiple
compartments to consist
AD)
residential less
Interpreted
general
communal,
-239-
- Chapter structures. the lead result I fully of He relates political this to the
10 -
climate,
apartments
seems to at to
(pre-Roman with
originally
and aside
reorganised
my doubts period as
score,
when Reid sees a breakdown of contacts with (and within) power and/or the
traditional
settlement has
around to
a new,
stronger
recognise
significance
phase units
and of
relationship Access
between analysis is
settlement the
whilst Atlantic
emphasizing the
between
Province size of
settlement units,
so much in
in their
inter-relationship.
this
chapter
model to amplify
the the
of Orkney IA
EIA through
aspects identify
social
particular to distant
power was exercised. means by which the change from and maintained, practice the answer and land
which
undoutedly
agricultural
tenure
and the
-240-
CHAPTER 11:
- Chapter
11 -
CHAPTER 11:
10 charted
the
from
locally
based
power be II.
to Orkney for
distant,
Evidence conclusive
appearing the
as early
chapter Is the
a further might
discussion
of some of and
which
transformation with of
concerned centres
between Orkney and either Pictland who steep are and was
(Perth/Angus)
Bede made a distinction from those of the (HE 111,4), seventh by the Orkney centre is,
southern
political Ritchie
Pictland
1985,185-86). chapter the perforce, for craft speculative. speciallsation a history and the be With the
notable
exception
evidence made to is
organisation, which an Caithness. society speculation discussion contemporary unreasonable European (Alcock modify, the 1987a, refute so if of
I briefly attempt But this complex, study individual situations if the 90). or build is can
introduce be
evidence of to of
evidence that to
constitution
recourse progress
made
speculation Isles,
be seen wide
as 'a
barbarian
and will
by new scholars
power, and
namely
political as human
overlapping
interaction,
as organisations,
Institutional
means of attaining
The recognition
souces of power is
a means of which is
the
sources
tenure,
the
has been alluded the networks which 910.3. that were as is There the use of were
encompass changes which and political seen here. was incorporated or main historical) manner or in to
affected
instrumental available is of
transformations activity
Such evidence
military
no reason military
which
sources there
were
either
established
maintained,
occasions
when recourse
ORDERINGOF THE LANDSCAPE Throughout this are period changing agricultural which and In not will practice have of its chart the (911.2) remained social of the
and
land
tenure to the
inter-related
factors
creation, Evidence
which
of and is it
Orkney their so is
structuring easy in
social because
similar which
contemporary man-made
suggest the
to structure studied
Pictland) east
and puts
of kinbecame by had
based
which
clientship
played
model which of
organizing
was Orkney Ireland, early which in from than his the the and
dependence
in
military
support
as cattle, of
or warband,
goods or Whilst
speculation,
as
might
perhaps of
and in
as the
networks north,
AD, if
before. It
changes in Orkney and Caithness of the emergence of or work in However, and in clientship which expanding it is
the of the
conjunction
power leaders
local
leaders.
regions of
effective
authority
growth
limits
within
relations
could
whether of
events
and Mercia
eighth
century
Biddick
(1984,111)
has noted:
Gifts
of
to land the chiefs In granting rights perpetual and material of symbolic accrued a new source the base the of economy, which power over By assuming the their overlordship reinforced ... their to make grants own of land outside right Aethelbald Offa Mercian territories, and their complex lordship radical, underscored ... from As Anglo-Saxon systems shifted social to simple-state begemonies systems, and chiefly to the non-ecclesiastical gained elite access themselves, tenure, the structure of the estates documents through traced be and as can changed. archaeology, land such as these went in one direction resulting only, obligation in to the giver, and could only but extent be answered never of For in the and services
in by
a permanent counter-gifts
wealth
The territorial
acquires
own territories. family hands of a dynastic social stratification (Rousseau becomes stable
example, early
Ireland
increasing
(6 Corr6in
'inequality' of the
landed
property
1964,193,
In Anglo-Saxon tenurial
England structure
of these the
as land
was no longer
-243-
11 but land
or
rights
no former the
were now subsumed within means Independent were the administered these Pictland of
and
authority. in later
mormaer,
The
Scottish
to the
Pictish
Scottish his in
position an area
to that
of the
have been hereditary leader of a ruling texts officer to with the the
context
(clainne), another to
Scottish of
suggests
dues payable
the
mormser.
The officer
was identifed
The Scottish thane was a subordinate officer of (usually) the king, or of an earl, set over a lands, holding his territory of his lord's stated hereditarily in and charged with duties position of his thanedom connection with the adminstration Its the organisation, military and with of coZlection of Its taxes, and the adminstration justice Like the mormser, he was entitled there. to his share of the dues collected Grackson 1972, 110-14), a definition 65). 600-800 which'more system were or less by matches the the central view of Barrow Swedish in link state to (1973,64of c AD the 1986,
A similar which
can be seen In
husebyar order
planned
exercise
control,
settlement
suggested their
arrangement locally-based
loyalty,
church
and elite
uphold
system was in
which interest
gained
to tenure definition
restructuring of
defined
household
assumption What
these
changes
prescribed
one might
changing with In
centres terms
historical and/or
charters
these
investigated.
11.1.1
beyond, f ace-to-f transactions legitimising increasing 59). structures created In of the In of the
and was a new means of well as over a means of both time 1977; wider discourse
(Goody of
Giddens
transcending non-written
and weakening
church
had a monopoly
to their
the and
and ecclesiastics; 'on the in margins of some degree of groups or The to the this
Inhabitants
read
1968,4-5). crucial
reproduction
particular
a good example of
can
mid
and in
early 1988).
incastellamento undoubtedly
movement of played
(Moreland role
an important for
structuring in no of be Orkney
suggested be
Orkney of
there
are
However, Moray
early 'the by
notes late
mechanics kinship is
situation
structured
and regulated in origin'is circumstances pertaining survive documents by king from units
described
(Driscoll 1987,373). by clientship' davochs or petts 011.1.3), of either ascribed in the LIA. this (Barrow in 1973), the and it is described Book of
on this
Deer may be similar reasons of the why so few ravages tradition the never of
There
period,
including
(Hughes 1980).
dispersed
scribal
monks in were
1970,4). which of
contrary
1972,243) as the
manuscript subject it is
Book
insular Scotland'.
... on the whole the Picts expressive Driscoll administration of a standardized is that the
influence
in eastern
... However
Important
and
and control
symbolic growth of
kingdom
appear
synchronous, the
superior Inclined
resources.
Moreover display of
believe
Some scholars.
as Thomas (1963)
- Chapter
11 If amplified their was thus markers. of their legitimacy through control control stones new, these then the than with
emergence symbolic invented literacy, to a few. erection permanent ideological symbols; their
of in
symbols the
several
centuries
so date,
system
rather as
symbols
heirs
represented represented
de facto
by ther
material-resources position
They may have erected established or radically effect Thus in recording in both
need of
may have been. acting Symbol stones 56,65). spots of In are Orkney are there in
property
transactions.
5, out loosely
sculpted
broch
have suggested, resultant charters. these of land 11.1.2 , landscape Caithness it of is Their
was a change in the sources land tenure, with as, stones would brochs
of overlordship that
changes
association recognised
were still,
or associated
with,
a recognised
and population. Archaeological Evidence for the lacking. but formal organisation field of systems in with the occur Orkney, LIA in and
Field is
Early
none have been detected the et al known field 1981,60,62). and Taylor (Mercer and Fiscary boundaries in 59) 1971) systems
difficult
associate (Halliday
proven
There
exceptions Broch possibly 10). Caithness (Mercer known. early linear economic
(Fairhurst in
and at fig
Sutherland
1980,
Ubid, field
(Mercer
found pre-IA,
association field
and their
Orkney
there
are define
as such,
earthen unit
each and to
of the
access
soil
resources. rather
size private
suggests
relate
systems indication is
ownership,
(Lamb 1983b,
one
their of land
of which divisions,
several
reasons
of
IA,
LIA land
systems least
areas.
zones.
use may never land use has Subsequent aerial in this of such do
sites; marks
success
noticing
has not
been much applied. areas of IA land many may never Moreover, and more the recent
growth
as existed
between
prehistoric
under-estimated 11.1.3
(HallidaUt
al 1981,60).
evidence for the form of LIA land organization is Orkney a picture of the which provide place-names known in This is unlike any divisions system. so it district, primarily Bannerman the basis the LIA may be that It is suggested adapted. was related from 1974,141; of early of to the arrangement that the of was Norse land
evidence
derived
from
the
measure
known 1973;
eastern
Scotland B Crawford
church
organisation, pre-Norse
an older
system of unit of
as if
consisted
least
(Bannerman
-248-
- Chapter names, if by Norse -may have expression the Scottish five they in Orkney names of area
ever the
existed
survived). a free
necessary
hide and capacity analogous to the English When Bede referred to Iona as being 'an island of to English reckoning' term and/or that of Egbert). (HE 111,4) his source he was was an for LIA of
about
equivalent it is
suggests In the
Evidence
suggested
'highest LIA
scale taken
marked
estates these
over
entirety of Orkney in
(Thomson such
1987,27-28). as did
units
apportionment
they as the
could provision
and service,
navy.
described
Senchus
of 20 houses were grouped (Bannerman 1974). two vessels forms Itself. some suggestions A system of levy local the level by of tribute is
together
collection
all
an hierarchical on the
organisation this
administered representatives local not north authority since 1979.18). extended assuming been their the
and/or
southerly which
Pictish
some of is
estates,
estate, a or his in
hierarchy
estates England
times
(Glanville-Jones had by
southerly Orkney
and
to grant stone
social
relations elite
the political
have granted
inferiors,
transformation
of relations
was extended.
-249-
- Chapter
11.2
11 -
TRANSFORMATIONS IN AGRICULTURAL PRACTICE Driscoll (1987) practice of both has and kinship I shall and more its and discussed relationship clientship here of systems the the in the to general the Early belief nature structuring Historic that are changes concomitant Certainly of is to controlling the direct Study this one's one's through for the of of (LIA) in
agricultural relations Southern agricultural with there allocative control of of domestic a move must
Pictland. practice towards have rather material space between might of been than
argue intensity
production of clientship.
extended
a shift
towards
authoritative and
goods
commodities 10)
(chapter the
already less,
terms control It
people ultimately
-means of
physical to
necessary the
people,
became each
resources
individual more
but
inter-regional by changing
society and
of of a
clientship, clientship change agricultural would stuffs) would hides primarily and have or
and
this
case In of (such
most
their land,
providing might
manpower demand. of
services chapter
support one
arguments local
that
representative centres
example established
A Ritchie on broch
further
may have
-250-
possible
and Caithness
could
up of a number of individual each of which was independent, estates, but regulated by ties of obligation to king and/or regional overlord. Whilst these are the very each unit need not have been specialised circumstances agricultural specialisation In and social (1978) developing these factors 1. in in which developments be expected, within in with the organisation degree of of
production
might
a variable
a paper
organisation
southwest
settlement manners
record in
which scheme,
settlement
part
quantity
unsettled
and
the
alternative 2. for
sources
remains.
1981) faunal
(Dennell revealing;
Changes in
technology, amount of
introduction
of into
can be taken
productivity. layout of may integrated reflect between boundaries. the the practices. might indicate For a boundaries fields
absence
shifting
leave suggest
few or no permanent
and meadows, which Well-defined boundaries introduction use of fallow of as forms Different from an a
infield/outfield stablising 5.
Changes in
allow
of
to the degree
of
a sea presence
on the
either
denotes
use of
seaweed as manure
-251-
or
sheep
of byres crops, in in
to settlements
and in some quantity; may be seen structures to environmental (such the for
Changes
processing
storage
earthkilns. in
in milling possible to
equipment identify is
Orkney that
pattern land
quantity
in for
settlement systems to of
The in
recognise Scotland, at
the may.
of
to this
-0 (Hallidneet
smaller
enclosures
some places
al 1981,62):
the Our of structure and understanding development systems of agriculture of early ... and coordinated awaits concentrated more fieldwork, survey aerial and programmes of 63). (ibid, excavation Environmental important Differences information. mouldboard on the late basis part between There plough of at In whether b) found as in or its data in are scant, modern is this but usually have an increasingly research there the for designs. is more the
settlements
use of England
argues in
asymmetrical
effective
by man (as suggested early will the the vague, that in evidence not of least team of not Recognition the wags of degree
significance but to
much to
effectiveness people of It
a tool, order
supply is
manuring has
practice or
so rarely
excavated
sampled.
Caithness, are
and by byres.
elsewhere.
a movement
enclosure
may be related
to a postulated -252-
decline
- Chapter
11 -
the
end of Whilst
the
(Parry
1978,64-65; sites in
HH
some of of animals as
on brochs
the enclosure be
there
described cannot
byres.
processing there
be associated
transition,
may have been a move from underground to more above ground facilities. Albeit few earth-houses that storage are dated, none have produced evidence for a LIA II date. It can be suggested that upstanding ground In changes stones at Howmae (fig 57) represent the posts the for above
storage
units. there might pattern base; is little expect of future evidence to have for agricultural major due largely significant issue. field to and to for
transformations to a limited
land-holding. excavation
on this
aerial exist,
evidence also
future
remains systems to
relationship which
some of of
settlements environmental
are
presumed to undertake
collect survey
analysis; if
phosphate and to
activities to determine
place;
excavate
interior
cultivation
of implements
were being
INTRODUCTION OF THE ROMAN CHURCH Bede relates how in to the architects which was about Abbot Pictish to 715 AD the of southern Pictish king, seeking to Roman
Nechtan, advice
sent in
from
observance, Ceolfrith position the border' enforced placed apostles' those who form of of
a church for
complied, political a
insecurity,
Catholic the
direction 21).
Peter,
Subsequently, to the
'familia was
Iona', (A 0
converted
Roman ways,
expelled
-253-
- Chapter Anderson introduction Orkney 1922 of 1,217). this Before Roman church some mention in this the northern Columban nor save the Saint Columban in the
and Caithness,
an earlier
Columban presence
the
early is
medieval thus
possibly church
Historia
Life about
of
(Anderson are
1961), derive
Scotland,
believed
annalistic Bourke
evidence, (1983,466)
Howe and Burrian part of the for Scotland. eighth an earlier century 464). cemetery possible
and
an eighth Ubld,
slab,
Burrian
example
that
came may be late-Norse. there in of eighth that into they the in is no prearea. this
exception
these for
century sites
evidence probably
be excluded anchorites
Atlantic are
Several early St
dedications foundations:
St
(Brabster);
Cuthbert
A dedication century
(Kirk
of these to
proximity
dedications attested
phase occupation. There Columban are several in this reasons area for believing have the impact of the Adomn6n
church
strong.
11 East , it is the the Spine little Britain, for one 1970, in Yet by the within to some But
refers
visits there,
of
of
describing
who was supposed 12). making Adomndn seventh fifty extent Certainly
to have converted
northern
(Hughes
there is little widespread conversions does century state his East that there 12), the Mid, death of the
succeeded
monasteries inference
years to
of the
Spine
there whilst were undoubtedly . in seventh communities century Christianity activities Class II of was exterting Nechtan stones this is Bridei safe but bells the been in
and first
some Christian evidence comes with appearance documentary that the of and
the
Pictland
symbol
terms
time
conclusive in
seen in
Caithness
people
Orkney
evidence
presence, slight.
Another church
reason
throughout
the
importance fed
by one of in the
emphasize of Iona,
instrumental Nechtan.
introduction did
he probably there
Iona
Lamb 1988). whilst including the early of Britain may have some as Columban possibly the and the the the Caithness dedications we should their active (Hughes foundation were minor and Orkney, in Caithness, think of ...
spine
not
support 1970,16). at
Applecross,
century
Columban
cells,
established
- Chapter
expected 15-16).
church changed.
support
of a which in St
eighth
a product early
eighth with
century, in a St
above.
one hundred
Peter
traditions there In
are Curitan to
seem to
somebody called
introduction a St Boniface
with to
a famous mission some similarity Egbert parallels. an even over these might that
to
which
share these
contends explain
was involved
Lamb (1988)
of
grander IA
Early to
defensive or
again
settlements,
areas for
Ardbacha Tripartite
local several
according hill-forts
monasteries, cashels,
Downpatrick 1971,32-34).
earlier
or raths
The St Boniface intimate suggests island an awareness the fairly bishopric central
dedications
again Lamb on an
and Shetland.
time
of
11 the St
mid-eighth
century) known.
martyrdom
of
Boniface
The Juxtaposition
of a large
(otherwise relevant.
or Trolla)
and St Boniface
dedication
legend a holy
of St Boniface's virgin, St
Tredwell,
Whilst also
legend to
dedications
1987,10-11). in
Whilst the
revival St
interest
St Tredwell,
association the
two saints
may be presumed to be early. may be site in is a broch situated. buried opinion very at core of the to At St Boniface's under of likely the
there
structures the
Here,
Lamb,
centered the
and early
cross-slabs sometimes
applied
the mound. The representing Juxtaposition 1988). between monastic The the life P3Pa7 name element clergy places Columban is can than seen as as the (Lamb
'pastoral' and
used church
here with
their
prime bishops
and
around
been a legacy
from
seventh All in
1971,20), known of
be formed,
nothing the
sub-divisions. introduction of
Orcadian with
evidence for
points
a pastoral
eighth the
evidence episcopal
centre
Boniface's. system of
system
some similarities
territorial
parishes
-257-
- Chapter served in the by secular early Peter the earliest twelfth dedications structural dedicated which are item at can to be
11 introduced to Scotland
priests century
which
was otherwise
(Donaldson'1985,23). are not are of This with date is is a item so common. the At Crosskirk chapel, Peter known
a twelfth broch.
Thurso no 154),
(RCAHMS 1911a,
no 418)
now remains in
to review
the rest
of the In
Orkney
evidence
which
sites. is in
were also at
reused or or
non-burial Green,
ecclesiastical
known as Monker-house, an older for two this pieces from of the ecclesiastical establishment is of area in this the
name
pointing
long
cemetery
already is
Insular in the
which fine
metalwork
(1963,61), might
however,
because
contemporary graves.
have is
Norwegian
the placepresence at a
name and un-dated graves this Alternatively site. Christian ecclesiastical broch item 667). Class them probably of the church. examples Caithness I symbol stones derived There is site but secular associations has a church
might Harray of it
Overbrough, on top
Isbister
Ubid,
item
tend
to indicate with to
burial. via
literacy
intermediary and
no reason
post-date
establishment
Roman church;
-258-
- Chapter the idea for the II stones century reflect of them probably idea for their combine not
11 with
stems
from
southern
contact
which
burial
indicator
Examples
been
U16ster Stevenson
stones if the of
contemporary that
(1970,11) as it
Class of the
II
extent
Northumbrian
apparent
in the north. So far Roman-style noted sites. being that I I have documented church the therefore land to Orkney, for the evidence and this (after king, lords. of ways: its an possibly is often in introduction of a broch was Caithness, and have with church his
evidence by
suggest the
which
thus
in of
church
pastoral the
establishing it
ideology over
pro-state; of
church
had a monopoly
resource
matters.
in administrative may even may have been involved (1988) suggests that the Senchus fer nAlban may have clerics (Bannerman as Driscoll role in the and others (1988a the and b) appear to Even if, such suggests, of the the in for time of
an important as the
establishment
Pictland
inspiration
stones
the
manifested
stones
administrative at which the royal mark the point and the church has has been established system are become a political where power disputes arena the of royal through patronage contested -259-
- Chapter
(Driscoll secular is nobility in
11 1988a, 230) mutually interdependent, proximity Is as that the classic secular rich Other of secular sites, former of some site, or
were the of
a relationship of their it
which
expressed The to is
physical Birsay it
where
ecclesiastical. establishment such secular been former effectively authority much from class both that secular important attempt authority. pastoral consolidate form of to of the as the and
probable
encapsulated of Burrian
activity. with
these or
nucleus domestic
churches
chapels,
donated
endowed of
nobility, access
their of
equivalents, on
draws
repertoire
secular some
(Henderson to the may may new the as church. authority the the same far-flung
donated which
reuse
MIA or
territories, the of
enforce
through
power its
doctrine
needs
1986,302). yet
influence
at
the
the
and hence
as Nechtan,
ramify
the church
social and
tied of of
the to may in
years
1988),. being
suggest
moves
were
-260-
- Chapter land
11 In 878 when new Scottish the first to give time liberty after up to that after king to the he had
of
and
society. MacAlpin
nephew of
Kenneth which of
'was
church,
the Picts
worked symbiotically
the former
leaders
(Lamb 1988).
*ff*f
chapter
the its
Caithness.
conclusions. thoroughly
the Norse arrived removed takeover, state of Norse infra-structure a Norse Pictish system
Orkney from
Pictish,
authority. to the
was thus
adequate at
enough It
when
however
well-oiled onto
secular (as
which
the
themselves
and Normandy:
B Crawford
-261-
CHAPTER 12:
- Chapter
12 -
CHAPTER 12:
aims of for
this IA
namely from a
be seen record.
stem
archaeological these
be examined time
part the
of
and of
on empirical
examination
settlement, and
Caithness. of
important of to
- This,
analysis
record period
unfortunately
document
between On the
which was one of my original from the be extracted could research, the the settlement way in which if
several
previous
architecture model is
emendation, shift
rejection, based to
documents ultimate
MIA where
authorities
were
more remote
sources
continued to
This
model address is Is
undoubtedly issue large possible evidence these transition To a large other on the of
over-generalised, which
changes
a part to to
population this.
there transition
two models,
intensive
changes
which
examines
12 from our
of
Pictish like to
a similar
stance the
my own.
evolution I
am looking of
effect
these areas
view
Caithness, extremes
of Pictish
authority. I do not
My task
has therefore
how authority and reproduced. were exactly lines might The changing
was extended in
areas,
replicated
something the
have happened. penultimate chapters practice, brought Military, discussed tenure or could ways which of a the
and the
introduction about,
Roman pastoral changes which resources I have not the degree an attempt between
political,
down my discussion
sub-headings However,
potential of their
relationship utilisation.
these
and the
principles
underlying
model:
control
of literacy
control resources
of political
and adminstrative
2.
administrative 3.'
resources)
control this
of people is as
Once
workings which
understood, chapters'10
evidence
presented
ecclesiastics
nobility church excesses, under force alluded relations probably the local between of
natives that
or
outsiders. check
others'
enormous
system. its
Mann (1986)
some of this
historic its
network
literacy from
long-distance of I
continued which
revolve
around the
the
reproduction
social have
between land,
presented
synthesis from limited relationship excavation organisation efforts MIA/LIA extent world, the
of
transition
MIA to evidence.
one which
closely example of In
between of a and
church and
society our
Peterkirk), changing
amplify
picture the
practices.
should to in
be made to the
nature
Pictland.
coloured these
Effectively while of it a
other
more
should is
be overlooked. considering suitability the by only Whilst Province, the fact of Orkney that they stretch share fact is and are of that Despite separated identical. Atlantic
study similar,
more in I have
common than
more is
evidence, Caithness
may be too
specific it
exactly. have
because of its
communications
12 this imbalance in
scholars
and poverty
our understanding
and knowledge
of these
areas.
-265-
PART IV:
APPENDICES
APPENDIX I.
- APPENDIX I-
APPENDIX I:
The
following
list
of
Scottish
Iron
Norse
further
complementary on lists
data. Lavell
(CBA Newsletter,
119873,66). Appendix is followed of Ia all of In order (1978). of laboratory number. using included it the in
weighted
means (a-v),
calculated
name; the
dated;
have a negative is
unknown.
The standard
reflection is as given
by the
only
further taken
relationship
must
be undertaken of
data is the to
laboratory
sites All
both
and
year
high
precision
(Revision
argue
against the in
level
because deviation of
original
defined absence of
individual
APPENDIX I-
all quoted dates have been subjected to exactly the same to use 2-a (95% tend to prefer Most archaeologists be used if serious always certainty) should which values, and Pilcher 1983,60). misinterpretations are to be avoided (Baillie multipliers treatment. of these C-14 dates and the calibration are found throughout the main body of text, 3.1.3 and 7.2.2-3. Further discussion problems specifically of
-267-
cr4U)
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APPENDIX II:
- Appendix
II
APPENDIX II:
II format
details general
of
Iron
and each
contents the
described is of mm.
appendix can is
order
record
Unless
otherwise between
measurements
Cross
referencing
the site
number. and figure organic recognised cetacean, themselves pottery or (QUALIFIER may be made or ceramic silver, or
skeletal are
stone either
antler,
wood, are
either
comb case,
or pin-impressed
composite
thikcness the
(QUALIFIER
connecting fields
record
of
(QUALIFIER of the
classification comparison details decoration these pins head is pottery, the pins of
width
width
some exceptions
contents or
qualifier ring-heads
example
ring-head of ring-
(QUALIFIER 1),
where the is
pin-impressed
recorded combs,
under CLASS.
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IRON AGE
Sally
M Foster
VOLUMEII
submitted of
in
with Faculty
the of
for
the
degree of
Philosophy September,
University
APPENDIX III:
CONCORDANCEOF APPENDIX Il
BY SITE
- Appendix
III
APPENDIX III:
CONCORDANCE APPENDIX II OF
BY SITE
III
the of
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dating number
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APPENDIX IV:
- Appendix
IV -
APPENDIX IV:
The following and LIA settlement the form MIA/LIA Norse encircling II ritual I his settlement for
tables in the
by region Province.
the First
evidence the
for
MIA
Subsequently presence or
and use of
the finds;
subsequent
external by the
and evidence
use
presence me free
stones/sculpted am very
or ecclesiastical of data
E MacKie for
extensive
collection
on broch sites.
Evidence
for
non-broch,
activity
KEY: x evidence for 1-5 ? possible evidence for 1-5 - evidence for 1-5 not recognised I LIA I activity 2 LIA II activity 3 Christian/ecclesiastical presence 4 sculpted stone 5 burial RCAHMS RCAHMS1946 11 = SMR = Sites and Monuments Record for
Orkney
Benni Cull
FinyirhooseBrae Beaffeld Monkhouses
Unga Hole
SMR RCAHMS REFERENCES OTHER 1 2345 NGR ------ - - - --- --- -- --------- - ----- - ----- - ------ - ----- - ---------- - -- - -----290 2 NY619378 x x-x 23 MY to - x1 ? ---162 - 968 NY671217 NYsle 189 ? ---1098 761 ? ?--MY 540 220 206 ? ?--NY686405 329 ? ?--NY674 163 931 1001 NY676 159 ? ?--1001 935 NY671 169 ? ?--959 NY532091 ? ?635 7 616 MY 271 ? ?--968 -74-
- Appendix Pirk Hall IStrooness How IStenabreck Wave of Nesthouse Kirk of Howe 3HOVAII ISaevar Hove laroughof Birsly Buckquoy ISkaill, Deerness Breit Ness Red Criig Gililee St Peter's Queenifjold fireens Ness lWestness NY312269 761 MY 513 NY660 392 NY77 52 NY279 256 NY493530 NY758522 NY246270 NY239 285 NY248282 NY589064 397 MY 332 NY28 24 NY75 45 ND 908 470 MY 264 372 NY541 031 NY544093 MY 29 37 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? w w ? ---1 ? x x x x ? x ? -?-xxx -x-? -wxx wx -x -x w-
IV 1575 216 103 1677 812 218 1663 1669 468 296 1816 1192 le 1102 1543 28 158 26 530 195 Figs 57,66f 40 I Fig 40 25 Figs 41c, 421, o Fig Alk 810; 842 651 Fig 4IJ Fig Alb
x ? x x x
Evidence
for
activity
on brochs
in Orkney
KEY: X evidence for 1-9 ? possible evidence for 1-9 evidence for 1-9 not recognised broch passageway does not completely encircle 5 outerwall earthworks as opposed to substantial # radiating outbuildings A symbol stone/sculpted stone I Roman artefacts 2 MIA/LIA I artefacts 3 LIA II artefacts 4 miscellaneous-non-Norse burials 5 Nor se burials 6 external defences 7 passageway encircling broch 8 pre-Norse outbuildings 9 ecclesiastical use of site RCAHMS RCAHMS1946 11 = SMR = Sites and Monuments Record for Orkney
'-, I
SITE ---- ------ - ----- - -- --Burriln 2 Netlater 38roch Ayre of XL&aaness Deerness 38roch Borvick of lerochof Burriln Burray East Hove Lingrow
KGR - -----296 NY 183 323 NY 174 NY 013 470 613 NY 379 58 NY 06 223 NY 167 763 MY 514 NO 988 490 NY 109 275 NY 088 435
1 234 5 67 89 SMR RCAHMS REFERENCES OTHER ------ ---- - --- -- - --- --- -- -------- ---- -- ------------------ --------- --1600 14 Fig 448 x x 1-x --1638 13 Fig 44C x x ?-x -?? ??? 360 Figs44A,41g,a 87 -- x #180 x-x -- ? ?x 629 x--- I ?1237 679 Figs42b,450 x- ?-x x ?42r 217 201 Figs46C, x x xx -x x-862 Fig 468 ? xx x-x 1495 921 Figs411,48 # xx x-? X 1534 406 Figs48-49 I x xx --- 75-
- Appendix XMidhowe SGurness NY372 306 NY381 268 NY352277 NY685 421 NY713436 NY251 129 NY250 028 NY48 52 NY326 283 NY224092 NY391 127 NY289 154 NY254 268 NY270 152 NY496 509 NY361 141 NY237082 NY283222 MY 399 187 NY44S492 NY250 028 NY375 297 NY540 210 NY508059 NY323 193 NY443211 NY42S494 285 NO 879 NY301 156 No338 890 NY276 176 NY414 272 NY401 229 NY642392 NY449330 NY475 100 NY514090 NY690214 NY432429 NY58 04 NY616242 NY400 274 NY632301 NY308 168 NY378 171 NY426 199 433 NO 888 425 RD 940 NY400274 493 MY 497 NY27 09 457 NO 854 NY501 163 NY318300 NY388 155 NY282 103
IV # # A - - ? - x ? ? x A x x x ? I x 631 1183 639 109 276 105 847 641 1459 575 1270 1675 1270 850 553 263 261 458 460 941 379 520 266 920 322 680 11 677 $23 Fig 48 Figs 42a, c-e. 48,66d Fig 44J
- - xx - x xx x 1 x x x I 1 1 I x ? 1 x ? ? ? ? ? 7 -x-x x -I x K-
Burgar IColli Ness Veterkirk 1, Sanday Castle Bloody Green 2 Hill Ut Bonifice's Vinquin 38reckness Ingshowe Burrian 5 loxtro Stackrue ISt Tredwell'i gNess Ork of IHillock/Finstovn Strainess/Warebeth Taft St Mary's Kirk Knollof Skulzie Green of Quoyness Hill Knove Swandro of 38urroughston Have Lingskiill of 3 Burrian Ness Boray of IK, of Queen Howe a' Skeo The Kirk of Cletton Hill of Hestifieo Scarritiing Wave of Hunclett Tingwall 38ackaskaill Taft a' Faraclett 38erstane Vowieof the Manse Lamb Head Unove Burristae of lQuoyboring Hillock of Baywest SDingieshave Green I Hill Knove Burrian of Redlind
Knowe Dishero of Weeas Castle IHowe Hoxa of Knove Burrian of Rastle of Bothican Buof Uirstan I Cairn a' Flaws ISteiro Iverron Chapel Knove Cummi Have
I ?
! ? 1 ? 1 ? 1 ? I ? 1 ? ? ? - - - - - - - -- -, - - - - - - - - - - - --------------- 76 -
? -
1087 777
323 492 1461 940 1714 15 667 300 1072 105 379 579 Figs 46A,66c 1123 778 627 2 1633 12 1758 313 690 1043 1933 1009 1615 23 1944 1008 1297 681 516 555 711 268 100 159 Fig 45C 611 554 1545 405 626 3 419 947 Fig 44E 718 1034 1177 133 949 1 625 948 156 1603 21 346 576 1774 265 Fig 458 1836 816 Fig 44F 1791 815 551 514 Fig 440 522 853 $57 708 1077 779 260 321 574 1359 872
- - - x x x x x ? ? ? ? ? ? x x ? I ? I ? ? 1 - A - A - - - - ? x x x x ? A
- Appendix NY549061 NY511 159 425 NY 209 NY464447 NY363267 NY252 165 370 NY 307 591 NY 074 NY391280 NY712380 337 NO 900 NY372303 NY313 179 NY650287 NY337287 NY499400 NY343 147 485 NO 987 NY716425 314 NO 909 NY660392 318 191 NY 433 NO 962 NY291099 NY412219 NY27 09 NY631370 NY772434 NY653411 NY693399 230 197 NY NY353050 NY265 138 NY436093 306 162 NY NY263234 NY400248 NY213052 424 NO 940 NY485 158 NY653275 NY528041 442 NO 833 31 17 NY NY665454 NY308200 NY274202
IV 1167 1070 1766 1186 1262 523 1150 458 150 1956 475 1636 128 650 724 579 1779 348 1952 103 1632 1764 98 279 328 344 1256 1437 1488 1533 1602 1730 1763 1912 1792 1107 122 16 1871 1649 142 1594 1219 624 780 270 1035 262 678 557 628 SS6 Fig 441 438 1018 652 139 960; 974 257 1031 350 861 Fig 44H 439 1007 158 20 $63 ?892 269 160 437 475 682 486 939,943 430 22 16 264 380 Ole 806 980 648 851 138 182 19
lEye's Have lHowe Hill Hall of Rendall Hodgalee Knove Stenso of Lochof Cluely INarth Hove Riggan Kaii of Viera Lodge Wasso Green Hill of Scarton SouthHave Overbrough/Harray Peterkirk 2, Stronsay Peterkirk 3, Evie Peterkirk 4, Vestray Lochof Wasdale BurrayVest Newark Green Hill 3 Fire How Havan Brough Island Hunda TheCairns VassVick Buof Cairston2 Croosof Nebister Buryan MirygarthHouse Houll Knove Verron of Hillock of Breakna Knove Redlind of Warbuster Knove Gullov of Knove Skogar of Ness Woodvick of Brough Braebister of Little Have Helliar Hole Hunton Clapston
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----? ----? ----? ----? ----? ----? ----1----? ----? ----? ----? ----? -----x -----x -----x -----x -----? -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Summary of non-broch,
pre-Norse
activity
in Caithness
- Appendix 12 NER SITE ------ ---- -------- --------------------------------St Peter's, Thurso NO116686 - -? St Peter's, OlgriabegBurn NO111536 - -1 St Maddan's, Fresvick 37 NO 67 - -? St Drostan's, Bribster 2 NO 6-1 St Drostan's, Canisbay ND34 72 - -? 06 St Trostan's, Westfield NO 64 - -? St Trothan's, Olrig NO18 67 - -? St Ciaran's, Halkirk - -? 32 NO 50 - -? St Cuthbert's, Hauster 383 NO 508 - -? St Ninian's, Head Vick of 29 NO 56 - -? St Outhac's,Kirk of Ross 365 NO 51 - -? St Fergus,Kirk of Wick NO 56 - -? 36 St Tear's, Shorelands 24 NO 36 - -Lybster 339 NO 584 - -Birkle Hills NC952651 - -Sandside Latheron NO198331 - -NO12S687 - -Ulbster Reay NC96 64 - -348 NO 549 - -Links of Keiss 311 NO 407 - -Vatenan 348 NO 549 - -Ackergill
IV -
REFERENCES OTHER RCAHMS 345 --------- ---------------------------------------------------418 -154 -xxvi -57 -23 -159,175 -317 -176 -593 -xxvi -592 -493 -595 -297 x577 x406-7 x1959,40 Stevenson 299 x444 x340 x587 xficurlay 1984 538 xx 1984,7 Close-Brooks xx -
--
Evidence
for
activity
on brochs
in Caithness
in A preceding that the relevant 4 indicates site was visited About 37% of the broch sites in the course of this research project. but these include the best preserved and those Caithness were visited, and evidence for LIA activity. with excavated outbuildings Key as for b RCAHMS= RCAHMS1911a SITE ---------------------Bovereadden tEverley lNess Fresvick Sands Waster Crosskirk lElsay lHillheid Vester lKeiss Vest INybster lKeiss South Green Tullochs OTHER 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 RCAHMS REFERENCES KER ---- -------- --------- ---- ------- ------ - ---- -- --- --- --- --- ------------ ---------------------254 KO 635 - 22 - - - - - -x 057 Biley 1984,CAN 370 NO 683 xx - - - - - ? - 36 Figs fle, 62A 381 NO 667 -x - - - x - x - 33 074 Bitey 1984,CAN 060 Fig 58F; Batey1984,CAN 376 NO 676 x -3 x - - - -? Fig 598 323 NO 566 x ? ? x x x - 507 -x Figs 59C,60a 025 1 x ? x ? x X4 347 NO 701 xx 327 Mercer1981,MON Fig 61C;Batey1984,VIC 152 387 NO 520 x - - x - I - 521 -Fig 61A; Bitey 1984,VIC 161 376 NO 514 x - - - ? x - 520 -Fig 59A. Batey1984,VIC 120 ? ? ? I - x ?a 513 ' 338 NO 583 -Fig 620; Batey1984,VIC 108 349 NO 615 x ? x ? 517 x- - Figs 42k, n, p-q, 618,66g 370 KO 631 x - x - 518 x- - Bitey 1984,VICo9l Fig 62C;Bitey 1984,VIC 103 354 NO 612 x - x - 515 xFig 580, Mercer1981,MON 348 326 013 ND 696 x x -- 78 -
- Appendix
Virrows
BurghRuadh Murkle 3Achavir AchyarisdalLodge 48urnof LatheronWheel Dale2 301dStirkoke Halcro Achies2 Hay Thruester Hill of Yorks Achingale Ousedale Burn Brounabon t0unbeath ILatheronWheel Kettleburn Castlehill tscottag lHouselCairn ISkirza Read I IWesterdale AcharoleI Tulloch Appnag Thing's Vi OorvalI -, IWatenan North Ballachly Rheaullen 18ruanI ITiantulloch Toftgun Borgue $Upper Tulloch Bada'Choilich Tulloch of LybsIer Vatenan $Loch Iminerl Sallantrith Berriedale I Cairn of Huester CassterI Ciester 2 Golsary Hal of Durin XSserril 2 ITulloch Turnal Warehouse 3Achnagoul AchbuiliganTulloch ISmerralI Achow IAchorn Caester 3 Cnoc Donn Greysteil Castle
308 NO 440
x-x-
116 NO 285 162 NO 688 262 ND 370 983 NC 647 No187 326 130 NO 523 NO 493 328 NO 612 239 140 ND 551 142 NO 606 ND 451 332 290 NO 626 230 NO 566 071 ND 188 323 NO 435 155 ND 304 176 NO 325 349 ND 519 NO 687 193 257 ND 570 ND 596 119 394 ND 685 133 ND 510 228 NO 517 212 NO 3S9 081 ND 682 No327545 318 NO 415 442 No192 153 ND 310 310 NO 395 152 NO 352 280 NO 424 124 ND 271 101 ND 240 027 NO 695 317 NO 412 156 NO 346 144 ND 307 103 NO 249 3S3 ND ASS NO 4S2 2S2 256 NO 456 206 NO 375 195 ND 636 177 NO 340 090 NO 229 303 NO 413 163 NO 323 989 NC 657 178 NO 338 230 NO 362 136 NO 305 No209610 140 NO 533 180 NO 417
-79-
?x? ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ?xx ? ? ? x
xx
Fig CE
Satey1984,LAT313 Fig 64C;Mercer1985,WAR 230 Batey1984,LAT261 Fig 61F Mercer1981,MON 530
x? x x? x ?-xx
Fig 588
Batey1984,LAT239 Fig 58A; Mercer1981,MON 461 Fig 628 Fig 63E; Mercer1985,WAR 184 elley 1984,DUN 018
Fig 63Fl Batey 1984, LAT 218
xx xx XX xx
XX
xx
XX
xx XX xX
XX xx
Fig 59D
Mercer1981,MON 337 Fig SSE:Mercer1985,WAR 177
XX x?
x
x
x? x? x? X
X
x x? x
x ? ? x x x x
- Appendix
IV -
Knockgliss I
Knock Urry lKnockinnon INybster Old Hill of Dunn I Scirfsferry Scribster 2 Tullach MarI Tulloch of Steaster twatten lWesterdale 2 Tullach of Achivirn Coghill 3KeissNorth tUpperLatheron lUsshily Tulloch Auchunabusi Berriedale2 Barrowston Roster 38allentink I Wester Witten IThruister Little TulachGore Tota in Dranndain ; Lybster Achkeepster lAcharale2 lHespriggs Tullach Nor 2 Tannach Gansclet Brieside Tulloch Occuester
ND 636 055
NC984663 ND176311 NO162528 No204561 ND256742 NO 697 087 NO149494 NO 654 040 NO 540 241 NO130519 NoDes596 NO 571 267 No354612 NO182317 ND208355 NC994646 ND115233 NO 436 329 NO 399 266 NO150313 ND229550 NO 456 338 042 NO 571 ND037579 253 NO 360 NO167517 231 NO 524 3SI NO 471 NO146498 330 NO 474 336 NO 444 050 NO 670 No269356 NO 701 377 222 NO 696 208 KO 674 221 NO 704 324 ND 415 NO 635 049 KC898640 280 NO 424
..
...
xxxxx-
117
349 216 96 461 62 429 108 344 469 221 112 469 516 217 221 351 205 510 191 261 464 389 391
Satey1984,UIC183
Sitey 1984,WIC 192 Mercer1985,FOR 173 Sitey 1984,LAT232 Fig 640; Bitey 1984,CAN 044a Mercer1981,MON 552 Mercer1981,MON 547 Mercer1981,MON 657 Mercer1985,WAR 194 Mercer1985,FOR 171 Mercer1980,BIG27 Mercer1980,TOF 2
Evidence
for
non-broch,
pre-Norse
activity
in activity
in Shetland
Key as for a RCAHMS RCAHMS1946 111 = SITE Hillswick Sands Bracon,Yell of Sandwick NfiR 282 NU 770 53 NU 05 HP62 02 12346 1! -x---x--x -80RCAHMS 1388 1726 isel
- Appendix
IV -
f Evidence 1985,81-84)
for
activity
on brochs
in Shetland
(Refer
also
to Fojut
SITE NGR 1234567 ---------- - --------- ------------- ------ ---------- - ---------Clickhiain KU 409 xxx--x464 Jarlshof NU 096 -xx--x399
Aith selsont Burraland HU 435 515 HPSse006 NU 232 448 HU 958 557 NU 424 521 253 HU 448 RU 408 157 KU403 113 HU 778 438 KP539 051 HU 780 472 416 198 NU 213 HU 793 HU457237 NPS68029 -----x-----x-----x-----x-----x-----x-----x-----x-----K-
69 RCAHMS REFERENCES OTHER ---- - ----- --- ------------------- - --------------1246 Fig 67 x1149 Fig 68 x?111106 1143 1397 1146 1148
1115
Burra Weis
Cullingsburgh Culswick Dalsetter EastshoreFuglaWeis Greenbank Holeof Copister Levenvick Lochof Houlland Mausa Snabrough
?!111-
1716
Vatsness
VestSandwick Burravge Housabister Aithsetter Brough Halt BurgarStack Burland Burraland Head Brough of Houbie Sound Noss Sie Ereck Stoura Tumlin Underhoull uadbister Brough Lodge Brough Burrian
Kannavoe Syabister Gossabrough Clevigarth Feil Southvoe sousta Clutlie
175 NU 507
HU440888 518 793 NU HU 578 487 447 NU 304 566 HU 059 HP611 143 NU 361 447 , NU223497 NU 860 446 620 HU 904 HU528 410 210 HU 781 208 152 NU 345 HU 539 HP574045 447 HU S04 Sel 927 HU 519 HU 412 NU477s45
HU240 807 HUs39 627 HUS34 834 HU407 130 HU629 901 NU401 149 KU223 574 HU404 tal
-----x-----x-----x-----x-----x-----x-
1????-
?7x x ----------
1609
1722 1745 1282 1141 1548 1544 1247 1607 1721 1212 1085 1361, 1674 1547 1499 1239
-x - ---
---- x .--
1107 1308
1343 1342 1718 1147 1211 1142 1610 1145
-----
1!t?-
---------------81-
---
--
----
1596 -
-------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------
Inf ield Lochof Durraland Musselbrough BarraHolg Burland Burwick Gord Heglibister Hol&of Senston Islesburgh Lochof Brov Lochof Kettleiter Mail Scousburgh Skelberry Vidlin ClodieKnove
454 RU 748 NU344 7S0 KP589009 386 HU 458 NU 370 390 HU 406 390 HU 295 438 387 NU 498 NU S37 463 338 HU 692 HU383 157 HUSll 806 NU433278 377 178 HU HU 393 166 HU 665 479 HU441293
----------------------------------------------------- -----------
1116 1387 1582 1529 1535 1528 1150 1501 1283 1354 1153 1719 1187 1190 1151 1306 1750
Evidence
for
activity
on brochs
In Sutherland
Key as for b RCAHMS RCAHMS1911b = SITE ---------------------Uarn Uith lKintradvell Icarrol 8ackies Clachtoll Achcoillenaborgie Allt an Ouin I CarnOrin ISkelboVood Skail HAL 39 Castle Cole Castle Spynie' DunCreagh Scotsburn Housel Areadale Burn Coill Achi'Chuil Ounrobin Vood
Eldrable
667 1234 NGR ---------------- ------------- -------870 NC 014 x--x -x929 NC 081 -----x KC$46 06S ---x -xKC835026 ----x037 MC 278 ----xKC714594 ----xKC72457S ----x942 NC 122 xNC783933 xKC720473 ----x891 NC 575 x-Ime795 134 x---541 NH 420 ----- XKC606356x w-m 715 NH 762 -x799 NC 627 ----x659 NC 382 XKC841018 ----xKC983 182 x-82-
A9
RCAHMS REFERENCES OTHER ------- -------- ------------------ - ------ - ------ ---270 #Fig 69a Fig 69b x ?A 467 27 x 1 272 7 ? 183 ? 1 182 ? 468 ? 106 -175 -190 176 271
309
W 25
Mercer1980
----
- Appendix
IV -
Killin
Kilphedir Dun Maigh ni suisgill Dun Viden Achanets 2 Allt in Ouin2 Alt VChair Nhoir BargieBridge Dalchork Cheilay Dun Eist Kinnauld 2 Kilbrite Dalchork Achaneis I Dun Carnichaidh Kylesku TheBorg Duchary
NC 076 867
NC 994 189 $52 NC 530 KC888 253 NC 519 727 NC 027 469 kc 810261 NC 922 189 NC 587 670 NC 573 112 NC 514 720 NC 014 745 MC 099 823 KC573 112 NC 025 470 NC721527 NC 341 217 NC 509 899 . NO 05 es
--------------------
26
307 527 308 181 51 313 312 185 394 179 479 24 --W ---
Mercer1980
50 ISO 168 186 Mercer1980 28 215 387 314 174 392 184 Mercer1980 Mercer1980 Mercer1980 Mercer1980 Mercer1981
Dun Aliscaig
tOunbeith Dun Phail Feranich GruaMore Sillachidh DAL 256 LEO 15 I HAL 2 HAL 7
KH 868 657
NoIss 304 NO 139 015 844 NC 273 611 NC 370 549 NC 092 NC 591 104 NC 246 134 NC 523 894 892 MC 533 MC 610 697
------------
---------------------------------------------------------------ft --
Evidence
for
LIA non-broch
activity
in Sutherland
SITE ------------------60SIpie ,
RCAHMS - ---------------------
- -------------------------------------
Evidence
for
LIA non-broch/-wheelhouse/-dun
activity
in the Western
Isles
Key as for h RCAHMS RCAHMS1928 = SITE 123 OTHER RCAHMS REFERENCES KGR ---------- - ------ - ------ - ------ - ----- - ------- - ----- ----------------------83-
- ---------------------
- Appendix Udal(US) Boverly Vallaquie eerneriy Pibbay NF$25 783 Ne1 9 KF864 754 NF909830 NF7 2
x x x ?
x x ? - x ? x x x x x X x x x x x
Sleit, Smig
6eirisclett BeilachBan Berner& Sands 6alson Kildonin Rudha Chiisteal Sithean Nor
MG 00 59
NF767 753 NF78 76 Ne1 9 ka 437594 NF726286 NF87 76 278 20 337
Borvesore
Howsore Knap OldCittlefold Skellor SlocSabhail South Vist Tati Ounaig Dun Toloian Gress Lodge Northton Unival Tungadale
Ka1 9
NF75 36 MF77 76 XF806 756 NF8 7 NF7 3 KF772760 NF820 749 No493418 NF987902 KF800668
- ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? -
Evidence
for
activity
on broch,
sites
in the Western
Isles
KEY: I= presence of Roman artefacts 2= presence of LIA I pin/comb(s) 3= presence of LIA II pln/comb(s 4= evidence for LIA activity on basis of pottery artefacts 5= structural use of site evidence for prolonged RCAHMS RCAHMS1928 = SITE ------------------Dun Ardtreck Dun Fiidhiirt Dun Beag Dun Cuier Eilean Olabhat Lochna Berie Dun Carlowly
Dun8harabhtt
(after
12345 NGR -------------- ----- ----------------335 NG 358 xx--233 NG S04 x---Ne340386 -x--? 664 MF 034 --xxx NF750753 --x-x NB103352 --x-x N8190412 ----x
N8 099 353 -? ---
RCAHMS OTHER REFERENCES -----------------------------------------------------484 608 479 Fig 70a 441 180 69
--
68
72
-84-
on Wheelhouse Sites
Key as. for j RCAHMS RCAHMS1928 = SITE NGR 12 3 4 ---------------------------------- - --- --- - -- --- -BacNhic Connain KF708762 xx x x Garrylodrach NF772742 xx x ? Garrylodrach NF772743 -x x x Foshigarry NF742 763 -x x ? Dun Cnoc Cothdhalach NF770741 -x ? ? a Sitheana Phiobaire ? NF734214 -? Bruthach Tigh KF734207 -? na I Cheirdach Mhor NF75 40 -x x Bruthach Sithein NF733 738 -a x x Clettrivil NF749713 -- x Eilean Maleit NF772742 -- ? Machair Leathann NF80 75 -? Dun Scurrival ? NF695081 -OTHER REFERENCES 5 RCAHMS - --------------- --------------------- -...... 271 x x ? xIii ? 269 Fig 70b x ? 178 ? 270 7 272 449 -
- - -------- ----
LIA
activity
on non-brochl-dun/-fort/-crannog
sites
in
the
CO Sfgk West A
KEY:
I= 2= 3= 4= presence of LIA I pin/comb(s) presence of LIA II pin/comb(s) for LIA activity evidence on basis for LIA activity other evidence
of
pottery
(after
Lane
1983)
SITE --------------------Ardnave Arnabost Bruach Druieein an Clichan Crinan Machrins,Colonsay Kerrert Coll Foill, Coll Acurrach
OTHER REFERENCES 123 4 HARMS NfiR -------- --- ---- --------- ----- ---------- ----------------------------------- - - ---------- --288 1984,no 242 NR 745 x-209 1980,no 231 NM 600 -? - 820 NR 972 --1988,no 350 x NR79 58 --1988,35 x NR79 93 --1988.35 x 357 NR 933 --1984,no 300 Fig 41f x W KM 298 -x1975,22 -
1 NM 5
NN1 5 NN112204
xxx-
for
Possible
LIA Activity
on Broch Sites
-85-
- Appendix
IV -
12345 NGR SITE ---- ------------- - ------ - -----------------------------042 Dun Vaul NN 493 x? --? nor
activity Isles
LIA activity
on dun,
fort
and crannog
sites
in the West
1234 NGR SITE --- - --- -- - ------- - -- ---- = -- ---- ----- -- ------- -NR$37935 x-xx Ounadd 852 Ounollie NN 314 --xx NR 925 ---X 916 LochGLashan N" 046 492 -? conBegVaul -RK824266 xxxDon Fheurain an 780 NR 277 x--x KildonanBay NR789969 x--x Ardifuar I Dun 657 NR 306 x--x Dan Fhinn NH142913 -x-Dun Lagiidh Kildalloig NR745 190 ---K Chonallaich N" $54 036 ---x Dun Eilean Righ I NN803021 ---x NR785285 ---x Ugadale 803 NN 021 ---? Eilean Righ 415 NR 976 ---Oanan Nighein nan Ibrig NK025444 ---677 176 ---NR salloch
5 RCARMS ---- -- --- --1988,no 248 x 1975,no 286 x X 1988,no 354 1980,no 196 1975,no 164 1971,no 220 x 1988,no 270 1971,no 203 1971,no 219 x 1988,no 250 1988,no 320 1971,no 238 1988,no 320 1984,no 203 x 1980,no 210 ? 1971,no 158 ?
-86-
APPENDIX V:
DETAILS
OF SPATIAL
SITES
- Appendix
V-
This access
describes in
in detail the
the
of
which
found figs
each of
76-77
(chapteraccess with
unjustified applicable,
Any lettering
to the excavators'
original
plans.
BU (fig
75):
refer
to 10.2.3.
76.78; of
figs
81-92):
presence or Exceptions
a threshold via
stone
entrance
a doorway
an, enclosed
are described. As seen, today, to the, coast. and give the line the is
and Outbuildings: open area out adjacent in from the the the eye
site
entrance
drawing through
inner
Access is
through totallytheir
middle
ditches
do not of
aware
the enclosed W does ramparts of between a possible after doorways not in the
The fact
outworks
existence.
Inclusion
appropriation (almost)
technique
of these There
circuitous the
straddles
internal
outbuildings
and originally
were 2m rather
- Appendix wide leads widens of (Hedges directly around (f ig to 1987 11,37). to the the From the of the
V-
gatehouse broch
a passage
1.7-2m
wide
tower,
exterior
space
83).
Access
passage broch
outbuildings entrance To the many of result especially outstructures on the one done easily f ig hearth, kerb. example of a the there 1-4 and 10-14
5 and 9 and to passage 84-85). outbuildings features problems outbuildings buildings hearths apartment for buildings
To either access to
outbuildings
have suffered are not defining 10-12 on the (for and basis the
contemporary 14.
in
Hedges
divides walls, It
evidence
dwelling
superfluous
describe
by Hedges interpreted
can
be
on the
basis is
of their divided
(Hedges 1987 11,39-41, more areas and/or hearths the with (for means several From to a a
2.10).
one or
by orthostats with
a low
Stone-lined
are
with
passageway,
may
Sometimes and/or
passages with as
passages of
hearths,
access
could
features,
cupboards, than
constitutes probably the 2.1m range, roofs an entrance, floor area the those
chamber
(neuks), widths
lengths wide.
survive do not
Cupboards
but
and their
much smaller. and bins the broch, broch off the in but fittings
There are a large bay area. those in the outbuildings that the There
number of indeterminate can be assumed scale for have been better any
compartments that to
In generalit
internal in
preserved of the
by the
superstructure. having
no evidence -(Hedges
outbuildings
ever
storey
1987 11,
- Appendix 41). A highlighting: 1. Building to 4: a double of the pl is entrance units 2.35). these two few aspects of the
V-
individual
are
worth
from within
gives of their
each
(Hedges wall
otherwise
difficult
understand through is
interior
interconnected
shared
A large
This
but possibly internal excavators. The Broch: main access the broch 88). These
area did
narrow survive,
Incorporation were
a building,
features
missed
is
entered
between
tower
entrance,
up against
effectively is
passage one.
some 2.5m and add an extra, of the door behind compartments inwards the is gained this to the original and
original
door via
opened
be secured
a bar.
Immediately
passage widens and access can be gained to the two From these access can be made to the basal and a tall guard cells. the lower gallery that It is probable mural gallery. superimposed Entry into the way around (Hedges 1987 11,19). never extended all the upper it does blocked be to intramural not connect the gallery with if with the -just over must have been difficult, any it the other at features the foot in of the at the and as seen now this'level. stairs It (which is may
S by the and
chamber
secondary),
opposite
direction
connected
aumbry. not all of one period (fig of the 88) is interior in three, Ubid, very 28late.
perfunctorily but
-89-
V-
of which lobby
giving leading
with access 2.
to a north-western lobby
square could
access
a southern 3.
leading
a rectangular apartment
be entered. staircase of lobby which one was forced be seen, zone, access like to and the into a short three
even through
a doorway,
central the
and gave
southern
northern To the E
separated,
recorded.
was gained
zone to compartments. into a chamber against northwestern compartments presumed 29), of to and led surviving Similar two is was the with
a central to the
southern to hearth to
entrance
central wall
E and
89-91).
chambers probably
or the
conjectural
gallery
to which
gave access
92): the
conjectures at the is
32-34, at a
Obviously as
there
floors,
stairs
lead
but
Access Walling
possible gallery. at
access
steps at
a landing
a 0secondary)
chamber or
- Appendix the to be at
V-
onto three
gallery of
the
1.8m level
and to Access to
extend this
quarters gallery
around
the
interior.
probable
via floor.
is a possibility
from virtually
anywhere
fig
93):
Spatial
analysis nucleated
is
site
in
when the
broch
outbuildings is
potentially
to the W., based entirely with on published B Smith descriptions with and the
communications
and by analogy
several are as be
not therefore
to go through should
structure. a ladder
a couple
points
out: assume that would have allowed upper stairs be entered access between the'broch interior and its could
ground floor 2.
94). "Spaces are distinguished problems and the the of definition are sketch
as as
the
plan
occasional
survives. obvious
Not all
buildings of is G and
although with need be contemporary, 49) they may be (58.2.10). H (fig but arbitrary. that there may have ignored. of the been outworks Otherwise plan (most it must-be emphasised that
attempted,
of necessity, is
The outbuildings: surrounding analysis ambiguities The sets broch: of is the fairly arise the
It site.
assumed Buildings
G and F).
H are basis
on the
entered side.
through Little
an extended is
passage of
with the
two exact
guard
cells
on each
recorded
-91-
- Appendix form the interior of the tank, Gurness). feature it F, took (an
V-
which
in the main
MS f, In with western a
break had
northern southernmost
triangular this irf else of least of court the is the one short of (but
compartment another manuscripts divulged. court, cupboard projections compartments, looks later). and
triangular
W from
To the indicating
a couple
wall, is
presence chamber
-and Nothing
a length
of, walling
creates
a small
known of any upper levels. access map is thus not so deep as those of the poor quality of the data
at
Howe,
applying
77;
f igs
95-106).
on the
same
as at Gurness, but problems of definition because of both the degree of modernday manicuring original quality of the excavators, (fig broch land recording. 95): being
is
landward
substantial of
between a large
bridged 96).
outworks, between
A hollow through
which
marks
an entrance
rampart the
and a causeway over the ditch. but in combination the site, encircle The outer 97). rampart is widest (fig which has been an entrance had at least one doorway. (and sensing their to up the this
natural point
a circuit.
narrowed Upon
by later
walling. walk
ramparts
presence) the
entrance is
widens a series
hand side
of which
of short entrance
over the and probably onto ramparts, by Lamb 1980a, 90). blockhouse suggested -92-
On the
V-
a narrowing into
widens
areas, break
two cases of
slope. is broch
and their the the S side broch, entrance. might front or for
Proceeding Nothing
west of is
eventually contemporary
have been encountered. of the broch entrance the there passage into of left into is
Standing choice encircles of radial H, figs these belong survives into is its of
entering it (fig
which
gained prospects
original Thus
divisions
orthostatic the
constituent
Building imagine
particularly
difficult supports.
to
two spaces interconnected Broch (ground long floor entrance cells level): (fig
entered do not
an
a series
original
had been covered part created From this compartment takes by a line
vestibule, entrance.
northern
compartment interior,
Each compartment from the 103-104). chambers, interior worth 1. in narrow other
up exactly of
high
Further
orthostats and
compartments
106,
several to
monumental to it -93-
chamber
Calcove')
the
S has a
entrance
chamber
- Appendix 2. in is D the
V-
compartment raised
is
most is
area
whilst
perimeter main
creates stairs
domestic
(First
and
Second D access
Floor
Levels):
From via in
the
part
of
a small the
to. both
intramural
blocked
gallery. it is
From the
W end of blocks
off
further
entrance
compartment,
must have been reached contemporary gallery for the (at with about
by a upper
from
cell.
to the
supports
westernmost one
dividing
gallery including
could
intermediate
intramural
a cell
led have
lapsed. The intramural blocked/col passage was partly It is not known how, access up to 'an unknown structure. the been gained to the scarcement level cells above the main
77;
fig of
107):
earliest to the
evidence at
is
remains It (house
a house In
house
form was constructed, with central and it focus. phase II of four the In consists hearth. for from the small, domestic
opening entrance.
Paving
house
This
structure but
must have
a larger,
discrete
site
4 constructed.
it
aligned
and interconnecting
-94-
V-
small the
vestibule
largest
socket
room the remains that the there wall, building, lining area. of the
low stone
side
of
suggest
stone At
platforms the
These have
separate main
room,
one of which
78;
f ig
108):
This
description the
that
of the
complex S of
access
outbuildings 'Shamrock')
structure flanking
(the
were
an extended
four of
compartments, about
thresholds, from
over
a threshold
passageway access could understood. and not fully aligned N-S, floor with two
consisted off
the southernmost
of
were giving
the
impression activity
although
necessarily
contemporary
Ubid,
78; of
fig phase I to
109):
Access
analysis et It is
is al
for
the
6 (Carter informal. to
and even
doorways was;
are
be the
entrance
pathway
broch.
one enters
V-
end of
this into
room was a sub-circular the wall which might a but the have SW is area, lintelled exact be N the another via two divided chambers of the
one set
compartment.
enclosure, plough
a yard
cannot to to E,
seen because
compartment and
whence
compartments which
thresholds,
passage
area,
of orthostats. an earth-house
of these rubble
access collapsed
into
from this
site
It
is
not as yet
available
to
for
analysis.
if An most
78; ever
is
not to 0
possible this
establish
from As in
this much
therefore U the Traill south, B was From the access SE can the
the
same Access
excavated B is from
W Traill having
1885). a separate
possibly access
divided into of
by a partition (0)
be gained E. L is C is
a number
cupboard-like into that east D, several is access to (2-4 To M, in here irregular at least of the two
cell
to
divided by
high)
entered
there is
vestibule from
south by
north
wheelhouse of is areas
divided into a
numerous
paritions compartments.
time
excavation) to low
different
access four
gained by
sub-rectangular and probably from form room this a raised access F into
divided the to E
room contained
over, might
which have
gives been
of and
such
a building
supported. -96-
plans
- Appendix it is totally
V-
not
clear
was of
W was a recess substantial may have acted no mention of all of to its the
contained in
chambers in
To the E of
suggested cell
at., the
E of is
a small
orignally
northern not
of
and it
at
how access
STENABRECK(fig 1883 (Traill finds of the of the suggest structure phasing The threshold key for which Several
78:
fig
110):
Excavations outline of
took its
place walls
at Stenabreck were traced. and the Nothing may have doorway this
in The form
W 1885)
when the
earliest,
is known been
semi-subterranean main
outer settlement N of
suggesting immediate
could
means of the
rectangular of
main
presses. about
compartment in front of
1885, none
a foot it
it,
suggest
probably
a storage
rather
One small
chamber to
the E (H on Traill's UDAL (fig structures The following report 1986). is that and 78): at Only the is
plan)
showed no obvious
schematic Udal
access they
because
therefore given
lectures
The spaces are assigned as for the sites here are all initially -97-
through
- Appendix The
V-
enclosure. posters,
resultant
yards
contain
two
buildings,
the
four
-98-
APPENDIX VI:
- Appendix
VI -
APPENDIX VI:
and
gold
mount
with
celtic
pattern
from
Honker
Green
(fig
about with
bronze upper
mounting
with
a celtic at
pattern, Monker
surface,
was discovered
Green, Stromness (RMS acc no FA. 44; Donations 1892; Grieg 1940,200, f ig 95). The f ragment has been crudely truncated on three sides, although sharp raised, one edge has a clean implement. decorated of the The border plaque design cut, achieved of by several two major blows from a a
consists
which decreases
in depth
down diagonally
its
long derived of
plain (Wamers
runs
an egg-and-dart contains
field
continuous
each
similar,
detail.
outstretched
both
entwine has
around a long
lobe. eye
hatched
a beady indicated,
three
each extending slender emanating evolving oblique support division, from the the neck. from from nicks. the
hip
at the is
three
backwards
and terminates back of, the each scroll. lines. V-shaped heel
around
spear-shaped
end of This
bifurcates
parallel
object by
by Bakka
(1963,60-61,
63)
agree
craftsman, century
preferring
the
of
or
eighth
- Appendix basis
with
bronze-bound which
Hopperstad scrolls, of
Mediterranean of
independently group
manuscript
Ubid,
Pictish
motif,
undoubtedly
spread
influence however
(Henderson
There
reason
to the Picts. motif is may be related bronze filled to the 'crescent Crieff
The egg-and-dart and almond-shaped where each section darts (Allen An part of it Insular a highly of two,
prominences' 1903).
on two
mountings by a single
from
of shaped border
remains which
indentations
would have been attached context Norse late in of this makes the graves Saxon in and
clasps,
c 14 mm apart. mount are that large objects unknown, might number which could not but
The exact have come from of contemporary come from have been found have
following
suggestion suprisingly
they
Insular/Northumbrian
Norwegian Christian
graves. Insular
any
width
of
Circular
bronze
1887 a decorated some time ago at Stromness in the Hunterian in the of facsimile It consists
mount froin Stromness (fig 111b) as having been found was reported 1887,346). The original but there is now is a (acc no B. 1914.863), Edinburgh plate surface with of
Museum, Glasgow
Royal Museum of Scotland, a cast A fine mount circular 5mm), the bronze upper runs (height
edge with of
gold. the
cable are
around
the upper
although a central
edges
somewhat -100-
corroded.
which the
of
an fine heads
which
possibly
terminate
eyes.
The third
can be seen on a panel at the top of (Rynne 1987, pl I. B) which dates to c Lindisfarne Both these Gospels works (f are fig of this 46). period
or the contemporary
as possibly are
decorated
forms
interlace similar
a moderate from
relief.
technique
piece
a brooch
(Cursiter 1940,200,
Hunterian
museum acc no B. 1914.864; This Insular mount, probably Green, of has variously
with
from
Monker
described
circular
terminal remains
1887,346) 1940,200).
central corroded
of is
the
difficult
been cut
from a brooch
a penannular
example (Wilson
used in circular St Ninian's protruberances it could cover, Anderson a book (S mounts. (in
settings hoard
reverse with in
small
may
Alternatively such as
frontispiece)
incorporates
5mm.
-101-
FIGURES
1, V.
ORKNEY
4
A, 40
ATLANTIC 0
;D
GAITHNESS
1 14 k%ore 44
It
\, \
(V,
9 THE
rk"
NORTH EASTERN
ATLANTIC PROVINCEV 0
majorforts 0 2.5-8ha
0 TYNE-FORTH
Figure after
Britain The boundaries 1. of north Piggott 1966; Ralston 1979) with the
in study
the
Iron
area
FIELD SURVEY
LAMB BATEY MERCER F q MORRISON
BY:
ir
t3
Orkney
.6
Caithness
Sutherland 0 II 30km
field
work
by Lamb,
Batey,
Mercer
and
(0
11250
-4-,
1000
zI
2 cr co
ui
-o
(LI
Z
LU
Soo
11
250
Co .i cn U) LLI F--
w
0
...::
w > cr
D C) z
< ir M -i <
LI)
El :I::.
Q
w < -a ei 41 K L :1 u
250
L'i CL 0 -J w 70
500
Co u
(D
U)
c
z 0
750 LLJ
-0
0
LLI < co -0 u) C) -0
LL 0 0 -
1000
LL
T) no: 0 w U) -j
Cc < =
Ln (D
I
250
2 -
A\ 0
LJ) 0
90
nN ao v4
08-
07
06
05-
0,4
03
02
01
00
850
650
450
250
50 BC
150 AD
350
550
750
950
1150
05
04 _D
c3 -n 03
02
0.01 -. -1200
III1 1000
800
600
400
200 BC
0 AD
200
400
600
800
-1 1000
1, jt 1200 1400
(c a
MAINLAND
Figure The distribution A 4. Scottish C-14 dates, of uncalibrated by area, B The distribution at the I-a level; Scottish of calibrated C-14 dates, by area, PDF = prooablility t= time, at the 'I-a ievel. density f unction. The diagram by cumulatively has been produced boxes representing the date summing the height box span; of each to ensure being adjusted that the area remains constant.
A
CHARACTERISTICS 0; 465 SLOPE OF THE TRONDHEIM 46-64' C-14 SLOPE will CAL113RATION E] U;::: 1 CURVE 4 45' SLOPE 11F: 11.11 I1 .1 11' 11 INVERSION 111m 11 11
4a
Cal a
CT.
&I AD
1200
1000
800
600
400
200 BCADt
200
400
600 (cal)
800
1000
1200
1400
Figure in
5.
C-14 Trondheim calibration of the 5 distribution the calibrations of C-14 with 3000-950 bp, between standard a constant with B has been compiled in the as the same manner Characteristics
Ah
1234
12
89 0
10
..... 13 14
.... .
------
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
25
26
27
10cm
date, bronze 6. 'Roman' 1-4 and bone: pins of post-Roman 5-16 Broch Crannog (7,15-16,697,694); of Burri. an (1316, 17-19 Broch of ! 396,1389,1350,1,353,1331,1376,134-6,1339); 13115, Sands 20 Culbin (749); 21 RosemarKie Burray (.1095,1.082,1084); 26 Brough Freswick Sands 22-25 (774,787,759,758); (750); of 27 Brough of Birsay Stevenson Birsay Globular (after (183-1). pin: 11955a). Figure Buiston
An, A: . 10 T
I
14
TTT I
8
10 11
916
c12
10cm
Crook: Figure 7. Ring-headed 1 Abernethy Fort (iron). pins. 821); Law 2-3 (-, 4-11 Covesee Projecting-head: Traprain (10 11 'ibex') (646-47,649-50,653,651,648,652); 12 si I ver, Bowermadden Broch Hand-pins13 Bruathach ('372). 14 ('620); a Tuath Loose-ringNorrie's (1264). Law (silver); Reay 15 Dunadd 16 Stevenson f1566) (after 1955a).
ATLANTIC
.m
V. 0c
300
D-
C. 1,,
ED
WHI1111OUSES .........
WHEELHOUSES
....... BAOCHS
-SEMIBROCHS-'
b
evi ,
1'..
Aq. A'
. oc>
FORTS r
ROUND HUTS
LOA ;% HOUSES
600
Figure 8. MacKie's in the development suggested stages of Atlantic : ron Age material. (after MacKie 1973), culture where the black arrows the possible transfer represent traits from one region of cultural to the white another, the apparent arrows in one continuity of traits area,
MOM
MUM
WECT a IFIL?I
fuAlfrM I
OVAL $ Ifla
GAIMERI
emna
aAss
Figure 9. Summary of nature II, for which entry varies material, category and object.
of entries according
(n -0
E 0
-0 E 0
ozi CL
E v 0 C\j
V
41
c
CL U) (0 ---
c: 0 0
Q) r_ m
'0 -0 rccc Co
a Co
c3 M
0-
(D
U) Co (n cn Co Co 0m
U)
CO Co cn
vi
[je
0m<
[-*_--r ONE
oj
(0 ,0 Ei
t. CL.
10
c >, 0, lu C to to
c: 0
(0
(0
eg
0
,nC
z<
(0 Ci. la Q) 0 Jr: 10
(1) 4) c:
-A c U- u
3 lzz;:
(n
z<
-0 Cd
E 0
G) co
_O
ci
0 Cw c: -0 r -0 c: -0 r-
0 la
06 U)
r_
(0
>,
0
Z
LL z
CD
r_
r-L
od 0
(Z 4(D
-0
06
-
--
(0 Co Co
cn u) (n
CO 90
CY)
celo q:2
a) 00
$- 0. CO 0 ,0
CO cn
(n
cn
V&
E V
"
10
-41
12 52 0
a4 -4
Co Z
c: 0 CLI (0
t.
0
. (0
,5
bo (0 4) 4 :x (X-
-0
- de
db _C) . -(D --
- -40
2
799
37
4
1834
61 6A
1246 485
6C
609
1A 291
1B272U -in -,
ic v 744
3E
575v
1129
8B9A 8A
965 398 621
637
9D
904
6D 302
9B It 9131
M
9E
1027
1 9F 993
9H 149 91 27V
11A
1350
-0
14A 336 13
11B
917
1590
14B 907
15C
630
Figure
1.2.
Summary of classification
stick
pins.
24A 18 I
16E ** 739 Y'
--O 1047 19A 1840 571
23
300
24B
791
20
570
16 A
940 v
'!7.1,. .S
26
17699P
25
1122
27
324
21
1033
28
472
29
479
36
V 1852
5cm
30
1672
lens-hd
1079
-0 astrag
328
discfillet d
728
open disc
1695
AS spiral-in IC lo oed
320
bu tterfly
1215
loz fillet
397 -0
mush
868
spiral-out
proi j
1764 19 sq pi proj 1188
disc
663
spiral 775
wheel
hd
1925
Summary of
classification
of
stick
pins
and metal-only
UI
26I
1.
V
Ii
10 8
I Fowler E pins from Figure 14. (679.678p 680,677,681,8-11 . _, (after Kilbride-Jones 1980a). Traprain Law. 1-7 proto-zoomorphic zoomorphic, (682-83,816,835)
0
C"4 ) C.
rCo
___
DIII
r_ 0
10
.0
to 10
to r.
(1)
,44. U
do g Fi so U)
Z00
cl. ca.
-4
10
T5
16
Din an Fheurain Figure Projecting (1294); 1 16. ring-headed pins Sands; 3 4 Laws of Monifieth (555); 5,7 2,10 Culbin Angelsey; Dunacd Ness (801 ); 11 Midhowe 6,9 Traprain Law; 8 (185-86); (1265) (after Kilbride-Jones 1980b).
!'
U
10 10cm
Figure Semi-corrugated 17. Rosette type 3-6 pins (646); 9 Traprain Law type 8 Traprain pins Kilbride-Jones 1980b).
Kf-8(--Oy, Co Armagh; 1 Gurness (154); pins TrapraJ. ri Law (817,822, 7 Covesea -, -); Northumberland; (8611); Aesica, 10 Beaded Law (821); Tentsmuir (903) ii (af ter
% dwil,
CS516
(n
C94)
k
2A
CIQQ
CIQU
TI
6
Semi-beaded 18. Bowermadden 1 (620); 6 pins similar Lydney, Glos; Proto hand-pin 2-3 Traprain Law (864,825); plain, Covesea (647); 5 Corbridge, Northumberland; 7 no locality; irelland; 9 Handpin Traprain Law (826) (after Kilbride-Jones silver, 1980b).
Figure
but 4 8
12
'I
1 8 T7
5cm
pT fl
13
2 Degenerate Bruathach (-172); ibex Figure 19. 1. a Tuath North 3 Co Waterfora; Corrugated (1763); Balevullin and beaded 4 "0 Glos; 652,651,650); Covesea (648, 5-7,9 Berwick; -, -Iydney, (after ireland KilbrideBedfordshire; 12-13 Sandy, 8 Ibex-headed Jones 1980b).
METAL-ONLY
20
10
0 0
ID co CD CD to CD
0M
(D W (D
CD
10
to
Co
length of complete
Co
pin
(mm)
Comparison
of
pin
length
for
different
categories
of
0
0 01 100
BONE METAL
80
0 1
60
40
C.
C,
0
(D Co (D
0
0
CD
C)
(D (o
co
to
10
10 W 11) ID
length
of
complete
pin
(am)
Figure each
21. range
proportions
of
category
of
material
within
SHAFT
20
0, 10-
N 8
ca
ih
(A
0
#D
--4
40
CI)
0 Co
Co Co 0
Co Co
I*ngth
of complet*
pin (am)
of
lengths
of
metal
and skeletal
hipped
and
(114P Ad
753 297 JA IA
74 3 IA
151 IA
- 4w
9 79 JA
278 JA
314 t8
.0
1088 IA
1-410 -1
1591
IA
1143 IA
316 A
AL
304 18
1196 1El
315 )A
1204 18
289 113*-
307 I C,
TO
-0
2 76 Ic
1642 3ro
301
981 1C.
286 Ic
288 I(,
5cm
Figure
23.
Pins
of
groups
1-3.
Ab
1480
14 82 ro A
808
268 4489 6A
1123
GA
Ab
1078
(o A
1485 GAle 924 rDA
75 9 raa 0
569 ro El IIN 17
1483 Co 0*
1492
1603 68
14 94 roB
758 6B
771
Ell-0 -
-de
1592 C.D
j
1502 6c 495 6D 3 1761 1670
5cm 1
321 74
1176 ipA
Figure
24.
Pins
of
groups
4-8.
Am
9 74 ErA
73 3
10 73
964 FA 975 8A X
966
967
SA
1 IA -0
971 8A
-;;
7-
46
1513
SA*
1491 8A 1068 16''0 2
1175
' 30 6
838 es
1769
482
283
991
1597
394
5crn 1
ff'f
eEk
es
28*
gib*
Figure
25.
Pins
of groups
8-9.
-i
279
296 294 9A 293 IA 1060 19A
309 904
403 ')A
1486 q4
305 qA
19A
634 98
-vom-
-1
1. 1487 1488
37 91
1605
15 15
lis 919 1017 98 1620 9 C, 752 9c, 379 l7c 1516 1) B Ila -0
914
913
PZq
----*
15 14 1113
0-(D
865 9 92 );2 C A' 788 i! rA
a
866 15 274 12. 1693 14 1641 1 857 19
(D
603 KA 629
731
5cm
604 ITA
ITA
Figure
26.
Pins
of
groups
9-15.
7r,
-1 U-40
vi 952 612
16 F-
1018 16E
1025
1-i FE
1024 A
54-
1248 2+ Bt
899
1531 13-A
Y'
15'96 20
1016 21
850 26-
925
1139 SO*
1598 S+
Figure
27.
Pins
10cm
of
groups
11-34.
zMX
1804 foaft"
-0
1619 loose r-kd
1159 lofe,CA
329
alisc6lief5
-0
5FA
-4
1668 mok.
1249
lotwc( 10 61 lo be4
175
i
1694 m i's(- fe o
lobe4
F-.,
.0
1758
-4
T
1757 sf; V, -0 . Ai 809 r- kA 667 sry, dowe
5cm
Figure
28.
Meta--only
pin
forms.
000
0
bo
Q>
M -4 (., ix to L0 0
Cl- :50 71 0 Cb
:50: 1 * L
(D
IC\j (\]
bO =5 0 0
bO . : o t(0
-4
Z3 r_
CI-
-4
.
-UI-. lip,
Lc)
Ojo
'3
Lo
1mk. - wo
> to
u-
cl- ol :3-
IN 1 >1 LO (a (0
CX 0
U)
t. Lr')
Co
m
.10
ID
Lrl
oc
o
bo 0 -3 o -0 4) cn "C\j
bo rD
cc)
--
ce)
e
L)
-t
L-
co
2iel 03
0V0
cL.
:::: iii
ci
x um
1\3
co
4
0 bo
L.
0 r
C'. -
bO 0
(1)
j -,
5-,
tuDot
07. W..
CD 0 0 C\l 0) C\j
-
-MMQW
bb
0 C\j
L 0
L. U a. --,
0,
r. a0a0., .
-a
0 0
co
99
FiI
-7
E
in
.. OMWA -RMIW
IC)
0 cn
C\j m 0 C\j
LO .0 19 0 u 0
0 C\l
"
dmI
(0 x fi)
cl)
Lo
A.
:A
I.,
CY) It LO
Cl) 0 C14
W boo :5
C\j
C\j
C\l
(1)
C\j
IJI
-- zum
N (0 -4-u
E Q
Qj
CY) CY)
C)
(0
lu
C)
00
C\j
ik 0 .
- -.0 ..;
00
C\l
..
(0 x ril
II
LO
bo Co
CQ ------
LE, -
LU0
: T-T-T7=
Q)
C
E C) r
77=
E 0
w 0 U Lf) 75 0
ILI
Ln 0
-0
co - Q) bo
0
').
Ij
V T47
CLASS
t7
A AC? B
a 8 al
I
0
Figure 33.
I
The distribution of pins of classes A, AC? and B.
CLASS
C (pin)
C (mould) D
4
0 In .'
40
0%r
I
0 Figure pins. 34. The distribution of class C pins and moulds, and class D
)
CLASS a 0
47
da
Iav
19
Figure
35.
The distribution
of class
E and F pins.
Figure 36. Comparison of the distribution of class McNeill (redrawn after symbol stones and Nicholson and LIA combs of groups 4-6.
23
67
89
10
12
13
14
15
16
17
18 111111 IT7&
19
20 Cj
21
F-26
22
23
24
25 E-EEJ
27 (=, 1 34
28
29
30
31
32
33
35
Figure 37. Selected depictions symbol stones. of combs on Pictish All figures Allen stated after and are redrawn, unless otherwise Anderson 1903. Class 1.1-2 Clynekirkton 4 nos 1-2; 3 Benbecula; 7 Rhynie no Sandness; 5 Collace (Henderson and Small 1962); 6 Daviot; 5; 8 Park House; 9 Newbigging 10 Easterton Leslie; 11 of Roseisle; Inveraron 13 Clynemilton no 3; no 2; 14 no 2; 12 Kintradwell Dunnichen; 15 Sandside House; 16 Golspie 1943); 17 no 2 (Davidson Dunrobin Castle; 18 Upper Manbeam; 19 Drumbuie no 2; 20 Inveraron no 23 Aberlemno; 24 Bourtie; 1; 21 Drummies; 22 Keith Hall; 25 Cuillaird (Ritchie 26 Nether Corskie 1915); 27 Covesea. (Stevenson 1959); 29 Kingoldrum no 1; 30 Kirriemuir Class 11: 28 Hilton of Cadboll; no 1; 31 Meigle no 7; 32 St Vigeans no 1; 33 Monifleth 1; 34 Meigle 1; 35 Maiden Stone. Not to scale.
co)
IHIPPED
SHAFT
-1300
0 Z'
D cm
-1200
-1100 -1000
40
c) ) C.
i
r00000
CO 0
0Z2
-900
(3
Co ,Z
( ,
in r.
(1)
-f -, :>
-800
-700 -600
.T co c",
cc -500
-400
38. The distribution for contexts LIA of C-14 dates producing level). to the 2-sigma and combs (calibrated pins y= weighted mean for Dunollie GU-1398); phase l(GU-1395-97; z= weighted mean for Pool from GU-2001-02). Unpublished dates provisional phase 4g (GU-1809; Dr J Hunter; Pool kind incorporated with permission of author's calibration.
Figure
A-(0
Co Co
It
-t 1 I ui
41 -
<
U) X
0
cIn
,'
-0
LLJ cl a
., to
0 z Cl0 0
06
Ul
0-
CL
0 -i
-0
BROUGH OF BIRSAY
PRE-NORSE FEATURES
4 < 20 !o
19 VII
site
Is
zone s
/* /* 0 30m
Pigure features 40. Summary of pre-NOrse (compilec Crucen 1965, after and modified 986).
at CL
birsay Hunter
Q)
N,
bO a) 'cG CO Lr)
-A 41 co 00
bO :: I o
) QwL.
r. L (0 L
JQ)
] co-54 co (D - L) M
43 CO
&,
(1) 0 00 C),
0, -
Cl.
co
bC ., A S- L. 3r w r_ 41 0
al
0
(0 ci.
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--i
cc
'o
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-4
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41
cc
Lo 0 (1) (J)
0 0
Cz
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Ln 0 C :, cr U D -Nd L. _r Q
0 a)
CO ul
(0 " 0
00 CY)
C.
>:
Lo
VI 3: 0
(D co
000 U) "
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a) bo -0 TM-1I to
bo 0v
0 0
c
L.
CO 0)
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a, r ,: < CY) (D
00)
4'
C. a)
4 (D
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z
10 'o
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r(a
cl ul
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in
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tv ,4
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tp
U>
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U
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a -, 0V
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U,
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'
"/
I!
--
-0 Q)
Ln
(o U) bO CO C> S- :1 J) o0 fl. fD
F-
Broch
wall
Figure
43B
Midhowe.
Internal
W wall
of
outbuilding
H.
4000,
Z*"41
r,
gz
lom
;r
D EF
A--
brochs (al 1 redrawn): A Ayre C Netilater 1890); (RCAHIMS 1946; E Lamb Head (RCAHMS 1946 ID; G East Burray (Thomas 1.852); Burray West 1 (RCAHMS 1946 1890); Burgar (Thomas 1852).
/
/
'N
/ /
\\\
lom
I
A
fi I,
/ / /
___
1,
1'
1-11
/*
Figure St Tredwells Plans 45. A brochs (a-, of Orkney redrawn): -, (modified (RCAHMS 1946 ID; RCAHMS 1,946 -1); B Weems Castle after Backaskaill (RCAHMS 1946 17). (RCAHMS 1946 ID; D Broch of Borwick
41 Yz yp-,
-Z -
100004 %
Z sL -=::.
$\\\iI/t//////,,
-=
-IIz-
'I\-
(I
lom
'
"---2 -/
-EEE z=.
-
/ / I
//
: --
jD
, 72", J, :., ,
'"
I II'iq,,,
Figure 46, Plaris brochs (all of Orkney (RCAHMS 1946 :. D; B Burray East (Petrie CyacGregor 1,974; RCAHMS 1,946 ID.
redrawn): C 189o);
PERIOD
PHASE ----------------N
8 A "I//I/i
f
III
AREA EXTERNAL DEFENCES CENTRAL -- ------------stalled cairn ---------------Oaes-hove-fype stalled cairn ---------------ditch isolatedhearth andfink
ditch recut clay-cored raspart roundhOUSO Md J rock-cut ditch
AREAS PERIPHERAL
05-200 CalPC --------------------P/V1 BC Cal 751-200 372 Cal8C332-AO 210 CalBC10040 extension of rampart
----
------------------------
- ---- -- ( --------------
/f
A
VII Cal BC332-AO 20 IJO Cal BCIIO-40 Cal VC50-0 212 120-3YO 40 Cal
ramparts maintained
broch
nucleated 'village'
230-510 40 Cal
--------------VII later phase 20 Cal BC390-AO Cal AOSO-31S Cal 40 80-M Cal AV110-373 Cal 40 130-110 F
----------ditches fill up
---
L A I A
Figure Summary of structural 47. sequence at Howe (based et al 1984 and personal communication with B Smith).
on Carter
/
:'-
4-trn: sl
'T
V
LINGRO
UNPHASED
GURNESS
BROCH PERIOD
lom
/
/
/ /
N4
HOV
PHASE
MIDHOWE
PERIODS 1,2 & UNDETERMINED
48.
(all with nucleated settlement B Lingro (Anderson 1883; after D Midhowe (Callander and Grant
Figure Plan 49. Lingro of lettering Dryden added after text are emphasized.
/ /
Th
Figure 50. Original sketch of buildings RCAHMS, NMRS). and Dryden MS c, 26-27;
U and
Ei at
Lingro
(Petrie
LA
d I-!:
.I,:
Al,
V- J "t
Figure (Dryden
51.
broch
entrance
at
Lingro
44 4
Z,, t
--
11
Tt7,
Figure the
52. oresent I
Original writer
sketch of as depicting
by with
'later
outbui-dings
(Petrie
and Dryden
MS c,
24-25;
RCAHMS, NMRS).
CL
L. U)
TO 41
U 0 140
Q cx
Q)
41
bO >
00
u
Ck to 0
U) LO 4' x
u o -4 41
-4
bo 0 'o C a)
f-cli
El.
41
0 u
0 I. -
r_ 0 -H 41
C: 0 U
a) LTj a) 41
n LP
C)
bo
ba .1 ." u- cc
Cl)
12m
_UU------- 0-(modified Callander 1934): at Midhowe after and Grant the construction H; B prior to the collapse of building the construction storeys of the broch, of building after internal features are omitted.
A of
IV
[HYlC IND
0 A
sculptured burial
: stone
V 0 \' , 0
20 Km
Figure activity
56. in
Comparison Orkney.
ot - the
distribution
of
recognised
MIA and
LIA
LLI
j3
uj z 0
CO LLJ
z 0
Iz 0 0)
.0
cc w 0 z D
CO
(1) 10 9
Co
r
LO
bO
46
--l
lom
wl %I %
. 1' 'I "
Ir
.
"
(_-;
.--
'
-...:
-"
--
. "'*
\'t\\i14
1ft \
&
I. '
VUTf, ';
(
h'i -'
I1
V 1\
. %%%-
" %i
Vy
Figure A Thing' s Va 58., Plans of Caithness brochs (all redrawn): (Mercer 1981); B Acharole (RCAHMS 1911a); (RCAHMS 1911a); C Coghill D Green Tulloch (Mercer 1981); E Loch Watenan/Watenan South (Mercer 1985); F Freswick Sands (RCAHMS1911a).
-.
-.
-.
--.
---
1 (:
/ I I
..
I /
I I
4'"C
i'
Ni
/
lom
oo
q:
\'
--
'I,
-I\
--
\L/
I I'
. -' -I 's "'
-
1 ':V
-I. -%-.-___-. .
""-
\<
/'
E
Vi
.3-
',
\\
I\
I
\\\
F
figure 59. Plans of Caithness brochs (all redrawn with the exception (Calder C Kilmster 1948); 8 A Wester (RCAHMS 1911a); of D-E): forth); E Crosskirk D Upper Borgue (Morrison (Fairhurst 1984); Achorn (ibid); D and E planned by SMF, (Rhind 1853). F Kettleburn GS, and KW; drawn by DL.
(0
J*
CD m
r >
0-
df
so
I..
cu
(10 ci
C) c
S..
F%
%II * 00
M
L -4
(0 (0 0 L 0
so to
CLI bO 0 to MO
0)
4) V W f-
4. X
90
04-
x
C13
40 L.
0
So 0L
4)
(D
LL. -4
1.01,, ls:
.I-
I
B/y
-.
-'
L. _.
TL
I----
lom
Hillhead A (all brochs Figure 61. Plans of Caithness redrawn): (Anderson 1901); C Elsay (RCAHMS 1911a); QCAHMS 1911a); B Nybster D Keiss North (RCAHMS1911a); E Hill of Works (RCAHMS1911a).
oj
Aj
"I-,
13
. -.
. -.
. -..
I?,.
/
___w
Fill)
/
lom
Figure 62. Plans of Caithness brochs (all A Ness (RCAHMS redrawn): 191 1a); B Norwall (RCAHMIS1911a); C Keiss South (RCAHMS 1911a); D Keiss West (RCAHMS1911a); E Yarrows (Anderson 1901).
In IllIllIlsi.
aa
"
I'll
"-_
/ // _; iIi:
//f
=
I11 OYi'71
?.
VIP..
;r. * -w-
=* Z5;
lom
\Wl
jq III
mI
1ILLF11 D
-1
63. Plans of Caithness -Figure brochs (redrawn after Warehouse; B Murkle; C Tulach Gorm; D Tota ; Watenan North; F Bruan .
A E
zzzi
mA 0 lom
171 ,
7 -, /,
\\ z- -V -,
Figure 64. A Achbuiligan Plans of Caithness brochs (all redrawn); Brounabon Tulloch (Mercer B Borrowston (Mercer 1985); C 1985); 2 (Mercer (Mercer 1985); D ND 377 701 (Batey 1984); E Scrabster 1981); F Watenan West (Mercer 1985).
eb
MIA
site
ACTIVITY
x0
,& NV 0
sculptured
burial ecclesiastical reuse land of over
stone
MIA 60m
site
20 Km 11
Figure aCtivity 65. in Comparison Caithness. distribution MIA LIA
of
of
recognised
and
("
to@
lggo
c.
/ / /
00 *0 0) t.
Ze
"a 0 Co CM -4
(0 c -4 ?Z .e
3;
bo
r.
u<L.
..
Co w
bi V
=0 (0
V
"0
-4 40
r h-A
Iti
o 0
9)
V-t
4.
0
b (_
0
tio
-4 CJ
w0
0-4 0 g. --4 w
-. 0% (0
0)
4)
s .
(f) X > Z 49 n
to
IV
0-
wr
q"
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L.
:J
t-.
(0 41
IU
gi X 0) C
1-1
ei
ca (I
(D C
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"M
co
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im
Co Co
Co
1;
r_ Co
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o
2-
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LLI
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0
c2 < LLJ
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2
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2
LIJ
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O
0
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X
u
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Z
ui V)
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u
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0 cc)
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aa
iii
lei
00
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u 0 cc
0
.
u 0 L
0 cc
0 LO
0 U) (1) Q :5 L
41 -3 0
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Br
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1.
J-
s 0)
In
(1) co
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Co
H
0
11
t
41
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U) U 0 L
I;
(I)
C a,
C) ID
a) L
ti)
c1c m oo. -,
ok
41 I. to
Go's
LLJ r
uj V) Ll BOND
Co
-0
(0 U) Co
CO
10
CO rl.
C-1 (0 (11 L bo Zc
-max
-mln
to w70wvZ;
20
Is.
A 12 412
16-mir
14 THICKERWALLED
ca & h) ; 0 Z; K) ( Z Co Z; c ZzZ02;; d
L A 13 A 2
14
A 9
20
12 M
A 5
Alo
A 18
AA I17
THINNERWALLED
extended
entrance
46a 10
All
dimensions
in
metres
INTERNAL
DIAMETER
71. The dimensions Minimum and maximum of EIA roundhouses. Bu; 2 for to values the Orkney (Hedges 1987 111). 1 brochs refer Calf 2, Eday; 3-4 Howe phases 5-7 Jarlshof 5-6; of village buildings IV-VI; Little 14 8-12 Kilphedir Howe of Hoxa; ! -V; 13 2, S Pierowall; 6, level Skaill Quanterness; 145 16-17 site NB Wag of Forse. 20 Ness; Spurdagrove; Tofts 1.8 19 structure; Some dimensions are only approximate.
Figure
. -Il -
Ell
0 -J 40,
.1
0% -140
LL LL
cv
4-P
Z
% %.
CO
4) (1% (0 co
CO
1001*
-1
:3 a)
V co (1)
w
z
-0,
C=::.
0 L.
bcl
to
0 co
Rear garden
carrier space
0 0 defined transitional space space
KT-
L p
C
(Pand C
Figure 73. A Plan of a small modern house, ground floor only Hillier best room, K-kitchen, L-main living space; redrawn after Hanson 1984); Unjustified (gamma) map superimposed; B access Justified * access map with labelled spaces.
a a>
cq
C0
Figure 74. A: and distributed a and b are In a symmetric to c; B: relationship with respect a and b are in a symmetric and to c; C: nondistributed relationship with respect a and b are in a to c; D: nondistributed and asymmetric with respect relationship a to c, but d is in an and b are symmetric to each other with respect to both with d is to c; E: in a asymmetric relation respect to a and b, which still nondistributed and symmetric relation remain to d, or to c (redrawn to each other with respect symmetric after Hillier and Hanson 1984).
---
B/7
/ / /
w
Posited
access
/.
C ED carrier
0 0 0
1 14
space
space transitional
Sm
Figure 75: A Plan of Bu indicating of access (redrawn after points (gamma) map B Bu with Hedges 1987 D; access unjustified Justified spaces. superimposed ;C access map with labelled
(D
(0 1.4 0 .0 0
CO b-
Co :3 Co
E0
(D 0 CL c: *w- 00Z 00
Co (D 0
0 Co C). 0
(0 l. 4) t w
0 x Co
(D -m 0cb.
cu
m
= (Z E (D (D 0 0 E
co E
c: 0)
1.9 (0
Z;
cu CL c
0 0
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hce
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r_ (V --
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v? r"on sa
i Im ..,.
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Isay 6, ag 9
51"SI*:
aplay
Figure 79. Place-name evidence for the early and Eccles-names are among the names most (after Thomson 1987).
church likely
LU CC Cl) z .0 00 U) = CC
<
LU
z< <
D
LL
CC
LU z
< 0 CO 0 C-3 0 z 40 % A, 11 14 . Z,
20
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-Z, IT
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S CL
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cx_ c
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0)
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r, co
-c
-co < CE 6
Q) L. :5 bo
(Q a) biO -0
to
Gurness
from
the
E:
the
Figure
83. passageway
along
the
initial
Figure Gurness
84.
at
Figure Gurness
65.
at
----
Figure broch
86.
4-6
as viewed
from
the
Figure current
3 as
viewed
from
the
Figure outside
to
Gurness
broch
viewed
from
of
the
S and
N compartments
rIUU1
Figure interior
90. from
half
of
Gurness
broch
fgure in the
broch
interior
trom
the
SW chamber
:
INTRA
MURAL
? ? LADDER GROUND
".:. """. """. "
GA
TO FLOOR
/
""..
""
_/"_'
o#.
'c
"t
8roCh
A
12
B
Figure 92. basis of conjectural Unjustifed map for broch interior access level; layout reconstructed at ground flooring (base maps after at 1.8m level at Gurness: a on b on basis of Hedges 1987 11).
/ /
NW
L'
Figure (base 93. Unjustified Carter map after map for access et al 1984>. the phase 7 levels at Howe
??
-4
30
Figure Lingro
94. (base
for
conjectured
MIA
levels
at
0-
to
at
L:
-Z
Figure
96.
The approach
to
Midhowe
from
the
NE.
at
the
entrance
to
41
Figure through
to
Midhowe
in
the
passage
The
entrance
to
the
broch
at
Midhowe
from
Figure looking
100. SW.
Midhowe
outbuilding
H from
the
outworks,
Figure W.
101.
Outbuilding
H from
the
outworks,
looking
Figure broch.
102.
The
long
tunnel-like
passage
into
Midhowe
ii
Figure facing 103. W. Midhowe broch interior from the wallhead,
the dividing Midhowe broch 104. interior, wall C, looking S from the 1.8m level. Note of compartment from wall for chamber roof/gallery projection support. Figure
t___
105. NW at
Compartment C, of Midhowe broch interior, Note from to the entrance wallhead. level of chamber to W of gallery and roof
4m
PARTmENT D Z3 Cb TH cu
'cu
Ch IH III ?
Ch cu 4H
j
SECONDARY/ MURAL GAL 'E-, y
CH A MOC R'O 1) DO
VER
... "I
* .:
'.
llll
SUPPORTING ABOVE c18 STRUCTURES STRUCTURES SUPPORTING AT c 1.8 m POSTULA GALLERY T ED AT
) 311
Figure 106. Unjustified ground 1.8m level. a reconstructed approximately access floor map for level;
EXTENT cl-8rh
OF
at Midhowe. gallery at
/
rf tI
Figure (base
Unj ust ifi ed access 107, map f or A Ritchie 1977). maps after
phase
Ib
and
II
at
Buckquoy
to
die x
r_ to
c .i-Ln
i-
CL
Co
u
(0 bo (V
(f) ::i CZ ZD
0 (n CL
(A
bO
-1
::: L
Figure C)9. . at Howe (base
. r-
I
access map fcr phase Carter et al 19114). 8, stage b structures
HOWMAE
)NES
ON EDGE
STENABRECK
lom
Figure
110.
maps after
access 1890)
maps for
Howmae and
Stenabreck
(base
LI
cm
Figure 111. and Cursiter Two Insular 1887). metal mounts from Warebeth (after Bakka 1963
BIBLIOGRAPHY
81OLI06RAPHY
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'Saxon Southampton:a review of the evidence# part II: Induitry, trade and everyday life'# PrOCXIRPshirf Fitld Club Pchaeol Soc, 26 (1969). 61-96.
Adoonin Alcock, L
Andersonand Anderson 1961. 1967 'A reconnaissance excavation at South Cadbury Cattle, Somerset, 19661, o0tiq 1,47 (1967). 74-76. Arthur's RrItain, Harmondsworth. Nistory and architolojyAo $V-SS4
1971
1980a 'Populi bestiales Pictorim foroci aniao: & survey of Pictish settlement archaeology', MVS Hansonand LJ F Kepple (eds), Rotjfl fro, 7tier Studits IS731 Oxford (a BARInt $or 71), 61-95. 1980b 'Three decorated obJects from Oundurn, St Fillans, Perthshire', 4,7tiq 1,60 (1980), 344-47. . 1991 'Early Historic Fortif ic&tions in Scotland', M6 6uilbort (ed), 11111fortStudier, Loicotter, ISO181 'A survey of Pictish Settlement Archaeology' MJ6P Friell and V6 Vation (eds), 7-41. studiti,, protent and future's Ifl A $@all (od),
1984
Alcock, L and Alcock, Elizabeth 1987 'Reconnaissanceexcavations an Early Historic fortifications and other royal sites in Scotland, 19741984.2: Excavations at Ounollia Cattle, Oban, Argyll, 19781, Proc Soc 0,7tiq Scot 117 (1987), 119-47. Alcock, L, Alcock, Elizabeth and Driscoll, STD forth 'Reconnaissanceexcavations on Early Historic fortifications and other royal sites in Scotland, 197484; 3, Excavations at Oundurn. Strathoun, Perthshire, 1976-77'. Alcock, L, Alcocks Elizabeth and Fostero Sally M 1986 'Reconnaissanceexcavations on Early Historic fortifications and other royal sites in Scotland, 1974-
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84: 1, Excavations near St Abb's Head, Bervickshire, 4ntiq Scot, 116 (1986), 25S-79, 19801, Proc Soc . Alcock, L and Driscoll, ST 1985 Excavations at Oundurn, St Fillans's, Perthshire, 77, Revised InteriR Report, 61asgow, 1.976-
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1922
Anderson, A0 and Anderson, M0 (eds) 1961 ; dO#njntj- Life of Saint Colusba, Edinburgh, Anderson, J 1870 'Report on excavations in Caithness cairns. conducted for the Anthropological Society of Londonby Messrs J Andersonand RI Shearer in 18661, ftroirs Anthropological Soc London, 3 (1867-70), 216-42, 'Notes on the structure, distribution, and contents of the brochs, with special reference to the question of Proc SOC4ntiq their Celtic or Norwegianorigin', . Scot, 12 (1876-8), 314-55, Scotland in rarly Christian rimes, Edinburgh, Scotland in Pagan riRes, the Iron Pie, ' Edinburgh. 'Notice of the excavation of the brochs of Yarhouse, Brounabon, Boveraadden,Old Stirkoke, and Dunbeath, in Caithness, with remarks on the period of the brochs Archaeol Scatica, 5( 1890), 131-98. .0141 'Notice of nine brochs along the Caithness coast from Keiss Bay to Skirza Head, excavated by Sir Francis Tress Barry, Bart, MP, of Keiss Castle, Caithness', Proc Soc Atiq Scot, 35 (1900-1). 112-48. 'Notice of bronze brooches and personal ornaments from a ship-burial of the Viking time in Oronsay, and other bronze ornaments from Colonsay', Proc Soc .0tiq Scot, 41 (1906-7), 437-50, kipjf in i, and A. 747ship early Scotland, Edinburgh.
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1907
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Anderson, A0 1922,
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Anon
1929
4rchaeology, Extra Bulletin produced by the School of Archaeological Sciences, . University of Bradford,
Armit, 1 1986 Excavations atL och OWN t, Nor th Vis t, ISM, Firs t interim report (z Edinburgh Univ Dept of Archaeol Project Paper no 5),
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Excavation of a Neolithic island settlement in loch Clabhat, North Ilist, ISM, second interis report, Edinburgh (a Departmentof Archaology project paper no 8), Scot 4rchaeol .
1988a 'Broch landscapes in the Western Isles'. Rev, 5: 1-2 (1988), 78-87,
1988b Excavations at Loch Olabhat, North Ilist, ISM, Third interis report, Edinburgh (r Departmentof Archaeology proJect paper no 10).
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in I Armit
Asad, T
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Baden-Powell, 0 and Elton, C 1937 'On the relation betweena raised beach and an iron age middenon the island of Lewis, Outer Hebrides', Pree Soc 4ntiq Scot, 71 (1936-37), 347-65, . Baillie, M6L and Pilcher, JR
1983 'Some observations on the high-precision calibration of routine dates'. in Barbara S Ottoway (ed), .4rchaeology, dandrochronology and' thes radiocarbO17 CJlibrJtiOi7 CilrYO, 51-63 (a University of Edinburgh, Department of
Bannerman,J
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Barber, JW Barrett, JC
1981 1981
(1981).
'Aspects of the Iron Agein Atlantic Scotland, A case of study in the problems archaeological interpretation'. Proc Socgntiq Scot, Ill (1981), 20519, 'Contextual archaeology'. .0tiquity, 61 (1987). 468-73.
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1987a Fresilick Links, Caithness, .4 reAPPUisil Of the Late #orse site in its context, Oxford (a BARBrit Ser 179), 1987b 'Viking and Late Norse Caithness: the archaeological evidence', in JE Knirk (ed), Proceedings of the reflth Vikil; y4Congress, larkollen, Norway, 1.984 Oslo, 131148,
Batty, Bell, 9
1984, Sociology, 19 1985 Review Hillier and Hanson of (1985), 161-62. 1982 forth SArallfinds from Vrkmy 8rochs, typescript in the NMR House Museum, Kirkwall. for Scotlandand Tankerness (Stromness) broch', 'Excavationsat Warebeth
'The excavation of the sculptor-Is cave, Covesea, Morayshirel, Proc Soc k7tiq Scot, 65 (1930-31), 177Tiree, Their prehistoric forts and C011and Edinburgh, ecclesiastical antiquities, - 105-
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'Excavations at Dun Cuier, Isle of Barra, Outer Hebrides', Proc Sor 4atiq Seat, 89 (1955-56), 290-327, 'A bronze pin from South Uist's 9,7tiq 38 (1958), 92v?, 4. 'Brochs and Duns', Proc Soc k7tiq Scot, 95 (1961-62), 171-98,
1958
1962
Young, Alison and Richardson, KM 1960 'A CheardachMhor, Drimore, South Uist', Proc Soc Antiq Scot, 93 (1959-60), 135-73, Ovrevik, Sandra 1985 'The second milleniua and after in Scotland'. Renfrew (ed) 1985,131-49. MC
- 135-
SCOTTISHARCHAEOLOGICAL
REVIEW
6 VOILIme (lie, )
TRANSFORMATIONS IN SOCIAL SPACE IIIE IRON AGE OF ORKNEY AND CAITHNESS Sally M Foster* This paper will examine the way architecture acted to structure the reproduction of society in Orkney and Caithnessfrom around the early centuriesof the first millennium BC to the eighth or ninth century AD, that is from the period of the Early Iron Age to the arrival of the Norse. Ile period can be divided into four phases:the Early and Nuddle Iron Ages and Late Iron Ages I and 11(henceforthEIA, MIA, LIA I and LIA II). These divisions avoid cultural ascriptions such as 'Pictish' or 'Dalriadic', or meaningless terms such as 'post-Roman'. They will now be more specifically defined below. A schemeis suggestedin outline for structural developmentswitnessedover this period (a future dating problems: complementary article will discuss this in full, along with associated Foster in prep a). On the basis of the general trendsobserved.a social interpretationis analysisis usedto investigatehow put forward. At the sametime the techniqueof access the use of space acted to structure and reproducethesechanging social relations. All quoted C-14 datesare calibrated to the 2orlevel on the 1986Trondheimcurve. Summary or Structural Development The Early Iron Age Definition of the Iron Age is rather bluffed in North Britain both chronologically and culturally, probably more so than anywhereelse in the British Isles. Its traditional rangq is from circa 600 BC-AD 400 (RCAMS 1984,20), althoughit hasbeenspeculated that it might better be ascribed to the period up to the eleventhcentury AD (Clarke 1978,76). Around the beginning of this period, with the changing metal technologies, the importance of local metalworking in defining regional traditions declines markedly. In the Atlantic Province pottery hasbeentakenas somegaugeof cultural andchronological but on the whole, in view of the impoverishedartefactualrecord,reliance has changes, beenon architecturalstudies. Lobate multi-cellular buildings, othErwise courtyard houses, represent an tradition whose origins lie in the Neolithic (such as Scord of Brouster, architectural Shetland: Whittle 1986), but which still occurs in the late Bronze Age, such as village I at larishof (Hamilton 1956,18-3 1 Fig 10). These lobatc multi-cellular structuresmay also have continued to be constructedinto the period of the EIA, suchas at Wilmnow in Shetland (Curie 1936) where a smithy is associatedwith an example. But the EIA is oval) generally characterisedhere by the introduction of a large roundhouse(sometimes tradition, which has beenrecognisedas taking two organisationalforms: isolatedhouses with thick walls sited in visually dominant situationsand smaller structureswith thinner walls which tend to exist in clusters,of which Jarlshof Il is the best example(Sharples 1984.119-20). Abrupt changesin many aspectsof the material culture at this time are In sometimesattributed to a populad6nmigration (Hamilton 1956;Hedges1987111,38). Orkney thin-wallcd roundhouseshave beenrecoveredat Spurdagrove(Ovrevik 1985, 148, Fig 7.4) and Skaill (Gelling 1984; Buteux forth) where they arc associatedwith further agricultural structures such as a byre. The late date of one of the Skaill roundhouseshighlights how late this tradition of thinner walled roundhouses continued (sometime between360 cal BC-AD 220), and demonstrated that the developmentfrom thinner to thicker walled roundhouscswas not unilineal. A seriesof five roundhouses were excavated at Kilphedir in Sutherland (Fairhurst and Taylor 1971) and the same *Departi. ofArchaeology, University, The Glasgow 8QQ G12 -tent 34
1.
number at Cnoc Stangerin Caithness(Mercer 1981.52-56). In neither case can it be proved that theserepresentanything other than a succession structureson one site. of The slenderdating evidencefrom thesesites may be used to suggesta horizon of very large roundhouse constructionin north Scotlandprior to 500 BC (Mercer 1985,73). The impression is of relatively small domestic/agricultural units, whilst the evidence from both Skaill and Kilphedir may suggest shifting of settlementwithin a small area. the haverecentlybeenrecognisedin Orkney and Caithness. Thicker walled roundhouses Exampleshive beenexcavated Bu (I ledges19871). Howe (Carter et al 1984),Calf of at Eday (Caldcr 1937; 1939),Picrowall (Sharpies1984)and Quanterness (Renfrew 1979), whilst the early broch at Crosskirk is sometimes also described as a roundhouse (Fairhurst 1984). It is clear from the evidenceof Bu, Quanterness and Pierowall that thesestructureswere establishedby about the seventhcentury BC, although a Bronze Age horizon for a large thick walled structureat Tofts Nesson Sanday,currently being excavatedby Dockrill, suggeststhat this was not purely an ETA innovation (Archaeol is Extra, 3-4). The particular importanceof theseroundhouses that they now provide a native pedigreefor the later brochs.boLhin their thick walling and interior features.At acquiredbroch-like features. severalsites it can be seenhow both typesof roundhouse Most roundhouseswere isolated save perhapsfor a few ephemeraloutbuildings, possessed probablyof agricultural function. Many both thin and thicker walled structures enteredfrom their interiors.There is increasingevidencethat sowerrains or earth-houses examples of these which now appearas isolated monuments in the landscapewere usually, if not always. ancillary to an aboveground structureof a domestic nature (for exampleat Grain in Orkney: Haigh 1983).Most probably thesenorthernexampleswere for storageof either dairy produceor grain. The direct developmentfrom the roundhouse the broch is chronicled at Howe. At to in Crosskirk the early broch resembled roundhouse manyrespects, at Cfickhimin in a and Shetlanda roundhouse the precedes broch(Hamilton 1968).In Caithnessit is becoming increasinglyobvious that the brochsare but a later addition to an underlying palimpsest of earlier settlement(Mercer 1985,98). Whilst the 'mound upon mound' profile is not one which is so commonin Orkney.the sameprobablyholds true herealso.
The Middle Iron Age Brochs represent a major monumental divergence out of an otherwise fairly continuous tradition of native architecture (cf MacKic 1987) and the NIIA is defined as the period when the broch becomes prevalent. It has to be recognised that the broch class (for want of a better term) covers a whole series of structures differing perhaps in age and form, a structure is best considered in terms of the 'social practices its plan was designed to cover' (Scott 1947,26). The date of this architectural forin is not well established, but dates from Crosskirk, flowe and Dun Mor Vaul (MacKie 1974) suggest a broad horizon of use between the fourth centuries BC and AD. but probably concentrated between the second centuries BC and AD. Many brochs in Orkney and Caithness were enclosed by outworks, sometimes incorporating a blockhouse. When the respective entrances are aligned it may suggest that the broch and outwork were conceived of as a unity and may have been planned at the same time. At Clickhimin and Crosskirk, where there is some evidence for pre-broch activity, the outworks may pre-daLe the brochs. The majority of brochs in Orkney and Caithness are situated in positions where defence was apparently not the prime rochs). A number consideration (cf FojuL 1982 for similar conclusions on the Shetland b. are in totally defensive positions. what Mercer (1985.100) calls fortalice brochs. Prontontoryforts sometimes enclose brochs. They occur in Orkney and Shetland when hillforts do not and in Caithness where there arc a few hillforts.
35
The primary internal broch fittings it Crosskirk (Fairhurst 1984,11128) and Howe (Carter et al 1984, Fig 4) suggestthat in thesecasesthe broch had primarily a domestic function, in common with the earlier roundhouseswhich had similar plans. Little is known of the earliest internal featuresat Gumcssand Midhowe, the best known brochs in Orkney. Whilst there is somesuggestionthat they may have beensimilar in natureto much of the extant features, it is obvious in the case of Midhowe that there were differences. Internal and external casing walls, which appearon many brochs in Orkney and Caithnessneed not be late; at Crosskirk their early constructionreflecteda seriesof structural weaknesses the inadequate and experienceof the builders in constructinghigh walling. Any isolated broch probably did not stand isolated for long. Outbuildings can be divided roughly into two forms: radial and non-radial. The radial examples (Fig 1) encircle the broch in a regular fashion, a passageleading through them to the broch. which is usually surroundedby a narrow encircling passage; there is a very full useof all the available spacebetween the broch and its surroundingoutworks, where theseCxiSL The non-radial form may have arisen very early in the development of brochs (as at Crosskirk where outbuildings were constructedprior to the period of Roman artefacLs, and possibly as early as 200 BC). This is in contrast to the Orcadian SitCSWith outbuildings, where Romanartefactsmay be associated with their earliestlevels. In some casesnon-radial outbuildings may precederadial outbuildings (as possibly in phase6 at Howe). Whilst the non-radial arrangementmay be early, it is virtually impossible to assess the date of many of the sub-circular and sub-rectangularbuildings which surroundthe brochs, most particularly those in Caithness which were excavated in the nineteenth by century, or whose presenceis suggested fieldwork alone. In Caithnessthere is little evidence for the radially disposed settlement seen in Orkney, despite the fact that outbuildings are equally common in c3charea.However, there is occasionalevidencefor are an encircling passage, and extendedentrances common, but the complexeson either side Of them are amorphousand tend to exhibit a wider range of building types than is seen in Orkney. It is not known if later Iron Age structures are chronologically distinctive in Caithness,and there is virtually nothing to compare the buildings around the broch with. Artcfacts are no more helpful becausethe contexts Of either Roman or suggestively MIA ariefacts have never been ascribed specifically to any of the Out structures. Returning to the examplesof radial Outbuildings,the dating evidencefor theserests almost'exclusivcly on the evidence from Howe (Carter et al 1984). Gurness(Hedges 1987 11)and Midhowe (Callander and Grant 1934)(Foster in prep a). Hedges(1987 111, 14) estimatesthat 20 out of 52 of his Orkney broch population have evidencefor well. Ordered outbuildings. On the basisof presentevidence,Outbuildingselsewheretend to be Of the non-radial type, although it is not always possible to distinguish the two on the basisof fieldwork alone. Hedges' work suggests that someof the Outbuildingsassociated with brochs in Orkney have beenbuilt in the samephaseof construction as the broch,or are near contemporaryafterthoughts.because layout of some Of the oubuildingsand the the broch is by and large Systematic.and their floor areas,fittings and furnishings arc comparable(1987 11-111). Opinion on the date of the outbuildings has vacillated from LIA (see for example summary of antiquarianactivity in Orkney: [ledges 1987 Ill, 130-51) to MIA (Childe 1946,90) to LIA (Hamilton 1966,111; Ritchie and Ritchie 1981). but in generalmore recent opinion again favours a MIA horizon (Ritchie 1988). Whilst many undatednonradial outbuildings may be LIA, the redatingof radial structuresnow generates moreof a gap in the LTA settlementrecord. Still. whateverone's stancein the debateabout how 36
soon after the construction of the broch the outbuildings were erected, it cannot be disputed that the brochand outbuildingsco-existedat somepoint. functioning as a unity. Contemporarywith the brochsare likely to have been someroundhouscs and more fragile settlement types which are not so obvious on the ground, particularly the settlements associated with earth-houses.The extent to which tile northern MIA vicinity of brochscannotbe gauged. population lived in or in the immediate
n-177-
LINGRO
UNPHASED
GURNESS
BROCH PERIOO 0 13. '00 -1 1
N4-
P"ASE
HO
E
7
PERIODS
% MIDHOWE
1.2 &
UNDETERMINED
Fig. 1. Plans of brochs with nu&ated settlements (after Hedges 1987 11. RCAMS 1946 11; Carter el al 1984; Callander and Grant 1934). 37
The Late Iron Age I The LIA I marks the time when the brochsceasedto be occupiedas anythingother than temporary workshops or for less monumentaldomestic structures.The function of the broch sites had probably beenchanging up to this time, althoughthe brochmight still be in use, for example outworks were not being maintained.Settlement eithercontinued on Often similar the broch site in a modified manner, or was createdde nova elsewhere. structural forms are found on both. The LIA I is takento end in the early seventh century when more distinctive ariefactsand buildings appear. Some mention has already been made of the problems in assessinghow long modified occupation continued on brochs. This is perhapsthe period of which least is known becauseit is very difficult to recognisein both anefacLual structuralterms. and There are few artefact types which can be specifically assignedto the fourth, fifth and sixth centuries, and post-broch horizons were always the most summarily treatedby earlier excavators. ThroughOUtthe Atlantic [A continuity is exhibi(ed in much of the material culture (for example see Hedges 1987 111,44-47). Some pins and combs (Stevenson 1955; Foster in prep b), brooches (Fowler 1963). class I storiesand art mobilier decoratedwith Pictish symbols, parallelopipeddice and pointed pebblesinay belong to this period, but unfortunately not exclusively. Where theseartefacts occur on broch sites it is only rarely possible to associatethem with specific building forms. RecentC- 14 dateshelp clarify this period (Fosterin prep a and b). Following the N11Athere is a markedabsence C-14 datesfrom Orkney,Caithness of and Sutherland which covers the LIA I (circa cal AD 230-625). In Orkney this section into comprises the post-brochlevels at Howe (phase8), which scarcelytrespass the post 600 (LIA 11)period, and a date for the abandonment a late roundhouse Skaill. Th6 of at the absenceof dates in Caithnessand Sutherlandis easily explained because sampleis too small. A large number of datesfall in this time spanelsewherein Scotland.Thereis nothing abnormal about the stretch of the Trondheim curve covering this period and it be concluded that this low point in the C-14 date spansfor Orkney,Caithness and must Sutherlandcan best be explainedby the history of previousexcavation,namelya lack of is clementof LIA I settlement samplesfrom broch or post-brochlevels. A considerable (Fairhurst probably on broch sites, as a fourth century sherdfrom Crosskirk may suggest 1984). At present there is no daLingevidencethat non-brochsites,such as Pool, extend back any further than about the fourth or fifth centuriesAD. As yet the sampleof sitesis too small, and both post-brochand non-brochsettlements may be expected fill this gap to one day. Nor need it surprise us if some broch outbuildings are found to havehad an extrem; ly extended life span - at Pool a small (probably muld-celled) unit has been demonstratedto have beenoccupiedover a number of centuries(perscomm Hunter).It is not always possible to recognisechangesin structural form on broch sitesbecause of the tendencyto reuseearlier structures,but the generalimpressionat Howe is of a series of interconnecting sub-circular and sub-rectangular rooms with yards. There is no evidencefor any more than a couple of domesticunits. A new type of settlementwas,dcvclopedde novo on some non-brochsites.At Pool excavation of a settlement mound has revealed substantial prehistoric settlement underlying Norse halls and byres of the ninth to thirteenth centuries(ArchaeolExtra; Hunter pers comm). Here, in about the fourth or fifth centuries AD a roundhouse and associatedbuildings precededby a probable souterrain and associated structure,were built into Neolithic middens underlying the site. This then developedinto a cellular settlement of adjoining and interconnecting roundhousesand smaller circular cells. Perhaps most of the site fidd eroded into the sea, but there is certainly no reasonto Suggest any broch settlementin the immediatevicinity. Indeedit seems that this cellular type of complex may be paralleledat HowMae,North Ronaldsay(Traill W 1885;Traill I 38
in 1890).This site (Fig 2) was excavated the 1880sand consistsof an unphased complex of roundhouses,one possibly a wheelhouse(unique so far in Orkney and Caithness), courtyards,and a long rectangularform which can also be paralleledat Pool (seebelow). Ilowmae is undated,but there is nothing in its artefactualassemblage contradict a date to of of about 300-600AD. The absence any distinctive LIA 11artefactsperhapsweighs in favour of this date. It thus seemsthat settlement mounds are characteristic of LIA settlement. The number of domestic units which might have been extant in any one settlementat a single time is unknown, but the presenceof iritcrconnectingcourtyards hints at a degreeof complexity not immediatelyapparentin their amorphousplans.
lom I
STONES ON EDGE
,0
IST UNDER
It has recently beenrecognised that certain oblong or rectangularbuildings may be of pre-Norse,most notably the oblong wagsof Caithness, which Langwell and Forseare the only excavatedexamples(Curle 1912; 1941,1946; 1948), but r6cent survey on the Dunbeathestatesuggests further examples(Morrison 1986).Wags have long beenheld to be unique to Caithness, more particularly the parishesof Latheron and Dunbcath,but an increasingnumberof vaguelysimilar structuresare now being discoveredin Orkney where thereis a growing body of evidencefor their LIA pedigree:from sixth to seventh
39
century levels at Pool, early phase8 at Howe; and possibly at the Broughof Birsay (for examplestructure 15. Hunter 1986,56). The structureat Howe with its stalls is probably domesticrather than a byre (pers comm B Smith, contra Carteret a[ 1984,68-69)and such an intepretationis not implausible for many of the other Orcadiansub-recmngular forms. If for a moment we turn our attentionsto the Udal in the WesternIsles it will be seen that here there is evidencefor different non-broch settlementforms which may date to cal AD 140-660(Q- 1131; Crawford and Switsur 1977,Crawford 1986).At this time the settlementshifts and the structureand artefact types changeso abruptly that Crawfordis compelled to think in terms of an invasion. In levels XIV-XIII (the levelsare numbered beginning from die most recent), the levels prc-dating the seventhcentury the buildings take the form of simple, oval bellied buildings with small satellite ceils, slab-lined hearthslying along the long axis, and a single internal revettedplatform. Until the site is published it is impossible to assessif these buildings bear any relationship to those around brochs in the north, or if they are indeed the by-product of an immigrant population (in addition, as the concept of the unitary broch culture province dissolves. the validity of suchcomparisonscan be queried). The Late Iron Age II
steep section in the C-14 calibration curve begins at around cal AD 625, as a result of which a disproportionally large number of C-14 dates are calibrated to within a range of a few calendrical the LIA is broken up into years (Foster in prep a). Effectively two periods on either side of around AD 625. The later bracket is henceforth described -Is LIA 11, although, in Orkney at least, Early Medieval might be equally appropriate. Thus divisions imposed upon these data, this is the one most designed of all the chronological to suit the archaeologist. None the less, from the seventh century the Atlantic Province is Starting to acquire an Early Historic mande and much of the evidence points to a rapidly developing Pictish church and state. To date the most distinctive forms are the polyventral LIA II structural cells (Fig 3) discovered throughout the Atlantic Province, primarily on de novo settlements. The main exponent of these forms occur in levels XII and XI at the Udal. In level YJI the buildings (1986) describes as a take a more symmetric, 'ladybird-like' plan which Crawford house (cf Loch na Berie: Topping 1986). In phase XI these forms were ventral house. Many of these houses hence the polyventral embellished with minor satellites, were enclosed by timber palisades, which were obviously one example very significant, going through at least ten replacements. A sequence of adjacent enclosures is strung Out along the machair ridge, but no details are available at present of their chronological intcr-relationships. At all periods since phase XIV there buildings accompanied by were minor buildings, fourposters. Ile latter have not ben recognised elsewhere. Buildings Udal have also been recovered in buildings similar to the ventral at the Orkney, as at Buckquoy 1983. Fig 6). At (Ritchie 1977, Fig 2) and Red Craig (Morris is not Buckquoy there is a greater axiality in ale arrangement of the rooms. although this seen in the example which was 6und in the upper levels at Gurness (Hedges 1987 11, Fig 2.11). The Udal dates for these particular buildings as they suggest that are interesting. this form may have a pre-seventh century pedigree. although most other evidence points to their later date (note also a dendrochonologically derived terminus post quem Of 648 AD from a timber version Ireland: Lynn 1989). Curved gullies of this form in Northern trenches of major at Birsay are best interpreted robbed foundation as the thoroughly facings and thick turf walls (Hunter cellular had internal orthostatic structures which form. 1986.37-45,111 10-14), but are otherwise fairly similar in form to the polyvcntral There is no evidence the midfor the settlement Lhe Brough of Birsay pre-dating at A lengthy
40
seventh century at the earliest (ibid. 61). It will now be obvious why non-broch of settlementand non-scttlcment moundactivity of this dateis difficult to detau, because building techniquesare such that the relative slightnessof the structures,and because robbing would leavethe formertotally unevidenced.
paving H hearth
HH
H ? #0
Ac
B0
lom
Fig. 3. Plans ofpolyventral structures: A Backquoy house 4 (after Ritchie 1977, Fig 3); B Brough of Birsay structure 19 (after Hunter 1986, ill 11); C Red Craig (afier Aforris 1983Fig 6; Hunter 1986,ill 3).
form has been recognisedon site Vill at the Brough of Birsay A roundhouse-type (!bid, structure 21,11117) which is assumedto be LIA 11.On site VII at Birsay it is interestingto notethat a drain divided two buildings from eachother (ibid, III 11), and is buildings. perhaps of suggestive further divisions between On the basisof certainpins andcombs(Stevenson 1955;Fosterin prep a and b) there was evidently Someactivity on broch sites in the LIA IL In Orkney we are perhaps for seeingthe preference selectivereuseof siteswhich haveboth massiveoutworks and surrounding settlements, sites which may by implication have been of especial importancein the NUA. At presentno suchpauememerges from the Caithness evidence. However. it remains to be emphasisedthat there has been little excavation on late occupied brochs. Tlere is little evidence that a site was used both for burial and a domesticpurpose, is themany evidencefor any LIA I activity on thesesites usedfor nor burial. `fhe implication is thereforethat a large numberof thesebrochssites weregrassy moundsby the Limathey cameto be reusedasburial sites,althoughthe former presence of LIA sealcmentin the immediatevicinity of the broch moundcan unfortunatelynot as yet be verified. Ilia collapseof broch and surroundingstructuresmight havecreatedso much debris diat it was more convenientto build adjacentto the motuid, which is not 41
degredationis where archaeologiststend to investigate,but is wheremost subsequent likely to take place (as at Howe wherethere are suggestions features runningoff into of the ploughedout areawhich surrounded mound:perscomm B Smith). the Analysis of Spatial Patterns in Buildings Ile gamma (henceforth access)analysis of Hillier and Hanson (1984) is a meansof investigatingthe relationshipbetween of spatial order andsociety.It looksat the patterns relations betweeninhabitantsandbetweeninhabitants strangers they are reflected as and in the useof interior space,in termsof the patternscreated boundaries entrances. by and Whilst one can find faults in the tenents is behind the technique, formal approach One the which can be adapted Socialinferences be can and modified for archaeological purposes. derived from the spatial order by circumspectconsideration the assumptions behind of every step of the technique, and a clear understandingof the relationship between material culture and social reproduction.All discoursehas a spatial element (Barrett 1988) and thereforeaccessanalysisis a useful tool for articulating an understanding of the part spaceplays in structuringsocial relations, and the part social relationshave in how this structuring spice (Foster 1989).The aim of the next sectionis to demonstrate technique can be used to further an understandingof our period, and to develop in tandema social interpretation. The prehistoricstructuresof Orkney and Caithness provide one of the bestdatabases with which to do this because often have informationabout the form and function of we the constituentspaces.Here, despitesubsequent of robbingand other vagaries time, the wide availability of natural building blocks has resultedin the unprecedented survival ot prehistoricstructures, prehistoricresourceunrivalledin the British Isles. a The Theory and Technique A building is madeup Of walls the which define a seriesof enclosedspaces, boundaries betweenwhich may be broken by doorways from one area to another. allowing access The importanceof doors is not only that they open, but more importantly that they can close. effectively segregating spaces and controlling the means of access to any particular point. Access analysis is based on syntactic relations, and considers the arrangementof different spacesas a pattern of permeabilities,that is in terms of the interconnections betweenspaces.This techniqueis important because its descriptive of 3utonomy,unambiguous rules of application,and its clearexpositionof how theserelate at the very lowest level to relations between inhabitants,and betweeninhabitantsand strangers.Societieswhich might vary in their type of physical configurationand degree to which the ordering of spaceappears a conspicuous dimensionof culture, can all be as comparedon a similar basis.This is particularly useful if we are trying to comparethe social practicesa building wasdesignedto cover rather thanits architecturaltraits. The technique is Bu
explained with Elie use of the example of the EIA roundhouse at (Fig 4). Each has been represented as a dot unit of space. inclyding transitional spaces, with lines between them where there is giving access between spaces (Fig permeability, 4A). Each space is usually an area which is enclosed by orthosEats, with access either through doorways (as in the case of Fig 4B x), or over low kerbs (v) where the access lines may therefore appear to be jumping walls. The central 'service area' (y) is defined by a low kerb because the and gives access to the hearth (z); it is divided into two -as smafler north Section is partly (Hedges 1987 1, Fig paved and the distribution of artefacts 1.57) may suggest that the southern half had a different function to the northern half. Area w is treated as a single space because the central orthostat was not designed to break the space into two distinct components, and because of the extent of floor deposits which are more Or less specific to this area (Ibia). The network of dots and connecting
42
lines forms an unjustified accessmap. TIN map can be justified. in this case from an outside perspective(the carrier), the stanceof the suanger (Fig 4C), although it could have beenfrom any point in the building. By justification it is meantthat all points of a certaindepth, that is the minimum numberof stepstakento reachthem from the carrier, have been positioned on the same horizontal line, subsequentdepth values on lines parallel to the first. Given the rules of construction any line will either connect with by points on the same level of depth, or two levels separated only one level of depth. The resultant map is both an aid to visual deciphermentof the pattern, and could in (an theory be combinedwith quantificationprocedures aspectwhich is not pursuedhere).
A, t
posited
access
\
\
I I I
carrier transitional
space space
room/compartment
II
0
space
with
hearth
Fig. 4. A Plan of Bu indicating points of access (after Iledges 1987 1: Fig 1.10); 8 a" with unjustified access (gamma) map superimposed(access to hearth omitted); C Justified accessmap with labelled spaces.
because open spaces cannot be so are easier to study than settlements readily separated into analytical elements (Hillier and Hanson 1984,16), and the richness in differentiation of interior structures means that they carry more social information (ibid. 154). So, once spaces are defined, the spatial order of a than exterior relations structure can be represented in part by a diagram showing the interconnections of the for analysis is therefore an accurate map with all access enclosed spaces. A prerequisite points marked. Form (the formal properties ofspace and the boundaries which dcfine it its style) and function (the purpose of buildings) must also be embraced. In practice it is Buildings
43
virtually impossibleto make a distinction betweentheseattributes(Markus 1982.4-6;cf Johnson1988,117). Hillier and Hanson(1984) minimise the interactivenatureof these becauseof their apparent belief in the analytical autonomyof the spatial dimension. if However. theseother arcWtecturaldimensionshave to be brought into consideration the full archaeologicalvalue of access analysisis to be appreciated. Social Inference From AccessAnalysis in It has been argued elsewhere(Foster 1989) that the applicationof thew techniques, combination with evidencefor architecturalform and function,can impart two levelsof Firstly it allows us to consider the reality of living in, or visiting, spatial understanding. that particular building. Interior spaces constitute commonly inhabitedlocalesof social interaction. Access analysis allows us to consider how frequently and under what architecturalcircumstances physical encountermight occur and thus illuminate the way that particular architecture structures social discourse. Secondly we may comparea number of spatial patterns to reveal the possible existenceof underlying genericrules which govern the generationof thesepatterns. In this study the designation of a space depends on the physical presenceof a doorway. or crossing a low kerb or ramparts.It is also depends, a large measure, on to the ascribedfunction of an area-, is obviously important to distinguishan enclosed it area where sleeping rather than storage might have Lakenplace. Areas with hearthsare especiallyrelevant.The recognition of functional zones,evenif only derinedby what in another period might have been described as furniture, is an obvious archaeological progressionon a techniqueevolved for upstanding'historic' structures. Orkney and Caithness c 600 BC-AD 800 In Figs 4-6 various typesof settlementhavebeendrawn asjustified gammamapswith an of extendedvocabulary of symbols to representthe different typesof spaceand means Theseaccessmaps thereforeincorporateinformation aboutthe spatialproperties access. of the settlements and the potential functionsof someareas.Moreoverby the useof open and closed symbols differing architectural types, where relevant, have also been in indicated. The result is an all-embracing considerationof the architecturepresented convenientdiagrammaticform. In the early first millennium BC the population either lived in thick-walled roundhouses, which tended to be sited in isolation or in small clustersof thinner wailed roundhouses or lobate multi-cellular structures. Gradually the thicker-walled roundhousesdeveloped into increasingly elaborate architectural forms, ultimately the broch, as competition in society led to the local pre-eminenceof certain residential groups(Hedges 1987111). Both typesof roundhousewere clearly domesticbuildings,the only difference being in scale and the amount of effort put into their construction, signifying which inhabitantswere more powerful. This distinction is almostundoubtedly the result of the ability to manipulate primary agricultural resources. indeed the appearanceof earth-houscs emphasisesthe importance of food storage at this time (Sharples 1984,121). Thus the potential for social diversification and development would always have beengreaterin Orkney and Caithnessthanother arm of the Atlantic Province because the land was fertile enough to maintain large populations and the competitive demands of production and consumption. Elsewhere the piecemeal distribution of natural discrete social units with less resources tended to produce Potentialfor development. Ile authority of this new dominating 'would be explicitly statedin the social elite ritual Of legitimisaLionand in the symbols of power displayed,but that authority would also be implicit in, amongstother things, the paymentof tribuLe'.Thus as Barrett (1981. 44
215) goeson to say. the acceptance new authority might be mobilised in the labour of of building the brochs and its enclosing ramparts. Prior to this the distinction in scale betweenthe roundhouses and the adding of extra claddings to the walls may have been equally significant. Thesebuildings were not simply constructedfor extra warmth and/or defence and/or status, but in the process of their construction actors were brought together who demonstrated their acceptanceof authority whilst at the same time ramifying or creating the basison which this power was established. Ultimately the result was the broch, the residenceof the social elite which may in of caseshave formed from the amalgamation certain social groupings.for certainly some brochsdevelopedinto fully fledged brochs, and it may have not all roundhouses/early in been necessary muster resources order to gain superiority over rival social units. to The secondarydouble domesticunits at Gurnessand Midhowe suggestthat a couple of domestic units, perhaps kin groups, might have amalgamated. The infilling of the roundhouses at Pierowall and Quanternessmay be the result of conflict between competinglineages(Sharples1984,121).Factorssuchas raiding or land hunger (cf Scott but for 1947)are not directly responsible thesechanges, could be catalystsfor changesin the rules by which discoursewas enacted,and society continued to 'beconie' (cf Pred 1985). In Caithnessa large numberof roundhouse sites existing on the ground do not exhibit later development,and thereare relatively few brochsin Caithnesswhich appear that only certain earlier sites on the surface to be new foundations.Again this suggests maintained the economic and social impetus to allow settlement to continue uninterrupted(Mercer 1985,10). A similar patternmay exist in Orkney. notably when and/or burnt mound sites occur in close proximity to each severalbroch or roundhouse other. The general picture is thus of the increasingconvergenceof land and societal control under powerful groupingswho symbolisedand accumulatedtheir power within the broch. The fact that there was continuity of developmenton particular sites may suggestmaintenanceof social networks. land organisationand territorial patterns, and communities(ibid, 10). proprietalrights with antecedent At Turning to the spatialaspects. somegeneraltrendscan be observed. the immediate from Early Iron Age single,agricultural and domestic units visual level, the development (such as Bu, Fig 4) to Middle Iron Age nucleated settlements (Fig 5) reveals the introduction of a staggeringhierarchicaluse of space.The maps becomeconsiderably deeper(more asymmetric),and the deepest, most segregated area is always the set of spaces which constitute the broch. Upper galleriesand upperstoreys,featuresnot found Their usagemay have leastaccessible in the outbuildings, are the very deepest, spaces. included storage,extra sleepingfacilities and wallheadsfrom which surveillance might be made.Unfortunately theseare die partsof the structureaboutwhich least is known as they were always the first to collapseor be dismantled,and the total numberof original floors is not known. If the majority of activities and functions was in the upper storeys then obviously their exact naturecan neverbe assessed the ground plans tell us less and (althoughit seemsmost probablethat the groundfloor was the main domesticforum). Ile larger the access maps,then the more abstractand complicated they become to analyse, and it is helpful to break them down, for instance by dividing them into distributed ('ringy') and nondistributed('tree-like') sub-systems(as Gurness: Foster 1989,Fig 6). On the veri outside,globally governingthe interior, are earthworkswhich extendthe depth betweenthe inside and outsideworlds, evenif in somecasesthey only than real rings, that is their circuit is 'completed' by natural create abstrart rather features. Access to the interior proper has to be via the 'guardhouse' or forecourt, a convex space;this is where the transition from the outside world to an inner relatively environment is sanctioned.From here ingressis made into a long thin passagefrom to which access both outbuildingsand brochcanbe made.In the casesof Gurness,Ilowe 45
. -.
--.
180
o*M
0-
en
ci
t:
E3 0=00.
-
CL
ED oo-4 *
LLJ e
Middle Iron Age nucleatedsejIlements(reversedlopen Fig. 5. Justified access(gamma) mapsjor brochfrom other structures): A Gurness, B llowe, * C MidhOlvesymbols distinguish the
46
LL
ED 0
pe
0---
(1
Fig. 6. Justified access(gamma)mapsfor LJA structures.A Ilowmae; D Howe phase8. stage6.' C Gurness 'Shamrock', D Udal level XIVAIII, E Udal level XII, F Udal level XfI, G * Buckquoy Key arfor Fig 5. phase1b.A-D are LLI 1,E. H are MA 11. phase11;H Buckquoy
47
and Lingro (as suggested an early sectionof walling: RCAMS 1946IT. Fig 230) the by entrance into the settlement and the broch entrance are aligned. which Must have From here the Outbuildings enhancedthe processionallike qualities of thesepassages. in spaces constitute a local, large and almost totally nondistributedarea of settlement, wtdCh Strangerscannot freely circulate and into which they must be invited. Such branchingoff thuscreatesthe maximum segregation spaceswith the leastexpenditure of of depth, both between and within domestic units. Entrance to and between the outbuildings is mainly by means of this passage,therefore most movementcan be monitoredby control of its varioussections. From this first narrow passage which is access gainedto the next ring, a passageway be encircles the broch (except at Howe). This ring is at the point where ingresscan gained to further nondisLributed spacesat a slightly deeper level. Ringy structures interconnectsomeapartments Accessto the broch interior is from the and outbuildings. by initial passage, about the samelevel but is deepened at as someof the outbuildings, The guard Cells,an elaboratedoorway into a long tunnel.and a seriesof vestibules. form Of the architectureis particularly relevant;the monumentalityof the broch-towerand its elaborateentrancecontrast starkly with the less substantialoutbuildings. all of which appearvery simdar in form, serving to heightenthe discrepancybetweenthesespaces. Onceinside the brochthe final from all is encountered, which is separated ringy structure the others by severaldepth levels. This is quite complex in the caseof the doubledomestic units at Hilhowe and the later levels at Gurness.The rings connectthe maindomin estic foci (the hearthareas)and the upperlevels. Cells and compartments arranged are non-distributedfashionfrom theserings, in similar fashionto the outbuildings. From the point of view of strangers, the overall hierarchical layout and the differencesin architecturalform have done nothing to encouragetheir admissionto the broch. Therefore, its interior is unlikely to have had a major role it, ringy system. articulating immediate stranger-inhabitant relations, but was probably a means of articulating the relationshipsbetweenthe different domestic units, where they existed. The ringy sub-systems the Outbuildings in have played a similar role, but here would thereis a greateremphasis the non-distributed on component. From the point of view of social structurea numberof observations be madeon can the basisof this information. Despitesomesimilarities with the outbuildings.the broch obviously standsout as the most importantareain the settlementcomplexbecause its Of spatialImportance.its Prime locationand its monumentality.If it were not for the double domesticunits, and the spaces associated with the upper levels of the broch. then they would differ little from the earlier roundhouses. Of This, in combinationwith the degree controlled accessto the Outbuildings and their apartments, which are almostexclusively segregated,may suggestthat the social structure on which thesenew relations were foundedrequiredsoict control In order to be bOLh and established maintained. Taking an overview, the observedsystemsserveto emphasise social inequalities the existing between the broch and outbuilding occupants, and the settlement and the Outsida,the latter distinction being the strongest.Local relations betweenthe internal has Cellsare basically the sameexceptfor the broch; the factor of non interchangeabilitY beenintroducedbetweenthe broch and its all surroundingunits. Thus this is more of a transPatialthanspatial system.In other words the emphasis on spatialrelationswhich is have been determined by genotypic rules and produce the required restrictions of encounter,even though eachphysical manifestationof theserules is different. What is EOin c-model is global, becauseit recurs, and as a result transpadal ration can exist between arrangements (settlement complexes) form layout and comparablepositioning may foster a conceptual of identification (Ilillier and Hanson1984,238). 48
the (1982) estimates a carrying capacity of about 100-200 people it is not possible to measure the size of a broch in Shetland. Unfortunately surrounding capacity of the land was being and the extent to which the carrying the populations but increasingly, and from early days in the history of the brochs, a realised at any stage, large number of dependents came to live around the brochs. 7be greater the authority and the larger the number of dependents they could both of the broch inhabitants wealth The most powerful leaders could muster the resources to lay out and attract and support. and on a build planned, integrated. nucleated villages. Under less formal circumstances, Early brochs are seen as being outbuildings were built. lesser scale, non-radial with various roundhouse seulements, and not all broch sites were of equal contemporary from area to area, Ile pace of this development may have varied considerably standing. was not necessarily unilineal. In a time of great change social tensions must have and been strong between different groups, and it was in the interests of the social elite to fold, and preferably them where they to accommodate attract more dependents to their could be easily accounted and provided for. Fojut
land to cultivable sited with access were as the main consideration Fojut 1982; Mercer 1985). It is presumed 1947,1948, (Scott that all inhabitants, even have been involved in the production probably would of food. craftsmen, in the broch Ultimately there was a change the result system, of a renegotiation of by extending the authority was achieved which cultural resources. of certain or relations, Most brochs
In addition the inhabitants of a single settlement may feel a strong sense of identity because they share a structured whole with others. Furthermore, the with each other code of repetitive nature of these patterns may be representing the acknowledgement ofa in this case spatially determined, by which those in the broch sustained their symboLs, the inhabitants of the outbuildings. The ordered layout of the outbuildings authority over laid out as a unity use of space further suggests that these were and the comprehensive the broch inhabitants, rather than being the result of the cumulative under the authority of basic structuring principle. lbeir construction is thus a construction of outbuildings to a the symbol by which the authority of the bruch inhabitants was both accepted and part of The emphasis is on the articulation of these relations at the intra-site level, but as created. a part of a wider society with similar values. for land
(cf Barrett forth). Certainly by rejecting the broch was once current authoritative symbols although settlement of some form occupied, seems to have continued on many no longer for which least is known but there I is the period record, of the settlement sites. The LIA in is certainly of structures on social grounds no indication which can be differentiated is not knGwn, but it would be too The exact date of this change Orkney and Caithness. interests in Scotland. Yet as the to relate this to the withdrawal of Roman easy to attempt recorded prime Romans never there was 1987,2-3). the source of authority any in the control north in exercised base a power the this period, in the area, this the cannot classical be ignored. literature Although the that suggests (I'bornson conquering worth had become clients aristocracy have been sufficient to topple
which
of their patronage might withdrawal (Macinnes 1994). brochs as is suggested was the case for the Lowland this social system, leaders of their the needs and demands local When able to satisfy were thus no longer bases to from the local power dependents, of relations the resuli was the renegodadon the social those where The only, broch distant were continued sites which ones. more broch in this new system; certain presumably to derive power to continue managed elite of sites were still the major Britain Fifth century of the withdrawal post-Romart as in centres. in general was experiencing shift as an rea time of settlement both the continent from and btland. doit the is no reason to believe there
and Romans,
the archaeology
supports
sult Yet
49
earlier social structuredid not survive, albeit in modified form. Certainlythe aggression suggests of the Picts againstsouth Britain, recordedfrom the We third centuryonwards, that the individual componentsof their society were able to producebetweenthena naval force to be reckonedwith. The appearance forts. notably Burghead. with 3 coas' of a tal distribution from the fifth century onwards, not (Alcock 1980,80-81).suggests OOY concentration of resources into fort construction, but is a part of the.discontinuity in Witnessed the settlement Pictland. record throughout Very little is known of social but the term regulus wasusedto describe stratification, a sub-king or minor king of Orkney who was visiting the rex potentissiln"s near Invernessin AD 565. The picture is thus of a systemof local kings with one, presented piciland or possibly two overkings.Certainly the uniformity of symbol storiesthroughout (the majority of which probably date to the LIA U) that emphasises therewas a certain cultural cohesionthroughoutthe area(RiLchie1985,189). By the seventhcentury there is at increasingbody of evidencefor settlement this an time having been made up of individual, discrete the Birsay Bay units, such as around area (Morris 1983,132). Only one site, at the Brough of Birsay can bee forwardas a Put Particularly important centre, but then on the basisof its finds, locationand subsequent importance in the Norse (Curie 1982; distinguishing structures period, rather than any Hunter 1986). The lack of farmland on the island renders interpretation as a simple farmstead unsatisfactory (Hunter 1986,169). inhabitants must have been and the dependent a hinterland.The Perhaps on settlements aroundthe Birsay Bay may therefore be interpretedas a seriesof home farms dependent providingfor theneeds settlements or we of this establishment.They may thereforenot be totally typical of the settlements may expect to find i. re-use There was someselective scwherein Orkney and Caithness. of broch sites, but on presentevidencethis only occurredon a few sites.in Orkneythe selective reuse of sites for secular and ecclesiastical purposes which were probably particularly important in the MIA (see above) may be a means of legitimising and enforcing a new social structure(cf Bradley 1987). In the Post-broch coriod (Fig 6) the accessmaps revert to forms which are very similar to the shallow EIA examples, units exceptthat in the LIA ii someof thedomestic are enclosedby fenc.s. creatinga seriesof discreteunits which are sometimes clustered in space.In other words the basic domestic units remain very similar throughoutour Period,despitedifferent architecturalshells; evenin the MIA they do not Change. except In that they are bound togetherspatially with strongly prescribedlines of access. spatial is terms the only differencebetweenthe thin and thick walled EIA roundhouses in their degreeOf associationwith other structures and their monumentality. is In the LIA the emphasisthus changesfrom internal to externalspace,and there, a trend towards more egalitarian. less spatially prescribed. on-site relations. However. between thesechangeswere undoubtedlyaccompanied a stricter control of the spaces by sites as a result of new forms of land organisaLion.In terms of social evolution this changecorrespondsto the shift from a ranked society to the emergentstate,from local power basesto more distant 6urcesof authority. By the eighth century there are hints that Pictish kings were developing some of the organisational capacity to manage2 widespreadkingdom. which was gradually acquiring someof the appearance a state, of with a degreeof central administration and perhapsmore closely-definedboundaries, which could at times be backedby physical violence (cf Mann 1986,37). In AD 727 there is a referenceinterpretedas meaning that Nechtin had officers called exactores. Personscollecting tax or tribute (Annals of Ulster, sub anno 728; Anderson1973,178). and it is probable that such officers worked as the king's representatives throughout Pictland. Such people lived in isolation from those from whom they were exacting tribute. benefiting considerablyfrom the enhanced powerswhich they derivedfrom their 50
is Still in this case hillforts. whilst the construction architecture, of monumental a material symbol of the acceptance of authority. this power is now more physically remote. Whilst there am still regionally based sources of authority, these am seemingly few in nurnber, and their power is structured and reproduced in a different manner. There is no longer the need for tightly regulated social encounter. the existence and acceptance determined social rules, or indeed the ability to maintain such a network. of physically The relationship of dependency is no longcr cxpressed in such overtly spatial terms and enhanced personal encounter contributes to the working of this extensive social network. That the maintenance of these long-distance relations was diffiCUIL is suggested by die fact that king Brude was reputed to have destroyed the Orkneys in AD 682 (Tigernach Annals: Orcadies delete sunt la Bruidbe, Skene 1867,72). which may have resulted from Orradian dissatisfaction with the choice of overlords, or auempts to exact tributes. The secular reuse of important MIA sites may in part be an attempt to legitimise and therefore enforce this far-flung network. Similarly the introduction of the Roman church with its Pastoral Organisation to Orkney by the southern Pictish king in the eighth century (Lamb 1988; Thomson 1987,10) might be construed as a conscious effort to consolidate secular power through the church. Christianity power whose was a forin of ideological authority resided in the correspondence between its doctrine and the motivations and needs of the converted (Mann 1986,302). Whilst the appeal and influence of Christianity was universal, yet at the same time it reinforced the standing of the extant secular literacy authority: beyond face-to-face provided a stable means of communication relations, and its law and morality represented long distance regulation (ibid 337,377). The extension of the church to Orkney within a few years of AD 715 may effectively date the extension of Pictish royal power, in real terms, to this area (Lamb 1988). Ile distribution of symbol stones and evidence for the ecclesiastical reuse of sites points to those sites where the interests of the social elite were closely tied up with the developing Pictish state and church (ef Driscoll 1988). In a later eighth century or ninth century version of Bede's Ecclesiastical History Orkney was considered to be a part of the Pictish kingdom (Dumville 1976). which by the end of the century may have been consolidated under a single king (Davies 1994, 70). 'Me general absence of mention of Caithness in the documentary sources is probably a reflection of the lesser importance of this area in comparison to the Orkney Isles which were both more accessible and strategically placed in the Atlantic seaways. By the time the Norse arrived Orkney and Caithness were both thoroughly Pictish, but far removed from the prime sources of authority. The regional infra-structure, was thus not adequate enough to make a stand against a Norse takeover, particularly at a It was however a wellPeriod when the powers of the Pictish state were diminishing. both secular and ecclesiastical, oiled system of administration, onto which the Norse Crawford 1987,168). grafted themselves (as in Ireland, England and Normandy: For example, in Orkney theie is evidence that the Norse land-divisions might even have been 1952,208). Lamb suggests (pers related to a pre-Norse administrative system (Marwick comm) that it only became necessary to set up the Jarldom in the ninth century after the ecclesiastical structure ceased to function due to the dismantling o( the Roman Church by the Scottish kings.
positionas agents authority (thereis thusa dialectic betweencentralisingpowers.such of forcesof its agents:Mann 1986).Agentssuchas these as the state,and the decentralising might have levied the fleets which carried out severalrecordedsea-bome attacksin the sixth and seventhcenturies(TigernachAnnals c 68Z- Annals of Ulster c 580-81). and which was wreckedin the eighth(TigernachAnnals c 729). Thus
51
Conclusions All human action is located in both time and space.It is thus appropriatethat a Large proportion of the effort of archaeologists is spent in measuring, describing and recording these attributes. particularly those pertaining to humanly-made-space architecture.Spaceprovides the setting for all social discourse,whether it is the open landscape or an artificial environment. It is a resource with an infinite number of permutations. a cultural resource which when studied in terms of its development through time can be understoodnot only as the context, but also the structuring agent and product of acts of social reproduction. This paper has attemptedto demonstrate this and introduced accessanalysis, as describedabove, as a useful tool for furthering an understanding of the relationship between a specific material culture and social reproduction. The shift from a ranked society where the ultimate authorities were locally based to more remote sources of central authority characterises the developmentof Orkney and Caithnessfrom the MIA to the arrival of the Norse. In his account of the sourcesof social power, Mann (1986) distinguishessix different forms of organisationalpower. Here we are seeing the change from intensivepower. where there was the ability to organize Lightly and commanda high level of mobilisation or commitment from the participants, to extensivepower, where there was the ability to organise large numbers of people over far-flung territories in order to engage in minimally stable co-operation. In order to amplify our expandingpicture of ]A Orkney and Caithness, it now remains to examine how other aspectsof social reproduction fitted w! thin this framework, and to identify the resourcesthrough which this power was exercised. In particular we must examine the means by which the change from local to distant power bases was achieved and maintained, the answer to which undoubtedlylies in changing agricultural practice and land tenureand the introducLion of Christianity (Mann 1986;cf Biddick 1984). Acknowledgements This paper expandsupon the casemade in my note in Antiquity 1989,so I must repeat my thanksto thosewho helped with this, and the editor for permissionto reproduce the relevant sections. In addition I would like to gratefully acknowledtge thosewho have generouslydivulged of their unpublisheddata and ideas, let me use these,and kindly commented on various aspects of this present paper, namely Simon Buteux; Steve Dockrill; Dr John Hunter, Dr Raymond Lamb; Dr Euan MacKie; Roger Mercer Ross Samson. Dr Liz Slater, Beverley Smith; and other colleagues in Glasgow. Professor Leslie Mcock and the Editor, John Barrett, worked hard to comprehensively criticise my text, make suggestions. and amelioratethe worst of my crimes to the English language. Ultimately the final opinions and faults, such as remain,are my own responsibility.
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I-
Haigh, D 1983 A secondearth-houseat Grainbank. St Ola. Orkney. Proc. Soc. Anliq, Scot**113 (1983), 367-72. Hamilton. JRC 1956Excavations Jarishof, Shetland(Edinburgh). at Harnflum. JRC 1966 Forts, brochs and Rivet ed , in northern Scotland iALF wheel-houses The Iron Age in Northern Britain (Edinburgh), 111-30. 1lamilton, JRC 1968Excavationsat Clickhimin, Shetland(Edinburgh). Hedges. JW 1987 Bu, Gurness the Brochs of Orkney (Brit. Archacol. Rep. Brit. Set- 163, and Oxford). 3 volumes. Hillier, B nd Instructiwis to students Bartlett School at ofArchitecture (Typescript)Hillier. B and Hanson,11984 The Social Logic ofSpace (Cambridge). Hunter. JR 1986 Rescueexcavations Brough ofBirsay 1974-82 (Soc. Antiq. ScoL Monogr. on the 4, Edinburgh). Johnson, M11 1988 Late medieval houses in western Suffolk: new directions in the Study Of vernacular architecture,Scot.Archaeol. Rev., 5 (1988), 114-20. Lamb. RG 1988 Church and society in Merovingian times. Paper Lerwick. September1988. read Lynn, C 1989 Deer Park Farms,Current Archaeol.. 113 (1989), 193-98. Macinnes, L 1994 Brochs and the Roman Lowland Scotland, Proc. Soc. Antiq. occupation of Scot., 114 (1984). 235-50. MacKie, E 1974Dun Uor Vaul. An IronAge Broch Tiree. Glasgow. on MacKie, E 1987 Review of Hedges1987 in Antiquity, 61 (1987 492-94. Marau M 1986 The sourcesofsocialpower. IA history beginning to AD 1760 ofpowerfrorn the (Cambridge). Markus, TA (ed) 1982Order in spaceand society (Edinburgh). Marwick. H 1952 Or"farm-names (Kirkwall). Mercer, RJ 1981 Archaeological field in Northern Scotland vol 11 (1980-81) (Dept. survey Archaeol. Occas.paper 7. University of Edinburgh). Mercer. RJ 1985 Archaeological field survey in Northern Scotland vol 1111982-83 (Dept, Archaeol. Occas.paper 11, University of Edinburgh). Morris, CD 1983 Excavations around the Bay of Birsay. in WPL Thomson (ed) Orkney Heritage vol 2 (Kirkwall). 119-5 1. University)* Glasgow Morrison,
A 1986 Dunbeath Survey 1986. Interim Report (Dept of Archaeol, Pred, A 1985 The social becomes enclosures. the sociab the spatial. social the Spatial becomes SkIne in D Gregory and J Un? in the Swedish change and the becoming of of places province (eds), Social relations 296-336. (Basingstoke). andspaiial structures RCAMS andShelland 1946 Tweylh oforkney report with an inventory ofthe ancient monuments (Edinburgh). -I Colonsay Jura, RCAMS 5 Islay, and Volume 1984 Argyll. An inventory Uonuments. of the Oronsay. Renfrew, AC 1979 Investigations in Or" (London). Renfrew, Ritchie, AC 1985 The prehistory (Edinburgh). ofOrkney A 1977 Excavation of Pictish and Viking-age Scot., 108 (1976-77). Antil. 174-227. farmsteads at Buckquoy. Orkney. Proc-
Six. Ritchie, 183-204(edl A 1985 Orkney in the Pictish kingdom. in C Renfrew Ritchie, JNG 1988 Brochs ofScolland (Aylesbury). history (London). Ritchie, JNG and Ritchie, A 1981 Scotland and early archaeology 1-36. SM.. 13 (1947). Scott. WL 1947 The problem brochs, Proc. Prehist. of the PrOc. in the North, Scott. WL culture The aisled round-house 1948 Gallo-British colonies. ' Prehist. Soc.. 14 (1948). 46-125 Proc. Soc. Aniq. Scot., 114 Oierowall Westr2Y. Orkney. Sharpies, NM 1994 Excavations Quarry. at (1984). 75-125. of memorials early Skene, Picts. WF 1867 Chronicles of the Scots, other chronicles of the Scottish history (Edinburgh). Soc., 21 (1955), 282-94. brochs. proc. prehist. Stevenson. RB K 1955 Pins and the chronology of Thomsor% WPL 1987 History (Edinburgh). of Orkney Tigernach 1922. A0 Annals Anderson. Arc haeo 1nAn U& Berie interim Topping, Traigh rt sL (Dep repo P 1986 Dun Bhurabhat na and Report 1986, University Edinburgh).
54
TrAill. 11890 Notes Howmae. 1890, proc. Soc. Antiq- Scot, 24 on the further excavations of (1889-90). 451-61. TTIIA W 1885 Notice Homan", in North Ronjds"Y, Odcoey, of excavationsat Stenabreckand Proc.Soc.Antiq. Sco(, 19 (1884-85), 14-33. Whittle,A 1986 Scord Brouster. An Shetland (oxford Uni. of early agricultural settlenwnt on CO-M. Archaeol.Monogr. 9, Oxford). Ovrevik- 1985'Me S secondmillennium and after in Scotland.in C Renfrew(ed), 131-49.
COMMUNITY AND SELF: PERCEPTIONS AND USE OF SPACE IN MEDIEVAL MONASTERIES RobertaGilchrist* ThisPaper Within in examines useof architectural socialdifferences the space expressing monasticsettlements.The subject of the analysis is the evolving perceptionof the conceptof community In medieval English monasticism. In its desert Origins. the monasticismof fourth century Egypt and Syria found both eremitic and coenobitic developed a expressions. Betweenthe fifth and seventhcenturies,westernmonasticism coenobitic: form which tempered individual isolationwith group living. From the extant rules followed by medievalmonastics, particular the Rule Of St in Benedict,the letters Jerome Augustine, and the Scriptures themselves,it is of and Possible glimpse the ideal internal structure of coenobiLiccommunities. Tie real to from observances a particular houseover the periodof its occupationmay be gleaned of historical documentation (account rolls. references in wills to a house, bishop's visitations), archaeological excavation and formal methods for quantifying spatial patterning. Accessand movementwithin a monasticcontextcan be approached through the study of modem contemplative monasticism.This last approachdraws on direct historicanalogy,a methodof interpretingarchaeological materialby seekinganalogues With contemporary cultures to which the past culture is historically linked. The ethnoarchaeological approachto monasticismattemptedhere refers to the study of a modern contemplative communityliving in a restored and medievalmonastery following theRule to which the housewasoriginally committed. Monasticperceptions spacearecreated the useof boundaries, by of which maybe of bothreal and ideal nature.Hence,while the boundary a medievalprecinctdemarcated of legal ownership of land, it also symbolisedthe divide betweensecular and religious domains.Spacewas (and is) used to regulateencountersbetweengroups. Inside the Precinct,the relationship betweensecularand religious was distinguishedby an outer secular court and an inner religious cloister. Within the cloister, a more subtle segregation relied on both the physicalmanipulation spaceand the conceptual spatial of divisions informed by coenobitic: ideals.Attitudes towardsspacewere createdthrough sharedknowledge, transmittedthrough sermonsand written traditions. "is codified ritual behaviourinformed attitudestoward space,which in turn reproducedthe social orderof the monasticcommunity. In the formulation of his Rule, Benedictwasstriving for a well-organised asceticlife which achievedsanctity throughthe elevationof communityby the renunciationof the individual. Equality within a group of monks was assuredthrough self-denw and spiritual humility. Renunciationof self was achievedthrough a rejection of private Propertyupon induction to the community 'thenceforwardhe will not have disposition
*Departrwnt ofArchaeology.Mickligate House, York YOI IJZ
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ANTICLUITY
VOLUME 63
NUMBER 238
MARCH 1989
Analysis of spatial patterns in buildings (access analysis) as an insight into from the social structure: examples Scottish Atlantic Iron Age
SALLY M. FOSTER*
Clearly the pattern of space in buildings can be expected to relate to the way that buildings are used to structure and reproduce social relations. As an archaeologist, wishing to infer social structure by its reflection in the building pattern, one may hope the relation may be reasonably direct. Here theformal geometrical method of access analysis is used to elucidate the pattern in a distinctive kind of prehistoric settlement form, and thence to elucidate the social structure which both produced it and was structured by it. The aim of this paper is to describe an archaeological application of accessanalysis, a means of investigating the relationship between spatial order and society. As presented below this is a technique based on the gamma analysis of Hillier & Hanson (1984), which looks at the patterns of relations between inhabitants and between inhabitants and strangers as they are reflected in the use of interior space,in terms of the patterns created by boundaries and entrances.This approach has received much criticism (see particularly Leach 1978) because of its extreme belief that spatial organization is a function of the form of social structure. The present writer believes that without taking the full Hillier & Hanson line, but by adopting more horizons, this formal and vigorous tech-modest nique can be demonstrated to be of some value to others who believe that spatial order does carry somesocial information. . There continues to be an increasing trend towards the interpretation of the archaeological remains of buildings, erstwhile architecture, in a social context, by analysis of their interior space (such as Smith 1978; Boast & Yiannouli 1986; Gilchrist 1988). To a certain extent this
follows movements in architectural circles (e. g. Glassie 1975; Markus 1982: 4 for brief summary), and the work of geographers and social (e. g. Gregory & Urry 1985). Two theorists from derived themes, ultimately common Structuration Theory (Giddens 1984), seem to lie behind much of this work: 1 The belief that space is both produced by, and in turn produces and reproduces social is seen as culturelations. Thus architecture and not just as a response rally meaningful, to certain environmental needs. However, of opinion exist as to if, wide differences how, or to what degree social relations might be gauged from archaeological remains. Leach (1978: 400) has argued that the chasm between basic space syntax and real life is wider than Hillier and his sociology colleagues suppose. Yet others using the techniques of Hillier & Hanson have demonstrated that observed spatial patterns are not and can be explained in social coincidental, terms on the basis of historic and ethnogra& Mithen 1986). A phic evidence (Yiannouli has been noted on the similar relationship basis of observed similarities between the
LOGICISM: A FRENCHVIEW OF ARCHAEOLOGICALTHEORY 1985b. L'apport de l'observation ethnographique A Is compr6hension des monuments anciens: palais de Mari et palais actuels du Proche-Orient, in A propos d'un cinquantenaire: Mari, bilan et perspectives: du Colloque internationale du CNRS (Strusactes juillet 1983): 347-74. Paris: bourg, 29 juin-ler Editions Recherche sur les Civilisations. Mari 4. 0. & 1984. Une exp6rience ethnoarALTRENCHE, S. CALLEY. ch6ologique: Cafer Hbyuk (Turquie), PaMorient 10 (2): 122-8.
39
London: British Library Board. [In French and English. ] Forthcoming. Aide au raisonnement en arch6ologie, in Informatique et mathdmatique appliqu6es en arch6ologie: cours europ6en intensif (Valbonne, Montpellier, 27 juin-9 juillet 1983). Strasbourg: Conseil de I'Europe.
GARDIN, J. LAG. J. CHEVALIER, J. CHFusToPHE & M. -S. -CL., des formes I'analyse de RANGE. 1976. Code pour du Centre de CNRS. Paris: Editions poterie. document Analyse recherche arch6ologique, et calcul en arch6ologie.
d'ethnoarALTRENCHE, 0. & P. DESFARGES. 1983. Travaux rapports pr6liet en jordanie: en Syria ch6ologie Syria 60 (1,2): 147-85. minaires,
DIGARD, F., C. ABELLARD, L. BOURELLY,J. DESHAYEset a]. 1975.116pertoire analytique des cylindres orientaux 6parses publi6s dans des sources bibliographiques (sur ordinateur). Paris: Editions du CNRS. M. FISCHER, 1987. A propos de Phabitat ruban6: analyse logiciste et syst6mes experts. Gen6ve: D6partement de de I'Universit6. Travail d'Anthropologie dipl6me. FRANCFORT.H. -P. 1984. Recherches sur IAsie centrale PAge du Bronze en Bactriane oriprotohistorique: urbaines du 3e et le d6clin des civilisations entale Lille: Universit6 de Lille 111.Thbse. mill6naire.
CARDIN, J. 0. Gumi. AumE, Q. HERmAN, A. HESNARD, -CL., M. -S. LAGRANGE,M. RENAUD & E. ZADORA-RIO. 1987. Syst6mes experts et sciences humaines: le cas d& I'arch6ologie. Paris: Eyrolles. GARDIN,J. & M. -S. LAGRANGE.1975. Essais d'analyse -CL. du discours arch6ologique. Paris: Editions du CNRS. Centre de recherche archdologique, Notes et monographes techniques 7. CARDIN,J.-CL., M. -S. LAGRANGE, -M. MARTIN, J. MOUND & J. J. NATALL 1981. La logique du plausible: essai d'6pist6mologie Paris: Maison des pratique. Sciences de Momme.
1988. A propos de Purbanisation du site de Shortugal (Afghanistan): une approche arch6ologique des transformations de 1'6conomie de production, Bulletin du Centre genevois d'Anthropologie 1 (In press). A. GALLAY, 1981a. Le Sarny6r6 Dogon: arch6ologie d'un M. des isolat, Mali. Paris: ADPF. Recherche sur les Grandes LAGRANGE, -S. & M. RENAUD. 1983. L'interpr6tation documents figur6s en arch6ologie et histoire de Fart: Civilisations. M6moire 4. essai de simulation sur ordinateur, in F. Lissarrague 1981b. The western Alps from 2500 to 1500 bc & F. Thelamon (ed. ), Image et c6ramique grecque: (3400-2500 BC): traditions and cultural changes, Journal of Indoeuropean Studies 9 (1,2): 33-5. actes du Colloque (Rouen, 25-26 novembre 1982): 43-66. Rouen: Universit6. Publications de l'Univer1986a. L'archdologie demain. Paris: Belfond. sitd de Rouen 96. 1986b. Protohistoire et ethnologie ouest-africaine: (non) pertinence du codage c6ramique, in M. -T. 1984. Superikon: un essai de cumul de six expertises Barrelet & J.-Cl. Gardin (ad.), A propos des interpr6en iconographie: 6rudition ou trivialit6? Paris: Editions du CNRS. Documents de travail 6. tations archdologiques de ]a poterie: questions 1: geste et Ia parole 107-65. Paris: Editions Recherche sur les LEROI-GouRHAN, A. 1964/75.1-ouvertes: Technique 2: La m6moire et langage; et les rythmes. Grandes Civilisations. M6moire 64. Michel. Paris: Albin Vivre autour d'un feu: analyse ethnoarch6olo1988. PETREQUIN, -M. & P. PETREQUIN. A. 1984. Habitat lacustre de campements Touaregs du Hoggar, Bulletin gique du B6nin: une approche ethnoarchdologique. Paris: du Centre genevois d'Anthropologie I (In press).
of GARDIN, J.-CL. 1958. Four codes for the description technique artifacts: an essay in the archaeological 60: 335-57. and theory, American Anthropologist Editions 39. Recherche sur les civillsations. M6moire
LAGRANGE, -S. 1973. Analyse s6miologique et histoire M. de Part: examen critique d'une classification. Paris: Klincksiek. LAGRANGE, -S. & C. BoNNET.1978. Les chemins de ]a M. Imemoria': nouvel essai d'analyse du discours arch6ologique. Paris: Editions du CNRS. Publications du CRA, Notes et monographes techniques 10.
1963. Problornes d'analyse descriptive en arch6ologie, in P. Courbin (ad.), budes arch6ologiques: 133-50. Paris: SEVPEN. Arch6ologie et civilisations 1, Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, Via section: Centre de recherche historique. 1974. Les analyses de discours. Neuch&tel: Delachaux et Niestl6. 1978. Code pour J'analyse des ornements dtablis en 1956, r6vis6 en 1973. Paris: Editions du CNRS. 1979. Une arch6ologie th6orique. Paris: Hachette. 1987. Syst6mes experts et publications savantes.
Roux, V. 1985a. Le mat6riel de broyage: 6tude ethnoa; ch6ologique d Tichitt, Mauritanie. Paris: Editions Recherche sur les Civilisations. M6moire 58. ' 1985b. Outillage agricole et structure agraire, in H. -P Francfort (ed.), Prospections arch6ologiques au nord-ouest de l'Inde: rapport pr6liminaire 19831984: 67-93. Paris: Editions Recherche sur les Civilisations. M6moire 62, Travaux de la Mission arch6ologique frangais en Inde 1.
on 6crit I'histoire. Paris:
GLAr" VIVIVER
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SPATIAL PATTERNS IN BUILDINGS FROM THE SCOTTISH ATLANTIC IRON AGE 41
Access analysis is based on syntactic relations, and considers the arrangement of different spaces as a pattern of permeabilities, that is in terms of the interconnections between spaces. There will never be agreement between disciplines as to what constitutes social space (e.g. compare Fletcher 1977; Piaget & Inhelder 1956; Gregory 1978; Norberg-Schulz 1971), but this technique is important because of its descriptive autonomy, unambiguous rules of application, and its clear exposition of how these relate at the very lowest level to relations between inhabitants, and between inhabitants and strangers. Societies which might vary in their type of physical configuration and degree to which the ordering of space appears as a conspicuous dimension of culture can all be compared on a similar basis. The technique is best explained with the use of the example of a small modern house, where only the ground floor has been taken into consideration (FIGURE 1A). Each unit of space, including transitional spaces such as a hallway, The theory and technique A building is made up of walls which define a has been represented as a dot with lines of enclosed spaces, the boundaries between them where there is permeability, series between which may be broken by doorways giving access between spaces (FIGURE 113).The from one area to another. The network of dots and connecting lines forms an allowing access importance of doors is not only that they open, unjustified access map. This map can be justibut more importantly that they can close, fied, in this case from an outside perspective segregatingspaces and controlling (the carrier), the stance of the stranger (FIGURE effectively the means of access to any particular point. 1C), although it could have been from any point plans of 'villas' in Britain and Gaul (Smith 1978). Total sceptics about the social relevance of spatial organization are not so vociferous. 2 It is recognized that all social interaction is situated within both time and space, thus time is emphasized as an essential component in all social analysis. Barrett (1988) has recently suggested an archaeological means of applying Structuration Theory, and taking into account the factors of time and space, which he calls Fields of Discourse. This note will discuss the theory and technique of access analysis, and the relevance, if any, of this technique to the elucidation of social structure through a medium of analysis such as Fields of Discourse. The archaeological application of this technique, with appropriate modifications, is described using examples from the Iron Age of Orkney.
Rear garden
carrier space
9 defined space space 40 transitional
T---7 L Ip
FIGURE A Plan of a small 1. modem house, ground floor only (P-best room, K-kitchen, L-main living space). (After Hillier & Hanson (1984): figure 99. )
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SALLY M. FOSTER
in the building. By justification it is meant that all points of a certain depth, that is the minimum number of steps taken to reach them from the carrier, have been positioned on the same horizontal line, subsequent depth values on lines parallel to the first. Given the rules of construction any line will either connect with points on the same level of depth, or two levels separated by only one level of depth. The resultant map is both an aid to visual decipherment of the pattern, and could in theory be combined with quantification procedures (an aspect which is not pursued here). Buildings are easier to study than settlements because open spaces cannot be so readily separated into analytical elements (Hillier & Hanson 1984: 16), and the richness in differentiation of interior structures means that they carry more social information than exterior relations (Hillier & Hanson 1984: 154). So, once spaces are defined, the spatial order of a structure can be represented in part by a diagram showing the interconnections of the enclosed spaces. A prerequisite for analysis is therefore an accurate map with all access points marked. Form (the formal properties of space and the boundaries which define it - its style) and function (the purpose of buildings) must also be embraced. In practice it is virtually impossible to make a distinction between these attributes (Markus 1982: 4-6). Hillier & Hanson (1984) minimize the interactive nature of these because of their apparent belief in the analytical autonomy of the spatial dimension. However, these other architectural dimensions have to be brought into consideration if the full archaeological of access analysis is to be appreciated. value The primary data demands of access analysis create some problems for most archaeologists. The success of illuminating and stimulating studies such as those edited by Markus (1982) on the period of the Scottish Enlightenment, or by Graves (forthcoming) on the English mediechurch, is in no small measure due to the val fact that the buildings which they are studying either still stand (albeit possibly with alteror full architectural plans exist for those ations), have been demolished or whose conwhich struction was planned but never realized. In addition these are periods for which some of the ideas of society, and the nature of values and known because of docurelationships are mentary sources. One of the main criticisms
levelled at Hillier & Hanson is that their technique cannot work fully unless something is already known of the relevant social structure, when it can be seen in retrospect how the observed patterns in the spatial arrangement relate to the known social structure (Leach 1978). Prehistorians do not have historical accounts, nor can they make ethnographic studies of the populations they are studying, but they do possessa body of primary archaeological data which may provide non-spatial evidence for other aspects of social structure., It will never be possible to 'test' prehistoric social inference derived from the spatial; one can only explore its promptings from within a clearly defined understanding of the way material culture and social structure are related.
Social inference from access analysis It is suggested that examination of access maps and the application of the techniques of Hillier & Hanson (1984), in combination with other evidence for architectural form and social function, may impart social information at three general scales, the first two of which are considered appropriate here. I The variations in spatial arrangements impart social information about the realities of living in, or visiting, that particular building: where and how frequently physical encounters might be made between occupants and/or between occupants and strangers, and how these encounters might be controlled. The inhabitantinhabitant and stranger-inhabitant interfaces can be observed in terms of relations of symmetrylasymmetry and patterns of distributedness1nondistributedness (FIGURE 2) because distribution articulates relations'of boundary (the means of access to a space) whilst asymmetry reflects the importance of a space in terms of its degree of segregation or integration (Hillier & Hanson 1984: 148):
In gammatwo spaces and b will be: symmetricif a is a to b asb is to a with respectto c, meaningthat neithera nor b controlspermeabilityto eachother;asymmetricif a is not to b as b is to a, in the sensethat one controls permeability to the other from some third space c; distributedif there is more than one independentroute fi-oma to b including passingthrougha third space (Le c
--I
SPATIAL PATTERNS IN BUILDINGS FROM THE SCOTTISH ATLANTIC bdab >b babaa 0, \
IRON AGE
43
Y
cccc BcDE
FiGuRE2. Aa and b are in a symmetric and distributed relationship with respect to c. Ba and b are in a symmetric and nondistributed relationship with respect to c. Ca and b are in a nondistributed and asymmetric relationship with respect to c. Da and b are symmetric to each other with respect to c. but d is in an asymmetric relation to both with respect to c. Ed is in a nondistributed and symmetric relation to a and b, which still remain symmetric to each other with respect to d, or to c. (After Hillier & Hanson 1984: figures 88-92. ).
(eachexamplewill undoubtedly have a different This spatial network suggests patterns which phenotype,or actual physical realization of these need investigating. As a result of labelling space rules). Some of the invariant properties which in terms of use or form it is possible to observe constitute the generic rule are observable and/or whether particular labels correspond to partimeasurablein terms of relations of symmetryl cular syntactic positions and to investigate asymmetry and patterns of distributedness/ (seeabove). these patterns further. nondistributedness Interior spaces constitute one of the the most The challenge is to explain how these common locales for activity and social interacobserved topological patterns may relate to tion, the places where discourse can be sus- social factors as there is unlikely to be a one-totained. Social analysis should therefore one relationship between spatial organization consider the way architecture, and the spatial and society. For example, might these expresorganization of a settlement, intervene to struc- sions of boundary and control of space be ture some part of the cycle of social reproducreflecting the relations of physical autonomy tion (Barrett forthcoming). Access analysis and dependencebetween different sectors of a articulates an understanding of this, as community? What type of social relations knowledge of where, how frequently, and under (gender,age or social status) might induce this circumstances, physical what architectural spatial order and are these the social relations encounters occur. The information on access on which society is organized?Might the repemaps may be static, and cannot take the tempo- titive occurrence of patterns represent the ral frequency of discourse into account in its acknowledgementof a code whereby authority construction, but yet is of value in the con- was sustained? If an increased investment of sideration of potential time-space paths occu- formality into the ordering of the landscape(cf. Boast & Evans 1986) has been detected, this pied by human beings. must be explained.
2 The study of the spatial configuration of a number of patterns may reveal variant proper3 Finally, Hillier & Hanson believe that by recog-
if a spacehas more than one locus of control with ties, a set of which may be thought to constitute respectto another);and nondistributed if thereis some the genericrule underlying the spacein question, c, space throughwhich any route from a to b must pass. and which can be referred to as the genotype
44
SALLY M. FOSTER
space may vary from area to area, period to period, in prehistoric structures where the concept of an entrance or division between functional spacesmay need to be liberally interpreted. Thus the constitution of an archaeological space is not necessarily defined by the theory, but is dependent on the nature of the available evidence. Provided rules are carefully formulated and consistently applied to the data in questiofi, then analysis may proceed. In this study the designation of a space depends on the physical presence of a doorway, a low kerb or ramparts (or being aware of their existence). It also depends, to a large measure. on the ascribed function of an area; it is obviously important to distinguish an enclosed area where sleeping rather than storage might have taken place. The recognition of functional zones, even if only defined by what in another period might have been described as furniture, is an obvious archaeological progression on a technique evolved for upstanding 'historic' structures. For example, areas with hearths are especially important. All of these criteria are subjective, which is why the method can best be Archaeological application of access analysis applied to upstanding structures, preferably Examples from the Iron Age of Orkney can be with a 'full' archaeological data-set, and which to give an example of the application of have been fully recorded to modern standards. used If we take as an example the recently excaaccess analysis and to discuss its feasibility for remains. Here, despite subse- vated Early Iron Age house at Bu (Hedges archaeological robbing and other vagaries of time, the 1987(l)) then some of the archaeological pecuquent building blocks has liarities of this technique can be seen more wide availability of natural in the unprecedented survival of struc- clearly. In FIGURE 3A we see the permeabilities resulted tures, often to several storeys. In a few cases it is suggested by the excavator; in FIGURES 3B-C to walk through doors and up stairs, lie exactly the same process as adopted for the possible down in bed-neuks, and collect water from the modern building in FIGURE 1, and described wells. Remains are always only partial, and above, is run through. Each space is usually an is the product of centuries of site- area which is enclosed by orthostats, with each site formation, most recently selective destruction access either through doorways (as in the case of FIGURE 3B x), or over low kerbs (v) where the by archaeologists. Any and presentation has therefore to evaluate carefully the access lines may therefore appear to be jumping analysis the site at any one period. It is not walls. The central 'service area' (y) is defined y state of to measure symbolic divisions of space a low kerb and gives access to the hearth (z); it is possible (although artefactual distribution may some- divided into two areas because the smaller times be suggestive). Nor is it possible to recog- north section is partly paved and the distribution of artefacts (Hedges 1987(1): figure 1.57) features, such as earthworks, nize when major have acted as a frame for later may suggest that the southern half had a which may (see e.g. Boast and Evans 1986), ceased different function to the northern half. Area w is activity (Haselgrove treated as a single space because the central to be maintained conceptually 1984). Nevertheless this quality of data, and the orthostat was not designed to break the space fact that in several cases the sites can be into two distinct components, and because of the ground, is particularly signi- the extent of floor deposits which are more or examined on ficant because the definition of relevant units of less specific to this area (Hedges 1987(l)). nizing the basic syntactic generator, or organizing principle, behind a human spatial complex then different forms of social organization can be recognized (Hillier & Hanson 1984: 82). This is because they argue that although there are many different manifestations of spatial relations, there are only a finite number of organizing principles (Hillier & Hanson 1984: 54; summary in figure 23). Their rules reflect the notion of social order as suggested by Durkheim (1984), who envisaged two types of social solidarity and located their cause in different spatial variables: an organic solidarity which works best when the system is large and integrated; and a mechanical solidarity which works best when segments are small and isolated. This is the aspect of Hillier & Hanson's work which has received most criticism (Leach 1978; Batty 1985), and is of no relevance to a social interpretation involving the use of Structuration, because it treats space as a totally independent discourse. It is not considered in further discussion.
L,
IRON AGE
45
I.
.posited access
y 7rZ ol v I:;,
/ I
C
ED carrier 0 0 0 space transitional space
0 Ii 1.10. )
5m
A Plan of Bu indicating FiGuRE3. points of access. (After Hedges 1987(l): B Bu with unjustified access (gamma) map superimposed. C justified access map with labelled spaces.
As there may be some uncertainty about whether or not a space was enclosed, the degree to which it was socially relevant, or when access points were valid, there will inevitably be phases in the complex history of even a well recorded site when it is impossible to produce a totaJly accurate analysis (or any form of analysis). Yet there will be phases when a clear pattern does emerge, notably when buildings are first laid out on a virgin site. When comparisons are made of these major changes then patterns begin to emerge. In the study of Iron Age and Early Medieval Orkney four or five major phases can be identified, one of which, the Middle Iron Age, the period when brochs were prevalent, is the subject of discussion here. Specific example In the Middle Atlantic Iron Age, around 100 BC, brochs first appear - thick-walled circular
buildings, many of which had at least one upper storey or gallery. This study is specific to brochs in Orkney, but its implications are significant for the Atlantic Province as a whole, especially in areas where outbuildings are associated with the brochs (primarily Caithness, northeast Sutherland and to a certain extent Shetland). The outbuildings can roughly be divided into two forms, radial and non4) radial. The radial examples (FIGURE encircle the broch in a regular fashion, a passageleading through them to the broch, which is usually surrounded by, a narrow encircling passage; there is a very full use of all available space between the broch and its surrounding outworks, where these exist. The non-radial form may be very early in the development of brochs (as at Crosskirk in Caithness: Fairhurst 1984) and may in some casesprecede radial outbuildings (as possibly in phase6 at Howe: Carter et a]. 1984). A question hangs over the relative
46
SALLY M. FOSTER
/
-0
LINGRO
UNPHASED
GURNESS
BROCH PERIOD
lom
1/
/ /
N4
HOW[
PHASE 7
MICIHOWE
PERIODS 1.2 & UNDETERMINED
FIGURE Plans of 4. brochs with nucleated settlements. (After Hedges 1987(2); RCAMS 1946(2); Carter et al. 1984; Callander & Grant 1934).
the brochs and both types of chronology of This note is essentially conoutbuildings. the radial examples, where the cerned with dating evidence rests almost exclusively on the from Howe, Gurness and Midhowe. evidence These are the best understood examples, although similar plans are suggested elsewhere in Orkney (Hedges 1987(3): 14; e.g. Lingro, FIGURE4) and northeast Sutherland. On the basis of present evidence, outbuildings elsewhere tend to be of the non-radial type. Hedges' that some of the outbuildings work suggests these brochs in Orkney have associated with been built in the same phase of construction as the broch, or are near contemporary because the layout of some of the afterthoughts, the broch is by and large outbuildings and their floor areas, fittings, and systematic, and furnishings are comparable (1987(2-3)). At
Howe the phase 7 outbuildings are contemporary with the broch, at Gurness they may be primary although little is known of what, if anything, underlies them, and at Midhowe the outbuildings are of several phases, of w4ich the earliest may be contemporary with the broch. Whatever one's stance in this debate, it cannot be disputed that the broch and outbuildings co-existed at one point, functioning as a unity, in this writer's opinion probably early in the development of the sites. In FIGURE 5 the nucleated settlements of Gurness, Midhowe and Howe have been treated as a single set of premises, drawn as justified gamma maps with an extended vocabulary of symbols to represent the different types of space and means of access. These access maps therefore incorporate information about the spatial properties of the
47
KEY ED carrier
S
S 0
space open yard a 0 transitional space enclosure coll/compartment 13 first floor 0 space with hearth scarcement * guard' ceIVroom earth-house large internal hearth space-no ersed/bpen symbol for broch ----
access
C3
- FIGURE5. justified access (gamma) maps for Middle Iron Age nucleated settlements (reversed/open distinguish the broch from other structures). symbols A Curness. B Howe. C Midhowe.
brochs and the potential functions of some Moreover by the use of open and closed areas. symbols the differing architectural types have been indicated. The result is an allalso embracing consideration of the architecture in convenient diagrammatic form. presented ;3ome general trends can be observed, and be briefly described at the different scales will of inference outlined above: I At the immediate visual level, the development from Early Iron Age single, agricultural and domestic units (such as Bu, FIGURE3) to Middle Iron Age nucleated settlements reveals the introduction of a staggering hierarchical The maps become considerably use of space. deeper (more asymmetric), and the deepest, most segregatedarea is always the set of spaces constitute the broch. Upper galleries which features not found in the and upper storeys,
outbuildings, are the very deepest, least accessible spaces. Their usage may have included storage, extra sleeping facilities and wallheads from which surveillance might be made. Unfortunately these are the parts of the structure about which least is known as they were always the first to collapse or be dismantled, and the total number of original floors is not known. If the majority of activities and functions was in the upper storeys then obviously their exact nature can never be assessed and the ground plans tell us less (although it seems most probable that the ground floor was the main domestic forum). The larger the access maps, then the more abstract and complicated they become to analyse, and it is helpful to break them down, for instance by dividing them into distributed ('ringy') and nondistributed ('tree-like') subsystems (FIGURE6 for Gurness as an example). On the very outside, globally governing the
- ---------------------------
--
--
48
SALLY M. FOSTER
ck
I"
A
FiGURE6. justified access (gamma) maps for Gurness. A the nondistributed sub-system. B the distributed sub-system.
interior, are earthworks which extend the depth between the inside and outside worlds, even if in some casesthey only create abstract rather than real rings. Access to the interior proper has to be via the 'guardhouse' or forecourt, a relatively convex space; this is where the transition from the outside world to an inner environment is sanctioned. From here ingress is made into a long thin passagefrom which access to both outbuildings and broch can be made. In the cases of Gurness, Howe and Lingro (as suggestedby an early section of walling: RCAMS 1946(2), figure 230) the entrance into the settlement and the broch entrance are aligned, which must have enhanced the processional-like qualities of these passages.From here the outbuildings constitute a local, large and almost totally nondistributed area of settlement, spaces in which strangers cannot freely circulate and into which they must be invited. Such branching off thus createsthe maximum segrewith the least expenditure of gation of spaces depth, both between and within domestic Entrance to and between the outbuilunits. dings is mainly by means of this passage,
therefore most movement can be monitored by control of its various sections. From this first narrow passage access is gained to the next ring, a passagewaywhich encircles the broch (except at Howe). This ring is at the point where ingress can be gained to further nondistributed spaces at a slightly deeper level. Ringy structures interconnect some apartments and outbuildings. Access to the broch interior is from the initial passage, at about the same level as some of the outbuildings, but is deepenedby guard cells, an elaborate doorway into a long tunnel, and a series of vestibules. The form of the architecture is particularly relevant; the monumentality of the broch tower and its elaborate entrance contrast starkly with the less substantial outbuildings, all of which appear very similar in form, serving to heighten the discrepancy between these spaces.Once inside the broch, the final ringy structure is encountered, which is separated from all the others by several depth levels. This is quite complex in the case of the double domestic units at Midhowe and the later levels at Gurness. The rings connect the main domestic foci (the hearth areas) and the upper
1
SPATIAL PATTERNS IN BUILDINGS FROM THE SCOTTISH ATLANTIC IRON AGE
49
levels. Cells and compartments are arrangedin non-distributed fashion from these rings, in similar fashion to the outbuildings. From the point of view of strangers, the overall hierarchical layout and the differences in architectural form have done nothing to encouragetheir admission to the broch. Therefore, its interior ringy system is unlikely to heve had a major r6le in articulating immediate relations, but was probably stranger-inhabitant a means of articulating the relationships between the different domestic units, where they existed. The ringy sub-systems in the outbuildings would have played a similar role, but here there is a greater emphasis on the non-distributed component. From the point of view of social structure a number of observations can be made on the basis of this information. Despite some similarities with the outbuildings, the broch obviously stands out as the most important area in the settlement complex becauseof its spatial importance, its prime location and its monumentality. This, in combination with the degreeof controlled accessto the outbuildings and their apartments, which are almost exclusively segregated,may suggest that the social structure on which these new relations were founded required strict control in order to be both established and maintained.
2 Taking an overview, the observed systems serve to emphasize the social inequalities existing between the broch and outbuilding occupants, and the settlement and the outside, the latter distinction being the strongest. Local cells are relations between the internal batically the same except for the broch; the factor of non-interchangeability has been introduced between the broch and all its surrounding units. Thus this is more of a transpatial thin spatial system. In other words the emphasis is on spatial relations which have been determined by genotypic rules and produce the required restrictions of encounter, even though each physical manifestation of these rules is different. What is more, the genotypic-model is global, because it recurs, and as a result transpatial relations and integration can exist between arrangements (settlement complexes) because similarities in layout and comparable positioning may foster a conceptual form of
identification (Hillier & Hanson 1984: 238). In addition the inhabitants of a single settlement may feel a strong sense of identity with each other because they share a structured whole with others. Furthermore, the repetitive nature of these patterns may be representing the acknowledgementof a code of symbols, in this case spatially determined, by which those in the broch sustained their authority over the inhabitants of the outbuildings. The ordered layout of the outbuildings and the comprehensive use of space further suggeststhat these were laid out as a unity under the authority of the broch inhabitants, rather than being the result of the cumulative construction of outbuildings to a basic structuring principle.
Social interpretation These social inferences fit a model of ranked society where Midhowe, most probably Lingro and definitely Gurness and Howe can be interpreted as planned nucleated villages in the centre' of which lived the pre-eminent family or personages, surrounding whom were those who payed tribute and in return received pro(non-nucleated tection patronage or settlements can probably be seen as dependent settlements; this is not to exclude the possibility of other unrecognized elements in the settlement pattern for which a place could be found in this scheme). Similarities in the formal layout of these settlements and the social relations they structured, suggests that these settlements should all be seen as part of a wider society with similar values. A clientship scheme has also been suggested by MacKie (1987). Besides the different routes of inference, the major difference between our two schemes rests upon interpretation of the primary archaeological evidence, specifically the chronological relationship between the Undoubtedly brochs and the outbuildings. some brochs, particularly early examples, did stand alone, but others aggregated settlement around them, sometimes in very formal conditions where radiated settlements were the on other occasions less formally, and on result, a lesser scale, when the non-radial outbuildings may have been the result. MacKie's scheme has a tribal aristocracy living in the brochs with about 100-300 people living in 'fragile settlements' around the broch, in structures which are as yet unrecognized in the
50
SALLY M. FOSTER
archaeological record. Granted that a large proportion of Iron Age settlement may exist totally unrecorded, the present scheme proposes that a large element of the non-broch population came to live in broch outbuildings. Conclusions In the absence of examining the broch period in the context of the Early and Late Iron Ages, and considering all the evidence for discourse in which the architecture may have been relevant (the subject of a future paper), the true impact and significance of these spatial arrangements have been minimized. Nevertheless, it is hoped that some of the archaeological potential of the technique of access analysis has been successfully demonstrated. One can find fault in the tenets behind the gamma analysis of Hillier & Hanson, but the formal
approach is one which can be adapted and modified for archaeological purposes. Social inferences can be derived from the spatial order by circumspect consideration of the assumptions behind every appropriate step of the technique, and a clear understanding of the relationship between material culture and social reproduction. All discourse has a spatial element; access analysis is a useful tool Tor articulating an understanding of the part space plays in structuring social relations, and the part social relations have in structuring spke.
Acknowledgements. I am grateful to Professor Leslie Alcock, John Barrett, Pam Graves, Dr Euan MacKie, Ross Samson, and Graeme Stewart for comments on various versions of this note. Errors in content and presentation are my own, especially where I ignored their advice.
References D J. BARRETT,C. 1988. Fields of Discourse: reconstituting a GREGORY, 1978. Social change and spatial structures, in T. Carlstein, D. Parkes & N. Thrift (ed. ), Making sense social archaeology, Critique of Anthropology 7:3 (1987-8): 5-16. of time: 38-46. New York: Halsted Press. D. Forthcoming. Food, gender and metal: questions of GREGORY, & J. URRY (ed. ). 1985. Social relations and spatial structure. London: Macmillan. social reproduction, in M. -L. Stig-Sorensen &R HASELGROVE,C 1984 Comment on Hingley, Scottish Thomas (ed.), The transition from bronze to iron. Archaeological Review 3(1): 27-30. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports. J. BATTY,M. 1985, Review of Hillier & Hanson (1984), HEDGES, 1987. Bu, Gurness and the Brochs of Orkney. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports. British Sociology 19: 161-2. Series 163. BOAST, & C. EvANs. 1986 The transformation of space: R. two examples from British prehistory, in Boast & HILLIER,B. n. d. Instructions to students at Bartlett School Typescript. Yiannouli (1986): 193-205. of Architecture. HILLIER, B. & J. HANSON. 1984. The social logic of space. (ed. BOAST,R. & E. YLANNOULI ). 1986. Archaeological Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Review from Cambridge 5(2): Creating space. S. CARTER, P., D. HAIGH, N. R.J. NEIL & B. SmrrH. 1984. LEACH, E. 1978. Does space syntax really 'constitute the Interim report on the structures at Howe, Stromness, social'?, in D. Green, C. Haselgrove & C. Spriggs (ed. ), Social organisation Orkney, Glasgow Archaeological Journal 11: 61-73. and settlement: contributions from Oxford: British 385-401. CALLANDER, & W. G. GRANT. J.G., 1934. The broch of Mid anthropology: Reports. International Series 471. Archaeological Howe, Rousay, Orkney, Proceedings of the Society MACKIE, E. 1987. The Scottish brochs: Iron Age manor Antiquaries of Scotland 68 (1933-4): 444-516. of houses. Paper presented Edinburgh, January 1V7. E. DURKHEim, 1984. The division of labour in society. MARKUS, T. A. (ed. ). 1982. Order in space and society. London: Macmillan. Edinburgh: Mainstream H. FAIRHURST, 1984. Excavations at Crosskirk broch, C. Caithness. Edinburgh: Society of Antiquaries of NORBERG-SCHULZ, 1971. Existence, space and architecture. London: Studio Vista. Scotland. a J. 1956. The child's conception of R. FLETCHER, 1977. Settlement studies (micro and semi- PIAGET, P. & B. INHELDER. in D. L. Clarke (ed.), Spatial archaeology: * space. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. micro), RCAMS. 1946. Twelfth report with an inventory of the 47-162. London: Academic Press. GiDDENs, 1984. The constitution of society. Oxford: A. ancient monuments of Orkney and Shetland. Edinburgh: HMSO. Polity Press. R. GILCHRIST, 1988. The spatial archaeology of gender: a SMITH, J.T. 1978. Villas as a key to social structure, in M. Todd (ed. ), Studies in the Romano-British villa: case study of medieval English nunneries, Archaeo140-173. Leicester: Leicester University Press logical Review from Cambridge 7(l): 21-8. H. GLASsiE, 1975. Folk housing in middle Virginia: a YIANNOULI, E. & S. MITHEN. 1986. The real and random house plans architecture of Siphnos: analysing analysis of historic artefacts. University structural in Boast & Yiannouli (1986): using simulation, of Tennessee Press. 167-80. C. GRAvEs, P. Forthcoming. Social space in the English medieval parish church.
uu?ARY- j
SCOTTISHARCHAEOLOGICA
REVIEW
VOILIme6 olgl)
TRANSFORMATIONS IN SOCIAL SPACE THE IRON AGE OF ORKNEY AND CAITHNESS Sally Af Foster*
This paper will examine the way architecture acted to structure the reproduction of society in Otkney and Caithness from around the early centuries of the first millennium 13C to the eighth or ninth century AD, that is from the period of the Early Iron Age to die of die Norsc. The period can be divided into four phases: the Early and Middle arrival Iron Ages and Late Iron Ages I and 11 (henceforth EIA, MIA. LIA I and LIA 11).These divisions avoid cultural ascriptions such as 'PicUsh' or 'Dalriadic', or meaningless terms such as 'pust-Roman'. They will now be more specifically dcrined below. A scheme is suggested in outline for structural developments witnessed over this period (a future complementary article will discus3 this in full. along with associated dating problems: Foster in prep a). On the basis of the general trends observed, a social interpreLadon is forward. At the same time the technique of access analysis is used to investigate how put die use of space acted to structure and reproduce these changing social relations. All C- 14 dates are calibrated to the 2(y level on the 1986 Trondheim curve. quoted
Summary of Structural Development The Early Iron Age Definition of the Iron Age is rather blurred in North Britain both chronologically and more so than anywhereelse in the British IsIcs. Its traditional rangq culturally, probably that it is front circa 600 BC-AD 400 (RCAMS 1984,20). although it hasbeenspeculated might better be ascribedto the period up to die eleventhcentury'AD (Clarke 1978,76). Around the beginning of this period, yith the changing metal technologies, the imporuince of local metalworking in defining regional traditions declines markedly. III die Atlantic Province pottery hasbeentakenas somegaugeof cultural and chronological but on the whole, in view of the impoverishedartefactualrecord, reliance has changes, beenon architecturalstudies. Lobate multi-cellular buildings, othErwise courtyard houses. represent an tradition whose origins lie in the Neolithic (such as Scord of Brouster, architectural Shetland: Whittle 1986),but which still occurs in the late Bronze Age. such as village I Jarlshof (Hamilton 1956.18-31 Fig 10). These lobate multi-cellular structuresmay at have con6nued to be constructedinto the period of the EIA. such as at Wilmtrow in also Shetland (Curie 1936) where a smithy is associatedwith an example. But the EIA is characteriscdhere by the introduction of a large roundhouse(sometimesoval) generally tradition, which has beenrecognisedas taking two organisationalforms: isolated houses thick walls sited in visually dominant situationsand smaller structureswith thinner with tend to exist in clusters. of which Jarishof 11is the best example (Sharpies walls which 1984,119-20). Abrupt changesin many aspectsof the material culture at this time are In migration (Ilamilton 1956;Hedges1987 111,38). sometimesattributed to a populaOZin Orkney thin-wallcd roundliouses have been recoveredat Spurdagrovc (Ovrcvik 1985, 148, Fig 7.4) wid Skaill (Gelling 1984; Butcux forth) where they are associaledwith further agricultural structures such as a byrc. The late date of one of tile Skaill continued roundhouseshighlights how late this tradition of thinner walled roundhouses; (sometime between 360 cal BC-AD 220). and demonstrated that the developmentfrom thinner to thicker walled roundhouseswas not unilineal. A seriesof five roundhouses; were excavated at Kilphedir in Sutherland (Fairhurst and Taylor 1971) and the same Glasgow 8QQ G12 The *Departmerd Archaeology. University, of
34
number at Cnoc Stanger in Caithness(Mercer 1981,52-56). In neither case can it be proved that theserepresentanything other than a successionof structureson one site. The slenderdating evidence from thesesites may be used to suggesta horizon of very large roundhouse constructionin north Scotlandprior to 500 BC (Mercer 1985,73). The impression is of relatively small domcsdc/agriculturalunits, whilst die evidence from die both Skaill and Kilphedir may suggest shifting of scalcmentwithin a small area. haverecentlybeenrccognisedin Orkney and Caithness. Thicker walled roundhouscs Exampleshave beenexcavatedat 11ii(I ledgcs 19871). Howe (Carter et at 1984).Calf of Ediy (Calder 1937: 1939), Picrowill (Sharpies1984)rind Quantcrness(Renfrew 1979), whilst the early broch at Crosskirk Is sometimes also described as a roundhouse (r-iifhurst 1984). It is clear from the evidenceof Bu, Quanternessand Pierowall that thesestructureswere establishedby about die seventhcentury BC, although a Bronze Age horizon for a large thick walled structureat ToNs Nesson Sanday,currently being excavatedby Dockrill, suggeststhat this was not purely an EIA innovation (Archaeot is Extra, 3A). The particular importanceof theseroundhouses that they now provide a pedigreefor die later brochs,both in their (hick walling and interior features.At native acquiredbroch-likc features. severalsites it can be seenhow both typesof roundhouse Most roundhouseswere isolated save perhaps for a few ephemeral outbuildings, probably of agricultural function. Many both thin and thicker walled structurespossessed enteredfrom their interiors.There is increasingevidencethat or earth-houses souterrains examples of these which now appearas isolated monuments in the landscapewere usually, if not always, ancillary to an aboveground structureof a domestic nature (for exampleat Grain in Orkney: I laigh 1983).Most probbly thesenorthernexampleswere for storageof either dairy produceor grain. The direct devcloprnentfrom the roundhouse die broch is chronicled at I lowe. At to in Crosskirk the early broch resembled roundhouse many respects.andat Clickilimin in a die Shetlanda roundhouseprecedes broch (Ilamilton 1968).In Caithnessit is becoming increasinglyobvious that the brochsare but a later addition to an underlying palimpsest of earlier settlement(Mercer 1985,98). Whilst die 'mound upon mound' profile is not Unic probably holds true herealso. one which is so commonin Orkney, UIC The Alliddle Iron Age Brochs representa major monumentaldivergenceout of an otherwise fairly continuous tradition of native architecture(cf MacKic 1987)and the MIA is defined as the period th when the broch becomesprevalent.It hasto be recognised at the broch class (for want better term) coversa whole seriesof structuresdiffering ,perhapsin age and form; of a a structure is best consideredin terms of the 'social practices its plan was designed to cover' (Scott 1947,26). but The date of this architecturalform is not well established. datesfrom Crosskirk, I lowe and Dun Mor Vaul (MacKic 1974)suggest broadhorizonof usebetweenthe rourth a between second BC the centuriesBC andAD. but probablyconcentrated centuries andAD. Many brochs in Orkney and Caithness were enclosed by outworks. sometimes incorporating a blockhouse.When the respectiveentrancesare aligned it may suggest that the broch and outwork were conceivedof as a unity and may have beenplannedat the sametime. At Clickhimin and Crosskiik, wherethere is someevidencefor pre-broch activity, the outworks may prc-datethe brochs.The majority of brochs in Orkney and Caithness are situated in positions where defence was apparently not the prime consideration(cf rojut 1982for similar conclusionson the Shetlandbrochs).A number arc in totally defensive positions, what Mercer (1985.100) calls 'fortalice brochs. Prolwntoryfor(s sometimesenclosebrochs.I'licy occur in Orkney and Shetlandwhen hillforts do not and in Caithness wherethereare a few hillforls.
Ilia primary internal bioch fittings at Crosskirk (Fairhurst 1984,11128) and Howe (Carter e( al 1984, Fig 4) suggestthat in thesecasesthe broch hall primarily a doniesdc function, in common with the earlier roundhouseswhich had similar plans. Little is known of the earliest internal featuresat Giimcss and Midhowe. the best known brochs in Orkney. Whilst there is some suggestionthat they may have been similar in natureto of ilia extant features. it is obvious in the case of Midhowe that there were much differences. Internal and external casing walls, which appearon many brochs in Orkney Caithnessneed not be late; at Crosskirk their early construction reflected a seriesof and and experienceOf Ilia builders in constructinghigtr' weaknesses the inadequate stnictural walling. Any isolated broch probably did not stand isolated for long. Outbuildings can be divided roughly into two forms: radial and non-radial. The radial examples (Fig 1) the broch in a regular fashion. a passageleading through them to ilia broch. encircle by is usually SUffOunded a narrow encircling passage; there is a very full useof all Which the available spacebetween the broch and its surrounding outworks, wlic(c theseexist. The non-radial form may have arisen very early in the development of broclis (as at Crosskirk where outbuildings were constructedprior to the period of Roman artefaus, possibly as early as 200 BC). This is in contrast to ilia Orcadian sites with and with their earliest levels. In some where Romanariefactsmay be associated Outbuildings. outbuildings may precederadial outbuildings (as possibly in phase6 at casesnon-radial I lowe). Whilst the non-radial arrangementmay be early, it is viriually impossible to assess the date of many of the sub-circular and sul)-rectangularbuildings which surround the brochs. most particularly those in Caithness which were excavated in ilia nineteenth or whose presenceis suggestedby fieldwork alone. In Caithnessthere ig little century. for the radially disposed settlement seen in Orkney. despite the fact that evidence are equally common in cacti area.I lowcver. there is occasionalevidencefor outbuildings the and extendedentrancesare common, b1lL complexeson either an encircling passage, side of them are amorphousand lend to exhibit a wider range of building types than is seen in Orkney. It is not known if liter fron Age structures are chronologically dislincfive in Caithness,and dicre is virtually nothing to compare ilia buildings around Ilia broch with. Artefacts are no niore helpful becausethe contexts of either Roman or suggestively MIA artefacis have never been ascribed specifically to any of ilia Out structures. Returning to ilia examplesof radial Outbuildings.the dating evidence for ilicse resEs oil the evidence from lfo%vc(Carter et W 1984). Gurness(Itedges almost'exclusively 1987 11)and Midhowc (Callanderand Gram 1934)(Foster in prep a). lictiges (1987 111. 14) estimatesthat 20 out of 52 of his Orkney broch population have evidence for wellorderedoutbuildings. On die basisof presentevidence,outbuildings elsewheretend to be it of ilia non-radial type. UlLhOligh is not always possible to distinguish the two oil the basisof fieldwork alone. Hedges' work SU99CSIS someof die outbuildings associated that, with brochs in Orkney have beenbuilt in the samephaseof construction as the broch. or the are near contemporaryafterthoughts.because layout of some of the oubuildings and the broch is by and large systematic.and their floor areas. filings and furnishings arc comparable(1987 Opinion on die daia Of the Outbuildingshas vacillated front LIA (see for exalliple summary of antiquarian activity in Orkney: Iledges 1987 Ill. 130-51) to MIA (Childc 1946,90) to LIA (Ilaillihon 1966.111; Ritchie and Ritchie 1981). but ill generalmore recent opinion again favours a MIA horizon (Ritchie 1988). Whilst many undatednonradial outbuildings may be LIA. die rcdafingof radial structuresnow generates more of a gap in the LIA settlementrecord. Still. whateverone's stancein ilia debateabout how 36
soon after the construction of the broch the outbuildings were erected, it cannot be disputed that die broch and outbuildings co-existed at some point, functioning as a tinily. Contemporary with die brochs am likely to have been some roundhouses and more fragile settlement types which arc not so obvious on the ground, particularly the settlements associated with carth-houses. The extent to which the northern MIA populadon lived in or in die immediate vicinity of broclis cannot be ganged.
4,
//
\\ \P'i
GURNESS
BROCH PERIOD
LINGRO
UNPHASED
HOW[
PHASE 7 PEMODS
MIDHOWE
1.23
UNDEIVIMINED
Fig. 1.
Plans of brochs with nu&ated settle"tents (after Hedges 1987 1/. MIMS Carter el at 1984; Calkvukr and Grant 1934).
19-16 1/.-
37
The I. ate Iron Age I The LIA I marks die time when ilia brochsceasedto be occupiedas anydiing other than temporary workshops or for less monumentaldomestic structures.The funcdon of the broch sites had probably beenchanging up to this time, although the broch might still be in use, for example outworks were not being maintained.Settlementeither continuedon the broch site in a modified manncr, or was created de novo elsewhere.Often similar forms arc found on both. Ilia LIA I is taken to end in die early seventhcentury structural when more distinctive artefactsand buildings appear. Some mention has already been made of [fie problems in assessinghow long modified occupation continued on broebs.This is perhapsthe period of which least is known becauseit is very difficult to recognisein both artafactualand structural terms. There are few ariefact types which can be spccifically assignedto the fourth. fifth arid sixth centuries, and post-broch horizons were always [lie most summarily treated by earlier excavators. Throughout the Atlantic IA continuity is exhibited in much of ilia material culture (for exarnple see Hedges 1987 111.44-47). Some pins and cornbs (Stevenson 1955; Fostcr in prcp b), biooclics (Fowler 1963). class I stonesand art inobilier decorated With PiCdShsymbols. parallelopiped dice and painted pebblesmay belong to this period, but unfortunately not exclusively. Where theseartefactsoccur on broch sites it is only rarely possible to associate them with specific building forms. RecentC- 14 dateshelp clarify t1iisperiod (Foster in prcp a and b). Following ilia MIA there is a markedabsenceof C-14 datesfrom Orkney. Caithness and Sutherland which covers ilia LIA I (circa cal AD 230-625). In Orkney this section into die post comprises die post-brochlevels at I [owe (phase8). which scarcelytrespass 600 (LIA 11)period, and a date for the abandonment a late roundhouse Skaill. T116 of at ilia absenceof dates in Caithnessand Sutherlandis easily explained because sampleis too small. A large numberof datcs fall in this time spanelsewherein Scotland.Thcrc is nothing abnormal about the stretcljiof die Trondheim curve covering this periud and it must be concluded that this low point in ilia C-14 (laic spansfor Orkney, Caithness and Sutherlandcan best be explainedby the history of previous excavation.nalliely a lack of simples front broch or post-brochlevels. A considerableelementof LIA I settlementis (Fairhurst on broch sites.as a fourth century shardfrom Crosskirk may suggest probably 1984). At present there is no dating evidencethat non-broch sites,such as Pool, extend back any further than about the fourth or fifth centuriesAD. As yet the simple of sitesis too sinall. and both post-brocharid non-brochsettlements may be expected fill this gap to one day. Nor need it surprise us if some broch outbuildings are found to have had in extremely extended life span - at Pool a small (probably MUlti-CCllcd)unit has been demonstratedto have beenoccupiedover a numberof centuries(pcrs comm Hunter).It is not always possible to recognisechangesin structural form on broch sites because of the tendencyto reuseearlier structures.but the generalimpressionat I Iowa is of a series of interconnecting sub-circular and sub-rectangular rooms with yards. There is no evidencefor any more thana couple of domesticunits. A new type Of Settlementwas'dcvclopcdde novo on some non-brochSites.At Pool excavation of a settlement mdund has revealed substantial Prehistoric Settlement underlying Norse halls and byres of ilia ninth to thirteenth centuries(ArchaeolExtra, Ilun(cr pers comm). 11cre.in about ilia founh or fifth centuries AD a roundhouse arid associatedbuildings precededby a probable souterrain and associatedstructure,were built into Neolithic middens underlying (lie Site. This then developedinto 2 cellular settlement of adjoining and interconnecting roundhousesarid smaller circular ccils. Perhaps most of the site hdd eroded into the sea. but there is certainly no reasonto suggestany broch settlementin the immediatevicinity. Indeedit seemsthat this cellular type of complex may be paralleledat I lowniae, North Ronaldsay(Traill W 1885;Traill I
38
1890). This site (Fig 2) was excavated in the 1880s and consists of in unphased complex of roundhouses, one possibly a wheelhouse (unique so far in Orkney and Caithness), courtyards, and a long rectangular form which can also be paralleled at Pool (see below). Ilowmae is undated, but there is nothing in'its artefactual assemblageto contradict a date of about 300-000 AD. The absenceof any distinctive LIA 11artc(acts pcihaps weighs in favour of this date. It thus seems that settlement mounds are characteristic of LIA settlement. The number of domestic units which might have been cxtant in any one settlement at a single time is tinknown, but the presence of interconnecting courtyards hints at a degree of complexity not immediatcly apparent in their amorphous plans.
lom f
STONES
ON EDGE % %
It hasrecentlybeenrecogniscd certainoblong or rectangular buildings may be that pre-Norse, mostnotablytheoblongwagsof Caithness, which Langwelland Forse-are of (Curle 1912; 1941; 1946; 1948),but raccrit, the only excavated examples surveyon the furtherexamples Dunbcath (Morrison 1986).Wagshavelong beenheld estate suggests to be uniqueto Caithness, moreparticularlythe parishes Latheronand Dunbcalh,but of if] an increasing numberof vaguelysimilar structures now beingdiscovered 01kncy arc wherethereis a growingbodyof evidencefor their LIA pedigree:rrom sixth to seventh 39
century levels at Pool; early phase 8 at Howe; and possibly at the Brough of Birsay (for example structure 15. Hunter 1986.56). Ilie structure at Howe with its stalls is probably domestic rather than a byte (pcrs comm B Smith; contra Carteret at 1984.68-69) and such an intepretation is not implausible for many of the other Orcadian sub-rectangular forms. If for a moment we turn our attentions to the Udal in the Westem Isles it will be seen that here there is evidence for different non-broch settlement forms which may date to cal AD 140-660 (Q-1 131; Crawford and Switsur 1977; Crawford 1986). At this time the settlement shifts and the structure and artefact types change so abruptly that Crawford is compelled to think in terms of an invasion. In levels XIV-XIII (the levels are numbered beginning from die most recent). die levels pre-dating thc seventh century, die buildings take the form of simple. oval bellied buildings with small satellite cells. slab-lined hearths lying along the long axis, and a single internal reveLtedplatform. Until die site is published it is impossible to assess if these buildings bear any relationship to those around brochs in the north, or if they are indeed the by-product of an immigrant population (in addition, as the concept of the unitary broch culture province dissolves, the validity of such comparisons can be queried). The Late Iron Age II A lengthy steep section in die C-14 calibration curve begins at around cal AD 625, as a result of which a disproportionally large number of C-14 dates are calibrated to within q range of a few calcndrical years (Foster in prep a). Effectively the LIA is broken up into two periods on either side of around AD 625. The later bracket is henceforth described 4s LIA 11,although. in Orkney at least, Early Medieval might be equally appropriate. Tbus of all the chronological divisions imposed upon these data. this is the one most designed to suit the archaeologist. None thb less. from the seventh century the Atlantic Province is sta. rting to acquire an Early Historic mande and much of the evidence points to a rapidly developing Pictish church and state. To date die most distinctive LIA 11structural forms are the polyventral cells (Fig 3) discovered throughout the Atlantic Province, primarily on de novo settlements.The main exponent of these forms occur in levels XII and XI at the Udal. In level XII the buildings take a more symmetric. 'ladybird-like' plan which Crawford (1986) describes as a ventral house (cf Loch na Berie: Topping 1986). In phase XI these forms were embellished with minor satellites. hence the'polyventral house. Many of these houses were enclosed by timber palisades, which were obviously very significant, one example going through at least ten replacements. A sequence of adjacent enclosuresis strung out along the machair ridge, but no details are available at present of their chronological inEer-reladonships.At all periods since phase XIV these buildings were accompaniedby minor buildings. four posters. ne latter have not ben recognised elsewhere. Buildings similar to the ventral buildings at the Udal have also been recovered in Orkney. as at Buckquoy (Ritchie 1977, Fig 2) and Red Craig (Morris 1983, rig 6). At Buckquoy there is a greater axiali'ty in die arrangement of the rooms, although this is not seen in the example which was found in the upper levels at Gurness (Iledges 1987 11,Fig 2.11). Tlie Udal dates for these particular buildings are interesting. as they suggest that this form may have a pre-seventh century pedigree, although most other evidence points to their Laterdate (note also a dendrochonologically derived terminus post quem of 618 AD from a timber version of this form in Northern Ireland: Lynn 1989). Curved gullies at Birsay are best interpreted as the thoroughly robbed foundation trenches of major cellular structures which had internal orkhostatic facings and thick turf walls (flunter 1986,3745,111 10-14). but are otherwise fairly similar in form to the polyvcntral form. There is no evidence for the Settlement at the Brough of Birsay pre-dating die mid-
40
seventh century at the earliest (ibid. 61). It will now be obvious why non-broch and settlement non-settlcnicnt moundactivity of this dateis difficult to detut, because of building techniques such that the relative slightness die structures, because of are and robbingwouldleavethe formertotally unevidenced.
paving H hearth
/0
1H
H? c
or
lom
Fig. 3. Plans ofpolywentrat structures: A Duckquoy house 4 (after Ritchie 1977, Fig 3); D Brough of Dirsay structure 19 (after Hunter 1986, ill I]), - C Red Craig (after Aforris 1983 rig 6; Hunter 1986, ill 3).
A roundhouse-type form has been recognised on site Vill at the Brough of Birsay (ibid, unicture 21,111 17) which is assumed to be LIA If. On site VII at Dirsay it is interesting to note that a drain divided two buildings front each other (ibid, III 11), and is perhapssuggcsdvc of further divisions between buildings. On the basis of certain pins and combs (Stevenson 1955; Foster in prep a and b) there was evidently some acdvity on broch sites in the LIA 11. In Orkney we arc perhaps seeing the preference for selecdve reuse of sites which have both massive outworks and surrounding settlements, sites which may by implication have been of especial importance in (lie MIA. At present no such pattern emergesfrom the Caithnessevidence. However. it remains to be emphasised that there has been little excavation on late occupied brochs. There is little evidence that a site was used both for burial and a domestic purpose, nor is there any evidence for any LIA I activity on these sites used for burial. The implicadon is therefore that a large number of these brochs sites were grassy mounds by (he 6me they came to be reused as burial sites, although the former presence of LIA settlement in the immediate vicinity of the broch mound can unfortunately not as yet be verified. 'Me collapse of broch and surrounding structures might have created so much debris that it was more convenient to build adjacent to die mound, which is riot
41
lend to investigate. but is where most subsequentdcgredation is where archaeologists likely to take place (as at Howe where there are suggestions featuresrunning off into of the ploughedout areawhich surroundeddie mound: pcrs comm B Smith). Analysis of Spatial Patterns in Buildings Tile gamma (henceforth access)analysis of llillier and Hanson (1984) is a means of invcstigating the relationship betweenspatial order and society. It looks at the patternsof betweeninhabitantsand betweeninhabitantsand strangersas they are reflected relations in ale useof interior space.in termsof the patternscreatedby boundariesand entrances. behind the technique,the formal approachis one Whilst one can find faults in the tenents; can be adaptedand modified for archaeologicalpurposes.Social inferencescan be which derived from the spadal order by circumspectconsideradonof the assumptionsbehind every step of the technique, and a clear understanding of the relationship between Culture and social reproduction. All discourse has a spatial element (Barrett material 1988) and thereforeaccessanalysis is a useful tool for arficulating an understandingof ale part spaceplays in structuring social relations, and the part social relations have in sulicturing space(Foster 1989). I'lie ahn of the next section is to demonstratehow this technique can be used to further an understanding of our period, and to develop in tandemasocial interpretation. Tile prehistoric structurcsof Orkney and Caithnessprovide one of -thebestdatabases which to do this becausewe often have informadon about tile form and function of with robbing and other vagariesof time, tile. tile constitucilt spaces.Here, despitesubsequent availability of natural building blocks has resultedin die unprecedented survival ot wide prehistoric structures,a prehistoricresourceunrivalled in LheBritish Isles. The Theory and Technique A building is madeup of walls which define a seriesof enclosedspaces,the boundaries between which may be broken by doorways allowing accessfrom one area to another. The importanceof doors is not only that they open. but more importantly that they can close, effectively segregating spaces and controlling the means of access to any particular point. Access analysis is based on syntactic relations, and considers the arrangementof different spacesas a pattern of permeabilities. that is in terms of the interconnectionsbetweenspaces.This technique is important because its descriptive of rules of application.and its clear exposition of how theserelate 3utonorny.unambiguous at the very lowest level to relations between inhabitants, and between inhabitants and suwgers. Societieswhich might vary in their type of physical configuration and degree to which die ordering of spaceappearsas a conspicuousdimensionof culture. can all be comparedon a similar basis.This is particularly useful if we are trying to compare the social practicesa building was designedto cover rather than its architecturaltraits. The techniqueis explained with ilia useof die cx.unple of the EIA roundhouseat Du (Fig 4). Each unit of space,including transitional spaces.has beenrepresented a dot as betweenthem where dierc is permeability, giving access betweenspaces(Fig with lines 4A). Each spaceis usually an area which is enclosedby orthostats,with accesseither through doorways (as in die caseof Fig Q x), or over low kerbs (v) where die access lines may thereforeappearto be jumping walls. The central 'service area' (y) is dcfined by a low kerb and gives accessto the hearth(z); it is divided into two areasbecausethe smaller north sectionis partly pavedand the distribution of artefacts(I [edges19871,Fig 1.57) may suggestthat the southern half had a different function to die northeni half. Area w is treated as a single space becausethe central orthostat was not designed to break the spaceinto two distinct components, and because the extent of floor deposits of which are more or less specific to this area (ibid). The network of dots and connecting 42
lines forms an unjustified access map. This map can be justified. in this case from -, in outside perspective (the carrier), the stance of die stranger (Fig 4C), although it could have been from any point in the building. By justification it is meant that all points of a certain depth, that is the minimum number.of steps taken to reach them from (lie carrier, have been positioned on the same horizontal line, subsequent depth values on lines parallel to die first. Given the rules of construction any line will either connect with points on die same level of depth, or two levels separated by only one level of depth. The resultant map is both an aid to visual decipherment of the pattern, and could in theory be combined with quantification procedures (an aspect which is not pursued here).
----
12,1
posited
access
\ /
I
Fig. 4.
carrier
space space sm
transitional
A Plan of Bu indicating points of access (after Iledges 1987 1: Fig 1.10). B B" wish unjustified access (gamma) inap superiniposed (access to hearth omitted); C Justified access map with labelled spaces.
Buildings are easier to study than settlements because open spaces cannot be so readily separatedinto analytical elements (Ilillicrand Hanson 1984,16). and the richness in differentiation of interior structures means that they carry more social information than exterior relations (ibid, 154). So, once spaces are defined, the spatial order of a structure can be represented in part by a diagram showing the in (erconnecdons of (lie enclosed spaces. A prerequisite for analysis is therefore an accurate map with all access points marked. Form (the formal properties of spaceand the boundarieswhich (1cfine it its style) and function (the purpose of buildings) must also be embraced. In practice it is
43
virtnally impossible to make a distinction between these attributes (Markus 1982.4-6; cf Johnson 1988,117). Ilillier and Hanson (1984) minimise the interactive nature of these because of their apparent belief in the analytical autonomy of the spatial dimension. Ilowever. these other architectural dimensions have to be brought into consideration if the full archaeological value of accessanalysis is to be appreciated. Social Inference From Access Analysis It has been argued elsewhere (Foster 1989) that the application of these techniques, in combination with evidence for architectural form and function, can impart two levels of spatial understanding. Firstly it allows us to consider the reality of living in. or visiting, that particular building. Interior spaces constitute commonly inhabited locales of social interaction. Access analysis allows us to consider how frequently and under what architectural circumsLuices physical encounter might occur and thus illuminate the way that particular architecture structures social discourse. Secondly we may compare a number of spatial pattcnis to reveal the possible existence of underlying genetic rules which govcm the generation of these patterns. In this study the designation of a space depends on the physical presence of a doorway, or crossing a low kerb or ramparts. It is also depends, to a large measure,on the ascribed function of ari area: it is obviously important to distinguish an enclosed area where sleeping rather than Storage might have Laken place. Arcas with hearths are especially relevant. The recognition of functional zones, even if only derined by what in another period might have been described as fumiture, is an obvious archaeological progression on a technique evolved for upstanding 'historic' structures. Orkney and Caithness c 600 BC-AD 800 In Figs 4-6 various types of settlement have been drawn as justified gamma maps with an extended vocabulary of symbols to reprcscut the different types of space and incans of access.These access maps therefore incorporate information about the spatial properties of the settlerricrits;and the potential functions of some areas. Moreover by the use of open and closed symbols differing architectural types, where relevant, have also been indicated. Thc result is an all-embracing consideration of the architecture presented in convenient diagrammatic form. In the early first millennium BC the population either lived in thick-walled roundhouses, which tended to be sited in isolation or in small clusters of thinner walled structures. Gradually the thicker-wallcd roundliouses or lobate multi-cellular roundliouses developed into increasingly elaborate architectural forms, ularnately ale broch, as competition in society led to the local pre-emincrice of certain residential Both types of roundhouse were clearly domestic buildings. tile groups (Iledges 1987 111). only difference being in scale and the amount of effort put into their construction, signifying which inhabitants were more powerful. This disdncdon is almost undoubtedly the result of the ability to manipulate primary agricultural resources, indeed tile appearance of earth-houses emphasises the importance of food storage at this time (Sharpies 1984,12 1). Thus the potential for social diversification and development would always have been greater in Orkney and Caithness than other areas of the Atlantic Province because the land was fertile enough to maintain large populations and the competitive demands of production and Consumption. Elsewhere the piecemeal distribution of natural resources tended to produce discrete social units with less potential for development. Ile authority of this neW dominating social elite 'would be explicitly stated in die ritual of legitimisation and in the symbols of power displayed, but that authority would also be Implicit in, amongst other things, the payment of tribute'. Thus as Barrett (198 1.
44
215) goeson to say.the acceptance newauthoritymight be mobifiscdin the labourof of building the brochs and its enclosingramparts.Prior to this the distinction in scale between roundhouses the addingof extracladdingsto the walls may have been the and for equallysignificant.Thesebuildingswerenot simply constructed extra warmthand/or defenceand/or status, but in the processof their construction actors were brought together who demonstratedtheir acceptanceof authority whilst at the same time ramifyingor creatingthebasison whichthis powerwasestablished. Ultimately Vie result was the broch,the residence the social elite which may in pf haveformedfrom theamalgamation certainsocialgroupings,for certainly of somecases brochsdeveloped into fully fledgedbrochs,and it may have all roundhouses/early not in beennecessary musterresources order to gain superiorityover rival social units. to doubledomesticunits at Gurness Midhowe suggest The secondary that a coupleof and domestic units, perhapskin groups, might have amalgamated.The infilling of the roundhousesat Pierowall and Quantcrnessmay be the result of conflict between (Sharplcs1984,121). Factors suchasraidingor landhunger(cf Scott competinglineages in for but 1947)arenot directly responsible these changes, could becatalysisfor changes die rules by which discourse was enacted, and societycontinuedto 'beconie' (cf Pred 1985).In Caithness large numberof roundhouse a sites existing on the ground do not and which appear exhibit later development. therearerelativelyfew brochsin Caithness that Again this suggests only certain earlier sites on the surfaceto be new foundations. maintained the economic and social impetus to allow settlement to continue (Mercer 1985,10). A similar patternmay exist in Orkney. notably when uninterrupted and/orburnt moundsitesoccur in close proximity to each severalbrochor roundhouse of other. The generalpicture is thus of the increasingconvergence land and societal their power within and who symbolised accumulated control underpowerful groupings on the broch. The fact that there was continuity of development particular sites may of and territorial patterns.and suggestmaintenance social networks,land organisation (ibid. 10). communities proprietalrightswith antecedent turning to the spatialaspects, At trends beobserved. the immediate somegeneral can from Early Iron Age single,agriculturalanddomesticunits visuallevel, thedevelopment (such as Bu. Fig 4) to Middle Iron Age nucle3tedsettlements(Fig 5) reveals the hierarchicaluseof space. introductionof a staggering The mapsbecomeconsiderably deeper(inore asymmetric), and the deepest, areais always the set of most segregated spaces which constitutethe broch.Uppergalleriesand upperstoreys,featuresnot found leastaccessible Their usagemay have in the outbuildings,are the very deepest, spaces. from which surveillancemight includedstorage. extra sleepingfacilities and wallheads be made.Unfortunatelythese die partsof thestructure aboutwhich leastis known as are they werealwaysthe first to collapse be dismantled, the total numberof original or and floorsis not known. If the majority of activitiesandfunctionswas in the upperstoreys thenobviouslytheir exactnaturecan neverbe assessed the groundplanstell us less and (althoughit seems that mostprobable thegroundfloor wasthemaindomesticforum). The largerthe access maps.then the moreabstract complicatedthey becometo and analyse,and it is helpful to break them down, for instanceby dividing them into ('tree-like') sub-systems Gurness:Foster (as distributed ('ringy') and nondisLributed 1989.Fig 6). On the veq outside,globally governing interior,are earLhworks the which the extendthe depthbetween insideandoutsideworlds.evenif in somecasesthey only create abstractrather than real rings, that is their circuit is 'Completed' by natural features.Accessto the interior proper has to be via the 'guardhouse'or forecourt, a relativelyconvexspace;this is wherethe transitionfrom the outsideworld to an inner From here ingressis madeinto a long thin passage from environmentis sanctioned. Howe to of and whichaccess bothoutbuildings brochcanbe made.In thecases Gumess, 45
;; >
4)
e ul t, Z
O'x
4) =ic-Zc
*-- S<
0 'OT
9) 'Z Z: uE ID
r ,E Z; 00b
ir
u -5
10
Ez
. (D -*0-4 -4
T:>4
0', 1
Fig. 5. Justified access(gamma) mapsfor Afiddle Iron Age nucleatedsettlements(reversedlopen distinguish the brochfrom other structures): A Gurness; B Howe; C Afid/josve. symbols
46
LL
135DW
C,
TYa
U-.
ii2J
___
om
.i-
Fig. 6. Justified access(gamma)mapsjor UA structurts: A Ilowmae. B llowe phase8. stage6; C Gurness 'Shamrock'. D Udal level XIV-XIII, E Udal level XII, F Udal level XII; G U., 1b. Buckquoyphase 11Buckquoyphase A-D are LLA1.E-11are IJA It. Key asfor Fig 5.
47
and Lingro (as suggested by an early section of walling: RCAMS 1946 11,Fig 230) the entrance into the settlement and the broch entrance are aligned, which must have enhanced the processional like qualities of these passages.From here the outbuildings a local, large and almost totally nondistributed area Of Settlement, spaces in consdtute which strangers cannot freely circulate and into which they must be invited. Such branching off thus creates the maximum segregation of spaceswith the least expenditure of depth, both betwcen and within domestic units. Entrance to and between the outbuildings is Mainly by means of this passage, therefore most movement can be monitored by control of its various sections. From this first narrow passageaccessis gained to the next ring. a passagewaywhich encircles the broch (except at Howe). This ring is at the point where ingress can be gained to further nondistributed spaces at a slightly deeper level. Ringy structures interconnect some apartments and outbuildings. Access to the broch interior is from the initial passage, at about the same level as some of the outbuildings, but is deepenedby guard cells, an elaborate doorway into a long tunnel, and a series of vestibules. The form of the architecture is particularly relevant; the monumentality of the broch-tower and its elaborate entrance contrast starkly with the less substanUal outbuildings, all of which appear very similar in form, serving to heighten the discrepancy between these spaces. Once inside the bruch the final ringy structure is encountered, which is separatedfrom all the others by several depth levels. This is quite complex in the case of the double domesdc units at Nlidhowe and the later levels at Gurness. The rings connect the main domesde foci (the hearth areas) and the upper levels. Cells and compartments are arranged in non-distributed fashion from these rings, in similar fashion to the outbuildings. From the point of view of strangers, the overall hierarchical layout and the differences in architectural form have done nothing to encourage their admission,to the broch. Therefore, its interior ringy system, is unlikely to have had a major role in articulating immediate stranger-in habitant relations, but was probably a means of articulaLing the reladonships between the different domestic units, where they existed. The ringy sub-systems in the outbuildings would have played a similar role, but here there is a greater emphasis on the non-distribuied component. From the point of view of social structure a number of observations can be made on the basis of this information. Despite some similarities with the outbuildings, the broch lement complex becauseof its obviously stands out as the most important area in the sett. spatial Importance. its prime location and its monumentality. It it were not for the double domesLic units, and the spacesassociated with the upper levels of the broch, then they would differ little from the earlier roundhouses.This, in combination with the degree of controlled access to the Outbuildings and their apartments, which are almost exclusively segregated, may suggest that the social structure on which these new relations were founded required strict control in order to be both established and maintained. Taling an overview. the observed systems servo to emphasisethe social Inequalities existing between the broch and outbuilding occupants, and the settlement and the outside, the latter distinction bSi'ng the strongest. Local relations between the internal cells are basically the same except for the broch; the factor of non interchangeability has been introduced between the broch and all its surrounding units. Thus this is more of a transpatial than spatial system. In other words the emphasis is on spatial relations which have been determined by genotypic rules and produce the required restrictions of encounter, even though each physical manifestation of these rules is different. What is More, the genotypic-model is global, because it recurs, and as a result transpatial relations and integration can exist between arrangements (settlement complexes) because similarities in layout and comparable positioning may foster a conceptual form of identification (I lillicr and I lanson 1984,238). 48
In addition the inhabitantsof a single settlementmay feet a strong senseof identity with each other becausethey share a structured whole with others. Furthermore, the the of repetitive natureof thesepatternsmay be representing acknowledgement a codeof symbols. in this casespatially determined,by which those in the broch sustainedtheir authority over the inhabitantsof the outbuildings.The orderedlayout of the outbuildings use and the comprehensive of spacefurther suggeststhat thesewere laid out as a unity under the authority of the broch inhabitants,rather than being the result of the cumulative construction of outbuildingsto a basic structuring principle. Their constructionis thus a and part of the symbol by which the authority of the broch inhabitantswas both accepted created.The emphasisis on the articulation of theserelationsat the intra-sitelevel, but as a part of a wider societywith simikir values. Fojut (1982) estimatesa carrying capacity of about 100-200 people for the land surrounding a broch In Shetland.Unfortunately it is not possible to measurethe size of the populations and the extent to which the carrying capacity of the land was being realised at any stage,but increasingly,and from early days in the history of the brochs,a large numberof dependents cameto live aroundthe brochs.The greaterthe authority and wealth of the broch inhabitants the larger the number of dependentsthey could both attract and support.The most powerful leaderscould muster the resourcesto lay out and build planned, integrated,nucleatedvillages. Under less formal circumstances, on a and lesser scale, non-radial outbuildings were built. Early brochs are seen as being sculements,and not all broch sites were of equal contemporarywith variousroundhouse standing.The paceof this developmentmay have varied considerablyfrom areato area. and was not necessarilyunilineal. In a time of great change social tensionsmust have been strong betweendifferent groups, and it was in the interests of the social elite to to attract more dependents their fold, and preferably to accommodatethem where they and could be easily accounted providedfor. Most brochs were sited with accessto cultivable land as the main consideration , (Scott 1947,1948; Fojut 1982: Mercer 1985). It is presumedthat all inhabitants,even craftsmen,would probablyhavebeeninvolved in the production of food. Ultimately there was a changein die broch system, the result of a renegotiationof or relations, which wasachievedby extendingthe authority of certain cultural resources, by rejecting oncecurrentauthoritativesymbols(cf Barrett forth). Certainly the brochwas of no longer occupied.althoughsettlement someform seemsto havecontinuedon many sites. The LIA I is the period for which least is known of the settlementrecord,but there is certainly no indication of structureswhich can be differentiated on social groundsin 0, kney and Caithness.Ile exact date of this changeis nbt known. but it would be too easy to attemptto relatethis to the withdrawal of Roman interestsin Scotland.Yet as the prime recordedsourceof authority in this period, this cannot be ignored. Although the Romans never exercisedany control in the area, the classical literature suggeststhat there was a power basein the north which was consideredworth conqueringOlomson 1987.2-3). and the archaeology supportsthis. If the broch aristocracyhadbecomectients of the Romans,die withdrawal of their patronagemight have been sufficient to topple was this social system,asis suggested the casefor the Lowland brochs(Macinnes19&4). When local leaderswere thus no longer able to satisfy the needsand demandsof their dependents.the resuli-wasthe renegotiationof relations from the local power basesto more distant ones. The only -brochsites which continued were those where the social elite managedto continueto derive power in this new system;presumablycertainbroch sites were still the majorccntres. Fifth century Britain in generalwas experiencinga time of settlementshift as the result of the withdrawalof theRomansand migrationsfrom both the continentand Ireland. Yet as in post-RomanWales and north England, there is no reasonto believe that the
49
social structure did not survive, albeit in modified form. Certainly the aggression earlier of the Picts against south Britain, recorded from the late third century onwards, suggests that the individual components of their society were able to produce between then a naval force to be reckoned with. The appearance of forts. notably Burghead, with a coastal distribution from (he fifth century onwards, (Alcock 1980,80-8 1). suggests not only a concentration of resources into fort construction, but is a part of the discontinuity witnessed in die settlement record throughout Pictland. Very little is known of social stratification, but the term regulus was used to describe a sub-king or minor king of Orkney who was visiting the rex poientissintus near Inverness in AD 565. The picture presented is thus of a system of local kings with one, or possibly two overkitigs. Certainly the uniformity of symbol stories throughout Pictland (the majority of which probably date to the LIA II) empliasises that there was a certain cultural cohesion throughout the area (Ritchie 1985,189). By the seventh century there is an increasing body of evidence for settlement at this time having been made up of individual, discrete units, such as around the Birsay Bay area (Morris 1983.132). Only one site, at the Brough of Birsay can be put forward as a particularly important ccritre, but then on the basis of its finds, location and subsequent importance in the Norse period, rather than any distinguishing structures (Curle 1982; Hunter 1986). The lack of farmland o4 the island renders interpretation as a siniple farmstead unsatisfactory (Hunter 1986,169). and the inhabitants must have been dependent on a hinterland. The settlements around the Birsay Day may therefore perhaps be interpreted as a series of home farms or dependent settlements providing for die needs of this establishment. They may therefore not be totally typical of the selt1cments.we may expect to find ise-mliere in Orkney and Caithness. There was some selective re-use of broch sites, but on present evidence this only occurred on a few sites. In Oikney the selective reuse of mes for secular and ecclesiastical purposes which were probably particularly important in the MIA (see above) may be a means of legitimising and enforcing a new social structure (cf Bradley 1987). In the post-broch ceriod (Fig 6) the access maps revert to forms which are very similar to the shallow G[A examples, except that in [lie LIA 11some of die domestic units re enclosed by fenc.-s. zrc3ting a series of discrete units which are sometimes clustered in space. In other words the basic domestic units remain very similar throughout our period, despite different architectural shells, even in the MIA they do not change. except that they are bound togthcr spatially with strongly prescribed lines of access. In spatial terms the only difference between the thin and thick walled EIA roundhouscs is in their degree of association with other structures and their monumentality. In the LIA the emphasis thus changes from internal to external space. and there is a trend towards more eg3liLarian, less spatially prescribed. on-site relations. Ilowevcr. these changes were undoubtedly accompanied by a stricter control of the spaces between sites as a result of new forms of land organisation. In terms of social evolution this corresponds to the shift from a ranked society to the emergent state, from local change power bases to more distant durces of authority. By the eighth century there am hints that Picdsh kings were developing some of the organisational capacity to manage a widespread kingdom, which was gradually acquiring some of the appearance of a state. with a degree of central administration and perhaps more closely-defined boundaries, which could at times be backed by physical violence (cf Mann 1986.37). In AD 727 there is a reference interpreted as meaning that NechLan had officers called exactores. persons collecting tax or tribute (Annals of Ulster. sub anno 728; Anderson 1973,178). and it is probable that such officers worked as the king's representatives throughout Pictland. Such people lived in isolation from those from whom they were exacting tribute, benefiting considerably from the enhanced powers which they derived from their
50
as agentsof authority (thereis thus a dialectic betweencentrzilisingpowers.such position forcesof its agents:Mann 1986).Agentssuchas these the state.and the decentrallsing as have levied the fleets which carried Out severalrecordedsea-borne attacks in the might and seventhcenturies(TigernachAnnals c 682; Annals of Ulster c 580-81). and sixth was wreckedin the eighth (TigernachAnnals c 729). which Thus whilst the constructionof monumentalarchitecture.in this casehillforts, is sail of a material symbol of the acceptance authority. this power is now more physically remote.Whilst thereare still regionally basedsourcesof authority, theseare seemingly few in nurnber,and their power is structuredand reproducedin a different manner.There is no longer the needfor U&hLly regulatedsocial encounter,the existenceand acceptance physically determinedsocial rules. or indeed die ability to maintain such a network. of is ilie relationshipof dependency no longer expressedin such ovettly SpatialWins and contributesto the working of this extensivesocial network. personalencounter enhanced by That the maintenance theselong-distancerelitlons was difficult is suggested die of fact that king Brude was reputedto have destroyeddie Orkneys in AD 682 (Tigernach Annals: Orcadiesdeletesunt la'Bruidhe, Skene1867,72). which may haveresultedfrom Orcadiandissatisfactionwith die choice of overlords, or attemptsto exact tributes. Tile secular reuse of important MIA Site$ May in part be an attempt to legitimise and thereforeenforcethis far-flung network. Similarly the introduction of the Roman church with its pastoralorganisationto Orkney by the southernPictish king in the eighth century (Lamb 1988;Thomson1987,10) might be construedas a consciouseffort to consolidate secularpower through the church. Christianity was a form of ideological power whose between its doctrine and the motivations and authority resided in die correspondence (Mann 1986,302).Whilst the appealand influenceorChrisdanity needsof thecon%erted was universal. yet at die same time it reinforced the standing of the extant Secular authority: literacy provided a stable means of communication beyond face-to-race long distanceregulation (ibid 337,377). relations,and its law and morality represented The extensionof the church to Orkney within a few years of AD 715 may effectively date die extensionof Pictish royal power. in real terms. to this area (Umb 1988). Tile distribution of symbol storiesand evidencefor die ecclesiasticalreuseof sites points to thosesiteswherethe interests the social elite wereclosely tied up with the developing of Pictish stateandchurch(cf Driscoll 1988). in a later eighth century or ninth century version of Bede's EcclesiasticalIlistory 6rkney was consideredto be a part of the Pictish kingdom (Dumville 1976), which by the end of the century may have beenconsolidatedunder a single king (Davies 1984. 70). The generalabsence mentionof Caithnessin the documentary of sourcesis probably of a reflectionof the lesserimportance this areain comparisonto the Orkney Isles wWcfl and were both moreaccessible strategicallyplacedin the Atlantic seaways. By the time the Norse arrived Orkney and Caithnesswere both thoroughly Pictish, but far removedfrom the prime sourcesof authority. The regional inrra-structure,was thus not adequateenoughto make a stand against a Norse take-over, particularly at a period when die powersof the Pictish state were diminishing. It was however a welloiled systemof administration,both secular and ecclesiastical.onto which the Norse grafted themselves(as in Ireland, England and Normandy: Crawford 1987.168). For example,in Orkneytheie is evidencethat the Norse land-divisionsmight even havebeen relatedto a prc-Norseadministrativesystem(Marwick 1952.208). Lamb suggests(pers to necessary Setup the Jarldom in the ninth century after the comm) that it only became structureceasedto function due to die dismantling o( the Roman Church ecclesiastical by the Scottishkings.
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Conclusions All human acdon is located in both fime and space. It is thus appropriate that a large proportion of the effort of archaeologists is spent in measuring, describing and recording these attributes. particularly those pertaining to humanly-made-space architecture. Space provides the setting for all social discourse, whether it is the open landscape or an artificial environment. It is a resource with an infinite number of permutafions, a cultural resource which when studied in terms of its development through time can be understood not only as the context, but also the structuring agent and product of acts of social reproduction. This paper has attempted to demonstrate this and introduced access analysis, as described above. as a useful tool for furthering an understanding of the relationship between a specific material culture and social reproduction. The shift front a ranked society where die ultimate authorities were locally based to more remote sources of central authority characterises the development of Orkney and Caithness from die MIA to the arrival of the Norse. In his account of die sources of social power, Mann (1986) disfinguishes six different forms of organisational power. Here we are seeing the change from intensive power. where there was the ability to organize UghLly and command a high level of mobilisation or commitment from the participants, to extensive power. where there was the ability to organise large numbers of people over far-flung territories in order to engage in minimally stable co-operadon. In order to amplify our expanding picture of IA Orkney and Caithness, it now remains to examine how other aspects of social reproduction fitted within this framework, and to identify the resources through which this power was exercised. In pardcular we must examine the means by which the change from local to distant power bases was achieved and maintained, the answer to which undoubtedly lies in changing agricultural practice and land tenure and the introduction of Chrisdanity (Mann 1986; cf Biddick 1984). Acknowledgements This paper expands upon the case made in my note in Antiquity 1989, so I must repeat my thanks to those who helped with this, and the editor for permission to reproduce the relevant sections. In addition I would like to gratefully acknowledlge those who have generously divulged of their unpublished data and ideas, let me use these. and kindly commented on various aspects Of this present paper. namely Simon Buteux; Steve Dockrill; Dir John Hunter; Dr Raymond Lamb; Dr Euan MacKie, Roger Mercer Ross Samson. Dr Liz Slater; Beverley Smith; and other colleagues in Glasgow. Professor Leslie Alcock and the Editor, John Barrett, worked hard to comprehensively criticise my text. make suggestions. and ameliorate the worst of my crimes to the English language. UlLimately the final opinions and faults, such as remain, are my own responsibility. Bibliography Alcock. L 1980Populi bestiales pictorurnferoci anirno:a surveyof Pictishsettlement archaeology, in WS Hansonand LJF Kepie (eds)Roman frontier studies1979(Brii. Atchaeol.Rep.Int. Ser.7 1. Oxford), 61-95. Anderson. AO 1922Early sources ScottishhistoryAD 500-1286(Edinburgh). of MO 1973Kingsand kingshipin early Scotland(Edinburgh). Anderson. AnnaLs Mier Anderson. AO 1922 of Universityof ArchaeotogyExrra Bulletin producedby the School of Archaeological Sciences, Bradford. Barrett. IC 1981Aspectsof the Iron Age in Atlantic Scotland.A casestudy in the problems of interpretation. Proc. Soc.Antiq. Scot..Ill (1981).205-19. archaeological Barrett. JC 1988 Fields or Discourse: reconstituting a social archaeology. Criliqut of Anthropology. 3 (1987-88).5-16. 7:
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RobertaGilchrist*
This paper examines the use of architectural spacein expressingsocial differences within monastid settlements. The subject of the analysis is the evolving perception of the concept of community In medieval English monasticism. In Its desert origins, the monasticism of fourth century Egypt and Syria found both efeMiLIC and coenobiac expressions. Between the fifth and seventh centuries, western monasticism developed a coenobitic form which tempered individual isolation with group living. From the extant rules followed by medieval monastics, in particular the Rule of St Benedict, the letters of Jerome and Augustine, and the Scriptures themselves, it is possible to glimpse the ideal internal structure of coenobitic communities. Ile real observancesof a particular house over the period of its occupation may be gleaned from historical documentation (account rolls. references in wills to a house, bishop's visitations), archaeological excavation and formal methods for quantifying spatial patterning. Access and movement within a monastic context can be approached through the study of modem contemplative monasticism. This last approach draws on direct historic analogy. a method of interpreting archaeological material by seeking analogues with contemporary cultures to which the past culture is historically linked. The eLhnoarchaeological approach to monasticism attempted here refers to the study of a modem contemplative community living in a restored medieval monastery and following the Rule to which the house was originally committed. Monastic perceptions of spaceare created by the use of boundaries, which may be of both real and ideal nature. Hence, while the boundary of a medieval precinct demarcated legal ownership of land, it also symbolised the divide between secular and religious domains. Space was (and is) used to regulate encounters between groups. Inside the precinct. the relationship between secular and religious was distinguished by an outer secular court and an inner religious cloister. Within the cloister. a more subtle segregation relied on both the physical manipulation of spaceand the conceptual spatial divisions informed by cocnobUic ideals. Attitudes towards space were created through shared kno wledge, transmitted through sermons and written traditions. This codified * behaviour informed attitudes toward space, which in turn reproduced the social ritual order of the monastic cornmunity. In the formulation of his Rule, Benedict was striving for a well-organised ascetic fife which achieved sanctity through die elevation of community by the renunciation of the individual. Equality within a group of monks was assured through self-denial and spiritual humility. Renunciation of self was achieved through a rejection of private property upon induction to the community 'thenceforward he will not have disposition
*Deparintent ofArchaeology. Aficklelate ]Josue, York YOI IJZ
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