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ASPECTS OF THE LATE ATLANTIC

IRON AGE

Sally

M Foster

VOLUMEI

Thesis Doctor Glasgow,

submitted of

in

accordance in 1989, the

with Faculty M

the of

requirements Arts of IcI69. the

for

the

degree of

Philosophy September,

University

jg)-9odl

Vbste-r,

TABLE OF CONTENTS VOLUMEI LIST OF FIGURES .................................................... LIST OF TABLES .................................................... ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .................................................... SUMMARY ........................................................... ABBREVIATIONS .................................................... PART I: INTRODUCTION iv ix x xii xiii

CHAPTER 1: STNOPSIS 1 the topic Part I: Defining 1.1 .................................. 2 Part II: Pins, combs and the chronology 1.2 of Atlantic ......... Iron Age settlement in the Iron Age.. 3 Part III: A model for Orkney and Caithness 1.3 CHAPTER2: INTRODUCTION 2.1 theory ............................ Archaeologists and social Social theory and archaeology ............................... 2.2 2.3 Using fields of discourse ................................... 2.4 Area of study .............................................. framework 2.5 The chronological I ............. .................. RESOURCES THE ATLANTIC PROVINCE IN CHAPTER3: ARCHAEOLOGICAL Temporal frequency ......................................... 3.1 Spatial 3.2 extent ............................................. 3.3 Cultural of discourse .............. resources of the fields PART II: OF PINS. COMBSAND THE CHRONOLOGY ATLANTIC IRON AGE SETTLEMENT 5 6 9 13 16

18 25 33

AND GENERALCONSIDERATIONS CHAPTER4: BACKGROUND Pins, combs and the chronology 4.1 of brochs ................... The data base 4.2 .............................................. Dating artefacts 4.3 &........................... ............... The question 4.4 of distribution ...............................

29 37 41 44

CHAPTER5: PINS 47 Classification 5.0 pins ............................ of Scottish Summary of pin forms ....................................... 48 5.1 54 5.2 Analysis of the data'base .................................. Category of material 55 5.3 ....................................... Forms of pin shaft 62 5.4 ......................................... 5.5 Forms of stick in antler or bone (and metal). 73 pin occurring 98 in metal ...................... 5.6 Forms of stick pin occurring 5.6 Manufacture 113 of LIA pins ................................... CHAPTER6: COMBS 6.1 Classification combs .......................... of Scottish 6.2 Summary of comb classification ............................ 6.3 Analysis of data base ...................................... 6.4 Discussion of comb groups ................................. -i115 116 118 119

6.5

Some comments on material and techniques manufacture ...............................................

in comb 124

CHAPTER7: OVERVIEWOF THE DATING EVIDENCE FOR LIA PINS AND COMBS Overview of classification 7.1 129 ................................ The date range of the pins and combs ...................... 7.2 130 Up-date and revision 7.3 1955 chronology 140 of Stevenson's ....... CHAPTER8: REVIEW OF SETTLEMENTEVIDENCE IN ORKNEYAND CAITHNESS Non-broch LIA settlement 8.1 144 evidence in Orkney ............... Broch sites 8.2 in Orkney ...... 150 with evidence for LIA activity Summary of evidence for LIA activity 8.3 in Orkney ............ 172 8.4 Non-broch LIA settlement in Caithness 180 ..................... 8.5 Broch sites in Caithness ... 185 with evidence for LIA activity Caithness 8.6 sites with only structural evidence for in the broch interior 192 prolonged occupation ................ Caithness 8.7 broch sites with structural evidence for outbuildings date 193 of indetermined ..................... 8.8 Summary of evidence for LIA activity 199 in Caithness ......... CHAPTER9: GENERALREVIEW OF LIA SETTLEMENTIN THE ATLANTIC PROVINCE 204 9.1 Summary of evidence for LIA settlement in Shetland ........ in Sutherland 205 9.2 Summary of evidence for LIA settlement ...... in the Outer 9.3 Summary of evidence for LIA settlement 206 Hebrides, Skye and the Small Isles ........................ in the West Coast 9.4 Summary of evidence for LIA settlement 210 and the Inner Hebrides .................................... 212 9.5 Concluding comments ....................................... PART III: A MODEL OR ORKNEYAND CAITHNESS IN THE IRON AGE

CHAPTER 10. ANALYSIS OF SPATIAL PATTERNSIN BUILDINGS (ACCESS ANALYSIS) AS AN INSIGHT INTO SOCIAL STRUCTURE Summary of structural 10.1 development ........................ in buildings ................ 10.2 Analysis of spatial patterns 10.3 Orkney and Caithness c600 BC-AD 800 ...................... 10.4 Conclusions .............................................. 10.5 Postscript ............................................... IN CHAPTER 11: TRANSFORMATIONS EXTENDEDSOCIAL SPACE 11.1 Ordering of the landscape ................................ in agricultural 11.2 Transformations practice ................. Introduction 11.3 of the Roman church ......................... CHAPTER12: OVERVIEWAND COMMENTS ................... PART IV: APPENDICES 262

215 221 228 238 239

242 250 253

APPENDIX Ia: A CATALOGUEOF SCOTTISH IRON AGE AND EARLY NORSERADIOCARBON DETERMINATIONS .................................. Ib: CONCORDANCE SCOTTISH C-14 DATES WITH SITES .............. OF APPENDIX II: NUMBER) CATALOGUE OF PINS AND COMBS (BY RECORD .......

266 287 289

-ii-

VOLUMEII APPENDIX III: CONCORDANCE APPENDIX II OF BY SITE .................... I

APPENDIX IV: SUMMARY MIA AND LIA SETTLEMENTIN THE ATLANTIC OF PROVINCE ........................................................... APPENDIX V: DETAILS OF SPATIAL ANALYSES FOR INDIVIDUAL SITES ....... APPENDIX VI: FIGURES BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................ 102 METALWORK FROMWAREBETH CEMETERY ............... 99

74 87

-iii-

LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. The boundaries study area in of north black. Britain in the Iron Age with Mercer the

Figure

2.

The distribution work by Lamb, Batey, of field Morrison in northeast Scotland. The distribution Scottish of calibrated area, in comparison to the characteristics Trondheim C-14 curve.

and

Figure

3.

C-14 dates, of the

by

Figure

4.

Scottish A The distribution C-14 dates, of uncalibrated by area, at the 1-a level; B The distribution of Scottish C-14 dates, by area, at the 1-a level calibrated A Characteristics of the Trondheim C-14 calibration in comparison with B the distribution of C-14 (1-a) for each decade between 3000-950 calibrations with a constant standard deviation of 50 years. pins of post-Roman pins. date, bronze pins. of Atlantic in appendix and bone. curve bp,

Figure

5.

Figure Figure Figure

6. 'Roman' 7. 8.

Ring-headed

Loose-ring

MacKiels suggested stages Iron Age material culture. Summary of nature Ii.

in the development

Figure

9.

of entries

of

data

fields

Figure

10. The distribution of Iron Age bone, antler and metal from Orkney and NE Caithness in comparison artefacts land capability, and topography. soil acidity

to

Figure

11. The distribution and metal of Iron Age bone, antler from a part of the Western Isles in comparison artefacts to land capability, and topography. soil acidity 12. Summary of classification 13. Summary of classification pin forms. 14. Fowler E pins. of loose-ring examples. pins. rosette type pins and beaded type heads and of, bone and antler of stick pins stick pins.

Figure Figure

and metal-only

Figure Figure

15. Summary of classification illustrations of further 16. Projecting ring-headed pins,

Figure Figure

17. Semi-corrugated pins. 18. Semi-beaded 19. Degenerate

Figure Figure

and hand pins. ibex and corrugated


-

and beaded pins.

iv-

Figure 20. Comparison of pin length material.


Figure

for different

categories of material

of within

21. Comparison of proportions of category each range of pin lengths. 22. Comparison of lengths swollen shaft S. 23. Pins 24. Pins of groups of groups of groups of groups of groups pin 1-3. 4-8. 8-9. 9-15. 11-34. forms. 1-6. 4-5. 6-8. combs.

Figure

of metal and skeletal

hipped and

Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure

25. Pins 26. Pins 27. Pins

28. Metal-only

29. Combs of groups 30. Examples 31. 32.

of combs of Sroups

Examples of combs of yotAps Photographs of miscellaneous of pins of class

33. The distribution 34. The distribution pins. 35. The distribution

of classes C pins

A, AC? and B. and class D

and moulds,

Figure Figure

of class

E and F pins. Pictish

36. Comparison of the distribution of class I and II symbol stones and LIA combs of groups 4-6. 37. Selected depictions of combs on Pictish

Figure Figure

symbol stones. LIA

38. The distribution of C-14 dates for contexts producing to the 2-sigma level). pins and combs (calibrated I 39. Distribution at the Brough of Birsay by phase and Pictish ILIA] moulds. features of LIA fashion

Figure

pins

Figure Figure Figure Figure

40. Summary of pre-Norse 41. Plans 42. Plans of miscellaneous of miscellaneous

at the Brough of Birsay.

LIA structures. LIA structures. can be seen in W wall of

Broch wall Papa Westray. 43. A St Boniface's, Internal section eroded by sea; B Midhowe. H. outbuilding 44. Plans of Orkney brochs. -v-

Figure

Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure

45. Plans 46. Plans

of Orkney brochs. of Orkney brochs. sequence at Howe. with nucleated settlement.

47. Summary of structural 48. Plans of Orkney brochs

49. Plan of Lingro. 50. Original 51. Original sketch sketch of buildings G and H at Lingro. broch entrance at Lingro by

of area outside

interpreted 52.. Original at Lingro, sketch of excavations the outwork and its the present writer as depicting with later outbuildings relationship 53. Suggested reconstruction faceted of MIA forecourt and perforated at Lingro. head and its

Figure Figure

54. Sketch of pin with location at Lingro. 55. Suggested Midhowe. stages

Figure

in the development

of the outbuildings MIA and LIA

at

Figure

56. Comparison of the distribution in Orkney. activity 57. Plan of Howmae. 58. Plans 59. Plans of Caithness of Caithness of plans brochs. brochs. of extended brochs. brochs. brochs. brochs.

of recognised

Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure

60. Comparison 61. Plans 62. Plans 63. Plans 64. Plans

passageways.

of Caithness of Caithness of Caithness of Caithness

65. Comparison of distribution in Caithness. activity 66. Examples of IA sub-rectangular 67. Phased plan of Clickhimin.

of recognised

MIA and LIA including

Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure

structures, Shetland.

wags.

broch,

68. Plan of outstructures 69. Plans 70. a of brochs ;b

to the E of the broch

at Jarlshof.

In Sutherland. the later -viphases at A Cheardach Mhor.

Dun Cuier

Figure Figure Bu. Figure

71. The dimensions 72. Plans

of EIA roundhouses. at Quanterness, Calf of Eday and

of EIA roundhouses

73. A Plan of a small modern house, ground floor only; B Unjustified C Justified access (gamma) map superimposed; access map with labelled spaces. 74. Definition of symmetric and distributed relationships.

Figure Figure

75: A Plan of Bu indicating points of access; B Bu with unjustified access (gamma) map superimposed ; C. Justified spaces. access map with labelled access (gamma) maps for (gamma) maps for MIA nucleated LIA structures.

Figure 76: Justified settlements. Figure Figure 77: Justified

access

78. Justified access maps for Gurness: A the nondistributed B the distributed system. sub-system; 79. 80. Place-name Scheme for structuring evidence for the early church in Orkney. and the

Figure Figure

the relationship of long distance access map for

between resources relations. social

Figure

81. Unjustifed Gurness.

outbuildings

and outworks forecourt

at

Figure

82. The approach gatehouse.

to Gurness

from the E: the

and

Figure

83. The approach to Gurness along through the outbuildings. the 84. The S passage encircling the left outside guard cell. 85. The N passage encircling from outside the right

the

initial

passageway as seen from

Figure

broch

at Gurness

Figure

the broch guard cell.

at Gurness as seen from the broch

Figure

86. Gurness outbuildings 4-6 as viewed looking SE. wallhead, 87. Gurness outbuilding looking SSE. 88. Entrance cells. 3 as viewed

Figure

from the current from outside

wallhead,

Figure

to Gurness broch viewed

the guard

Figure

89. The W chambers of the S and N compartments broch. 90. Overview wallhead. of E half of Gurness broch interior

of Gurness from the W

Figure

-vii-

Figure

91. Gurness broch compartment. 92. Unjustifed 93. Unjustified 94. Unjustified

interior

from the SW chamber in the S broch interior at Gurness. at Howe. at

Figure Figure Figure Lingro. Figure

access access access

map for map for map for

the phase 7 levels conjectured

MIA levels

95. Unjustified Midhowe. 96. The approach

access

map for

outstructures

and outworks

at

Figure Figure

to Midhowe from the NE. to the passage the

97. The approach to Midhowe at the entrance through the outworks. 98. The approach outworks. 99. The entrance

Figure

to Midhowe in the passage through to the

Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure

broch at Midhowe from the W. H from the outworks, looking looking W. SW.

100. Midhowe outbuilding 101. Outbuilding 102. The long

H from the outworks, tunnel-like interior passage into

Midhowe broch. facing W.

103. Midhowe broch

from the wallhead,

the dividing 104. Midhowe broch interior, wall of compartment from Note projection S from the 1.8m level. C, looking support. wall for chamber roof/gallery 105. Compartment C of Midhowe broch Interior, Note entrance to stairway the wallhead. and roof of chamber to W of it. 106. Unjustified 107. Unjustified 108. Unjustified Gurness. 109. Unjustified Howe. 110. Unjustified 111. Two Insular access map for Interior looking NW from level at gallery at Midhowe. at Buckquoy

Figure

Figure Figure Figure

features

access map for access map for map for

phase Ib and II

Shamrock and Annexe at phase 8, stage 6 structures

Figure

access

at

Figure Figure

access maps for metal

Howmae and Stenabreck.

mounts from Warebeth.

-viii-

LIST OF TABLES Table Table Table Table Table 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Ambiguities in stick pin forms for for for for .... for for for for for for for for ........................... antler possible iron pins ............... antler pins ...... 51 55 56 59

Summary of dating Summary of dating Summary of dating

evidence evidence evidence

pins ..................

Summary of dating evidence (excluding moulds) ......... Summary of dating Summary of dating Summary of dating Summary of dating evidence evidence evidence evidence evidence evidence evidence evidence

copper alloy pins ...... ................... shaft shaft shaft shaft type type type type a ............. b ............. c ............. e .............

. .

60 63

Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Ta:ble

6. 7. 8. 9.

64 . . 65

68 . 120 121 122 123

10. Summary of dating 11. Summary of dating 12. Summary of dating 13. Summary of dating

group 3 combs ............ group 4 combs ............

group 5 combs ............ group 6 combs ............

-lx-

ACKNOWLEDGENEWS

The

germ

of

this

project Leslie

(part

II)

was I the first

suggested have him

to to

me by thank all this for

my for the and the must who to and

supervisor encouraging very other to hard work him

Professor me to work

Alcock.

come to Glasgow in put into I have this

place all

and for of Credit

he has

improving

aspects (parts in the

which in and which

subsequently work ultimately and yet

produced. led friends

directions go

I and III) department

other

colleagues testing,

provided work,

a stimulating,

friendly

environment Driscoll, their kindly

in which

particularly this to his text. data,

John Barrett, addition but

Dr Stephen

Pam Graves

Ross Samson. In parts access source thoughts. of

I am grateful in

to them for

comments on allowed me

Throughout

Dr Euan MacKie has he has also pushing

particular

been a valuable me to clarify my

of stimulating

discussion,

constantly

Chapter benefiting (Chris

10 has largely from Chippindale

appeared John

in

print

(Foster criticism

1989a and b) after from the editors referees and

much thorough and

and helpful Barrett),

- anonymous

colleagues. In the course contact with the this I have had the pleasure other with the professionals exception text. of of coming into and Iain ideas, various Crawford, and/or

of

research

many archaeologists, public me access Dr Marion who have, to data

members of warmly advice, to her time

given and/or

and artefacts sections spending of

and/or

comments on specific Scott statistics, Deborah Prof Nick DW for

I am grateful period lending and of the Jim co-rmAc, Someke for

them all:

a 'considerable

on my C-14 she Ian used; Armit, Leslie, Slater

Dr Tom Aitchison Kennedy, Harding, University);

programme Spriggs; and Roger Alan Banks,

Amanda Clydesdale Dr P Topping. John Dr Ian Dr Alex Batey Bernard Barber

Mercer

(Edinburgh

Ralston / (AOC); Iain Morrison

Aitchison,

Tony Pollard, Dr Colleen London);

and Dr Liz Brundle University

(Glasgow University); (University College

and Dr James Bell; Anne (Birmingham Trevor

Graham-Campbell

(Tankerness Field

House Museum, Kirkwall); Archaeology Unit); -x-

Simon Buteux

Joanna

Close-Brooks;

Cowie,

Dr

Mike

Spearman,

Dr

Alison

Sheridan Andy Foxon

and

Ian

Scott

(Royal

Museum of Art

Scotland, Sill

Queen Street); Harding

(Glasgow

Museums and John and Dr repeated of the Hill

Galleries);

(Inverness advice (Highland

Museum and Art and hospitality; and Steve Regional

Gallery); Peter

W Hedges for Jean Comrie University);

much information, (Whithorn); Bob Gourlay

Dr John Hunter

Dockrill

(Bradford

Archaeologist); Smith the for staff

Raymond Lamb (Orkney advice Dr

Archaeologist) in

and Beverley Paula Love;

and warm hospitality Rosie for Sanderson

Orkney;

NMR; Mrs Margaret David

(Freswick);

Seamus Ross (Oxford advice and PhD

University); support; Lord on (York Peter

much constructive Castle); Dr of Carol her

Strathnaver Caithness Planning

(Dunrobin and access Department); Trust); to

Swanson

for

advice (Strathclyde

aspects A

unfinished (Shetland

Ann MacSween (ARU); Williamson

Dr Dominic

Tweddle and

Archaeological Yeoman.

Museum)

My thanks financial

also

extend

to my parents, support. lived

John Foster Cath,

and Jonquil Janet, Liz

Alpe

for

and moral

Flat-mates with to

and Marion

have cheerfully Finally I

and tolerantly to

me and my thesis.

wish

repeat

my gratitude text.

my supervisor, from them all

colleagues much more

and friends than could

in Glasgow, be evident

because I have learnt

in this

SUMMARY

The periods, the record effects

Scottish the EIA,

Atlantic MIA, LIA

Iron I

Age

is

recognised II. Least is

as

falling of of

into the the of

four LIA I,

and LIA

known

immediate confirms of the

post-broch these

period. they

Original result curve

analysis

C-14 the of large on the to

divisions; calibration and combs

as a combination but mainly the

Trondheim survival

history A

archaeological data the more the of base earlier ubiquitous LIA. LIA This settlement in of

previous is

excavation

strategy.

pins work of and

and

following examined and analysed, OL Stevenson (1955), because these are some of A belonging artefacts chronologically sensitive the basis the area in of for a reconsideration Province and LIA, as of the

provides

nature more are I

throughout the study

Atlantic Orkney

a whole, There

particularly still activity. severe

Caithness. particularly

problems

recognising

LIA

This Caithness to the

analysis from eighth

forms around or ninth trends is the

the

basis

for

a case of this social Fields area, the

study first

of

Orkney

and BC the basis

early

centuries AD. over a apply in this

millennium for

century witnessed observed, made to work

A scheme is period,

suggested

structural of the forward. contrasted

developments general

and on the is

intrepretation of Discourse, because of

put is

An attempt with

which its

previous approach. is

sound

methodological of access The shift relation is Pictish extensive examined by which agricultural Christianity to

Archaeological described

application

of the technique how the relations. in use

analysis from Orkney

and used to these

investigate social

of space structured

and reproduced locally and Caithness and This related to

changing

based power sources more distant, the

to more centralised, sources of of the authority

demonstrated, kingdom.

development

southern to are with

the move from intensive change reflects Other aspects of social reproduction sources of power. this framework. fit On analogy to see if they within situations elsewhere and land and the evidence tenure, and the to hand, this power may have been exercised, practice specifically ideological

contemporary

the means changing power of

are speculated

upon.

-Xii-

ABBREVIATIONS

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-xv-

PART I

CHAPTER 1: SYNOPSIS

- CHAPTER I-

PART I:

INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER 1:

SYNOPSIS

All which calls present, not data be. better

archaeologists culture both

need is

a clear to However,

understanding past the social real

of

the

way in This past and

material for is This

related

processes. both theory

theory. untidy

world, which

and poorly

documented,

should yet defined a the

means that to

the two may never from

be quite

compatible, unless

understanding available This

of -human existence us are analysed to

cannot

be achieved a clearly

within

theoretical

perspective. dissertation Province during of the the first to alms of Iron present that BC to such a social more is the particularly from eighth is around synthesis Orkney the for and early century Scotland, Age,

the

Atlantic

Caithness, centuries AD. It

millennium achieve defined this

or ninth then

attempts empirical

by firstly

providing

a steadier, constructed light which been

redefined from within of this is

footing.

A model of the past theoretical stance. are that this for

a clearly if

The achievements a different much of work have

work,

such they

are considered, of directions

has been shed on the not new data,

interpretation

evidence, future

and potential

suggested.
1.1 PART I: After outlined ultimately justified. reasons study in a DEFINING synopsis chapter derived 2. from of THE TOPIC (this In chapter) particular of the the Discourse, Province and is aims of the thesis are stance, and and, the specific to Age the and and broad These part to C-14

methodological is described

Fields the of In

The concept behind area are the laid

Atlantic Orkney chapter of with

discussed as the

choice down. to the

Caithness 3 we are the its Atlantic basic falling Late II

introduced Iron chronological into Iron are (All four Ages. seen in

resources certain cultural horizons, divisions, be a factor of

available the

student

problems which

associated is defined Late the I

sequence, the more of Early,

as and recent

Middle,

particularly the radiocarbon

most

one, curve.

calibration

relevant

-1-

- CHAPTER Idates broch listed in I). Attention is focussed

are

appendix Iron Age)

on-the

post-

period

(Late

settlement. to the fourth, drawn

Few distinctive fifth to and sixth pins

artefacts centuries 'and combs sensitive a means of but more is

can be specifically AD, and our which are attention

assigned is

therefore

certain

artefacts reassessing particularly pronounced.


1.2

some of the more ubiquitous belonging to the Late Iron LIA settlement in the throughout study area

and chronologically These are Age. the Atlantic Province, their

"where

distribution

PART II:

PINS,

COMBS AND THE CHRONOLOGY OF ATLANTIC

IRON

AGE

SETTLEMENT In chronology to have broch a Late sought the 1955 the a fact 1955 of RBK brochs that Stevenson (Stevenson published 1955a) a paper where pins thus In Into entitled Pins our would later and attention seem than to the that and he the

he brought and combs

certain date, they

distinctive and were in of the are

post-Roman on which Age bridge fall data have the

considerably effect

sites Iron to

found. Scotland

he demonstrated times, century evidence.

continued a part into

post-Roman the third

gap between and the ninth

AD, when Since dating Iron Age

brochs the

disrepair has expanded

century and 4-6

base been

considerably In chapters

new absolute most of the

techniques and II-III) trends many of are

developed. post

immediaely to

Iron

Age pins

and

combs

(appendices

examined and Chapter some of

see what how these

chronological compare an overview for are these of future to

horizons Stevenson's of the

and stylistic original

emerge,

conclusions. and makes

7 provides

dating-evidence Whilst chapters 8-9 the the and Iron of and of The detail for

suggestions evidence of

research. in is Iron our dates

limitations location provides Age

present distribution for as a

expressed, artefacts Middle

and a basis

examined, Late state

a reassessment whole, In thus

Age and minimal of and

settlement of this

amplifying the to

knowledge broch

period. are on these in

particular up

wheelhouses the IV). in nature

outbuildings activity of

brought them is

date,

subsequent implications Orkney

summarised are part.

(appendix up

observations the following

followed

and Caithness

-2-

- CHAPTER I1.3 PART III: Chapter Orkney A MODELFOR ORKNEYAND CAITHNESS IN THE IRON AGE 10 suggests from eighth the a comprehensive structural around the early centuries or ninth century AD. society It in for sequence of the first goes on to and be Orkney

and Caithness AD to the way this Space, the setting

millennium examine Caithness. provides of its

architecture particularly for all social time context, for through as the of tool

structured discourse. it is but

man-made space

architecture

When studied which the

in terms can

development not of only acts in in

a resource also Access

understood and product introduced part space

structuring analysis

agent is the

social

reproduction. articulating social space.

as a useful plays play because on this a based to to

an understanding and the part

of

structuring

relations data

social of to are

relations Orkney do this described seen locally from from

structuring provide their basis in

The prehistoric

structures which sites

and Caithness of

one of the best V). the of

bases with (specific

unprecedented appendix where sources

survival

As a result ultimate authority, the

a shift authorities that Is

can be were a change

ranked

society

more remote extensive chapter

Intensive

sources (11)

of power. way that other aspects it this framework was

The remaining of the social

examines within this

reproduction through the

fitted which and land changes in

and identifies exercised. are held are to

resources

power of society,

investigates agricultural behind

agricultural

basis

focussing

on changing lie

practices the

tenure, society.

because they Suggestions the issues

many of work Finally, nature VI). in land

made as to in this area in this

how future chapter. and the from the

might it of its

elucidate examines r6le

some of the history

raised

of the church

ecclesiastical This tenure

as a form of ideological power (metalwork in detail in at Warebeth is described site Issues which are together to much tied the up with the in the same chapter. various in strands and become became it is

appendix changes

raises (chapter In

described

earlier 12) draw 10-11 Orkney and

The conclusions of evidence into in Is but discussed terms the more found speculative drawn founded suggested, military,

chapters was that kingdom

consider

general could

how it Pictish

and Caithness The

how social

authority answer,

centralised* in overlapping

institutions. and developing economic -3-

modes of

political, sources of

more particularly

and ideological

- CHAPTER 1-

social

power.
The text is divided into subsections, henceforth 9.

-4-

CHAPTER 2:

INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER 2:

INTRODUCTION

2.1

ARCHAEOLOGISTS AND SOCIAL THEORY My main aim from But in the In this thesis of write is is to the history therefore write Iron a history Age until to for the first Orkney arrival understand and of

Caithness the Norse.

beginning order to

we need

how societies

operate.

There

the need for to develop archaeologists a theory in the of material culture as the initial step analysis of past social and cultural change (Barrett 1981,205) Few archaeologists all use theory, nor But Help concern processes and can claim to work as or such not from theory life' concepts of the yet from-such implicitly, intrinsically specific the is social the to this sciences, a stance; but rarely we

either necessarily the can of of set

explicity of is

consistently Importance. discipline. 'the main

fundamental particular for of then with the if the

problem be sought

social social of

illumination xvii), us

concrete find realistic

(Giddens which

1984, presents of

we can most

a theory

and plausible

view

functioning

society:

enables us to decide of theory a strong sense facts, be the key be what might what might to an understanding central of and what marginal We select how a particular, works. society our they data, confirm or reject our see whether hunches, the latter, collect more data, refine between theory across zigzagging and continue a plausible and data until we have established in this time society, account of how this and 'works'. (Mann 1986, vii). place As 'societies we need In concepts my opinion is are much messier which the Giddens' as: methodological particular is' necessarily are is length as - complex; y and allAll are suited then to our theories with to of them' (ibid, 4),

dealing theory

a mess. represent (1984), history which has

only

current of

satisfactorily been rightly

Theory

Structuration

described

the rediscovery of competent, in procedures structuring employed (Barrett 1988,8). social practices In the its quest for realism and but the and of objectivity Giddens' of his as it

intricacies

nuances main is thrust

theory arguments being

embracing, social

follows. interaction,

Interaction

recognised

situated

-5-

- CHAPTER2in through and/or space and time. their actions All human agents exercise are seen to create some form or of their of but the

situated world people is to

(which

power over they that of to

materials, life Is

either

consciously by the world

otherwise),

are conditioned say all (Barrett codes, Structure' know it cultural practical unconscious) available repetitive, within which to

and constrained

creation,

and Pred's is

'Duality of a recursive nature - Giddens' In using the world people get 'Becoming'. and what they by this discursive of the do in it, how they (carried and which routine a is determined knowledge consciousness material much of and of forms is (cf the also through world which time, can

1987,471)

employ in the are or

consciousness, and them. takes the All place this in

resources

activity, space

framework

structured institutionalised production of which society have

actions

human agents of one social of

be observed and the The of those within and

reproducing moment of

systems, reproduction. consist extension both

'institutions' structures society, constraining. If study' the we are (Barrett

Giddens

1984,17) time-space

greatest are

and

these

structures that 'social then the

again

enabling

agreed

practices next step the

are is

the to

object

of

our how
A

1988,9), culture which

understand

material

constitutes

archaeological

database

relates 2.2

to these,

and how we can infer

one from the other.

SOCIAL THEORYAND ARCHAEOLOGY Fields of Discourse of to has been derived geography 1982; from (of Pred Structuration there are Theory many

and in

fusion

time-space

which

exponents, theory represent analysis, of time

particularly 1988).

Carlstein

1981,1984,1985,1986) application which can of for social their

an attempt (Barrett social

produce

an archaeological It is and a theory the the

accurately

processes device the is and the with a

provide

framework

an heuristic and space, It 1y

by which of all

archaeological relations, in the

problems can be the period the broch); the

crux theory

social of

considered. archaeological under 'rise potential review: and fall'

capable major settlement form

historically changes in

changes pattern known

accommodating (including as the

major of

architectural a very -6remote

relations

power

(the

Romans);

- CHAPTER2introduction melding a new ideology migrant an area in is (Christianity); p9pulation time being (the and the Norse). by virtue action of by the is of and human is of

of

arrival

and

of a dominant discourse, reproduce of and thus of

Each 'field' a particular which people

and space occupied the It and, is

discourse social

communicative the

relations. symbols is

instigated-by authority is

mobilisation accepted symbols

authoritative reproduced, (Barrett

where by the

maintained of time it -that identities, and the

mobilisation closed The analytical with time-space single units,

domination with of to this not its others

1989,307).

No field and space. is that idea of

may overlap strengths relationships fundamental material

In areas are

method material definition, as having

concerned

residues

fixed

historical

meaning can be refuted:

Material the culture represents material for was partially universe which available humans to draw upon as a medium for action. It for action is thus both the condition and the As such material is results of action. culture the medium of discourse (the code) by which social are negotiated and reproduced, relations 1989,305) It Is meaningful (Barrett This ideas proposal is better code may have its cannot for be 'contextual in, the past origin in 'ideas (Barrett archaeology'). the implications of specified in people's 1987; contra Rather heads' but these 1986 to it Hodder's than trying remains material to of the

recovered

read meanings to for

back from modern archaeological of particular social

explore the specific

conditions think

structuring contexts This leads

relations, (Barrett

through

by which

some understanding knowledge' which temporal fields, cultural through of of

code may be possible. 1987; context' spatial as the 1989). should extent, field is be

to 'historical

The analytical investigated cultural take the which

components are

a Ispecified frequency, and the

those

resources 1988,11-12).

transformations

place (Barrett

in the available

resources

reproduced

I should approach social

perhaps

emphasise Fortunately

why I have adopted Theory the of answer Fields

an

which theory.

applies Theory, credible

Structuration

rather can of

archaeological than any I other be succinct: is no know of Discourse; I

Structuration realistically other theory

the and

backbone

methodologically represent

secure; history

which

can so accurately -7-

and provide

- CHAPTER2the framework for its xiv This be tested scientific se (cf A

analysis. on the means that a different 1978,97) does not which it to

cannot of

per

F Chalmers whole); material discussed field. Its

1978,

testability

theories over (cf in is

as a this Kuhn, this very

acceptance within Chalmers approach in

effectively *disciplinary to some of the obvious apparent There then be

I am working matrix'

from

This

ignore is the

my predecessors fact that history yet does need of broken

complicated, For example, Systems 'static

a statement contrast

stating. Renfrew's down to of of

neatness are to

Thinking parameters'

(1984,248-49). which over the can 'the

systems reduced

some kind influences

comprehensible interacting to regain but there will

order S variable,

multiple of

causal which This

subsystems

regulate is (or

themselves very neat,

homeostasis

when one of

them changes. theory of

can be no such general specify (Asad two flux phrase universal 1979,620). dimensionally of with

ideology

otherwise] and effects - cannot Fred's the of

which of be

conditions, Social on

significances processes a piece the flowing Is

discourse represented

- history of paper. is

'uninterrupted most history, changing with are This than such apt

human practice' which as It to does both

(1985,337)

possibly nature

summarise the

complex

encapsulating nature different, nor it can of

and continuously involved

discourse.

Each field

so intimately

others, so

at each moment of time that there is there be any anything

the conditions be no formal testing

and circumstances about evidence. other the

can

generalisations of this

processes, that

does not

mean there has a close

wrong with with practice.

approach

affinity

Most theories,

to a limited extent, not least are only testable as Marxism, the relevant in terms of because all aspects may not be measurable correlates. forming into (cf the real-life Fred 1986,12). which should is and Theory, what Rather, questions Fields which Behind considered should world. strongly with the to that foremost clearly of MacKie (refer scholar explain of the the not of in Discourse can it can be seen as a by researchers places hardcore it in is order or of this to be posed actual lies

material means of enquiring regions

situations

settled the

Structuration which explain This indicates

Immutable; be done

what happened in the real approach Iron thus contrasts It is -8-

to numerous references Atlantic Age.

In bibliography), necessary

- CHAPTER2difference explains selecting repertoire until in most these of our from testing because this fundamental MacKie difference works by

approaches differing the the

interpretations. anthropological

a model and is

observed fits fact

/ethnographical against evidence. this His

archaeological that are

evidence he can only

he finds

a model which limited and by the that prior

the archaeological

methodology circumstances, necessarily the relevant from a derived upon culture of

draw on known were not upon been based

these to the

situations

which theory

recorded primitive a series

influence Structuration given

of western

culture has not but is

culture. of specific It is

circumstances,

general are

theoretical

notion

inter-related. which any

of how society and material thus divorced from the limitations on anthropological cannot the ly-derived

an approach for the

depends entirely set of of the the nature of

parallels accommodate naive Itself creates (see

circumstances,

satisfactorily and has record is that which it may be a

diversity of

archaeological of

record archaeological study relations is not

understanding below).

The value of that

anthropological social data I of discourse the

an awareness

the extraordinary fields

be feasible. and does not sustained Now it further is also which is

The argument make empirical (see below). not of in at is full which working the been

objective

use of

cannot, to

however,

my intention this theory, elsewhere

at

this

stage 1988;

spell behind 1989). of the ever Atlantic

out it,

all

the

details

or the (Barrett

reasoning

as this is in

published reached one I

A point framework to of be

one has to if any highlight

be uncritical work the because to is

detailed

done.

Moreover approaches has

do not to

need to Atlantic discussed

main failings the this

previous Iron Age (Barrett

Province in

already this is I the

relation to

theory (Mercer this

1981); and it before

was a 'relatively intention I of must proceed try

exploratory' this to study clarify

foray develop certain

, 1985,96),

further. of

But this

aspects

apprQach. 2.3 'USING FIELDS OF DISCOURSE Three theory contexts' matters will be addressed use of for the here: how fields evidence; of discourse

makes objective -are selected

empirical

how 'specific changes

investigation; -9-

and how historical

- CHAPTER2-

are recognised. By employing the social conditions evidence terms of for the empirical practices (Barrett particular implications of specified on the this Fields examination were of Discourse of material The theory archaeology to is seen as how

evidence within

discover

maintained

particular data

material base is in the is of the

1988,9). social of

archaeological which material (Barrett reported can

processes particular relations adequacy of approach in the to

be explored for conditions 1988,6;

structuring Thus reliance as common to this

social

1987).

empirical

archaeological faults I data for data

observations Critics as to others. theory from Fields data into 1976) base faults of in in

work must distinguish and calls what the transformation has passed will about always the to and which

methodology theory still

apply

it. the taking

discourse order all which trowel, this. to the the but Any from material of that a the the fossil effects record material

critical actually processes

use of are, the

understand cultural material there doubts a

account through

(Schiffer

before

reaching of this the or to

archaeologist's observing even

be different objectivity

ways of

approach

stem ultimately between the the

failure

understand history, data data base. base

relationship understand Patrik (1985) viewed things been

culture

nature

archaeological archaeological record, of what a static they

suggests two ways:

has

in,

record record;

where physical and Patrik an historical

are the causal an active

record, a text of these

which

needs

reading

and interpreting, rejects

composed of

symbols.

Ultimately

both

as unsatisfactory

the archaeological evidence and suggests that we need a new modelof Fields of of a record. which does not borrow from the concept is such a model because the 'r6le discourse of human beings as historical theories this In than other It Is no less objective agents is recognised. the relative of objectivity and 'associated methodologies, cannot to In its what I be enumerated. but is results can simply be set of for this interpretations. underpinnings., is of that what -this the approach data of of all actually opinion issues, calls are stem as The superiority

approach opposition Thus

previous

method lies

theoretical am saying

empirical other disagreement

an interpretation objective over approach. the

as any from a of

Divergences

most fundamental
-

the nature

10

- CHAPTER2the archaeological is a misunderstanding they where social of are itself. Closely that social meaning, bound up with 'Things this issue

record

of the contention in acts social of denotes

have no meaning (Barrett in terms

until 1989),

employed

reproduction' significance of history

meaning long the term study levels study social this.

of wider the study fact of has that

practice.

For whilst social

the writing the final should exist

through

change is

and most important be employed, the all the

end to which legitimate a past

of material of is not They the true to

culture

other

interpretation be denied. but can not be

and are

subject evidence aim to not or for between

Ultimately all practitioners criticised of their the but

dimension,

elucidate displaying material empirical of wider Let compiled, of

for material,

reallsing/understanding a culture naive and Issues. a

potential of behaviour,

understanding social are often

relationship

observations social us imagine

a prerequisite

their nonetheless for an understanding been

study

where described

a classified (leading, ) for

corpus

and each artefact stylisticworkshops describe the This

in terms of its

1has fabric, method to the

manufacture, of corpus the

parallels and

example,

recognition place to recognise, distinguish 1980,8). do not artefacts material manufacture exchange under Items

I schools'

was classified

In the f irst and , date. because this helps the archaeologist regularities the haphazard initial in the data features so long or and to (Hodson as we of The

and summarise from valid equate culture

significant is a perfectly to or

.use classifications with must a

approach type,.

an artefact (Barrett in terms and

group

people be was were

1981,205-6).

also who

considered making the them

of the context of . for whom, through what procured? have in - where and and how did these structuring and

mechanisms

raw materials did they

what circumstances circulate? social - what Issue I to

were they importance

manufactured,

reproducing 'specific limited place

relations? wish to expand upon is the choice is in of the which first investigate. of the him. the The selection researcher, tempered

The second by the by the to

contexts'

ultimately

originality nature her or of

relevant, For and - 11 the

archaeological example, it is of

data

currently to from

available investigate

impossible society

social

relations

structure

- CHAPTER2burials Province will in tend where during to these do not the (as in Age). the for the Atlantic

exist Iron

case

most of

Naturally

enough attention culture in which seem distortion resultant to this by more the Age is suggest (the and its all of

focus

on the aspects at but any particular evidence then this

of the material time. is is thus not

to be pre-eminent the

Any potential perpetuated a problem should fields

archaeological syntheses, Indeed,

social

specific

approach. fields ulimate deficient themselves best-known reproduced patronage; societies Christianity ideological that

such potential investigated the

distortions of, all the

be mitigated the

the. overlapping are history in for

and open nature be.

studied; Iron

more detailed base for fields

and realistic immediately architecture structured and of r6le these

will

The data but the resource context basis

the Atlantic

many respects, investigation:

certain in of

manner in which this area)

archaeological society; the which the

craft of

specialisation (the pivot and the but

agricultural live In close

society to nature);

relation

(introduced power.

towards

the end of the period) possiblities, avai. lable. is It to discuss and what trying power to

as a form of are

There are many other forth I want briefly are

the main areas The final of how historical looking of

to spring point for. which

from the data

the is

question we are the

changes

recognised, we are of

actually nature individuals,

Essentially relationships that

elucidate

asymmetrical groups contends

between alter

different with time.

and institutions, a general be given is a

and how these account of in terms of the

Mann (1986) transformations of four

societies

and their

can only of

inter-relationship military, in' is and

sources

power:

ideological, the

economic, primary of aspect it

political. relationships, gender, because 1981,50). by

Power or authority whether status as

of most social age,

reflection Within of autonomy

differences

social it

or ethnicity. relations of' is

society

sustained (Giddens either or by

reproduces the

and dependence re-negotiated, resources 1989).

Change occurs authority but those a

when relations certain

are

extending

cultural through the

rejecting is not (Giddens to

authoritative

symbols exercised

(Barrett

Power itself culture has

resource,

material

1985,16;

Mann 1986).

Therefore the

material

culture

be examined

in order

to elucidate codes

different of

manners

in which

power

was organised,

the

and forms

authority

which 'were

- 12-

- CHAPTER2employed, to do this accepted, and transformed to distinguish In

acted

upon,

society.

order that

we need to of but from

be able its of the

between where symbols were In secondary then spatial to for society Structuration such being a primary instituted fields. example, as solely theory r6le, by by the of social thesis the to Change will become extent, An a

were a source authority apparent temporal approach functionalist environmentally denies but

authority,

and when they presence. transformations resources starkly changes determined.

signalled a study

frequency such as

and material this

pertaining with, In

contrasts which sees

approach

or technologically or the

environmental see

technological differences resources,

change as

would

architectural of are being

changes in climate, relations. Having attempt


2.4

aspects

which

might

be affected

and which

drawn upon in theoretical to introduce

the structuring this

described it is

the time

approach

will

to adopt,

the area of study.

AREA OF STUDY S Piggott (1966) provinces: This the Province 460-74): the of counties was it Western Inverness, and is the divides the study of reviewed covers Isles Argyll the one the Atlantic, north of Britain during the Iron and more The (1979, and (the upland the four

Age into

four

North-Eastern, on the

Tyne-Forth former, (fig recently of of Orkney Scotland the all 1).

Solway-Clyde. specifically Atlantic 446-49; Shetland; counties area of

concentrates Orkney by the, and and and Ralston Northern the west and

Caithness fairly Isles coast

Ross of

Cromarty); Of

Sutherland this and

plateau with the

Caithness. most frequent Difficulties pronounced the role of in

provinces, Inhospitable and and have

and in this sea

fragmented, settlement province, liable to the

uninhabitable were in probably Britain Whilst

uplands. most is many

communication nowhere been else so

north

the

critical. Piggot's (D

archaeologists for Scottish Ralston Piggott's orientation Ideally outside

consider

premisses now rather

behind

original W Harding application

scheme 1982,1), of of

archaeology (1979,448) four and this the provinces can be area

obsolete the they as continued remain convenient as

advocates because reta: ined should

useful

means

geographical an entirety,
-

labels. but this is

be studied

realistic

13

- CHAPTER2ambit study of In convenient in a degree a research focuses of terms intended to take three This

project

years.

therefore

on the counties perspective block

of- Orkney and Caithness. these two counties has always conformity. For example, the known broch form the a distinct Orkney form a resulted Various Orkney sites group examples of is Iron by MacKie the

a regional

geographical of can be used to together 1985,62).

whose topography and historical this point. more then half of Caithness with two major Scotland

archaeological illustrate contain The brochs

examples (Mercer which

and Caithness

shares

some common charactersitics 1988; compare also building the which with the in

(Swanson 1986; Age fortified 1986). But

traditions suggested found and the (which

roundhouse perhaps

most striking are almost outliers in

common characteristic exclusively Sutherland

broch outbuildings, Caithness, afield albeit

In Orkney and even further Their for might enough always the times

at Bow in Midlothian is social imply) a is large attract earldom factors Research is reflection diversification greater

and Cockburn Law in Berwickshire. of the terrain; potential these and development in areas where the land and on these thus hilly

distribution greater seem to to

was fertile land was

maintain to Orkney

populations subsidiary centred

unlikely Norse Indication

settlement. between them.

In historical counties, perhaps

a further

of the common ground

Practical this area.

have also can

been significant up into

in the choice three types: on a large not usually

of

be divided

field scale as

research a carefully the

(which

more effective long term

when conducted project, and is

designed

within

means of laboratory

an individual

and problem-orientated or with thesis therefore Institutions detailed criterium concentration which applied the to new work of

laboratory student), research, research field on the published research based largely and leading theory within (Field the to new syntheses, Archaeol of the 1987,98). latter, it commonly This was

others falls to

an emphasis realistically

on social

scope

necessary have field

persons and choose an area where other done, or are in the process of completing, work. (fig Orkney 2). and Orkney Caithness has both suit from Iron this the Age, benefited on the

admirably of it now defunct until

resources

and attention, of Scotland notably

mainly

North recently,
-

Archaeological at Howe (Carter

Services et al

most

14

- CHAPTER21984) and Bu (Hedges was considerable Gurness 1987 1). In there

conjunction of old

with

excavation forth), their In

reinterpretation both

excavations,

most notably and the respective addition this and University) of Sites

(Hedges 1987 11) and Lingro of gazetteers, (Hedges by Hunter Ness are Extra). has

(Hedges and Bell of sites Bell (of and 1982).

compilation material current at Pool period

assemblages excavations and Tofts (Archaeol

1987 111; and Dockrill An

Bradford

revolutionising up-dated and this being Horace

our perceptions computerised has Involved less

Monuments Record of new fieldwork with at at regard Freswick Crosskirk

been compiled,

a -degree attention work

by Lamb.

Caithness exceptions the late

has received Fairhurst's excavations this of area

to excavation, (Batey 1987a), (Fairhurst (Mercer fieldwork, and

Durham University's

excavations by Mercer has seen at an of of form In broch

1984) 1981a,

and recent 52-56). as a But

Cnoc Stanger outburst Glasgow, of

mainly severe

result

the

threats

reafforestation

coastal

erosion.

The universities In this in interim 1986). of

Edinburgh

and Durham have all their results 1981a; has 1980; (1988) of her 1985;

been active forth

respect,

and in most cases (Batey addition, sites as University. Naturally, not being shut aspects and by 1986a; in of the in 1984: Swanson a part

have been published

Mercer

a; Morrison survey at

undertaken doctoral

extensive research

recent to focus of for

Edinburgh

choosing to of the the mainly

on Orkney and Caithness the in Atlantic these of Province, other in the areas

eyes are but will only be

rest

limited examined, fieldwork (Topping interest subject

evidence University

then

purposes is

comparison. interim main but

Current form site has 1986), have of been and been

Edinburgh Armit West is

available Uist,

1986,1987,1988b), the Udal, for nearly North thirty (latterly

which has now been the Little Crawford details IA

fieldwork in

years.

except published as the excavator forthcoming. In conclusion, and

summary form

was unco-operative, Orkney justifiable of

no further suggest study

and unit

Caithness for

themselves they

as form

a a

convenient geographical

because an area

entity,

manageable recent

proportions,

has been a large

body of

excavations

where there and fieldwork, much of

-15-

- CHAPTER2which is published, forthcoming and where the with their have kindly

researchers

concerned data

been very

unpublished

and ideas.

2.5 THE CHRONOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK Definition both else of British the Iron Age Is rather blurred In North Britain anywhere 600 it AD with local In of that

chronologically in the

and culturally, Isles. Its

probably traditional it

more so than range is

from circa

BC-AD 400 (RCAHMS 1984,20), might the better be ascribed 1978,76). metal in defining Province

although Around the

has been speculated up to the eleventh this

to the period technologies, regional pottery

century period, of

(D V Clarke changing

beginning the

of

importance declines taken as

metalworking the Atlantic

traditions has been

markedly. some gauge

cultural

and chronological artefactual This when large (in of the the study of

changes, record, the

but on the whole, Iron

in view of the the

Impoverished studies. period record arrival four

reliance

has been on architectural Age commences from into the BC) to century Iron the

Atlantic

roundhouses early centuries In about

are introduced of the the eighth Late II), I first

archaeological the AD, into Ages Norse and or of the

millennium ninth II in

Norse

or early

a span of (henceforth period

approximately the EIA, Early, MIA,

1500 years. Middle, LIA I, LIA are

The period and to

can be divided Late

phases: (NP).

terminating avoid as

These divisions specific or aI

introduced such

cultural 'Pictish' in an area is not

geographically 'Dalriadic'. the first of late first country time Atlantic

ascriptions

which these Iron

post-Roman' , which, is irrelevant did not have a Roman period. to

This

words have been coined Age Scotland

- MacKie (1986) has used MIA describe the period at Howe after and Carter at the these these, Suffice et al Howe terms (1984) but have it refer is been the to to the so LIA,

the arrival Iron time, be filled

of new broch Age or to Pictish my in

artefacts, settlement

knowledge, to

that all of

prescribed. will here Firstly, until why these the

The background out Atlantic of of later

particularly briefly

chapters. Age is

describe refer. is

divisions

have been adopted, Iron The starting of settlement addition, 16in

and to what they as having of this

recognised point

extended thesis

the arrival

the Norse. the nature In

the establishment broch/pre-Norse

belonging recent

period.

to the postIA years native

- CHAPTER2for Thus brochs we can have broadly the and utilised basis been in Orkney into the were form, and EIA the

antecedents Caithness.

established this (when LIA in their patterns of present period the (the

divide MIA the

(pre-fully-developed prevalent brochs architectural were no longer

broch), form) being

brochs period original evolved). evidence

when the and LIA Future the

when new structural discussion will can be broken into

types show that

and settlement on the

two phases,

LIA I and LIA II. *#4**

This which the

chapter work the

has

defined to to

and described adopt, it and

the

theoretical the areal

stance and

this

attempts

defined

chronological nature of defining the

boundaries

which

applies.

Chapter

3 discusses to this study, before and

archaeological lacunae which write

resources a history

available (in Iron

empirical (in

need resolving of

part

ID

attempt

can be made to part III).

Age Orkney

Caithness

17

CHAPTER 3:

ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESOURCES IN THE ATLANTIC

PROVINCE

- CHAPTER3-

CHAPTER3: ARCHAEOLOGICAL IN RESOURCES THE ATLANTIC PROVINCE

This for of It study the

chapter to the

introduces student of

the the

archaeological Atlantic of fields cultural have take Iron of

resources Age in terms discourse: of the

available of the that three temporal field. the

analytical spatial when all the

components extent these

frequency, is only

and the

resources been place

components which field Is nature

assessed in

fourth, cultural are their

transformations as the with

available We than

resources here

reproduced, of dating these is

can be assessed. resources considered II. rather in a little

concerned specific

the

details.

However

more detail 3.1

by way of an Introduction

to part

TEMPORALFREQUENCY Archaeologists are is collation. term historical history emphasis in the traditionally is our concerned sole r6le with (I in the measurement 1988); date

of

time.

For 'dating' and and long to

some this

A Crawford all primary to durdes. Chapter of the

undeniably collection 'events' if we are

a principal

consideration such les

We use

information longues in

consider But 2 we fields

processes. temporal

write equal

manner described frequency Their by

should be

place

on the

whose very can

existence defined

makes that broadly as

history. prescribed

temporal nature,

frequencies or socially

contrived.
3.1.1 "Natural' Since rooted the in the cycles Neolithic Scottish and-there food created, on a that can prehistoric be little of the and society doubt debts that was it deeply was in

agriculture, of producing were place addition can and death, we

process

most enacted,

and affiliations These and of of annual social birth, As but can

between activities basis. relationships marriage

people took In

reproduced. seasonal

diurnal, changes to have

mensual, in taken patterns such specific the

major

balance at of times

be expected events cannot

place

affecting identify

inheritance. cycles,

archaeologists

- 18-

CHAPTER3consider such data to in terms these

as

are

available

us

of

considerations. 3.1.2 'Social' Activities which time, returned. circumstances a chain frequently, social 3.1.3 of are the

cycles such as gift-giving being temporal but may create debts of obligation to natural is of that and need bear completed frequency It is

socially cycle Again cannot events and

prescribed simply the

no relation when of did in the the

obligation a set

such

be gauged, as this have

necessary

to recognise occur,

such would

almost

certainly

probably of

been

Important

structuring

relations. Historical les longues durdes paragraphs should that not detract is is 1981). and best date

cycles: of of the the of its

The brevity from the only Yet it 'at primacy the

two preceding temporal actual

frequencies

discussed,

because It a society (Thrift process to

scale the

human practices are long that lie. term the In

reproduced is

and that in

inhabitants of

socialized' historical

recognition 'episodes':

change prospects across detail

(Giddens' for

1984)

archaeologists' order compare

successful

observation

time

and relative

and space we are dependent dating. I am now going of will particular This some of is the the dating be made to the not basis yet the available the for

on the techniques of absolute to discuss in a little more throughout phases describe the will dating the Into Atlantic which It a LIA phases resolution from the IA. is I in four

the nature in II. but is

Some reference divided, and LIA detail, of which At techniques

a distinction to

between these

place

chronological of future

gaps,

attempted derives

the subject

sections,

be highlighted.

present

available

radiometric

of radiocarbon

TL respectively). in appendix D types basic All Trondheim Stuiver of

(henceforth and thermoluminescence C-14 dates (full details of which are to outnumber Thus framework in this it published is that TL dates, the C-14

C-14, and be found

as yet

settlement. C-14 dates

and cover wider dates provide the data is applied., the and have

chronological

to which thesis (Stuiver

the cultural are

calibrated 1986;

against Pearson

calibration 1986).

curve

and Pearson weighted

These Include

a number of - 19-

means which

- CHAPTER3been calculated samples technique chi-square series which when two or more determinations cannot norm) that test be assumed to but relate to derive the from have been made from the same object of activity. testing that (1978), (the The

archaeological

same phases

used is

advocated

by Ward and Wilson

where the a

statistic

has been used as a means of provide essentially

of determinations

the same value:

found the a series are where of members different from to be insignificantly statistically criteria one archaeological another, and where for may be calculated allow, a pooled mean ... ... determinations Ubid, 30C the mean of the grouped In fig 3 187 of the C-14 in at been dates the presently available of levels. characteristics moved the to undertake of for Scotland The Iron Age and have been

early plotted

Norse by

activity region has calibration because as thatat

Atlantic the 1-a to I

Province and 2-a the was by hand dates of the of and to

both

resultant of the this these

distribution Trondheim comparsion dates, together, this basis I

compared curve. I calculated the resultant sections steep as graph of an a of occur dates of these

calibration were being

found notably it in

bracketed curve. curve the curve associated of dates the is in effect date what by of a then range in seems corresponds these cal as AD) of is is On are as

steep that

calibration the calibration in

seemed the

sections jumps, tend

reflected plateaux. with the

histogram in or the end

inversions be steepest Steeper of

Jumps beginning curve to

when

inversion. wide calendar on must steep be span

sections

calibration calibrated the that spans. only span section number calendar histogram. break with the up into changes EIA curve, certain

mean

that range

radiocarbon whilst

a narrow where

years,

inversions have the

even

they

sections, wider

radiocarbon result span in

given

calibrated is that

Another a small of

multiple years the overlaps

intercepts may be

radiocarbon Where or must

represented or end

along steep the of the to

calendar of of slope C-14 dates The

years. corresponds dates is which

beginning with

an inversion, to a limited is C-14 a jump

be calibrated and the Is each I MIA that of shall (about for result the

accentuated, of or four all this units,

effect

record

three in the cal

which thus cal the

largely describe

material BC 800-400),

record. the

(about LIA (cal

BC 400-200 EIA flat is

and the the C-14

AD 200-800). curve,

The bracket which is

a factor here: 'it

calibration

essentially

-20-

- CHAPTER3impossible ages lie there which basis until is to resolve between also the radiocarbon dates of any samples whose true and Pilcher the 1983,58). But 650 AD, MIA and about curve, the

400 and 800 BC1 (Baillie gap between of the the be an artefact I have divided into

a significant

may partly of which the appear early This the ninth

calibration from

and on the the MIA

period have

end of

century to in is

a LIA I and LIA II. which been this is not derived graph, strictly given the from this

Whilst analysis relatively accurate. weighting. manually; which is involved alternative with Marian weighting, distribution whilst the the this

observations be this very

significant, project, date has not

compiled speaking an equal to compile area of

research each to In

because

been

A graph each date

such as this span has each.

would have been difficult be plotted view of the as a box, large little curves to

same for

number of dates different for date have is to the each (pers an date comm equal Yet

method would method of Each we must the was 3 deviation

be mathematically density from not accept range

summing normal varying does date

standard Scott). but

date

necessarily that there (Pearson it

routinely calibrated

an unknown

within

1987,103). raised

figure the

not

strictly

accurate, their

questions and the data base

concerning

relationship

of C-14 dates,

calibration

record which needed resolving. settlement Subsequent to the compilation of figure of Scottish high Quaternary rev the 2.0). university of dates (261 in calibration Laboratory data, total)'

3 an expanded using

was calibrated programme radiocarbon

a computerised of Washington

precision Isotope

(University calibration of which (fig the

program-1987, were supplied 4B) to to show the using density the at the a

From this

relevant figure Scottish estimation

parts dates

mainframe, calibrated density pers of the 4A). 2

3 was revised at technique But dates

distribution non-parametric estimation: distribution 1-a level (fig

1-a

level

(kernel in addition, plotted

comm Marian

Scott).

same uncalibrated

was also

in appendix 1. Includes all dates listed Dundurn dates (bar GU-1041 and GU-1043).

I with

the exception

of all

2.1 to Dr Marian Scott and Dr Tom Aitchison of the am very grateful The Glasgow University in this Department respect. of Statistics, former discussed issue with me and produced the graphs on which this figs 4 and 5 are based with a programme devised by the latter. -21-

- CHAPTER3The question I and II be on the upheld. of the distribution of 97 dates) then to ask now is basis The of the most the the of distinction the calibration to make is effect into the between curve that a LIA can the

whether effects obvious dates

still

point has

distribution ultimate total

uncalibrated of there a large is

a major fall rising but

on the Orkney (a

calibrated number of the

version. dates drop,

Thus in

period

600 BC-AD 100, between, the (18 dates) largely

a substantial AD 600-1000. dates For is

significantly and Sutherland the profile the MIA/LIA the LIA II is and islands I

period the to

of about that is then for

In Caithness small, the west

number of available Orkney. the a peak in a large from too in the

similar there but

coast Into

(74 dates) transition, dating

EIA/MIA,

number of of the

,a dates fall from

gap in the which

bracket. is

The distribution different It are

dates

central are all that

mainland in the a large is the

(71 dates) Atlantic number period three of for

other from

areas, around about

Province. dates which there of

has a peak at period have been derived high

250 BC, but 200 AD,

few dates similar the Atlantic

from elsewhere. In each of (as will to the become the of which until which period research,

Why are areas in of

and low spots/brackets Province? is related, has been The answer naturally considerable the to EIA the

apparent source brochs, constitute recently succeeds are less

chapters the dates.

8-10) There

enough,

excavation structures but

roundhouses the little it.

and wheelhouses, record has been because

the monumental of paid the in

archaeological attention This is largely

and MIA,

archaeology of this Recent

structures.

substantial in

and monumental has discovered with the few

character. and dated

particularly architecture. period In

Orkney, However, cal

exceptions,

some non-monumental these stem from the the

of about

AD 600 onwards. to Atlantic Province, mainland does span the LIA I. which the Atlantic The source of these dates Province has' few), but largely forms system is which which develop here

distinction record (of further

archaeological is from burials from forts, at it, the time

monumental broch, these

architectural and the social

when the

maintained (910.3). the

has declined; The effect

two factors

may be inter7related dates that

of calibration out, and the reduced.

upon these

in general the

graph

is

smoothed is slightly

gap between the Nonetheless, -22the

MIA and LIA II shapes of

dating curves

brackets

- CHAPTER3in the MIA and sharp, narrow is due Figure 5 has been

are essentially LIA II, In all

similar, the between

with areas about of

peaks, the

where applicable, Atlantic Province,

peaks coincide produced to in limitations

cal

AD 600 and 750. how much of curve. for In this fig

an attempt of the (at

to examine calibration the

bracketing 5B the

distribution

of C-14 calibrations 950 bp (with plotted curve. ' the was curve in the by the

1-a level)

each decade between 3000of the 50 years) Trondheim the has been

a constant done on

standard in date

deviation of to

against This

characteristics order ranges evidence, distribution into

calibration of the

examine which

effect not

calibration represented produced fig different multiple None the basis largely of

were

necessarily of bias As with would be date the with graph.

Scottish

and without the fact range of

the element data. there that

Irregular graph

of the Scottish date Is

4B, neither

takes

account the there

probabilities Intercepts, less, figure with those to

within and thus large stand; 5B.

any given of

some levelling the observations in this

a very 3 still on fig the

measure, the

made on the correspond

peaks

curve

In conclusion, of C-14 dates, but

calibration original said which between to is is Having record terms

must have some bearing archaeological this, there is in cal data 'thus both

on the clumping set a is gap of in more the

significance. archaeological and radiometric basis I will the knowledge basis

recognisable between

approximately

archaeological AD 200-650. On this but in

continue that this

distinguish

a LIA I and II, construct stand better the are devised test needed understood to transform

an archaeological and which LIA are may not to be

on the of time. if the (see

of present from

knowledge,

Alternative data below). In character the of less event time

means of earlier TL

recognising excavations

settlement

future, of the the

dates

may have sequence, because

the

potential necesary technique

the

dating

and if the

to Iron is

out some of devoid much last it

gaps in

C-14 graph, of radiocarbon

totally is often (or

the-problems uncertainty being

calibration, the relationship pottery 3000C), accuracy

and there of but the the was fired last

surrounding to

sample

and the the

dated.

TL can date'when a minimum of degree utmost of

1 was heated with this

more importantly time

can date was used;

a reasonable Is of the

a hearth

importance -23-

because of the unequivocal

- CHAPTER3between TL Measures this case of also If has the also to dated used to on the in et al TL,

relationship question. 1976). and on in

event been

and

cultural stone

resources (Huxtable geological between C-14

burnt

have there burnt been

be taken

remove

completely agreement a related forts the

was an encouraging stone, used to work Centre pottery date by and vitrified Clark at

TL dates date. et TL al

samples has 1988).

dating 1985;

(Sanderson

current

Scottish it

Universities will also be

Research possible have

and to

Reactor

proves pottery.

successful, The and


for on

date been

destratifled used to tie

recent a

radiometric peceived A
a of revision century. architectural in patterns; MIA continues record the

dates cultural
This

mainly

down

amplify
well the over basis

sequence sequence studies, years. prominent dominate impoverished, culture sequences are crude

which was and Still

has largely has very had

been

evolving constructed

to little of

undergo is brochs In is Hedges native in associated and AD because

some known of

substantial LIA that the in 111,44-7). even derived (Topping

recent the to is

settlement the

visiblity Iron Age and (for such at

means general displayed 1987 pottery,

studies. continuity see for and poor pottery centuries

artefactual much of

material

example as exist

Chronological at the from 1987). to northern how local level,

best, with

many

cases dating artefacts been we do are

unreliable A limited between contexts, long these which centuries area). Some the

stratigraphies quantity second but of and there

Roman fourth are prior

other has

dating in know native and in art and not

found not few fifth record and

problems to

circulated can (the be

deposition. assigned to in I

There the the

artefacts sixth

specifically of (Fowler the

fourth, C-14

period

major 1963),

gap class

this mobilier

brooches with belong pins Pictish to and

stones dice

decorated pebbles may

symbols, this combs and period,

parallelopiped but unfortunately 1955a) sensitive re-examination the area of of over

painted exclusively. some of artefacts of of

Certain the more

(Stevenson chronologically Thus their

constitute group is

ubiquitous to LIA this

belonging reassessing but more is because despite the need to

period. settlement in

a means Province, there

throughout the study

Atlantic where

particularly pronounced. of our

distribution is necessary

A reassessment minimal state

Stevenson's of decade

paper LIA or

knowledge the last

settlement, so, and

considerable

progress

-24-

CHAPTER3reassess to also fix the the meet large date with can of of the body of material relative problems from early the excavations. will curve, examination, context Attempts obviously but some where and art-

artefactual of a finer

chronologies calibration by

attempts possible, historical

be made at relative

chronology

stratigraphy,

archaeological

context.
EXTENT takes how place its is somewhere, location naturally and structured the It that time most is must Certainly which It the is open thus it is that therefore activity. or

3.2

SPATIAL All

discourse to space, for (which each to consider

necessary Interior setting locale it in

architecture, and

common locale also the

activity can

social'interaction. in

dominant to more

be recognised), (Thrift evidence played of and for in the

be allocated it is

life-path provide landscape proportion

1983,40). the part

difficult or that ordered a

environment appropriate is spent to in manand

discourse. time the is than of

large

archaeologists attributes

measuring, made space

describing -

recording which

pertaining to

architecture analytical of

much

easier

recognise

separate in the

into

elements interior than that resource

open-space,

and where that

richness carry it is the the 'of

differentiation social information fortunate archaeological

structures exterior

means

they

more

relations. architecture Atlantic robbing building and

Indeed constitutes Province other blocks during

particularly primary Iron time, in the

domestic in the

Age. the

Here, wide

despite

subsequent of of natural

vagakes has resulted

availability survival in is site ways a the not

unprecedented unrivalled sequence range are both the to of two as locale totally is

prehistoric Isles.

resources, None in

a prehistoric the the less, LIA I, the and

resource structural the full There examined, r6le difficult at which as

British complete,

particularly may not

variability in which

be represented. resource and In in should terms of It be its is

this

impressive per se, it. these, of

cultural for

resource

discourse

within between

practice

differentiate situated are (Thrift

because Institutions

the-places which

activity reflect

the

result 1983,31).

themselves

structure

-25-

- CHAPTER33.2.1 Architecture In order is helpful to and between architecture patterns useful of tool to in

society the way architecture of relations as they structured between are society inhabitants in of is the the a it the

understand look at

patterns

inhabitants itself.

and strangers Interior

reflected in terms analysis

space can be examined and entrances 10). (access The control activity control and

created for

by boundaries doing this:

chapter method of boundary physical to of

and segregation and physical of space might between of

space is the

an important Expressions relations

structuring and the autonomy In addition social a important

encounter. reflect different spatial

of of

dependence

sectors organisation the This context and are being and also the

of a community. may relate is In

particular their

patterns repetitive

factors, whereby

occurrence sustained. the major

acknowledgement particularly which

code

authority the addition

was forms is

when architecture about In of the

knowledge-experience is engendered. sites

world

gathered buildings socialization, constantly learned

common awareness probably locales within the

these of are are of day the space,

major which and

process

collective renegotiated 1983,40).

modes of behaviour and where Thus as the to of rules the act day to

negotiated created internal

(Thrift organisation

construction, use of r6le played Province of thus other


3.2.2

as well in order

a structure which

can be investigated per society. the best archaeological it impossible Ideas which to se, the

understand man-made in

architecture

resource

in structuring is as in to

Architecture and,

resource to 'consider are derived

the

Atlantic have been discourse its study from

most societies. It it; is the

can be presumed to other from the

prime

importance. reference

without

provide cultural
Activity Other

a framework resources.
in

against

which

compare

evidence

architecture resources in which buildings, architecture is of by the examining distribution unit can provide and evidence it is in for equally structuring recognisable of thus artefacts be defined the activities to The

cultural place r6le do

which consider main occur scientific

take the to

important these. activities and not

played where

way on

this basis The

the data.

other just

residential

-26-

- CHAPTER3in terms take of its In it. settlement On the but in terms this work is is will only of the activities possible the for

plan, whole future

which a limited The the the

place of

number

excavations; of for these

amplify

picture. with in

significance structuring first must cultural from be the place

locales of

inextricably which of for were the

intermeshed responsible settlement. practice to

principles the that

society,

spatial the furnish

organisation evidence is 'However, force hopefully

Thus it which other derived question not the the the close spatial. can to

be argued

social the

resources

secondary should of be and of

in. nature

that in and in

architecture primary this

per

se.

activity

structuring will its between

society, detectable patterns in

architecture, correspondence organisation. be successfully both

location analysis for

The access adapted of these

Hillier

and Hanson (1984) purposes in order

archaeological

consider
3.3

at the same time

(910.2.3).

CULTURAL RESOURCES OF THE FIELDS The availability specified the must main be of contexts resource studied other greater absent. evidence they occur, in in cultural which the

OF DISCOURSE circumscribes the nature in

resources

of 0.2,

the

may be investigated. Atlantic as suggest an Province is

As described the architecture, resource. some of III. available which

which addition

part

independent themselves,, in types and part of

In are of

several to notably follows:

contexts or lesser

investigated burial are as is

degrees the craft

Evidence resources activities, nature weaving, is available); documentary landscapes studies) have of

Otherwise for their

industrial and the

particularly products especially environmental records and of (for

where

technology

the but

pottery,

composite for which micro-

comb-manufacture, most and evidence macro-fossil); archaeological with folk-life which

metalworking, data traditional tools for (faunal;

agrarian (in

practice; conjuntion

agricultural evidence on prehistoric for for

providing bearing evidence evidence inscriptions for the

agricultural experience;

practice Roman artefacts

may

some

possibly a

providing power; ogam

long-distance ritual and objects of practice

communications coming with in from Pictish the and

with

remote stones,

symbol symbols; form verbal of

inscribed Christianity and

and evidence sculpture, Recent

introduction artefacts

stone sources.

ecclesiatical

structures

-27-

- CHAPTER3(Barrett 1988; of this 1981,215-17; Mallory 1981; Nieke 1988; Nieke dealt apply to on in

publications and Duncan with here. area of the the early In issue

Driscoll literacy

1988a and b) and documentary and so this and there However, which

have

comprehensively as they not

resources issue will derive

historic/LIA part is

period,

be dwelt

because no early

sources are

from the study to it the

Orkney the other of in Its impact time its

and Caithness, sources. literacy, own right, introduction

few references sources are be

any of

verbal

physical as historic have had a

by-products resource sources. a wide over both

should Christianity

also

considered extant

beyond the confines with

of the

would obviously permiting

upon modes of and space,

communication,

communication

involving

developments in the storing, and analysis as the as well of human knowledge, creation Involved between the Individuals relationships (Goody 1977,37) As such it can social onwards.
4*1**

be

expected in

to

have

played

major

role

in

structuring century

relations

the Atlantic

Province

from the sixth

This to the

chapter student in of which past

has of

described Atlantic need to

the

nature Age

of and

the

resources

available further construct as the the a main always II our

the

Iron

expounded order described record In the the is to

manner picture

these society. resource,

be analysed is

in

Architecture but the in settlement the

archaeological well documented, of

not part

particularly

LIA.

knowledge is amplified

MIA and LIA by a study

settlement of the date

throughout

Atlantic of

Province certain pins

and distribution

and combs.

-28-

PART II. - PINS,

COMES AND THE CHRONOLOGYOF ATLANTIC SETTLEMENT

IRON AGE

CHAPTER 4:

BACKGROUND AND GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

- Chapter
PART II: PINS, ATLANTIC

4-

COMBS AND THE CHRONOLOGYOF IRON AGE SETTLEMENT

CHAPTER 4:

BACKGROUND AND GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

Prior settlement, indicated

to

the

construction defined main data in

of the

a model data

for

"Atlantic In part occur In However.

Iron I it the in

Age was late 1955 of

a better that the

base is

required. base LIA `I). Pins to

gaps

broch/immediately RBK Stevenson brochs distinctive are thus where

post-broch published he brought

period

(the

a paper our that

entitled attention the

and the the fact

chronology that certain date, they

pins In

and combs would later he demonstrated

seem to have a post-Roman broch sites bridge brochs 1955 on which in of that a LIA to

and were

considerably effect third

found. until

continued a part fall the into data

Scotland the gap has been Age

post-Roman the the

times, century century this

and he sought AD, when the evidence.

between and

disrepair, base have

ninth In the

Since

expanded developed.

considerably

dating and new absolute and the following chapters post Iron Age pins and stylistic original LIA settlement area of horizons Stevenson's

techniques most of trends the

Iron

and many of to how these they

immediately

and combs are examined emerge, and Ultimately the AP, but where

see what chronological compare to

conclusions. throughout Orkney

are a means of reassessing in the study distribution Is pronounced.,

more particularly their

and Caithness

4.1

PINS,

COMBS AND THE CHRONOLOGYOF BROCHS

4.1.1

A S,-ry Stevenson

of Stevenson studied First several

1955a artefact types which he recognised as

being

post-Roman.

amongst these

was a group of

bone ball heads, carved wi th simpl e pins indistinguishable from Romano-British in pins found England, in not pre-Roman and a type Age at SW Scottish England, nor in the Roman Iron They have stems [fig 6.1-26J. that are sites the7 narrow to the point until or parallel-sided half-W87 have a swelling up or higher, made by to the base of the ball. inwards (ibid, whittling 285) Having deemed there was sufficient -29new post-Roman material from

- Chapter Ireland to the

4-

with

which the as they excavator

review

sites

of

later

Scottish Crannog dating had noted

prehistory, as worthy evidence. two distinct types of At

he highlighted assessment Burrian levels (Traill the of

sites

of Burrian 1870, William which

and Buiston internal Traill,

had both of to

produced

occupation, had noted

he ascribed of this

different argument). pieces of

artefact

1890;

see below for

expansion

James Curle

(1932,380) glass, seventh conclude observed sometimes stem,

the association and the of nearly the a worn at

of three sherd Buiston,

of Roman bottle with led a late him It to was this

a playing century that that quite in and in the

counter Anglo-Saxon life of

Samian and

coin

crannog Burrian two thirds

must have bone

been long. had

a number sudden, to Scotland 1955 the

pins

a swelling, Ireland,

or more of the way down the Examples Hipped and dated perhaps century from and in

presumably

impede were

slipping. quoted.

elsewhere England,

pins

also

occur

few stratified

Roman pins It is in fashion century shafts,

did not

any with hips; appear to include 5th Roman or a late origin (Stevenson 1955a, 285), but he did the not quote any examples have ornamental hips. example fig pins; (for from

pre-seventh

contexts. which may to

Some of

examples

bands on their 6.1-2)

or may not have pronounced Nail-headed have originated of a pins

are also cited

considered

from Romano-British

Stevenson

the example

in one of the Burilston inset blue glass pine Insets, which may be compared with green glass differently though in of late shaped heads, 286) Roman pins at Lydney, Glos Ubid, inset heads from Scotland and Ireland More elaborate were also (fig 6.21-22). Carved Sithean produced series it of a bone pins from and wheelhouse were sites noted. to study belong such the as

noted

Foshigarry, sites also

Phiobaire

Kilpheder pins pins which D.

These

iron pins

ring-headed (^Native" that

From this

main non-Roman of 'Roman' pins

is concluded

by the dating supported of Lagore and Bulilston, the less of Mote of Mark and clear evidence Dunadd, where there were earlier excavations, and by the stratification of Burrian, gives a date, for the than the 7th century earlier not much Scottish and the Anglopins so far considered, -30-

- Chapter Saxon parallels pins must have (ibid, 286)

4-

are similarly led directly

dated, but related back to Roman times

The absence

of

these

pins

from

sites

such

as Gurness suggests a

and Midhowe,

both of which had long

periods

of occupation,

late period not so very far removed post-broch from the 7th century, and that early post-broch to produce be expected occupations ought not broch-builders the them, than. any more distribution The widespread themselves. of the that hipped pins indicates absorption a cultural Ubid, 287) probably was only gradual Comment was suggest. Another only in artefact type Stevenson drew attention to, were few, although is the late summary fashion, toilet because also made on the changes in dress which these pins

excavated

examples

composite

comb, which Scotland. two types

seems to

have been more common in "Native"

Roman and post-Roman Finally I (fig 7)

of native

pins

were examined. which come from a

pins

comprise

ring-headed

pins,

"Native" antler survive. described. It

family whose varying kinds cover very long-lived 288) (ibid, 1500 years in Britain nearly (fig 6.27) are a series of iron pins with pins 1I heads about The 12-25 mm across of of both which development

bone and

only the heads usually forms these was summarily Stevenson's

is

worthwhile namely that

reiterating

and

clarifying

conclusions:

the so-called 'broch-culturel up must be'-broken into eight covering at least, several periods only part of It belonging centuries, and probably two or To the last to the broch-builders ... the Norse settlement three centuries preceding tentatively, at least a can now be ascribed, large proportion of the 'Roman' pins from broch (ibid. 293). and wheelhouse sites The supposed In absence of that these their finds from sites a little to to such as Gurness occupation that but in the a and was wire pot west,

Midhowe tMay signify early. projecting., impressed belonging Orkney

recognised there is

post-broch brochs;

and Shetland pins pins are Is

evidence

ring-head with to the these first

secondary considered

be early

century

AD:
-

31

- Chapter
It Is ', to the 3rd

4-

simpler ... elaborate potter7 and the between somewhere the wheelhouses in the than later that within these western this sites, later

that the most suppose belong ring-head pins and 7th centuries ... west coming earlier rather 293) span Mid, such as Bac Nhic Connain, produced was first

Several finds querying century

of which

support (1947; by

time-span. of was the

Thus wheelhouses that

Stevenson to the

Scott's AD:

1948a)

dating he

implication of of centuries the first

suggesting

wheelhouses span extending

commenced into the

a couple second half

later,

- and had AD.

a time In

millennium

addition

to the pre-Roman some pins which belong and earlier part of the Roman Iron Age are not known from main broch areas at all yet Ist-2nd ... for the main AD dates remain probable century broch-building Ubid, 294). period Stevenson the third with ends his to ninth few paper with finds the claim AD CLIAI and little to have shifted to the period at of the chasm. of brochs being the

centuries small

(MIA], proved

pottery

present

to belong

to the earlier

period.

4.1.2

The Importance Pins and Province pin types combs to in

of Stevenson's continue to

Paper be recognised (1980b, of still as important in

Atlantic metal [baA]

studies. be the the

Kilbride-Jones *chief expression the

189) Atlantic

deems some Province the few

culture'; typical pins

LIA pins find:

and combs are (at 1982,191); regarded

one of they in the

diagnostic most

'Pictish' 'Pictish'

artefacts

Brough of

Birsay and

are the LIAMP

Curle usually

Interface

and combs are

as the

main indicator Norse. appreciated

of interaction/continuity The significance

between the natives of Stevenson's paper

and incoming can be truly

it in its by -placing context of knowledge about later contemporary In the same year as its appearance the Iron Age settlement. Atlantic following statement was published:

that we cannot at present point It is unfortunate for dwelling fortress to a single or to a single that it is Pictish burial] say with certainty and is still Without doubt much Pictish material ... doubt, also, much has hidden from us, but without for been discovered what it and not recognised the recognition lies in The problem is. or (Wainwright Identification as Pictish of material -32-

- Chapter 1955,29-30). This School in and, paper in was In view of this fact

4-

delivered

at to

the

1952 Scottish scholars this at least Stevenson's structural

Summer were now, state of the next paper and

Stevenson's along the

observations, path and for of to

theory,

one As it in

step

remedying

af f airs.

was, part

'chasm' the

persisted

two decades, were not

because up. In to structures the the

implications applies the

followed evidence. attributable only basis was not 1962,148,150).

This

both

artefactual monuments stones (Radford sites Iron on

1962

'principal Picts' were

archaeological

historical cited

and the the it

as Pictish (1962) of detail

the -sculpted are those at Jarlshof some Dark Age but pottey', A the Atlantic 1965a; the 1973).

Young of until

recognised 'Dalriadic

presence 1965 that in of Stages Stages any

otherwise MacKie Iron

anyone examined (MacKie culture of which the in

Age material identifies Age, which to of of 122; the

assemblages five he terms stages Iron

material I-V, II-III

Atlantic apply the all

stages

II-V the

directly culture culture (1965a, appears

broch broch

studies. age, IV, the

constitute brochs

material share on

although

some of

also

stage Several contra

material after where the

culture stage IV his gap of

prevalent stage several V is

wheelhouses.

centuries 1973,140

extant

centuries

Stage V and the Norse period, but no mention was is the from stage IV - V). This transition made of the unclear MacKie on brochs. assemblage -which Stevenson identified material summarised his suggested sequence of development (fig 8), but in this he ignores a gap the fact, stage as he himself IV, ending pins, admitted, about dating had only pottery the MacKie Iron main that there the about appears the himself them, to be of to to between 300 AD and from

between Iron

presence fifth

Stevenson's century allowing transgress evidence; attempt (1980a) (1987 period other He also

combs the

and

mostly [1955a] and the between

onwards the see

(NB Stevenson pins,

committed bodies last

ring-headed in of

stamped with of

boundaries above the

'dated' to Alcock

4.1.1). Atlantic material, the on the finds

was the

person

an overview reOiewed 111) is

Age material and the basis recent Hedges

culture; work of

LIA to

Hedges a broch 37

specific

Orkneys.

has defined

artefactual sites which discusses

assemblage the 'Pictish'

of Bu, Gurness itemizes the

and. the

have. produced

(excluding

Howe and Warebeth). occurrence of

finds, -33-

- Chapter diagnostic and finally Iron lists out the the

4-

objects, draws

other

find for

types continuity

from

broch with the

contexts, earlier of the

evidence

Age and succeeding have also to

Norse been

periods. considered: types,

Theoretical Clarke

aspects (1971a) his use of pins others aspects (1982) this to

assemblages MacKiels items for

queried exotic argue the

approach

artefact rings have

specifically (1967) upon

such finds

as spiral

and projecting Crawford commented the

ring-headed and limited

an invasion

hypothesis; reports

composing of have both but

modern cultural written neither

assemblages; on approaches to to have as yet Fundamental

and Barrett towards

(1981)

and Foxon of

artefacts

period, has been,

published the be,

any specific the date

analyses. and in

recognition

of LIA settlement of activity brochs. Stevenson's sites form

still later

continues but

and

around totally there

wheelhouses, of has

more specifically on broch the limitations recognition occupation' quoted first

recognition

settlement Despite a constant

and wheelhouse of ' of earlier some

was not excavations of

surprising. been

'secondary sites. by

structures' The classic, Stevenson, been claimed for

and 'secondary most is the to be often the

on broch (North site

and wheelhouse that This

example,

Indeed Ronaldsay). with two

employed

Broch of Burrian broch

has long evidence Traill

stratigraphic William of levels

secondary the

settlement. to have

The original distinguished distinct

excavator,

(1890), within assertion 'secondary' pins, fine

claimed broch,

occupation and this The bone and and 344-

each with included and

material

assemblages,

has recently level cut

been reassessed such distinctive

by A MacGregor objects bone

(1974).

as decorated combs (single symbols, Ubid,

ornamented with

composite the

double-sided), a stone 49). Thus, stratigraphic excavation occupation occupation 1882) but to into slab

bones engraved decorated with

so-called

Pictish

a cross

and ogam inscription

for

many be

years, of to a

Burrian broch,

was and

considered certainly, a division Two for

the the of

first only its of

excavation able primary for

claim and

evidence

'secondary' at

phases. the Broch

phases

were noted, the excavator's

example, 1985,154). Burrian -34-

of Borthwick and his MacGregor, -that in

(Watt

work was 'unsystematic However, report,

publication his Traill's

incomprehensible' re-examination of

(Hedges the

suggests

- Chapter separation assumed, original and any detect 'too 70). of not plans break elsewhere. clea*r to cut not less, None the the least finds is

4-

not the than

altogether 'secondary' half of

as clear paving the interior have

as is indicated of

sometimes in the the broch, to finds 1974,

because less

covers in

occupation Moreover, to

sequence

would the

been difficult of the

he considers

division

have been partly he was able original

instinctive

I (MacGregor

to show that the inhabitants

some credence and MacGregor of the that

can now certainly in is its

be given has 'no secondary broch. probably first

Traill's

observations, (MacGregor 101)

hesitation phase Thus having as

In classifying "Picts"' Ubid,

site

1974,102), the the

postas BC and

MacGregor been AD, but role

sees

solid-based first century

broch

constructed after changed as to were date, to

between

century its is

an Initial meet when this undergoing

period more took

as a purelydomestic but

defensive

structure There that

requirements. on the 'basis at that a the Keiss: MacKie

no evidence sites Jarlshof:

place,

comparable

a similar

transition

comparatively 1972,19; 'secondary' consisted necessary from only finds, from about a few of the of and

early

around Hamilton

200 AD (for 1956,90), was either very the least. the

example

he suggests very finds of prolonged, The latter suggest the

occupation two because fifth the to

at Burrian at the

or else theory is

phases

MacGregor most of century finds until could

occupation For broch datable he dates

coming

Norse.

parallels

from

well-defined of thus the bone combs,

contexts

be found essentially

(MacGregor the

1974,100).

The bulk

bone pins century there on this in the is site broch or

and composite later. a period It

about

the

fifth that

would

present

evidence,

of about or if itself; there

appear, on two hundred years commit himself there

when nothing to a significant it was not no finds attributable S3.1.3.

happened period

(MacGregor will tower

not

of abandonment),

was any activity are

happening

certainly

which

to the period. The absence of finds can be ascribed to about 300 to 600 AD is a problem already discussed in the Broch

The structural Burrian, 1. there itself, structures which

and chronological

properties

of

of

need emphasizing, post-broch

are therefore: occupation In the broch tower some internal

was secondary, to which

a material

assemblage

and possibly

can be assigned; -35-

- Chapter 2. Contemporary broch 3. tower; of this last secondary

4-

occupation

seems to have taken

place

outside

the

'the occupation,

relationship Over the

settlement,

or phases of have been made at by means brochs of has of two of broch

to the MIA lbroch century

period'

is not known. observations

similar

several

sites,

often evidence. of the work it to the is

without

justification 1985;

stratigraphical made a study Orkney, different the broch from

Hedges (1980; of various apparent

1987 111,130-51) on the

antiquaries that they

which

'recognised' a reoccupation to is shanty or the

elements tower and the inside On the but

'secondary' often during the with

settlement: alterations that

itself, addition out

structure, erected presumed. subjective,

of outbuildings, more for

buildings so they

and

peaceful their ' this

times, judgements school verdict Shapinsay of

whole,

reasons (1980)

were very of thought in

as Hedges one. plans fig

outlines,

was a self-perpetuating Dryden's 111,144; or less colour-coded Petrie 1890, immortalised. adopted raised prevailing unsolved Opinion vacillate, the under later. fact the on two in

No sooner was this of Burrowstown 10), than this this in

enshrined

(Hedges 1987 was more the Royal

version they the which

events which

Indeed,

was the this,

stance

Commission

1946, although

appreciated, conditions are as yet continues is often is confused conflated to by

problems regarding times in post-broch (RCAHMS1946). the date of fierce types broch debate. of

outbuildings The issue are

whilst that single with

arousing different term the

evidence

'secondary': brochs,

settlement and settlement distinguishes

which which

may be as good as considerably

contemporary

A recent
it

view successfully

these:

built into the the Picts be denied that brochs other structures and possibly belief that the long held regular, found the towers buildings around (in the sense of secondary are Is not longer occupation) subsequent representing tenable (Hedges 1983,117), cannot of ruins but the substantial themselves but the antiquarian broch literature is camps rarely does. issue, in the So the and majority it can date opinions of be of the have 'broch, taken as

earliest alternated literature

outbuildings two

an important (although are not

between where

outbuildings

mentioned

-36-

- Chapter implicit that the broch

4-

and

outbuildings

were

not

considered

contemporary): CONTEMPORARY ----------------------------I --------NOT CONTEMPORARY --------------------------Anderson 1877; 1883 Petrie 1890 Anderson 1901 Callander and Grant RCAHMS 1946 Hamilton 1962; MacKie 1973 Hedges and Bell 1980 Ritchie Hedges 1983 Hedges 1987 11-111 1988 Ritchie and Ritchie 1981 1966

1934

Childe 1946 Scott 1948a

MacKie 1987b

This LIA artefacts activity of any

debate from which

will they

thus

be further

clarifed

by examination of the nature

of the of the and date

broch

sites, are

a consideration

for

the by-product remains.

and of the nature Examination non-broch

contemporary will also

structural suggest patterns.

of sites

these relate

artefacts

how contemporary

to the LIA settlement 4.2 THE DATA BASE

4.2.1 data

Examination, base A data

collection

and management of

the

pin Iron

and comb Age pins II-

base has for

been compiled comparison during collections were

of

most Scottish examples all to the

and combs, III). It

including is not

many later

(appendix

definitive,

but where possible study not visits yet

primary major by the and is

evidence Scottish museums.

was examined All

personally recent details

museums and to observed Each total of transferred

acquired

recorded on pro forma data base (dBase ID. to a computerised artefact is assigned or pockets analysis, a record of which information, and upon which

subsequently Into a

divided deemed to the data

25 'fields', to

be of can be as

relevance sorted. possible be

any subsequent is

The system within to which

designed

to incorporate structured forms,

as much flexibility system, to

an otherwise all might

rigidly

applicable

artefact arise

and

and thus to for, all allow example

eventualities

as work progresses. -37-

Take for

- Chapter fields will 10-14 vary (Qualifiers to 1-5); the

4-

the data fed into nature but of will the

each of these for

fields of fixed

according category of these

preceding

combination

material, combinations

and object, three fields. data

be standardised and by which county, qualifiers weight,

The fields sorted reference, comments, evidence as follows:


FIELD -------001 002 003 004 005 006 007 008 009 010 Oil 012 013 014 015 016 017 018 019 020 021 022 023 024 025 NAME -----------------

upon which

is

collected site, depth, references,

it

may be grid class, dating

are:

museum catalogue material, length, category,

number,

national 1-51context,

object,

breadth/diameter, unpublished

for

context,

published

references arranged

and illustrations,

and finally

a record

number.

These are

TYPE ------

WIDTH

mus: cat: no
site county ngr: sq ngr. east ngr: north material category object qual: l qual: 2 qual: 3 qual: 4 qual: 5 class comments length b: d1am depth weight context date: cont up: ref pub: ref recordno

C
C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C

- -- ------

015

025 005 002 004 004 008 Oil 010 010 010 010 010 010 010 060 004 004 004 005 050 150 020 080 004

field

is

left

blank

where

there

is

insufficient

available

information.

4.2.2

Details Recorded

of the Artefacts details. recorded glass, animal, include a basic to description the material material. are too of it The basic , the is object. made of:

Each either

object metal, of

is

according wood or

skeletal

traditional for present

divisions

plant

and mineral -38-

Chapter

4-

purposes.

Material

can be further of the into is divided 1985). of

sub-divided material bone, bone is

by category, type. * So, horn its in craft, material is given for and the and it for

that

is

a more precise skeletal bone (after as it is material

description

example, cetacean Atlantic played

antler, given

MacGregor deemed where its At the

Cetacean specific

own category

worthy utilisation role

attention

Province,

was a developed the artefact free fields in

such an essential was limited. which is Qualifiers be more specifically according be to the

in an area where other stage from modern objects The entry

artefacts name,

next

an object form. the fields object will

a name borrowed 1-5

of similar in which these

constitute described.

can vary field

prior the

combination range nature 9). for of

of material, for

category, entries for

and object, each of

but as noted will of

above, a

of permissable each both Where relevant distinctive

constant (fig the as the

combination these fields and

material, the wear more be

category

and object of such In details as the

may include use include otherwise of or

descriptions artefact, patterns. specific described systems. Chang should to wish

evidence presence the form of of

production tool will fields

marks,

addition of the

qualifying the the object,

what might

components

more traditional three Firstly

classificatory

(1967,71) to classify data and

recognised artefacts. to make it

reasons

why archaeologists in order to

one classifies expressing to and their in

summarize both

manageable, facts

observed

facts

economically, units within of a

effectively

and meaningfully. according system, to obtain which of

Secondly,

delineate relations reveal attributes are indispensable patterns the

archaeological culturally to locate facts cultural

mutual order of to the that are

meaningful in order systems, and/or

them. of

Thirdly, archaeological across the has for

cross-cultural

boundaries categories in turn

comparable

discovery in

formulation

cross-cultural

and regularities. study and the of their as hours

present

The second. and third But mind at all. why all archaeologists even if not 71).

reasons are not what the first reason is will the always spend a their 80-90% of

essential, portion working Scottish

reason time

classifying,

estimated

by Chang Ubid,

A classificatory pins

scheme has been devised for all the examined below. Prior to examination and combs, and Is described -39-

- Chapter

4-

of

the

relevant from pins this

artefacts published

the

framework

for

these typologies. and shaft

schemes In forms

was the (for

constructed case the with plates. and of basis teeth

examples basis In the

and extant of the head

was on the 1985,113-22). or not overall

example

MacGregor of it

case of

combs this

was on

whether had, the

comb was composite, and the shape of In most of both these

how many sides the connecting to

form,

As data subsequently

were collected became were not

schema were amended ad hoc order the data avoid in form, had been

ill-organised. revised are until still

complications collected. but the final on will and which the to divisions, Critics detailed analysis after

these

Unfortunately results the perhaps of the bore are basis

there

some ambiguities with relatively has some

classifications of which that these

distinct relevance. are units is it Is overof only

analysis

observe traditional

classifications fashion, Yet that the

morphological in past. dimensions to (on a the

no significance of all these

consideration reduce

observable dimensions

has been few, yet the extra

possible significant, artefact details

observations

relatively basis of

archaeological is assigned fields its to

which

a class).

A comments field the description

includes

of artefacts The final

where necessary. employed in of the form of the depth and dimensions: length, breadth/diameter, a. only re describing
sub-groups

artefact

are

where applicable they are in

weigt. in
in

These facts terms of h


A

entered the
within

when and whereor of

meaningful
relevance

artefact,
object

potential

distinguising

groups,

or all

elucidating be of invaluable

more specifically to in the distinguishing element

the

use of of one the

the the

object. object from location

These may and are the The

relevance

interpretation

certainly The ultimate artefact, catalogue museum or each

artefact present

another. of

identificatory its museum and is In its

is

associated by

registration

number.

number collection has

preceded

question. own record

to the an abbreviation specific For the purposes of this study number, is the which to is has no particular particular that

artefact

significance object, to the In

it oth er than that and is the means by which to fields

specific main text the form

cross-referenced there

appendices. addition recording -40of the artefact

- Chapter are its those dating. to both describe Context horizontal to a site, it to

4-

which

where refers and which

comes from, a specific is

and the horizon,

evidence related each

for where

known being grid exists areas and/or that

vertical

strat1graphy, by county different

context

specific reference

recorded for the

and national layers

(eight

figures

where possible).

Where stratification and/or Context

standardised specific date is of those context date for

abbreviations may include in such

to each site context found they

are quoted

or have been devised. of as to associated suggest

details

a position had*some they

artefacts, that 'in the in with The one

systemic to the

originally

inter-relationship are significant (see below). the

or more activities, of the

or alternatively the is

regard dating

context /phase/site a means of Often Any dating face value.

evidence

context its

analysing cited dates the

data

on broad field are must simply for a or

chronological not those be taken

horizons. at

evidence

in this quoted

suggested

by the or

relevant in

excavators. that terminus but such

The C-14 evidence immediately ante preceding

particular succeding henceforth statistical dating

phase, (terminus tpq and for

some cases quem and is or cited, significance Full I. base is is

post taq)

quem respectively, only has with any all together

evidence

reliability evidence

when taken of all into of

a site. data

details

relevant

C-14 dates

are to be found II

in appendix

The artefactual appendix and details base Is context, number the the each

divided In form. is order

two sections. its record

In number,

artefact by site,

listed

can be found dating

here of its the object for that

ordered and a list

In appendix III the data defined, and details of its its to museum accession be found. achieved are Cross by using placed in

evidence of these and

context, are is The

published

references

referencing record

between number

two catalogues names.

easily

site

appendices

volumes separate the illustrations

cross-referencing, so as to facilitate can be simultaneously and descriptions

and so that, examined.

4.3 DATING ARTEFACTS In reliable absolute. order to date artefacts sequence, Age site
-

the

essential these

prerequisite both relative would

is

a and

chronological An ideal'Iron

preferably for

purposes

therefore

41

- Chapter be one dates, a long

4-

with

stratigraphical not dates, less and/or metalwork, the then

sequence, three

from per

which phase,

are In

C-14 and/or later

preferably

thermoluminescence levels coins,

archaeomagnetic imported pottery

dates.

decorated tighten

and documentary such-a of not is scenario systematic all sites

references is a rare

would one; let suitable In the of

chronology. dating sampling, of the

Of course to the techniques,

many sites alone

were dug priorfor parts C-14,

advent

recording, produce are rare.

scientific

material earlier perceived the

and documentary Iron Age dating scientific of which for analysis (See Taylor

references reliant on techniques. depends on and the 1987 105and dates). will

a combination the

chronologies

and

The most common method is suitability of factors dates of the

the significance chosen

material

relationship 46 on

sample to the archaeology. sample composition, and influencing

sample

provenance, be high

experimental precision from of and there is

systemic Preferably be multiple using reducing averaging of its

accuracy precision

will

measurements of dates 1986)

samples. the of

The combination methods (such random

the same context, a means of results, and some idea means are in to the allow general historic and only

statistical the length.

as Gillespie errors for

effects

of All I. of period

on individual

determinations relevant dating

a phase often C-14 dates

enables

true

and weighted than

summarized In earlier genuine level. periods

In appendix the absence of the

evidence are sites is not

other reliable except

C-14,

part

dates between

enough at a for very the

cross-referencing Thermoluminescence, where the'

dendrochronology curve far best:

(best Clark but

reference are

1987,4) use is

archaeomagnetic

dating

more accurate, C-14 dating-is dating fine glass at al and

their

now becoming more widespread. In the historic secondary presence (Alcock Britons; find their Mediterranean 1971; 'the In of period to Roman (LIA) other artefacts, usually regarded as the importance coins, or Picts including

methods,

metalwork, documentary

imported sources the did

Gaulish

pottery, Alcock Scots as far found by -42-

1981,151-7, nor the

1986,259-61). money, way into Norse. but

Neither Roman coins (Robertson

minted north their the

way into

contexts coins

as Orkney

1983).

Some late and later

Northumbrian coins were

southern Unfortunately

Scotland, these

brought

- Chapter sources but little be

4-

are mainly is

absent

in the Atlantic a fairly their into (see for whilst wide period

Iron

Age. in Scotland, they is

Roman artefacts came to particularly 1976). difficulties, historical comparable respect although Imported Fine incorporated unreliable metalwork, scholars grounds. artefects. of because

have

distribution in circulation contexts. beset

known about

before

archaeological

Samian

example Stevenson more common, is by at least often limited is

1955a, 283; with

Warner dating on art

often Further

disagreeing dating are life

a century by the valuable in

range

of

Moulds their dating short

particularly span is in and

this

specific to

origins, date them. N

independent pottery

evidence

necessary

has a limited Is

distribution contender.

Scotland,

stopping sherd

of Ardnamurchan. ware from (Alcock Topping of

The northernmost

a possible by Alcock activation as likely it is imported

of Eby

Dun Ardtreck, comm),

accepted recent it is

as such neutron

and Thomas analysis to be part has a in

pers

although

(1986b,

121) does suggest medieval vessel. range. some areas even at date

perhaps of less,

a Scottish

No type None the aceramic, local

pottery

particularly Scotland sequences example because techniques, the

close which Lane

valuable chronological at best

was' in 1983).

and where are crude most incapable -basis within of the to Is

such as exist,

level, of the be the

(for

The application neutron is base cultural could is with rarely but Is activation shown to models

modern 'scientific disappointing of supporting composition, data close (Topping dating

such data and

as

analysis.

chronologicalalthough 1986b). (Alcock (Curle although Alcock has also 'The sources, (henceforth prestige

on

some patterns Imported 1981,155), 1982,46-47) there 1987). are

be identified potentially the

glass,

susceptible of the the of west

exception north from

Brough

of -Birsay (Alcock

evidenced examples

Dunadd and Dundurn, coast and

several

The use of

pins

and combs for (Alcock of dating in such

determining

chronology documentary Historic pertain Alcock beset to et al both ly

on occasion final obviously

been doubted source only

1981,156,156). evidence the is LIA/Early only 1981;

main

applicable

In reality EH) period. 6ites, such as EH fortifications Alcock of horizons.


-43-

sources (Alcock and

1986,259-60; interpretation recognised

and

Alcock

1987),

problems to

the

source

and applicability

archaeological

- Chapter Just phase possible of derived

4-

as scientifically activity the exact long This in question,

dates

may relate

badly

to

the

so may 'datable' to be analysed

artefacts. so that

Where cultural in to

context

needs for

transformation reuse, account. excavations. dating and

processes, circulation is only

example can be in into

redeposition, recognised recent account placed the of and and the below

residuality, taken

possible taking has

well-recorded vagaries of all

As a result, heavy No apology they are the is

methods, 'dates'; to

emphasis

been

on relative of most If

chronologies. quoted start only data exists. In chapters a matter dating which

made for less

nebulous some value in favour

nature

none the data, horizons. to those

when patterns of probable, below, of the context this available is

emerge amongst dating refers

weighing Initial items for

approximate, base mainly

discussion, which

a 'dated'

5 and 6 LIA I and II is for fully pins discussed in

are not chapter

distinguished; 7, when all

evidence

and combs is brought

together.

4.4 THE QUESTION OF DISTRIBUTION Can any significance combs? this A number of can it original derived factors be applied In to the distribution of pins to and the

must be contrasted the absence the present the artefacts. or burial to but the will in

and compared of evidence is of

before

question

be answered.

contrary, by the probably with domestic present is

can be assumed that distribution from is cannot the detail is of

distribution Most context NP).

limited are

these

a settlement only applicable be discounted,

(the Loss

latter, a for

one exception, context purposes. As a test examined this (fig in

outside

be disregarded

evidence here:

from two areas Orkney high is the and the the distribution area

the

Atlantic of

Province Caithness artefacts detailed purpose of

NE section of for Isles

because there (in study Uists,. Harrit diversity case

a relatively and this of

relevant subsequent for the (fig

pins),

10); with

and a part the differing

Western

comparison with and

geography of as a the

of the Orkneys finds, good and example number of

11). - The areas of

a high Skye

concentration chosen

adjacent of factors

were

geographical can be In

within

one small

area.

A large

compared simultaneously

because of -44-

use of coloured

overlays.

- Chapter each case the capabilities, and biological Survey is 1982 Soil Classification flexibility criteria agricultural unsure. A second artefacts account figures of also they the is the 10-11 parent pins acidic). to the gauge major the factors also rock factor dictating

4-

base map shows the distribution that is limitations which Scotland in of terms factors of

of various land (derived Institute, productivity, the with

modern land physical from the

imposed on the affect by the of to agriculture Macaulay

by the

Aberdeen). cropping latter two different emphases is

potential

and ease can be

management. technologies

To what extent periods

applied

earlier

practices,

and overall the

economic

current

distribution I Taking

of into size basis

prevalent of plot are In the of the

preservation pH, to of the of of distribution

conditions. water content

probable

and grain on the Soil survey not which

of soils preserve Macaulay detailed this

which

unlikely basis the

skeletal Institute ground

and possibly Survey It is

metal are

(on the

absence the

impossible because on a site

accuracy

generalisation, deposits to the

least up of

properties need bear soil, land

archaeological

build

no relationship and surrounding (see for example 60m is

whatsoever soils with Against

conditions 1983,55). can

the surrounding may affect In addition

different

proper ties now be and

an area

Romans and Robertson these

over

mapped. Age sites, bone

compared the skeletal for the have produced MacKie forth).

distribution

of metal Iron metal on the or

and skeletal

pins,

other

metal

object-producing neither Isles, C of these on the antler not Western

-and Iron

Age sites 1982 for sites listed

which Orkney; in

(based on Bell reports of

excavation

As a result be made. predict Either little Firstly,

distribution basis of soil

maps several acidity, are it

observations is likely impossible

can to

where bone, soil maps are

and metal detailed

artefacts

to survive. they bear in deposits

enough,

or more likely,

relationship

to the nature

of the archaeological

Not e: Glasgow to Deborah Kennedy (Geology department, 1.1 grateful am Department, Glasgow [Archaeology Amanda Clydesdale University], for Archaeological Trust] [York Jim Spriggs University] and discussion of this problem.

-45-

- Chapter the

4-

which notable

artefaCtB of the factors

are

encapsulated. favour is class to

All

find of

spots, relatively

with

the good

exception from As yet

Clettraval, (that poorest

low land

agricultural recovered water. current discovery heightens Often the

capability

say that land)

no artefacts usually

have been near favoured open the

and are land

dictating activity in of these

recovery on better areas. (in

have been ignored. may have loss)

Firstly

agricultural of the sites chance land (in

Similarly, tandem,

coastal of

erosion in the

discovery

many sites.

better

has a coastal Uist

disposition,

most marked of the early Crawford

Western century fig in 2). very

Isles are

North

the 34 townships exception fact nature Is of of

eighteenth 1978,

confined

without the

to the machair: that the

A third large the is

inescapable measure

distribution

reflects for Vallay the

archaeological artefacts

activity,

example peninsula

notable

concentration

around

an indication metal, of

of E Beveridge's antler

archaeological

activity. have tended to in theory to be

In conclusion, be found the areas in areas where to the

and bone artefacts good soil, conditions the which are is more

relatively soil of

also likely

prevalent preservation recovery fieldwork

conducive factors not land

artefactual favoured these

material. areas, areas in 'not

However, and it where As it Is the to is not and

dictating

have also

improbable was of to (class of

that lesser might predict

and investigation value balance the artefacts only in into , and to

agricultural start areas where the being

conducive definitely exception),

preservation' impossible be found because

picture. will the

6 and 7 land

the

possible

geographical conditions' of artefact

diversity, need not distribution

especially be taken unless

N and W Isles,

'preservation discussion surveys

account In general locally specific soil

have been done.

#*f*f This LIA studies, the has described outlined study. the importance the the general

chapter and

of

pins details

and combs to and the issues date of

some of In

concerning these pins

current

next

two chapters

and combs will

be reviewed

and up-dated.

-46-

CHAPTER 5:

PINS

- Chapter

5-

CHAPTER5: PINS

5.0

CLASSIFICATION The pin

OF SCOTTISH PINS is divisible (qual: on 1) the and basis shaf tf of orm (the see are head be three (qual: latter main 2). may Stick as one

assemblage head in both the

criteria: Stick also pin pins

material, occur to

f orm metal moulds

and skeletal for the

material former, material of to

be used forms

make might

below). treated shaft to

which

be made in being of which criterion the basis on

either the basis

group, certain materials. pins provide 116). ring-head

classification combinations The therefore more -Metal-only pins

and

forms, certain of stick

may happen for of than such are be at the the

limited

primary on

classification head forms, which

are

usually 1985, loose

diagnostic stick and Fowler classification, this a is slender skeletal the material. to which pin a has

features pin type forms,

the as

shafts

(MacGregor pins,

ring-headed

E pins, pins must obvious with

treated defined. first

separately. In glance, head. forms much wear As in the from shaft highly or It are the the is cut by case of

Before metal factors complicated prescribed choice reflect metal of the pins, examples being

usually point material, final

common more to a

shaped natural very

with shape, raw uses

where being

product However, the artefact

limited patterns the

the may

subsequent was put. is pointed; varying The

case

of end

a bone has to

one end which head,

opposite a and/or

invariably articulation may either protracted 'pin' from be

distinctive ornamented will the is 'point' shaft In general end whole thin of In all

natural head

a finely and of It

version. probability

decorated, as a part

be

polished, by a from bone both may only

manufacturing sometimes or 'awl', difficult

process, to

certainly

wear. a head bone

distinguish arising

confusion Ultimately

ambiguous be

and/or but

forms. the the

some Judgements awls tend are to usually

subjective, at have ' the

points tool, and

and and

polished and to

working the

be much wider, more of be irregular bone positively may

on

flatter, irregular pins, this

sometimes slivers rarely

sections. have

Whilst

some as

polished can

functioned

dress

ascertained. The classification I upon which -47this study is based distinguishes

- Chapter between forms base. assigned

5-

stick

pins

and other verbal found

metal-only both

forms. for

All

metal-only in the

pin data are

are

assigned

names, in

abbreviated metal

entry

Head forms an arabic regard be by upper may

and skeletal

materials head forms

number (in to case stick letters.

addition pins, into to

to a verbal subdivisions

description). of ten are No Shaft to pin not for four forms, to be pins

With denoted which types, broad being confused with the 1983a), after the type.

Thirty-six a the

head forms

exist, divisions.

one of

sub-divided by letters and tend to loose

maximum of order of the

sign ificance

can be attached in

numbering. limited stick pins, itself: term

denoted categories, irrelevant with

the

lower

case, (or

are

to pertain ring-heads pin,

only

to simple ringed

the ring-headed either cast

which Is the generic type E pins.

ring-head projecting the the

or bent out of the pin and Fowler than form denotes other are listed

Fanning

ring-heads head or shaft pin concerned,

- An asterisk decoration to the on head

either area of Features

additional that standard Age pin be brought

such as insets all

verbally. Iron to which 1973. forms, in to some the

The scheme covers Norse forms which are discussion, of relevant 5.1

known Scottish or pin need types Laing

similar, medieval especially

and other discussion,

have been the

subject

SUMKARY OF PIN FORMS

5.1.1. Material

Summary of (f1gs Description

Stick

Pin

Head Types found

In

Metal

and Skeletal

12-13) below illustrations Further details Is kept are of of pin to unlikely form form. a minimum, to may provide be provided except in where the

accompanying information. subsequent

sufficient

section

on analysis

GROUP1: A B C GROUP2:

Simple heads plain tapering plain tapering plain tapering 1-4 transverse

shaft shaft shaft

with with with

flat top rounded top top conical a conical head appreciably wider

grooves

beneath

The segments produced than the shaft.

by the grooves

are not

-48-

- Chapter
GROUP 3: A B C D E F GROUP 4: beneath head reels head conical or ovoid more-or-less spherical head polygonal head, ornate eg melon vase-headed flame-shaped head reel heads 1-5

5-

head

GROW 5: reel

and bead head heads

Group 6: variations on spherical A ball (spherical) B ball with flat top C half ball D globular E globule top with flat GROUP7:
GROUP 8: A B In with no

facetted

cubolds,

i. e. polygonal

heads

heads nail heads expanded marked expanded type fixed A the head

head evolves between out of a smoothly and shaft. expanding In the shaft case of

demarcation

head

type the

B the shaft,

head may expand out but in both cases

of the

the

shaft

or sit top of

perpendicular the

to

regular

head has some

depth. GROUP9: A B C D E F 0 H, I K
GROUP 10: This

transversely disc axe fan crescent rectangle triangle rounded end quatrefoil sub-triangular miscellaneous
small group

flattened

heads

transversely is a distinct

flattened smaller

disc version

heads of type 9A.

GROUP 11: thistle A small -B long GROUP12: A B C D

heads

articulations natural pig fibulae modified pig slightly pig fibulae perforated bird bone

fibulae

-49-

- Chapter
E F GROUP 13: cattle/deer sheep/goat segmented is the metatarsal ulna heads similar shaft. to group

5-

Thi s group are wider than

2,

but

In

this

case

the

segments

GROUP 14: zoomorphic: A animal head B animal head C miscellaneous GROUP 15: A B C D GROUP 16: A B C D E

extends in line

at right angles with shaft

to

the

shaft

heads globular solid variety, usualy hollow, cut from shaft teeth animal metapodial perforated Sub-triangular rectangular trapezoidal discoid miscellaneous expanding 16 expanding

antler of a long

bone

ends

GROUP 17: unperforated A-E as for group GROUP 18: GROUP 19: A B C D macehead flat profile

ends

pins

circular globular rectangular ball half group that (as Is in distinguished profile to the being head from of this group pin 9 is (transversely the same width

Thi s flattened as the

) in sh aft, crutch cross

opposed heads

slimmer).

GROUP 20: GROUP 21: GROUP 22: GROUP 23:

heads heads

P anthropomoiiic open ring heads

GROUP 24: collared A ball B ball with C half ball

variations flat top

on spherical

heads

GROUP25:

dome heads ellIptical heads -50-

GROUP26: collared

- Chapter
GROUP 27: knob heads

5-

GROUP28: bucket
GROUP 29:

heads

bun heads

GROUP30:
GROUP 31: GROUP 32: GROUP 33: GROUP 34: GROUP 35:

frustrum
pierced splinters unfinished

heads
heads

pins

miscellaneous needles

GROUP36:

acorn

heads

table

1: Ambiguities IA 2 3E 4

in

stick 6A

pin 6B

forms 8A 9A 9C 12B 15A 25 a

6D

IB x 6x 6B 6D 6E 7x 8A 8B 12A 13 15C 17A 19A 25 26 28 bx e sm dome:

x x x

xxx x xx x x xx x x x

similarity

5.1.2

Summary of Metal-Only (astrag)

Pin Forms (with

abbreviations)

(fig

13)

Astragaloid Butterfly

-51-

- Chapter Crook-head Disc with Fowler (crook-hd) fillets (discfillet)

5-

E (fig 14) proto-zoomorphic zoomorphic disc spiral ring head head (spiral-in) (kid r skeu)

Horizontal In-turned Kidney

skeumorph hd)

Lens head (lens


Lobed Loose head

(lobed)

(loose (fig 15) ring-head r-hd) kidney-ringed, polyhedral-headed loop-headed knob-ringed, loop-headed plain-ringed, plain-ringed, polyhedral-headed baluster-headed spiral-ringed, loop-headed spiral ringed, stirrup-ringed, crutch-headed This group is with fillets is equivalent used the in to Fanning's to pin this (1983a) because ringed it is pins. less

Loose easily

ring-head confused with

preference

ring-headed

group.

Lozenge

(lozfillet)

Miscellaneous (misc) bent headed Mushroom Open disc Out-turned Projecting Rectangle head head spiral disc with (mush) (open disc) (spiral disc) out)

head (proj fillets (figs

Ring-head (r-hd) cast wire corrugated degenerated hand-pin ibex rosette semi-beaded semi-corrugated beads small

16-19)

ibex

-52-

- Chapter This group, which group would is a sub-set also comprise dec) roll)

5-

of

Fanning's

(1983a) group,

ring-headed below.

pin

the ring-head

Ring-head. Rolled Small Spiral

decorated

(r-hd (spiral

spiral-head

dome (sm dome) head (spiral) with projections (sq pl proj)

Square plate Swan's neck Triangle with

fillets enamel

(tri

fill)

Wheel-headed

(wheel-hd)

5.1.3

Summary of Shaft Four main of their tapers shaft

Types types exist, form and these are distinguished on

the basis

longitudinal

(as opposed to section): length only its at the tip the

a: the shaft b: the shaft c: the shaft e: the shaft way down.

smoothly

along

its

entire

has straight

parallel hip,

sides,

tapered at about

has a prononunced has a distinctive

swelling

mid-length two-thirds of

approximately

MacGregor decorated theory shanks,

(1985) but

includes this is

fifth

category here as all

(d)

which

have in

omitted

types

can

display

decoration. between shafts c and e Is not have lines always obvious, play. hip, area

The distinction and a degree For example decoration, emphasises pin, just described of

subjectivity the as 'true' e.

has naturally swelling may not incised

been brought

into

whilst such

a pronounced around this

transversely hip, hip

an apparent as the as form

and acts to impede the slipping of the does; in these cases the shaft has been

-53-

- Chapter
5.2 ANALYSIS OF THE DATA BASE In chronological three order: (95.3); (95.5), significance. Ultimately primarily data base stick on the record in any prime the the all this primary trends, factors category form of A of which lesser pin basis number of are the groups of the 1933; statistical from are analysis, and to of the the be

5-

which distribution into from (95.4);

is

initially of fashions, in

looking there the following is the

for are

taken

account, which and the the

material shaft may have

artefact form or of

made head

chronological pin length, are evidence entries is

distributional also considered. Individually, and including are and although not 35

factor,

1-30,34,36 Scottish subsequent

discussed (up to up to Groups

2148 31-33

included (non-pin recorded groups analysis to be

analyses). all discussion

groups) in (34 for treated

omitted 1, they

because, Both from are

appendix and the as metal

irrelevant. are excluded groups

miscellaneous all too pin primary amorphous groups E and pin that, groups in are ringare some

miscellaneous) reason that The loose

obvious a

these

whole. but discussed units similar

metal-only ring-heads, en masse. analysis forms

stick Fowler Stick shows mask and All to

discussed headed treated cases, disparate distribution are record As propositions chronological these The can A-E; very pins as

individually, are each

homogeneous

although head for

morphologically forms. of The each

chronologically a lesser In extent brackets

evidence is

dating

type

considered.

numbers

numbers. a result are of made at the the can weighed contexts broad these The above end considerations of each a number of

sub-section, Ultimately and groups

whereby all

characteristics are 'dated' to

be distinguished. each that other the

propositions nature of

against is such

summarised. so defined (Class nor will will be be All a 'dated' be found

be ascribed 97.1) well

chronological are problem

and cultural neither

horizons sequential

although defined. at a later

unfortunately of recognising to

residuality proposition evidence. for which can

discussed primarily tabulated context in

stage. on the

Exceptions basis of only of all

each

assessed data exists,

contextual examples other

summaries although II-III.

contain details

artefacts

appendices

-54-

- Chapter
5.3 CATEGORY OF MATERIAL

5-

5.3.1

Skeletal Skeletal raw products bone is usually are being the the materials most over significant its exact with (363) the commonly whole material context possible and the is of utilised the in IA all

for and

pin

manufacture, it

prevalent most where 2-3) Mhor possible from phase

NP where Antler, to

phases. Is from confined

on the Norse at

contrary, (tables

known,

levels

exceptions Pictish/Norse all are

phase

5 levels at Pool

A Cheardach Of of Pool the

Interface Norse from at with the

(1491).

antler

examples

the Interface

exception at and

1510

4a and several In are the Norse

examples levels

(1478,1503,1515). antler pins

Jarlshof examples.

antler

possible

almost

as common as

bone

table

Summary of dating

evidence

for

antler

pins Record No --------------363 1491 138-40 1780


926,933,976 967,996

Date of context Context ---------------------------------LIA Phase V Phase 5d Interface late 9/early IOC occupation
Ist Ist % 9C % 9C USM Midden

layer

Site -----------------A Cheardach Pool Drimore


Jarlshof Jarlshof

Mhor

late

9/early

IOC

V ph III Phase IIc Lower Norse Middle Norse Midden 1 V ph VII

Jarlshof

late late late

9C 9-2nd %10C 9-2nd %10C

Saevar Howe Brough of Birsay Brough of Birsay Skaill Whithorn Tarlshof

11C ? 11-12C 13-14C

934,946,949, 951,968,990 1017 199 1895,1905 1911-12,191718.1920 216.218.220 1934.1937 936

-55-

- Chapter

5-

table

Summary of dating

evidence

for

possible

antler

pins

Date of Context Context ------------ ------------LIA Phase 4a late 7C Phase 5c Interface Phase 5d 1st % 9C AD usm Ist
lst Ist

Site
Pool Pool Pool Tarlshof Tarlshof Jarlshof
Jarlshof Jarlshof Jarlshof Jarlshof Drimore Pool Jarlshof

Record No
1510 1478,1486 1503,1512 909,915,94344 906,910,917, 919 920

% 9C AD
;6 9C AD % 9C AD

late 9/early late 9/early late 9/early late 9/early 11-13C early 11-13C

IOC IOC IOC IOC

Yard paving SW of house Midden scatter on yard paving LSM Midden I Lower level Middle level layer occupation Phase 6bi Phase V

923,966 1032 935 958,978,988 1778 1526 940,952

Bone is or wild antler animals is

a resource are to

available be found.

anywhere

that

either the

domesticated of Over

In comparison,

availability the

always antler red

our period species of

much more limited, and requires (theoretically) was available deer (Fallow G Ritchie 1920, deer became extinct into Scotland Red deer occupied 1920,333). At or the of in this

forethought. from

indigenous 334), Age, the in an

and roe

figure after until

opposite the the Ice NP at

and possibly and

reindeer. not brochs

was probably (Whitehead when the

reintroduced 1964,3451). were being U Ritchie on

earliest Orkney

were certainly but became extinct Presumably period (Morris in the

fpund at is

unknown time similar evidence earlier the for

thereafter range size of

they

had a no seen take Saga

survival the

Shetland.

there

population Point (1892,

intense

exploitation 1964,181) Orkneyinga is

at. a site

on the

Buckquoy

1983,125-27).

Harvie-Brown absence

and Buckley of mention Roe deer of

quoted deer

Whitehead

red

on Orkney

as proof Scotland, physical 331).

of extinction even as far evidence Decline of they both

by this

period,

especially

as it

mentioned in no

in Caithness.

are known to have had a wide distribution there is as yet although north as Shetland, were ever present In is Orkney generally U Ritchie interpreted the above species
-56-

1920, as

- Chapter being decline 1961). Reindeer (Ritchi, of J. antler 1920,341), species describes its has reputedly which in NP on the is Scotland basis directly in the to the

5-

related climate,

contemporary

decline

in

tree

cover,

and perhaps

over-exploitation been found

by man (Lowe MIA sites the

on several for least

taken up

as evidence until at

the existence ninth Ubid, has and to its Saga (Chapter

indigenous

century, 102),

and possibly

of the Orkne7inga MacGregor

which

seasonal the for

summer hunting

in Caithness (1985,37-38) literary of which the

341; Whitehead convincingly representational species extinction in

1964,448). questioned evidence

More recently

archaeological, such other longevity evidence times. the of The during its

indigenous

Scotland, in early from cancellous for noting the

prefering post-Pleistocene it red is deer pores such II-III,

points

On examination of reindeer

easy to distinguish antler Ubid, because 14).

smallest

fragment and was of the

well-defined writer

elongated unprepared material to have importation in

present

a distinction but certainly in (where

examination authors might

appendices

no other the NP it

claim

noted

distinction

Indicate

from Scandinavia). is to given, avoid it rapid deer appears decay that must most utillsed have at the that best (roe antler of times. deer are of such be

Where evidence had been shed, (Grant is and

been collected

quickly There not

1981,210), that it

a difficult red has been

activity

no evidence although and (Chaplin

were domesticated suggested can to

suitable)

techniques enable man to In the

palaeozoology

palaeobotany as 1975). throughout of mounts. forth); deer its were

potentially prehistoric

management activities recognised Antler was used handles the well diet. fine for

available the

was utilised a variety (Bell and thus the LIA

IA and NP. such as there

MIA it combs,

implements

long-handled was deer those

and perforated deposits pig,

At Warebeth the

bone from of cattle of the to a of

numbers approach decline, This

and exceed

probably

was an important being is

part

During composite of

use seems to occasional

confined

combs and the dwindling

tool.

most likely properties intrinsic

reflection antler of

supplies, This
-57-

because the

physical than the

would have made it it

a more suitable

commodity

bone in many value

the uses which

served.

may emphasise

- Chapter In the NP there elaborate first only time is

5-

of all are still Such

combs. for

an obvious composite It is used

increase

in usage;

there

some tools, the can

combs become increasingly for the ubiquitous by comes from that the back pin. greater the Norse in

common, and

preference of Isles

have

been

accommodated evidence feasible as is

availability Northern with their of (with Earldom taken is their

raw material. and north of

Most current It

mainland. utilising or would

knowledge were deer. of easier Orkney. from antler

reindeer efficiently have which Norse

a resource in the

homeland Scottish

managing This

hunting resulted were to the

mainland

herds greater

availabilty the in

supplies, of

specifically centre Birsay. Birsay distribution

imported of the have There in all did 1986),

mobility Here focal of

ships) and/or the

manufacture sites, deer in

could

place

such as the bone from Curle 1982,

Brough Brough and later

of of

a marked (none

absence is

levels not

mentioned bone to

excavations Hunter an then

produce

enough If the

suggest being not in Is

organised brought the

huntingin as

suggests commodity. that

that

antler antler are being the

was

independent it suggests the and As

from

mainland first

supplies Thus in

brought

from Norway. the they cord time in in pins, length

NP antler

was used for (see below); a length the it of

form

of

which

had changed with fashion for

increased to secure homeland, fashion

commonly this not

functioned

clothing. helped

was the so suitable

back in such forms, demand for

Scandinavian may be that

and bone is in part

to create 5.3.2

a greater Iron for

antler.

Metal: Evidence

the

use of Fort

pins

the

sites

of Sithean

Bonchester a

made solely Kaimes (893), Dunadd Keil

to of Iron is limited Berneray (895), Hill (1267,1274), (1791-92), Mills Moredun Laws of (2000), was

(1127), (1442), Monifieth Traprain examined), examples from Monifieth from the

Bruthach

Sithean

(1144), (1455),

a Phiobaire Dundurn NB not

Cave

(554),

(1961-62,2003), all of the

Boysack Traprain

Law (675-76;

Law collection

and Howe (168,170-71). has a context which and Traprain MIA levels but may there. at be least MIA

Only one of the five of the

examined Traprain examples come of is Laws (168)

other

hillforts

(Bonchester, the

Kaimes,

Law),

and one of The unusual


-58-

Howe examples of form

example

6B f rom

- Chapter Dunadd Dundurn (1961; (1274) which 1962 is later, a stratified whilst the type in in

5-

possibly 2003, Where

addition context it

to

the to

example post iron of

from 800 AD also

comes from and

dated are known, pins

unstratified, of the shaft

possibly is group of

contemporary). material (95.5.15), (1092) most for

the 15

commonly example (129),

used from which

globular (707,709),

Buiston

Broch in date.

Burray

and Gurness 4

are MIA and later for iron

table Date ---late MIA post LIA

Summary of dating

evidence

pins Record no --- ---------------675 168 1961 170-71

of context ---------------2C AD 800 AD

Context ---- ----level 3 early ph 7 DY 106 ph a

Site ------------------Traprain Howe Dundurn Howe

Law

5.3.3.

Metal:

Copper Alloy of

(Cu alloy) copper alloy pins rare, that on sites although it In the can with there stratified are slight a look a large these

The occurrence sequences suggestions towards at all the is at Pool,

unfortunately

rather

Howe and Buckquoy and especially (table 5) it

becomes more common NP. Taking that be seen

end of

the LIA examples

stratified these

number of are the all only

occur to

in MIA contexts, or Fowler in are this by far

and with class

few exceptions pins, below). In

projecting pin types

ring-heads exist pins

E type (see

virtually later the

period the

levels preferred alloy

bone and antler material, loose until increases

most common, if

not

the Norse period, (numerous variations this

when the number of copper of stick LIA pins and the but pins point of to Numerous view. is unstratified, metal moulds confined 4,68,8Bc, forms

versions

ubiquitous typologically

ring-headed examples for (for Mark

pins). confirm LIA

datable at all

any form are not their sites 24A, existence. of Brough 24A and 26),

common, although

contemporary as yet forms 64-65,1965-73;

Evidence of Birsay

moulds

to the 14A, 9A, 1A,

example

forms

Mote of disc-head

(874-91,1463;

11A?, ? decorated 6Ac,

and ring-head), Dunollie Craig (1587-89;

Dunadd (1278-93; (1311-14), (1814-17; forms

6B, 8A, 8B, 9A, form), 3D),

11A and 25), Clatchard Olabhat

Dundurn 6B),

(1798, Skaill

miscellaneous (2147: form and Gurness

form include

Ellean

a hand-pin)

(1736-43;

forms Include -59-

a hand-pin).

- Chapter Dunadd Dundurn (1961; (1274) which 1962 is later, a stratified whilst the type in in

5-

possibly 2003, Where

addition context it

to

the to

example post iron of

from 800 AD also

comes from and

dated are known, pins

unstratified, of the shaft

possibly is group of

contemporary). material (95.5.15), (1092) most for

the 15

commonly example (129),

used from which

globular (707,709),

Buiston

Broch In date.

Burray

and Gurness 4

are MIA and later for iron

table

Summary of dating

evidence

pins Record no ------- -----------675 168 1961 170-71

Context Date of context ----------------------------level 3 late 2C AD fiffA ear17 ph'7 DN 106 post 800 AD LIA ph 8

Site ----------------Traprain Howe Dundurn Howe

Law

5.3.3.

Metal:

Copper Alloy of

(Cu alloy) copper alloy pins rare, on sites although that in can it the with there stratified are slight a look a large these

The occurrence sequences suggestions towards at all the is at Pool, the

unfortunately LIA

rather

Howe and Buckquoy and especially (table 5) it

becomes more common NP. Taking that be seen

end of

stratified these

examples occur in

number of are the all only

ICA contexts, or Fowler in are this by far

and with class the

few exceptions pins, below). In

projecting pin types

ring-heads to exist pins

E type (see

virtually later the

period

levels preferred alloy

bone and antler material, loose until increases

most common, if

not

the Norse period, (numerous variations this

when the number of copper of stick LIA pins and the but pins of to Numerous view.

versions

ubiquitous typologically

ring-headed examples

pins). confirm

unstratified, metal confined 4,6B,

datable

any form are not their existence. sites 24A. of Brough 24A and 26),

at all common, although contemporary Evidence for LIA moulds is as yet of Birsay (for Mark example 64-65,1965-73; forms Mote of disc-head (874-91,1463;

moulds point forms 8Bc, forms

to the 14A, 9A, 1A,

11A?, ? decorated 6Ac,

and ring-head), Dunollie Craig (1587-89;

Dunadd (1278-93; (1311-14), (1814-17; forms

6B, 8A, 8B, 9A, form), 3D),

11A and 25), Clatchard Olabhat include -59-

Dundurn 6B),

(1798; Skaill

miscellaneous (2147: form and Gurness

form include

Eilean

a hand-pin)

(1736-43;

forms

a hand-pin).

- Chapter In the MIA (804), Traprain moulds are few: Law (858-61,863), projecting

5-

Jarlshof

(1065), (1736).

Lingro All

(735), these

Reay are

Gurness

examples of various

ring-heads.

table 5 moulds)
Date

Summary of dating

evidence

for

copper

alloy

pins
Record

(exluding

Context of context -------------------------------7C EC-? dun floor Phase IVb mid 3C BC late 3C BC-? Phase V 2-1C BC Pbase Me 2C BC Phase 111b IC BC Phase 11c IA village midden scatter EIA Phase 516 late BClearly AD broch late BClearly AD enclosure I late BC1earl7 AD broch, ph 2 late BClearly AD period 3, encl late BC1earl7 AD period 3, encl late BC1earl7 AD ?period 3 C AD brocb early C AD 4 early period 1-2 C AD level 4 ? 1-3C AD broch'floor ? early 2-3C AD broch filling 2-4C AD Layer I 2-4C late late AD 2C-? 2C 4C AD unknown Phase 3 level 3 level I level 2 level I broch levels broch/post-broch post-broch c3-8C late LIA LIA LIA LIA 8C or later 819C on stylistic grounds Norse Ist 9 9C AD 7C AD wheelhouse Phase Phase Phase Phase long 5c IV 7 8 cist burial

Site ----Dun Dun Dun Dun Dun 'Dun ------------Lagaldh Nor Va ul Mor Vaul Mor Vaul Mor Vaul Mor Va ul

Jarlshof Howe Crosskirk Crosskirk Crosskirk I Crosskirk I Vb Crosskirk Crosskirk Clickhimin Crosskirk Traprain Law Hurley Hawkin Hurley Hawkin Covesea Traprain Leckie Traprain Traprain Traprain Traprain Gurness Gurness Gurness Clickhimin Law Law Law Law Law

mid-late

no ---------------1692 1686-87 1684 1663,1688 1665 1682 1051 172 1624,1626 1627 1628 1629-30 1631 1632 1724-25 1633 631-32,834 1438 1439,1806 351,354.64649,653 660-71,673-74, 1649-50 672,679,682 683 826, .628,830 629 156-57 155,158 614 1727-28,1730, 1732 2002 1120 368 143-44,173-75, 177-78 167,169,161011 1570 727 1812-13 1056-5.9,1064

4C early 4C AD mid-late

Pool
Bac Mic Connain 6 Cheardach Mor Howe Howe Machrins Golspie Howe Tarlshof - 60-

Phase 9 V phase I

- Chapter late 9-2nd A610C LN M V phase III Norse grave Area III Area VII N grave House I N grave N Grave Phase 6c

5-

Brough of Birsay Brough of Birsay Tarlshof Buckquoy Brough of Birsay Brough of Birsa7 Kirkcudbright Tarlshof Carn-nan-Bherraich Moran Ba7 Pool

late 9-2nd MIOC 10C 3rd M IOC AD Norse Norse Norse Norse Norse Norse 11-13C

1923,1926, 1929 1931 1055 117 1927-28 1785 1573 1575 1581 1583 1807

5.3.4

Comparison

of pin

length is

and material It can be seen that materials the longer (fig (bone the range the in the period LIA the most mm; is Each between 20), (bone, 40-49 a pin 21).

Such a comparison common length metal the more likely is for 70-89mm; antler it used is is over that

informative. varies

a pin to

90-99mm; fig

and that

have been made from metal slightly it different but in the all the ranges cases length

material antler

20-189mm; is wide. the but

30-169mm metal technology and fashion pins mainly LIA. spring were

20-249mm),

The implication available fashion, LIA

was not dictated

material,

or necessarily of pin,

which

changed over usually the In cast, ring ability this to case,

time. but heads, to

For example, in are the earlier longer pins

MIA and these metal be

metal

products, stick there sought pins, in

projecting

than

although the

make longer alternative that

must have been must were

explanations shorter pins for

and

two

mind,

namely metal

more more

fashionable, visually that for is

and/or

the

use of ornaments of antler (fig

was preferred

larger,

demonstrative The length range

such as brooches. (distinctively the Norse) NP, but the pins reveals tendenc7y was of metal length where in are the both that later, pins here the lower few, all and

shorter the pins

pins

(<69mm) were made in 20). indicating which fig long forms pins 20). compares

to be longer distribution, 60-109mm, for them to

The plotted that with the

length preferred bone pins,

has a normal between is this tendancy part' but of

be shorter

(30-89mm, but Known metal is are longer to this


-

rather pins this is

bracket; not pin type groups.

LIA thus

by preference stick

(<69mm) and it which

possible are disc

metal-only short rolled

than

metal-only spiral

are probably

early, rule

that

head and

The exception
-

are the spiral

61

- Chapter

5-

heads which rolled Isles, Buiston spiral and

are all (421) the two

known to be post-medieval. comes from an unstratified examples of a projecting Hawkin (1805). can be made: Norse, therefore this period and Hurley

The only context disc

example of a come from

on the Western head

Crannog

(716)

The following include most antler antler pins

propositions pine are

all

pin the

groups late

which

were made during pins, with rare

- most iron century AD 5.3.5 Conclusions Antler manufacture exceptions, this implies for is of for

exceptions

predate

seventh

from the Evidence a useful

on Category indicator, to the

of Material its use a few Norse. in the dubious and it

chronological confined 934 which

pins

being

NP (with

example

possibly and in

has a hipped by the all

shaft),

special fore

management of resources everywhere Iron also

' Bone was although and then the in the

available in

manufacture

periods,

came to the mainly and/or contrary the been

In the LIA. note

was rarely how iron pins

used for may not Copper

pins,

the MIA (but discovered

have survived alloy on if

and/or

recognised). being LIA

had a continual of LIA moulds for short Is Is is pins

presence,

particularly exists, it dress later

prominent although

MIA and NP; the

occasional anything (its

example

evidence this period the

to go by, other are

was often than for

used during in this ones in all never

period

use for pins

ornaments short short

marked). Shaft but in

Long

metal b.

(<69mm), and this LIA.

a reflection types a, one

of the preference and c they are hipped were contrary. suprising Dowel-

pins from

manufactured shafts totally a in

materials, manufactured fashion,

with antler, context of

exception to the is

are

suggesting evidence wooden pins from sites in pins

pre-Norse the like and forms

despite

The absence absence of suitable pins the

not

view

of

preservation

conditions. SW Scotland, from Lagore

and skewer(1711-13) short pin fig

have been recovered of crannogs to the hipped

such as Clickhimin but no (Hencken 1951,

several

comparable

81. W77).

5.4

FORMSOF PIN SHAFT - 62 -

- Chapter 5.4.1 Type a: the No real shaft is form because this (table tapers

5-

shaft 6).

smoothly significance of

along can

its be

entire

length Ao but have and are this this been 17;

chronological type antler is also decorated is the tines

attached

The majority natural

examples for

are Norse, pins which 12,16 There

form

made by cutting see below). versions Meikleour), with It

longitudinally Groups (282,

(Groups I and 8. 945,

common with shafts

three 892,

Udal;

Jarlshof;

none of which comes from a dated context.

table

6a: Summary of dating

evidence

for

metal

shaft

type

Date of Context Context Site ------------------------------------------------------------------Phase 9 Howe ?Norse

Record no 1812

table 6b: Summar7 of dating type a Date of Context Context ------------------------------Phase 4 IBA' Phase 516 EIA Phase 6 EIA Phase IIIb EIA MIA early ph 7 'broch' early C AD

evidence

for

bone and antler

shaft

Record no -- ----------------21 20 2.9 16.73 14.30 1710,1716-17, 1719 Phase I A Cheardach Mor 348 ?LIA Late phase 7 Howe LIA 12 Phase 718 Howe LIA 4 Howe Phase 8 LIA 10 Phase I Buckquoy 66 early 7C AD Phase 4c Pool LIA 1544-45 Phase 5d Pool 1504,1507.1511, Interface Site 2 Skaill 230 Interface Phase 9 Howe 27 ?Xorse 906-9,932-33, V phase I Tarlshof Ist 9 9C 956-57.964,976 69 Phase III Buckquoy early 9C AD Saevar Howe 194-96 Phase Ilb 9C AD 74 Buckquo7 Phase IV ?9110C AD 946-49,981.987 JOC V phase III late 9learly Jrarlshof 141 Drimore IOC Norse house late 9learly Brough of Birsay 52 late 9-2nd 0 JOC Lower Norse 217-18,221-23 11C AD Site 2, midden I Skaill probably 1936 Whithorn 11-12C AD 1551 Pool Phase 6c 11-13C 1547-48,1550 936,1025 Tarlshof V phase V2TI 13-14C AD - 63 -

Site ----------------Howe Howe Howe Bu Howe Clickhimin

- Chapter

5-

5.4.2 the Tip . it

Type b:

the

Shaft

has Straight

Parallel

Sides,

Tapered

only

at

No

chronological in all

significance levels (table

can be placed 7a-b), as

on this even

shaft

type metal

as

occurs show.

the 'few

examples table

7a: Summary of dating

evidence

for

metal

shaft

type

Date of context Context -----------------------------MIA Phase 3 LIA Phase 8 late 9-2nd 0 JOC Lower Norse late 9-2nd 0 10 Middle Norse 11-12C AD Upper Norse 2nd Af 10-12C

Site ----------Crosskirk Howe Brough of Brough of Aithorn Brough of for

--- ----Birsay BIrsa7 Birsa7

Record no ----------------1624 167 1929 1931 1943,1954 1930,1932

table 7b: Summary of dating type b Date of context ---------------c6-5C BC LIA LIA LIA LIA LIA LIA 6 -7C AD late 7C early 7C AD ?6C AD early 8C AD late 8C AD -? Interface Context

evidence

bone and antler

shaft

Site - -------------- ----- -- ---'IA farmstead' Clickhimin Pool Phase 4a Pool Phase 4dle Pool Phase 4S Howe Phase 7 Phase 8 Phase Phase Phase Phase Phase Phase Pictish III 1A 5c I ja 11

Phase 5d

Interface Ist 9 9C AD

Site 2 V Phase I

?early 9C AD Phase 1`11 late 9-2nd 9 JOC Lower, Norse late late 9-2nd 0 10C Middle Norse 9learly 10C V phase III

Record no -- - ---- ----------------1706 1524 1477,1540 1500,1559 7-6,16-17,23, 28 Howe 3,5-6,11,22, 24 A Cheardach Xbor 352-53,357-58 Dundurn 1795-96 Pool 1478,1533 Buckquoy 67-68 Saevar Howe 189 Buckquoy 72 Brough of Birsa7 36,45-46,1842, 1848 Pool 1505-6,1509. 1515,1522,15.05, 1528,1531-32, 1538,1558 1561 62,1564 Skaill 231 Jarlshof 907,913,916, 922,924,929-30, 942,965 62 Buckquoy Brough of Birsa7 1826,1847,186768 Brough of Birsa7 47,62,1915 979,984,993, Tarlshof 64 -

- Chapter

5-

late 91ear17 IOC late 9C AD ?early IOC AD 11-13C 11-13C 11-13C 11C AD ? 13C AD 13-14C AD Norse

Drimore Norse house Phase Ilc Saevar Howe Phase V Buckquoy Phase 6bi Pool Phase 6bil Pool Phase 7 Pool Skaill Site 4 V phase VI Jarlshof V phase VII Jarlshof Site 2, midden 2 Skaill has a Pronounced fairly metal Norse Mark the Swelling

1033 142,1778-79 192-93 90 1554 1535,1537,1560 1527,1536 235-6 955,961 939 228-29,234

5.4.3 Middle

Type c: Expanded

Shaft

(Entasis)

Around

its

shafts

are dated are all

common on metal, versions (table (880) are 8a). rare,

antler but

and bone such there which dated are had f led

pins.

Unfortunately as exist, pins from

examples moulds swollen examples Examples LIA for

However,

Mote of is for

and Dunadd (1283) that the from are 8b). Broch

shafts, are

and there LIA,

possibility 1315

some unstrati of to both from

example levels (1731) of for the is

Burrian. late the

made of

bone and antler and Norse

material (table

specific

('Pictish') at but dating

An example grounds date a later

wheelhouse earlier, overall

Clickhimin the form

on stratigraphic

possibly the

head suggests

within

bracket

the wheelhouse

phase.

table
Date

8a: Summary of dating


of context Context --------------

evidence
Site -----

for

metal

shaft

type

c
no

Record

----------------

Phase 8 LIA 9C AD V phase I Ist .4 9-2nd M IOC Lower Norse late 11-12C AD Norse Area III

7- 7 ----Howe rarlshof Brough of k1bithorn Brough

-----------------------1811 1056,1058-5.9 Birsay 1923 1939-40,1942, 1945-53,1955-60 1928 of Birsay

table 8b.- Summary of dating type c Date of context ---------------MIA c3-8C AD early 7C AD late 7C Context

evidence

for

bone and antler

shaft

Site ---------------------------Howe Early phase 7 Clickhimin 'wheelhouse' Buckquoy Phase I Pool Phase 5b - 65 -

Record no -- -------- -- 15 1731 92 1497

- Chapter
7-? 6C AD late 8C AD-? Phase Pictish I

5-

Dunollie Brough of Birsay Pool Jarlshof Buckquoy Buckquoy Saevar Howe Brough of Birsa7 Brough of Birsay

Interface Ist M 9C AD

Phase 5d V phase I III IV Hc Norse Norse

?early 9C AD Phase ?9110C AD Phase late 9C AD Phase late 9-2nd m JOC Lower late 9-2nd AgIOC Middle

late glearly late 91earl7 11-12C AD Norse

10 Norse house IOC V phase III Site D

Drimore Jarlshof Aithorn Brough of Birsay

1309 1820,1835-37, 1841,1865,1868 1479,1482,1487, 1502,1514,1523 944, 914,926, . 995 78 73,61,86,94 190-91 1844,1846,1864, 1866 41,47,1917, 1919-20 1780 989,1015,1027 1935,1937 1840

Whilst Cool 1983)

swollen there is

shafts in

are

a common Roman feature no suggestion function Fig 22 reveals swollen are that (except that

(for the

example Scottish

certainly

examples

are related length groups;

any manner but bone

where the pin on the basis pins around has form two 40-49mm

can be shown to be a Roman import). of pin metal, bone and antler versions be then are

and antler

shaft usually It that to

discrete long, above, invariably confirmed, examples. swelling for than

examples

whilst and

metal will longer with It is

70-109mm long. upon below,

been shown pins this of the are is dated

expanded LIA pins

later be metal; context

and more likely by reference that longer the to pins pin hips

few exceptions, to be expected than firm a hip;

the

are likely the are greater obviously

to have a need better can be

rather

the shorter for

a means of swellings.

securing,

which

As a result

of the above several

propositions

made and tested: the - all metal pins with c shafts > 70mm long are Norse (excluding few groups recognised formerly to be distinctively MIA) - all metal pins with c shafts 30-70mm long are pre-Norse - all Taking evidence exception levels There at are to to the bone pins the with c shafts < 70mm long with are pre-Norse there There pin from is is no one Norse known contexts

evidence

of examples the first

contradict the second of Brough

proposition. a 20mm long but this third

proposition, Birsay to (1923), the

may be residual. (41,47,191,

several

exceptions

proposition

- 66 -

- Chapter
1593,1840,1844,1864,1935,1937), that these are all forms evidence residuality the date length as might of (6A, for or bone 6B#,

5-

but 6D,

it 7,8B, in

may

be

no 190) that

coincidence with is arise to very say,

9C, the LIA, fashion is all

considerable the None problems the less, of shafts There shafts eleventh century square tend to pins below

other of

a floruit continuity swollen Nor

of shafts were

again. a good with

not antler

such pins

indicator similar

be hoped. long from on

necessarily is to evidence be rare

(335,702,1320,1491,1917), excavations in stick the later Dublin pins that which expanded span the

early

metal and in

thirteenth the the

centuries, swollen shaft

twelfth/thirteenth from round to

frequently

changes

mid-portion

(6 Rahilly

1973,94).

5.4.4

Type e: Hipped Shafts Hipped shanks occur in both LIA and NP levels; examples which and 1501 from number of examples 9b). certainly the 4g, Pool; there there late table is a three century Whilst Scottish

are only seventh 98).

possible there of

may pre-date phase

AD (1476,1485 are definite a large antler (table

bone examples, (exception

marked absence four possible is

934) only

and only one of the use levels native were Norse stick fashion, serves with to the with

antler

examples

(336,472,1084,1486).

which has a dated of antler that are the in very

context the

As we have seen above, and it recovered they example, cannot from reflect the There is Norse the

much a Norse practice, of bone examples or alternatively if, supplies f or

be discounted

majority fact of the access of hips

residual, to

ethnicity controlling no evidence (Groups pin which f orms).

manufacturer' antler being

Norse

(97.3.3). which

certainly

made on pins 16,17,20,21,29 shanks Norse, the are

are distinctively and most metal-only

1C, 9D, 13,14B, If adopted nature

hipped

a peculiarly this native often slipping. of a couple

native

was not the Norse shanks, are

by the of

then

information interaction goes in All of

illuminate incoming hipped shanks from The

subsequent Decoration

population.

tandem dated late

an added means of impeding with the exception (227), no hipped as the - 67 which pins sixth

hipped

pre-Norse (1480) that

examples 9c). latest is

Pool fact

and Skaill there extend are as far

may be residual at Howe where to mid seventh

(table the

phases may only

century

- Chapter significant. Metal possible proportions 715) activity) Links from on hipped the pins basis occur of that in head

5-

some numbers. form (see

However, and (form suggests

it

is

below) pin

overall 8B*e*; LIA

(see above) Buiston

a decorated (where flattened

nail-headed material

Crannog

other

and a transversely

rectangular c/e

head from Freswick short length lower often pin shafts 1060,

Ge? -*; 778) are pre-Norse (in addition to from Kildonan: 394,8B#; Bernera Sands: 332,8B* The Buiston a rare pin (715) of is, on the basis pin is of

and Tarlshof: its

9A).

and form section noted on

of head,

example

a LIA hipped section; longer this

where the a trend

of the shaft eleventh table

has a polygonal century

to thirteenth

metal for

pins. type

9a: Summary of dating Context

evidence Site

bone shaft

Date of Context
?LIA LIA LIA

Record no
1047 1476,1485,1501 1484.1490.

wheelhousel passage house Phase 4S Phase 5c

late

Jarlshof Pool Pool

LIA early 6C AD late 6C AD -?

Phase 718 Phase II Pictish

Howe Buckquo7 Brough of Birsa7

Interface

Phase 5d

Pool Jarlshof Brough of Birsa7 Brough of Birsa7 V phase III Buckquo7 Buckquo7 Brough of Birsa7 Skaill Pool Brough of Birsa7

V phase I Ist 9 9C AD late 9-2nd 0 IOC Lower Norse


late 9-2nd A JOC Middle late 9learly IOC ?.9110C AD Phase Norse IV

?early IOC AD late 10-12C AD IIC probably 11-13C Morse

Phase V Site VII Phase 6c Area III

1492,1496,1499 19,25 65,68-69 37,40,43,161619,1822-23, 1830,1634,1839, 1843,1851, '1652, 1854-55,1858-61, 1863,1867,186970,1873-75, 1878, 1660,1862 1481,1483,1494, 1498 926,1048 38-39,42,1853, 1856-57,1672, 1861 1831 larlshof, 934 71,75-76,79, 83-84 96-97 1782 227 1480 1877,1879

68 -

- Chapter

5-

table type e

9b: Summary of dating

evidence

for

possible

antler

shaft

Site Date of context Context ------------------------------------------------------------------Pool Phase 5C late 7C

Record no 1466

table antler

9c: Summary of dating shaft type e Context


Phase Phase Phase 11C 4g 5C 5d

evidence Site
Pool Pool Pool Skaill

for

decorated

bone and Record no


1476,1485 1484 1494 227

Date of context
LIA late 7C Interface probably

As a result last thirty years do appear 287). late Scotland 1955a, in the

of in is

the

above survey produced data the

It to

can now be noted show that century for at the hipped AD (pace their Pool

that pins

the in

have

about a large century evidence being

seventh but

Stevenson popularity is there a

There seventh with

body of onwards, for a

evidence only

dated

sequence

possibly until

earlier Norse

circulation. arrived and

These pins potentially feature British Conquest 64.40).

were still afterwards.

manufactured in

As Stevenson which Isles is in

had

observed to

1955, but

hipped they

shanks and Norse

are

not

a the

confined (for

Scotland, Early latter

occur

throughout

Anglo-Saxon, the brief

Christian see and

and postfig

contexts The

MacGregor is on based personal

1985,121, on a literature

following not there

discussion

search, -inevitably with Seamus Ross. In although examples England not

exhaustive. a few

communications hipped,

are

late

Roman pins from to this England

which fine

are

necessarily

short.

Examples

York, category. until short Prior

of a ram and dove, popular

may belong

zoomorphicHipped pins the end of had made an and had a in the Thus hipped

were never- very the seventh in in the

in Anglo-Saxon although other

about pin AD 625, to

century, the

for ms of in

appearance flo, rult

archaeological and ninth pins Germanic

record forms

about

eighth

centuries. are burials

this,

post-Roman pins occur

period, in

current. dating to

a number of

Anglo-Saxon - 69 -

the

latter

- Chapter the

5-

part

of

seventh they

century appear UH

(Matthews at the

'and

Hawkes in 1979, Middle fig the

1985,99).

In

domestic such as

contexts at (which

earliest the

Saxon levels, 136.46) and

Northampton does not 1969, bone fig fig or

Williams

Southampton

antedate 26.2-6,9 metal pin to

end of

seventh of pin Cheddar

century; varies Palace, set Abbey

Addyman and Hill from the mundane Rahtz linked and Somerset; of three

and 10). (for the

The form example

1979, pins fig

94.18)

elaborate

eighth pl from

century

from Witham (Wilson alloy 41). might zoomorphic The latter favour from

1964,132-34, examples are date,

18) or the

silver (Huggins their the their

copper length metal

Waltham Norse,

1976,

possibly in

although with with 11)

short longer typical

a pre-Norse York

comparison fig

versions section hipped range fig the

(Waterman

1959,

square date

shafts, variety

which of pins in at the

are assumed to be Norse. occurs in contexts Examples to eighth site unusual this with occur centuries of Lagore 'toilet a at England. sixth

In Ireland broadly Ballindery AD (Hencken (Hencken implements' shafts). Warner similar II,

to Anglo-Saxon reoccupied

a crannog 1942, fig fig

22.489) 104-5; in

and have

the

classic the

1951, in There (1986) of

addition

note to

103 which

unique, that

sometimes backdate Hencken's seventh

multi-hipped site, but 1951 600 by the

have been recent has convincingly

attempts argued

original century,

suggestion AD at the

a start times

in the earlier still in the stands

part

of the The site and is

earliest,

good.

was destoyed presumed

Norse several about the turn

tenth'century

abandoned by hipped

of the millennium. knows of no Manx nor absent from Dinas Welsh examples of pins Powys: Alcock 1987b).

The writer (they'are notably

5.4.5

Comparison Fig

of Pin Length that

and Shaft on the

Type of pin length metal and pins the -metal

22 illustrates pins'form York

basis

bone hipped are rare levels at at Dublin

two distinct they are fairly 1959)

groups. common in the long

Although

in Scotland

the Anglo-Scandinavian and medieval and the here hip levels is not

(Waterman

and in

Norse pins,

(6 Rahilly for

1973). lack of is

These are length; than

a compensation which long requires pin,

either

we have swelling

a fashion for a

more security the hip

a simple

can provide

or else

a form of added decoration. - 70 -

- Chapter Bone hipped favouring constitutes fastening record above tested: to which bone hipped are either shafts residual all are the

5-

pins

nearly

all LIA

fall is

between

20-69mm, but

definitely that this secure

40-49mm range. distinct (pins

There

no question of short pins

a very

group

where

was essential until circa

< 50mm do not appear comm S Ross). propositions a distinctively the hipped

in the Anglo-Saxon As a result of the and

625 AD: pers a number of

observations

can LIA

be proffered form,

exceptions for in

into

NP or can be accounted with that shafts Is

another

manner, this Is

therefore

groups trend

were present

in the LIA that such a strong there a good If argument

groups

without

any hipped are but

examples

did not exist e the form

in the LIA a group LIA

- swollen includes c shafts development pin

shafts

used in

LIA and NP contexts. of Is very either

no examples

must be a post miscellaneous) e shafts

(unless

the group represented examples is of AD in date proposition

groups-without century first

c or irrefutable:

can be the 3E, 4,

pre-seventh The following 5,6A,

virtually current in

thus, 3A, IIA, 3B, IIB,

groups

were definitely

the

LIA: 10,

6B, 6C. 6D, 6E. 7.8A.

8B, 9A. 9B, 9C. 9E.

14A,

19,23,24A.

24B. 24C, 25.27,28,30,34,36. proposition pin is not would so secure. not have On the basis of in it the

Thesecond the LIA, IA. following and are IB, IC,

stick therefore,

groups with disc

been current distinctively

a few exceptions, fillet, kidney spiral, with their fillet. contexts

Norse:

2.12,13,14B, butterfly, small

16,17,20,21,22.29,31,32,33, ring, lobed, with mushroom, fillet,

astragaloid, open disc,

dome,

inturned

lozenge

rectangle however, occurs the in

with there

fillet is

and triangle evidence Pool, from is

For some groups, to refute this: 1C

ph 4c at century Howe (30) (67) and Dunollie

which

probably 12 occurs

seventh

AD (1544);

LIA, - although pre-dating in many LIA levels, for 16A occurs In possible LIA levels. 1531,1538, is an unusual last LIA at in

example levels Buckquoy 1548); LIA pin at

(1307)

and Howe (8,31); (1547); (1545;, Interface:

and Pool Pool

17A occurs but

1525,1530,, there

and 22 is The third

a very

miscellaneous

group,

from Golspie. proposition overlaps - 71 considerably with the one,

- Chapter but includes those

5-

only this

groups 1A, with with to

which have swollen Norse. 1B, fillet, fillet

shafts

but no hips, falling

and must therefore into category disc spiral, groups in

be distinctively are head rectangle have

Groups

possibly

12,13,16,17,20,21,22,29, lobed, mushroom, with which (1511); and the at levels Pool at small fillet. dome, The

astragaloid, inturned following this

and triangle associations evidence Clickhimin LIA the levels Interface cited at Pool

chronological the and the Interface IA Mhor; '16 levels at 1C from at

(sometimes

addition

contradict 1A from above); 1B from the wheelhouse (1544); 12 and MIA and at The that is

EIA levels BA levels levels occurs levels Birsay at in

at Bu (1623) at Howe (21), A Cheardach all levels;

occurs in

Pool at Pool

at Howe; 17 occurs (1848); The and 22. fourth is that

LIA and Interface Is with the neither In theory of context least

proposition pin groups 14B, butterfly to be, ffA.

sustainable. e shafts, skeuomorphs, is not there

suggestion groups IC, and indeed conceived contradictory But, several to

c or ring this is

2,3D,

and kidney

can be, is

are likely idea;

such an 111only than

when the evidence evidence from group

sought ring

14B and kidney this

skeuomorphs. is further Taken by ascribe pin

of the be LIA by the

other or small

groups NP, and

have been shown by means other misrepresentation in to each group, reliably

context itself, forms to

exacerbated this

number of examples is not it sufficient seems to

proposition ICA,

the that

although

be an additional then.

means of

confirming 5.4.6

groups

1 and 2 were extant of Shaft little

Conclusions Shaft types

on the Evidence a and both metal examples evidence would b bear both tend was to shafts are points

Types chronological the significance. -and the fabric being Norse, LIA or but NP. LIA, Roman

Types c and e, however, main function of Swollen

to be LIA at the earliest, slipping of

impede

secured. The majority fashion, examples, which LIA are (a rule

in Scotland with to they

are nearly

all

bone and antler of

one exception swollen bear no shafts

either being

a late to

which the

suggest Norse,

relationship All metal

only

lement common e. are not'so is

being all

function.

c shafts to be

>70mm long which

shorter for

versions

tending shafts).

steadfast

bone swollen

- 72 -

- Chapter

5-

Hipped before the late late

shanks the

have

af

ixed

chronological at the in They occur

horizon, earliest, contexts they here

not

commencing in may be as -to be that AD, all

early seventh

seventh century. less

century

more commonly which are likely

as the

thirteenth None the

century there

AD, but is still

residual. they

a slight early shanks nearly all

probability ninth are century probably indicator pins

were being never

manufactured in antler.

as late Decorated

as the hipped will

although pre-Norse. preferably pin all short groups

Bone hipped

pins,

which

be <70mm long, of will of Norse less likely

40-49mm, can therefore which were fashionable

be used as a reliable in the LIA. the it Metal absence was

hipped from

be >70mm and later. hipped if pins this if may group this

Less securely, suggest included group difficult. form (f) that

a group

distinctively or

(especially

swollen

shafts), hips).

MIA (particularly high purely element A fifth because it are worked is of

had no swollen

A probable of some groups treatment pins;

residuality

makes the firm

assignation

to the LIA rather type very

of shaft rare, of is

has not received flat in

above these

and examples bone which designs are

are not necessarily section Broch a dated (for

slivers with bold There 4b at are the

occasionally of Burrian; (1493, Mhor and and the,

decorated 1373,1374). from Dun phase Cuier

linear only but

example from from

one example the with examples

context

Pool), associated Broch

A Cheardach (351,365), from

wheelhouses

examples context.

from

of

Burrian

were supposedly

a secondary

5.5 23-27)

FORMS OF STICK

PIN OCCURRING IN ANTLER OR BONE (AND METAL)

(figs

5.5.1

Group This,

1: the

simple

heads of and in all occurs pin in forms, contexts has a widespread the MIA

simplest

chronological to of are levels the

distribution, it occurs with from (1944). flat the

spanning A single EIA

NP where shaft

numerous top (1A)

contexts. comes at from Pool

example there Norse example

a plain dated at

Bu

(1623), and earliest

and the

examples Whithorn

Interface Form 1B is 73 -

(1511) the

common;

- Chapter is from the 1BA1 phase IV at fort at Clickhimin, at A Cheardach phase 7 at being the

5-

Howe (21), the broch Mhor

there contexts

are at

several Keiss latest fewer fourth

from (797)

the and

'Iron the

Age'

wheelhouse 1C, the

(346-47). There

The are latest

'dated' examples century Viking

examples of AD finds phase III IC is 160; other in

comes from earliest dominate at Jarlshof

Howe (15).

from Covesea where second to (744) and the

assemblage (981).

from

Such a simple a distinct 1981.20) Roman sites, to during

form needs no outside her the

inspiration, noted from

although

form

Roman form in bone and metal, study of pins to have

by Crummy (1979, and ten Some of probably Is no

Colchester 50-200 AD. very there

a date range of circa stained

the early an

Roman examples

were apparently copper alloy taper are

green, but

attempt of this On the'

emulate

examples,

evidence length 1B with Cheardach

in Scotland. shafts end. either There (for gradually over examples the of is whole 1A and at A

whole the

or

towards swelling Mhor:

a few rare the a feature

'shafts 345;

example

wheelhouse which

phase

phase 7 at Howe: 15), 1985,116). of

unknown

in Roman versions Several from Dunadd

(MacGregor versions

metal (1290),

1A and 1B exist, of LIA date, derive

including the

a mould Broch of

presumably which

and- from from

Burrian context

an example (1317). Decoration is of

can be presumed to

a secondary lines and 767,

always

simple (for

and example

confined 744 from

to

Incised

around Freswick

the

top

the' shaft

Covesea,

Links).

5.5.2

Group 2: There are

1-4 transverse only three

grooves examples (799),

beneath of this

a conical form. example S Uist

head one from an No The purely only

unspecified phase 9 at comment can group shares

context

at Ness broch basis

a metal these

from post-IA (1209).

Howe, and an unstratified be made on the similarities (seven with of

example

from

limited

examples. being 13 is

group

13, the distinction reels. a single to But again, example

technical, a small specific

related group context Britain

to the width examples) typologically (1888;

of the and only

comes from a In the

LN at the Brough of Birsay). similar group both 2 exists metal Made in and bone,

A Roman form south of

and on the

continent.
74 -

- Chapter it with type spans Vc, the late in first the late to

5-

century part

the

mid

fourth

century

AD, but 1983,

a floruit 'simple

of the grooved

second century head').

AD (Cool

horizontally was stained 1-5 reels

A Roman bone example

from Colchester

green beneath of

(Crummy 1979,21).

5.5.3

Group 3: This is

head 13 examples is of where the 24; heads vary by the its single 'disc but

a small

group the

all depth

have and

a reel profile flat

underneath from

(which collars - for

distinguished group

width, reel heads

should

also

be distinguished in profile

from a fillet,

which is

a sub-triangular group in

projection, with dating fillets').

example the metal head tenth (42) to the

A single from the Two Norse decorated

example second with

with half

a round of the less

occurs twelfth heads,

a context century AD. only The at the hip the

examples, examples with

more or both

spherical with

are

(38,80);

are covered

overall'

dots. context but its

one example Birsay (35).

a melon head comes from other pin with 34 (504) and likewise There century is

an unstratified has no context, reels

The only group 28, the this. form

a melon head comes under

miscellaneous suggests with

a LIA date. 'bucket early in

Group 3E, vase heads with heads'. eighth (88),

under, from

overlaps a dated not have 5) by

group

one example and group

context

28 does

supplement This swollen is

has Roman antecedents. (Crummy 1983,24). into into two types, a stilted where the the those conical resulting to the

Examples

of

3A tend

to

shafts

Crummy's equivalent where head conical the reels fig (1983,

of 3A (type are formed 21.400,404) to

sub-divided grooves

cutting

and a second been trimmed distinction 24)

group after is not

head appears fig 21.397).

have This

grooves the

have been cut present

Ubid

applicable

study.

Crummy (1983, derive from a

shows that half of fourth of late series probable Examples MacGregor range,, period. dispersed from this coin

22 examples

from Colchester layers, date

century hoard

occupation with

which of

a closing suggest

included a , 360 AD. circa floruit. this the I date Roman

and other points

sites to

a fourth corroboration

century for

(1985,116) does not

further 'that

and

consider

this, form

survives

- 75 -

- Chapter
5.5.4 Group This to the at bone shaft which and is 4: Reel heads group where

5-

a simple and the antler the is

a single from nail

reel heads

lies

perpendicular 8) by the in nine the the

distinguished head emerges

(group They are and

angle both in

from (12

the

shaft. in

found bone, from from

and metal bone at

examples come from

antler

metal). ILIA] at

Only

examples Birsay Of

dated

contexts; (85) a couple belong and

Pictish Interface unspecified second are

horizon Pool contexts fourth

(1834) the metal

and Buckquoy examples probably has century was being at exact of is the

(1481). at century late 6). third That century from have

come from between the which

Traprain AD.

Law, This

but form

and

Roman antecedents levels made in Mote of is clay at

dated

to 1983, to all

the type

and this is this

fourth form

Colchester in the

(Crummy late

metal Mark not floor

sixth

eighth

witnessed site, its vicinity

(879). known, area from

As with but which a Norse is

material to

context the also

presumed also

been

in

the

produced at

diagnostic Freswick related

E-ware. Links (2006). is

There

an example

context

A possibly has the with of the nail-like heads

Roman form metal or circular groove bone

Cool's

type

IV

(1983) to the

which shaft,

heads generally

in

set in

perpendicular outline, (dating , and to

being

often first

decorated quarter

a simple second

radiating to the mid

pattern century

the

fourth

AD)

5.5.5

Group 5: This rare is are

reel form

and bead head has produced top only eight in the to Scottish of to Of or examples, all Members of this and bottom, underneath late eighth found to the at least one group 3 where seven century bone AD

either the

bone or antler. enclosed only

group consist contrast bead. ninth ELIAI

bead which reels

the tenth

examples, (37,86), of Birsay

two date and three (1868-70).

belong

to the Pictish antler must

horizon

at the Brough Covesea, Norse 'period, the assemblage with overall

The single material fourth

example date to

comes from the

and on the- basis although from the dots. A similar than one bead, is date range second cave. to

of

alone

century versions

AD finds (37.502)

dominate

Decorated

are covered

form occurs and the lowest the same as for

in Roman contexts bead is reel heads

where there

may be more The

sometimes

baluster-shaped.

(Crummy 1983,24).

- 76 -

- Chapter 5.5.6 Group 6: variations This element there is group comprises head. in spherical a large

5-

heads of pins which have a single group 24 where

class are the

The sub-divisions collar

same as for

an additional heads varies

beneath

the head.

Group 6A: ball This There antler are form

from of

the

perfectly

spherical or moulds, dated

to

the

crude. are

43 examples

which

8 are metal Pool

and three to

and must be Norse. phases at the at AD on the horizon are also basis

The earliest of C-14 dates. (1482) of

securely (1485,1524), There is

bone examples eighth from the

come from century Interface ELIAI there

4a and 4S at

seventh an example

same site the Norse

and seven examples Birsay

from the Pictish However,

Brough examples from It is

(1841,1860-65).

from

and Jarlshof. this range None of the Burrian the form 24A, which

An example (1301). tend the

Buckquoy, -the Brough of Birsay DOn an Fheurain does not contradict to compare the date range of and come from LIA contexts come from Historic useful (but contexts, to the note the although broch, second and to from group

interesting

to have hips examples Is

metal

example

(1315) should that

supposedly

secondary

Dunadd example century is

be Early

fourth

AD examples suggests

from Traprain). this

The mould evidence, with (1947). ornate (750; fig Britain

Dunadd (1133) 8 and there Worthy inset with

form must be contemporary is

a Norse example from Whithorn of specialcomment a this fourth of this form is

particularly

example 6.21). from 1983), in

amber from Caird's to the

Cave. near Rosemarkle for the

There are Roman antecedents the early fourth second end of at Colchester century

form in south century

AD (Cool

although the dated its

metal

versions This the

form were only cannot also found the in

found

levels,

and bone examples includes the continent.

be conclusively jet, and is a Saxon

pre-200 between

AD (Crummy 1983). distribution the end of

overall

However there Middle

break period

Roman period again (Caple this can form

until 1986,26) In

when this MacGregor

form appears (1985)

discusses

Anglo-Saxon up

contexts tothe

and

believes

that

some continuity

be demonstrated

Norman period.

77 -

- Chapter Group 6B: This metal. Norse. seventh LIA date ball is heads with flat tops

5-

a common form of which versions are are rare, the but

57 examples when they

survive occur in

in are

bone and obviously

Antler

Bone versions century is

most common, appearing Shaft types

dated

post

and Norse contexts. length whether are likely this that is the to

are most commonly c a bone. hipped prior also Metal metal to the

or e, and where the likely >70mm long indicate

<70mm (the material

norm) one can assume that is metal but or

examples examples Norse, this Further Clatchard eighth, pins tops form

be Norse,

short, metal (which

form was also evidence with 8;

made in

as witnessed for

by the

of contexts group the

show that Dunadd). (880,884), to

was contemporary this form Craig (1814-15) late sixth,

mould

1286 from Mark

moulds

come from

Mote of and it

and Dunadd (1274) century do not 1797 horizon,

confirming insets glass likely

a seventh was these in their

possibly (the

metal flat

which

were often contents 750

much elaborated,

some with but the

of which

survive, are in to and head. iron

and amber - cf materials), this pin form

Rosemarkie and/or

and Dundurn decoration

most

incised

on shaft

Unusually

seems also

to have been manufactured group versions tendency 6B is of to related the

at Dunadd (1274). 24B, which not consists a collar, these bone and to a LIA of having

Obviously more elaborate but a greater

group

same form,

only

be decorated. contexts,

Unfortunately the length all

none of of

examples metal date,

come from is Is

useful

although

examples, and there Links

as well

as the as it

existence is

of hips, this.

point

no evidence unusual

to contradict image is form bear

Example 758 from representation of a

Freswick thistle

a pre-Norse rare.

and any form of naturalistic Crude metal versions of this form GT5 (1986), squashed Ball

some similarities pins with

with flattened

Caple's or slightly

Roman and Saxon metals

spheres. heads points In (39). an and to this being a LIA at form, but hipped and

Group 6C: Half Most examples the

evidence

have been found of Birsay from

Norse There

contexts is only

Saevar

Howe (190) possible The both

B. rough

a single <70mm long,

antler of factors

version shafts heavily

(334) are

unknown all

context are

on Uist.

majority

hipped

examples

suggesting

a LIA context. - 78 -

- Chapter Group 24C, ball and Norse contexts, A similar century Group 6D: This late century e), but date but heads with the hips (Caple form

5-

collars, again

are favour

found

at

Birsay origin.

in

LIA

a pre-Norse

metal range.

1986 type HHD has a ninth

to tenth

Globular is

heads common form to the NP, The majority length (31 examples) although possibly hailing early date is from the

a fairly onwards (1500).

seventh

seventh (some favoured, for

at Pool

of examples a pre-Norse there be excluded.

have c shafts Is more evidence There form, is

and where these longer versions continued that

are <70mm in do exist, longevity was a this exist. occurs

and although cannot

a LIA date, no evidence decorated

as yet and no in

particularly in

favoured

examples

A similar mid-late

bone form

Roman contexts

and as metal

Saxon contexts

(Caple

1986, GTO

Group 6E: Globules Only with antler, hipped either so four c they

with

flat of

examples or

heads this form,

a variation

on 6D, -exist, examples although

all are the

However, half e shafts. of these , in the NP, were being manufactured toadditional earlier circulation.

example

points

5.5.7

Group 7: Facetted Of the 15 examples the Western

cuboids listed, Isles, seven are metal although versions linear (for the feature, none of with. a distribution these has any direct with ring and and in

confined dating dot (for

to

evidence. example the

The metal 1129) or

may be decorated example shaft to is 765) further facetted

ornament,

some of both of the

examples These

(1670,1761)

a decorative pin. (the

and functional

and milled, impede slipping

and a post LIA date is metal pins are long, late). Examples decorated is also peculiarly obvious milling brambling Links, with ornament, such as 577 from Freswick are related to the terminals are tenth are both Cool V; of century loose at ring-headed the earliest polyhedral (Fanning 4; heads, 1983a). which Metal fig fashion in Scotland facetted 20,

pins

a Roman (Crummy 1979 type 1983 type XVID 1986 type - 79 GD, but

1983.22-23,

nos 356-94; 1973 type

and Anglo-Scandinvian there is

(Laing

Caple

no suggestion

- Chapter of continuity to 12). 117) angled ring both thirteenth between century of the lower a florult (for later of while in example

5-

the

fourth

century

and the 1959, fig (MacGregor

eighth 11.7. 1985,

York: are

Waterman smaller generally is often

The heads and the

examples the

surface

head the

is

more sharply decorated with in the

than

on Roman pins, (Mann 1982,8). bone

face

and dot LIA

The Scottish and Isles.

examples in

are

not and length

decorated, undated

and contexts two

appear in distinct

NP contexts The evidence This in

Orkney of the pin

Western groups likely some of a distinct, that before although

suggests the

(20-59mm and 90-129mm), to be bone. these bone examples earlier are NP they (he are Continent at pins,
8: forms

shorter the

versions with

of which presence

are more on

combination suggests MacGregor

of hips

bone examples (1985,117)

may represent believe occur

trend.

does not Birsay

there the

any firmly

dated to

post-Roman have

bone examples the from

which

appears not this

missed

example),

represented form is 1972). Jankuhn

major in

Scandinavian

settlements. On the manufacture decorative known bone, metal and (moulds unusually for for Hedeby: Waller

In wood (Hedeby:
Nail of heads nail head are

1943, Abb 72)

5.5.8

Group Both

common throughout

the

whole

of

the

Atlantic

Province.

Group 8A: Expanded nail This and copper they two common form alloy.

heads has 92 examples enough also the appear and is antler in the made In pins antler, appear In bone the

Naturally Bone examples the

Norse contexts.

LIA levels

are more likely groups pins than Hipped a Norse Eight from on are this, pins

The group to be short. (< and basis of length more likely and metal are rare, to pins be bone. tend also

as a whole Antler to fall that

where divides into and are the the

> 70mm long), pins into this

shorter shorter range. usually

rarely longer

which also

may indicate extant Traprain half of

was more five from AD.

fashion,

although

in the LIA. known. Law, the There are

metal

examples the

and two moulds are contexts to first - 80 at

examples

unspecified

presumably fifth century

somewhere between

second

- Chapter The only Clickhimin belong suggest to that There are from metal. the 'context' (1732). a period this are as such is Moulds around decorated the for

5-

an example Dunadd seventh with of from to

from

the

wheelhouse very AD,

at

from the

(1279,1292) ninth this

probably and

century four two ninth

form is nine

contemporary

forms 8B, 6A and 6B. form, of which Clickhimin,

examples example

They Interface

include at Pool

examples century Norse

(1509.1513)

and an early

example levels

from Jarlshof at Jalshof

(964).

An undecorated shank (1048).

example from early

has a hipped

Group 8B: marked expanded head This examples contexts. there shorter are 6). there rare, are than a group small shares

, with antler prevalent LIA dated group and in 8A. hail Of the from 79 are of Norse levels-, tend for to be LIA

many similarities

proportion

Bone versions rare examples Norse majority dated

were with ones. of

also

earlier

hips

and dated However,

examples examples a long Whithorn

the

and the

dated for

bone examples example with comes from

come from collar (1935)

Norse (985where as is

contexts,

where variants

occur.

A particularly are four Metal

unusual

example

projecting are for

knobs below the head. relatively from numerous moulds are sixth late (17 examples),

versions

the

evidence

manufacture Mark mould horizon

(10 examples). associated to eighth with

Both

the

Dunadd and Mote of providing Metal come from diameter Howe. There a general Traprain heads.

fragments the

E-ware, AD.

in

century

examples

are rarely Law

from dated (666,668,838)

contexts. and examples but to

The earliest have unusually 1809 from rest of

examples large 7 at

The same applies dated

phase

These examples no later heads. (1624) from

seem to be distinct versions 3 of

from the

the group. examples Crosskirk decorated forms and little where are pin tenth

are have finer example example its

as such, the broch. '

most -other may be the

A possible phase

exception

to this

This

later seems to have more in common'with investigation. is worth further exact context with of Roman forms the to head this metal (for is latter example large; fashion. from Cool the diameter

nicely decorated It

beers IV)

comparison the

1983 type Law

Traprain Whilst

pins

presumably is of the the only

related

the Crosskirk context, or early

decorated

example

a 'dated' late ninth

several

decorated

bone pins

have come from - 81 -

- Chapter century example decoration levels from bears Jarlshof levels

5-

at LIA

(984-86,1779), at Pool (1484), The motifs 1973 type 9A. pin a pin

and but

there

is

a single the piece length the

unfortunately

little

comparsion. pins (Laing group alloy and

on the Crosskirk and 715 and its B? ). (1974,70)

have much in is compatible decoration comparisons the Broch Clickhimin not basis fully

common with with between

such as 332,398

a LIA date of

Compare also

on metal pins Burrian

MacGregor from from the

draws at at is

a copper (1316) 1 have not or

a secondary wheelhouse pin, on but Clickhimin

context levels which available

of

(1732). illustrated there is

examined to

described reason

by Hamilton,

evidence of Crosskirk a little

little

MacGregor's pin with

comments, the Clickhimin

On the assume they are related. 0984,116-17) Fairhurst compares the example, although his discussion is

confused: it undoubtedly came from the horizon of a samian Although sherd and a fragment of Roman glass ... during the pin ... may have been lost casual in Early Christian times, and use of the site the in become incorporated stratification the context itself seemed secure subsequently, horizon close and would suggest a chronological Certainly to that example. of the Clickhimin the Crosskirk object pin is the only portable from the site as a whole to which a date as late be AD could century possibly as the eighth ascribed Several of the nail of large an inset the held heads had insets, from most of these Pool that (1484). it , too being metal a bone example Howe pin The concave may have

with

the

exception of

surface originally

suggests

Mould evidence

with the yellow paste. and was filled suggests that form 8B was also contemporary

with

8A, 6B and 9A (1287-88) 5.5.9 Group 9: Transversely This head forms shaft Birsay bird for on group is probably but the flattened related depth heads to group of this these is 19 where similar, shape the from

may exist, which they probably Curle

no narrower its

than

stand. belongs other

An unusual to decorative 17.

miscellaneous group, profile

mould

(1965)

evoking thesite,

heads as used in example

attachments

made at

1982, illus

- 82 -

- Chapter Group 9A: transversely This undoubtedly metal 1936a, is from the form the flattened in disc antler,

5-

heads bone and copper alloy, but

occurs

most striking (621,1060,1095). level of the levels

examples building

are the in front

small

group

of ornate 1060, comes and there

examples 'floor

The Jarlshof

example, of

room 11 (A 0 Curle context,

264) and therefore from later This

has a Norse depositional at Whithorn similarities flattened. swelling motifs. (1939). with

an example

group not

has obvious transversely with

169 from is

Howe (phase they

8),

although

The form at the

related, 1695,

have similar share disc a similar

shafts

a gentle of these the are

mid-part

and they an open

repertoire

design

Likewise

form from Skaill The length of

(Sandwick) all than

may be related. metal pins ranges in from and for length, The real context manufacture the of 67-78mm, which the but majority there is is be this LIA pins, 50-60mm

is of

slightly the

longer

norm for between

bone pins back this

which form

no evidence how far informative. form and at late The decoration billeting, (621) the

to contradict However, seventh disc is to

a LIA or Norse date. can be pushed, is evidence century site for

question cannot of

and here

there ninth

site

Dunadd (1287-88,1292)

sixth

to eighth not the (for

century always edge,

of Mote of Mark (882) on some its form wide of faces milling but or Anglo-

decorated usually

around is normal

example In its circa also Ninian's formed

1095,621). central design

The Orkney with to to only linked similar

example

has some similarities from 1913). a NP hoard, There are

Saxon pins (Maxwell from late Luce eighth

875 AD at Talnotrie, similarities dates Isle hoard

Kirkcudbright terminal the

a brooch Just

Sands which century pins they shanks

Wilson

(1973)

before

AD St originally

(contra

Rynne 1965). At

The Talnotrie 79mm in length

a pair, with the

by a chain.

compare favourably are rare,

this shafts

group. being more that normal. shorter

Hipped There versions is no

swollen

to contradict evidence later. are LIA, longer versions to Stevenson and it pins 1959, (1955a)

hypothesis

Contrary

and Laing to

(1973),

this

was not

common Roman form, disc-headed 1985,119) and York bronze

may even have derived of fig seventh (Peers ninth

from the better century date

known

(MacGregor

such as at Whitby (Waterman

and Radford 1943, fig 13.4 and 7) Laing (1973) sees this group 11.1-3). - 83 -

- Chapter as forming fifth to his type E which

5-

a part eighth of and that the

of

he assigns later

in

Scotland are the

to that

the the

century the H2-3 this AD.

AD on very decoration to which group

weak grounds, not

which than

occupation century, Fowler assigned, to eighth same form, is

brochs

was probably fifth

eighth with date Is fifth

on 621 (fig a or must fall

12) has parallels sixth century the

brooches therefore century

somewhere between

Group 10 is

a collection

of particularly swollen

small

versions shanks;

of this

20-30mm long

and with

or hipped

a LIA date

suggested. flattened which the could Pictish axe heads possibly levels of be Interpreted at this the Brough form as an axeof Birsay are Norse (although 1983 type period known Dublin,

Group 9B: transversely A short derived (1819), form but example

comes from otherwise and tend there all

dated

examples for forms

bold

(913-15,1017) Whilst not XXc), necessarily this

to be long,

example

110-19 mm long.

are varying

transversely

of Roman axe head pins flattened, for example Cool in the Immediately times bone examples in bronze of NP miniature pins

form fell 1985,118). although

from favour In there later are

post-Roman are only from

(MacGregor from Frisia,

parallels types

Aggersborg

and Norway, a function on the

and other in edges the in the

axe are known from Norway have off But it

(Graham-Campbell been ascribed the 'tongues' the

1980,60).

Bronze textile of

axe-headed production,

such

as cutting

cloth of the

(Petersen axe is of this

1951,338). unsure, form is although

otherwise

possible that

symbolism

has been suggested amulets, supposed particularly insecurity

occurrence seventh days of

on'Anglo-Saxon a reflection (Matthews of and

century,

In

the

early on the on the

Christianity

Hawkes 1985,99). A decorated an unstratified 1974, fig variation context 3). theme of Western the Isles axe heads comes from (Close-Brooks and

Maxwell

Group 9C: transversely Of Cuier from 19 examples, None of contexts,

flattened four the but are metal an

pelta/fan metal and one possibly in the antler Lower (Dun are Norse (1620,1749,1923-24) occurs

379). precise

examples example

- 84 -

- Chapter levels the LIA definite mainly at Birsay (1489), antler This exceptions, Roman period form for (1923; Interface versions, had Laing

1973 type

F).

Bone versions levels. metal is

appear

in

(1487-88) shafts, swollen; York

and NP (73) including a LIA date Scottish

There versions,

are no are (with in the

<70mm and are usually a in

suggested. distribution

predominantly 1985,119).

example

and Swindon)

and is

absent

(MacGregor

Group 9D: transversely This and none of Laing headed pins. two groups, (1396) longer and the metal small which class has

flattened has only a useful he on the

crescent 5 examples, context. in of basis two of The form general pin length Broch of which to are his metal, to disc be

approximates there seem to

1973 type

H which

relates

terms

However, shorter pins

such as the hipped pins (for

Burrian

example and the

shorter

metal (for

example Dunadd 1268); Sutherland).

examples

example 904 from Rossal,

Group 9E: transversely This produces AD from hipped only fairly

flattened amorphous

rectangle group there of six examples, or early with all tenth bone, century and in the ninth are

a single

Norse date But which

Jarlshof

(1027).

examples

swollen

shafts

<70mm long

are earlier. triangles the metal examples (779-80; Neither but 1960) of the iron Of the

Group 9F: transversely On the are the a distinct examples basis class from of

flattened pin from Freswick length the

bone and antler have levels, precise Norse

examples. contexts, the

Links

Whithorn version the interior 2 (375),

example at

comes from (1961) the only

while to ninth

possible AD. comes from

Dundurn

may be seventh possible being at Dun Cuier, Norse 1960) in

century

bone examples of the four

pre-Norse

example the the

wheelhouse other

ash spread earliest

of hearth (Buckquoy:

examples

at

71; Jarlshof:

993,939;

Whithorn:

Group 9G: transversely This Western context. very small

flattened group

rounded of of

ends two bone examples which comes from from the

consists neither

Isles

(464,1174)

a specific

- 85 -

- Chapter

5-

Group 9H: transversely Another Pool (1496), small neither

flattened group of of

quatrefoil two examples are very from similar. North Uist (335) and The Uist

which

antler

example is

Norse,

but the Pool example comes from a LIA context. flattened group of forms examples from the

Group 91: transversely This Western context. each face. 5.5.10 Group 10: small See discussion is a small

sub-triangular four Uist, with but

amorphous

Isles,

particularly

North decorated

none comes from chevron

a useful design on

Example 1232 is

a multiple

transversely 9A.

flattened

disc

heads

under group heads of

5.5.11

Group 11: thistle A thistle

head consists being divides and the

a sphere

with

an expansion ornament. this type Regardless on a similar into of

or

disc

above,

possibly

supplemented Scottish robust

by brambling examples ones. of

MacGregor short dating

(1985,120) pre-Norse evidence, Group IIA: all

more

Norse

examples thistle to are

below have been divided

basis.

small

heads Ubid) There it appears are (1032), but two that antler bone a hip) as the is also 1981). a C-14 date not all short from from

Contrary thistle Buiston Norse (1934). thistle heads Crannog contexts

MacGregor pre-Norse. Buckquoy is

versions examples bulb

(695) at

and Jarlshof (76,81;

and with

and Whithorn of the from

The latter consists

particularly projections.

interesting There producing

of eight (GU-1369;

an example Some, but

Jonathon's

Cave, We_mys from levels

of AD 1010not

1164 (960-1230) all

MacKie and Glaister

of the examples

have cross-hatching heads this of class which at are Pool the -86-

or brambling.

Group 11B: long All possibly examples 918)

thistle of (all the to

examples antler from

bone and antler, in Norse

three

of

them Bone (916,

appear theory

horizons). and Jarlshof

Interface contradict

(1514,1516) that this

do nothing

is

a peculiarly

- Chapter Norse form. 919). In metal 5.5.12 some respects (Caple this form is Some examples

5-

are particularly

elaborate to head').

(for

example

similar

an Anglo-Scandinavian

form

1986 group VI,

'baluster

Group 12: Natural This group All bone, as

articulations is feature to a type widespread of throughout the Atlantic of the the

a whole

Province. natural c.

possess usually

minimal a or together.

modification but

only

b shaft,

occasionally

Groups

12A and B will

be discussed

Groups 12A and B: unmodified The degree distal end of the of bone.

and slightly in both this

modified these

pig cases

fibulae. refers to the

modification

The shape of a very forms

particular in all the it very in

bone naturally (MacGregor levels 1985, throughout least in

recommends itself 21). the the all

as a pin, of both Atlantic pin

mundane version are found and is

Dated examples whole of of Early in early

Province, On the

chronologically has its origins It is common in

sensitive the in the

groups. Age,

continent

pre-Roman

Iron

and was subsequently period (MacGregor contexts Anglo-Saxon

Ireland also

Christian to It late as

1985,121). England.

found 66) terps

Roes (1963,

describes and at

type of pin common on Frisian a Scandinavian Schwarz-Mackensen (1976,41-42; Dorestad. quoted in estimates that about one tenth fibulae. these In of all It the Is a were made from pigs' presence of pig

Graham-Campbell bone pins patent

-1980,59) at Hedeby and Birka of the

indication

respective

economies. Group 12C: perforated To discussion a very below. fibulae extent this overlapswith group 16A; see

pig

large

Group 12D: bird Probably consists is none from of very

bone the least inspiring of thin, of all light nearly pin groups, this form

long

lengths

bone, all

one end of which from Jarlshof, but

polished.

There informative

are nine contexts.

examples,

-87-

- Chapter Group 12E: cattle/deer There are a very crude Jarlshof pins in the (1011).

5-

metatarsals few examples levels at of the rare (14) use of these and Norse bones as levels at LIA Howe

Group 12F: sheep/goat There unattractive at Jarlshof 5.5.13 are form (996) five in

u1nae examples the of the use of this early clumsy Norse and LIA at Howe (13) and the

period

Group 13: segmented heads This form, which recalls Anglo-Saxon segmented 2 beads (MacGregor has been discussed

1985,119)

above under group heads into A and B the

5.5.14

Group 14: zoomorphic This group is divided that

on the

basis pins

of Hamilton's the heads tend Norse

(1956,115) to tend

observation

on normal to axis.

'native' shaft,

be arranged

perpendicular with the

whereas

examples are larger style (A horses, as more 1983

to be aligned 1974,29). birds, cats,

Furthermore,

Norse pins Norse

and heavier Ritchie dogs,

and the

carving A wide

displays range of

an essentially animals imaginary are beasts

represented: as well

pigs,

and totally

abstract

forms. pins Later one were a fourth thinly Irish head throughout bronze century the Roman fashion Roman province are date are fig rare, for Armstrong these. (Cool of

Zoomorphic group

XX) scattered more then the ninth

Norththey

West Europe. exist

examples

and where

may be indicated. as a general implements fig 103, 1951,

(1922,81) However, feature where they

suggests zoomorphic at Lagore therefore

century (Hencken

bone pins Crannog

and toilet

a distinctive 105.1306).

may be as early

as 600 or as late

as 1000 AD. to the shaft Kerrera, are (it Lorn. All at made from (1062) has not

Group 14A: animal but

head extends

perpendicular is

The most dynamic unfortunately the interior to its bone or antler of find

example of this precise with the a house context

form comes from unknown. of metal this

either from

exception or its

Jarlshof

adjacent of

wallheads context).

been possible

any more details -88-

Hamilton's

- Chapter dictum date Norse length is the the head to

5-

about not

angle

of

the

shaft

being

indicative

of from

necessarily although factors

correct they to

as many examples could be residual. a definite Curle

have appeared But hips

contexts, are

and pin

pointing

LIA presence. 1982, illus 57).

I have not

examined a mould from Birsay Group 14B: animal There at Jarlshof shorter century prefers pins date are head aligned five examples Howe. 14A. Jarlshof century pin Dublin.

(1968;

with of Their

shaft this long form, all Is from Norse contexts to the a ninth (1980, ' 60) crutchparallels length in contrast suggested

and Saevar of for group the

Hamilton pins, date

(1956,129) but

Graham-Campbell of an associated

an eleventh ringed century

because and points

headed stirrup in eleventh

(1057)

to more recent

Group 14C: miscellaneous There more than is an a strange abstract bone. a high

zoomorphic example

forms from Dundurn of for this an (1795) animal find date, which is little from a 608

representation The context precision

made

coarsely +15, cal

modified

has a tpq of (HAR-2519,

- 30 AD from AD 420-769

wiggle-matched

and between GU-

on the

basis

of two standard

C-14 dates

1042).

5.5.15

Group 15: globular This distinctive

heads form occurs in Scotland in jet or shale,

antler, the

bone and possibly With the possible whalebone. exception, of examples from the Mote of Mark (869) all the Jet/shale examples not be incompatible have not Garry with a second for (130: the having Gurness). jet or to fourth retained With shale century an the iron context. shank, of not are they

would Most

examples from the

evidence unknown Iodrach,

although found in

bone is

exception

an example

examples that

Atlantic

Province,

which

may suggest in

unrelated mainly Shetland decorated Craig in

to bone and antler Orkney, Isles with the

examples occasional

of groups example

15A-D which the

are are found and (the-

Western Scotland

and a few scattered at Buiston

throughout

mainland of

examples the

Crannog

and Mote

Mark,

Clatchard

and Leckie). Otherwise majority of bone and antler


-89-

examples

are found

on

- Chapter broch is and the jet

5-

sites,

examples

which for

are not into

tend

to

be unusual,

that-

they

are in

or decorated, alloy studs

example the Mote of Mark example its fine surface (870), incised horizonal

which lines

has copper (708). Whilst they 1955a,

impressed

and another

from Buiston

which has lathe

encircling

are

generally "native"

accepted type II) 1986). pieces

as

pins this

(f or

example has they that

Stevenson recently may have or just that this (Hencken Traprain Crichle believes found similar collection front held

292-93,

function

been questioned in the

(Close-Brooks

She suggests with perforated argument it

been used as pegged playing stuck ground. occurs fig 22.26 form often 1942,53, Law (1462; there (for in large

boards, is noted

In support

of this

assemblages:

11 from Ballinderry at from least the 14 from Hill in litt of

example and

- with wooden peg); 865-66) and 13 knobs Inglis 1984,57; At Dorested 26 similar

Ralston

Close-Brooks objects 1980, A pl

to be more). with have 26 glass a die come

have been 23), and large from at have 4the

together sets of

(Van Es and Verwers Swedish spheres, at graves.

from

similarly varying

decorated

dimensions

16mm, averaging

9mm, was found Iron shafts,

Newgrange,

concentrated

of the monument (Carson and O'Kelly substantial Although shanks, but the so O'Kelly in there

1977,46-47). majority that could they

Two of these not had may have been range of Roman be

such substantial pendants. coins in

suggests is

recovered as finds

an area no

where a wide reason

was also layers glass of Returning

discovered,

why these may be the dated to

need fact the

contextually similar

related, at first to

from most periods More relevant contexts Tara in the the AD at

have been recovered that early Ubid, may that

Newgrange.

similar centuries 47).

artefacts the

have come from millennium distinctions or perhaps among other

and Loughcrew playing other pieces

Scotland,

be represented Alcock (1980b, the glass indeed there at the is

by decoration, 347) suggests

use of

materials.

possible these

explanations *native in bulk,

boss from Dundurn (17971 may be such a piece. it is They perhaps unlikely been that pins' are may have

Thus, pins.

manufactured these function of or Crichie perhaps

although were found and Law system.

no corroborative place of found

evidence

that

assemblages must and

their

manufacture. together of playing at

Another Hill

be sought, Traprain

numbers

suggest

some form

pieces, -go-

a tallying

- Chapter The use of Newgrange) against iron is in not use one and the

5-

shafts

(as In some of the but is perhaps of this longevity form items

Irish

examples factor There may

from

unknown, function its

another clothing. (which

weighing was not not be in

their

as decorative for

necessarily homogeneous), r6le.

apparent

may be masking

changes

Group 15A: solid Thirteen unstratified to indicate from Orkney (708)

globular

heads of this, form have been examined, Burrian, are primary Freswick dating but are date example this is the this usually Sands. from Burray,

examples contexts

at they sites from

brochs: There are the

Lamaness and Kettleburn. whether later apart and the the sixth

no reliable or later,

associations their no general examples is

absence outside Crannog

may be

relevant.

There

atypical

decorated

examples

at Buiston from Mote levels the A sawn stage of

Mote of Mark (870). to eighth the to century with Orkney to It the

The only for the E-ware of

suggested

somewhere In of Mark which but there,

may be associated view this Ayre of date is the

producing artefact first dubious.

in of

atypical

nature

application off bone

examples represent seems that

from

considered

manufacture

(605:

Graeme 1914,44).

form is

found

in MIA and LIA levels. Group 15B: This 18 examples associated Age fort from which (1648). Leckie on the hollow form is heads of hollowed of which are out from long bone, and with Iron

globular

made from a length examined, evidence. a tpq several

were dating

contexts the

The earliest 140-160

examples basis

are from

at Clickhimin with basis

(1714-15), of

phase 5/6 AD on the

at Howe (33), of

and levels (but AD)

pottery, as 400 cal

of C-14 date belongs (1922) to

GX-2779 may be as late somewhere around the and Norse or residual example from All Clatchard in the a bone shaft. from in the these

Howe (32) Pictish

are and there (54-55). Birsay unusual from

mid-millennium, examples from Craig is come

An eighth evidence

century for apart

Clatchard

in having

examples

Orkney

and Shetland, This form is 1985,121). there is

Craig Early

and Leckie Christian

examples. period

also

found

Ireland

(MacGregor At Leckie

evidence -91-

for

manufacture

(1648).

Here the

- Chapter hole is and the

5-

not

complete (pers

core

has been packed this is the shaft. teeth all

with

bone wedges. the

MacKie suggests head whilst

comm) that

a means of

reinforcing

perforating

and inserting

Group 15C: globular There Orkney, are

heads made from animal examples of this

three

form,

from

broch

sites

in

none from datable

contexts

(630,1380,1390).

Group 15D: metapodial The single (34) shape, but

'globular' of this

form form from phase 9 Morse) heads not in the because at of Howe its

example it

has been classifed because a shaft

with

the

globular

has been perforated

centre,

presumably

to receive 5.5.16

of some form. heads 17 is probably 1985,120), tine inspired but the by the

Group 16: perforated The shape of the this pig form that

expanding and group

natural is this The also flat

of

fibula

(MacGregor an antler

shape and form.

derived

from cutting the top

longitudinally, and convenient invited in

may have contributed expansion the at

to making it of

a popular the head r6le (Curle

decoration. tapestry Confusion Certainly, must have been

Examples of and table with if very netting they

form may have had a dual or is even as styli another

as needles 1959,83). 1982,55).

weaving, needles

(Waterman

problem the

were used As

in

clothes, as

garments Leeds with

concerned

coarse.

early

1923

suggested

that

this

form

functioned illustrated

as a primitive and discussed

brooch by Wilson

a cord,

a suggestion

recently

(1983)

Group 16A: sub-triangular Although majority floruit in of bone evidence the known in

perforated of this (material,

head form existed and are found. in the In LIA, to the a the

examples

length, examples German

context)

point England

NP where numerous the and North

form was only century 120).

NP, and there

are good tenth parallels

and eleventh 1985,

Scandinavian

(MacGregor

-92-

- Chapter Group 16B: rectangular Of the seven from Norse horizons. head this

5-

perforated examples of

form,

the

two

dated

ones are

Group 16C: trapezoidal There eroded horizon are two

perforated possible Links

head examples (282), of the this other form, from one the from the

sands at

Freswick

Lower Norse

at Brough of Birsay

(1905).

Group 16D: discoid There known, they are

perforated 13 examples Norse. of

head this form, and where their context is

are all

Group 16E: There all with

miscellaneous are eight

perforated

heads star and thistle variations, head from Norse sites

examples where

including known.

a Norse closely

context

The star/scalloped and Scandinavian

Covesea is

paralleled

at British

(Mann 1982.11)

5.5.17

Group 17: unperforated The divisions of is this the form (length

expanding form are the

heads same as for 'the majority group of 16, with available there (67). are At

which, evidence

obviously LIA examples,

related. favouring for

and context) rare

a NP date, example and later.

although

the occasional Pool this

from Buckquoy

form is

exclusively

Interface

5.5.18

Group The

18:

maceheads; from Jarlshof passage consists house II 1956, of a (the fig ball with latest 39) writer. of Birsay but numerous pre-Norse further A further (2148).

example (1047), excavated

projections levels), details example of

from by not

Bruce been

(Hamilton found levels by the at

this

have from

present Brough

comes

the

Pictish

the

5.5.19

Group 19: flat This is a small to In group the

profile group 9, of

pins 11 examples, flattened is there very similar heads. in all from but The form was an

head profile manufactured eleventh

transversely

NP because at Skaill

an antler

example

century

context

(230)

and bone examples

also

occur

-93-

- Chapter in Norse horizons. 169) where there also in is to the But it are

5-

was also

prevalent

in

the LIA

(for

example shafted

hipped

examples.

Moreover

swollen disc SPI),

examples tend A similar shaft Is found

to be short. form with a plain (Caple vertical 1986 group Ubld, atop but this a short a direct type is Saxon contexts highly unlikely

metal

relationship confined 5.5.20

considering

that 35).

heartland

of Saxon influence heads on both to believe

Group 20: Crutch This form is exists

bone and antler that the which two are is is two of

and metal are related. or

material, There twelfth site century C

but are

there four

no reason metal

dated at

examples, (1952,1957)

eleventh from

century at Birsay (1056;

Whithorn (1928).

and one is from Jarlshof A Norse date stirrup-ringed In but has held

Norse also not

house

An example 1956). to the head.

eleventh of loose the

contra distinctive

Hamilton relates crutch for

unexpected, @ as the ring-head head in the the form None pin type T

form obviously with

class

a number of ring the

cases

crutch

was not place dates of to

pierced the the small

a ring, sockets

and dot ring. (Fanning

ornament 329). '

which of the of

In Ireland 1983a,

el eventh Metal

or twelfth this

century full

of the Scottish has a date. (1973) The other (1629) the date and the cru tch

examples pins

stirrup-ringed group correspond head

crutch-headed to Laing

'dated' similarity of the heads

example is latter (context,

of

a crutch

is

from

Crosskirk With

in shape as opposed to exact example length all evidence

form.

exception for

confirms shafts

a Norse

of swollen

and possile

use of antler).
5.5.21 Group There (as supported pins). most worthy 21: Cross heads examples possible (1985) these of use this of form, antler all and a tenth from the or Norse contexts absence century of

ae_ eight by the

total eleventh

hipped date are

MacGregor all

considers examples.

likely'for of

The Christian

connotations

speculation.

5.5.22

Group 22: This is an

anthropomorphic exceedingly amorphous


-94-

group

which

includes

the

- Chapter unique Skera evokes the the Pictish from Golspie

5-

metal (1975),

pin

(727) 'Janus'

discussed type pin

in

detail from

by

Close-Brooks (1468) the

a very

late

Norse example

Millya

and an unstratified image of a medieval to type

from Pool,

the head of which the above bear of Roman the

knave!

(1518).

None of which MO.

slightest the type

resemblance

Roman examples, (Cool little 1983, type favoured.

are

generally

head and shoulders

After

period 5.5.23

was otherwise

Group 23: open rings There are four examples of this form. The Birsay example comes from a has come from fig the ninth Pictish century at levels (1821) and the Saevar Howe example form 1959,84,

from late

context Clifford

(199). Street,

A similar York

unknown 14.15;

levels quoted

(Waterman

in Hedges 1983).

5.5.24

Group 24: collared To a very large is 6. There for

variations extent this

on spherical group has to

heads been discussed anything the under but a

group LIA short, Birsay AD at Only

no evidence forms, of the which LIA,

whatsoever constitute and there

suggest some of

date

these pins

more fancy, moulds from cal 1311. is

hipped (for

are as the

numerous dated die for

example pin

1964,1970). 1308 probably

From a context acted from

to 651-766 mould

Dunollie, a single

example

was recovered

a Norse

context,

which

probably 5.5.25

residual. Group 25: dome heads and bone and antler was NP, is manufactured and with those in hipped groups distinct pins from form antler, shafts which types. Roman or occurring and in In LIA metal the and LIA.

This Norse

is

a metal It in this but the

levels.

(long

examples) Unfortunately several Caple's similar group

one of

seems to

chronologically metal limited

encompass Correponding to postthere tend illus Birsay. There longer to

OT4 (1986),

immediately culture, These 1982,19, at but

Roman sites are 7.30, several have larger

and possibly examples diameter type) is not

to the

Romano-British

from heads

Traprain than

Law (848,850).

LIA versions to decide the

'mushroom' alone for

which suffient

have come from at Dunadd (1281). -95-

I(Curle later levels date of

Head size is evidence

a form.

manufacture

A similar,

- Chapter form in the Norse levels

5-

also

appears D). ,

at

Whithorn

(1941,1945;

Laing

1973, type

5.5.26

Group 26: This occurs Links

collared in metal is

elliptical from the

heads Western neither Isles being levels (1769) from at and bone at informative (1969),

Freswick contexts. also


5.5.27 Of but tend the to

(1606),

unfortunately a mould

But there form 24A.

from Pictish

Birsay

for

Group the

27: five

knob

heads of this or form swollen is none is from a dated the context, latter

examples have

majority be long,

hipped

shafts, suggested.

although

so a LIA

and NP date

5.5.28

Group 28: Although

bucket

heads NP on the there which form basis are are also of the use of LIA the antler, basis and

definitely shafts, this

long shaft their

metal

swollen of length,

bone hipped

and swollen of LIA levels

examples short

probably from

on the latest

including (1987).

an example

at Eilean
5.5.29

Olabhat

Group This Is

29: a

bun heads small of group which absence of is of of two examples a known is of not this from context. enough group to is the Western The Isles of

(479-80), swollen date lengths

neither shanks and the all

from hips

presence

exclude few

a LIA (and pin

because are

number <70mm)

examples

5.5.30

Group 30: This Is

frustrum

heads common form, with the but is the Jarlshof relevant to of which examples of the to that is is all one only the the come from dated other short,

a relatively Isles, Ironically century,

from

the

Western (929). ninth Is

dubious

exception this

Tarlshof example, examples especially

example

how

unsure. Mhor), hips,

There

no reason

suppose (for are Metal

bone and hipped but the

versions longer

are not LIA pins, to which be NP.

example nearly versions

358 from all metal of this

A Cheardach with swollen

are more likley type

form correspond

to Laing

M (1973). -96-

- Chapter

5-

5.5.31

Groups 31-33: Although these

Pierced

heads,

splinters, they

unfinished

pins in all

forms were recorded

have been ignored

subsequent 5.5.32

analysis.

Group 34: miscellaneous This small group to includes the all this from is unusual classification, is the the Lower forms or types which did

not

quite

conform A classic collar

above

although Norse levels of

obviously the and

related. a small hipped beneath The

example of and below there is (1829); this

segmented

melon head with at length

above

Brough of Birsay shank that an ornate

no doubt is

on the basis from

a LIA form, there the not Old

related

to examples Vallay

of 3D (reel (2147). has no

head); from probably

also

a mould

Skaill (295)

peculiar

item and is pin of

Cattlefold,

parallels,

a pin.

But the outstanding with a Pictish and only ox phalanges fig is graves 16).

example is symbol, the third the from a

the wide flat rare Broch of this form period pl sets round 28f), of example

from Pool a symbol

(1493)

decorated

on a portable others cat 1974, unique

artefact, being no 210-11, female (for

known representation of Burrian; pin, hair through which whilst pin to

on bone (the MacGregor probably found the in

The form to a Roman 1962,

in Scotland,

very

similar the Sjovold of

Norwegian

from

Merovingian also

period triangular

example

could of

be decorated. long flat with ix).

These were part pins it

coiffure the

consisting pin,

two

and a perforated under might skull be some sort

sometimes 1903,160,

placed pl

a comb directly Alternatively also has ogam on it.

(Nicolaissen of awl. 5.5.33

The Pool example possibly Group 35: needles

Whilst analysis 5.5.34

recorded

In

appendix

1.

this

group

is

omitted

from

and discussion. Group 36: acorn heads this form, all bone and with lengths either

There hipped only or

are

three

examples, of shafts. This,

swollen

their

short

and contexts

suggest

a LIA circulation.

-97-

- Chapter
5.6 FORMS OF STICK

5-

PIN OCCURRING IN METAL (fig

28)

5.6.1

Astragaloid This form of its to example (358). Lewis was so-designated to the by Laing (1973,71), bone. 30) of presumably He assumed a which the only is a there

because relation dated

resemblance the came from the

astragalus pins Norse (group levels,

frustrum-headed early

although the of

bone example Mhor Knap,

from

the

possible of are the dated hips

LIA levels two examples . supports

of phase III from

at A Cheardach shell midden met al at

Neither (327-28) their

The length

these

pins,

combined with 5.6.2 Butterfly The single context to favour at

swollen

a Norse date.

example North LIA-date.

of

this Uist.

form Its

(1215) length

comes from and material

an undated are enough

Illeray, a post
head the from

5.6.3

Crook None of

three a dated

iron context, under

and

copper nor are

alloy they pins.

examples known in the

(371,555, Atlantic

1654)

comes

Province.

See discussion

ring-headed

5.6.4

Disc heads with This form is and lozenge points the at to total

fillets obviously heads with a NP date absence type grounds to or the twelfth example to of (1954). closely fillets. on the hipped basis shafts related For of to these swollen and the of to are, he dates There spatulate to date thirteenth would rectangular, groups, shafts presence this all and In

triangular the evidence long length, Norse

contexts

Whithorn of Laing tenuous

The nine which 57). rounded twelfth century (pers a very Ubid,

examples

group

constitute century similarities Dublin although favoured bears from on

a part very with she the

G (1973)

the ninth however, from

6 Rahilly's dates

(1973) late

ciass probably This

which an for

century, be form

eleventh

Whithorn

comm P Hill). small Lake Just pin/toilet (Rahtz fortuitous. and

a striking late 112.19),

resemblance at but this is

implement Greenfield

Roman levels

Chew Valley presumably

1977, fig

-98-

- Chapter*5 5.6.5 Fowler This class type of E (protopin

and zoomorphIc

pins) (Type E; (1936; 1963, 1937).

has received many decades of

comment by Fowler by Kilbride-Tones zoomorphic

101-3,121-22) During (1980a) his

and over recent Celtic original terms precursor pin. his

discussions metalwork thesis.

penannular

brooches updated and what former

and of

(1980b), This

Kilbride-Tones of pins

summarized Kilbride-Jones being the

category brooches

includes the

proto-zoomorphic of zoomorphic form (fig

and zoomorphic and is eyes

pins, the

occasional by a Its

zoomorphic The rounded distribution 844,851), (1599), late

proto-zoomorphic head is and snout,

14.1-7) either Traprain

characterized or ears. from

without to

mainly

limited

Law (654,679-81,834, Vallaquie in the Its the form, swan's whilst (Fowler Votadinian period, to of create snake-

Newstead Pool

and Covesea, third have fig

with

new additions (1633), (Fowler upright the the the

(1804,2002) or early 1934,

and Crosskirk century been to the 2.4)

and begins 1963.122). head of basic

second

antecedents neck Fowler pin

may possibly (Dunning

provide Inspired is in that the

D4 and D5 penannular Kilbride-Jones's who were Traprain making form in

brooches thesis this in of the form

decoration bored

1963,121). craftsmen, (cf the the fully at in the from the

Romano-British' were inspired type AD. which (1963),

evidence

Burley brooch late

1956),

zoomorphic some time

by a Brigantian second century some of Fowler the

armlet, forms hole

Intermediate had a sunken despite the -form

had circular middle

planes to

on the

front,

receive which earliest or

enamel. shows that levels typological type

evidence came insists from

Traprain, lowest,

proto-zoomorphic 1956,138,169),

(Burley validity

that

no chronological as the simple (for

can be applied the the century. at Crosskirk, W 'of late third

to the two types, to fourth (for century

continues Cassington), fourth dated face

on Into and

example are from

enamelled There an the of

examples are recent

example Vallaquie) finds type of this from to the

or fifth contexts: the

example gateway, AD 57-221 example

comes

external

of

rampart, with

belonging at is la,

period

4, and is

associated

a C-14 date the

40 BC-AD 322 at 2a levels to the previously depicts -99-

(SRR-267). - Only chronology,

Pool

contrary residual.

suggested

and is

most probably

The zoomorphic

terminal

an abstract

animal

with

squared

- Chapter back and its exist: four (Kilbride-Jones three face from to the inside. an

5-

Only

a few

fully

zoomorphic from

pins

Traprain;

unprovenanced

example

Ireland

three metal examples from Chesters; 1980a , fig 4.4); 6 at Skaill new unstratified examples from the Iron Age site and a new example presumably residual, from the Norse as it levels at Howe (1813), than upper does so much later belong to the

(2104-06); which the levels is

occurring 1956). thin

accepted There

sequence. period two length

The Traprain (Burley of in

examples twisted form

or 'native' are Their as Fowler

examples E pins;

shaft suggest

from they

Clickhimin are of the

(1727-28). same type similar 5.6.6

and overall fact

an example

at Howe (1813)

has a

twisted

shaft. head variant the of this to form from Viking phase I at

In-turned There is

spiral a single This

Jarlshof but to

(1058).

f orm used at SD6). example

be considered site levels form in (pers

seventh York

century,

recently survive 1986,45, at

excavations Into the type (for

Redfearn

have shown it comm D Tweddle; in fig the Norse far 23. b,

Anglo-Scandinavian A similar B6

Caple levels right). 5.6.7

appears 1971,

Dublin

R16rddin

Kidney This form It

ring is

skeuomorph obviously in in or a derivative on Dublin tenth of the kidney-ringed where it loose Ireland has a long

ring-head. life to span, the

occurs

sites

starting

the late

twelfth

thirteenth pins'). of Birsay

century ot eleventh and lasting (6 Rahilly 'non1973.26, century There (1927) Isles Is and an example three from Norse from

functional levels at

kidney-ringed the Brough

examples

uniformative
5.6.8 Lens There the the filled through Sands head

contexts
head is of is only Bracon, composed lead lower or

in the Western

(331,418,1953).

one Yell of

noted

occurrence Caple

of 1986,

this type secured

medieval CLI, edge of a date 62 to

form ff),

from where and

(1079; two

metal The dish.

dishes shaft

edge

with the

solder. metal

consists The earliest

wire is

pushed to the

sheet

-100-

- Chapter eleventh century


5.6.9

5-

or twelfth Ubid).

century,

but

there

was a floruit

in the sixteenth

Lobed This

head Scottish (1973) in group her incorporates study of the pins various from forms Dublin, and groups form and of all mid

polymorphous by 6 Rahilly her

described and

includes

undifferentiated, groups. because but the her Her

club-headed, distinction is

round-headed between these of

barely-differentiated is at best confused, types, which broadly are the

typology

on the to

basis

decoration designs cover

decoration

belongs In the

a large these

repertory groups to the

common to same at the the time

many groups. span from

Dublin late

eleventh

thirteenth In between undated group Whithorn prefers century of

century Scotland two or Norse unknown

latest. example but in been the all (1061) the Western comes from an alleyway come recently levels (Pers from a at Comm)

Jarlshof

buildings, contexts has

other Isles. from for

examplesMost the Norse Hill mid

seven

examples

recovered

(1938,1940,1949-51,1956,1958) the dating earlier bracket. part of a late

which to

eleventh

thirteenth

5.6.10

Loose ring-heads These pins, usually inserted bored

or ringed bronze In or

pins silver, or at consist of head, a pin Both with a a and to

loose

swivel

ring

a loop

perforated either cast side.

or merely ring together

head with pin

deeply

are separate This

. components has the

depressions Individually (Fanning

and brought (1969;

form a simple pin 1983b) Armstrong 5) groups under Thus, plain the for

dress-fastener form

1983a, 324). by Fanning Man and 1975; (but see 1983a; also Scotland

been studied Isle of

Ireland,

1922 and Hencken 1951 for Ireland). Fanning (1983a, 324. the Scottish pins, of which there are about sixty examples, main of main Irish ring-forms types loopringed, and Ireland are: types, which are arrived balusterat by means of of pin-head and the on the basis forms.

combination the

sub-divided spiral-ring, (fig

loop-headed; loop-headed; in

ringed,

and polyhedral-headed; crutch-headed is all the these plain classes -10115). with

knob-ringed

and stirrup Scotland head.

The commonest class the loop or polyhedral the

ring of

However,

of

ringed

pin,

only

spiral

- Chapter rings, contexts of which loop 1983a, baluster

5-

either

with

or 325).

shafts, examples AD date

occur exist

in in

pre-Norse Scotland, for the

(Fanning a seventh

Several

or eighth

century pin

has been argued Mhor for from (368;

spiral-ringed 1958,92), from the

baluster-headed and a seventh wheelhouse

from date

A Cheardach is possible (1460,

Young head

century at

the

loop

phase these of

Clickhimin Irish evidence but

a hut - floor a contemporary several the 325) fifth sites or does not of

opposite floruit suggests sixth

the for that

broch both the

entrance). of

suggests from

forms, this

evidence Fanning the few

origin

form may have been in 330). link Mid, Scottish colonisation sixth century as part out of

century it ring forms in and This

AD (Fanning too forms speculative with the

1983a, to

consider spiral

examples of

supposed to

Dalriatic

about

500 AD and the Columban mission other diffusion trade fashion. form was not (1640), at confined with York of ringed pin fashions and Viking in

of the late dress

AD, but the of a general in Viking

spread

Scotland arising almost

movements a

settlement

remained to

exclusively is

metal.

and there step pattern

a bone shaft on the shaft. fig 1959,

from This

Balevullin is paralleled fig

an incised on metal

and bone the

(Waterman alloy

11.13-14, around Mid, the 80).

12.1).

The bone example must have held

shows copper split ends of

staining ring

head which

a bronze

5.6.11

Lozenge with There are at two the levels type

fillets examples Brough of of this Birsay form from the lower and upper to at at

Norse Laing York

(1929,1932),

corresponding excavations excavations dated them

P (1973). 1959,

There are parallels fig 11.15) and from

from the old the recent Wulfric,

(Waterman

Redfearn,

where they

are shown to be distinctively in the grave V2) of Caple bishop

Anglo-Scandinavian 1030s;

(an example pers Hiberno-Viking

was found Tweddle), (1986,54,

comm D

although type

considers

basically

5.6.12

Miscellaneous This is and a relatively indistinct, bent ends large for of no amorphous example fixed group ranging and a from group the of (for

mundane

177, chronological

miscellaneous

horizon

-102-

- Chapter example Quoybanks, of a field to be seen Lillevang literature 832,1271,1675,1792) Orkney. (Cursiter in This unusual from (Vedel to

5-

the

unique, time

for

example during

1694 from ploughing were at

piece

was recovered

1887),

when at this 1886,183,

the only 377).

parallels cemetery

hairpins

a Migration/Viking fig

period

on Bornholm search

A more recent and it in can only on the Burray

has not this pin pin Links to

yielded is is

any more parallels, to have

be assumed that islands. (Grieg 1940,169) Both metal notched, glass, known LIA pins, piece

a by-product reported

of the Norse presence been found

A similar Freswick

(781)

and

Howe (178) the opposite

have end

produced of which

long is of to E

shafts

tapering

ei point, terminals these

presumably now lost. forms,

to take Obviously and their

(Smith bear

et al forth), to

perhaps type the

no relation similar 7 context

whatsoever Fowler for

proportions, which the

suggest would not Traprain

a MIA date, contradict. Law produced

phase

Howe

a pin to

with

a wide

transversely Burley of early the

flattened (1956,170) swan's neck

end rolled believes

over might

into

a spiral fig 1.5),

(830), continental but it

a form which variants to belongs

be related 1934,

(see Dunning AD levels. Little (1791) But or

fourth

century Keil Cave (422). of 7 its

can be said the are. two Firstly

about

a racquet-shaped head are from very the

head from Western

golf -club-shaped pieces there Although presumably bent stems, than In But these which is the the

Isles

there

distinctive, pin design

and worthy from is phase

comment. levels overall pins with

fine

disc-headed repoussd to Late

at Howe. form is

swirling familiarly

unique

related tend this

Bronze

Age disc

headed (see

similar

known as sunflower central is

pins

Eogan 1974,82).

to have conical example, A MIA date common throughout 1980b, 57). has

projections, the

much more pronounced designs, triskele over not itself swirling being

and all the

have concentric probable, Celtic fringes

triskeles. a motif from four to This cable

most

the whole IA An unusual lines an

(Kilbride-lones, mould and

Dundurn, equidistant

(1798)

an oval It from is

head similar

with in

concentric design levels smaller to

bosses. example

eighth

ninth also

century

tenth

century

at the Udal. bosses and

boss and four equidistant has a central ' (Crawford 1977, pl and Switsur moulding -103-

- Chapter xiva). AD for motif this area The stratification mould are or this (Alcock

5-

suggests et al forth). Celtic in the design. look

a date Small

in

the

seventh

century the main

bosses around brooches,

common on as element design

penannular

either

as as a of

projections dress'pin late

Although

unparalleled

would not from

out of place

in an assemblage has

LIA metalwork. An unusual pin phase (1938) terms fourth of 7 levels Smith 3a, form in it at Howe (168) (pers which is date. glass is not an iron the later (1983) the head. type its

shank, with glass first group to

a globular Kilbride-Jones AD. which and then In is

paste

comm) compares potentially unlike Cool

century XVIII,

century the

Here the around

head of the this

pin was formed wire shank

by winding

a trail

of molten glass is or facetted.

top of a type

marvering for

smooth. a long (1931) ring-head type XI)

Heads of

tend to be mushroom-shaped, The final Norse bronze moulding horizon example at the disc dots.

cubic

discusssion of a Birsay fixed

pin'from which

the

Middle of a

Brough with

consists a

perforated with sunken (for Viking 238),

above there' pl 47b;

baluster Roman also the i

Although Cool

this

form has very 1974,

similar are I in

antecedents Scandinavian 1928, fig

example parallels where

1983,

(see Sjovold are

Petersen

there

sometimes

metal

links

perforations. 5.6.13 Mushroom head There the Western are seven examples dated of this distinctive only form, "mainly Tarlshof All

from (1059)

Isles, (1959)

but

examples

come from is favoured. grooves, top the

and Whithorn have a slightly

where a Norse horizon with radiating the (see

examples with on Most with a

domed head

sometimes

additional the are very

ornament head and loose long In with

especially

1669 which at there

has ring of is

and dots shaft).

cross-hatching

swollen shafts, pronounced hip (868). some respects but is this had a prominent there to

although form is

one example a larger (Caple

similar

to

Roman form 1986, form

which this pins. class

dome and radiating Is no chronological 6 Rahilly's motifs changing


-104-

grooves (1973) are to

GT4 and-RGD, group (The

relationship. class similar, a square of but or

Instead stud-headed here the

related and

form,

ornamental shaft

has a round

section

rectangular

- Chapter below towards the the

5-

section Dublin

mid-portion). end of the

This eleventh

form century

probably and lasted

appeared well

in into

the thirteenth.

5.6.14

Open disc A single

head form from Skaill, but of the billets simple is Aldclune we have Curle Sandwick decorative (1695) motif seen in (Stevenson comes of other 1985;

example of this context, and circles

from

an Pictish there

unknown rings is

concentric fine here

an element brooch

Jewellery, a glass brooches identical an open disc disc on

such as the stud (for where example head with of a

a perforation) 1982, illus 7,

and other and cat no is

contemporary 314, mould for possibly of for

design).

A mould from Mote of Mark (876) a collar shaft (Caple is below. also A found SP4) similar in

form roughly

pierced

top

contemporary
5.6.15

Anglo-Saxon

contexts

1986,36,

Out-turned There are

spiral three examples On all of as which to these is the them period, However, would Yet (1967,74, which see this of this the top into of this form of an (1757-58,1764) the shaft is all divided spiral or from into S-

undated two, shape. (1922,82) century a similar 61, type

contexts. half

each

rolled date

out-turned is the divided;

Opinion

form of

Armstrong to eighth to

considered Carolingian period. MM3) century. Alcock Somerset,

characteristic and the them Laing most as dated recent falling form 1) the

seventh on Irish by the

them

analogy Caple

study in

(1986, to

thirteenth has much earlier from

sixteenth origins; Cadbury,

simple pl xiv.

apparently cites Late an Bronze

example Age:

South

represents

It

is

but the type is ultimately origin, of oriental D Europe in Hallstatt it appears in Central in bent iron wire at Lough Faughan crannog. found imitated 1955, fig 9.37).

Co

Down (Collins

5.6.16

Projecting This is

disc

head pin form, most probably with pins at late Bronze Age.

a very

early

At Hurley (1805:

Hawkin our

example to belong

was asociated and similar to a late -105-

pre-broch Traprain

structures Law (for There

Taylor

1982,229)

example 856) appear

Bronze Age occupation.

- Chapter contemporary 1894).

5-

are

parallels

at

Heathery

Burn

Cave in

Northumberland

(Greenwell

5.6.17

Ring-headed This pin group

pins form

(see Fowler has

1963,

fig

4) elsewhere. the Its

been much discussed neck fifth pin (Dunning at BC. the spiral scarce that to the this

precursor fig 1-2), Hallstatt pin

may have which period,

been the

swan's in

1934,270-272, close of the neck is the

was brought probably bend in its

country century so that

The swan's which

has an acute plain,

shaft into

head,

may be to

beaded, at right

notched, to the pins, period.

rolled shaft.

a tight They are

or disc-headed, compared they only 2)

angles ring-headed a short from BC, it the

ensuing

and this

suggests

remained

in use for develops century

The true

ring-head swan's

pin

(Dunning

1934,272-82, In Britain loop need pins to the

fig by about

possibly fourth

neck pins. into

the

has developed why such 1980b, but

a simple form first this

or ring, derive were

although'it from simply casting anything twisted in one

may be doubted (Kilbride-lones out of wire, with alloy, ring-head,

a simple These from

190).

a development end of the ring

was their decorated century bend,

piece, copper under

the

Joined ornately

shoulder. (see

Most were discussion pins the

and some were very decorated). in one the at right involuted (the

In the

third

two variant

were evolved; head was turned bend in to the it

stem had a double angles pin). The latter

and in the other also type BC,

to the' stem, is

which

has a double group of is confined which was

a small

Somerset -Oxf ordshi re region, the latest than the second century not earlier probably related to contemporary A variant (G537) Butt involuted on the brooches standard where the 1. pins east in Scotland in fig but ' (Dunning the 57). owing region There to of is 1963,157).

and

closely Fowler glass in from head

(Dunning

1934,280; occurs in

ring-head twisted to form

the Roman period a grave (Crummy 1983,28). Ring-headed' concentrated

at Colchester, at

shaft

on a pin

Road separates

a ring-shaped 1934,282-87) the Firths

are of Forth for-their number, is

on the

coast, 1980b, Law,

and Tay (Kilbride-Jones manufacture scattered sought at Traprain' distribution outside Scotland

evidence scanty

their

and uninformative (Simpson

associations, 1968).

an origin A peculiarly

and Simpson

-106-

- Chapter Scottish the the

5-

version (555:

of itself fig

standard was bent Like

ring-head forwards, the into in plain the

was the for wire first

crook example

head, the the AD.

where Laws, crook Eleven been

ring-head

Monifieth head variant decorative discussed

16).

ring-head, century and is ten

may have cast

continued exist

ring-heads North

Scotland,

have

by Simpson and Simpson (1968). peculiarly which of the British (1955a, pin, part inherently on or bent century of this coastal Angelsey. wire, to more mid development 288) the projecting Stevenson involuted played this is its

Another ring-head the (Coles believes, only pin, 1959)

suggests the DV

was made under sunflower Clarke as the the pin (1971a) two forms simplest were AD,

inspiration

although too.

may have that in plain the the

however,

unlikely

overlap are in

distribution cast second part

Whilst elaborate first

versions prevalent particularly

forms

millennium or is

earlier

bracket

(see below).

The group within Iron easy is Age which For of basis form

as a whole has an essentially reach of the the an sea (Kilbride-Jones most chronologically extremely wide

distribution, fig 57). of

1980b,

The plain all be metal

probably pins, as

Insensitive range is can 191)

date

suspected, only on the

within ambiguous.

attempted example size ring of

chronological MacKie head;

developments

(1974,128-30) Kilbride-Jones and Stevenson dates

makes a distinction (1980b, (1955a) are at on technique

on the basis of where of

bevelled

sections;

manufacture. they are at However there Lane

The earliest least

suggested of

Dun Mor Vaul, than elsewhere. levels

a couple

centuries with

earlier that the BC.

are considerable (1987,58) in date pre-broch levels, early dates than the

problems accept the first and

the Dun Mor Vaul dates, earliest

such that are

does not levels which

much earlier appeared in broch as the the very could Traprain to fourth on

century to

Pin-impressed themselves first in

pottery the 8C, but

pins the

earliest possibly using level, as the levels

MacKie dates fifth curve the century

century 2a,

as the for the of belong date,

(1974.128-30). at the

Calibrations 95 % confidence as far broch is and the This

new Trondheim beginning equally accepted Law (Burley century

show that levels first first on

pre-broch to the mainly

can be stretched BC, AD.

millennium centuries the

the more generally of

long-standing (Benton 1931),

evidence where pins

1956)

and Covesea

second

AD horizons

are suggested.
-107-

Similar

are a common find

- Chapter other Hawkin dating 664) is broch as Midhowe, the Crosskirk but at on

5-

sites

such

Ness,

Crosskirk, produced the basis at la,

Leckie, Roman finds. 1984,

Hurley The cat no

and Howe, many of which association not a totally tpq C-14 of of

have also

example Leckie the

(Fairhurst levels of

clear, AD dates

have

been and

assigned

125-150

pottery in

complementary and 7/8, to the for

(GX-2779 AD 40-240 forth)

190 BC-AD 400 at phases 5/6 AD f irst floor

2a; MacKie 1982).

At Howe (Smith the early levels, Hurley

examples of the late

occur early as on the

example At

broch

levels

centuries the mid broch

post-broch AD.

which Hawkin (1438-39) been

may be as they

millenium

were found

and in the broch Pottery heads is at

filling has the

which

impressed

with f IS

plain 44.9,

projecting f IS 5 1.1);

ringthe pl

common in

N and W Isles: (Hamilton

from pre-broch 1968a,

and broch-levels (1449; ibid.

Clickhimin at Ayre for

(1963-64) (1447;

brochs IX. 2-3); forth, W Isles,

Young 1953, pl IX. 3) and Lingro post-broch levels no 7542); Tigh

broch' and immediately example cat for example and the a

at Howe (Smith sites Mhor, Bruthach also Lewis until continuity badly of

et al in the

and numerous wheelhouse A Cheardach sites two from in at Eye,

Talamhanta, wheelhouse The is not thus latter

Dun Cnoc a a Sithean produced pottery Norse of the to the

Comhdhalach, and Sithean

possible There type 331).

Phiobaire.

sites

corresponding impressed period tradition most, of discern with (Fanning of the

pins. a pin 1983a,

an example present

Scotland the

demonstrating with

decorating impressions

pottery are too

pin-impressions. or too (Topping and ' later them. 1987,72). sites,

Unfortunately eroded In for

indistinct

which type of pin was used de novo, seventh apparently century Brough of Birsay pottery evidence AD, that such until sherds is the impressed to

Orkney example

Buckquoy, pins or

and Saevar Howe have not with a

produced Elsewhere of

any such on the the

mainland centuries suggests form had

confined fourth

closer may in in that can

bracket Stevenson part

early 288)

century.

(1955s,

Hebridean a this great

conservatism longevity longevity conflated. pins in

explain

why this region. basis

particular on the

Alternatively, that stratigraphy

apparent has'been

be queried from the

Cast projecting and were produced example 674). at Three

ring-head Traprain varieties

developed the third

wire

versions, (for six

and fourth the

century with

were produced: -108-

rosette

- Chapter large (for lower beads the

5-

all being

around in the

rim,

always

without

separating

fillets only, the

example 646); half

the pin

with

3-6 beads on the upper part plate and the 1980b, The rosette Ubid, 193);

form of a semi-circular (821).

(647,826)(the version with

'proto-hand-pinl: small in the beads all second the to

Kilbride-Jones around and during third both

and semi-rosette 193).

were made was beads Traprain,

century the In four the

The semi-rosette century the at

manufactured but after

second

and third century

reoccupation five, to then three,

third

number of beads.

was reduced hand pin typologically had nicks from ring, century (652) all

and finally

to three for

Once the

number was reduced Ubid). the

the stage with

was set small

the three-fingered all around wire may be known of the

The version earliest, beads, upper 1955a, Smith (Stevenson usually part for fig is

beads

because some of the 1955a, 290). three, on the

true

ring-heads

around has the is

A fourth lower

variety, part to

Covesea, whilst, date

corrugated. type.

A second

fourth

suggested

this

One of the Covesea examples concave side century a first type Traprain, in beads. They Jope BC, but

(Stevenson by RA

B. 11) has partly to the first first In the

are dated (1950,54-56) association brooch. century, Lydney,, the floruit

(1905,350) a date

suggests of Stevenson

century with this from

AD because of, the century the Covesea AD fourth and for

an example suggests of basis is the

from a

Dunfanaghy date for

on the and, there of

the

examples to (Fowler is

no evidence ibex-head Ibex-head stalks of

contradict

a sub-Roman date The a Tuath, (372)

1963,123).

ultimate a pin with (Stevenson of

degeneration three 1955a,

of the

seen at Bruthach a ring

beads on separate 291). Ubid).

without this

at all pins

The period Is

and similar large of

is- a matter

conjecture (1266) head'. in

From Dunadd there which is

a much corroded also a version 194) points pellets 97, is This or fig a

trefoil-headed the 'degenerate

pin ibex pins Museum Dunadd to the

most probably (1980b, three have

Kilbride-Jones which Iron

to a group of similar beads (see British the 106) to which further testimony Province of

Ireland

Guide pin is

to Early

Age Antiquities related. Ireland

obviously

relationship more specifically The despite

between

and the difficult attempts -109-

Atlantic

Britain,

Dalriada. pins are (1931) to at sort typologically, and division,

Covesea Miss

Benton's

a chronological

- Chapter Stevenson (1955a, 290) in

5-

would beads,

prefer

to

treat Three found

them

as showing

the

range of variation have fillets pins Ubid).

use at any one time. the a detail

of the Covesea pins on Irish proto-hand-

between

The proto-hand-pin, and beads Traprain and fourth ante From continuing or fifth the

consisting curve of

of the

a lower ring

semi-circular on the between the provided (Johns row 1999),

plate basis of

was,

and other

evidence, centuries;

probably

in existence hoard that

second

the Oldcroft evidence

a terminus is perhaps beads of the for see 1974,295). of

quem of 359 AD and further northern the this

the hand-pin

not as distinctively emerged to

as has been supposed where 'fingers', (for century, form the

hand-pin row of

curved and early example (Fowler

approximated this the are

a straight late late albeit fifth in

examples into

probably are

fourth or

century sixth

although

majority

and continue

eighth detailed Duignan of

or ninth, discussion 1973 for pins

a degenerate 129-9;

1963,126;

see ibid, classification been found Gurness a late

Kilbride-Tones Moulds Craig levels Craig for

1980b, 212-8; the

scheme). at Clatchard the LIA

manufacture the postthe Olabhat Both * to

these

have at

(1459), at Eilean

broch (1589)

levels

(1739), type'at

and possibly Craig (Close-Brooks with the

Clatchard are the

(1459). seventh

Clatchard century associated which desire Ireland. (see is hand-pin. for

and Gurness 1986), date a C-14

examples but of cal

probably Eilean at the the

eighth is

Olabhat the 2-a

example

AD 90-340 bracket for

(GU-2327), of a in

earliest As the

known dating hand pin was not of which but evolved lost,

manufacture true ring-pin developed the

away from and loose in of

the

the

ring

ring-pins in have in

some forms

appeared versions see

Scotland hand-pins mention Stevenson

LIA and NP received

below).

The Scottish here,

not

detailed (1980b, 206-9);

comment 204-225) Stevenson

passing in

Kilbride-Jones and Emery (1964,

and more specifically (1976) and Fowler

(1963,125-29).

5.6.18

Rectangle See discussion

with

fillets with fillets

under disc

5.6.19

RIng-head Plain versions above. -110of this form have been discussed under projecting

ring-heads

--Chapter
5.6.20 Decorated Ten Scottish by Simpson will and

5-

ring-heads decorated Simpson be versions (1968) made and of comes disc take of this form have been discussed so of Howe.

M MacGregor an addition phase a

(1976,138-39), to 7 the levels corpus at

mention decorated Its stud whole a

only

here

examples

(153),

which cir cular to setting

from has

irregularly below, from which the

moulded is

cross-hatched The head projects the

circular as ring a is to Seaby and short that as is the not the the there

scored The of fig

enamel. on the

shaft.

shoulder pins

below which La AD, two,

constant

feature (1934,282,

Irish 8) first

ring-headed belong to this to second 'one, statement. known for time to the range, writer. a Scottish have the

according Une I. Simpson

Dunning (1964) Simpson of the first possible first northern are the use

late

dates

them

to

the

century perhaps

but

(1968.144) mark', of a rather enamel AD. impose example of

consider

centuries explains as late it

ambiguous is really, close to

M MacGregor survived as

bosses But a

century to dated half

group the

a whole,

Howe example The distribution,

being in

known

the

Ireland, from

favours York

origin,

although

analogous

forms

and London

(Dunning

1934,282).

5.6.21 This flattened single draws

Rolled

spiral

head form consists of over unknown a to metal form context. form on the shaft a loop. which There has Is been only a

unusual at the top

and rolled from of an

example attention to

(421) to the pins

Dunning continent,

(1934,270) which may

a similar pin.

be related

ring-headed

5.6.22

Small There are

dome three and The examples Balevullin of this form the least from contexts may be or Traprain of none Law of to metal (827), which Caple pins

Boreray are form from

(1128)

(1667), example Group at 25),

known. GT4

Traprain see under

related domed

(1986;

mushroom sites.

Roman and immediately

post-Roman

5.6.23

Spiral This

head and later especially countrywide form has been the subject 131-172; between -IIITylecote the thirteenth of It to recent is a

medieval 1986, found

study

(Caple

1972).

common form

nineteenth

- Chapter

5-

They were made either by twisting the shaft or- some additional wire around the top of the shaft, which may or may not have been subsequently moulded into a spherical In Scotland shape. their manufacture was a home industry (Mitchell 1889). century.
5.6.24 Square plate is on Lewis. with projections example of to this with the distinctive its upper form from or of Galson finials

'There (1188) bears pins

a unique

The square block

plate

projections element XIIIb),

a most striking with multiple latest.

resemblace heads

Roman metal a fashion by 150

(Cool

1983,

group Just

which centered AD at the 5.6.25

in the E Midlands This similarity

and was probably Is probably

manufactured fortuitous.

Swan's Neck See discussion under ring-headed fillets under disc with fillets. pins

5.6.26

Triangle See discussion

with

5.6.27

Wheel-head There is form was rectangles a from single Birsay or version (1925), Norse. and of but this it The blue is ring ornate, not is Irish, known fixed A close pl 16; enamelwhether and the filled parallel quoted in

decorated context with was Curle

Pictish of

Lower

yellow, in

white Ireland

enamel. 1922,

found

in

a crannog = Laing

(Armstrong V).

1982,62;

1973 type

5.6.28

Glass Whilst

pins wholly glass pins were In insets known in the but example Roman period, or to paste form a 715), no was the been discovered pins as both and Scotland, (for

examples used to whole dating a

have

glass

ornament head

(168), beautiful

possibly example

exquisitely to

there is as bosses; from Dundurn (1797), from which from an iron is very

single to Rocks

a context similar

post boss

800 AD (Alcock on an fig

et al forth), Irish pin with

glass

undated 2.8) Abbey,

Drummiller shaft its

(Armstrong Christian Alcock

1922,80, levels

and a pin interpretation, -112-

from Early

at Movilla favour this

County

Down (Ivens preferring

1984,101-102). use in a

does not

- Chapter because pin the

5-

more

elaborate

object Irish

form 1980b,

of

the

wide

flat

base

is

dissimilar

to the

(Alcock

347).

5.7

MANUFACTURE LIA PINS OF Techniques of the manufacture compilation of were the not data metal, are considered base. in any less pins. consisting usually have has Most bone which removed shows that great some

detail useful

during

None the

observations Unfinished

can be made about (group with 33) the bone

bone and antler numerous, of the a long a head; end.

bone pins shaped head would a sharp sliced

fairly

of

a roughly the with been

indication until from had

finishing been cut either I groove (pers

have been left most often or

blade,

longitudinally technique. pin

splinters experiment as rapid

by the the

and splinter' of a single comm A Foxon; linear

Modern

manufacture Subsequently Pumice with

may have also polished, is found

been

as 20 minutes

manufacture were

discussed most have

by Crummy 1981,283). probably Iron fulfilled the of points. head or with pumice.

many pins

grooves, stones may only

on Scottish

Age sites. a similar A couple and fine at least have a has

Grooved/tracked function, of pins or are lines

possibly for the were

were perhaps notable suggest the head which the globular lines

sharpening regularity either lathe

because they pin

their turned, blade

lateral produced dimple notable concentric

by turning

against head

a hand-held from

(564-65

on the is

may be the result pin

of turning). Buiston (708)

Particularly which

encircling were

Bone pins special required been found at (Crawford 77). the All Brough 1973);

a home industry (A of Ritchie Birsay

In

contrast for 1977, (Hunter

to their

metal 28),

pins the

which has Udal ill at

craftsmanship. Buckquoy and Brough pins Birsay, Eilean piece

Evidence

manufacture no 1344, survive

cat

no

1986, cat

LIA metal of two Craig,

were cast. Mote Olabhat but of

Numerous clay Mark, Dundurn,

moulds Dunadd, earlier the

Dunollie, periods and (Curle for 3). a A pin

Clatchard these extant 1982, are

and Gurness. often for

As in

moulds, There is

more than

one pin, dies

bone pins ill 57).

can be shown to have been used for also a stone forth, mould, cat from Howe (Smith has an interesting has been suggested -113-

possibly fig

projecting Dunollie and small

ring-head mould ring. (1311) It

no 4302,

Juxtaposition that from the

of a dress

Roman period

- Chapter until as the used by the 1904). is highly

5-

as recently were

nineteenth -cloth along This suggestive.

century being

in

Ireland

similar the

rings small

and pins ring brooch

together, pin,

pulled

through

and secured (Lovett

the same principle cannot be

as a penannular proved, but the

usage

Juxtaposition LIA large is as pin

manufacture pins the from

can be starkly beaten for

compared into from cast.

with

the

NP when a there Scotland, examples writer

number of yet no

were simply forms the

shape;

certainly in

evidence

manufacture were obviously

moulds

although

some of

The cast although In this

may be imports

Scandinavian for their

homeland, manufacture

the manner.

knows of no Norse evidence

**4*#

Each pin This evidence

type will

has been discussed be drawn together in

and reviewed Chapter 7, this, however,

in

this

chapter.

where Stevenson's the evidence of

conclusions

will

be up-dated. be discussed.

Before

the combs will

-114-

CHAPTER 6:

COMBS

- Chapter

6-

CHAPTER 6: COMBS

6.1

CLASSIFICATION OF SCOTTISH COMBS The subject of this chapter is combs, toothed or of In implements position comb has be mainly which hair been a MIA of

may be (Dunlevy excluded form Stevenson for from

used from

to

disentangle, The

arrange, long-handled they are

confine variety

1969,5). discussion Is

because thus of

known to value

whose relevance 1955a. the late

minimal the onwards form

a reassessment are Middle

The majority-of Roman period of this discussed receive the

combs examined until (the the general

composite, Ages combs of the

were almost composite

exclusively

evolution

comb is the

by MacGregor here the

1985,82-94). of is on re,, analysis their more the limited. general 1988; or more

Combs do not undergo Thus form system of 1981;

same degree because, variations based

same treatment number used previous MacGregor

as the of here is

pins

despite

complicated the

actual

openly (Curle It of date is

classifications Ambrosiani classification well-established application of the cases data to

scholars 1985). basis

1982; Dunlevy a traditional and has, to took

1969;

typological in most cases, it. after Its most

strictly

on the in

form,

chronological the examples is much of in terms had been assembled the of

, evidence the

accompany place was feasible. a

base

and an overview or uncertain; would

In many rea finer divisions

attribution of but

ambiguous material broad

subsequent allow the

examination sorting,

certainly phasing those

chronological

are adequate Galloway averaging When there if it

as they

stand. are coarse, to these largely (1969; based 'on 1988). 5 per thickness then advocated by Dunlevy or The teeth may be f ine, 1976). even been is

Descriptive (1976) 9 per is

terms and cm,

averaging

cm (Galloway on each side, it has still

a difference conform base

between teeth

does not in data

guidelines, to which In

recorded recorded

as coarse/fine.

The group field are also 'class'.

the comb is addition to

assigned combs,

comb-

cases and comb-blanks This forms relevant as chapter, well as

recorded. covers all known Scottish Medieval varieties IA toilet which, comb are

therefore some

Norse/later

to aspects

of discussion. -115-

- Chapter
6.2 SUMMARY OF COMB CLASSIFICATION (fig

6-

29)

6.2.1

Group 0: This is with linear

Late a

Bronze Age type of teeth. small single-piece is commonly combs, usually with

group short designs.

rectangular, boldly cut

The top

decorated

6.2.2

Group 1: 'Roman' Roman type combs may be either with one set is This but distinction the single-piece of teeth tend later In to a feature or markedly be short and 'native' widely composite, coarser In early but than

they the

are all other depth set.

double-sided

of some later

Norse and comparison medieval 1985,81). development, distributed of the a

medieval to

combs, when of the this

Roman variety to are fourth these rare

compared form

types,

examples Composite but by

Scotland European they

(MacGregor

combs were entirely third and Romanised regions is

a north century Ubid, 74).

were

throughout end-plates second 6.2.3 pair

Decorative which 92).

profiling

common on these

combs, (ibid.

may also

incorporate

of connecting-plates 'Germanic' single-sided, and developed Scandinavia Round backs

Group 2: Germanic

single-sided combs (MacGregor in from 1985,77) are invariably north Irish forms in bone, , antler and iron (Dunlevy 1988, pre-Roman times common and The the teeth. back the Is sides thick

single-piece Germany class slightly open field


6.2.4

and

A1-2). or for

are

may diverge and heavy In an

be markedly tapering decoration,

flared. towards

cross-section,

The large ornate.

back creates

which may be highly

Group 'Celtic'

3:

'Celtic' miniature

miniature single-piece, acting as single-sided a handle and (Dunlevy functionally combs 1988, from often class have A3).

a grip They

or can

an open

back

be distinguished combs (MacGregor

culturally 1985,78).

'Germanic,

miniature

6.2.5

Group 4: High-backed This is a group well

4Celtic' composite connect ing-plat combs with e. The high backs backs are

of single-sided above the

which

may extend

-116-

- Chapter either

6-

simple

or

sinuous,

consist 1985;

of

an open arcade, 1988 Irish often they and flat,

or

incorporate C). The

zoomorphic their

motifs long

(MacGregor frequently and

Dunlevy

class

connect ing-plat along short j 6.2.6

es are

short in

bowed outwards terminate well

edges,

some instances

of the margins

of the end-plates. Dark Age type double sided combs in are closer (MacGregor class A are distinguished

Group 5: Double-sided This is a group In comparison with in form of

combs which their to form

from

Anglo-Saxon

double-sided they

and geographical that 1982 type is A; Curle

distribution. short is is in

Roman originals, B).

to height Dunlevy

1985,94;

similarities usually left

1988 Irish

The connecting-plate a narrow area The endbecoming end-plate, generally of fineness

deep and flat reserve at

in cross-section the extremities of The last

and sometimes the end-plate.

plate a

may have a sinuous central shorter in triangular There unlike is

or even ogival convexity. over or the D-shaped

outline, teeth 30mm or

and some incorporate graduate, so of which in each are the

perforated

progressively resulting decorated. the teeth,

solid

zones

usually

no differentiation I (Alcock

Roman combs of group

1987,130).

6.2.7

Group 6: Double-sided Curle distinguishes type

Dark Age type

B In Scotland (1982, with longer,

two Dark Age comb types (type B, which (or shares DI-2),

156). Dunlevy the

Her second 1988 Irish are not teeth

some similarities 5 is

classes graduated is are

when compared to group are only very extend band for but less slightly to the

graduated), end of the The

and the

connect ing-plat there plates In form,

es do not a narrow usually

usually bevelled,

comb where connecting elliptical 6.2.8

vertical not decoration

an end-space. shallow ornate. connecting-plates A (1981) of

and semi-

and overall

is

Group 7: Norse single-sided This group three corresponds decorative and no border orientated to

with

deep thin Group

Ambrosiani

which

there'are Al

variants: lines, but there may be bands of incisions

no decoration vertically

A2 A3

ring

and dot motifs ornament, often in the -117form of a central band, flanked

interlaced

- Chapter by elongated All these es In connect ing-plat upper prof Ile 6.2.9 edge. fields combs with section

6-

echoing share straight the

the shape of the connecting the lower side characteristic edges and a a have >3.5: 1. low of gently

plate. elongated curving

plates

plano-convex

and a ratio

of depth

to thickness

Group 8: Norse single-sided This group four corresponds lozenges to decorative

with

thick

connect ing-pl Group B (1981)

at es of which

Ambrosiani

there B1 B2 B3 B4

are single vertical ring The

varieties:

or multiple lines

and dot ornament connect ing-plates ratio 9:

no ornament. are generally shallow is and thicker than 7 and the Group

group 6.2.10

of depth

to thickness

<3.5: 1.

Norse

single-sided

combs with this

rectangular from

section 7

connecting-plates , and 8. section, face is MacGregor (1985, - 90-91) The connecting-plates although profiled the with edges distinguishes group groups in crossprincipal invariably alloy

are approximately are normally grooves. 100-300mm in on later


'butterfly' Scandinavian one side of

rectangular and the The back is length.

rounded

longitudiunal vary from

straight. rivets
6.2.11

Examples are increasingly


Group This is 10: a

Copper

popular

examples.

Double-sided group of ends,

double-sided which may be offset

combs from

with the

'winged'/double other.

convex

6.2.12

Group

11:

Miscellaneous

Norse

and medieval

6.3

ANALYSIS OF THE DATA BASE This study thus does not necessitate to the same type the pins. by group, of 'multiveriatel IA comb Scottish Norse and

analysis forms and will wider

as needed to

be applied for their

The Scottish reviewing Subsequent the

be examined

group

evidence

circulation. -118-

- Chapter be

6-

medieval briefest

groups of terms.

will

only

discussed

in

the

most

general

and

6.4

DISCUSSION OF COMBGROUPS(figs

30-32)

6.4.1

Group 0: Late Three examples (1634-36). LBA levels (747),

Bronze Age type of this form come Ireland. similar from LBA/EIA contexts (1963,164) the comb at

Balevullin are is from

The only at is

parallels

known to MacKie On this

Lough Gara, very with the

basis

from Covesea probably

which from

to the Balevullin on that site

examples, which has neck pin

to be associated fragment

LBA activity

long

been recognised

bronze

ring-money,

a swan's

and an armlet 6.4.2

(Benton

1931; Shepherd

1983,333)

Group 1: 'Roman' Specifically Roman type mainly on the fig fig combs of Ledaig in form Scotland rather with are are than their the rare differing two examples activity with (Henshall fourth a and for

recognition example thickness from Keil from the the

is

basis

context,

wooden combs from

Crannog

teeth'(641-42; Cave (551-52; third weaving in date century tablet

32).

Most notable These

29) where there onwards. of of a distinctively Roman pottery All

was intermittent are associated Roman form which is probably

triangular 1950,150), century south on 552, century include are G, from

and a fragment (Fairhurst

1984,115). profiling

the examples half

are from the as seen the fourth

of Scotland. is (Keller a series contexts

The decorative

of the end-plate, second 1979). of of English 13 of

particularly 1971,

common from quoted in

the

G Clarke where circa example fig

examples in Clarke, to

from Lankhills, which The post-date Keil

12 out is 84,

such examples

365 AD (Galloway particularly fig 93).

1979,246-48). examples Group 2: There are from AD

similar

Lankhill

323 and 473 Ubid,

6.4.3

'Germanic' two, the

single-sided possibly south. three Of these examples the of this form in Langbank (659;. Dunlevy

Scotland, 1988 Irish AD

all

class are

examples

Ghegan Rock (215, fig 29; ibid Irish class and because of their the most well-known ornately -119-

- Chapter decorated suspension 'Earlier probably date backs. and they Iron-age belong to 21 the Their are

6-

arched decorated motifs

outlines with linear (Warner of of the

have

perforations of

for Warner's Both AD, a

versions first

style early on the

1983,168-69). millennium

centuries basis

range

suggested

their

decoration,

associated AD 75 13 from must be on the comes from century V). fifth

artefacts fort at (Gelling Loughcrew closely continent a cave copper century However, to tenth

and by a single Close-ny-Chollagh, 1958). There are

undecorated whose also Irish

comb from

a Manx promontory around than

occupation examples, the

ceased no less

(H S Crawford tied (Warner

1925) to which

Scottish

examples (685)

1983,168),

and early The Borness include

Roman parallels example and late

(Dunlevy where alloy Irish

1988,351). finds traces Clarke

associated brooches with

human skulls, Robertson

second first 1970,

of enamel, 1876; to

or second table the

AD samian

(W B

examples

similar

Ghegan Rock span about influence of late more debased

centuries. 1988,252-53).

They show the

Roman composite art styles

bone

combs amd a general

movement towards

(Dunlevy

6.4.4

Group This is

3: a

'Celtic' group and

miniature of Caithness from combs

combs which are mainly associated with

brochs There

in are

Orkney two

(2,256,600,619,1458,1625,2007). contexts:

examples

'dated'

Table
Date

10: Summary of dating


Context

evidence

for
Site

group

3 combs
Record ---------------1625 2007 no

of context ---------------2-1 C BC IC BC-2C AD

--------- - ---Period 3 Phase 7

-- ------------------Crosskirk Howe

None of suggests examples 1988,353). merely that are,

these this

dates

contradict to late

the

overwhelming

evidence times

which

was strictly dated these

a MIA form. combs to is that

Continental

and. Irish (Dunlevy and not beard combs

however, Assuming one

and post-Roman

small

be functional they were

symbolic,

interpretation

(MacGregor

1985,78).

6.4.5

Group 4: High-backed This numerous group

'Celtic' constitutes -120-

(fig the

29-30) most visually distinctive

- Chapter comb form. a LIA as the date Broch is of Most

6-

native which such

examples

are

associated other and the resolved. comparisons Howe, Skaill

with than

AP sites artefact

for types,

suggested Burrian, contexts

on grounds Saevar are few,

and St Boniface's date at which these Dunlevy (1988,356-

Churchyard. comb forms 57) the

'Dated' appear

has not

been clearly that

and Laing zoomorphic 1961). for to

(1975a,

300) argue

ornament In this

on some of specifically case 1985,88), Perhaps In

these belt

can be made between combs and late Roman/early (such the fifth are is as Hawkes and century no scientific the case, no 'Dated' is in

Anglo-Saxon Dunning called dates

metalwork, (MacGregor back have this been are: up.

buckles

a derivation although suprisingly early

there if this

examples Scottish Table

found

Anglo-Saxon

contexts.

examples

11: Summary of dating

evidence

for

group

4 combs Record no ----------201 2009,2013 247-48 2010-12, 2014-15 100,101, III of see

Date of context Context ----------------------------------LIA Ph Ib LIA Zone 4 Interface Site 2, midden 3 late 9-2nd 1/2 IOC Lower Norse late Norse phase V

Site ------------------Saevar Howe Brough of Birsay Skaill Brough of Birsay Buckquoy

Further group

evidence class

for I

a LIA Pictish

date

exists

in (Curle

representations 1982,95-96;

4 combs on It is

stones

discussion

in 97.2.1). postulated century class that the silver comb reported (2008) from early

nineteenth to this

excavations

at Burgar

may have been related

(Graham-Campbell

1985,252-53).

6.4.6

Group 5: Double-sided This is a common group on the but

Dark Age type found

A (fig the

29-30,

fig

32a-c) north as The

throughout mainland,

AP as far

Orkney,

also

southern which

such as at group from

Buiston.

many ambiguous to reinforce are:

examples

may belong

to either

5 or 6 serve contexts

this

distribution.

The examples

'dated'

-121-

- Chapter

6-

Table

12: Summary of dating

evidence

for

group

5 combs Record no -----------160 1305 710-12 202 56.2029-30, 2041 2056 1997 203 104 106 108-110 and it for for which phase is a 8

Date of context - --------------LIA 7-8C ? 7/8C ?8C 'Pictish' 'Pictish' LIA 9C early 9C ? 9/10C early 10C None of only levels 1757), the far the

Context --------------------Ph 8 Pre-rampart A Phase Ib Zone I&4 LIA Site 6, latest level last LIA phase Phase IIb Phase III Phase IV Phase V these combs are

Site ------------------Howe Dunollie Buiston Ssevar Howe Brough of Birsay Skaill Loch na Berie Saevar Howe Buckquoy Buckquoy Buckquoy with

associated but

MIA levels, also C-14 161) dates

example

from

Howe (160, can

possibly (GU-1749),

pre-seventh at

century Howe are

date cal

be suggested.

AD 399-600 (GU-2347). 4 combs it

cal

AD 530-648

(GUin as

and cal

AD 714-980 as group fifth 1982,95-6); for if the to the which

As combs of this may be that appear long (for 4 combs, has they

form appear too extend I

same levels back as the (Curle on sites even Prior could AD, from

century. as with a LIA

They also group is horizon

on class

symbol also or

stones occur known, 1262). life century forms,

most examples been suspected example that the than

stratigraphy Howe example be extended the third directly Dunlevy of the are

insecure there

Dunadd: their fifth Irish almost is . no Roman

was no evidence back dates

possibly although which

any

further

(1988,354-55) Dun Cuier to tenth related

similar is There potential

one to

examples century. to

(1154)

indistinguishable, evidence prototypes. 6.4.7 that

they

Group 6: Double-sided In comparison to groups into this in

Dark Age type 4 and 5 this the form the is range of

B (fig is

29,31) group, group Orkney, although 5/6. In Caithness from levels

a small in

many examples terms of

may fall

ambiguous found

distribution

mainly

and on a few occasions medieval producing levels at Roman and

Western Castle

Isles.

A recent

example

Edinburgh later

(sandwiched pottery: pers

inbetween

medieval -122-

comm P Yeoman)

- Chapter (2139) well that is a distinct it

6-

outlier;

also

confirms

that teeth.

LIA

combs,

as

as Roman combs, might this is

have differentiated

The possibility

in which case Anglo-Saxon cannot be discounted, actually At. it forms part of small assemblage of Anglo-Saxon found in artefacts A to the seventh century Anglian takeover southern Scotland and related of this Table area. 'Dated' examples are as follows: for group 6 combs Record no --- ---------2035 163-64 249-51, 2050-53 107 105 57-58,203234,2036-39, 2026 a resemblance were All that is imported. suggests but to one say preform on to tenth a LIA

13: Summary of evidence

Date of context Context Site - ---------------------------------------------------'Pictish' Brough of Birsay Zone 1 , LIA late ph 8 Howe Site 2, E wall house I Skaill post mid 8C early IOC 9/10C late 9-2nd Phase V Phase IV 1/2 IOC Lower Norse Buckquoy Buckquoy Brough of Birsay

Curle to

(1982,57) combs, of the of Birsay

points but

out

that

this

form that

bears they

Anglo-Saxon basis are the this

does not but are

believe

On the that (2035) that

Brough of Birsay date,

examples

she therefore levels,

they of only II

Norse

native

manufacture.

examples basis Ubid)

from Norse

and the But on the stones (Dunlevy

Howe examples and the

come from

an undisputed of this of fifth

Norse context. class century Pictish Irish

of the representation existence and Anglo-Saxon

1988,359)

parallels,

date may also

be suggested.

6.4.8 (fig 31)

Group 7:

Norse

single-sided of this the

with

deep thin

connect ing-plates

The earliest comb are northern 22, fig found England, 11.1), (1750). late not

examples only for in

form of Scandinavian homeland, and Ireland of Birsay in found

manufactured but also in 1981, and ranging

Scandinavian islands

the see In ninth

Scottish

(Ambrosiani (60,2018) contexts centuries.

example

Brough are if not

Drimore

Scotland

they

between the

and eleventh,

twelfth,

-123-

- Chapter 6.4.9 31) This Continent. rare BI form was widely distributed Group 8: Norse

6-

single-sided

with

thick

connect ing-plate Norse

(fig

In in

the the

period

on the but with type B2-4

Ambrosiani in

suggests

an origin

S Baltic,

occurrences ranges from into

Scotland 900 to

(1981,22, the later

fig-11.2). tenth

Ambrosiani century, 1973). thirteenth type

about the that

survives evidence contexts 6.4.10

eleventh

century

(Danielsson into

The Scottish century

suggests at Tarlshof. Group 9:

they

may survive

Norse

single-sided in tenth all

comb with

rectangular

section

connecting-plate This settlement, (MacGregor the form was widespread from the In Dublin 1969,62-3). and thirteenth butterfly widely There similar Yell, in early to medieval the thirteenth Scandinavian century of belong

ranging 1985,91). (Dunlevy

examples

pre-date at

the arrival Jarlshof

Normans

Examples centuries (fig 32d)

between the early 6.4.11

eleventh

(2126,2128-29).

Group 10: Double-sided This is a form found

Scandinavia,

and generally date Jarlshof broch at

of

twelfth 1982,51; 6). Liath,

to

thirteenth, Schia 1979,63). quotes

sometimes

fourteenth are examples

century from in the

(Batey (2135Carn

and Hamilton

combs found

on the Sands of Bracon,


Group A single 11: Miscellaneous will (550) a

and at Freswick.
and Medieval here., and Norse. this in that is an unusual is cave, cave another which can be and

6.4.12

Norse

example Cave of

be discussed which 7/8 is

piece

from

Keil piece

possibly comb with distinct from

There same this late

unexamined suggests divided Norse.

group

'that into

activity two

associated

combs

chronologically

phases,

Roman

6.5

SOMECOMMENTS MATERIALS AND TECHNIQUES IN COMBMANUFACTURE ON Wood, antler, bone, of horn and various combs, but metals antler combs. might Its be used for almost

the

manufacture for

single-piece manufacturing

was used

exclusively

composite -124-

superior

- Chapter in with

6-

mechanical 1983), in limitations composite

properties combination of this

comparison the

to

bone

(MacGregor

and

Currey physical of the

demands of resulted

fashion in the

and the development

raw material

comb (MacGregor all

1985,28-9). LIA combs are antler. was not the NP. used for Several It has been shown but its usage

Where known, in section this: or 5.3. that

extant antler in

LIA pins, reasons

became almost for that herds, materi. al Norse detailed deer

de riguer the

were suggested mainland raw Scottish or without or red her A Isles of be the very used, 1987, importing With with

Norse were better that they from

at managing or hunting were their specifically homeland. to prove, elk,

more probably or finished

products the

combs the analysis

second case is of

much easier

raw material demonstrates

(whether

reindeer

antler);

Ambrosiani

on the basis Scandinavia

of form that to the British analysis would There is

and B combs were being (1981,31-40, material worthwhile, British for 18); the used for, imitations fig for in 11).

imported'from However, combs of

further found total

work on the in Scotland

Norse the cannot

absence

analysis discounted. (Hill

of materials 1986,8-9; Brough

be entirely

evidence

Norse manufacture (pers in litt;

of combs at Whithorn possibly forth); and there no 287). sites 1919), connecting of an of is

Pool

comm I Hunter);

at Birsay

Road sites the type the Brough comb (1263) holes, It may local, of LIA

I and 2 (C Batey used In itself

a clamp of at

comb manufacture (Curle is 1982. ill limited Howrat length that it

from the Lower Norse horizons 20, to cat the Smith Pre-Norse Caird's

evidence Cave,

for

manufacture Castle Hill. where a long suggesting alternatively Scotland for the

Rosemarkie;

(546; of

and possibly plate incomplete Certainly the

Dunadd

apparent part in

has no rivet comb. natives

forms of

be part were using

a comb case. it

antler

comb manufacture,

presumably

very

material the more

simple reason that Its non-usage to use. suprising, because superfluous been

the most suitable was technically for LIA pins is perhaps therefore all tines, to the appropriate comb-making were for not for pins, would More

usually likely All LIA

have the

process. the

LIA

comb-maker had the home-industry, specialists.

and pin-maker raw materials but In

same person. which were have metal

households a by

bone pins

essentlally undertaken manufactured,

comb-making addition, bone pins for

was probably the

a craft

metalworkers casting

could of

or

even

borrowed.

-125-

- Chapter replicas. Whilst entails describes rectangular direction on either antler Rivets with a requiring fairly in some some dexterity, simple detail). side process Thin by side

6-

the (which plates their

manufacture MacGregor of grain long,

of

combs

1985,74-75 roughly in the

antler, running are then relatively to the teeth

are placed of the side

with

proposed The grain

teeth.

Using a clamp they of

secured narrow teeth. are cut

with

two connect ing-plates of these runs the together.

strips. secure

at right

angles

all

plates

Subsequently

An example from Dun Culer (1154) has lightly a saw and shaped. scatched lines intended at the butt end of the teeth, possibly as a for the person using the saw. guideline Where necessary toothany plate above and dots, the connect ing-plates as required. with designs. Before is cut off or takes incised shaped, the lines, must and decoration ring applied Decoration a bit-like iron as form of or have

usually

achieved

implement,

sometimes required enough

compass-drawn sharp metal

Open work

and arcading have

tools. of

tools these

became sophisticated would Iron been an

the

manufacture

combs such

impossibility. Rivets material used were iron combs, where used in in the to its the secure general the combs very. is the and it main was

because of

availability and Norse but

and strength, periods. on Scottish which

extensively popular note but their

pre-Norse Ireland,

Bone rivets examples, has bone and on native period, (see in Norse full

pre-Viking repaired

rare

although

comb from Dun Mor Vaul alloy rivets in never the to

rivets

(1689).

Copper

appear early the

become Increasingly decorative group 9). potential

popular

was exploited rivets decorative.

particular and their Ivory no longer

The number. of becomes very

increases

dramatically,

arrangement and horn extant.

in LIA Scotland, combs, if they ever existed are Fortunately, however, a few wooden combs have common for AD levels at Ledaig toilet nor combs in the at Newstead; in there Roman period J Curle 1911,

survived. (such 311),

Wood was particularly second century examples no extant alloy, But Pictish LIA silver

as from the and Scottish There are iron, their

survive

Moss (641-43). combs are Scotland of the

metal

either for discovery

copper casting.

or gold,

any moulds to

documentary

records

pertaining Broch, Orkney

of the

lost

hoard from Burger


-126-

mention

- Chapter silver combs. They are

6-

characterised disagree, the 4. hoard

as having but overall high-backed

rounded, this

perforated second-hand Celtic type

backs with description

teeth. equates the

Details well with

combs of cites that century. Irish

(Graham-Campbell silver comb from

1985),

group by the

Graham-Campbell which the confirms ninth

a unique combs Otherwise literature comb Ubid, do

Cuerdale

silver

were known in

NW Europe on the

end of to

we are dependent contains 258, note occur from Munro at least 23).

occasional

reference;

early

one reference Copper alloy in the British closely An 1905, 1929, 100.14).

a woman with whilst

a silver

examples, Isles

unknown in Scotland, the Frisian

elsewhere Whitby: 1890, fig

(such as an open-backed paralleled on iron too comb from coarse item

example terps: Dunadd to

anon

open-backed fig 52) is

(Christison

and Anderson hair.

and heavy

have been a comb for The handling the their been

comb was an expensive with care are otherwise the

and teeth that If

valuable they

which break. used, would that of

required Combs of even by have

would easily are rarely they broken

Cu eskimos owners carefully to be

so valuable 1969,87).

(Dunlevy repaired.

often harm's

Perforations on the person

suggest or out

many were way. the

intended Alternatively pegs which

suspended

some of held

the perforations but LIA

may possibly Such is comb-cases Dunlevy

have been for the (in

them in a comb-case. no Ireland:

certainly are known

case for either

many Norse Scotland or

examples,

contemporary of are three

1988,373). symbol stones woven

Suggested (Allen purses examples and or of

representations Anderson pouches 1903)

comb cases not

on Pictish There

convincing. instead. Birsay

Leather are

or

may have been used from

several 16),

Norse comb-case: with from Freswick 1956,

(61,2024-25), (Wainwright

a complete from with Jarlshof a raised

example (2119; ridge be a

comb from a grave Links fig

at Skaill (2100) and

1962, pl

an example

fragment plate Galson

Hamilton resembling fragment

77.8). plate,

A riveted from

a connecting of a case (1182).

may possibly

also

f*f*f

Each comb type The next chapter will

has been discussed extract

and reviewed the

in

this

chapter. for LIA

and draw together


-127-

evidence

- Chapter

6-

pins

and

combs, dating

and

will

provide

an

up-date

and

summary

of

the

available

evidence.

-128-

CHAPTER 7:

OVERVIEW OF THE DATING EVIDENCE FOR LIA

PINS AND COMBS

- Chapter

7-

CHAPTER 7: OVERVIEWOF THE DATING EVIDENCE FOR LIA PINS AND COMBS

In and

the

last

two chapters was reviewed.

the

dating These

evidence chapters

for took

individual into

pin account

comb' types pins In the the

Scottish medieval, context. from this Ultimately

and combs of so that chapter artefacts this LIA

the the

IA to

NP (as well could for is

as the be seen of is the

occasional in data, their and

example)

LIA. examples

an overview for

provided

are, extracted these of major the

detailed

discussion. up-dated dating and are

dating But the

evidence these have

artefacts

summarised. emphasised analysis how these of

limitations

available for

because

implications Some suggestions

subsequent

the settlement might

evidence.

are made as to

limitations

be ameliorated.

7.1

OVERVIEWOF CLASSIFICATION

7.1.1

Overview By weighing

of

Scottish

Pins of into propositions several made In discrete chapter (data 5, the base

up the can

series

pin field A.

data

base

be divided

groups

= class): definitely for MIA pins forms, decorated Roman-style bone or although ring-heads pins metal pins, commonly and 36 of a general and Irish projecting Sea with hipped not necessarily type of E local

manufacture, B. C. shanks, D. culture ring-head E.

example or

and Fowler

Roman imports, LIA fashions,

- short

notably MIA/ LIA

groups fashions for

3-11,14A. which example 15 period example

19,24-25,27-28 are some a of part the

province, groups

ring-head

and group Norse

distinctively milieu, lobed

pins loose

which

tend

to

belong

to

an-Irish heads

Sea cultural with F. fillets,

for heads

ring-heads, 16-17.

disc/lozenge

and groups

Anglo-Saxon The distribution

imports of C each and of D these are groups potentially has been relevant plotted to in any

figs

33-35. on of

- Classes LIA

discuss.

settlement.

- 129-

- Chapter
7.1.2 Overview were 4-6 are Scottish into and Combs

7-

of

I The combs (MIA); Groups settlement, groups 4-6

divided (LIA);

11 groups: groups relevant of these

group

0 (LBA); and

groups

2-3

7-11 to has

(Norse any been

medieval). of in fig LIA 36.

potentially distribution

discussion plotted

and the

7.2

THE DATE RANGE OF THE PINS AND COMBS Up to now of the LIA to pins date, and yet In combs have simply 3.1.3 parts, it LIA been was I described suggested and LIA II, need as that on to

potentially the either ask I. 2. 3. are: What are Do these If In obviously manufacture presents implications. recognisable developments nature of There typology,
by scientific,

section into two

LIA

may need side of

be broken cal AD 600.

about

The questions

we therefore

the

date

ranges the

of

these into work of the the and date is

artefacts? LIA break these earliest I and II? division? classes latest bracket it date of is of

respect why,

divisions future date

so,

and might the to

down this artefact and each different to to are of

evaluating necessary and different The LIA over native/Norse are or two

range

consider of

circulation problems earliest settlement time.

artefacts, has

which

archaeological identifying understanding relevance to when its the

crucial and dates

began, latest

The interaction.

main

means the

of

dating In
the

these they

artefacts, were
of

either found, usually

by

by dating means
A

context
by

which
typology

occasionally

other

associated

artefacts.

7.2.1 In certainly, attached merit the hip.

Dating terms

the Appearance of decoration few

of LIA Pins LIA pins no Hunter both

and Combs by Typology are dating very disappointing, significance unusual pins (pers of can from comm) ogam. around and be Pool that In the

with to a pin individual 1493-94

exceptions, basis.

on this attention.

Several

contends display

examples

(figs latter similarity

24 and 27) Its runs

versions in a circle

case' of the Whilst a

unintelligibly

to ogam is undeniable, so is a resemblance Note also a whorl from the to other geometric designs of this era. decoration Broch of Burrian ogam (MacGregor 1974. cat resembling with - 130-

- Chapter no 252, found at fig 18). whorl Circular inscriptions

7-

(wheel-ogams) 1977, cat sources

have also fig

been

on the

at Buckquoy 1972,13).

(A Ritchie Irish

no 84,

8) and may have and even on the are

Elphinstone

(Padel

suggest

they

had a magical weaker wide case, flat pin

significance is put forth Pool. there from

(Padel for

1972,13-14).

A similar, scratches

some unintelligible

Ogam inscriptions is an

on portable no 84),

objects

altogether inscription handles, 1962,96) 1987 11, not date. There of the flat late.

rare; one from and cat All the

unintelligable 1977,181, at

eighth

century (Wainwright (Hedges are to

from Buckquoy pre-Norse other fig

(A Ritchie contexts from 2.22),

and two knife

Bac Mhic Connain levels at

post-broch which

Gurness

no 252, these

Padel

(1972,12)

considers and difficult

inscriptions

are unintelligible the designs on the

can be no doubt wide pin disc (1493) and Z-rod circular

that

front

and reverse symbols

from Pool are remnants a 'notched Pool, This and Is dated unfortunately fifth on art for date the

of Pictish

(a double end' the from Pool

and part-of disc levels

rectangle distinct

and curved in claims stone (ph form that in This 4d)

or perhaps earliest all has other

and rectangle). at

comes from one of

pin-producing

known Scottish the only

examples. scientifically disc Iron but

The excavator ,

produced also in Hunter with of

symbol atypical. site

Scotland. appeared which century. occur silver below). I

a double the early Pictish stone

one

Age levels or

on the

(pers of

comm) considers symbols 1976). pins

more probably are the rare, Norries

sixth but Law (see Cform,

Examples In silver, hand-pin

mobiler example is typical either, by

bronze,

and bone, Their are Class

(Stevenson the

problematic Class

As few of has not

above to

of

and none of analysis Attempts

them belong

typical helpful

D forms their combs

typological

been very been the

In dating date the

appearance. art-historical depicted. 4 combs, 300)

have

made to

means, studying class There I and II

either Pictish that

decoration

on the combs, or the sculptured they arecommonly on the back of group places 1988,356-57; Laing

stones

upon which

are arguments with to early fifth

the decoration parallels (Dunlevy examples One of examples, -131-

together. the but date is fourth there the

Irish century

Q6.4.5),

some of them in 1975a, . pre-

are no Scottish seventh similar century. to Irish

from contexts the Dun Cuier is dated

which otherwise combs (1147), excavator to

which the

very

by the

- Chapter seventh from ninth century. the The Irish fourth to fifth

7-

evidence century, found

suggests

that

the in

form the

evolved sixth to tenth.

about

was popular as late at Lough Gara,

centuries, of of

but 'was also

possibly

as the which

The date examples Otherwise

200 AD applied this is form, little is

to deposits probably

produced

too

early

(Dunlevy

1988,357). 5 and 6

there

distinctive

decoration

on the class

combs to which any chronological significance can be attached. Turning to the symbol stones, in conjunction combs, often mirrors, are two of the most common Pictish Cecil symbols. (1982,95-96) and II on class believe similar innovation. been made symbol 1. that observes stones that differ, the that II (fig representations is the 37). groups There of

with Curle I

combs on class

group

6 on class

4 and 5 appear only Is further reason to for group groups whether extend I to they appear in 6 was a later 5 and 6 or the not has the

groups Curle's on the

4 and 5 are contexts. distinction basis of

contemporary, It seems that

archaeological

between sculpted proportions (where there and indicated)

connecting the rule:

plates Maiden plates of the of

and teeth grounds Stone do not (fig

end of to her the the 6. is A a of

comb. ' On'these at

are two possible and Meigle the

exceptions (fig

37.35)

37.34)

connecting proportions wider single form variety

extend

to the end of example 37.25),

comb, although suggest group There with teeth

Maiden Stone

perhaps I

combs are example but "the

displayed (fig

on class

stones. be imitating are 4.

double-sided

apparently

different'thickness (group Examples exact the parallels backs, 1),

on each side, 5 or as being

which may thus of similar but it

a Roman

majority

examples to group

immediately

recognisable

as group of group for

4 are obvious,

the representations of Roseisle most of this but

must be emphasised that be found. Some of can rarely (fig the are relatively 'and ornately decorative these are need artistic not be therefore is perhaps 37.10)

such as Easterton

easily shaped and faithful

paralleled, examples or

otherwise In part

are not. abstract

is

because

stylish,

representations the accurate the

renderings, '(although representations combs is of 4 which

which this

surprising But in may been it have

considering addition be

of groups few, and the which

5 and 6). have

the range

of extant 'range

combs depicted might Alternatively none of which

representing in

examples

manufactured

perishable of group

materials,

such as wood. are depicted,

may be prototypes'

- 132-

- Chapter
come down to But symbol the

7-

us. next questions they the the to ask to are date what the is are the date of the

stones,

and can to

be used second supposed that

artefacts no; In the fact

represented it is of very the be

on them? surprising Pictish portraying there stones symbols The are

The answer considering symbols

question ancestry any models one of

of symbol its

majority should

(Thomas

1963)

seem to The fact

contemporary, at leat suggest decline is important forms in This circulation, is the even comb upon that three that

up-dated different this been this and of

form.

that

comb groups was happening, (for and what

represented in contrast Murray

on these to other 1986). was the no

would whose

has

charted symbol continuous

example it

implication

represented Perhaps based abstract the mirror found were

particularly artefactual longer only. with the bone 271)

significance. symbols to being that of are

which and thus

the

other relegated

symbols form in

more is of from

suprising

considering is

which early mirror is Yet

always the first

juxtaposed millennium Connain

a form

only

centuries handle

AD (Fox

1949). 1976,

One such cat no

Bac

Mhic

(M MacGregor

unstratified. this (recently I dates example century 4 and raises the whole question in late with 1955b, Ralston fifth associated 1976). then If of the and (Thomas C-14 date Inglis 1963; date) of class I and II

stones Class recent eighth class tpq there the group Brough suggests for is early 6

summarised between from the

1984,28-33). note and also seventh at the or

Pool

(Stevenson 5 combs the first class

we knew the would II stones which to

date

which

appeared, I over stones. their is

this

supply are is

a further later, from and about that the

some of more eighth combs of

Class date

agreement century. need

range,

There this. form always distribution stones and

no other Despite is Norse, case. of group of the

evidence the the

suggest from

pre-date that this

evidence sculpted

Birsay that this of Class There 5 and 6. Anglian have pins is

evidence

was not the I

the

Comparison informative. exclusive. of art; combs, groups this

stones are in

and almost the

combs mutually

is

4 combs overlap

a greater Class II

degree sculpture

distribution

was influenced explaining on this

by Northumbrian why group sculpture. for which no 6

contact Anglo-Saxon and combs

may go

some way to appear the

which Often

parallels, come from

same contexts,

- 133-

- Chapter
scientific 'dated' late which centuries Ritchie 1983), grounds seventh Area II by seventh can be (see 1977) there for dates

7-

are

available. means, AD. This is but

These never

sites/contexts any of further absence fifth such Saevar there earlier of as back of

are than

often the

typological century

because to Thus

the

artefacts and sixth (A

specifically section and are pushing At the no

assigned 3.1.3). earlier

the at

fourth, sites at are any

Buckquoy Howe

excavations dates, the material of Birsay century, nor

(Hedges

scientific any the late of

any

typological the late in in from the

than the

century. is

Brough eighth in Curle

most

activity

considered and

although

excavations pins into

Room 5 structural mid and a

(Hunter

Morris whose The

1982,124-38) C-14 of dates this

produced extend settlement is fourth brooch 29, phase for a back is

contexts century. Ubid, 95) brooch may, Howe:

associated full nature that

seventh Curle penannular

unknown, at fifth from by

suggests of Fowler

earlier class F,

occupation possibly

hinted or comes 9). the

century late

(which levels In at

however, Smith when

be

scrap; cat

a similar no 1, fig

forth, the

conclusion, 4-6 combs Despite In the that century by the the AD. same and

typological is

evidence compared, artefacts cannot some how of this be

date

of is been any be is

group apparent. found further fifth affected

class the fact

C pins that the

contradiction have dated the often back may

these pins but

contexts, century remains of

seventh It

AD, to be

combs discrepancy

seen dates.

evidence

scientific

7.2.2 At to are the

Dating the writer

the time for

First of

Use of

LIA

Pins C-14

and Combs by Scientific scientific LIA pins most that 660, dates and striking so many of and no of are

Means available and combs of begin the in This

writing, contexts with dates , cal

only

producing these. (fig AD 38) 530

combs,

rarely

associated of from with these about several the In

The is to steep which

aspect them earlier. the

distribution the period

coincides calibration inversion the upon either in the Atlantic this side date

particularly last 63.1.3 reflect effect cal - of it the the

sections is also that of broken the

Trondheim with dates an for curve parts, on

curve, (fig 5). Province period. of of --In about the

associated the known

was sfiown effects LIA This these is

calibration two to

up into seems

AD 600. which

division pins and

be reflected from, and

context

combs

come

- 134-

- Chapter thus to they to be exclusively of the of

7-

would

appear the

LIA II. C-14

However, that

it

remains is to the its

question

the of

relevance sample to a series 5.2): there

these context,

samples, the

relationship associated 1987,113-15, of the event

and of

context in

material, fig being

relationships

summarised between datable

Taylor date

may be a disjunction date of the event for datable the event

the

sought

and the the

by C-14 closest date Is dated the

analysis; datable actually event

or a gap between event being that 'or

event to

by C-14 and the which the between iies

can be related there sought. accurate being

sought; date

may be a disparity Thus responsibility archaeological the

the with

and the

archaeologists choice testing. But, as if of

to ensure

observations for

and the rigorous

relevant to record

samples,

and with that the this

laboratories

emphasise is real,

gap In dates Is it

the for

C-14 and present phase 7 and 8 at coincidence LIA style but

archaeological

later

Howe can be seen to predate that Howe's later phases, pins, in the extend at Atlantic as the far time as these terminate

this which the

period. only sixth to are

more than two possible introduced discounted at

produce being

mid-seventh

century, that Howe

fashions (It cannot of

elsewhere the may

Province? industrial for their

be totally later

predominantly possibly it II. which applied, 7.2.3 account

nature absence).

activity basis

Thus on the the division are fifth

of C-14 data

does seem that Yet, on

LIA pins

may respect artefacts a

between LIA I and with date combs to might be

as some of art-historical something is

these

associated century

grounds amiss. for Reassessing

1 A Suggestion

the

Date of

the

First

Appearance

of LIA Pins bone or possible

and Combs Techniques of C-14 dating antler to (0.2-0.5gm date from part of of

can now date compact or the bone, comb. date

very ideally

small

quantities 5-10 gm); it were dates

of is

a pin

As both their

probably would deriving were and

manufactured obviously from from the C-14

contemporary than Firstly,

skeletal

sources. of the other

be more relevant same contexts. 'dated' artefacts which contexts, could

samples

where

samples

submitted context

the

relationship compared. sites,

between

associated. could

be usefully

Secondly,

examples assumed

be tested

come from type - 135-

such as Buckquoy,

- Chapter to be late the is

7-

seventh

century

at the earliest. distort

Whilst

appreciating C-14 dates, accurately

that this

calibration the only

curve

may yet

the resultant hope to it is

means by which such as this division

we can ever

estimate to know real.

when forms whether 7.2.4.

appeared. Into

Obviously

imperative is

the current Dating

a LIA I and/or

LIA II

the Last artefact

Use of LIA Pin and Comb Types may have one of four possible life cycles by archaeologists:

A LIA prior to its

form

recovery

-----------IPeriod of Imanufacture I -----------1 LIA I -----------121 LIA I --- I -----------131 LIA I --- I -----------141 NP I --- I ------------

[---I

I ----------IPeriod of I use I ----------I LIA I ----------I LIA I ----------I LIA + NP I ----------I NP I -----------

I ----------IPeriod of Ideposition I ----------I LIA ----------LIA ----------I NP I ----------I NP I -----------

I ----------------------JDate of archaeological I context I ----------------------I LIA ----------------------NP ----------------------NP ----------------------I NP I -----------------------

I I I I

TIME

Distinguishing generally material req uire culture

between, C-14 dates;

LIA

and

Norse in

contexts most

does of

not the

differences

aspects

are profound. 1, an artefact Norse, NP. the It which is LIA in fashion and use, is by nor does it to be manufactured

In scenario not the adopted natives in

by the

continue

an abrupt change in perhaps suggests However, examples of such artefacts aspects of the material culture. 2 or 3 if scenario be found in a Norse context might, none the less, occurs. In deposited Norse earlier context two detail pins sites scenario in 2 an artefact context, of is issue because is but rubbish LIA in fashion finds or the and use, its and is a of a LIA ultimately survival, way Into

context, from

disturbance

archaeological which they it the

strata.

Thus the artefact

Is residual

to the There in are some of

recovered of

by the archaeologist. can be examined a long and varied

where

residuality produced

because over

have both

sequence

the LIA and NP, namely the Brough of Birsay - 136-

and Pool.

- Chapter Recent not produce by Hunter

7-

excavations any location in Area II of LIA In

(1986)

at the Brough but There the is

of Birsay

did

relevant these

artefacts, finds,

earlier

pre-war over the

excavations horizontal is not

were prolific. (Curle pins it

no problem the

although 1982.15), through

vertical so various

stratigraphy approximate can be to compare and for the Norse

always of (fig 39).

so

clear fashion theory of LIA

distribution plotted both also period the Although basis the

phases

might

have been possible and levelling this were moulds) the is up in

distribution

artefacts levels, In

and contemporary paving and was therefore practice activity by

settlement;

to estimate in five

to what extent levels. of been earlier Pictish

had disturbed pins later zones pins, have of them.

responsible not (on

possible. the of these to

recognised the extent

of the to

but more particularly limited

appears

somewhat than areas be

unsystematic investigate were indeed with No save a AD Ibid, Included which 57). were The

investigations conserve underneath thoroughly Radford's identifiable small 4, well for

archaeologists the it (This Norse is

who were more concerned horizons which may structural to these

presentation As a result investigated.

unclear problem the

resolved evidence). zones

forthcoming structures (Curle

publication can bronze

of

be attributed in the

1982,15). with

The area as a whole, working late the St Ninian's objects pin extant perhaps of of Isle

particularly eighth century

zone

was concerned basis

(on the 95), are

of analogies for small

with

material; use. of

mainly fairly on the

decorative multiple the pins, core

personal a Ubid, few illus

numerous of these nearby in the Ironically

moulds, pins all dies,

modelled

some of

concentration reflect 4 fit

in zone 4 must surely Moulds are in Zone

industrial the well

activity.

concentrated them.

area around metal

in Zone 1, but pins

pins of this kind are very rare in the The pins in Zones 1-3 and 5 may just current archaeological record. be a tell activity area, brought up into later off from this central horizons therefore recognisable pins by Norse disturbance of earlier strata. of whether record, are but area, III, None of residuality or whether LIA it fashion is not this is these pins known to our understanding archaeological into houses activity -137the in Area in this life Norse

contributes in

the domestic

had an extended from the

NP. There

and moulds whether

there

was any LIA

indeed

known LIA

- Chapter activity At particularly architecture to revet on the Pool in is

7-

site the

still is

not an

very

extensive

(Hunter more the likely

1986). problem, the the

residuality involved

inherently where is

pre-Norse excavating

periods, earlier in

semi-subterranean spoil reason (1804). seem sites Pool Of LIA

middens late

and using probably levels

dwellings. type

Such major E pin less of could digging pins contrast

disturbance

why a Fowler Norse to building have

appear Into has

Pictish

techniques,

whilst

involving the

some disturbance, Of all in any the detail,

involved

ground. studied

where exhibits fashion of the

the

sequence the starkest

been

between known LIA and NP levels. levels, in only four definitely levels,

the 25 forms

appearing have

in pre-Norse been recovered Contrary to the

groups

subsequent of the

and none (pers have been the

these

have hips. the

opinion

excavator

comm J Hunter) earliest

earliest the

excavated on the effects

Norse levels which initial

may not Interface

Norse horizons Moreover,

site, of the

would

exacerbate

contrast. cannot because Norse. Norse. to of But

period

be assessed. a LIA-fashion the It form artefact may also with be found the natives is in a NP context Incoming by the

was still

popular is

and/or or re-used

may thus type

have been kept of the scenario ly, of time

as an heirloom, one which perhaps

This

virtually by the

impossible presumed of state the

recognise the object

archaeological at of Its

except

deposition,

and a knowledge fashion

circumstances The fourth be popular there is

deposition. scenario Norse is where a LIA natives, can only levels. for in the date of LIA pins but later This proves to to

possible in the for the

with

the Norse and/or

surviving In the

and continues be proved

be manufactured evidence What then and combs? not In

period.

where

manufacture implications are would for

are

of this that

Class

C pins which Norse,

commonly found suggest their natives

Norse

contexts,

antler, them.

they could

manufactured manufacture limited. of Birpay

by the

although

being were not have continued to any period at the as likely by itself class In C is Brough to this pins

Evidence

A fragment (Hunter

of worked cat

in manufacture bone from Norse levels illus 77) is just

1986,

no 1344,

be an unfinished single continued example to

head as an unfinished is not sufficient in the to

hipped prove

shaft; that

be manufactured

Norse

period.

conclusion

- 138-

- Chapter there LIA forms evidence dilemma. especially culture nature is to prove or that immediately sites the the with that

7-

nothing pins, the from In

the Norse either continued

manufactured to manufacture Only to resolve

or wore these further this most

fashion in

natives

post-Interface an Interface can

period. help

cases

where an Interface pins emphasise that

has been recogised, all aspects of

Pool,

material

and structural of the For interaction

evidence

understood. cease, It ceased Norse there did

example, it

the true must be examined before between natives and incomers can be how long does it take for a fashion to and how long to date the before discarded items

why should is to

cease,

become incorporated

in the archaeological or to circulate. covering even point it is in into so

record? period Group when class 15 pins well be D pins such the form into

even more difficult be manufactured assemblage, that

a diverse

many centuries, function cannot about

period,

a uniform the NP.

suggested; this form

seems little or did to As with

even worrying

whether

not continue pins,

difficult or

to recognise went out of from

when LIA style circulation. Norse contexts. natives, Norse?

combs Were or did The

ceased these they

be manufactured LIA style did to be they

A large

number of

combs was excavated continue in to Both

residual, continue for

to be used by the by natives all levels this and of is

manufactured

and/or scarce. is went loss, Issue

evidence evidence the

comb manufacture with by which the discovery.

The main the out have state of of the or

we have

examine pins

comb upon context

combs

systemic Intentional incorporated perhaps case.

processes

either in

discard

deposition. into the

Some examples archaeological if the

may therefore almost 1,3 where it is

become or

record

complete, there likely

complete However,

but worn condition in case of

processes 2,

and 4 were the was that broken such a

process have for

disturbance a complete (such

of the or It near

primary

archaeological comb will be propounded

context,

complete not that

become further slighter objects,

an argument

could

as pins). Norse 2032;

does appear only three

of over 20 examples were virtually found in of

of LIA combs from complete earlier LIA (2011;

contexts 2034). this in

examples the

More complete may suggest Norse contexts

combs are that

contexts, style unless combs the

therefore appearing

majority

were residual. - 139-

Otherwise,

- Chapter reasons is difficult for deposition to explain differ this

7-

significantly disrepancy.

from

phase

to

phase

it

7.3

REVISION

OF STEVENSON'S Stevenson hipped pins

1955 CHRONOLOGY suggests [class that: seventh century or later

To recapitulate, 1. in 2. 3. third hipped early certain date certain wire' to composite projecting seventh pins; as the that first short

C3 are

combs

are

of are

late

Roman or to

post-Roman brochs,

date that with be century, is of the as

ring-heads, century pottery century are II of date,

secondary

and thus

may be contemporary them pins century the may, are however, fourth date period

impressed AD; seventh

with

ibex-headed to eighth

and many hand-pins 4. 'native' pins

[group

151 may overlap century. suggestion. that There in a late it the Is

between

the

broch-building With that early that there

and the seventh to the first respect is very century had its little

has pins no

been did

demonstrated pre-date the

evidence Q7.2.1-2). origins is yet that This on

seventh this form

Scottish or fifth

evidence century pin. are

Roman Roman or

fashion, Thus these

although pins

there are as

the'occasional exclusively some of is these LIA

post-Roman there

II,

although may in come may fact from be as

grounds the

for

suggesting century. combs which AD. to of the

pins they

pre-date the early same as

seventh as

because

context the fifth With excavated It can

typological

grounds,

century respect examples now be

combs at

(chapter the time

6,07.2)

there

were

not

many

these that

when Stevenson these combs as are late 4

was writing. Roman, as the may as there LIA or fourth be as 5 no of

suggested 1),

some of they

Roman-style century early combs, evidence Group example illustrated in the early as AD. the

(group On LIA 'may

and that

may date group same

art-historical I. They occur be

grounds, 'in the

combs

contexts As Roman whilst yet and only

group is

which for 6 combs

therefore

contemporary. between in date;

chronological are LIA from II II a

overlap and secure later

types.

a single form Is

comes

pre-Norse stones which

context, are assumed

the to

on class eighth to

symbol AD.

commence

century

With

regard

wire-projecting - 140-

ring-heads

(5.6.7),

this

form

- Chapter is probably the

7-

most

chronologically wide date between AD. the

Insensitive

of

all

metal

IA

pins,

and an extremely contexts dating mid first

range is suspected. first century No example from as class It

They have been BC until as late

found in as the

millennium in the

recent

excavations thus, contra

have been found Stevenson, part broch in the III they why it

same context

C pins, remains in

need not

be contemporary. certain pottery Is the any, sites for

to examined in both ranges of and is

was that

produced it having

artefacts. levels, LIA

Pin-impressed and there II. have None of produced

has been found

pre-broch I date

no evidence sites nor There for has It

been produced in

which

a post-LIA

suggested with class Ibex contradict degenerate therefore

been found

association to a may

C pins. heads are rare. has is no new evidence century at with which Stevenson's version be as late fourth recognised to ninth late century. Craig is date, Dunadd,

suggested been as the seventh

although which

centuries. early or examples sixth are fifth

Hand-pins late fourth

have a wide the into the

suggested majority

date-range:

century,

are

century, mould for

and continue manufacture century, But the

eighth the

or ninth Gurness comes C-14 of this

A possible

of a hand-pin

at Clatchard

assumed to be eighth similar date. and is Olabhat. AD 90-340 correct, this 15: artefact 95.5.15),

and by analogy most with the recent a very

example may be of from date Eilean of cal are for

example early

associated which, major if

(2-0,

associations to

sample

requires form. these

amendments to the With regard

suggested pins in

chronology heads MIA, the but

globular

(group

were with LIA II

certainly levels

manufactured which As

are but

rarely they

associated are found in

may be LIA I

(as at Howe), still they

and Norse contexts. Stevenson and his the brochs the

Most examples suggests, seventh evidence for chronology

come from non-dated period as yet

contexts. between little

the may overlap but there is century, this. to suggest that and that heads

associated Stevenson

dating used could

post-seventh post-broch, 'native' pottery meant assumed,

century

activity II [globular with

be recognised heads],

on brochs,

pre-seventh pins that

century

activity pin

was also wire This time-span - 141-

recognisable projecting evidence, than

where and

impressed

them was found. had a longer

he claimed,

wheelhouses

was previously

- Chapter extending , activity present century into the second half on it but broch is the now the

7-

of sites

first until to of

millennium the Norse

AD, and that arrived. post-seventh cannot be On

continued evidence activity,

possible

recognise LIA I activity

recognition

proved by the presence

of pins

and combs alone.


4***f

This LIA pins

chapter

has reviewed Whilst

and up-dated limitations to of

the

dating

evidence knowledge

for have for

and combs.

present

been expressed. it is now possible Atlantic Province LIA settlement.

re-examine

the

evidence

- 142-

CHAPTER 8:

REVIEW OF SETTLEMENT EVIDENCE IN ORKNEY AND CAITHNESS

- Chapter
CHAPTER 8:

8-

REVIEW OF SETTLEMENT EVIDENCE IN ORKNEY AND CATIHNESS

This and in

chapter in

reviews the

the

evidence chapter

for

LIA settlement a general places review this

in

Orkney of LIA

Caithness; in

following

settlement its

the whole

of the Atlantic The sites

Province which

evidence LIA pins on bearing settlement

contemporary

context.

have produced

first, because these have direct and combs are discussed the date 'and *nature on broch and alternative of activity forms. With regard is necessary to the brochs it to between the activity and the 94.1.2). the and activity to attempt has been the two in the broch itself, Is it the date of with to

distinguish the the earliest pins the and the by-

outbuildings, combs nature product, remains, Once each form incorporating artefacts, is these detail but (see of

activity In each of to these

which case identify from

associated is pins any

necessary and

assess

which

the

combs are

contemporary developments for is did

structural on the site.

distinguishing site

earlier the

reviewed. different from sites less IV.

evidence

each settlement drawn together, LIA

within

counties which

evidence are in forms

not

produce

none the appendix the

relevant. 11.3,

The settlement or is not ritual

evidence use of in

summarlsed sites here. A further

The ecclesiastical of and

subject

discussed

comment must be made here has The first taken a to chronological, recorded mean those as first the al that

about this living to a

the

use of and

the

term

Pictish, connotations. is generally line, Clyde division., have

which

geographical use of people opposed

cultural AD 297 and the Forthcultural known to in is of

name was in north of

geographical basis

necessarily movement is the

On the

no known population appearance after earlier of (1984,9;

the coincided with historical Alcock sources, prepared Scotland, f ow how back A A Ritchie use of to the this consider Caledoni term that et

name Picti 1955,15) inhabitants is not

Wainwright recorded but

were Proto-Pictish, whilst

certain to the of term

can be projected has adopted

retaining

some validity. approach present term

(1985,183) term the the

the

Pictish'and archaeologist century

a more conservative the that 'in considers ought not earliest'. to use I the the
-143-

state "Pictish"

knowledge, prior to

sixth

at

only

use this

- Chapter where under are is has been applied although term. what other I the by another it leave authors Is not it

8-

author always to the intended In

to the clear reader on 92.5

specific

features

discussion, using

in what sense they to the establish, basis of if the

necessary, accompanying terms these

discussion

and references. in order I continue

1 advocated such confusion,

use of and

such as LIA I and LIA II are the terms which

to avoid

to apply.

8.1

NON-BROCH LIA Non-broch,

SETTLEMENT EVIDENCE IN ORKNEY particularly LIA-only possible this 2). basis to to sites, recognise re-examine are discussed distinctively the later first. LIA levels

By

examining

these forms, sites

it and

is on

structural from broch

(in

68..,,

8.1.1

Brough of Birsay This site one in

HY 239 285 the largest AP. of There Birsay number of LIA pins have since to have the been fairly with that 1934, to and combs extensive earlier standing lower Hunter has been

has produced site the the Brough to

from

any

excavations excavations remains (1986,22) investigated, focus (fig and

-on tending being

restrict

themselves

obvious extent the the

archaeological

only superficial, horizons appear not to that about

been disturbed. of site

estimates although 40).

a 10% sample

mainly the

concentrated

around

ecclesiatical first

Area 1, around dug. believed had fallen were Earlier

eleventh were

century found

church, its

was the south

to be

foundations

under

wall

and were or of same but these of

to have belonged into also as Within buildings: straight decay

to a structure the the

which had been demolished century. set of be badly church being Two layers on the

before

eleventh lower

graves orientation

discovered, foundations. were the faces.

these

The walls to the the

an extensive, with

incomplete, graves. several formed with feature' angles. area

enclosure the to wall' of the

believed are of

associated disturbed a few in saw this

enclosure N side

remains situ

stones

Cruden

(1965,24) He also

as consistent the 'principal rounded The was

a series within

small

cells. level

describes structure ground the

cemetery at and the the

as a rectangular of the Norse building


-144-

with surface.

demolished between this

beneath

present

church

- Chapter free a of This of

8-

graves. either and

complex Celtic with the

of or

features early

Is

commonly interpreted date, with Radf ord to the in basis

as (1983) of An fine

church, this forcible

Norse

enclosed

graveyard sees the

possibly

associated Earl

buildings. dating followers on the symbols varied

as a monastic conversion date with both Celtic slab

complex, of

possibly and his

period

995 AD. of the

earlier decorated within that 1938, It

has also There

been suggested and Pictish are numerous

figures

which include grave, laid

came from of the where story in

the

enclosure.

accounts

and how this

was discovered. to have

had been erected and reputed skull (Curle is not

these - Least reliably at the head of a triple contained and over However, three skeletons its find with Otherwise two of the

opened in

a row. had the cross only (Curle a

One had the been laid

smashed in, 1982,92). doubted. marker from

bodies spot

boulders within is

graveyard may also single 1982, fig In the is island, there

A second sculpture of the this church date. which the

an irregular there

be a grave gaming board 50, cat general, there anything

may be pre-Norse

no 274). taking is into account to disprove it evidence the monastic 1986,27-30 metalworking pins in from elsewhere hypothesis, thoroughly attested in on nor

nothing to

prove the

(Hunter The fine

investigates area found) With 2 (where would the

both-possibilities). nearly fit into of (fig then the all

recorded a secular

LIA or does

and combs have been context. have zones been of this

either a well, but 40). this slab

an ecclesiatical area five,

exception as activity

no structures Curle

identified 'Pictish' If the lack

pre-Norse,

suggest

secular, land for

was a high with on the the LIA its

status noble

establishment: figures, This last and the

witness general

metalworking, of interpretation

farming of

island. settlement

consideration farmstead been been by must have have island the

renders dependent recovered Hunter

as a simple LIA

unsatisfactory In

(Hunter on resources excavations Hunter (Radford to the to, for E of

1986,169). on the at 1978 the and Morris

The inhabitants mainland. (Curle

structures of

widespread illustrates churchyard,

junctures

(1986),

1982, Appendix a but of the

8) and earlier

excavations structure These certainly

'Celtic' rectangular does not discuss it). settlement, which is on the

combine large

suggest

the

extent

a community

aiming-to
-145-

be self-sufficient

- Chapter Brough. record, thoroughly which The structures both in plan VII

8-

on sites

to IX are unique They are of major

in the Orcedian as the structures walls (Hunter

and construction. trenches facings Otherwise seen

interpreted cellular turf

robbed

foundation orthostatic 41. d, 1).

had Internal fig

and thick they at Buckquoy

1986,37-45; type of

are similar

in form to the (see below), and II In are it there , the The century; at a the

polycellular In addition structure

buildings

elsewhere. VIII date. Ubid,

a roundhouse 21, ill in

form has been recognised is assumed to at the cells. this Celtic be LIA Orkney of

on site but

17) which

Circular huts are common in the architectural, cannot be proved, At this mid-seventh metalworking, but these are no features

novel

period, Certainly

repertoire

church.

may be monastic for

which site

are interpreted is no evidence the earliest 2 belongs only is

as specifically settlement late which at (Hunter to the

agricultural. pre-dating 1986,61). eighth is

there at

century phase it Earlier

on site produced occupation

phase underlying earliest. brooch this of Fowler

a bone pin, possibly 1982,95;

LIA II

hinted Fowler

by a penannular but

class

F (Curle

1963,103-7),

may be scrap.
Buckquoy This site all Into three) 1977). HY 243 282 produced of the which sea, phases Each of small benches are the two is 6 is the numerous are but of comb fragments LIA to by IL. and bone/antler the were site two (A of with 41c, forms

8.1.2

pins, had

nearly eroded

distinctively what LIA, remained succeeded 'Pictish'

Much of

be excavated a Norse

(possibly Ritchie polycellular a central 421, o,

farmstead consists room fig

the

farmsteads opening side off Ubid, LIA on in is fori; de

buildings: hearth 0. and These throughout distinguishes

chambers down each most AP,

a larger figs 2-3;

distinctive

structural novo 1 her

discovered Ritchie 6 are her that

primarily of plan: chamber of in form. eight a

settlements. houses by cells; the 5 and in fact

types the main

phase

cellular, II

that house

surrounded to

phase the

a figure

emphasise

cell is

are used

arranged for this

linear I use of cells,

fashion. this two term in

Henceforth order to

polycellular distinguish cells, and with amorphous

discrete or without

structures additional complexes

'composed small or -146-

aligned or , three from more extensive the Pool type (see

cellular

settlements

of

- Chapter below). recognised they LIA dated. the finds At Buckquoy there

8-

are horizons. Norse

no

absolute Phases

dates

for

any LIA

of

the

archaeological recognisably forms, believes

1 and 2 are be

because

precede artefact

phases none is of

and include these can century seventh on the the

some distinctive very because century basis securely none of An date.

although

Ritchie

phase I

seventh a late phase II

would be inconsistent date is But suggested little this is dating

with for

eighth inscribed

century whorl.

of an ogam of such LIA

known of is not

longevity reliable. is little is not

structures, often quoted be applied earlier early


8.1.3

therefore

very

as a 'Pictish' the sixth type

type-site, century.

where Pictish However, and it

BuckqqY is WkIck a termAcannot is even known how _ known of

before

native buildings

architecture of the

(see below)

seen at Buckquoy might

have been built.

Kirbister The exact

HY 28 25 provenance in the 'Kirkie of of a metal nail-headed which pin and handpin to 11, the IA no whole is 3) of is a or a

unknown. small

One site on the the

vicinity Brae' Nesthouse, jutting farm-house latter

may relate

chapel

(RCAHMS 1946 which out of site into Kirbister is the 'a covers the

item the of

alternatively small, about Of turn the of low-lying 400 yards two the

Knowe promontory

Loch Ubid, more

Boardhouse, Item no 26). At passage the of main

NW of

the this

candidates, century dimensions, court

likely.

excavation with

discovered several

central and that

considerable room or central

chambers',

the

from which most of the chambers were entered ran direction, in and a north-east and south-west tabout 9.7m] In length to over 32 feet extended . (about 3.6m] 12 feet to The breadth from varies (Spence 1903) rabout 2.4m] about 6 feet The when Royal the Commission 'farmer with walls records more another as the five floor recent excavations chamber 1.5m] a of in clay iron on of the S side,

discovered as set Other serpentine the' which high into finds

irregular feet (about contained portions nothing earlier date (fig

dry-stone places. vessel implements, datable. suggest A of

masonry cist-like unusual and None a

cavity design. polished the less, forms

included but from LIA

disc, plans

intrinsically excavations 41b)

polycellular

may be of

-147-

- Chapter
8.1.4 Pool Pool (apparently settlement revealed and byres is HY 610 378 an example of a type

8-

of

settlement It fig

which takes 2). the

-developed form of a

de novo) mound substantial of the ninth -A

on some non-broch and Dockrill

sites. 1982,

(Hunter

Excavation Norse Extra, of a

has halls pers about

prehistoric to thirteenth

settlement centuries and date associated were which

underlying (Archaeol buildings by into

comm 3 fourth souterrain middens a and cellular

Hunter). or fifth and underlying

roundhouse AD

century associated the site of

preceded were This built then

probable Neolithic into

structure,

(D and E 1988). adjoining and found. prior It This to contracts been but the recovered. there is the and is is

developed

settlement circular LIA extent. part of pins

Interconnecting at this the arrival (pers stage settlement of comm, I Perhaps certainly vicinity. LIA pins eighth/? pin (type 15) (not the from the

roundhouses that at Norse the its the No of the to

smaller

cells, are

distinctive largest surviving polycellular site suggest had

Immediately the settlement have the sea,

Hunter). most no

structures eroded any broch into-

reason

settlement have and Most recently

In

immediate numerous

The excavations sixth/seventh-century, century from its levels.

produced more

the

site's ninth-

particularly a globular roundhouse pin(s) residual), also

early

was produced included top soil in and form

fourth/fifth-century II-III). where with of they Pictish pins,

levels (from

appendices phase 5c,

Prot o-zoomorphic were undoubtedly probably LIA

and belong

an unusual to this from

decorated The 5c-d., majority the

symbols, of typical

horizon. phases

form,

were

produced

immediately

pre-Norse

horizons.

8.1.5

Skaill, Gelling's

Deerness excavations pins and fig activity and

HY 58 at

06 this complex forth). of sites have of produced six to sites Norse

several (Gelling periods, the of

LIA

combs 1) with was

(Buteux activity found of on

From a total the 6.

1984, LIA

spanning sites 2 and

LBA/EIA On site after

6 South a period

roundhouse abandonment

courtyard

level structure

2 were (or obtained and site,

replaced structures) for AD

by a rectangular dates AD 420-790 came from have

on a paved the period of

area.

Radiocarbon cal and

been

abandonment: Both pins

(B-763) this

cal including

530-890 several

(B-762). Fowler E

combs

-148-

- Chapter pins (2104-6). The only zoomorphic giving LIA the pins, pins from site their is not 2 are having

8-

a pair with

of

proto-zoomorphic loops from

and one LIA

discovered of I

together,

suspension distinctive. Norse levels. 5, which in the

impression house

been worn together.

The only Five

structure,

particularly

combs were associated There was also settlement centre with traces

with a pin of

the subsequent late

and comb from site reoccupation 6. sites these Skaill

was a LBA/EIA LIA when the

of occupation The overall

had moved to site Impression within units from the in

is area, close

both and

of

prehistoric of possibly to each that broch the of LIA date sotype the

settlement contemporary other the site, nearest continuity horizons. in main for

shifting domestic both

relatively It in the

proximity

the EIA and LIA. of activity of On none roundhouses finds of Riggan

can be tentatively MIA to of is EIA to Broch sites fourth pins 6,

suggested a nearby are the Deerness there date)

focus which from

shifted

Kami and the of these (of

contenders. the The only 'Pictish' level brooch I for

evidence to

presumed

possible

fifth

century the in

are the proto-zoomorphic called 01 'Pictish' from

and zoomorphic 1.3 from (South) the

from the excavator's and possibly layer these

on site ultimate 6.

penannular level

occupation of

(North) which

on site such early

Neither

are therefore have been

contexts

dates, would

otherwise

proposed, are not


8.1.6

and they diagnostic

may therefore

be residual. parallels

The structural with

remains

enough to suggest
HY 23 18 pin,

known LIA forms.

Skaill, A metal century at

Sandwick

open-disc-headed date is The suggested, area and may be propose is of

for been

which

LIA

II,

possibly an unknown a focus such also as

eighth context for a

has Skaill the

recorded has

from

Skaill. settlement, mound, to which (pers

Say

always

been

earlier settlement

some of LIA that

recognised 1985). may have

features, There been is

(Morris there

some chapel to

slight in the

evidence area, Peter

an early a dedication

suggestively 9 11.3).

associated

with

Saint

comm R Lamb;

8.1.7

St Bonifacels,

Papa Westray

HY 48 52 from somewhere in the

A LIA comb (group

4) has been recovered


-149-

- Chapter

8-

vicinity LIA

of

St

Boniface's

church,

an into

area the

rich

in

archaeological comprises period church, and the

monuments covering settlement, a monastic of have been to with having fabric back,

approximately continuing a farm but in its

one hectare.

The complex early Norse

possibly element; found the or

mound; and a derelict early gravestones, in 1966.

which-is-medieval, NE of related

including

a hogduring possibly the 1879

vicinity. the to church

The comb was found It is in described

grave-digging contemporary Name-Book:

a structure

Picts House situated to an underground close .. Church. It has only and west of the Established been excavated but one passage underground partly has been laid it not explored open and altho In for the seems to penetrate some distance direction of the Church (ONB 1680, no 26 1879, 11). The whole massive (f ig 43). complex was probably is presently centered visible in on a broch the eroding (SMR no 847); cliff section a

structure

8.1.8

Saevar Both

Howe'

HY 246 270 and twentieth produced No artefacts although a result LIA century combs have excavations and pins in this large 1862; suggest layers the remains hall-houses particularly can be

nineteenth mound have

settlement 1868;

(Donations which lower probings,

Hedges

1983).

been did

recovered not remove

an earlier on the site.

horizon, As

excavations of the

nineteenth islands Three layers and for no the of phases are

century

1977 which were as

excavations are difficult

uncovered to but not the

seven

archaeological of Norse

connect. underlying excavated, Is assumed are the

recovered, they were

confusing,

fully date

complete phase the phase I

structures levels Norse II; for arrive; but the

made out. reasons: is no the

A LIA

several there main

structures until from

abandoned Norse levels

before of pins

steatite is

evidence

derived

the

presence

of

and combs.

8.2

BROCH SITES

WITH EVIDENCE FOR LIA

ACTIVITY

IN ORKNEY

- 150-

- Chapter
8.2.1 Broch Ayre pin HY 470 013 head that (605) activity pins are and on

8-

of

A globular (1447) the and head bronze 31, is no fig also may suggest LIA.

a sherd this

of broch

pin-impressed site their continued

pottery into

early

Several illustrations: shaft,

known pin

only with long,

from

descriptions sphere unknown; 1914,44, for and a a no which there is are the The E and whilst This Howe is and (see set in

published and pin 11;

a bone 1 7/8"

flattened context

swollen with 45,

(47mm) flat-topped possibly

an 'expanding no 2). These

head' hint at

(Graeme LIA II

activity, Whilst

suggested toboth

by some of believe the any plans suggest (fig

the of of

structural the some broch of the

remains. internal

reason

features and here. to the the

secondary, observed plan W of of the

outbuildings, of activity

st rat igraphy, Ayre

several 44A) (E and possibly seen at

phases shows F)

as excavated

outbuildings

broch.

A passageway (I, G and of for layout which

encircles 0 are

broch,

radiating similar Lingro below). the wall. to (fig

outbuildings -the 48). type and

suggested. Midhowe, is

Gurness, date an

a MIA primary passage which with

suggested (H)

G is I is

a sub-rectangular described

aumbry

as a passage

proceeds

In a winding into direction an open chamber 9 feet the hand side of this wide. On the right original wall was very low, and a second wall had been built behind it, so that above and slightly Near the centre of the chamber a bench was left. The was found a curious of flagstones. grouping tunnel, in a small chamber concluded which led T?I, the sides being the wall A [at out through guarded with slabs, and It was roofed with flags, the hole being about 2 feet Mid, 36). square Graeme records passage Associated these suggest for is are the layers that I, several distinct three do not up, but if layers of the archaeological (Ibid, of 50-1, time length is strata fig in 16). which does I including artefacts built there out 'tunnel' of horizons

occupation elucidate his

over it

section

reliable, at LIA

then

were two occupation use. are in not the its These may relate easily

horizons to

had fallen

a period after levels. Parallels an earth-house I

established, the

although Wall

a possibility. not indicated is known

Unfortunately

structures plan.

connecting A is

and A

excavator's

interesting.

Nothing buildings, plausible

to the other relationship stratigraphical of bears little but its plan resemblance to them. It Is most house. foundations the of eight' of a LIA 'figure as
- 151 -

- Chapter Unfortunately signs outside part of of of a fire. the it to

8-

only The broch

survived small wall in the is some the

two

courses,

and B,

showed but and its

strong the

cellular

structure

which

abuts

NW, and is probably of the

undoubtedly also LIA,

a small plan at

larger

building, with

compares Gurness. With other levels. majority decoration, from layer

favourably

post-broch

structures there

the

exception which TL

of dating

aforementioned with might fairly yellow 48).

pins, these prove coarse ware

are

no LIA The

artefacts it but F in

might

be associated of as of pottery red, a finer (ibid,

suggested useful. and were with

However, of is

described

some this

a few sherds passageway I, outbuildings

recovered

a layer

which

appears

to post-date

area of the primary 8.2.2

Broch of Borwick Nineteenth century of MIA'date

HY 227 168 excavations but in Including produced two with a group heads' 3 comb, type

presumably 4 (1). lost -

(2),

addition

a composite ' knobbly

comb of

Several

bone pins,

are now (Watt that of a the

from Tankerhouse

Museum (THM S57, S60-1). interior except level is

Two phases of occupation in the were recognised 1882). - No description is recorded of the lowest level large number of flags on edge crop out above the secondary as being an interior side inside and at occupation filled debris. about 7 feet The whole of this 3 feet Cc 0.9m] 6 feet Cc 2.1m] interior of

described

up with its

stones, high

above which on the around west the

circular

wall,

about

Cc 1.8m] is

widest

constructed

of the broch: Level with this between the two a wall crosses walls forming an oblong chamber, with an entrance it A similar at the east end. chamber adjoining is 12 feet [c 1.5m] Ic 3.65m] long and 5 feet is wide at the centre, and the partition wall between 3 and 4 feet [c 0. 9-1.2m] high Ubld, . 445).

Watt the the

was unclear broch interior to

as to whether or to its

the

entrance was built upper description

from

this

chamber To the

led east

to of

passageway a staircase the wall to great the

intramural

chamber. at this structures side. and

of stone head.

level, had

presumably all been

leading subjected On

These

heat, of

particularly Watt's

on the east

basis

the

available

- 152-

- Chapter it be broch entrance However, to the

8i

artefactual building encircling through broch

record, was.

cannot the

shown there

how are

late

this

secondary of an

Outside

suggestions

passageway a block-house (fig LIA

and the type 45D).

through is

the outworks, aligned but definite

possibly on the the

structure,

more or less are the broch,

entrance of

there S of

structural Inside

indications defences. erosion, possibly the whole they

activity

Here a small cell, due to cliff now almost unrecognisable looks as if it is a part of a larger cellular structure, of of the the but looked type seen at Buckquoy within the the of (above). outer Watt wall the maintains that with or An Roman

promontory leaves like. artefacts sherd 1982). (Watt

was covered

outbuildings, what there unusual coarse


8.2.3

no record With

how many he investigated, of pins with this. of

exception

and combs

are no other 'glazed' ware


Broch In the

which

may be contemporary no 11) is

1882,449,

a piece

(Bell

of

Burgar

HY 352 277 century its a hoard findspot imaginative Descriptions vessels, six of silver silver by it of precious In 1852, the objects a plan pl xvii, now with beads, hoard (1985) century no reason Whilst which was of

early

eighteenth of Burgar,

found 1852, chamber lost,

at

the'Broch

suggested (Thomas of one pins, chain.

which

is'undoubtedly 'Jewels'; Include as many and fig

rather 441).

marked vary, but knobs, silver

hoard,

eight as

silver five or lengths of a

decorated amber This

projecting several has

combs been

several

recently

the

subject

paper for

Graham-Campbell being of There this within eighth Is

who puts date, to and expect

forward buried

a convincing at the onset

argument of Norse

attacks. with

any -contemporary plan does-indicate to to be LIA. be primary, the -As broch. Petrie when the but coarse

structures internal nothing Certainly observed broch in it

cache. the broch

Thomas's are unlikely

features known there 1874, ruins of is

their no it is

stratigraphical reason likely to believe that the

relationship them hoard to

was deposited -Recently

was in

(Petrie

1874,89). (THM 1981.6) from and the

a polished sherds of

undistinctive pottery have

bone pin been

about site

thirty

recovered

(D and E 1980,24).

- 153-

- Chapter
8.2.4 East Early LIA II pins Broch Burray at

8-

of

ND 490 988 this site and may hint the of the comb the produced a at comb several fragment distinctively (1096). activity. simply unspecified chamber 1857,6). fig 1; fig 46B) for a to Royal is with the wall, is and (A not a recorded pin which Two The as was lies

excavations

(1082-91,1094-95) (1092-93) pins interior covering the N of the and

globular majority coming found

pin-heads of from In the the

intermediate are one and (Farrer

fragment but

broch, well

rubble to

passage

immediately

broch

entrance

The internal are long one not life of the out of for place the

features in

recorded

by Petrie broch the propped no 862) context. lintel up

(1890, Petrie over Ubid,

a primary because was item the

argued entrance The this built of end.

building cells 11,

the 75). that

intra-mural (RCAHMS 1946 the case, which a strut of when are of

Commission necessarily double and no lintel

argues

but was

that not

door to

was originally the the weight broken

able

support support

therefore indication of

was needed this first took and

to

There button

place. second

A Roman enamelled century date

piece

samian 1970).

respectively

Robertson

To the present with beach, a straight but

NE of the wall

the Royal

broch,

where

the have

outwork recorded the to as

extends a masonry entrance LIA

towards structure through

the

Commission This it is

face.

probably

the

outworks, site. has been

alternatively well-made from

may be related described the cliff

activity

on the 'Pictish' area (D to have little the

Recently recovered

pottery, rubble in

probably in this

section there this are site, would area

and E 1984,20; relate to the

THM 1984.213). obvious into LIA the

Otherwise, presence sea, in for the on

no structures and have to they been the

undoubtedly space broch. for

eroded their

there enclosed

construction

S of

8.2.5

Broch As the

of

BurrIan

HY 763 514 example of a broch with LIA settlement, In artefacts an addition such this to as

classic

site

has

already LIA pins

received and combs

some it

coverage also

(94.1.2). LIA and

numerous

produced pebbles.

symbol-incised cross-slab. It must

ox-phalanges,

painted

ogam-incised

be emphasised

that

there - 154-

is

no

reason

to

believe

that

- Chapter there levels cells 1974, this from in

8-

was continuous are typically and possibly fig 2-3. fig note horizon; both

settlement broch period, is

the with

broch their

itself. internal

The earliest partitions finds belong for MacGregor to

two main chambers 46C). the It not

(Traill clear

1890, pl xlv; which is described which (with diagnostic at which they

always in the

painted

pebble

which

as coming consist of a of to may the

levels. floor

The late and various

levels

broch,

secondary earlier suggest suggest respective Jo mound which 216). probably the feasible returning centuries globular levels, cells the cell (see

partition not but structurally the level of

walls

some reuse enough occur between

orthostats). a that dating

'are horizon,

a considerable the W, running for in the

period

time

has elapsed broch, Is

phases. almost almost this up to the a settlement SMR no date, records It is 100m (Stromness mound suggest Traill from HY 761 513, a prehistoric (1890,344) this along around finds, in found area. the it,

extends

Visible

exposures into a Norse broch the

extending of the utilise that to later. pin-heads although

Norse period. comb, broch, probably the

discovery

settlement and

migrated area LIA I are

coast, several the

However, and the may broch

some potentially painted pebble, MIA levels.

namely these

broch small

adjacent recovery appended below), the of

A to the pins

be from

Traill LIA, 342).

uncovered for

which room is

are undoubtedly them a later to the Ubid, rather NE of the

he records form with Gurness

and combs from

The circular earlier favourably

to

a larger

than

and the post-broch fig

sub-rectangular structures 2.11),

room compares the

one of

broch

at

(Hedges 1987 11, The cross of 21) a fish symbol

slab, with (probably from although not the

ogam and possibly eighth south slab from between considered. century: side the of the

fragmentary

remains fig wall In and at

MacGregor broch.

1974,96, Here the floor 1890,346).

was recovered it the

was so low. that tower, 11.3

the far

was not

much above the (Traill

of the

was also focus

surface an

relationship is

apparent

residential have been noted

ecclesiastical the site.


8.2.6 Broch

No burials

of

Deerness of

HY 58 06 6 comb - 155(628) is recorded as coming from

A fragment

a group

Chapter

8-

the of

broch the

of

Deerness, at

the Skaill fragments

probable

broch

mound recorded 11, item no

to 629).

the In

south this noted.

churchyard hillock whole nearby

(RCAHMS 1946 of dry-stone of

grass-grown That by this the

buildings

have

been is 1985;

area

was a focus site of

IA and Norse (Gelling

activity 1984;

attested Buteux

extensive

Skaill

forth).

8.2.7

Broch

of Lamaness pin (731)

HY 613 379 may pre-date There are or is the LIA II no surviving to House linear activity to suggested of the the 336). running (Hunter the

A globular broch, variously E, 1982;

by a comb and pin so-called known

(732-33). and records as a chapel about identified early

evidence refer (SMR no

more likely Pict's

mound A to and

rectangular the N and Dockrill organisation: off, relate dug which


8.2.8

structure, was an

9 by 8m with as Norse an

features chapel

urisland when the found.

chapel

preceding turf

parish

Thomson 1987,38), of a roundhouse

until, were

was stripped may that

the to into

remains this the

The comb and pin

structure. site

The OS records a flagstone and immediately

a tradition which

a man once a 'pit'

and exposed

concealed

was not
Howe This

explored
HY 275 109

reburied.

site recent this

was

excavated

between

1978

and of

1982, a et (fig

and

constitutes anywhere and personal with in

the

most

large-scale is

excavation based The IA built followed extended on Carter

broch al 1984 47) ruins or

Scotland;

description with and B Smith.

communications a roundhouse tomb

sequence into by

commences of

earthhouse 5), an 6).

the

Neolithic broch with

chambered intramural outbuildings the the was before, Its phase

(phase

roundhouse area the

stairs, (phase 5/6

enclosed 7 (f ig 48)

and lying

probable within of

In was

phase

area the

ramparts was the earlier

thoroughly A massive roundhouse, and

levelled circular its

and

Interior structure aligned were with rebuilt. external

roundhouse built and over an

cleared. earlier cell

drystone entrance

as

intramural of

staircase area radial

interior

furnishings passage,

consisted which

a circular into

encircling On the

some of the tower were

was divided celled and

apartments. and yards,

outside the

of

an external six buildings

doorway their

was built,

surrounding

broch

associated

- 156-

- Chapter arranged phase of In in a basically to cal dates

8-

radial BC 90-cal span the broch

arrangement. between

C-14 estimates I: c), cal whilst BC 332-540 which of debris

for

this

average

AD 129 (appendix period

a total cal AD. in

5 unaveraged later

phase 7 the to some of

suffered

some collapse the construction

resulted buttresses,

changes and its in the

the

outbuildings,

interior ditch

was cleared. which the

Unwanted structural ceased to be maintained. its Interior took form

was placed was

terminals,

The tower

reoccupied Rebuilding domestic of the

as a workshop, of units many of were still

although in

plan place,

changed little. but the ones. basic Some The to

outbuildings

similar in a total cal AD. this of

to the

earlier

outbuildings mean for

were now being activity whilst

weighted cal between

purposes. used for industrial r(ap`pe_nd-I`xITu_)Lphaseq calibrates 5 unaveraged from dates span the by the is

AD 132-324, cal

period big

BC 390-410 levels are broch

LIA collapse nucleated, the the early

distinguished tower.

MIA ones

next

of

the

By now the of is used no longer as a

settlement

no longer unit. except In over the

and consists LIA levels and were the 13 also

essentially broch

a single

domestic

accessible to byres r6le. massive was built the area fulfill

wallhead, Several these

still cleared

workshop.

Some of

outbuildings r6le. of

and continued a domestic 4.5m) forming at the with stalls,

a domestic Several a large into the Later

were paved, also

and were possibly fulfilled (11 by

or sheds.

structures structure from the the

rectangular projections rubble of impressive

orthostatic

N wall, tower;

collapsed

W end of

building was

was an

double

hearth.

abandoned before In domestic structures although circular of the late unit. there cell. post-broch reuse In almost shed or the of

the activity phase Only 8 the in poor, a

this Seemingly phase 8. of later site continued 6 were to there

completely

evolve two

as

single These

stage

hearths.

were very was This

essentially settlement at

amorphous structure bears with

cellular an there

complexes, aligned with subsome a

rectangular

phase of structures

comparison

Gurness,

where

was also was attached was built, the

similar

some earlier last in There

features.

An earth-house

to one of the yards. very stages form (fig a new domestic 411). with structure in a hearth and associated vicinity,

polycellular byre.

may have been more settlement - 157-

- Chapter but the to the

8-

area

south former

was destroyed abandoned earth-house.

by ploughing. in favour The A recent to cal of date date the of

This reuse this

building of the

was much rearranged NE buildings, settlement of is a phase is and 7 building later

and then

later reuse which (GU-

open to some questioning. (GU-2347) than the There calibrates date are alloy in from

for

the

AD 690-980, context to

considerably of cal

a subsequent artefacts (169)

1757)

AD 535-660. date, only

few LIA II pin date

justify of group group Norse, may be on do not was late S.

such a late 6

a copper

and examples a couple'of

5 combs (160), fragments but a LIA

which

may be LIA II (163-64), Smith Is and suggests for the is date. was in

(97.3),

comb fragments (161-62). II date to

some

less

positively Several of LIA factors II

identified 164 is

(pers

comm) that

equally

probable. paucity that the

brought this extend site,

forward

account

artefacts levels there area here. (172-73,175),

and the

most obvious to this site 8, it

excavated if

chronologically on this

Alternatively the ploughed-out

settlement Other globular head and that pin

to 'the

From phase 8, stage pins, heads

pathways

are seen to be leading ring-heads iron levels body of broch pin with from

including (32-34)

projecting and a unique in various

spherical

paste upwards, suggests

(168)

have been found to was the

phase 5/6 which site

contribute there

overwhelming of the

evidence on this

continuity

settlement

for

some

considerable 8.2.9

period'after HY 382

primary

period.

Gurness The large

269 was excavated Despite recording to present the between 1929

mound at Gurness/Aikerness has only stratigraphy Just been published. and the poor

and 1939, knowledge earlier available

but of

rudimentary by all the the

employed carefully break Into

excavators, evidence, M. horizons: LIA 1,

Hedges has been able and suggest The a NEIA of and

a convincing structures outworks II LIA broch,

structural

development three -village

(Hedges '1987 approximate, (fig cellular 48); a

recognised

and nucleated of horizon.

possibly buildings;

horizon

polycellular,

and sub-rectangular The site 'as all we see it enclosed with the a,

and a'Norse of of -

now consists within f ine to the a series

a broch massive The

surrounded ramparts but

by and

outbuildings, ditches relationship

complete of

gatehouse. broch

chronological as the

outworks

is, not

known,

- 158-

- Chapter later through with this of this, is the

8-

gatehouse the

probably it they

on

line

of

the

original entrance

causeway aligns subof This

defences, suggesting

can be noted discussion

how the

broch

were conceived is much debate, be

of as an entity. of the early because without identified, end Midhowe. belong these

section site this

includes about later applies but

a detailed which there features to the internal there is

development

knowledge The same

cannot descriptions

correctly of Lingro of the to

argument

The extant one phase, continuous chronological related, its The

structures no reason between Problems

broch that in,

to more than were not a the

suspect arise observed, (pers tower as the the these

succession. relationship changes. level 'stages

establishing not broch

but

necessarily in

structural

E MacKie stone

comm) sees the enclosing support interior for

earliest visible

as a massive

a roundhouse. a wooden of he but the to by a ring

scarcement this There that they is would

acted

gallery believes internal phase.

or roof;

was supported no evidence

towards for

post-holes.

post-holes, of belong

be discovered and at

upon removal hearth the

extant this levels become

structures. The intra-mural

The well galleries the

central

1.8m and scarcement started to in the W of the which may still in;

were open. unsafe. which use. to the

At some stage of internal

broch

superstructure

A set At the

stairs the

was built scarcement,

interior, be in

MacKie believes same time gallery foot

ignores as the at the Into the

stairs

were built,

or so MacKie argues, the entrance in the He relates as the (MacKie masonry

the-intra-mural

1.8m level

was filled and a cell to

W was converted at the of the internal of

an aumbry, to this cells of broch

was created the S.

space all

Intra-mural

staircase secondary the broch

extant 294),

features guard

phase, broch

as well the

construction 1987b, derived

outside the

entrance from

and the Hedges

erection

village

from the dismantled Neither

structure. disagree fittings, the about but MacKie's

secondary interpretation 1. there interior single the

nature

writer present nor the of most of the broch internal on several earliest central in counts: broch hearth. style There in its to the is

may be queried is known of and double the a

Nothing was

period In

interior other

save that respects the a that

a well than

may have been similar rather unit). functioning

present to

one (albeit believe

no reason original

scarcement

was not

capacity

as either

- 159-

- Chapter

8-

a gallery2. 'are

or roof-support. structures later Even if have felt mass of There to that to than which the abut broch of either tower, side but of of the are the broch not original entrance

The small obviously

necessarily plan, no low buildings have been an broch broch a pivot the broch. to any stage broch is

much later. builder to the would

conceived the

as a part to join Indeed, possibly their

compelled broch.

these this

slight, would the

towering

unnecessary superstructure. entrance stone 3.

inconvenience, is

and might no after

have weakened the that original although into

evidence

ceased

function there the

erection, entrance might

indicates Alterations

was now an outer gallery 'guard of

intra-mural

relate to

in the history 4. The

of the broch of the these at the layout chambers' the 1987b). as the

relationship because respects been of broch pers in the to built the

important obviously not have

surrounding the

outbuildings need internal from in the the

(pace MacKie the

The outbuildings secondary been built is stacked floor of

same time nor need they (part of

constructions dismantled inner ditch:

broch,

have which

superstructure comm E MacKie). that

Hedges acknowledges not later 0.15m internal identified excavator, broch, based on the from the two, broch, which hearth,

there for could floor

was an earlier which not consists have

level,

if

evidence access paved

a central in the 0.1extant of to view the

a well period, in depth features

been gained horizon of the both the

and a lower (Hedges are of

and occupation Although most Craw, be period.

1987 11,35). secondary, broch the use extant to fittings were

some may be common to Ubid, fittings the broch 34). to

phases

original the was the

considered still that But which the are fact

secondary This

although broch. with

belonging the they they

seemed architecturally considered contemporary Ubid, the

dissimilar with

outbuildings of Craw's similar both of to

bore a resemblance Hedges argues and secondary In built path the logical after and whole the path that

15 for outbuildings of of tower, up to of the

summary are broch, the their broch

scheme). both

However, primary early. obviously encircling that full

interiors sequence broch leading

which Its

events but the

outbuildings layout entrance, Their with

were

would

suggest

the

was conceived space

as a unity. sequence of

radial

disposition,

use of - 160-

and ordered

- Chapter Ubid, it now into 45)

8-

construction we see

suggests ditch. in full

a pre-conceived and

plan. of

The site some

as the

includes the inner is

rebuilds

extensions

outbuildings that started None the 1. 'there to

The present is develop

writer

agreement [the

with

Hedges Ubld, should of the not

16) have

no reason there

why they the

outbuildings] occupation this: broch will further

during

earliest with the

broch'.

less,

are problems of

The earliest in this

phases structural levels

use of equation, the

remain

an unknown takes

element place 2.

unless

excavation have earlier, the final

The

lower

of

radial them,

outbuildings that

not

been

thoroughly non-radial, the floor

investigated, outbuildings of the

and the preceded

possibility cannot

perhaps When stage under of the other

be discounted.

outbuildings excavation, 42), but

were lifted drains there is

during were no

consolidation outbuildings structures. Turning and rebuilding

and Ubid,

found of

mention

any

now to were a long layout it the

the

LIA

activity, In the into

several outbuildings. the area

phases the

of

reflooring included ditch, the fig

observed buildings period of the to

These of inner

extending which 2.11). such series ramparts; between 'Annex' at

some of

suggests

of activity. site changes

However,

at some stage Ubld, abrupt

architectural

dramatically whether of

Obviously as this of imply

needs

be considered after

changes A the

re-occupation can the

a period within the

abandonment. areas of

structures unfortunately

be observed precise They include

various

chronological so-called buildings oblong broch of

relationships 'Shamrock' of the type structure can the with and seen an

them are (fig

unknown. to floor,

42a) which Adjacent

are multi-cellular them is for a long which of the

Buckquoy.

apsidal elsewhere various circular. the one

end and paved (see below). other There at the of cellular is also

LIA

parallels are

be found of be to the these ill-

To the

north

remains to

structures, a small of

some The a

which

appear

sub-rectangular present

structure plan complex, there

similar gives but are

Broch these all of

Burrian.

appearance buildings understood through the

comprising

cellular

need not fragments

be contemporary.

In addition

outbuildings

The passage and areas of paving. walling, level, and still gave a higher was used at - 161-

- Chapter to the broch. to the the Here a staircase interior, to of the but the the

8-

access blocking (possibly suggest reduced).

was built giving broch broch of

upon rubble, to a higher

partly level

access above that the

access

entrance height NW are

whereintruslve must have

buildings been ieverely structure there type

wall

To the is unknown,

remains

a rectilinear at this only

whose date

but may be Norse. of a LIA horizon to accompany it: site are 6C* two pins, for its

Despite surprisingly and 8B?, (149). date. MIA/LIA lowest of the This There I

the recognition few artefacts former does not are,

coming from the floor constitute several pins interior one could the sufficient however, globular

of the rectangular proof which atypical and several [1291 may belong example from

building pre-Norse to the the floor from the

artefacts (152)(an [1301 not

period: of

levels

the

broch

the Shamrock, which one in from the

although were

be traced

and two other ring-heads

examples (154-55), context (1739) projecting unstratified knife 2.22, stone with cat slab

unstratified); and of floor

several other 7; the

projecting from a

unstratified vicinity upper pins the

outbuilding of (1736-37), Ubid, possible of In the Ubld,

broch/ post -broch a mould for a handpin annex; Great cat various Ditch; nos 218-9), Ubid, fig and a which 3 two a

Shamrock from fig the 2.39,

ring-head penannular

brooches with the

a bone handle no 252) with 0.7 from Pictish,.

ogam. inscription Shamrock fig the 2.51, vicinity the

area level

and annex; cat of both no 305) outbuildings

symbols floor

was found and 4, artefact post-broch the the for

m above tentatively are to

and is types

associated simply to

with

Shamrock. the

Many other broch and for for

found

be common to Is

levels. fourth century pins, in date argued fifth fig by Close-Brooks century to seventh cat of the a late with both 2.85, are line date

A third projecting hand-pin the

ring-headed mould, brooch the

a seventh the later

to eighth Ubid, which in

and a date

century no 827) Fowler fifth art-

penannular larger of

mould fragment Ritchie the symbol objects an eighth century to ninth

and the type to

penannular 1NG for

brooches

F2 Ubid, eighth

303-4). date for

(1969,131) stone,

argues

century

historical gives found

arguments a level centre

these

(97.2.1). century Norse

Padel date grave;

(1972,98) it was ogam

the the ogam knife-handle at beneath in the eighth

because Pictish 1).

a ninth

Inscriptions

centuries

Ubid,

- 162-

- Chapter As a result that occupation Artefacts this dating site

8-

of

evidence fourth

it

is

possible

to

suggest broch

on this

may have been continuous the the of to sixth is is

from the

period. and their continuous means that

covering with on parts

centuries not

are sparse, but it a

association presence the life of

structures the site

reliable,

feasible,

whether

of some of

the outbuildings structures

needs to be extended, pushed back from the

or the nascence seventh


8.2.10

the multi-cellular

century.
Lingro HY 435 088 excavated J Anderson of in the 1870s, very little has 11, been item is published no 406) in

Although (for owing example to the

1883,242-44; the original Bell forth). It

RCAHMS 1946 excavator. This bears

death (Hedges

A report site in and which Anderson its is

now

preparation important nucleated the

and the

particularly plan with Not have fig the all been 220; by more

because broch

of

similarities at Howe, but

settlements were least fig and

Gurness those U

Midhowe. were 1883,

outbuildings in at

excavated, two published Both Dryden, as it

recorded

plans plans the

RCAHMS 1946 11, George fatihful between and see Petrie to walls the

230). Henry

these but

are plan

based in the I

on originals is

Anderson few

originals, the

incorporates recorded. and Dryden

relationships Petrie to

which original further

excavators MSS (Petrie

have

examined

Dryden's if any

MSa;

Petrie as to

MS a-g) the room (fig relative by 49),

Information site. has to been The

could lettering to

be obtained used Anderson's for

chronology original is that

of

the

each plan

the and

excavator referred The

applied

below. site the plans foundations (fig of 49) note only which wall one runs piece NE-SW, of can made loose an

published to the SE,

phasing: be seen up of

a wall This side this

to

underlie

buildings and

H and L. Its suggest if align to outer

was apparently 'backed by

several (Petrie whilst can this that if wall

sections, MS 0.1 its be seen not

was

stones' outwork, direction, Whilst be seen

that projected with have the

wall in a

represents north to very the far, westerly

corner, to

entrance traced

broch. it form of can a the part

does

appear edge of

been

the

outer irregular,

the

outbuildings around the F has

otherwise NW-SW arcs two components,

continuous, settlement.

circuit walling of

The outer

building

- 163-

- Chapter of the which may also their be related in plan would to are

8-

an encircling not the have

wall. been

Even outbuildings

if

the on the

outbuildings site,

recorded extent

earliest

probably This is

dictated

by

presence in site Sortie because extensive other years view has

of a feature of the fact

such as this. that no outwork or is from Fairey only

Is particularly visible aerial surveys on the 44

Interesting ground 418-19), with (the (NMR and such (the a few was:

been

levelled), 3296-97; otherwise

1: 10,000 coastal one of

photographs

40A. 463: Lingro

two settlements by large the

outbuildings Ayre).

which However,

was not

enclosed of did

outworks the site of or of

being after

the compilers

ONB, writing

the excavation

of the site,

note

that

now in a ruinous condition with the exception the large outer circle and the Inner circle tower Is in which still a fair state preservation, which can perhaps of being are wall sketched orthostats be related it G. There of an older of to be interpreted enclosed. in one plan building referred being (Petrie 0. It to. MS c, is If as implying that the site

gave every fig 50)

appearance

suggestions running walling to

26-27; not it clear is

through is

which line it to Is the

section of

the

apparent

(aligned the

approximately proposed to the

NWW-SSE), then leading but

unlikely broch. feature the make

passageway an earlier, of

Alternatively, which little pre-dates plans, sense post-dates in it). is is

may relate In

unspecifed, on

SW corner stretch

G, as Indicated which structure

published

a V-shaped terms of

of walling

seems to (which

the

sub-circular for of features the wall with

possibly those and I,

Elsewhere planned. pieces (Petrie

there

also the

evidence NW wall clay

which between projecting the

pre-date rooms G knobs MSS (for in to of front the these sure the its guard

Underneath of a large MS e).

ornamental A regular MS a; In and aI relate fig

vessel

were found the of

feature 51) is

on many of a wall passage plans is

example Dryden and Petrie of right features whether site's broch the are these entrance entrance. indicated, features

(? or step) extending neither later

and an encircling the published cell'

guard to

shown. or

I am not stage stage that the in in

an earlier or it However,

development, by the

or

an the

unclear

partial appears

understanding cell probably

excavator.

post-dates

passage which
- 164-

may have partly

encircled

- Chapter the wall broch, but was now blocked. its northern evidence for but

8-

There wall.

are

suggestions

that

the

SE

of P pre-dates There is in also the

several which

phases

of

activity the

and planned

rebuilding features: 1.

outbuildings, R there

may post-date lies in:

To the S of building

is

a box which

Some of least level 2.

stone about 11311 thick. a bed of clay and rotten The bottom of the bed or layer is on a level with the foundation of wall of chamber and it extends A bed of ashes 6 upwards halfway on side of box. bed on to 10 Inches thick on this clay rests floor and on top of the layer of ashes Is a stone floor the surface of which Is I foot above edge MS a, ORD1182111). of box (Dryden and Fetrie is indicated by Petrie this relative stratigraphy sketch. floor level in Certainly in plan. and accompanying with the 'old stony schematic wall, but (fig of the building interior 52; longitudinal and may R. of it). 'later relate Petrie to this the'implication building, but is that that only there the

in

an

accompanying one

was at lowest

was recorded A drawing of

a wall

and wall' the 24-

latitudinal indicated, relationship 25). this It as

section, is of follows recording wall,

unfortunately some of close

unlabelled, outbuildings the NW)

MS c, the

on from a plan (from

However,

I see earlier

foundation

and buildings with I this, but seem to suggest is

some problems the plan, MSS drawing. because stones', walling schematic excavators; illustrated 3.1 the the

L and H (which overlie the break in the wall, roughly is of with the as those interior 'backed drawing is

There are in

as indicated the by in

would

correspond the wall in

marked on the of up wall loose the the the (as

external

described not the that where the case

which is only

apparently included implying it was 51) across buildings site, the this. of the

here.

A break

naturalistic the they break took

sketch, was their

and not made by

drawing, perhaps in fig that

section the

the outer

circuit later

of the site. than majority of have several in may therefore There of 0. their are

suggest structures for to site

G and H are and that radiating Firstly, site; the

on the with

outworks

been contemporary reasons relation to the

structures. in terms the

suggesting the rest have

location of

otherwise building

main line Secondly,

access in its

would

been through
- 165-

- Chapter plan seen G shares at sites of more in such the site Gurness. way to

8-

common with as Howe. is

the post-broch A reconstruction in fig 53,

structures of with the

which

are

original

appearance forecourt, this goes

suggested If

an expanding seen as late, between to the have SE

as at some and building

structures the can the

G and H are relationship now be relationship does in this several to the the show area. features site, that

resolving These that

outbuildings functioned wall of

outworks. albeit and the L

postulated between the

as a unity,

the

outwork

outwork

considerably Mention illustrated included are: the (for

pre-dated must in the

the outbuildings also be made ' of MSS pertaining

which but are

are not These'

various

whatever stone pillar which bends just to

'reasons) setting or are the the hearth

in- any of in

final

plans. and Petrie the

a rectangular stone pillar buildings it two

In room E (Dryden

MS a); line of runs broch,

a possible between from

room V (continuing and the a drain to the

planned)(ibid); left

which the

G, H and F up towards

entrance Into

where until

and continues to K Ubid, at a similar and the

encircling Petrie but which W of detail who

passage

past

entrance

ORD 182/3). alignment, leading tank two. in any great (1982,129-77), also in to

MS e indicates also In bifurcates the broch

an un-named feature to Interior divisions from Lingro enter room F, dividing will there

passageway Into

up to D. the

was was 'an additional, the broch not be discussed by Bell objects, by Petrie

the orthostatic The finds here in the because

of their to of those

extensive

treatment the

addition contexts

describing

and listing

incorporates his notebooks. of the broch used BC or from

articles

described

However, these itself in its

a few specific it is

comments can be made concerning with that the regard a rotary broch of Pius is to the date to note and that Y,

the dating of

artefacts. relevant

Firstly,

quern was apparently thus first century

construction, in date. F and

later

A large

number including

Roman coins of (AD 138-61) item no

were recovered two

outbuildings Hadrian Crispina locate

denaril

Vespaslan and 406).

(AD 69-79), coins of to

(AD 117-38), (AD 180-3) these coins in

Antoninus

(RCAHMS 1946 11, both the Hunterian

Attempts Royal

Museum and the

Museum

of Scotland Most traditional

have failed. of 'the artefacts are perfectly pottery acceptable within a at

MIA context.

The decorated - 166-

has good parallels

- Chapter Warebeth, ring-headed continued the in Ayre pin the and Howe (Bell and globular LIA I, but donation parts of rings forth). headed they

8-

The mould pin be MIA. of

for

a projecting that activity listed in being more is is It a is

may suggest It

may also that

original

notes

'fragments were also found,

bronze, but nothing

apparently

or pins' LIA II with

is known of these a possible short of the inside of the pin (material

(Donations of

1872,360). activity

Only one find, on the found site,

now lost, and this head.

indication

unknown)

a facetted MS a), it

and perforated in

was sketched broch of pin the

by Petrie (Dryden broch

and marked as being and Petrie 7) (fig

on or, in the NE wall an area where the However, the form a Roman type the fourth

probably 54).

was much collapsed suggests the third

(group

was probably used during century. junction Very

1983 Group XVII) AD, but developed the

which during Middle

was primarily

(Cool century were On is

similar period,

pins

made during these balance unique). the second the usually At

Saxon and Anglo-Scandinavian at the of (its

although

have a collar

head and shaft. perforation post-dating sequence

seems more li kely this pin is early , It Is the sole evidence at Lingro for century, at the wall, although site. is there Its indicative was obviously later, location, of

activity a long largely

of

MIA occupation of broch

in or on a decayed section unrecognised

activity. 8.2.11 Midhowe Excavations between encircling 472, fig

HY 372 306 were broch, conducted Although at at the broch 5 or of Mldhowe by Grant path 1934, have

1930 and 1933. the 32.1),

a group level' Ia higher LIA II

6 comb f rom the and Grant MIA levels of

(Callander only the LIA.

may suggest otherwise.

activity, into

been recognised some of which The site defined ditches does not on two

These encompass many phases be extended today sits deep 48). broch and on the and with

activity,

may plausibly as we see it sides by (fig the broch

edge of a series through

low of the

cliffs, strong outworks

geos,

and ramparts align of possibly outer with the

The entrance entrance, the outworks

and is

the not

chronological known. 90) of The and a cup and but

relationship outworks second

incorporate (Hedges are

a blockhouse 1987 111,114). Into the

(Lamb 1980a, A couple extant

rampart stones

ring-marked

incorporated - 167-

structures,

- Chapter their provenance . The extant but their is

8-

unknown,

and

there

are

no

recognised belong to

pre-MIA more than their date

features. internal features there of Is the broch

one phase, and fittings. although E MacKie enclosing occupation

as at Gurness, or of

dispute with

as to earlier are to

both broch

similarity, The majority they

otherwise, extant in they the

internal secondary, ones.

fittings certain broch The in

probably

may be similar believes

respects its

earlier

Hedges (1987 111,115) (pers

may be original. earliest

As at Gurness, stages as by

comm) sees the fact that

a wooden 'roundhouse. from hearths. C (Callander in the the interior of

excavator or cellar to extant 1934,461).

inferred is partly They also but that to try the they

a primary sealed structures expected to only it.

a well

two superimposed in compartment to find leave probe

These relate and Grant middle of the

Internal

a hearth standing the

court, meant floor its

necessity could and locate

partitions on the but inferred recovered is

18 inches not

material they

They did of burnt

manage this, which floor

presence 455).

from the quantity That there was the

material one earlier in

Ubid,

at least structures

level

obvious

from the way in which be established encircles C the interior covers the its are

compartment higher that internal they wall.

D can be seen to the pathway which in to features are

on a level outer edge. by of

substantially Some of secondary additional scarcement longer gallery. the broch the the

compartment

obviously an the

because casing in the

secured This facing

wall parts for

also that as the these to

SW sector, its primary is how the

suggesting function

scarcement

was no or than which more

fulfilling

support

a roof are

The question tower, broch and to

how much later they relate

alterations outbuildings

the

encircle extensive.

NW, but which were originally Grant of relate the

probably these

Both changes to to

MacKie

and

Callander

and

internal

a phase when the According from to the

superstructure as this in the from

broch the

had started outbuildings in the the the

collapse.

MacKie, masonry,

happened, lintels

were constructed the broch broch. dismantling lintels However, of

and spare and that the

were stacked around preceded that once

intra-mural it parts in Is

galleries, obvious the the

passageway fact

outbuildings the

of

broch,

were stacked

encircling - 168-

passage,

new entrances

had to

- Chapter be found construction cells cells outside to the outbuildings. internal main broch to a phase

8-

MacKie fittings

(pers to the

comm) relates building that these

the

of the extant the

of guard guard broch became

entrance. when the and the stone but of

He observes level of the broch

must relate passage

original entrance

entrance redundant,

was raised, because no pivot of original length

original

now survives. and the remain is

The correlation construction as to of the the the rest

between redundancy guard cells this

entrance questions paving

seems correct, of

whether

construction

contemporary Grant is

with

of the changes in the broch The chronology regard to the relative In oval the of to is the of

Interior. and very similar with and the Then a pl VID

Callander of the

dating primary

broch the

internal broch

fittings was built. map, the

outbuildings. series of

period

and linear

outbuildings of a part

(E-H on their constructing of the broch

were constructed. entailed Infilling specific hearth areas-of had to buttressing a result blocked of in cutting a part the

The enterprise back of of

outbuildings wall and the

vicinity

Both these activities the -inner ditch. are The Idea of radially disposed of house H. With the exception from period was of of the the an industrial investigated broch tower and As was the same

main wallsIn

seen throughout. G, no hearths these rooms. In the

house any of be

were recovered their basal the third gallery

strengthened: was constructed this part, in the reinforcing, the

infilled, the the broch. broch to

around the

NW exterior encircling to to the had

passage now lost in the

and a new entrance areas of site Internal divisions

be constructed sea. the

outbuildings, time, some of time. Callander stratigraphically entrance I late' The extant this

At the

were added to broch

outbuildings. built at

secondary

constructions Grant their outworks

were being

and to the

were

unable

to

relate at

several the there these

'features the ditch S

suggested

phasing:

some stage of but outer

through

was narrowed; was added to it; the

parts tower,

were paved, dilapidated

and a new stretch to their the that

whilst

were also were so

buildings

S and SE of

form and purpose relative stages they of chronology the site

cannot the

be established. broch

An alternative 1. In the earliest although

can be suggested: and outworks coeval. were The

constructed,

are not

necessarily

strictly

- 169-

- Chapter
the Interior The lower the gallery

8-

exact cistern

nature or

of cellar.

of

broch

is

unknown, and

but almost

there

was a

was open In the east present at

completely (they two feet From N led to also then internal led

encircled do not

the overlap this

interior. the

The stairs scarcement,

may be original end about level. in the

but . at a doorway

below here

level)

and

led to

to

scarcement which from

access

was gained at have

an intra-mural level,

gallery, and

down to the

a doorway may a gallery. to At much to of the the this the

an intermediate been If the levels possible. internal

which

access

gallery

The stairs

scarcement were from not the

probably original, lower

supported sole access

upper

may have level further

been an

doorway. around entrance 2. At

intermediate broch, with

intra-mural viaa

passage small

Ingress

raised

SSE. stage series of the in the brochs's development, (E, of wall ditch. F the of and G: if fig not from 55A) its were layout wall little

an early a

inception, constructed respected which inferior 3. which than wall this outer The had building of room

outbuildings 'NW quadrant the northern of , the

around the

broch. G being

Their a strong is

outworks, the of the line

followed to that

Their

masonry

broch were

(RCAHMS 1946 11,198). extended to from of the the by SW. the That addition, this Joint of building where The the the building is later H,

outbuildings a single G can added

entrance be seen onto that the a part a length

masonry 43B). part

curving of of the

H is also

G (fig of

construction face ofithe follows with broch. in

entailed wall, of radial

removal of of the the of which

of

inner wall It

defensive infilling

outer inner the

northern ditch.

broch, plan their A cellar

and the the

general from

disposition

outbuildings the

entrance

a common passage in an area necessary upper which

encircles the inner

was constructed 4. It

was In to

ditch. of the broch ground probable The much of lower its

became

dismantle

parts

superstructure plan that may relate the

as the to

storeys prior to

became unsafe. this, to filled parts of the into access Outside but this it

The extant seems period. more

a phase of

majority gallery with filled gallery, was up,

features was

belong

intra-mural, circumference were upper of the also mural broch

carefully slabs,

around

upright and

intermediate the to it. the entrance The broch,

gallery to interior excess the

a cell all (see

was inserted further above).

blocking changed

- 170-

- Chapter stones were stacked In the

8-

parts the

of

encircling doorways

passage, to the

acting

as

buttresses. were blocked are no longer building H.

As a result,

original

outbuildings which of by time SE side

up, and new entrances extant. The broch and the in An entrance entrance original

created

in areas into

of the site the at this to this

was knocked

was probably

extended belong present

guard cells, internal walls The elaborate is particularly

doorway became redundant. may also the

Many of the phase. of H

the

outbuildings to explain possible still

rearrangement difficult it it which is is

and much of

appearance

satisfactorily. a new structural to might had identify any built sequence of in on date the The the the and

So, whilst for this site, with interior floor nature of at

to suggest not possible

activity excavators broch original exact

a LIA II that 5-6

comb fragment structures of debris

be associated.

suggest

secondary feet

were being but

when this the (A

accumulated the

(Callander activity site are

and Grant are, dated 1970, Fowler

1934,465), unknown. presence II) and

again, by the table

The main phases of second century penannular was late as the and three

of activity Roman pottery brooches current fourth Grant with In

Robertson with

affinities various AD (Fowler 44.4-5,

A derivatives, until perhaps

a form which as Callander

its

elaborations 1960; 45). fig

century 1934, fig

Hedges 1987 111,25;

8.2.12

Netlater There are head

HY 323 no

173 LIA finds from this broch, plan the broch only of a

definitely

globular (fig which be 44C)

pin

which

may be post-MIA. of a ? broken outbuildings is broch no record

The excavation wall

1890 broch, can in MIA not

shows

traces that there the This

encircling

around to the

might

suggest but with

contemporary of is any. not by on

expected, line

An oval a feature Petrie, the of a

enclosure common to

direct

entrance was

outbuildings. measure it,

feature

observed is

but basis well,

he of

did Traill's

and , to not

his Petrie it,

reconstruction has being a

observations. leading 81). probably circular West. It down is

recollection in this to after

with (Petrie LIA date, in' Keiss

steps 1890, and A

situated enough shortly a similar

enclosure propose the broch outside a

distinctive to a period lies in

belongs enclosure

was

use.

position

Broch

171

- Chapter

8-

8.2.13 _, distinctive. but that , in these

Oxtro The only

HY 253 examined Curle

267 pin from this site refers is to not chronologically Roman pins, information almost forward the of Only other any a a

(1934,367, located. extended broch. this broch

no 84) Petrie over

possible the

were

not

(1890,78) the well (1987

records which 111,56) is

a wall the centre

reputedly of the

situated puts with recorded 44G). 13;

Hedges wall interior. any E

convincing stone later fittings levels,

argument in or brooch of of holdfast 045 of fourth the if of

that the

may be contemporary Nothing outbuildings (1960,168, may distinctive 291) date: and is (fig fig

there Fowler century

were type

penannular probably occupation tankard samian ID. (Warner value,

1963,101), prolonged include fragments 1970, a of table

manufacture, Other 1976, no

suggest finds

broch

interior.

(M MacGregor second ware The Is or third

clamped

century for its

A Robertson long piece to site This which LIA

Samian 1976). but The

renowned efforts

potentially this

circulation to its

made to sherd LIA cannot find

clamp testify from this

testify settlement.

by itself only

this

distinctive

was a symbol was recovered overlay the

stone from broch

carved a short mound

with cist

an eagle, cemetery, 1868;

unfortunately presumably Petrie 1890). of

now lost. LIA date,

(S Laing

8.2.14 A Raymond structural

Peterkirk, single Lamb has LIA

Sanday comb doubt

IfY 713 436 (group this been is 5) a has been found site, a well at but this the site. only

no

broch-type is

feature

which

has

recognised

(SMR no 276).

8.3

SUMMARY OF EVIDENCE FOR LIA Orkney is of broch II, but first at the LIA area in the

ACTIVITY AP with The to

IN ORKNEY (Appendix the most detailed of pins

IV

a-b) for combs sites

evidence and

all

aspects from LIA

settlement. testifies very to the Howe and late, few

large continued can LIA

number activity I activity

coming in the

sites in

on these be proved. the primarily many to need be the

cases

Turning internal residential secondary, fittings

broch suggest that as the has

structures that fittings long been some

themselves, brochs in

original had not a be

function, or very

seen

assumed

case.

-172-

- Chapter Little Midhowe, suggestion extant differences. prolonged, fittings no and both is known the best the known

8-

of they it is

earliest brochs In

internal Orkney.

fittings Whilst in nature

at to

Gurness is

and some the were case is a

there

that

may have obvious

been similar In the the

much of there any in the

features,

case of Midhowe that brochs revision in broch pins was of the towers

But there

activity might the MIA, that in the

within be

repeated the

internal There had

during however,

and subsequently any of II,

LIA. still

evidence, form

resideniial some

function of activity. Into of

LIA At

although is

and combs indicate a the only at the series insertion a single site of (see of for is

Howe the there towers.

broch

became

workshops. of

Unlike

In Shetland, the broch

no evidence To date in there

wheelhouses

excavated

example be

a possible

wheelhouse the

Orkney, 1890), Shetland

Howmae, North seem below). With the itself. leading narrow space exist. evidence Mldhowe that radial to

Ronaldsay broadly

(W Traill1885; contemporary broch more the the with

I Traill

and this examples

would

regard These

to the are

outbuildings, or broch less In

a case has been made that contemporary with the broch fashion,

examples

encircle them to passage; the broch

a regular is full

a passage by a these on the and for In

through encircling between

broch, is Its

which very

usually

surrounded

there and for et al

use of all outworks, almost (Hedges

the available where 1987 ID

surrounding rests Hedges 1984), Gurness

The, dating from

evidence and Grant his

these

exclusively

Howe (Carter

(Callander

1934).

(1987 111.14) have are it

estimates evidence

20 out

oU 52 of outbuildings,

Orkney

broch

population their plans

well-ordered illus

and some of basis of

illustrated outbuildings is not

44-46,48. tend to

On the

present type, the basis

evidence, although of

elsewhere possible Outbuildings the

to be of the non-radial distinguish the two on even, be obvious as was the that some of in

always alone. for

fieldwork

may not of

from surface case the the at

features,

except pers

presence work in

rubble,

Howe (B Smith

comm). with as layout

Hedges' brochs the of

suggests

outbuildings

associated because

Orkney

have been built

same phase of construction the is by and large are

broch, some of

or are near the floor

contemporary and the fittings

afterthoughts, broch

outbuildings areas,

systematic, (1987

and their. 11-111;

and furnishings

comparable

98.2.2). -173-

- Chapter Whilst redating settlement how soon erected, -existed of

8-

many undated radial record. the structures Still,

non-radial

outbuildings more of stance broch broch in the

may be a gap in the

LIA, the

the LIA

now generates whatever of that one's the the

debate

about were co-

after it

construction be disputed functioning outbuildings and the

outbuildings

cannot

and outbuildings are later in than how

at some point, But many of the

as a unity. on Orkney brochs comes sites, here, in the long

radial modified

structures, occupation period of to the MIA or fill this is dangers

problem on these to

assessing there if

continued difficult a circular LIA I, LIA II.

because Further, because for

artefactual are, of few objects is

te rms this Course, to yet broch span can be dated be either too to

recognise.

argument will In

there

be a tendency the

the settlement of sites us If extended unit has as may be some life been (pers

addition,

sample

small.

Both

post-broch gap one day. found small been to

and non-broch Nor need it

settlements suprise

expected

outbuildings Pool to

are a have Only period in here

have had an extremely multi-celled) over It about is five dated

at demonstrated comm Hunter). from the

(probably occupied the

centuries for

at

Howe Is into

there LIA I. form earlier

evidence not

continuity possible of the to the

broch

always but

recognise tendency impression

changes seen at

structural to of reuse a series yards. units.

on broch buildings,

sites

because

general and that

Howe is

of interconnecting There nor into is is there

sub-circular for

sub-rectangular than a couple On the activity artefacts activity MIA on of

rooms with domestic site of sites are there LIA. Ayre

no evidence positive

any more

evidence

settlement

on this basis broch

continued the in slight pins the

the LIA II. was evidently On the fourth-fifth basis some of

and combs there LIA (fig 56). of

there at Lingro into

suggestions whilst hints At of Lamaness, are

century East, the from

and Netlater; are

at the Burrian continuous Deerness, of

1, Burray

Howe, and Gurness well the Burgar possibly previous postulated possibly Burgar at

occupation Borwick, activity in

Midhowe, LIA II, As

and possibly after discussion activity Netlater.

there of

suggestions lasting

a period

abandonment there Borwick, is

several to 1. not There

centuries.

has shown, at Ayre,

are

structures

accompany this and and broch

Burrian probably

Howe, Gurness, a broch is only site, one

Lamaness to deposit

was simply.

reused

a hoard.

-174-

- Chapter site

8-

where

structural have

evidence This

suggests Is at to 98.8).

LIA

activity,

but where to and

no the

LIA long

artefacts rectilinear

been found. with is

Burroughston end, LIA opposite structures broch

structure

an apsidal similar in

aligned at

with the broch entrance, , Pool'and Howe (discussed What are the still in use and 'determined sites LIA not factors which

recognised

further which would

determined be in

which II?

sites it

would be What these for are exact that

abandoned LIA

after

the

MIA?

which

would

be reused Of the

What Is artefactual of the Deerness

have in activity, typical: of at in In

common? 10 of little the is LIA

14 sites the

with broch

evidence exceptions or the the

these

havedefences. known of

Three at

provenance se ttlement Lamaness is toLingro,

comb which only a a broch has it

may have was Broch

come from at but the of Ayre that

adjacent and

Skaill; not it

hoard site.

deposited

Burgar,

probably that addition LIA

appears no

similar the

radiating had a large these

buildings

enclosing of

-outworks. sites producing settlement finds. epitomise or possible for for In

can be suggested a

majority

artefacts and terms

radially of

disposed them thus

nucleated Roman to

around

them,

number settlements Of the and/or

produced would with 6 of

structural for

appear

the apogee of MIA settlement. evidence defences. LIA The LIA burial Of the 39 other 20 is of

19 sites

evidence these had with had,

structures, sites with, had, are or or

evidence evidence defences.

possibly possibly

structures, question

these we

whether sites

seeing

selective than are some

reuse/continuity others, variants cases that the the It and of if the

on some of these so why? for still

which were more important application would and even did these not of names which that they in

The Norse strong of the

word were

places

suggest where

towers former

standing, sites that

were not

importance

pass unnoticed. are the ones which As not

may be no coincidence discussion enough of to

sites

have been most extensively, previous skilled number them is Gurness shows, recognise LIA the

and usually earlier LIA

most carefully were on broch need Thus sites if it could

excavated. on the sites, whole

antiquaries structures which of the

and the with at that

distinctively few. Compare its

artefacts extent

be associated settlement is probable

post-broch

with

contemporary or partially for

artefacts. excavated

many unexcavated to produce

now be expected Equally probable

evidence

LIA settlement -175-

excavated.

- Chapter is for that

8-

many other Howe.

sites of

could the

on further type IV

excavation at on the

produce Gurness, basis

evidence Midhowe, of for field both

nucleated and

villages

recognised b shows, sites

Lingro

As appendix

identification, external for defences

a considerable

number of

have evidence sites these

and outbuildings. but no there obvious is

A number of outworks, and

have evidence may thus be

outbuildings to Lingro. In other into for

similar

words, the

a considerable to have into

number from the of for

of

unexcavated or to have In of

sites been Orkney sites sites MI A.

which

might

be expected LIA I,

developed

MIA nucleated

settlements selected

and from then after the

LIA II,

reoccupation seeing massive to both

a period

abandonment. selective importance reuse settlements,

we are which which

perhaps

preference and

have

outworks

surrounding there

by implication it remains occupied

may have been of especial be emphasized brochs. for burial are at that

in the

However,

has been little

excavation Sites to

on late reused than

specifically the secular

present sites, factors from

more likely which the to MIA, are

be inland

and ecclesiastical Natural and physical not changed

almost the

exclusively of these included Most of (Ist

coastal. sites these to

affecting and

choice

had probably

probably harbours. which authors

adjacency

a good beach, are adjacent from eighteenth Bay;

and possibly to good harbours, and nineteenth Account; Stromness Harbour;

natural some of century 1701;

sites Account;

receive

special Statistical is of

mention to

2nd Statistical

Brand

Low 1879): within Burray easy

Gurness reach

next

Alkerness day

and Howe are Ayre is and East to

present side Bays; is of

Stromness

are on either Stromness and Linklet Rousay where considerable fact that Midhowe

Holm Sound; and there are

Burrian

adjacent all were

good harbours resources can be inferred

around quite the from

situated. in

That

naval

considerations

LIA Scotland

ships was wrecked off the a fleet of one hundred and fifty Aberdeenshire Annals c 729), and that the coast in AD 729 (TISernach Southern Picts were capable of launching several seaand Dalriadans borne attacks (Tigernach in the sixth Annals c and seventh centuries 682; that 719; 733). It is also sites therefore possessed (or their places, -176not a totally unreasonable have assumption the Orcadians Twenty-two evidence for reuse a large number of boats. environs) produced be identified

immediate which

as burial

can sometimes

- Chapter as LIA there cists, is Norse. evidence Very for little burial of is

8-

or

known of inhumations urns

LIA in

burial both

practice, long

but

and short sites: at Ness on the (S Laing set in

and of cremations long cists the - cists (RCAHMS 1946 11, of midden the found

in stone-capped and graves item to no 777); the

at the of

following the broch

the north broch

of

Ork

a long-cist at in

cemetery Warebeth grave Hill

outskirts 1868,60); the bank

surrounding inhumation at broch' in

an unaccompanied close to

a slab-lined (Watt Green

Breckness 1887 at

1905,60); of

and two Quoyness

inhumations which

were

1812 and

may have been the graves cists of burnt

or slab-lined short show these groups

extended in long-cists same and were probably Hedges 1987 111,101-2). (Cursiter 1923,52; sections the (Petrie with of the 1874, broch at Oxtro 4,76). now lost. pin which clearly as Other may have on the of and is One of

- schematised cists above

broch,

which fig

are

described

containing

bone and ashes a symbol Included At this, Taft stone

incorporated finds a burial. but outside stones, bottoms' of

an eagle,

unstratified accompanied wallhead, earth without and

a Norse

copper-alloy were

excavations 'short

concentrated

and amongst a considerable of (Watt cists, most 1882,449-50). (1975,210) certainly the south their broch. burials. burial are

accumulation rudely made, there that

a number were found

Suprisingly notes the the upper It

no mention cists

human bone. in Sutherland in Petrie urns with pots -

Close-Brooks are almost to 6, fig

short

at Golspie cremation

pagan LIA. of broch wall discovery surfaces cannot No Iron rite, Bronze not which Age, be Age is and any

immediately

at of

Netlater, two covered

(1890,81; containing the original

area

K) records the

cremated floor they

bone, of this

nearly

on a level but these proved, parallels presumably are the

sound as if but the

were inserted for that they It

known from

Scotland possibility

pagan, site rite from

pre-date Norse

cannot

be discounted.

does

resemble

burial Finally

known to the writer. a number of from ditch sites Burrian at there are unspecific Stackrue references (ONS 17: 1880, skull 1934, infill item no Burrian 5 (ONB 17: 1880,182); I

to

human bone: part of from

278);

a mandible the of outer skulls

(MacGregor (Callander

1974,114); and Grant the broch

fragments 514); at

Midhowe

fragments

and other Fraser

human bones from 1927,52;

Ingshowe a large

(SMR no 575; number of

RCAHMS 1946 11, axe from excavations

322);

skulls

and a stone -177-

In the

- Chapter nineteenth and other 111,81-3); 1863,106); 1914,49); item no 579) set Furnished inferred the Oxtro and at (Hedges cist LIA, at Knoll the right Skulzie

8-

century

at

of from

(ibid, cell

item at

no 1072); Lingro

a skull 1987 Wilson (Graeme

bones from

hand guard Burgar three Knowe of least

(Hedges

two inhumations the bones of at at that

(Peterkin Individuals Swandro

1831,44-45; from Ayre the

and finally suggests

the there

RCAHMS (1946 11, because there

may have be Norse,

been graves their

are slabs

on edge over cist disc Howe from

a large can

area of the site. and presence 1987 111,49); pin fig from 67); is (Hedges

graves a glass

linen

smoother 1954); the cists

rune-incised which Gurness

at Stackrue

(Olsen

a ring-headed (Grieg 1940,

possibly

comes from one of

Viking graves have been recorded a number of furnished 1987 11,72-4, WN 1969). fig 2.15-6; Robertson, Unfurnished are intrinsically or even later from impossible medieval. IV b that if a site was used for used as a burial the of to date, as they are possibly

graves late It

Norse,

can be seen the to

appendix

presumed settlement'in within appear the

the LIA it

was not also

ground all the sites. had had LIA been 500 mere a large

same time-span. have been both exception that reused but for' associated they

Broch sites undefended of Netlater). churches sites in

used as LIA burial since is There await for to

grounds

and abandoned

MIA (with

possible Norse

course had

possibility The

discovery burial use

on these

some broch also

which sites probably

settlement, abandoned years,

preferred this

which at

a longer were broch burial 1923,50).

period,

case is

least

and- which these as the

by now grassy

howes

(the

name Implying that time they of

mounds: Cursiter number of to be reused in

The implication were grassy although broch that is is at the not where it

therefore

sites

mounds by the the former broqh

came LIA

sites,

presence

settlement be verified. have created to

Immediate

vicinity of

of the

mound cannot structures to

as yet might build to is of the the tend

The collapse so the much debris mound, which this (as into

and surrounding was more where most the

convenient

adjacent investigate. likely features to

archaeologists

Further, take running of later place off

subsequent there area are which militate

degradation suggestions surrounded against the

Howe where ploughed these broch out

mound: pers recognition Burials

comm B Smith). activity have also

Both

factors sites.

around

been recognised -178-

on non-broch

sites:

lower

- Chapter cemetery orientated supposed stone the Brough Birsay with

8-

at triple

of

consists head stones,

of the

long-cist and including

graves the symbol graves (Morris burial is not (A a long ninth

east-west, grave,

many two

ogam inscriptions, cross (Cruden at Birsay 1-4; Bay are

well-known long cist LIA

and an eighth-century in circular cairns BY 76,

1965,25);

and burials 1983, site but

probably

cuttings

containing dated, Ritchie cist by long the cist

a male, to the north perhaps fig is pre-dates 3, pl 11b, by graves (Kaland dated 1977,

a long cist .1-2); of the domestic site at Buckquoy cemetery 183-84); to on the at Brough of Westness, the Rousay, fifth and

BY areas

the c;

Birsay

cemetery

C-14 with 1987);

between

centuries

- unfurnished Norse are LIA cemetery the that find

headstones, and finally, in

subsequently at bell Saevar the iron

respected Howe, a century, 1983). LIA than

was excavated of this an early

by Farrer christian is later

nineteenth (Bourke

and included Morris (Morris argues

cemetery forms

Norse

rather

1983,141). Distinctive structural are exclusively sites. Settlement can be seen on sites which can also forms farms on be

present recognised in top) They Within derived

evidence

LIA II

in date,

and these

on broch

Take for

example the structural with-extant N Ronaldsay surface the areas mainly remains product leads to of the work

seen on

settlement are

mounds.

mounds (often

particularly

common In Sanday, 5m deep and cover and are are varied to be found

and Papa Westray. of of up to 5OOOm2.

may be up to a complex

stratigraphy,

organicallyThe of of

material,

structures. sequence

mounds themselves settlement undispersed Langskaill on a

assumed to be the site debris. (Davidson N Islands this is which

of a long

single

accumulation at (Hunter

organic and Skelbrae the

Preliminary et al burnt 1983)

Westbrough, pers

and Pool being

comm) suggests that burnt peat. Hunter fertiliser an alternative LIA about settlement the to the

mounds are essentially peat not There is

composed of dispersed as that than

suggests fields

because of the wide availabilty on these such f if th is site of also islands. as Pool centuries paralled

of seaweed as

resource at sites or here This complex so far fourth seen

extends AD. , at In the

any The

no evidence further back type of

cellular 1890; W of (fig form

settlement Traill

Howmae U

Traill

1885).

was excavated roundhouses, courtyards,


-179-

1880s and consists a wheelhouse rectangular

an unphased, 57; unique

one possibly and a long

in Orkney),

- Chapter

8-

which but date II

can also there range is of

be paralled nothing about perhaps in its 300-600 weighs to

at

Pool

(see below).

Howmae is to

undated, a LIA of seems The any one of not

artefactual AD. in favour

assemblage of this

contradict

The absence of

any distinctive date, It although thus

artefacts there settlement of

course that

is

nothing

affirm

such a date of have

either. LIA

mounds are units single

characteristic which time hints might is at

settlement. extent the of in

number

domestic at a

been but

settlement interconnecting immediately But the to

unknown, a

presence

courtyards apparent date, in their the

degree

complexity forms the AP, can

amorphous plans. LIA II structural are and be discovered Unfortunately throughout no tight and the us why it

most distinctive

polycellular at the to

structures Buckquoy. Orcadian of Birsay, and

exemplified applied at the detect structures such that remains. recognition always in is

chronology related Is so difficult

examples. serve

These,

structures to the are the have result it because

Brough

to remind

non-broch are

non-set t1 ement -mound occupation: and because building relatively slight would later focus picture suggest has the fact leave theresettlement of the the is structures at on present broch totally a bias

techniques

robbing

without

physical

Therefore, of

towards which must

sites,

sites this LIA for

been the

archaeological of an proved exact immediate succesful of it (C the

attention; nature for IA of

an unbalanced difficult to fieldwalking in Orkney, the of

settlement. this

remedy

unbalance. Neolithic assemblages,

Whilst sites

recognising their-

nature they means that

artefactual impossible pers

essentially repertoire IA activity

that

do not is

possess virtually has little

own distinctive to detect Aerial in regime settlement remote of this act Is

flints, In whilst this

manner climate At then the

Richards

comm). potential

photography, area, against detected techniques which 8.4 where high or

under-exploited, and very

topography, rewards. suspected

the least,

agricultural when LIA or the extent '

phosphate

survey

sensing features

may have the potential invisible

to recognise

are otherwise

on the ground.

NON-BROCHLIA SETTLEMENTEVIDENCE IN CAITHNESS In Caithness we meet for the first time the problem of deflning

-180-

- Chapter the forms opposed here are limits the to when can it multi-period has Freswick brochs will along be at

8-

of its the

a site: for

be demonstrated, settlement, that for

in

an area site,

that as their For the

focus

a broch Hill, and

vicinity, sites with of the they

been chosen Links Freswick

settlement? Birkle

Relevant and

and

relationship present brochs

Sands separate

Wester. but

purposes will Only

considered the later

sites, is

be discussed a small and forms with have

with

settlements. sites known in LIA to a distinctively reliant

number of possible the exception the been

IA non-broch of wags, Thus rest of no the

Caithness, structural certain particularly with sites, 8.4.1 the

recognised. with creates

we are

extent

on parallels Orkney. This the

Atlantic

Province,

particular

problems

when dealing on broch

nature

of

subsidiary

and secondary

settlement

as will Freswick Freswick

be seen. Links Links ND 37 67 consist of an area is of sandy hollows about half best focus known for of attention its for and gullies long and

to

the-north of Norse

of Freswick a mile site, is wide. which

House,

measuring

a mile

quarter late

The area has been the A0 for

eponymous several C Norse

archaeologists, Batey. site, in the finds, the Batey which area the eroding

particularly responsible draws together 1987a). are

Curle a recent the

(1939)

and more recently of for large casual the LIA activity number finds

reappraisal

also

most of the evidence Despite relatively just

(Batey majority sands.

of

unstratified, less, there

often

from and this but other

None the of

are about

a dozen metal In finds, LIA II

bone pins vicinity. a silver artefacts eighth

and a couple The majority hand-pin which (773) might date which are Curle's by Edwards the wattle little

combs which

point

to LIA activity

of these may hint be LIA are 1987a, might

are specifically at earlier 135-36; to the or 1920s is any activity. 2.2.1-2, these wattle of the two pennanular

The only of pl 20). are daub

brooches

possible

century Structures they

(Batey

relate by VII, the

artefacts and 1925; three

unknown, building

unless underlying excavated believes 64),

represented building during

earth-house6 1927). Norse be Batey (1987a,

(Edwards

and daub building that the dating

more probably may is, and this is

but

she

suggests

earth-houses there.

'Pictish'. mainly from

However,. the

evidence -181-

- Chapter outwith of the Atlantic in as at 1984). with dating for Province, the late early as first the

8-

mainly

suggests

a date AD (Alcock although the

for

the

use

earth-houses until

millennium century, into

1984,14). continuous century to be

perhaps occupation (Watkins

sixth

Newmill

may have examples that

extended later

ninth (such

In Orkney broch proof in

can be shown in or levels are LIA II absent. In to features.

rare

cases

contemporary there for is their

structures they is

as Howe); Evidence there any

no definite

(Pictish). Nor Is plan earth G at

Caithness

totally

evidence (Edwards (fig e). narrow larger, (c 3.2m) 42g) It

associated fig 3) is

above ground almost to

house A Yarrows 42cfrom a

1925,

identical

structure at

and similar consists of

post-broch

structures

Gurness entered feet

(fig

a small

sub-circular

chamber, ten

passage,

and with This

a small

sub-rectangular about from a longer above

annex.

A second, six via its inches a low From walls had a from and very

pear-shaped away. one foot was

structure

was situated (c 0.35m) sub-circular Ubid, fig the

was entered two Inches to a

passage, floor chamber,

creep, here

about access

level.

gained the far with

converging corbelled either a saddle helpful by fire indicating earth-house exteriors long from plain, the of for

towards roof, these quern

end to produce clay fragment,

a second 4). lower of

room which finds

covered from the In with the

The only jaw of

were a skull larger this

a child, B, not

compartment

structure and dark

dating.

case the compartment stone Edwards also consisted which to 6). close the There of

had been blackened soil, possibly a third their from directly produced hint pin a

and filled deliberate on part

a mass of burnt back-filling. This with 1927, clay, fig

excavated chambers, entered

Links.

two

plastered (Edwards but pottery. three In to the are of Barry no 34; suggestive Interior

were again were the

passage

no finds west wall

structure,

middens from

hard-baked There are

items Its

broch

itself

which

at head

prolonged (788) pins (787;

activity 791)

immediate

vicinity. centuries, LIA II

A globular whereas form. Anderson

may belong

fourth

and fifth

two bone was

distinctively and described fig of than 58F). LIA

The broch (1901,143-44;

excavated

by Tress

by I There

RCAHMS 1911a item site which are the

are the

no structures Anderson broch, divisions

on the as

activity. of

describes which

secondary apparently

divisions

whilst

more substantial

the orthostatic -182-

recognised

- Chapter on other Anderson statement, one the of the Crosskirk primary of is

8-

sites

as primary, no it Is the

may none the archaeological casing If wall this facing itself. broch cell; of the the

less

be similar. to to

Certainly Justify block then as his off at than

produces unless (below), building intramural

evidence which is the

appears case,

cells. additional broch the to of the

this

need not

be much later

The excavated entrance, the on the in intramural entrance, thus large this

outbuildings west the side of is

consist which unusually where may be

an extension an apparent to the located might

guard left

staircase position

broch

a cell

more normally Further to

be placed. west reached of a

extramural from

cell subthe the at

coeval.

sub-divided, passage building, phase indeed 7 village

rectangular main broch

chamber passage. external 48).

was probably Is

by a long this In the

The disposition cell, paralleled

additional Howe (fig

8.4.2

Reay

ND 96 for a projecting Reay area which ring-headed is of possibly the find pin of is (804) fourth is the century but Links, only or was

The mould artefact later probably is 57). from date. the

the

The exact

provenance for

unknown, (Mercer

sands at Sandside evidence broch

Bay where, multi-period at kilometres with In

as at Freswick activity Achvaresdal, away from which this for village comes from a second

there

considerable The nearest are

1981,44and and

structures, of

Achbuiligan Reay itself,

Achunabust there are

all There

a couple is,

no known MIA structures however, of (Allen of Reay. in the III

associated. activity is item Bay. a Class Here,

evidence the

artefact might be LIA II (and later) churchyard, there

vicinity stone but

and Anderson the evidence

1903 111,36;

RCAHMS1911a around Sandside stone was

no 340), in 'near

most site

the mid nineteenth-century, the of (Allen

symbol

discovered by the 1911a, which he

seashore' item

settlement an ancient on the sand links fig 26; RCAHMS and Anderson 1903 111,29-30, This may be related basis of Whilst to a pre-Norse of the cemetery Edward's

no 407). (1929,138-39).

can be postulated

on the

a reassessment

excavations found

investigating long cist graves

Norse cemetery feet

a group about

of four

unfurnished feet high. (c This

and a dry-stone wide and to the

structure, about a foot

1.2m)

In

breadth, similar

four

(c 0.3m)

and other

structures

-183-

- Chapter west which 8.4.3 of the Drill Hall kerbed sound as if cairns.

8-

they may constitute

a LIA cemetery

included

Birkle

Hills Hills the

ND 339 584 (alternatively sandy links that Laing feet (c near there describes 12.2m) This is high the Castle Keiss, 1901), had the and site Linglas) which is a name given

The Birkle to two mounds in in

were investigated it Is apparent

by Tress. Barry from (Laing conical, an earlier

1894-95 account

(.T Anderson

although previous larger

been

excavations (c Broch 110m) in (RCAHMS Barry. but in

1866,30-36). about at 40 the

mound as roughly

120 yards of Wester

circumference 1911a item This site

base. fig 59A),

no 513; produced

subsequently broch LIA or of 30-40 this

excavated finds,

by Tress LIA, there

no structures of typical

which were distinctively period Norse feet (598,601-2). (c 9.15-12.2m) broch, or has (c

addition bone pins

to

a series which at are

were three The broch by a wall, recorded (I

possibly

was surrounded and on the the Anderson The other, f eet wide. foundations 1901).

a distance side, eight

landward of

between or nine

and the cells these

were been

small of

outbuildings published. NE of 91.5m) form

Unfortunately commencing 100 yards was stone This of a

no plan about Its

second

mound, high,

100 yards irregular long of (Laing

the 30

was both (c 9.15m) At its

lower

and smaller.

was about

(c 91.5m) collection

and 30 yards small cists

(c 27.5m) containing which were their spindle weight midden a Later structure stone building at

base

inhumations possibly the floor whorl, with LIA top LIA

and rude 08.8).

Implements

1866,10-18), investigated,

mound was only Including

partly

and at

a series with

interconnecting midden and the

passages type of

was discovered, and bone fishing outside II find. stone a Norse pin

covered

a stone the LIA

some pieces encircling pin (556) by

of the

flint, In only the

and a Norse upper strata distinctively revealed stones This symbol

stone

groove. was Tress amongst 131), in but the

excavations which (Anderson (Batey LIA

Barry

a rectangular paving Is its floor

included

a symbol

and Allen

1903,27). the

plausibly and single the broch,

1987b, activity

stone to

do hint

vicinity, artefacts

which

'interconnecting may be related. and Allen

passages', A second 1903, -28-29)

and some of the symbol stone further

from the of Keiss

from the south emphasises

Bay (Anderson in this area.

LIA activity -184-

- Chapter
8.5 BROCH SITES WITH EVIDENCE FOR LIA

8-

ACTIVITY

IN

CAITHNESS'

8.5.1

Bowermadden Unfortunately

ND 254 635 very little by a the is known of this site, less not even its

plan,

as

it

was destroyed pin, suggests with

farmer.

None the head, lasted into is

a projecting to this

ring-headed site. AD. It

half-corrugated may have

ascribed the fourth

activity

century

8.5.2

Crosskirk This site is

ND 025 701 the best excavated of of the The where and its most fully recorded are IA and broch

In

Caithness. for an and on

The

implications

development of

therefore society discussion Into fort, five which in

crucial Caithness, is based

understanding wider afield. 1984,

development following the of site the there date

summary is

Fairhurst

divided

periods. is of the from the presumed pre-broch 2a the

Period to

I saw the pre-date the on

construction broch site: because

promontory are

some indications calibrates age the at sherd of at could earlier both core the to the the to built of the a

activity

the BC

a C-14

which

level-to broch

1260-795 well, and

(SR-269), one

a possible sherds pre-Iron this 200

bronze from Age

about are

hundred to the

area

outbuildings, Mid, the fig

which

similar

pottery

Clickhimin even Mid, gallery consisted reasons collapse. excavators: outside, contain platform wall. the pre-date 165; and of

57,59,108-10). outworks. a solid it is Then, based in

Presumably about

activity not

BC, - if

59C),

broch to

was built. be early. which is

Lacking Its possibly wall

a scarcement earth, from Three an rubble an

argued

and boulders, date types casing its

one of started

why

early

superstructure were built broch; a the low, lower

different

of ' casing m thick of the and

noted

by

external after and the slabs external

0.3-0.75

facing a casing solidly part and high

shortly rubble along These

the

construction after face of collapse; to

buttress

indicate experience

a series of the

structural in

weaknesses constructing

reflect

inadequate

builders

Note: 1. This section owes much to the unpublished work of C Swanson

(1988). -185-

Chapter

8-

walling. to explain internal original stage

This

observation casings which

is

particularly observed obviously on

constructive, brochs, secondary features beside possibly where

as it they at

helps the

similar facings intra-mural

even

are

block this of and two

features. seated illus burial 45-46),

Anomolous in a cist

observed the of

include

hearth

enclosure recess

1 Ubid,

and an arrangement function. was divided was further levels

a pillar into

which

may have had a ritual of the of broch which earliest

The interior main compartments, for the

by orthostats sub-divided

each

by radial function is

divisions. suggested The

From these site.

very

a residential but it in

broch

originally

stood

alone, around

shortly

afterwards 3, including buildings

a and a were

number of outbuildings

were built

an ad hoc manner, These

went through several stages of modifications . slight extension of the broch passageway. circular, cell sub-circular, the brochs sub-rect Similar of Caithness. by further at the foot angular, appended to it.

in period

and one of forms

them had a small around broch to open of of the

structural floors, of the to

can be observed

many of

Meanwhile and it

the interior

was being a second

modified entrance in Caithness,

became necessary to at the

staircase.

The occurrence east South, at Keiss

two entrances plain West. of Kettleburn,

a broch other Ness, of of

appears Skirza

be peculiar occurring Yarrows, is

coastal Keiss Cairn

examples Head, Crosskirk

and possibly example

of Elsay secondary excavation entrances view. guard However, aligned that it

and Hill nature

Works. the

the only that

where the by modern the second this has any South).

second MacKie

doorway (1973)

has been indicated believes all

techniques. are secondary, the (although is

although entrances see the

Swanson (1988) at any of these

would sites at is

dispute ever Keiss

Only cells

one of

possible the

exception entrance outworks, place culture that there took

at Ness it with the was the

unguarded through All the this

which

more or less suggesting was no inhabitants. there

entrance main one. in

perhaps while of is the

significant It Is

modification

material

particularly occupation Roman finds

important of broch site.

to observe

a considerable the to appearance Orcadian

phase of of sites (at

and outbuildings This is in with

before contrast the earliest in

on the

the

where Roman finds Gurness,

are associated unspecified -186-

outbuildings outbuildings

Howe, and from

contexts

the

- Chapter at Lingro). But before postulating between the the there site then is follows reoccupied of for an in

8-

apparent period are

period 4.

of The there

abandonment reasons is for a gap 4;

a period C-14 dates 4 internal complete that the

abandonment period

as follows: in

3 and the were located underlying periods I appears. later

Roman finds

of There

period is

and period indicate evidence great; different which addition this is in

structures of between

such a manner as to some been 4 may not is circular II. have

ignorance gap

features. 3 and It

late

period It

3 enclosure

and uses factors (in

building may indicate it

techniques

to sub-rectangular a new, rotary cannot of of

enclosure building How true

represents a reused Caithness number most

tradition

incorporates In large brochs, produced their

quern).

or common but As

elsewhere to the Caithness

be accurately structures Incidently

gauged, which occur

pertinent around which earlier Crosskirk). implied

circular which (at

appear than and is

on sites

have also date 'for

Roman finds, occupation that there fabric

suggesting Keiss

a later West, of

rather Nybster some sort time.

None the

less,

was a break in period Yet the to

by the change in pottery The broch interior the now being

and form at this

was reconditioned sole entrance. it now blocked, and from there 60a). The hollow or

4, the secondary leading the up to in a

entrance the the

passage

original external the

entrance, rampart, (fig of of

was extended

gateway extending

has been detected pre-existing way, and the layout

further dictated been access. Yarrows outbuilding passage excavators Crosskirk this itself, were activity been not for

20m south reuse

presumably for at only to the

an earlier produce be

passage may have primarily passageway is the 4.

storage Obvious (fig 60b) which was up to gave the

similarities can

than rather animals the extensive with However, to period this level,

suggested. be ascribed the original

can as yet Im above every

The wide yet

passage

passage, could lasted later

Here at primary. of being appearance for display, and thus monument was not being preserved a monument as the broch which was almost as dominating be removed. It group the in of the Structures is not to known dates century century the south it of this the rampart phase of have how long

investigated. -a about

C-14

suggests AD.

need not there

than

second fourth

AD, although

Roman Castor is

ware suggests

activity

Certainly

-187-

- Chapter no to that the

8-

evidence

suggest the

site burials

was

anything were

more

than into it,

grassed-over probably

mound when

long-cist century.

inserted

in about

seventh metal, problems. and from the

However, 'creates moulds (possibly Crosskirk which fourth forms; by any

a single,

nail-headed As of earlier Mark

pin

from Crosskirk discussion a has

(1624) shown,

some dating from Dunadd sixth) comes from AD. is later,

Mote century phase

suggest for of this the

seventh/eighth form, but the an horizon as late as the with Roman levels in

also pin

horizon 3 levels

broch,

may date century if it

second century bears

until little

possibly way into (see

The example it

comparsion

may have worked its of taphonomic item, there is

earlier for LIA

one of In the

a series form

processes long-cist

discussion

S7.2). practices area period the of

Notwithstanding the broch

this of

evidence to

burial the the

two unaccompanied Neither suggests 42,49, stone these a

graves the

from W of 600 They in

outbuildings passage).

(on a platform of

area

4 extended excavator

are orientated of and about II). I was

E-W, and AD are the

tentatively illus a

period

(Fairhurst probably nineteenth

1984,102; related century to

graves which

symbol

discovered

just the enclosure of the burying ground outside to the ancient of St Mary at attached church Lybster in Reay (Allen and Anderson 1903,30). 8.5.3 Cairn of Elsay (Staxigoe) site ND 387 520 by Tress Barry in about hipped might broch in 1902 produced of group shaft 6 (557).

Excavations three items which

at this suggest

LIA activity: pin LIA with

two comb fragments a tell-tale which divisions Indicated wall with

(558-59) There with the are

and

a headless Excavations potentially

no distinctively

structures

be associated plan, the with NW side the of

these. of fig

revealed primary two as a

a standard radial thick

vestiges 1911a, internal rose is

broch,

and 44; division

possibly fig is 61C)

entrances. by the

on

plan

(RCAHMS an It but or it two

concave

sides,

described feet

Commission

as secondary. level,

to some eight not clear of

or nine this the

(c 2.4-7m)

above floor block of

whether walling,

was a solid between

masonry, the

sections 1988). original

area the

which

was unexcavated taken at time as indicated

(Swanson of the

Swanson has shown from a photograph excavation that passage -188-

extension

on the

- Chapter plan did The majority which Barry. by Tress

8-

not

exist.

of

the

unstratified is

finds around the

are

of

broch-type. were not

Any outbuildings excavated hollow are the

may have existed It unclear

broch ground

on the

whether

the

apparent or in the

ways are the result product area of to underlying the

of nineteenth features. of the

century Modern broch has

investigation, disturbance uncovered 8.5.4

enclosed feature.

south

a cist-like

Everley A projecting

ND 370 683 ring-headed LIA pin as late by Tress (562) as the Barry. of of suggests fourth This broch, In addition glass the and broch that century, activity'on but there its usual (A was

this is

site nothing type

may have continued to suggest a

horizon.

excluding to the pottery interior

outbuildings, broch Robertson obviously

was excavated finds 1970, were table ID.

some Roman finds Occupation

prolonged,

because I Anderson

(1901,142)

describes and

flooring in the entrance passage secondary traces of a secondary paving of the area.
8.5.5 Hillhead A single are finds 61A) the the all there ND 376 514 bone is to pin (579) and LIA broch which broch entrance which is (which group 5 or at The 6 comb Hillhead, plan LIA. steps point early. of

fragment all this the site

(582) other (fig of and of

suggest

activity type. distinctively contains all

being indicates main wall

distinctively nothing of the

The extension a well). presence

down to to the

diverging

broch outbuildings

passage, are

unrecognised

plausibly

8.5.6

Kilmster A projecting

(Skitten)

ND 323 566 pin activity the Tress of with Museum is seventh Barry the the by (809) here and and two as eighth bone ate as pins the (807-8) fourth This Colder

ring-headed have again been in by

suggest century, site (1948).

there and was

may then

centuries. and

investigated The accession do not to but

(? unpublished) bone pins

numbers

examined accession Tress of

(RMS HD. 433 for the bone

and HD. 454) pins donated

correspond the Royal there their

numbers

Barry Calder must

(HD. 431-2; having therefore

Calder recovered remain

1948.142), any.

then

no mention

Unfortunately

exact

provenance

-189-

- Chapter unknown. .; I prolonged indicative several the later interior the wall, The structural occupation of layers LIA evidence of the (fig from site,

8-

Calder's

excavations there the Within

suggests is nothing interior

although

settlement

59B).

broch

of paving half It not of the

were recovered; interior, that the

a second level the radial

extended

over a the into

northern addition. were

and a fireback radial

was obviously divisions of it

was suggested primary: finishing stone one of of its dish

chambers

was set Into

and the

back walling

suggested

was an paving:

insertion;

and a broken

had been incorporated

Structurally, therefore, all the compartments are but from the the broch, than somewhat later layer under absence of any pronounced occupation had the floor it erection would seem that their improvements furnishing taken place as necessary the primary in occupation at an early stage (Calder 1946,132). These which spatially The broch against chamber excavator this this I to which (Calder limited the observations radial seem rather a weak basis on

to presume all the

divisions

are secondary. earthwork. broch footings, to Set up was the that the In

was surrounded south, an had

by a substantial with floor.

on a level unpaved there

contradiction to Any other under the been

1948,137)

seems no reason the broch. buried between to have

suppose

chamber was not for coeval

contemporary structures This

with

possible a massive and the

evidence additional ramparts constricting tower. the broch,

was probably

rampart. (in an area

was constructed seems not

broch

which

investigated),

available A second but

space to a narrow was also

chamber

passage between it and broch the same level as on practically

so the 8.5.7

period of building of the latest was undoubtedly as the chambers had encroached through the debris into the original wall right of the strengthening and no where these had become ruinous rampart 137). Mid, longer required late in date. is that this may be fairly implication

Ness This

ND 381 667 promontory site, in now the much 1890S. Ingot -190eroded and overgrown, the finds, from was which the Amongst moulds

excavated included

by Tress two copper

Barry alloy

ingots,

and a chain

- Chapter guard indicate orthostats segments). to the east

8-

cell, late

was a cast activity into There of the three Is

projecting onthe site.

ring-headed The broch (one

pin interior half

(801), is

which divided

may by

compartments of

and activity fig

two

quarter But 62A) fig

no record entrance which has of the would been a

any secondary to to

here. 5;

plan

(RCAHMS 1911a,

indicates exterior around from part the of

a building broch the wall

appear back

be secondary; accommodate It is a little

some of the a passageway difficult further to away a the small

cut

remains why the

small was not

building. constructed it

understand

building

broch the

exterior,

unless broch

perhaps

was constructed

after

original was

entrance quite has been,

had collapsed. extensive, or can ever the and be,

Certainly only a

enclosed proportion

area

probably

of the settlement plan landward the

recovered. of cuts either is buildings off the the well

The excavation situated headland. or then the the on

indicates side of

a well

and complex wall to which detect

Swanson (1988) entrance siting through of the

has been unable the wall. If the

original outside to

plan the

correct, area of be front structure need

freshwater A number of structure

supply buildings appears rooms,

defended in a which

seems rather this wall; of a

strange. circular two

were built underlie of cell building it

composed

sub-circular an Iron geo,

neither, This

contemporary. end, which

The northernmost may suggest defences

cell

has a small

appended at one complex, lies now

Age date.

bisected,

by an encroaching no Norse contender

may be late

because

outside it in

the apparent Although is the a possible Orkneyinga

of the broch. presence for has been detected (Lamb 1980a, on this 96), site, Lambaborg 82-83): mentioned

Saga (chapters

The fortress a StOut17 with stood on a sea-cliff The landward. to buil t cliff wall stone the coast along a distance quite stretched .

8.5.8

Nybster A 'bronze

ND 370 631 pin the with from a fixed the annular is by Tress not recorded This occupation _191head set recorded Barry as in being on a short asl the having 1890s donated rightbeen (RCAHMS to the

angled recovered 1911a, Royal

projection from Item

stalk'

excavations but is 1901). that

no 518),

Museum U pin,

Anderson suggesting

was obviously on this site

a projecting may have

ring-headed

- Chapter

8-

continued headland with

into which

the is

fourth cut off

century on the fort

The broch Is situated ' landward side by a substantial AD. of a gallery; it thus 20). qualifies (Lamb 1980a, survey of

on a wall for

stairways

and the

suggestion

consideration plan (fig indicates wall

as a promontory 61B) equates with the how an extensive around

The earlier which this these and

a recent series broch.

by Swanson (1988), butt. chronology but up to for

outbuildings

and cluster diverse circular, cells be seen of long with the

A relative Is

sub-circular, attendant The

and sub-rectangular passages small not possible, with Links long

structures

small can LIA, in

parallels are

elsewhere.

cells

passages are

reminiscent and the the

earth-houses of walling

at Freswick with includes

which (fig like

possibly The

stretches

partitions at a LIA it Yarrows

are best

paralleled 60b).

amorphous

structures

westernmost with the a hearth structures,

surviving is chapter parallels Others which But the

complex

lady-bird courtyard. structures Is (Mercer

structure of all the Udal paved

and attendant 9)

sub-rectangular of the to Adjacent

This, at

reminiscent

(period area, 488,

XI. 2: to which

a sub-circular have

can be found elsewhere of the circular dissimilar parallel

1985, MON FOR small cells at

f ig

54). them,

structures to the for this forms

appended to Howe (fig complex series planned from side. structures, relationship the

are not closest Lingro,

phase 7 village amorphous appear cellular to overly

48).

can be seen at of radially layout broch The at

where similar is

disposed Nybster, entrance there

outbuildings. where there with the record conclusion

There are vague hints an extended accessible depicts their some of passage from

of a

leading either

outbuildings of no In interior of

excavation but to

plan is

orthostatic

stratigraphical these structures the is There

each other.

but others the broch, may be co-eval with probably later activity ring-headed suggested by the projecting no other artefactual evidence to suggest later activity.

represent pin.

8.6

CAITHNESS SITES

WITH ONLY STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE FOR PROLONGED

OCCUPATIONIN THE BROCHINTERIOR On the of the basis for of 98.4-5, it is now possible on broch to sites review which the rest

evidence

extended

settlement -192-

have not

- Chapter produced rebuilding accompanying 8.6.1 any LIA artefacts. and secondary This

8-

consists in

of structural the date. broch

evidence interior

for

structures

and/or

outbuildings ND 267 571 plan left

of undetermined

Coghill

The excavator's radial to a slabs more to the

(RCAHMS 1911a, of the entrance, There

fig

31;

fig

58C) indicates possibly related in the could to the in for they

which wall is features, acting

are which

substantial at right wall is of this together, the late the wall

semi-circular angles. to the radial with a large at at

terminates

projections relationship have operated Alternatively smaller concept and to

no

evidence although

the heavy wall elaborate Kilmster. Bu (Hedges

as a roof similar is with its

support.

fireback, This plan

example roundhouse

similar

1987 D, radial

central

sub-circular
8.6.2 Skirza This the 1984, irregular (Swanson a tank-like opposite CAN

service
Head is side 050, width 1988;

area, and surrounding


ND 394 685 a promontory of the 051). north 1973), in to J geo fort to An arc and with the

compartments.

site

dubious

chevaux 1980a, or

de frise 74; casing secondary

on

south

(Lamb revetment

Batey of

CAN on the

internal of the

broch points of

Is to the

possibly the

MacKie construction

Swanson the floor

occurrence

of

possible there

second were of two these

entrance. secondary remains.

According curved walls

Anderson up the

(1901,143-44) Interior, but

dividing

no plan

8.7

CAITHNESS BROCH SITES

WITH STRUCTURAL EVIDENCE FOR OUTBUILDINGS

OF UNDETERMINED DATE

8.7.1

Hill There

of Works is

ND 290 626 to believe that the internal of divisions facing wall of does

no reason to fig block 1;

the

broch

should

be secondary, the fig

but a short entrance to

length the

appear

on plan

intramural

cell/stairway

A passageway appears to encircle joins to an three quarters the broch, at the broch entrance of and A subone door check. at least extended passageway which includes (RCAHMS 1911a, 61E). -193-

- Chapter circular chamber is details indicated

8-

to the right

of the broch

entrance.

No

stratigraphic 8.7.2

are available. ND 354 612 of the broch is divided of (fig by orthostats which 61D). although 3 Anderson feet about are Into further to three subthe (1973) is no in (c has

Keiss

North

The Interior long divided straight believes strat1graphic describes diameter 0.6m) as chambers, by wall these the

two

western

examples or

radial of

divisions, the settings central are to a the

partitions

perpendicular MacKie there

chamber secondary, this.

evidence secondary into original broch, 1988). the the

confirm chamber, wall floor. of

(1901.128) (c two 2.1m) feet

about the

seven at

and set the

broch

above

The extended joints is

entrance are that visible the from it,

passage buildings

been added to side either relative building reason Keiss (Swanson side is why South of

and straight There

on either to and their complete Is no less at

no evidence could The internal structures Between this three

passageway is

be entered only divisions, were site

chronology this with there the

unknown. with other

relatively

sub-rectangular and the are the

and there not and to it more the or

contemporary

broch. the

broch buildings.

remains is

of

rectangular

The one nearest 67, WIC 100).

N broch

possibly

related

(Batey

1984,

8.7.3 I discovery middens amounting

Keiss

South

ND 353 61o (1901,125) levels of layers of seven to and S Laing (1866,24-25) the broch, record and a the three hearth,

Anderson of or to three

pavement above feet

within them. (c this relIcs

occupation a (Laing also middens to total even

Including 2.1m) in of section, found with in

occupational figs the 35upper of of to

stratigraphy 36). and pottery metallic the upper Laing lower

attempts that the

show of

observed were the

class

essentially two lower

distinct, middens, and and

rude few

forms

confined objects, one.

the

instances implements of a similar

finer This

pottery change in 3 in

well-wrought is at are -in

bone

pottery and plan 4

reminiscent Crosskirk. primary. the second

observation internal mentions

between features the remains

periods recorded of

Presumably Anderson

the also

a guard

chamber

SE entrance,

-194-

- Chapter which fig that the Royal

8-

suggests 620 Is then

Commission

plan If

(RCAHMS 1911a, this Identification brochs SE in

fig

39; was

incomplete this broch

and misleading. is unique MacKie of (1973)

correct, two

among Caithness sees different broch integral was partly the the might

having as

guarded Young

entrances. the 1962,180-81 that

entrance

secondary, 1988; (1988) appears addition, te small outer

which

presence the inner

a guard cell a of the than an

disprove scheme).

(Swanson Swanson

suggests wall

suggests t. o, be at

from the E to the SW scarcement. blocked broch to the In across

secondary

rather the

some stage,

NE entrance wall. Outside

end also cell Is

by a cross with built

can be seen a structures overlaps which series The be gauged, at the is of exact but to a

circular Freswick Links broch floating structures relationship there product pottery exclusively 8.7.4 Keiss is wall (or both

a long into and outside it),

passage

similar which

and Yarrows,

a structure

partly

a rectangular the to NE

structure and a

spatially these to

chronologically,

immediately of the

entrance. cannot be LIA The finds pebbles,

structures believe

each other them to site. painted

no reason of

any of

as opposed include but

developing glass, and

MIA broch native

Roman nothing

and

LIA in date.

West

ND 349 615 of the broch but recorded primary. blocked in the the (fig 62D) is divided of these by orthostats features to (Anderson the

The interior into the four broch but equal tower is

sections, was not

relationship Anderson with west or

by the original

excavators facing broch,

1901), second There obscure of the

plausibly as being a chamber this are and it the areas, is the is

(1901,135)

describes of

entrance is also whether broch paved in front or Is a to

a secondary wall later of the

masonry. it is

but

an original vestiges but impossible, broch tower, of their

feature.

On all and cannot

sides subbe

outbuildings, exact with to

passages

circular established, court the. broch technique employ

relationship these notes but

the exception relate face, although

of the circular constructions that the two building cubicles to

of

each other.

Swanson (1988) stone

commonly post-and-panel of this is

a curving

that the

technique, unknown. ten by eight was _195-

chronological

significance the broch

The courtyard, structure

about

metres,

obviously

post-dates

because it

- Chapter

8-

founded of the courses partiall7 on the lower to the exterior wall of the broch ... addition two of debris on an accummulation and partiall7 U Anderson feet [c 0.75m] in height and a half 1901,137). In the centre of the circular aligned court is the remains further phasing the to of walling of the to the which broch, the SE.

forms and

a passage for which there is

roughly a hollow

on the its for

ESE entrance

way suggests evidence

extent (because

Although are the side,

no direct the

Joints that as S

obscured revetment this the

by vegetation of court

and collapse), continues a later at 25) past

Swanson believes cross-wall the court. than level

on the

passage remains

was added at of a building fig

stage a higher

To the them both

ENE are

(Swanson 1988). Laing massive as (1866,19-20, which out, describes the foundations as a broch. the mound shows the of it a

buildings points the is

he identifies his section the broch that

most likely through is set

But,

Swanson to It

adjacent road. building describes of which

road, therefore the

whereas broch

back from is describing

present a later

possible

Laing

overlying an oblong appears to

midden. between the (c feet

3 Anderson broch 1.2m)

(1901,131,139) one wall supposed

building pass

and church, beneath the

four

church). 8.7.5 ND 349 519 plan fig for this 59F). walls, which a facing site is very early, and highly is full of schematic thick of There to and the is the

Kettleburn The only

(Rhind irregular

1853,185; dividing

The broch which pass for wall To the are

Interior not

representative on other a short traces of sites. distance of

orthostatic

divisions for

primary runs NW are

some evidence north straight, orthostatic of wag of the

which

NE entrance. and along It

outbuildings, walling with perhaps of the or

curved division, structures. just

sub-circular some of their is unclear the

st'retches lengths. from Rhind's area

reminiscent account*

excavation how far

how much of wall

enclosed around

was investigated,

the enclosing Norwall

extends

the site.

8.7.6

ND 327 545 by Tress to the Barry 'NW of -196In 1903 uncovered the entrance (fig a broch 62B). and an In the

Excavations area of outbuildings

- Chapter interior broch few divisions

8-

only

radial

are

indicated,

but

from

the

there entrance runs an extended passage with door checks and buildings It from either Originally there were running off -side. probably buildings also external on the W and SW side of the broch (Swanson 1988). The recorded structures are rectilinear with regular orthostatic 8.7.7 divisions.

Thing's Nothing

Va is

ND 081 682 known of the nature 58A). of the of external a secondary buildings casing on wall

this

site,

but

there item

is

the fig

possibility

(RCAHMS 1911a,

no 432;

8.7.8

Warehouse THe W part

ND 303 413 of the pre-existing cellular 1985,101; mound has structures fig 63A), on its with surface occasional date of a

series facing these is

of walls

irregular visible

amorphous (Mercer

and the

unknown.
ND 133 510 was excavated in the This and 1950s Is even by Murray Thriepland, as there passage no the 105). exterior of but are and The of the

8.7.9

Westerdale This site are of entrance were to the this

no

details

available. outbuildings passsage not backfilled, is it level this none is

unfortunate an encircling Item from eastern that

suggestions extended excavations the site. indicated metres earlier of broch

(RCAHMS - and visible possible

1911a, a section in to the see

outworks section

segment the

From at

outbuildings perhaps two, of

surface debris;

are is are

situated not to

within exclude

one, the

fallen

possibility

outbuildings,

but

apparent.

8.7.10 . short, between a casing at

Yarrows This blunt 1866-67 wall the

ND 308 440 site, lying projecting (fig at the into 62E). foot the The of a shallow loch, interior was slope was on a

extensive

promonotry by I which door lain less

excavated with the also broch'

Anderson the

was clad bonded it of the into is

excavator (Anderson the level to

considered 1890,135), of the inner all

broch stated wall.

openings above it

although face

to

have the

None

appears

respect

intra-mural

features.

-197-

- Chapter The E entrance possibly present a couple Anderson is lined large the

8-

with

slabs, original

which

MacKie postulates equipment, Although recorded for

are at only

secondary. neither of guard lengths that

concealing cells of internal

door are visible. are

nor bar-holes

partitioning

on plan.

states

Partition walls were met with at three different levels, the dividing internal area on three different the last being plans, a partial partition utilising on17 one side of the area at floor had become covered a time when the original feet of stones and rubbish (Anderson with eight 1883,229). It is not clear but from his it* is of feet descriptions obvious later above the that what the primary in found broch the at surface was looked

like,

occupation was

broch

prolonged. level, eight

Evidence or nine

occupation floor:

scarcement

later we found evidence occupation of this and building to subsequent adaption of the original purposes in the remains of two walls cutting off a portion on the inner of the area, and abutting at different wall of the broch as to form cells feet levels, 'the one having been seven or eight ten or eleven feet of the debris and the other formed by the ruin their of the broch under foundations (Anderson 1670,234), respective From a second be gained orthostats, were byres. of at into (but primary: of Mercer long 1985,103) amorphous bays. also very the broch It entrance structures, is probable from of a the access often that long, could with these wide 4

a series -to

dividing Access the

them up into them was broch

gained reminiscent

extension entranceway with the

entrance, (where the

periodaligned

Crosskirk through

entrance this

was also date

entrance here.

outworks), known,

and a similar of but structures and probably be gauged. the to

may thus to the

be suggested other broch, the external

The precise is not the long

relationship

passage

structures of by'how

C, D and E are post-date Mercer structures broch the broch, the notes at

plausibly

a part although Forse

same complex, a period the broch

cannot

same relationship (Mercer wall ' This

between 1985,103). built in

and galleried of style

Wag of with which 1911a,

The S wall a different

was clad and RCAHMS

a revetting is fig clearly 37).

secondary

(Mercer

1985,102-3;

MON WAR 13; pre-date the

need not

necessarily

galleried

structures. -198-

- Chapter Structures apart from the F, G and H (fig rest of the by opposite at site, the 42g-h)

8-

are all of and

smaller

structures

set cells cell to their which to

consisting

sub-rectangular with These other a smaller are sites, is similar but

(sometimes appended post-broch exact are their structure bones believe dates seen at they to

sub-divided the end

orthostats)

entrance. and several Links. with have the

structures are Nybster were not form

Gurness

unknown. and

They do not Freswick

long

passages no

There the of

reason structures;

contemporary

galleried their

distinctive

may be indicative pottery, these

function. vessel with

Only and human dating. by for

G produced the Mercer

any finds:

a steatite

(Anderson In addition,

1890,136),

and again

do not help to

S and W sides (1985,103)

of the monument are protected believes exhibit evidence

a ditch, secondary 8.8 c-d)

which

remodellings. IV

SUMMARY OF EVIDENCE FOR LIA ACTIVITY IN CAITHNESS (Appendix a few broch (fig two adjacent can brochs there is and in

As in hint that

Orkney, LIA activity II

there

are can

only

sites 65); of

where artefacts five broch cases broch sites these site. to

be expected combs,

produced probably There with there itself, artefacts Kilminster, exceptions virtually outbuildings. Caithness the radially are this

LIA relate

pins to

and

these to the

attested

settlement which Yet Caithness of the

no structural postulated that activity several 'date the

remains activity. on phases

definite17 extensive was within the

be associated evidence broch

indicate

prolonged,

namely tower and Ness, the are these With

were

occupation of LIA (at

extensive which Freswick of no as in

complexes to Sands, LIA II to although

(multi-phase)

outbuildings, Everley, Crosskirk). above, in any

Bowermadden, at

and

possibly II

artefacts a LIA

discussed presence are to

there of

pointers Yet, Orkney,

outbuildings them seem

equally

as common in of is There Crosskirk, entrances amorphous

none of

be representative Kilminster, broch

disposed for an

settlements encircling

which we have seen there. passage at

some evidence Hillhead, are In Keiss common, but the

West and Green Tullochs, the complexes a wider of on either

and extended side of then

them are there is

and tend view

to exhibit of lack

range

of buildings LIA structures,

we saw in Orkney. virtually

recognised

-199-

- Chapter to compare the chronology is the case This buildings of for the

8-

nothing the known. the There interiors, In factors activity outworks, there coastal activity than best is

surrounding broch and all

brochs these sites broch of

with,

vital is

where not

relative

buildings except site in

virtually fully

Crosskirk, Caithness. into broch

excavated no terms which

and most for

recorded

evidence

the

insertion

wheelhouses

as in Shetland. of physical have rather structure led to it the is not possible for to identify

might

preference

subsequent with them are the rather be no example their

on some sites others buildings coastal, factor. sites of

than on others. with to their just the broch.

Some are defended and at All the all of sites

were enclosed external but

a wall,

were

or near of any

distribution particularly in Orkney, of their a

as known reflects Tress there structure status tended in Barry, seems (for for to

earlier for

antiquaries, Unlike which outworks) in

other

preference the

terms indicate

presence than also had

higher sites but

occupants which finds

others. produced

In Orkney the reused Roman artefacts, to those these are sites sites possibly not the with

to be those Roman

Caithness activity. evidence As in for

are not A larger

exclusive

prolonged LIA date.

number of which for

have produced of

use

as

burial is

grounds, a tendency LIA

Orkney may were reused 65); been

there have

these

to be the sites implication being As in

on which that Orkney,

there they

been

occupation, tend to

probably for burial

grassy

mounds by this * whilst problem Norse, or

stage. have

sites (fig not

purpose

an inland probable, that

distribution has simply is are a seated

contemporary recorded. is LIA tendency Norse. deposited I in the to

settlement, The familiar than assume is

is

of

recognising There burials for

when a burial an increasing or late LIA

rather

even

MIA.

unfurnished

long-cist from Crosskirk adjacent (Fairhurst

Yet there within period

evidence a long cist, 3 outbuildings this is to the

male burial of enclosure There proximity have levels long-cist Sandwick: quick an is no to been at

to the

fire-place

1984,87-88). grave, of graves and its which

evidence the

to suggest areas

was an intrusive reminiscent earliest Certainly a similar

domestic

discovered the burial Statistical Udal

adjacent (Crawford (there is

'Scotto-Pictish' the early

ELIA] presence of too

1986). also

burial us

at

Skaill,

Account

1799,459)

cautions -200-

against

- Chapter Interpretation In recovered long over the of these to for

8--

graves the

as peculiarly the sites: cists the no 513); door the of were

LIA or later. evidence into a child the has been

addition

above, on broch four were

following

human burial at and

cists: mound,

Wester there

Inserted of the

the in remains

sand the of

bones

outbuilding a skeleton cist the

(RCAHMS 1911a, were close by the wall to side to

item the of

at Brounabon

one of

stairs

and a long

was close in

outside 1890,142); couple Crosskirk #mould' item no

broch

where long

door - human bones were also found two standing stones appear (Anderson aforementioned cists in the burial, period 5 there levels was a at

addition

the

of

unaccompanied (Fairhurst 1984);

heaped 502); at

up against an Achingale in 2,

burial a cist at -Thrumster was in the the outside of the broch (RCAHMS 1911a, cist containing in the 1850s, human item no bones 473); was an bones 1841 (RCAHMS 1911a,

unspecified Dale

excavated unspecified (Anderson (Anderson stone cist

cist

at

excavated with coffin

contained at

1890,185); 1870,230); containing

a cist a stone item

skeleton was found

was found

Dunbeath and a in

at Latheron

Wheel Ubid);

human remains no 348). were found it is

near

Green Tullochs

1871 (RCAHMS1911a, short an IA date. miscellaneous product of late Achvarasdal skeletons South fig the from at Lodge were the cists: item RCAHMS 1911a,

remains no 199);

at Achavar their

(Anderson which

1890,187; suggests the byat

only

context

human remains burials): (RCAHMS 1911a, on the no 3); four floor

(some

of

which In

may be the Hill

human bones were found item of no 353); the lower the at

interior of

Works two the wall 1866,

lying item

chamber

within

(RCAHMS 1911a,

a child's midden B at

jaw was recovered spot

at Keiss

secondary

marked X (Laing

36);

Kettleburn

pieces

of human cranium

were embedded in

ashes of

cannibalism! came from recovered pottery broch

the excavator suggests this is evidence for chamber 0fragments (Rhind 1853,216-17); of mixed human remains 1948); (Calder human bones were the debris at Kilmster outbuilding vessel one case in broch, G at Yarrows, along with fragments of (Anderson a short in cist 1890,136) (Anderson opening from the at the

from

and a steatite mound, in Burn a burial of the

and also

1870,229); up against

Ousedale outside

was found

the narrow

head downwards -201-

(MacKay 1892,354);

excavations

- Chapter in the 1870s, for there

8-

which skulls

are no records,

produced

the remains

of

as many as forty no 212); no 1); of the the at Hoy,

at Burn of Latheron are recorded one foot aligned (c 0.3m)

Wheel (RCAHMS 1911a, (RCAHMS 1911a, surface on the

item item top from

human remains about

from Halcro below the

mound, skeletons the

E-W have been noted item no 435); the Thurso,

protruding

S edge of

mound (RCAHMS 1911a, is believed Brimsade out from in the to

human remains at Dalwinnan (Anderson or ten 1890, broch eight (Anderson

and querns a burying 1890,186); skulls 184). There Kettleburn burial 320); item at were

came from Murkle ground taken

(RCAHMS1911a, item no 319); be on top parish of broch of the

and at

and reburied

are

also. Norse 1987b,

graves 139;

at Westerseat 138-39; Cairn

near a

to

the

broch

of

(Batey Castlehill

NGR ND 357 1987b,

513);

furnished item

cist no

(Batey cists 1987b,

RCAHMS 1911a,

and furnished no 1151; Batey Finally, Keiss

at Housel 142).

may be Norse

(RCAHMS 1911a,

mention which Is

must

be made of by Laing

another with

cemetery the

from

the and

links

at

probably

contemporary (Laing three

Ackergill

Watenan cemeteries, is described running 1840s, long, the

described

1866,10-18). hundred took yards place

The site (c 275m) in about

as a long, parallel it and in

low mound, about to the beach.

Excavations

Kists with wonderful were found In every Instance feet Ic 4.6m] apart, regularity at about fifteen The7 were all In the central line of the mound. human skeletons, undisturbed and and contained consisting of were all of the same structure, from the beach, with walls of unhewn flagstones flat but covered stones. with large no floor, The kists lay north and south, or at a generally of the mound and slight angle to the direction laid full The skeletons were all seashore ... length, except one, in which the head and legs crumpled up ... above seem to have been partially cairn of stones or pile each kist was a small from the beach, from one to three feet [c 0.3lay in a the kists In one instance 0.9m] high ... double tier, one over the other All in these one. graves were unfurnished, cairn distinguished which these with the exception 'Chief's of grave a of a dog bone Kist' , and of figs stone The central to have been was described on were found can -202as the the in the

appears supposed 8-18),

basis

number (Ibid,

stone but

implements all of

nearly

be dismissed

as natural

- Chapter flakes, broken it is impossible to

8-

and stone In

identify drawing. to

figure

9 positively definitely

as a LIA

axe without it the

a section is brochs that

conclusion, on any of

impossible

identify although

settlement pin

in Caithness, there

the occasional activity in the or late one of The the A or

and comb may suggest Most identified context, prolonged absence impression this activity buildings and Forse 1948), are but

was unrecognised are credible in interiors artefacts occupation place as around (fig use during

vicinity. broch the

structures when the LIA probably known the broch LIA domestic took

in a broch at least in

and many were obviously periods of that

were perhaps

use.

general general part of

recognisable

confirms

was elsewhere. certain 66). oblong Of

rectangular Langwell 1941; further unique being

locally only 1986).

wags

these, 1912;

excavated

examples long

(A 0 Curle estate

1946;

recent

survey

on the Dunbeath Wags have the of

suggests to be and now LIA phase example Howe is contra is not Orkney

examples to but

(Morrison

been held of Latheron

Caithness, an

more particularly increasing number where the fig a and other Orkney there

parishes

Dunbeath,

similar is levels of

structures for Pool;

are their early

discovered from

In sixth Hunter

evidence at Birsay

pedigree: 8 at

and seventh at than 1986,56;

century 66).

Howe; 15,

and

possibly

Brough

(for at

structure probably Carter et Implausible

The structure (pers an Interpretation forms these

domestic al for

rather

byre such

comm B Smith; from

1984,68-69), many of With the the

sub-rectangular exception there of are

and Caithness. of the Caithness in Caithness

possible are

wags (and none forms LIA.

examples

dated), recognisably
##*4*

no structural

which

are as yet

and distinctively

It

now remains and

to

examine fit

how these into the

observations overall picture

in

the of

study LIA

area

of

Orkney in the

Caithness

Atlantic

Province.

settlement %

-203-

CHAPTER 9:

GENERAL REVIEW OF SETTLEMENT EVIDENCE IN THE ATLANTIC PROVINCE

- Chapter
CHAPTER 9:

9-

GENERAL REVIEW OF LIA THE ATLANTIC

SETTLEMENT IN

PROVINCE

This and activity

chapter from the Isles). IV in e-n.

briefly

examines in

the the

evidence Atlantic

for

LIA

settlement (Shetland, Hebrides summarised Is immediately

elsewhere Hebrides, The relevant detail, area,

Province Inner

Sutherland, and Small in

Outer

and the evidence from these

West Coast,

from each area is Sutherland are the

appendix

The evidence because and thus

and Shetland zones

summarised adjacent
9.1 e-f)

closer

to the study

bear more comparison.


SHETLAND (Appendix IV

SUMMARY OF EVIDENCE FOR LIA

SETTLEMENT IN

It LIA I,

can be shown that possibly its LIA II, is A wheelhouse circumference, and the thus

activity

Inside

brochs are is of to

continues inserted

into into

the their piers

when wheelhouses a roundhouse whose function create a series roofs. this then with

interior. around the

a series discrete When the is

of radial the

support

roof

of The

structure, cells with

spaces. piers as an

peripheral contiguous wheelhouse. 1968a) lapse

often

have corbelled inner wall, evidence 68; the Hamilton construction an

are not aisled

known (fig

The excavated (fig time were

from Clickhimin 1956) of

67; Hamilton an appreciable before by for the the the

and Jarlshof of after

suggests the also is

brochs

wheelhouses evidence type of brochs; definitely wheelhouses, (1968a. fig of the

inserted,

observation There seen at in

supported no evidence

Mousa (Fojut slab

1985,63). divisions

multiple original LIA II

many Orkney were In the the

and Caithness Ubid). levels No of the

fittings artefacts they the

ClickhImin

wood primary brochs.

have been found are inside Shetland

whether

or outside wheelhouse

Hamilton in

3) describes century

as beginning

second or third

AD, and persisting the were

though latterly In economic decline, until Islands when the centuries eighth-ninth by Norsemen. colonised Yet there into the

to be constructed is no evidence that wheelhouses, continued LIA H. LIA II artefacts Rather, at both Clickhimin and tend to be associated with semi -subterranean associated that many of the sub-circular middens. identified or their

Jarlshof huts

and passage house complexes, Fojut (1985,60-66)

has observed -204-

- Chapter broch which 4m) little f orms. to bear Jarlshof foundations a residential (2-5m

9-

sites

show clear served

of

less

substantial Pre-Norse (internal 1.5-3m to

structures examples 2but these diameter width), any of

may have to

function.

have a tendency or oval

to be circular oblong

and sub-circular internal can length,

chronological However,

significance

be attached

the mode of semi-subterranean significance, Some of brochs, rather radiating but the albeit

construction only on the buildings these

does seem basis of may be seem to there Orkney is and

some chronological and Clickhimin. with for (chapter the

subsidiary

contemporary

on present,

evidence in

have had an agricultural, no evidence Caithness the 8).

than residential, outbuildings seen

function; both

9.2 g-h)

SUMMARY OF EVIDENCE FOR LIA ACTIVITY IN SUTHERLAND(Appendix

IV

Nothing and only because past broch

is

known of LIA activity more is There

on or in

brochs In

in

Sutherland. part in this is

marginally very times.

known of MIA activity. the

few sites

have been thoroughly is also

investigated, that In

either

or recent sites

possibility

LTA use of Orkney and for to

was not Only

so frequent few in one,

as has been observed sites have revealed cases any two,

Caithness. outbuildings, be either be in part In burial lidless in Kintradwell:

a very disposed,

evidence appear they Liath

and only radially

possibly there broch 1864; the

do they that Carn

or is

any evidence itself (at 69). 1890; fig that

might and for

contemporary Anderson

with is

1883; Joass there

a few the

cases

evidence

a site

was reused

post-broch, and burials

probably

LIA period;

at Carn Liath

shallow,

the broch, and there was were found outside but note a human skeleton on top of the scarcement (Joass 1890,104; Love 1986); at BA cist the recently discovered on the site: also Carrol places to overlie was found at various a series of skeletons cists the structure the (Joass in 1890,107-9); and around burials the and at broch included of Kintradwell (Ibid, a total At of 14 bodies last was found site 99-101). this a a LIA these

identified with

men and children, but, not need interestingly, is no

only

few associated burials

any arrangement by iron furnished, weapons. there -205-

stones, As it is

few were furnished were ever

known whether to dismiss

- Chapter automatically these burial burials as Norse. in The excavator when the grave

9-

believed broch

that

at least links:

some of Another

were inserted a shallow

was dilapidated.

was noted

on the neighbouring

On the burial this

Many such interments there at a depth of occur from three to four feet. The body generally lies bent, and the whole the limbs partly on the side, set round and packed with small slabs and stones. Occasionally there is a covering of slabs, and generally a paved circular space, about four feet In diameter, a few inches under the turf over each Internment. Cases of burial in short cists occur in the same sandy terrace ffoass 1890,100) basis of, description alone these bear, a resemblance rites date. of burial and (for This LIA example amounts date, in Close-Brooks to a in large area. the 1984), and may have of stone adjacent an

to

LIA

been of burials, (Allen to a

concentration One Pictish nearby a, second also four cliff in

apparently further (Allen inscription stone (ibid, which

one small fig

and Anderson

1903,43) (Joass

was found 1864, 1903,43-45) no 469); in

I. H), which in

earth-house a of the the runic symbol broch site, or an

Anderson

incorporated fragments radius the Saint of

(RCAHMS 1911b, within these,

total

have been found no 297). All

a quarter

of a mile with

association an association Watson

name of

is derived from possibly Tredwell (MacKinlay 1904,304; important early Christian

with

Triduana suggests

1926),

and perhaps, (911.3).

presence

in this

vicinity

9.3

SUMMARY OF

LIA

SETTLEMENT IN IV Isles of as i-k) the the range

THE OUTER HEBRIDES,

SKYE AND THE

SMALL ISLES In are and use the

(Appendix Western for

of

potential use the of of

IA broch, pin of

sites dun,

is

wide;

we

looking fort of

evidence as well

lengthy for

wheelhouse and found other of sites the has in

sites these of

evidence

date, LIA

construction and comb are

structural these

forms.

Examples forms, sites. can any be in

on most sites which fact long

settlement sandhill of not pottery

addition There are

to

miscellaneous a number LIA,

types, on that been to and recent bias). the they

notably basis have to

also, to be

assumed LIA of

despite Pottery

produced the of the

other

artefacts. Dark Age the zone are in

used

indicate areas has

presence Atlantic

settlement;, area (Lane

contrast Tiree, (more this

other

Province, rich

between 1983,5)

N Lewis

always

been

a ceramic in

excavations, In 1966

particularly Young outlined -206-

Orkney,

now transforming which she saw the

a sequence

- Chapter development sites about to 500 from later incised

9-

ceramics sparsely coarse recent

of

and cordon forms, Whilst (1983) his

wares her

on wheelhouse evolving chronological been able dramatically to In

decorated plain work

subsequently has not has

AD into were weak, this the basic

wares. by Lane Yet

arguments supersede increased and there Udal, his

structure. sites in incorporated fort

work

number of are LIA

on which into

LIA activity appendix on these technique, 1977,131; in

can be suggested, IV. There Is no the Islands, fort

results for on the than

evidence is only LIA but in

activity adjacent LIA

sites

although at

mainland.

A small

polygonal

7m across,

was built (Crawford

in a novel and Switsur fairly

and is the

reputedly 1986). Isles, With

Norse rather

Crawford Western known. the At a

pins

and combs are

ubiquitous

very to

few cases for very was

are secure are

archaeological in their an

contexts in interiors. of

regard is Berle, building, Harding

brochs,

which prolonged definite

relatively activity

few in'number

W, there Loch na

evidence a

structure, at is the

example

polycellular 1986a; (or, dun) (Young

constructed Dun Cuier

scarcement example of

level where

(Topping a broch

1987).

another

can now be shown to 1956; Armit But Stevenson suggest previously millennium were being seems the pedigree wheelhouses by Barber the late first the 1988a; fig

have several 70a). are used the the

phases

later

IA activity the pins half Western and

wheelhouses (1955a) had this

real

issue of

in the

Isles. to was first

evidence into is still built at the In the

combs than the

that

architectural extending there the in were However,

form had a longer second

time-span of that (Armit

assumed, AD.

no evidence in the Udal addition, evidence MacKie the MIA.

wheelhouses forth). earlier of in It

constructed majority Is perhaps overlay at Hornish

LIA II

or even LIA I

probably

Their a

suggested Point

where recent for

series excavations an origin

a LBA structure.

millennium Atlantic Period III

ma7 have produced BC1 (Barber in litt). Iron is Age, his divides broch

(1965a), culture

in his Into the to

scheme for five stages.

material

wheelhouses other

were devised

' at Jarlshof, all

stage. to

He suggests was then his stage

that carried IV

and the idea

regions.

He dates

wheelhouses

which

embraces the wheelhouse stage the late broch phase and all in the west, though not perhaps In Shetland. By the time the composite combs and pins of stage V -207-

- Chapter

9-

There

is,

appear, In the 6th centur7, or later, most of the brochs and wheelhouses were probabl7 In ruins or Ubid, 132). debris choked with occupation however, not sufficient evidence from the W to suggest are of consistently only later present are Province distinction and in than brochs, which In to 110)z with terms Skye are the

that the of No

wheelhouses exception material throughout satisfactory free-standing between aisled kinds, anything settlements associated Foshigarry at both as

small (MacKle can

numbers. identical 1965a, yet

culture,

wheelhouses Atlantic

virtually

brochs

chronological wheelhouses

as

be made between examples, nor

recessed/subterranean

and non-aisled Wheelhouses were often domestic complex seen in

examples. associated with (Scott as addition, 1931) or the outbuildings 1947,22), MIA of 'various but never broch and at

and agricultural or integrated In Orkney. were

nucleated wheelhouses together,

several grouped the

structures (Beveridge 1988c).

sometimes

as in

and Callander

recent

excavations overall in Orkney commonly

Kneep (Armit if not Pool

These complexes As with of

bear a similarity complexes the noted

form, at

detail,

to the LIA I cellular brochs,

and Howmae Q8.2). several often with or levels. 1988c) phases

wheelhouses not

went

through

occupation, modifications

albeit

necessarily as at 1960;

continuous, Kneep (Armit fig with pins 70b). their

extensive can LIA II

and additions, be definitely

A Cheardach

Mhor (Young and Richardson artefacts later and at Bac Mhic Connain reuse of the the Callander of 1932) remains for the

In no cases primary

associated LIA

For example,

and combs were associated with Interior for (Beveridge metalworking a group pier be for 5 comb was found and Callander of broch the reuse (Beveridge

wheelhouse and of burial at a

Foshigarry wheelhouse

on top

1931,312). and wheelhouse sites

Evidence appears However, to this

scant,

subject

unknown for and has not been thoroughly for LIA settlement of brochs pressure energetic (1948a, the in
-208-

ecclesiastical pursued here. In the Western

purposes. Isles is

However, not any restricted

evidence that led

to the reuse increasing the as LIA 'most Scott

and wheelhouses. on the colonists' 115) Udal. the W. is soil to

Nor is and

there

evidence deterioration Scottish COileagan

climatic the site, our have

move S to One to here

mainland an Udal, of

suggests. fundamental Excavations

henceforth settlement

comprehension

Chapter

9I for taken. from a can be

continued Crawford. example Between

for As Crawford 130-300

nearly yet 1986,

thirty only

years

under the

the have

directorship been produced,

of

interim from where South (UN). In levels

reports

following along

summary is ridge its

AD settlement at Udal Udal North

migrated Three

the machair end of of (the levels

wheelhouse , field traced from small internal symmetric in the

complex the top

(US) to

the

associated

systems,

stages

development

buildings. down) there

XIV-XIII

are numbered buildings and 6m with

are lying In plan:

simple, along level a large

oval-bellied the XII long the axis, buildings

satellite revetted

hearths platform.

a single a more with slab major long,

take

'ladybird-like'

oval

chamber,

a satellite on one end, a doorway hearth, framed by opposed revetted post-holes. Crawford describes this

on the

other,

and a central also containing house.

platforms.

as a ventral

The third

with minor satellites, house above embellished phase sees the ventral Many of 41a). house (fig hence the polyventral [here polycellularl these by timber enclosures, later palisaded houses were enclosed at least going through important, which were obviously one example ten along replacements. the machair A sequence of adjacent enclosures these 2.4m not is strung out but no details of their ridge, At all periods are yet available. 'four by minor buildings, posters', hearths. Crawford Elsewhere in The latter that this have believes the chronological buildings square, is interwere with

relationships accompanied tiny

slab-lined

been

recognised probably

elsewhere. Scottic.

settlement ventral

and polycellular date forms can as yet only be ascribed or later century, a seventh the date is very 08.1). In the case of Deer Park Farm, Antrim, (Lynn from two wooden uprights tpq of 648 AD derived precise -a 1989). Few, if any, of the Dark Age artefacts at the Udal can be

AP and Ireland.

None the less, Crawford (1986, from IA forms. shown to have derived forms as a 12) bids caution these new settlement before interpreting direct from D&I Riata in the early of Scotti result of the Invasion sixth century AD. Lane (1983) suggests a break in the chronological

sequence. A new type of IA settlement form has recently been discovered At Tungadale, upon investigation on Skye which may be LIA in date. it was found to be entered from a long of a supposed souterrain, a doorway in the rectangular building with one apsidal end, and
-209-

- Chapter other. similar At the Were it to very the for the

9-

not this

absence

of that

piers,

this in

form date in

is

very West

wags in

Caithness, site

which future likely

may be LIA

08.8). the

least

suggests for were

IA structures of earlier to have

may be rectangular, (when rectanglar medieval).

calling structures

revision

fieldwork as

been considered

9.4

SUMMARY OF EVIDENCE

FOR LIA

SETTLEMENT IN

THE WEST COAST AND

INNER HEBRIDES (Appendix On the IA The settlement wheehouse West Coast

IV l-n) and to in the Inner Hebrides are rare in forts, Argyll, Hebrides largely are in also the to the main and types of

evidence and its In

be considered are and the

duns

brochs. being

variants Skye dated

despite

comparatively 23). IA Such (Alcock forts et the as

common

Outer belong

(RCAHMS 1980, the few, area. pre-Roman and These duns are

as are al

seem to

1987,131). of fortified

Brochs sites

constitute defined

majority

defensive structure, a comparatively small but not always sub-circular or oval on usually thick dryplan, and with a disproportionally exceeds stone wall enclosing an area that rarely 375 m-- (RCAHMS1971,16). A more detailed form and function discussion can be found of their elsewhere (ibid. not (Alcock and that Alcock 1987,132-34). duns in Argyll Alcock and Alcock but 134) estimate 29% of all had outworks

The walling outbuildings. of the dun was sometimes timberlaced, The earliest duns and on occasion this has become vitrified. BC, but the founded in the sixth were possibly or seventh century majority Alcock probably and Alcock (ibid, were built in the first that to 85% of third century AD. 131) estimate occupied in the vated exce , duns in

first AD, and that mainland Argyll millennium were 70% were certainly AD or modified after and many were built occupied, features 500. Forts sometimes share some architectural with duns, the distinction being their size, In a few cases forts as at Belfield, are sometimes but the Cullen Doon and Nin Skeig (RCAHMS1971, nos 159,162,165), have dates of either Very few internal form are unknown. structures In a few been recorded In either by fieldwork duns or forts alone.
-210-

necesssarIly by duns, overlain

not

their

function.

- Chapter cases these may be contemporary

9-

with

the

walling,

as at DOn Tealtig,

DOn Uragaig

and DOn Meadhonach (RCAHMS1984.22). There is as yet no definite evidence for LIA, use of broch sites, except perhaps at However, there

more particularly (MacKie

LIA

II

Dun Mor Vaul

on both dun activity of/continued in the LIA, to be constructed fort and sites, some of which continued as at Dunadd (Christison et al 1905; RCAHMS 1988, no 248) and Dunollie Dunadd and Dunollie (Alcock and Alcock 1987). are both high 1974). was reuse status lesser Peltenburg in the LIA. there sites, but there is also such being (ibid. 208) evolution With the structures work has evidence as that Kildonan or at sites of least In a slightly 1939; at to (Fairhurst

monumental 1982).

status, were also

constructed from

remodelled Kintyre

Peltenburg Is no

emphasises one

how,

least, another. sites little of this

uniform is than thus MIA?

monument type of Kildonan, with

The question in the later

how many recognised exception

duns and enclosed very any

are LIA rather way of

internal Little

can be associated

been done on crannogs in activity. this area, but at least one of them has been shown to be LIA in date, at Loch be shown to be contemporary; and many more will probably Glashan, was structure a rectangular excavated, only partially detected on the crannog platform (RCAHMS1988, no 354). A problem recognition However, Kerrera associated structures, Machrins 1988, no (fig of common to settlement the whole of the Atlantic of a Province monumental is the was not 1903,1-3; there to the Ritchie 'are nature. and

which

at, Arnabost with

(Beveridge

RCAHMS1980, no 231), suggestions associated of with

(RCAHMS 1975,22) a souterrain, similar JNG Despite structures the 41f; the

activity domestic

and presumably

perhaps 350).

houses seen at both single-roomed (RCAHMS 1981) and Bruach an Dr4ein in scale and sites method of these two last exemplify

differences at both

construction the slight

to be remains which survive structural nature of the thought discovered Ritchie (1981,268) by the archaeologist. flimsy nature of the stonework at Machrins suggested little more than stances in for impermanent suggests structures, that although the sequence of hearths or on a number of and certainly course of the some houses occupation, be lost, Much evidence may therefore in the discovering such settlements prolonged survey are slight. -211Chances of

occasions. chances of

archaeological

discovery

routine are further

- Chapter
reduced obviously fragile 1983), perhaps either It settlement be noted, in the not nature but a scale is In it greater or not this absence one of is which the of is enclosing confined at

9-

outworks. to later

This prehistory Ritchie when it

problem (note and

is the

structures more of

Ardnave: here,

Welfare that in

certainly proportion

acute settlement

seems

was

not

monumental

nature. possible region, from (but There is to but nuclear generalise the diversity through enclosed), no evidence about in the nature of forms structurally or grouped, LIA can

settlement duns single for the to

ranging undefended units. seen two their of

forts

slight, domestic type

sometimes as In did yet the abut

polycellular although apparently at

units

elsewhere the cells

Atlantic each

Province, other, whilst

Machrins retaining

own entrances.

9.5

CONCLUDING COMMENTS This survey which (1955a) has are rightly activity emphasised to be found observed, on many the diversity of the is sites, settlement IA in the for the types AP. As

and

patterns

throughout there broch IA

Stevenson

evidence but is

seventh of

century or later both broch-orientated and slightly Brochs the LIA varies area of AP, II and reuse. from region more are it is

picture

and non-broch complex particularly mainly even to area, here here and the From role. and might were at at in than

settlement he envisaged. in is of the any activity

now much fuller,

perhaps

concentrated that the there form the

N and evidence on

NE parts for these In the their sites

of

But

from

MIA onwards. pattern many

study in

Orkney

and

Caithness areas.

settlement inception,

shares of the

more

common than here interiors LIA but II this the had

other

their

brochs of the

a, domestic was common, Interiors took place as Only into of this

Rebuilding

and

modification an early date.

commence from used for

By the

sometimes level na is

non-domestic the tower, or

activities, its as insertion Fojut's shell yet

a high Loch Shetland the is

within Berie, there of is

(domestic unrecognised). Of

reuse,

probable, for brochs.

but the

evidence the

wheelhouses

interior

interpretation

that was when the wheelhouse t7pe of structure Orkne7 already had an adequate stock of current, -212-

- Chapter
buildings

9-

fie this large CaPacit7 This leads that to the suggestion roundhouses]. the abandonment In their form of brochs primary in Shetland than in of use was a later event Orkney, developed the from and that wheelhouse ideas the dispersal from broch to old after the in had become well -established outbuildings Isles. (1985,64) more southerly of His view is by based some evidence is on the more assumption that period suggest were broch of (98.2). outbuildings time than However, the at post-date present Howmae

brochs Orcadian there in the

considerable seem to that future

would

some suggestion study area, But the the W, but (1955a) and

there

free-standing will

wheelhouses reveal

investigation for are direct of the their either

undoubtedly

more comes

cases. from

main where rarely

evidence they in evidence

distribution freestanding with combs

definitely or semibrochs. to suggest half of that

subterranean, Stevenson that the they

association pins into he and the was

used had a

the

wheelhouses first were millenium being stand II. to

time-span and by than Is they in

extending implication the brochs.

second suggesting this

AD, later

built true, In be

Whilst for their

hypothesis in brochs, Western

may still the as Isles LIA

there

no evidence do not Shetland; have

construction post-date in the

addition the case

exclusively wheelhouses an EIA, if not

seemed have

recently the series fashion. and 8).

been brochs of

shown to in

LBA predigree. surrounded arranged with in a gap integrated Sutherland, parts with of but the the in by in the its in

Many of an extensive a radiating broch history the LIA tower, (chapter I

Orkney

and Caithness which were to have

were commonly

outbuildings, These can to early for

be shown have date this at not to been

co-existed early of

probably Their record have

constructed something Similar in

creates area.

structural may also elsewhere. stood

settlements are AP unknown the

existed is

a few say

places that were in

This alone; and in of

other

brochs

often

they

associated

occasional Shetland. between the

domestic Here, as

agricultural and

structures, Caithness, and farming there sites (Fojut

particularly is a correlation lie In

Orkney

presence with for is

outbuildings to ritual yet arable

which

areas

well-endowed Evidence settlement It forms But the not

respect the as of LIA

1985,63). reuse E of the of MIA

and/or limited in was -213to

ecclesiastical the N and

sites

province.

subject all

discussion settlement

11.3. on re-used broch, wheelhouse,

- Chapter dun and fort to sites. In the W of But it in

9-

the

province that

duns

and

forts

continued also

be constructed. and Sutherland, ceased to fortified. of Here,

Orkney appear

and Caithness, such

perhaps monumental

Shetland

would in

architecture of settlements is thus one

be constructed

the LIA, in

nor were new types the AP, the such perhaps sometimes problem slight double, grouped

as elsewhere and the hence form of

recognising These take

recovering single,

structural domestic together. the earth,

remains. units,

sometimes for

individually

enclosed,

At Buckquoy.

and hence robbing (Hunter mounds, to date within or but

example, the walling was often laid onto totally would leave the former structure Structures enveloped absence or identify of the which by them, it are are is dug into usually rarely of the

unevidenced settlement better possible settlement

1986,61). ultimately in the

preserved,

excavation precise

such mounds, them.

nature

f*f**

The settlement re-analysis fullest the

last in

two the

chapters

have

summarised

the

evidence derived

for

LIA a

AP, drawing pins

heavily

on information

from

of the

picture subject of

exists part

The and combs found at many of these sites. This area now forms for Orkney and Caithness. An attempt thesis. is made in III of this of the profound last chapters. changes in the in these

chapter settlement

11 to explain record

the significance

described

-214-

PART III:

A MODEL FOR ORKNEY AND CAITHNESS IN THE IRON AGE

CHAPTER 10:

ANALYSIS OF SPATIAL AS AN INSIGHT

PATTERNS IN BUILDINGS INTO SOCIAL STRUCTURE

(ACCESS

ANALYSIS)

Chapter

10

PART III:

MODEL FOR ORKNEYAND CAITHNESS IN THE IRON AGE

CHAPTER 10:

ANALYSIS

OF SPATIAL

PATTERNS IN BUILDINGS INTO SOCIAL STRUCTURE

(ACCESS

ANALYSIS)

AS AN INSIGHT

This reproduction the ninth to the middle

chapter

will

examine (93.2.1) of is the

the

way architecture BC to

structured the

the

of society centuries AD, that of the

in Orkney and Caithness millennium of the Late suggested

from around eighth or

first

century arrival

from the period A scheme is this 8, period, to

Bronze Age/EIA for is structural summarised

Norse. over chapter the

developments from also the

witnessed in

much of which reference

findings

which

must therefore

be made. On the basis is put is of general At the investigate changing trends observed, the the a social of forward. used to these same time how social technique use of

interpretation access structured 10.1 analysis

space

and reproduced

relations.

DEVELOPMENT SUMMARY STRUCTURAL OF

10.1.1

THE EARLY IRON AGE Lobate multi-cellular an (such still architectural as Scord occurs In of buildings, tradition Brouster, late otherwise whose Shetland: Bronze fig have at Age, origins Whittle such These to in be courtyard lie et al houses, in the

represent Neolithic but which

1986), I multiinto 1936b) EIA is at

the

as village lobate constructed (Curle But the of a

Jarlshof cellular the where generally roundhouse taking walls with Jarlshof changes sometimes two sited period a

(Hamilton structures of smithy the is

1956,18-31, may also EIA, as

10).

continued

WIl_trow with by an the

Shetland

associated here oval)

example. introduction which has

characterised (sometimes organisational in visually walls is the

large as thick

tradition, forms (fig

been

recognised with

71):

isolated and in

houses smaller clusters,

dominant which tend example of a the

situations to exist

structures of which Abrupt time are 1956;

thinner II in

best

(Sharples material

1984,119-20). culture migration at this (Hamilton

many attributed

aspects to

population

-215-

Chapter

10

Hedges recovered (Gelling

1987 111,38). at 1984; Spurdagrove Buteux

In

Orkney (Ovrevik

thin-walled 1985,148,

roundhouses fig 7.4)

have and

been

Skaill further

forth)

where they

are associated The late this between date

with

agricultural Skaill walled

structures

such as a byre. how late (sometime

of one of the of thinner

roundhouses roundhouses

highlights continuedthe

tradition 360 cal five

BC-AD 220), walled was 1971) and

and demonstrates roundhouses excavated the In neither than

that

development

from thinner of

to thicker

was not at Kilphedir case can it

unilineal. Cnoc Stanger be proved

A series

roundhouses 1981,52-56). anything

in Sutherland

(Fairhurst

and Taylor (Mercer

same number at

in, Caithness that these

represent

other dating of very BC

a succession from

evidence large (Mercer

The slender of -structures on one site. these sites may be used to suggest a horizon construction The units, the in north the of Scotland is of prior relatively from both to impression whilst shifting have have Calf

roundhouse 1985,73).

500

small Skaill a small in

domestic/agricultural and Kilphedir area. Thicker Orkney 1987 D, Pierowall early broch walled

evidence settlement

may suggest

within

roundhouses Examples et al is is 72) 1984),

recently

been

recognised at 1937; whilst

and Caithness. Howe (Carter (Sharples

been excavated of Eday (Calder (Renfrew described of were

Bu (Hedges 1939), the

1984) and Quanterness sometimes from these also the It

1979),

at Crosskirk 1984). (fig

as a roundhouse Bu, Quanterness established for recently an EIA a further this of the these later At by a

(Fairhurst and about large Plerowall the thick

clear that

evidence a Bronze Ness on

structures Tofts

seventh walled by

century

BC, although at 3-4; them that there a

Age horizon Sanday, purely for

structure suggest Extra, one of

excavated innovation two

Dockrill,

this is

was not now evidence

(Archaeol

structures, is that in it

roundhouse,

pre-dating importance for

roundhouse: roundhouses brochs, several broch-like Most ephemeral both thin both sites

D and E 1988). they their thick

The particular a native and types

now provide walling

pedigree interior of

features.

can be seen how both isolated of

roundhouse

acquired

features. roundhouses outbuildings, and thicker were save agricultural possessed perhaps for a few

probably walled

function. souterrains

Many , or

structures -216-

Chapter

10

earth-houses evidence that

entered the

from of

their these

interiors. which if now not

There appear always, (for northern to broch

is as

increasing isolated to

examples landscape structure 1983).

monuments in

were usually, of a domestic from both from Crosskirk and that the Most probably

ancillary

an above ground in for Orkney: storage The chronicled roundhouse roundhouse becoming addition 1985,98). is to Haigh

nature these land

example at Grain examples the broch were is a a is

of food direct at in

products At

and see.

development Howe. many

roundhouse the early Clickhimin 1968a).

resembled Shetland It

respects, the broch obvious

at the of

in

precedes increasingly

(Hamilton

In Caithness are is but a

brochs earlier profile holds true

later (Mercer

an underlying Whilst the the

palimpsest 'mound

settlement not

upon mound'

one which

so common In Orkney,

same probably

here also.

10.1.2

THE PUDDLE IRON AGE Brochs represent a major monumental of as divergence native the that of period the out of an (cf broch (for

otherwise MacKle became want of

fairly 1987b) prevalent. a better in age and

continuous the It term) and form; its MIA has to is

tradition defined

architecture when broch the class

be recognised a whole series is

covers

structures in

differing terms of

perhaps the 26).

a structure plan was

best

considered to cover'

'social

practices

designed

(Scott

1947,

The date well established, 1974)

of

the but

Inception dates from

of

this

architectural between between

form

is

not

Crosskirk, of

Howe and Dun Mor Vaul use the the fourth second

(MacKie centuries centuries

suggest

a broad

horizon

BC and AD, but

probably

concentrated

were enclosed by outworks. and Caithness When the respective sometimes incorporating a blockhouse. entrances it may suggest that the broch and outwork were conceived are aligned as a unity and the 'in may have been planned is the at the same time. for The maJority in positions (cf Fojut At Clickhimin activity, brochs defence for and Crosskirk, outworks and Orkney where there may pre-date Caithness not the are prime Shetland -217-

BC and AD. Many brochs in Orkney

some evidence brochs.

pre-broch of

situated brochs).

where 1982 in

was apparently conclusions

consideration

similar

on the

A number are

Chapter
totally fortalice occur where in

10

defensive brochs. Orkney are Angus enclose of and a

positions, Promontory Shetland few

" what forts

Mercer sometimes

(1985,100) enclose do not and at promontory probably AD date. in brochs. In

calls They

when hillforts

Caithness Rock, may case

there

hillforts. 1986)

Excavations suggest or second that less

Castle forts this

Auchmithie, sometimes

(Ralston

lean-to-structures, about first to

a roundhouse,

century

The 1984, broch ill

primary 28)

internal

broch 48)

fittings suggest

at that

Crosskirk in these

(Fairhurst cases the the

and Howe (fig a domestic had similar at features Whilst in the nature case casing need of the broch

had Initially which Orkney.

function, plans. Gurness is

in common with Little is and Midhowe, the the

earlier of they it the known may is

roundhouses earliest brochs have In

known best

internal

there to of walls, not

some suggestion extant there appear at

that features,

been similar that in

many of Midhowe

obvious Internal Orkney

were

differences. in

and external and Caithness reflected experience

which

on many brochs their

be late; of

Crosskirk

early and the

construction inadequate

a series

structural did into

weaknesses high isolated radial

builders

in constructing not stand two forms:

walling. for long.

Any isolated Outbuildings radial In the 08.3

probably roughly (as the

can be divided

and nonvery early

and 8.8). The non-radial of prior brochs to at

form may have arisen Crosskirk of in where

development constructed as early with

outbuildings and Orcadian

were

period This. is

Roman artefacts, to the

possibly sites with their

as 200 BC). where In levels. outbuildings

contrast

outbuildings, earliest radial Caithness settlement are

Roman artefacts some cases (as possibly

may be associated outbuildings

non-radial

ma. precede y In disposed outbuildings occasional entrances amorphous is

in phase 6 at Howe). little for there is the evidence radially Orkney, despite in the fact that seen common in an the each area. However, and side building of there is for

equally

evidence are

encircling complexes a wider known if

passage, on either

extended them are then are types

common, but to It is

and tend

exhibit not in buildings because

range later

of Iron and

seen in Orkney. to

Age structures there with. either is virtually

chronologically nothing are no

distinctive compare helpful the

Caithness, around the -218the

broch of

Artefacts Roman or

more

contexts

Chapter

10

suggestively any of the

MIA artefacts out structures. to these et al the

have never

been ascribed

specifically the evidence and

to

Returning evidence (Callander that some of in for

examples almost

of

radial

outbuildings, on the 1987 (1987 ID II-IID

dating from

rests 1984),

exclusively (Hedges work with the

Howe (Carter

Gurness Hedges'

Midhowe suggests

and Grant the

1934).

the outbuildings same phase afterthoughts, broch and debate Is

associated of because

brochs as the layout

in Orkney have broch, of or are the

been built near floor one's the the

construction by and large are it how soon after

contemporary

some of

outbuildings areas, stance broch broch the

and the fittings in the

systematic, comparable. the

and their Whatever of that as

furnishings about

construction be disputed functioning

outbuildings

were erected, co-existed the brochs at

cannot

and outbuildings

some point, likely types settlements to

a unity. Contemporary roundhouses obvious and with more are the have which been some not so withlived fragile particularly to which

settlement

are

on the

ground,

associated

earth-houses. in or in the 10.1.3

The extent immediate

the northern cannot

MIA population be gauged.

vicinity

of brochs

THE LATE IRON AGE I The LIA I marks the time when the brochs ceased to be occupied or this at use. manner, forms seventh as foundations of for the for broch example function time, Howe and

as anything less sites had

other

than domestic

temporary structures. changing maintained still in

workshops The up be to (as in

monumental

probably were the not broch

been being might site

outworks although continued The LIA distinctive of which on broch (Fairhurst that about I

Crosskirk), either de on both. when more the period

Settlement

on the is

broch Often

a modified structural the early appear.

or was created are found

novo elsewhere.

similar end in is

taken

to

century

artefacts least

and buildings known.

The LIA I is

settlement as a fourth At

A considerable sites, 1984).

element

of LIA I settlement century there as Pool, sherd is no dating

is

probably

present to

from Crosskirk

may suggest show than further

present such

evidence any the

non-broch the fourth

sites, or fifth

extend AD.

back

centuries -219-

As yet

sample of sites

Chapter

10

is

too

small, to fill

and both this are a

post-broch gap one day. found (probably

and non-broch Nor need it

settlements surprise us if has

may be some life been (pers in

expected broch span

outbuildings at Pool

to have had an extremely multi-celled) over because

extended unit

small

demonstrated comm Hunter), structural earlier series with domestic

to have been occupied It form on is not but always sites the broch

a number of centuries to of recognise the tendency at to

possible

changes

reuse of a

structures, of yards. units. of A new type There

general

Impression and for

Howe is

interconnecting is

sub-circular no evidence

sub-rectangular.

rooms of

any more than

a couple

settlement excavation settlement the fourth

was developed of a settlement underlying (Archaeol or fifth by into into

de novo on some nonmound has revealed Norse halls Extra; and byres Hunter pers

broch

sites.

At Pool prehistoric to in

substantial of the ninth Here,

thirteenth about

centuries,,

comm). and the

centuries a probable

AD a roundhouse souterrain and

associated

buildings, were then

preceded built developed

associated site.

structure, This and

Neolithic, a

middens

underlying of but the of

cellular and into

settlement smaller the circular sea, in type.

adjoining cells. there is immediate complex Traill

interconnecting most of the

roundhouses site to suggest it

Perhaps certainly vicinity.

had eroded any broch this

no reason Indeed

settlement cellular (Traill

seems that that The

may be paralleled J 1890). of but the It LIA

at Howmae, North thus seems _ in of

Ronaldsay settlement number of at in

W 1885; are units time at

mounds domestic a single hints

characteristic which is

settlement.

might, have been extant presence not

any one settlement interconnecting apparent that

unknown,

courtyards their

a degree, of'. complexity plans. It rectangular of Caithness. has recently With Sorms LIA. the in

immediately

amorphous I or wags are and

been

recognised

certain these

oblong,

buildings

may be pre-Norse, possible Caithness

most notably of , as yet

the oblong wags there recognisably

exception which are

no structural distinctively

10.1.4

THE LAW IRON AGE II To date the most distinctive -220LIA II structural forms are the

Chapter

10

polycellular Atlantic many of obviously

structures Province, these very houses

(figs on

41-42) de novo

discovered settlements.

throughout At the

the Udal were ten

primarily

were enclosed

by timber going

palisades, through is at on at

which least

significant, A sequence

one example of adjacent no details

replacements. the machair

enclosures When not

strung present

out along of to their mound detect

ridge,

but

are available this of date the is

chronological sites, because building the former the

inter-relationships. settlement relative of

settlement

non-broch of techniques totally

difficult

slightness

structures robbing

and because would VIII 17) leave

on some sites unevidenced.

are such that

A roundhouse-type Brough of Birsay be LIA a drain is Cellular to be

form has been recognised 1986, structure VII at Birsay from further as at the 21, it On site

on site ill is

at the is to ill

(Hunter II. divided

which Ubid,

assumed to note 11), that

interesting

two buildings suggestive of such although

each other divisions Pool, evidence in in the

and buildings. continued confined

perhaps

between have is

settlements,

may also for this

constructed, the

to the one site. basis also of pins and combs discussed on broch the preference sites for part II there In of in LIA II. reuse settlements, Importance the there Caithness has been

On'the was evidently Orkney sites sites the we are which which MIA.

some activity seeing massive

perhaps

selective

have both

outworks

and surrounding especial from that

may by implication At present no such

have been of pattern

emerges

However, it remains to evidence. little excavation on late occupied


10.2 ANALYSIS Access between technique which between of and interior entrances. Leach is a looks spatial based at OF SPATIAL is and

be emphasised broch-sites.

PATTERNS IN BUILDINGS a means society. of investigating As of presented Hillier between are the below and relationship this is (1984), and the use a

analysis order on the the

gamma analysis of

Hanson

patterns and 'in

relations as the has of the they patterns received its form

Inhabitants In by

inhabitants space,

strangers terms of

reflected created much belief social

boundaries (see spatial I

This 1978)

approach because of

criticism that structure.

particularly organisation

extreme of

function

-221-

Chapter

10

believe

that.

without to

taking

the

full this

Hillier formal to

and Hanson line, and vigorous others who believe towards

but

by adopting

more modest horizons, be of be does carry continues of in the

technique that

can be demonstrated spatial order There interpretation architecture, space Gilchrist architectural for brief theorists themes, (for ultimately (such

some value

some social to an

information. increasing remains Boast trend the

archaeological context, 1978; Smith

of buildings, of follows their

erstwhile interior leds] 1986;

a social To

by analysis this

as JT

and Yiannouli

1988). circles

a certain (for the

extent

movements in 1982,4 social 1984),

example Glassie work and Urry of

1975; Markus led] geographers 1985). Tbeory and

summary), example derived

and

Gregory from

Ceds]

Two common (Giddens

Structuration work: is

seem to lie 1. The belief in'turn is seen

behind-much that

of this

human1y-encl osed space social However, what remains. basic and his of Hillier are not basis 1986). of that observed of space degree

both

produced

by,

and to

produces

and reproduces

relations. Just'as

Thus architecture a response of

as culturally environmental if,

meaningful, needs. to

and not wide Leach syntax

certain exist gauged that is

differences relations life Others,

opinion might be

as to from the

how, , or

social

archaeological

(1978,400) and real

has argued sociology however, that

chasm between than Hillier techniques spatial terms and on the

wider the

colleagues

suppose.

using in

and Hanson have coincidental, historic A similar

demonstrated

observed social (Yiannouli claimed Ovillas' 2. both It is time

patterns on the Mithen basis

and can be explained evidence has the plans been of

and ethnographic relationship between

similarities interaction, is

in Britain recognised and in all theory if, any,

andGaul all thus

(Smith1978). social time is situated as an within essential the

space, social and of the

emphasised

component The relevance, structure will 10.2.1

analysis. technique this technique of to access the of 'analysis, elucidation Fields of and of social

through

medium of

analysis

Discourse

now be discussed. THE THEORYAND TECHNIQUE A building is made up of walls which define a series of

-222-

Chapter

10

enclosed doorways of doors can close, of access

spaces, allowing is not to

the

boundaries from they

between to

which another.

may be

broken

by

access only that

one area open,

The importance that the is of be (for Gregory they means on the

but more importantly and controlling analysis Access the

effectively any

segregating particular and point. considers

spaces

based different of

syntactic spaces as

relations,

a pattern of interconnections between between disciplines compare descriptive clear Fletcher

permeabilities, spaces. Piaget There

arrangement that is in will social is never space 1956;

terms

agreement example 1978;

as to what constitutes 1977; and but this technique rules at

Inhelder

Norberg-Schulz

1971), autonomy, of

important of the

because of its and level its to and physical of space lowest inhabitants type of

unambiguous how these inhabitants, which the might degree dimension

application, very

exposition

relate and

relations strangers. configuration appears

between Societies and basis. is in

between in their the

vary to of

which culture,

ordering can all

as a conspicuous

be compared

on a similar

The technique a small into transitional with lines

best where

explained only the 73A).

with Each

the use of the example of floor of has space, been taken including as a dot that 73B). is a The access an (fig point of reach in outside 73C), the

modern house, (fig

ground unit Is

consideration spaces between the

such as a hallway, them ability be where to there

has been represented permeabilit7, spaces (fig

doorway network map.

giving of This dots

move between lines in stance have forms this of been

and

connecting justified, the well is

an unjustified case from

map can (the

perspective although building. depth, the that it

carrier), equally

the from all taken

stranger any to

could is the have depth

By justification been

meant that steps on parallel will both either the

points

a certain them from line, the on

minimum number of positioned on lines any line or map is also to

carrier,

same horizontal the first. with Given points

subsequent rules the of for of

values depth,

to

construction of The resultant

connect

same level depth.

two levels

separated an aid to

by only visual with here).

one level

decipherment procedures

of the

pattern, Buildings

and could

in theory which study -223is not

be combined pursued

quantification are

(an aspect easier

than

settlements

because

open

Chapter

10

spaces (Hillier

cannot

be

so

readily means that Ubid, a structure

separated and the they 154).

into richness

analytical in

elements

and Hanson 1984,16), structures relations order for of the

differentiation information are in defined. by a A all are three about needed. define be a cf the

of interior than the exterior spatial

carry

more social

So, once spaces

can be represented of the an enclosed accurate of in therefore

part spaces.

diagram

showing

interconnections Is

prerequisite access only therefore dimensional its function points one of

analysis formal

map with

marked. the

The spatial discourses and would its

intentions of as intention

architecture architecture, the

as much information form a building use of and the

many ideas

about

have taken, constituent

and information spaces are also which to

Form (the it - its

formal style) In

properties and function practice these it

of space and the boundaries (the is purpose virtually (Markus Hanson of buildings) impossible Ced] (1984) of be

must also make

embraced. distinction Johnson interactive belief However, consideration The problems stimulating the period English the in

between 1988,117). nature the these if

attributes Hillier and discourses autonomy discourses archaeological demands

1982,4-6; minimise their

of

these

because of have the to

apparent dimension. into is

analytical other the full

spatial

brought analysis

value, of access

to be appreciated. primary for most studies data of access analysis of create (led] some nd on on the that (albeit for The success edited illuminating 1982)

archaeologists. such as those is

by Markus or by Graves

of the Scottish church, which have they

Enlightenment, in no small are or studying full or

(1989) fact

medieval

measure due to the either still stand plans

buildings with which

possibly those but never the ideas

alterations), In

architectural

exist

been demolished addition

realised. of society,

whose construction for these are periods of values technique the relevant observed social

was planned which some of are levelled work in the

and the nature sources. is that their

and relationships

known from documentary at Hillier and Hanson is

One of the main criticisms cannot social

fully

unless when it spatial 1978).

something

already

known of the

structure,

can be seen in arrangement Prehistorians

retrospect to do not

how the known

patterns structure nor

relate

(Leach can they

have historical -224-

accounts,

Chapter

10

make ethnographic they do possess non-spatial never from from culture

studies a body

of of

the

populations

they

are

studying, which

but may

primary for to 'test'

archaeological aspects prehistoric one can defined

data of social social only

provide It will

evidence

other

structure. inferences explore of the its way

be possible the spatial

derived promptings material


10.2.2 It application combination function, first two 1. the

evidence;

within

a clearly structure

understanding

and social

are related.

SOCIAL INFERENCE FROM ACCESS ANALYSIS -is of with suggested the that examination of for Hillier of access and maps and the In

techniques evidence

Hanson form general

(1984), and levels, social

other

architectural at three

may impart of The is which are

social

information

the

considered in at from.

appropriate

here: which of its of how appear when

variations looked social that

spatial the

arrangements point about of the view

complex Imparts

constituent living frequently between might be in,

spaces or

Information particular might be

realities and

visiting,

building: made between how

where

physical occupants controlled. interfaces

encounters - and

occupants

and/or

and - strangers, The inhabitant-inhabitant be

these and In

encounters

stranger-inhabitant of relations , distribution to terms a space) of its of of

can

observed/measured and (fig boundary the (the

terms

symmetrylasymmetry distributednesslnondistributedness articulates whilst degree relations asymmetry of reflects or of

, patterns 74) because means of of access in

importance

a space

segregation

integration:

be : symmetric 'In gamma two spaces a and b will to c, If a Is to b as b is to a with respect permeability that neither a nor b control meaning if a Is not to b as b to each other; asymmetric that the in one controls Is to sense 8, to the other from some third space permeability than Is there if one more distributed C; from a to b including passing independent route c (I e if a space has more through a third space to respect locus with than control of one is some there if and nondistributed another); through which any route from a to b must space c, 148). Ubid, pass' As which need investigating. This spatial suggests patterns network in terms of use or form it is possible labelling space of a result -225-

Chapter

10

to

observe Interior

whether

particular

labels

correspond these patterns one of the

to

particular

syntactic locales,

positions

and to investigate constitutes for

further. the most common the places therefore of a to (Barrett organisation Access

space probably

or settings

activity

and social Social

interaction, analysis should

where discourse examine settlement structure 1989). have to analysis of this, At

can be sustained. architecture in of various the the cycle

the way that intervene some part the be considered can therefore as knowledge

and the spatial fields of of

organisation acting

discourse reproduction

social

same time

architecture result for of

and spatial social Interaction.

as the

be a tool of where,

articulating

an understanding and occur in its under are take what the

how frequently, encounters

architectural The information temporal but yet 2. patterns thought question, will

circumstances, on access of in frequency

physical into

crucial.

maps may be static, account of the

and cannot

discourse

construction, time-space

is

of The

value

consideration reproduction. spatial

potential

paths,

or any cycles study

of social of the

may reveal to constitute have

variant the

conf Iguration ' a set properties, rule underlying

of of

a number which the

of in

may be space

generic different

and which

can be referred a

to as the genotype phenotype, invariant and/or and or

(each example physical which in of

undoubtedly

actual properties

realisation constitute terms of

of these the

rules). rule

Some of the are

generic

observable (see above).

measurable patterns topological simply

relations of distributednesslnondistributedness The challenge is to to social

symmetrylasymmetry how these if there

explain factors spatial of

observed is not

patterns to-one example, be between relations this society

may relate relationship might different (for these the

a oneFor space

between

organisation boundary

and society. and control and What type status) relations and repetitive investment of

expressions relations of of

reflecting

physical

autonomy

dependence of social induce

sectors example

a community? age or these the the social social

gender, are Might the

might

spatial is

order organised?

and

on which nature

occurrence an increased

of patterns

be representing is

acknowledgement If

of a code of symbols of

whereby authority

sustained?

-226-

- Chapter

10 -

formality

into

the

ordering this if

of

the

landscape

(cf

Boast

and Evans by

1986) has been detected, 3. recognising behind a Finally, the human

must be explained, the stance then

and so on. and Hanson, principle, of social This different number rules (1984), cause works forms

one takes syntactic

of Hillier or

basic spatial

generator, (Hillier although there 54, order

organising

complex, that

different and Hanson there are are only fig

organisation is because

can be recognised they of believe spatial

1984,82). many a finite 23). Their

manifestations of organising the

relations, (ibid,

principles notion of two types spatial the which system the

summary in as suggested

reflect in best

social of is

by Durkheim their which a

who envisaged different when

social large

solidarity an and organic

and located solidarity and

variables:

integrated;

mechanical has no of

solidarity This received relevance Structuration.

works best aspect

when segments are small of Hillier 1978; and Hanson's Batty

and isolated. work and the which is of use

is most to

criticism a It is social not

(Leach

1985), involving

interpretation considered in further

discussion.

10.2.3 In presence depends, is

ARCHAEOLOGICAL APPLICATION this of to study the designation or crossing on the

OF ACCESS ANALYSIS of a space a low ascribed kerb depends or on the physical It also it

a doorway, a large important storage relevant. by is an what in

ramparts. of

measure, to might The

function area

an area; sleeping

obviously then

distinguish have taken

an enclosed place. of

where

rather especially only

Areas functional have

with

hearths even

are if as

recognition period

zones, been on is

defined

another

might

described a technique

furniture, evolved treat for stone

obvious

archaeological structures. of the

progression It it

upstanding furniture

'historic' In terms

justifiable because it

to is

spaces

creates

immovable. If we take 1987 D as an example then be some of seen more by the for the the recently archaeological clearly. excavator, the Each modern space In excavated EIA house of we 75B-C in fig see at Bu

(Hedges technique

peculiarities fig 75A figs

this the

can

permeabilities the same process above,

suggested as is

and in building is

exactly 73, and which

adopted run

described

through.

usually

an area

-227-

- Chapter is fig by orthostats, x), or to over low

10 through the doorways access 'service hearth section 1.57) lines area' (z); is it partly (as in may (7) is

enclosed 75Bb

with

access (W

either where to

kerbs walls.

therefore is defined

appear

be Jumping

The central access smaller Ubid, function the

by a low kerb two areas

and gives the

divided

into

because of

north fig

paved and the that Area not the w is

distribution half

artefacts

may suggest half. was and less

southern treated 'to the

had a different the of Ubid). into

to the

northern orthostat

as a single break extent area

space because the central space floor two distinct which are deposits

designed of

components, more or

because specific

to this

As there was enclosed, access complex produce there buildings points history

may be some uncertainty the degree to which it were valid, - there will

about

whether

or

not

a space or when in the to Yet when are

was socially inevitably site (or when it

relevant, be phases is

of even a well-recorded accurate laid analysis

impossible

a totally will first major

any form

of

analysis). notably

be phases are

when a clear out

pattern

does emerge, site. begin to emerge.

on a virgin patterns

When comparisons

made of these
10.3

changes then

ORKNEY AND CAITHNESS, c 600 BC-AD 800 In figs 76-77 various maps with types Interior access properties areas. architectural The presented the lived or middle in of result in the' is types an of of settlement have been of access. is to be drawn as to

justified represent descriptions appendix about functions symbols been the

access the

extended space of

vocabulary

symbols Detailed found

different of the These

and means of these sites

space maps of

in

V.

therefore the

incorporate and of the

information potential and have of closed also the

spatial of some

settlements by the where use

Moreover types,

open

different

relevant, consideration form. BC the tended walled the to

indicated.

an all-embracing diagrammatic first millennium which thinner Gradually'

architecture In either isolation, lobate

convenient early

population be sited in or

thick-walled In small

roundhouses, clusters structures. Into of

roundhouses thicker-walled architectural led to

multi-cellular developed the of

roundhouses forms, local

increasingly as competition

elaborate in' groups society

ultimately pre-eminence

broch, certain

the 111).

residential

(Hedges

1987

-228-

- Chapter Both types

10 domestic of buildings, effort put the the the into

of

roundhouse in scale

were

clearly inhabitants the

only their This to of time

difference construction, distinction manipulate earth-houses (Sharples and

being

and the which

amount

signifying is almost

were more powerful. result indeed food for of ability this

undoubtedly the importance

primary 1984,121).

agricultural

resources, of been

appearance at in diversification Orkney the

emphasizes

storage social

Thus the potential always of the have Atlantic

development than

would other

greater Province

and land

Caithness was fertile demands distribution units that sites with in

areas

because

enough to of production of less Shetland lie in natural

maintain and

large

populations to

and the the

competitive piecemeal social notes farming. 'would the be

consumption. tended for development. dwellings

Elsewhere produce Fojut

resources

discrete (1985,63)

potential peripheral areas of in the but this

seem to with respect

be more common upon to arable elite and in also Thus

which The

well-endowed

authority stated displayed, other in

new dominating of legitimisation

social

explicitly of power

ritual that the say, of

symbols in, Barrett might be

authority of the the

would tribute'. of in

be implicit as

amongst (1981.215) mobilised ramparts.

things, goes the Prior on to labour to

payment building the of

acceptance distinction claddings

new power and their scale the

brochs

enclosing between the may have simply In the who

this

roundhouses been equally

and the for

adding

extra

to

walls not

significant. extra their their

These

buildings and/or

were status, brought at

constructed process of demonstrated ramifying

warmth and/or

defence actors

but together

construction acceptance the result may in basis the of

were this

authority broch,

whilst the been for

the

same time the the all

or creating

on which

power was established. residence formed of from not to

Ultimately social elite

was the

which of been over

some cases into

have

amalgamation roundhouses/early may have

certain brochs necessary rival

social developed to

groupings, fully

certainly brochs. order double in

fledged

and it gain domestic units, of the of

muster units.

resources

superiority units perhaps kin

social

The secondary that a couple The

at Gurness

and Midhowe suggest might have and Pierowall competing

of domestic infilling

groups, at

amalgamated. Quanterness

roundhouses conflict

between

lineages -229-

may be the 1984,121). (Sharples

result

Factors

- Chapter such the land hunger but (cf

10 Scott 1947) directly changes in to In ground

as

raiding for

or these

are

not for

responsible rules ' become' Caithness do not in Again

changes,

could Pred,

be catalysts and society for sites example existing are relatively to be sites settlement pattern

by which (in the a large later which suggests and social

discourse terminology number of

was enacted, of

continued 1985). on the

roundhouse the all to

exhibit this

development, appear that on not

and there surface earlier allow A similar or to each other. of

few brochs foundations. the

Caithness

new

maintained to

economic uninterrupted Orkney, sites is

impetus 1985,10).

continue in mound picture

(Mercer

may exist burnt

notably occur of the in the

when several close proximity Increasing groupings

broch

roundhouse land-

and/or

The general their

thus

convergence who symbolised that there

and societal-control power land with be development

under within

powerful

and accumulated was continuity of social of

broch. sites and to At the

The fact

on particular organisation antecedent Turning observed. Iron to Middle

may suggest territorial (ibid, spatial

maintenance patterns, and

networks, rights trends

proprietal

communities the

10). aspects, visual level, and domestic settlements use of some general (such (fig space. and spaces the which 76) The can fig

immediate

the development units

from Early 75) the become most the in the

Age single Iron of

agricultural Age a hierarchical (more always

as Bu,

nucleated

reveals maps deepest,

introduction considerably -segregated broch.

deeper area is

asymmetric), the set of

constitute not found

Upper galleries are from the the may have Included which parts the original functions

and upper very

storeys, least extra might

features accessible sleeping be made. which If

outbuildings, usage these they total

deepest. storage,

spaces. facilities

Their and known as and the of

wallheads are were

surveillance of the first structure to floors was in is

Unfortunately least is

about or

always

collapse not the

be dismantled, the then

number'of and

known. upper

majority obviously tell

activities their less exact

storeys

nature it'

can never

be assessed

and the ground the ground

plans floor

us

(although

seems most probable the'

that

was the

main domestic The complicated

forum). access maps, then and it the is more helpful abstract to break and them

larger they

become to

analyse. -230-

- Chapter down, for instance by dividing

10 distributed (as Gurness, the inside interior, and outside rather than features. 'guardhouse' outside is world or to Cringy') fig are 78).

them into sub-systems

and On

nondistributed the which if that the this very

Ctree-like') globally depth they is

outside, the

governing the

earthworks even in

extend their interior is where is

between create to

worlds, real rings,

In some cases circuit

only has transition

abstract by natural the the

'completed'

Access to forecourt; an inner a long can be by an the the

proper the

be via from From here

environment thin made. early and passage In the

sanctioned. which of

ingress

made into and broch (as suggested into have the

from cases of like

access Gurness, fig are

to

both

outbuildings

Howe and Lingro 48) the entrance which large - spaces they in must

section the broch

walling:

settlement here

entrance

aligned, of these local,

enhanced

processional outbuildings nondistributed freely off circulate thus

qualities a

passages. and which

From almost strangers

constitute area of and into the depth,

totally cannot least units. this its

settlement, which both the

must be invited. of and is spaces within mainly

Such branching with the

creates of to therefore sections. this

maximum segregation between outbuildings

expenditure Entrance passage, various From ring, ring

domestic by means of by control to

and between

most movement can be monitored first access broch can is

of the

narrow which

passage the ingress

gained

next This

a passageway is at the

encircles where

(except be level.

at Howe). to Ringy

point at initial but

gained Access to

further

nondistributed interconnect interior of the is

spaces from the

a slightly

deeper

structures the broch

some apartments is

and outbuildings. passage, deepened and broch at about by guard of the

the

same level cells,

as some If/when

outbuildings, into broch a long

an elaborate

doorway

tunnel, the

a series then

vestibules. of its depth,

outbuildings to its form of the in the importance of the broch

do post-date is, an obvious and thus architecture tower

addition

guard

cells The

means of is

extending it

heightening

distinguishing particularly elaborate all

from the outbuildings. relevant; the

monumentality starkly very these with similar spaces..

the less form,

and its to heighten the

entrance of which discrepancy ringy

contrast appear between is

substantial serving the

outbuildin5s, the final broch,

Once

inside

structure

encountered,

-231 -

- Chapter is from all in the the others the

10 by several depth levels. at This Midhowe

which is

separated complex later hearth in levels

quite (the

case of

double

domestic connect Cells these

units

and the foci are

at Gurness.

The rings levels. from fashion

the main domestic and compartments rings, in similar

areas)

and the upper

arranged From the

non-distributed

fashion

to the outbuildings. point of view in to to of the have strangers, broch. the overall hierarchical to and the their is differences admission unlikely form have done nothing Therefore, role in its interior

layout

architectural

encourage rIngy immediate articulating where they have played From observations

system

had a major the

articulating a means of units, would on

stranger-inhabitant the existed. a similar the relationships The ringy role, component. point of the view

relations, between

but was probably different in is the

domestic outbuildings

sub-systems here there

but

a greater

emphasis

the non-distributed

of basis

social of the

structure this broch

number

of

can be made on the with most Important importance, for the its double with from degree which

information. obviously

Despite stands of If and they in

some similarities out its it the as the spatial were not spaces differ

outbuildings, area in the location units

settlement and its (where of the

complex these broch,

because

prime the the of

monumentality. exist), then This, outbuildings

domestic upper

associated little with-the apartments, the

levels

would

earlier

roundhouses. access exclusively these to be both to the

combination and their that

controlled almost in. order

are

segregated, new relations established to emphasise and latter internal the the a outbuilding distinction cells factor broch

may were and the

suggest founded

social strict

structure control the

on which

required

maintained. Taking social occupants, being the basically

an overview, and the strongest. the ' same

observed between

systems the

serve broch the

inequalities

existing settlement Local

and the outside, relations for the

between the broch; between more of is

are of than

except Thus

noninterchangeability its surrounding system. have been units. In

has been introduced this Is

and all

transpatial

spatial which required

other

words the by

emphasis

on spatial and

relations produce the

determined of

genotypic even

rules though

restrictions

encounter, -232-

each

physical

- Chapter these global is

10 different. by Hillier relations What is the

manifestation genotypic-model it recurs,

of is

rules

more,

(as defined transpatial

and Hanson), and integration complexes) may

because can because foster a

and as a result between in layout

exist similarities conceptual

arrangements and

(settlement comparable (Hillier

positioning

form of identification In addition the Inhabitants identity with others. with

and Hanson 1984,238). settlement because the they may feel share nature of those in of and were laid rather thus a a of the the the out than to a of

of a single each the other

strong structured these

sense

of

whole in this

Furthermore,

repetitive

patterns

may be representing case their The use of spatially authority layout further of

acknowledgement by which the the

a code of

symbols, broch

determined, over of the

sustained

inhabitants outbuildings

outbuildings. comprehensive as, a unity being basic the the

ordered space the

suggest broch

that

these

under result

the of

authority

inhabitants, of

cumulative Their

construction construction the is but broch on the as

outbuildings is a part

structuring symbol by which the

principle. the authority

of

inhabitants articulation of a wider from correct,

was both of these

accepted relations with

and created. at intra-site

The-emphasis level, Ptolemy's 80-84

a part derived if

society there the also OrcJ, that their

similar

values. than of

map,

information that called referred the

gathered was a the Corn a vi i. to

no later grouping He also facing these people these

AD would suggest, in the area of Orcades Insulee.

people names the the

Caithness Pytheas

cape

Orkneys

Interprets group internal Fojut people it is for not to of

names as being occupying Is still estimates surrounding to measure land the

Jackson as Cape Orcas. from the name of derived It much in thus

(1955,135) a

Orkneys. shared

seems likely

each of

social

groupings

common, although

structure (1982) the

unknown. a carrying a broch the size of capacity in of the Shetland. the land of about 100-200 Unfortunately and the realised of

possible which the but

populations was being a large the

extent

carrying

capacity

at any stage, the brochs in dependents and

increasingly. and possibly around both broch

and from early also the brochs. the

days in the history

Orkney

Caithness,

number of

came to, live, the could

The greater larger

the authority number of

wealth of dependents they

inhabitants attract -233and

support.

The most' powerful

- Chapter leaders integrated, on a lesser are seen the

10 to lay build planned, and brochs

could

muster

resources

out formal

and

nucleated scale, broch as being all

villages. non-radial contemporary sites were of

Under less outbuildings with various

circumstances, Early

were built. roundhouse to

settlements, of this

and not

equal

standing. from area

The pace area, it

development not must fold,

may have been of

varied

considerably In a time different to attract

and was tensions the

necessarily have

unilineal. strong social to for. sited the

of great

change social and

between elite

groups,

was in

interests

and preferably and provided brochs were Most

accommodate

to their more dependents them where they *Could be easily to land as the it have

accounted

with

access

cultivable 1982; Mercer would

main consideration is presumed that'all in the Ultimately a renegotiation authority authoritative longer continued known of been involved

(Scott

1947,1948a;

Fojut

1985).

inhabitants, production

even craftsmen, of food.

probably the result

there of

change in the broch was a relations, cultural (cf Barrett which resources, 1989). of the there

system,

of the

was achieved Certainly

by extending the broch to least

of certain symbols

or by rejecting some form period is for

once current was no have is

occupied, the

although

settlement LIA I is but

seems which

on many sites. settlement which easy to this

record, date

certainly

no indication in Orkney but it known, of

of structures and Caithness. would be too interests authority literature was

can be differentiated The exact attempt of this it the to relate Yet this any there as

on social change is to the prime the

grounds not

withdrawal recorded the

Roman of the

from in

Scotland. period, that

source Although

cannot in

be ignored. area, 1987,2-3), aristocracy doubts their

Romans never

exercised

control

classical which the become that have

suggests

was a power base In the (Thomson the broch If

Orkneys and had

considered the

worth

conquering this.

archaeology clients they of were

supports

Romans (Maxwell the

1985 casts of

on traditions might leaders of

conquered), the Lowland longer the able

withdrawal this social (Macinnes satisfy the

patronage as is When local and

been sufficient case for thus no

to topple

system. 1984). needs

suggested demands

was the were their

brochs to

dependents, local

from the the renegotiation of relations was result The only broch sites which bases to more distant ones. power -234-

- Chapter continued derive still those this the

10 managed to certain broch to were

were in

where

social

elite

continue sites

power Fifth

new system; Britain in result continent

presumably

the major

centres. general of the was experiencing withdrawal there not Pict the Is of the a time of

century shift from

settlement migrations in that form. the social the

as the both the

Romans and case to believe in modified this text to to

and Ireland. did term and

Yet as was the no reason albeit in is term them. Cullykhan third

post-Roman earlier

Wales and north social henceforth of

England,

structure the

survive, is

Note that inhabitants institutions The

applied

E Scotland and territory of forts,

generic with from not only

applied

associated such distribution suggests but record basis of Is as

appearance with (Alcock into in out in in

Burghead, the

and

Portknockie onwards, resources witnessed pointed

-a 1980a, 80-81), construction, settlement on the central

coastal

century of

a concentration of the disconinuity It distribution Pictland. the

fort the

a part

throughout fig is

was

93.1.3, from the the

5B, that different from for

of C-14 dates which from from series burials, correlation from Orkney the coastal , is are peak between the of

mainland

from other this this largely occupation for area

areas has a derived of a

Atlantic cal of in for

Province.

The data

about

AD 250 and 500. sites, but the

The dates this and

area come

a multitude evidence forts N-327.

diverse

peak is early around

construction

the S of northern

Pictland,

the Moray Firth early

(GU-1822,

N-328,

BM-445) and the There florult and

evidence is almost fort

elsewhere certainly

such as at the Catstane. between this and- Caithness, brochs there

a direct away which some in LIA

of northern the it the

construction, of the system that not

breakdown cannot study to the

supported of the date). ships, Britain, suggesis a naval

(although sites in

be disproved area sea, are

promontory in from the

The apparent reflected recorded that force little

emphasis

on access

and the

use of

aggression of the Picts against northern the late third AD onwards, century which were able to produce between them

components

of society with.

to be reckoned is

Very regulus

known of describe

social a sub-king near

stratification, or minor king in is Inverness presented

but of about thus

the Orkney

term who

was used to the

was visiting 0 Anderson

rex potentissimus

AD 565 (A

1922 1,56-57).

The picture -235-

of a system

- Chapter local kings of

10 two overkings. Pictland the Certainly that the there 1985,

of

with

one, stones

or

possibly

presence 189).

symbol

throughout

emphasises area

was a certain

cultural

cohesion

throughout

(A Ritchie

By the for settlement

seventh at

century this as time

there

is

an increasing been Birsay made up

body of of

evidence 1983, as its

having the

individual, (Morris

discrete 132).

units,

such important

around

Bay area is on the 1982; of

Only one site, location any current renders

at the Brough centre.

of Birsay, Even this in

can be put

forward basis of

a particularly finds, than The island (Hunter mainland therefore providing not forms There evidence sites for be

and subsequent (and

importance

the Norse period, Hunter lack farmland

rather 1986). on the

distinguishing

structures also as

(C L Curle former) a simple

presumably and the The be interpreted needs of of

interpretation

farmstead

unsatifactory on may Birsay Bay

1986,169), resources. perhaps for totally' the

inhabitants settlements this the

must have been dependent around the of dependent

as a series establishment. settlements

settlements to find

They may therefore we may expect earlier but selective were a be

typical

elsewhere

in Orkney in

and Caithness. the areas remote

Undoubtedly from broch these

architectural relations. on present reuse of

survived was this some

changing

selective occurred and in

reuse rarely. the

of

sites,

only

In Orkney the purposes MIA (98.3) structure 77) shallow units which domestic the

secular

ecclesiastical

which may (cf

probably means 1987). to that of

particularly legitimising In forms in the the

Important and enforcing post-broch are very II

a new social period (fig to the domestic units basic

Bradley

access

maps revert except by

which LIA

similar the discrete the

EIA examples, are enclosed

some of of

fences, in

creating space. throughout in the

a series In other our

are sometimes units they remain

clustered very shells; similar

words period, do not

-despite change, prescribed the

different except lines thin

architectural that are

even terms

MIA they with their

bound together

spatially the is only in

strongly degree

of access. walled

In spatial

difference

between of

and thick with other from

EIA roundhouses and their

association thus towards -236-

structures

monumentality. In space, the LIA the is emphasis a trend changes internal less to external spatially and there

more egalitarian,

- Chapter In

10 terms this

prescribed, change state, By were the from

on-site local

relations. to the shift power bases there the to are

of

social society sources southern capacity

evolution

corresponds

from a ranked more distant hints that

to the emergent of to some authority. kings Pictish

eighth

century

developing

some of which

organisational gradually of a degree

manage a of times is called sub the and be a

widespread appearance perhaps backed reference exactores, anno 728; worked also being

kingdom, of a state,

was

acquiring central which Nechtan

with

administration could at In AD 727 there had officers of Ulster, that

more

closely-defined violence (cf

boundaries,

by physical interpreted persons M0 king's levied

Mann 1986,37). that or

as meaning collecting tax 1973,178),

tribute

(Annals

Anderson

and it to

probable

such officers Taxes were Ireland and 1972; kings people tribute, derived

as the

representatives in late sixth Anglo-Saxon

throughout eighth

Pictland. century that the

seventh/eighth Wormald had lived a treasury in isolation

century

England

(Charles-Edwards Pictish These exacting which is thus state, Agents several (Tigernach to those part of Jackson or they

1986,167),

and there (Anderson from and those from

are suggestions Anderson from the whom they

1961,402-3). were

benefiting from their

considerably position centralising forces have levied attacks in of

enhanced

powers (there the

as agents its

of authority such agents: which and in as

a dialectic and such the as

between

powers, the the fleets sixth

decentralising these might

Mann 1986). carried seventh out

recorded (Tigernach Annals of the (1972, royal

sea-borne Annals c 729). mormaer Pictland, 102-110) officials revenues of the Birsay

centuries

c 682),

and which

were wrecked agent and the tenth were

the eighth similar

The functions of southern mentioned suggests of the

of this Pictland from the these

are thus

southernmost onwards. territorial duties

northern

century

that highest

magnates included

rank

whose

collecting the Brough

a district. and administering depicted on the main warrior (C L Curle 1982, ill the this 59a).

Such might famous slab further is still

have been the role from of

Thus architecture, the to

whilst in

construction case hillforts, this Whilst are

south

of

monumental symbol of

a material

acceptance Orkney of

of authority, these

power is there seemingly

now more-physically are still regionally number, few in

remote based and their

and Caithness. authority.

sources

-237-

- Chapter power no is in

10 a different social determined There is the or of terms. working larger M1.1).

structured the need

and reproduced for tightly of

manner.

longer

regulated

encounter, social rules,

existence indeed the

and acceptance ability is no to

physically

maintain

such a network. in such

The relationship overtly this spatial to the

dependency Furthermore, of this

longer

expressed In than

enhanced

personal network. rather these fact in

encounter

contributes

extensive controls

social

effect

constitutes level

scale That is

on access, of by the

at an intra-site relations was Annals: may have for in Brude

the

maintenance the Orkneys

long-distance king

was difficult reputed Orcadies resulted or attempts aggressive significance to sway Bede's of the to have delete from to or

suggested le

that

destroyed sunt

AD 682 18907,72), with

(Tigernach which

Bruldhe,

Skene

Orcadian exact simply as the

dissatisfaction

the choice by likely sea, is

of overlords, whether to have risen powers

tributes. adminstrative distances

Communication purposes Increased

over

which

attempted

authority. In a later kingdom eighth Histor-y (Dumville century Orkney 1976), or ninth century to the by version of the (Davies Ecclesiastical Pictish century 70). sources area in be a part end king in the of

was considered which under the Isles

eighth 1984,

may have been consolidated The general is probably comparison absence of mention

a single lesser which

of Caithness

documentary of both this more

a reflection to the

of Orkney

importance were seaways.

accessible
10.4

and strategically

placed

in the Atlantic

CONCLUSIONS

This a useful between The shift locally a

chapter tool for

introduced furthering material

access

analysis, its

as described of the

above, relationship

as

an understanding culture where and the

specific from to

social

reproduction. were

a ranked the

society remote In

ultimate of the

authorities central

based

more Norse.

sources

authority

characterises the arrival of Mann

development

of Orkney his

and Caithness of the different chanp tightly the

from the MIA to sources from of social of

the

account six seeing

power,

(1986) power.

distinguishes Here we ability or are

forms intensive

organisational power, high level

where there of

was the

to organize from

and command a participants, to

mobilisation

commitment -238-

- Chapter there far-flung

10 the to in order the large in a it

extensive numbers minimally ' proto-statel, preconditions is therefore Pictish certainly


10.5

power, of people stable for

where over

was This

ability

organise to development and

territories

engage of

co-operation. the distinguishing Driscoll to

amounts to characteristics 218-22) the LIA

necessary

which

(1988a, refer an in

has described. II to the

justifiable or

southern was

state felt

kingdom,

institution (chapter

whose 11).

influence

in Orkney

and Caithness

POSTSCRIPT Subsequent to my entitled particular in this belief compare the formulation A room of with the a to ideas view. expressed an in this of (Reid

chapter

paper with been of express

examination Britain

roundhouses, 1989) has

reference Oxford

Northern which both

published some of a firm to

T Archaeol Whilst buildings the that

incorporates this, their and my social and the up and

a discussion own ideas context their primary emphasizing down. relationships size and it results.

same material. in studying briefly are different

in two

is

useful The

very

approaches interprets picking I have and emphasis

main data in the

differences in a

Reid

archaeological changes Secondly, are shape of

fashion, record that places and space which access more less plays

settlement believing Reid's paper enclosed, the part

played spatial on on the the

although related, the of

spaces and

emphasis In

inter-relationship and reproducing Reid orthostats the space

spaces

structuring

society. the internal has width face a of of social the the peripheral main function. to with present multiple recognises The at the centuries one towards broch same the radial wall to On zone establish this basis between when he in

examines and thus the

created

ascribes brochs. surrounded Then, brochs single considers on at to

a domestic He suggests the the

function that

(sleeping) roundhouses is at

compartments spatial divisions for

similar no

brochs basis of and

(there the

evidence

these). in the from he

secondary he

compartments a general outbuildings, time are as the change

Gurness multiple to have (the often as a

Midhowe

compartments. been first of to more built second than move

which multiple

compartments to consist

AD)

rightly unit. more

observed This private is

residential less

Interpreted

general

communal,

-239-

- Chapter structures. the lead result I fully of He relates political this to the

10 -

changing contacts is this

socio-economic with the unit. evidence I have seen in to also

climate,

and economic in the traditional that change the Crosskirk there as

Romans, which document invoked

to a 'breakdown' am not such a

domestic enough (and

convinced profound for at

alternative 10.3). from broch is was not its is

reasons The broch early

multiple ) inception, the at

apartments

some brochs: compartments divided and there broch here

seems to at to

have had two Howe- the

(pre-Roman with

radially the form it

contemporary sufficient But, to note see the

multi-apartment Burrian then

outbuildings argue on this that to

evidence partitioned casting domestic nucleation for society. the

originally

and aside

reorganised

separate is more the

apartments. interesting in the

my doubts period as

score,

how at the very units of

when Reid sees a breakdown of contacts with (and within) power and/or the

traditional

a result units of failed of

Romans,. I brochs within

settlement has

around to

as evidence Orcadian the

establishment Reid of this these this, the

a new,

stronger

recognise

emphasise spatial complex. underlying units.

significance

phase units

nucleation, in the also the one

and of

relationship Access

between analysis is

settlement the

permits all not thus

whilst Atlantic

emphasizing the

continuity The difference

between

Province size of

settlement units,

so much in

but more importantly

in their

inter-relationship.

f*f#f In evolution prior picture other and to In local to have for to

this

chapter

presented from the In order it fitted which

model to amplify

the the

social period how

of Orkney IA

and Caithness of the Norse.

EIA through

to the arrival of Orkney of

our expanding to this examine framework,

and Caithness, reproduction through the

now remains within this

aspects identify

social

the resources we must lies examine in

particular to distant

power was exercised. means by which the change from and maintained, practice the answer and land

power bases was achieved changing introduction of Christianity.

which

undoutedly

agricultural

tenure

and the

-240-

CHAPTER 11:

TRANSFORMATIONS IN EXTENDED SOCIAL SPACE

- Chapter

11 -

CHAPTER 11:

TRANSFOR14ATIONS IN EXTENDED SOCIAL SPACE

Chapter sources more to

10 charted

the

transition and in relation but is

from

locally

based

power be II.

more centralised, sources of Is as the this

to Orkney for

and Caithness this by the may LIA

distant,

authority. LIA I, to develop

Evidence conclusive

appearing the

as early

The aim of this means in It and Pictland

chapter Is the

a further might

discussion

of some of and

which

transformation with of

have been achieved based northern Picts of in

maintained. Caithness southern (Moray). separated desolate dominant into and

concerned centres

the relationship Pictish or authority

between Orkney and either Pictland who steep are and was

(Perth/Angus)

more probably Picts but the

Bede made a distinction from those of the (HE 111,4), seventh by the Orkney centre is,

between the northern by a range southern areas

southern

mountains' by the late kingdom centuries cultural this of

province were the to times

century, late eighth and of

and both century. than Caithness

subsumed sixth the (A

a single seventh and Much of

Thus in were in closer later

political Ritchie

Pictland

1985,185-86). chapter the perforce, for craft speculative. speciallsation a history and the be With the

notable

exception

evidence made to is

and its upon and of Orkney

organisation, which an Caithness. society speculation discussion contemporary unreasonable European (Alcock modify, the 1987a, refute so if of

I briefly attempt But this complex, study individual situations if the 90). or build is can

introduce be

most of the available write so limited, must beyond

evidence of to of

evidence that to

constitution

recourse progress

made

informed pins is and the not

catalogues for British typical

sites. elsewhere are to

The basis In the

speculation Isles,

Picts society, Future

be seen wide

as 'a

northwest parallels' hopefully

barbarian

with research four

connections made here. sources military of social of

and will

by new scholars

upon the suggestions principal ideological, networks

Mann (1986) control over

recognises economic, that is

power, and

namely

political as human

resources. well goals Ubid,

These are 2).

overlapping

interaction,

as organisations,

Institutional

means of attaining

The recognition

of the principal -241-

souces of power is

- Chapter large-scale thesis. of power,

11 and historical chapter aim here patterns which touched is

a means of which is

understanding aim of of the this these

social The last but the

processes, a little the to discuss of agriculture

the

on each of introduction and land to. of

sources

Roman church significance

and changing of both of

tenure,

the

has been alluded the networks which 910.3. that were as is There the use of were

These developments economic, in for ideological the

encompass changes which and political seen here. was incorporated or main historical) manner or in to

affected

resources into believe distant but

instrumental available is of

transformations activity

Such evidence

military

no reason military

(archaeological power was the

which

sources there

authority obviously 11.1.

were

either

established

maintained,

occasions

when recourse

had to be made to such violence.

ORDERINGOF THE LANDSCAPE Throughout this are period changing agricultural which and In not will practice have of its chart the (911.2) remained social of the

and

land

tenure to the

inter-related

factors

central relations. landscape relations evidence situations landscape

creation, Evidence

maintenance for the part played is by

reproduction the ordering to

which

of and is it

Orkney their so is

and Caithness transformations But to

structuring easy in

social because

limited. possible has

examining ways Early forward

similar which

contemporary man-made

suggest the

may have operated (1987) (Southern in the

to structure studied

LIA society. Historic landscape that of as

Driscoll Strathearn the polities social but

Pictland) east

and puts

an argument the importance bonds

grew more state-like diminished Society and was

of kinbecame by had

based

relations Important. the part

quasi-feudal constantly in its for

increasingly kinship, increased entities Clientship, voluntary provides such tie

structured regulation large-scale

which

clientship

played

and produced (at the as defined of in

a powerful extreme limit of by students legal for labour is

model which of

organizing

was Orkney Ireland, early which in from than his the the and

and Caithness). consists social of a

personal protection, return it

dependence

in

superior goods, (Gerriets similar

military

support

productive retinue Inferior

as cattle, of

attendance services more little -242-

or warband,

and a flow 1983,43).

goods or Whilst

speculation,

- Chapter in Strathearn changing

11 be expected social relations seventh in Orkney initiated century

changes Caithness, the not south

as

might

perhaps of

and in

as the

networks north,

expanded to the that LIA are or the the may be

from the late

AD, if

before. It

social result which

changes in Orkney and Caithness of the emergence of or work in However, and in clientship which expanding it is

from ties with

the of the

MIA to the clientship ultimate based

authority of more lies,

usurp the the

conjunction

power leaders

local

leaders.

locally the both

who administer but the

regions of

still whose hands extends of have come rights A 1978)

effective

authority

growth

geographically as the land, patterns in the

and socially A major of to the is the

limits

within

relations

authority into over' similar effect the

can operate. result

change such as this introduction (911.3) for of or both to

could

proprietary individuals. (Davies Wales

whether of

church suggested AD.

events

and Mercia

eighth

century

Biddick

(1984,111)

has noted:

Gifts

of

to land the chiefs In granting rights perpetual and material of symbolic accrued a new source the base the of economy, which power over By assuming the their overlordship reinforced ... their to make grants own of land outside right Aethelbald Offa Mercian territories, and their complex lordship radical, underscored ... from As Anglo-Saxon systems shifted social to simple-state begemonies systems, and chiefly to the non-ecclesiastical gained elite access themselves, tenure, the structure of the estates documents through traced be and as can changed. archaeology, land such as these went in one direction resulting only, obligation in to the giver, and could only but extent be answered never of For in the and services

in by

a permanent counter-gifts

moveable 1979.104). if land in to it

wealth

discharged an authority right to as 1972,

(Charles-Edwards can only expand of lead

The territorial

assumes and ultimately outside the its

acquires

make grants this 42-44) of the

power accumulated alsq because

own territories. family hands of a dynastic social stratification (Rousseau becomes stable

example, early

Ireland

increasing

(6 Corr6in

'inequality' of the

and legitimate the effect in

as a result quoted land one hands of

establishment 1975,204). was to divorce 1984,111)

landed

property

1964,193,

in Bloch grants (Biddick

In Anglo-Saxon tenurial

England structure

of these the

from the territorial retained

as land

was no longer
-243-

- Chapter locally-based to outsiders families with Individuals, authority central by

11 but land

or

rights

were extended The local units

no former the

in the region. authority At the local of

were now subsumed within means Independent were the administered these Pictland of

by new administrative level these units In times and as the

territoriality. regulated 'great

and

a new form recorded High of the

authority. in later

were probably literally first a

the officials officer, mention

mormaer,

Steward' mormser part northern In

toiseach. documents (specifically and it is

The

recorded Pictland to over conclude by the sources

Scottish

shows them to be restricted southern reasonable taken Early that

to the

Pictish

of Scotland Pictland), system the of

and southernmost this in Scots indicate the that right. duty

was a Pictish middle In of of

adminstration century. the king's

ninth he was royal

Scottish his in

he was a territorial effect

magnate who held deputy (Jackson

position an area

by hereditary and had the possibly (M 0 Anderson Toiseach group

collecting if not which the its

revenues role the early if

1972.102-110), exactores positions. family also with thane.,

a similar 1973,178) is used in but distinct him from

identical may also of in

to that

of the

have been hereditary leader of a ruling texts officer to with the the

context

(clainne), another to

occurrence meaning, land, in

Scottish of

suggests

namely similar early

some form inferior terminology

dues payable

the

mormser.

The officer

was identifed

The Scottish thane was a subordinate officer of (usually) the king, or of an earl, set over a lands, holding his territory of his lord's stated hereditarily in and charged with duties position of his thanedom connection with the adminstration Its the organisation, military and with of coZlection of Its taxes, and the adminstration justice Like the mormser, he was entitled there. to his share of the dues collected Grackson 1972, 110-14), a definition 65). 600-800 which'more system were or less by matches the the central view of Barrow Swedish in link state to (1973,64of c AD the 1986,

A similar which

can be seen In

husebyar order

planned

power and to has for

exercise

administrative scattered quoted In

and economic NAA 1986/297). for Norse

control,

and develop (Larsson

settlement

area to form a more unified Steinnes Orkney. In derived


-244-

(1969) return benefit

suggested their

a similar the of land

arrangement locally-based

loyalty,

church

and elite

from the grant

- Chapter and dues, of have to

11 the it from their their to this of

whilst wealth If those led units that

striving derived without to of a land.

uphold

system was in

which interest

source succour. might individual being

and which land further rights

gained

access and authority level, might

to tenure definition

restructuring of

When relations at the of

are no longer it is have a fair been a

defined

and structured one by-product

household

assumption What

these

changes

more formalised, . which then

spatially are expect but the to

prescribed

agricultural and its

landscape. historical relationships evidence for correlates of land discrete of the

archaeological_ accompany component independent in 910.3.

one might

changing with In

ownership? settlement adminstration expectation and in

The settlement units, was discussed might be for terms place-names.

local/regional archaeological and field estates, aspects of

centres terms

the vestiges evidence Evidence

of estate for the for

boundaries, by means is of now

historical and/or

charters

these

investigated.

11.1.1

Documentary The written

Evidence word produced a stable means of communication conceiving of and thus

beyond, f ace-to-f transactions legitimising increasing 59). structures created In of the In of the

ace relations property, as

and was a new means of well as over a means of both time 1977; wider discourse

instituting and space,

new transactions distanciation the result establishment in the

time-space addition could

(Goody of

Giddens

1984,258and those 1988).

relationships of (Moreland on the

transcending non-written

and weakening

and maintained Middle word, the

through Ages the thus it

the early written use of

church

had a monopoly

production tool which

controlled secular relationship

an administrative authorities, (911.3). elite lived

was of source resource the literacy', by the

to their

aspiring symbiotic only Orkney in of to

and which Literacy

was one was a

accessible of is that circulation

the and

political Caithness which word,

and ecclesiastics; 'on the in margins of some degree of groups or The to the this

Inhabitants

a culture the written

was 'influenced by the presence is (Goody ed literacy system;

individuals spatial and

who could hierarchical, of-any

read

and write' location social -245of

1968,4-5). crucial

reproduction

particular

a good example of

- Chapter be seen in the to

11 late Italy tenth

process century therefore

can

mid

and in

early 1988).

eleventh Literacy the

incastellamento undoubtedly

movement of played

(Moreland role

an important for

structuring in no of be Orkney

transformation Whilst Caithness charters. Buchan (Tackson in the and

of society the can potential therefore

suggested be

Orkney of

and Caithness. literacy and in

ramifications recognised, Pictland)

there

are

surviving systems this

However, Moray

The Book of Deer records (northern which 1987,360-73). and Indicate

details may this those

early 'the by

1972; Driscoll 1130s of to' the 1150s. political

The Gaelic that were at still

notes late

were written date'

mechanics kinship is

situation

structured

and regulated in origin'is circumstances pertaining survive documents by king from units

described

(Driscoll 1987,373). by clientship' davochs or petts 011.1.3), of either ascribed in the LIA. this (Barrow in 1973), the and it is described Book of

The land to which basis

a Pictish that the to those documents time,

on this

Deer may be similar reasons of the why so few ravages tradition the never of

There

are several independent

period,

including

a Reformation were Nechtan's most

and political and the of Pictish is

connivance native Columban scriptoria to of

(Hughes 1980).

Possibly interrupted eighth very view

dispersed

scribal

expulsion probably This sees Kells the in

monks in were

century active (Brown

AD, but (Hughes

1970,4). which of

contrary

an alternative so noteworthy centre a

1972,243) as the

production *a great did

manuscript subject it is

Book

insular Scotland'.

to Northumbrian possible as for an that

... on the whole the Picts expressive Driscoll administration of a standardized is that the

influence

in eastern

... However

not-totally instead these

appreciate used do symbol survive the the

writing stones (Driscoll

Important

medium but statements, sees a and

their 1988a, of His

authoritative 222). royal

and

connection aristocracy system, the

between with the

development invention symbols.

and control

symbolic growth of

Pictish and the such a or and the in the

reasoning symbols must have by virtue the

kingdom

phenomenon of symbolic political cultural inspiration inscriptions.

appear

synchronous, the

and he assumes that control to of

system elite for

been under of their he Is

a religious to material that

superior Inclined

access was first

resources.

Moreover display of

believe

such symbols such


-246-

encountered would place

Some scholars.

as Thomas (1963)

- Chapter

11 If amplified their was thus markers. of their legitimacy through control control stones new, these then the than with

emergence symbolic invented literacy, to a few. erection permanent ideological symbols; their

of in

symbols the

several

centuries

earlier. and/or Whatever

so date,

system

may have seventh of the I stones

been adopted century. use of these

rather as

knowledge Class the

symbols

restricted By their in descent; of of the the a

seem to have been burial different right to sources inheritance by

heirs

combined their of Ubid, this right 228). firmly

testimonial: sanction and a

represented represented

de facto

by ther

material-resources position

They may have erected established or radically effect Thus in recording in both

because and in stones (figs 11 find If. as I and

was not like

need of

some ideological found,

reinforcement. charters, rarely, of

may have been. acting Symbol stones 56,65). spots of In are Orkney are there in

property

transactions.

Orkney Caithness with

and Caithness 2 out sites. of

5, out loosely

11 and in associated these

sculpted

broch

have suggested, resultant charters. these of land 11.1.2 , landscape Caithness it of is Their

was a change in the sources land tenure, with as, stones would brochs

of overlordship that

changes

are plausible suggest

as stone some of unit

association recognised

were still,

or associated

with,

a recognised

and population. Archaeological Evidence for the lacking. but formal organisation field of systems in with the occur Orkney, LIA in and

Field is

evidence similarly to and Sutherland, IA date at

Early

none have been detected the et al known field 1981,60,62). and Taylor (Mercer and Fiscary boundaries in 59) 1971) systems

difficult

associate (Halliday

settlement are notable the, Borg 12), 1981, and fig

proven

There

exceptions Broch possibly 10). Caithness (Mercer known. early linear economic

Kilphedir Forsinain at Bighouse

(Fairhurst in

and at fig

complex, also flags forth), -In land

Sutherland

1980,

Ubid, field

(Mercer

At, Cnoc Stanger have but

possible also these been are

consisting with full systems The treb

of upright ard marks is not but long, is range an of

found pre-IA,

association field

and their

extent dykes, which full

Orkney

there

are define

no pre-Norse do survive. territories, to the -247shore

as such,

divisions/boundaries banks with

earthen unit

each and to

of the

access

- Chapter Their than to

11 that they to nonis an IA Their the

available political relationship important exact because alignment allotment, date

soil

resources. rather

size private

suggests

relate

systems indication is

ownership,

and their divisions 177).

to the historically-known of their but a early they

administrative date are to In Norse Ubid, general Scottish tend to

(Lamb 1983b,

unknown, underlies bear

presumed mound. to IA the that

pre-date addition systems 177-78). absence field be the

one

settlement no relationship is probably for notably so the is

their of land

seems to the basis are in-

of which divisions,

There particularly best survive been

several

reasons

of

IA,

LIA land

systems least

upland the of have little

areas.

These extent that features many at

agriculturally have favoured the

favoured great; survival will has it had

zones.

of IA land subsequent as existed. lowland crop In

use may never land use has Subsequent aerial in this of such do

advantage such early destroyed

development photography area, peat but

sites; marks

success

noticing

has not

has obscured forever.

been much applied. areas of IA land many may never Moreover, and more the recent

The subsequent surface.

growth

addition, peat walls

boundaries not endure

as existed

have been substantial; difficulties field-systems of

distinguishing should not be

between

prehistoric

under-estimated 11.1.3

(HallidaUt

al 1981,60).

Place-name The main

evidence for the form of LIA land organization is Orkney a picture of the which provide place-names known in This is unlike any divisions system. so it district, primarily Bannerman the basis the LIA may be that It is suggested adapted. was related from 1974,141; of early of to the arrangement that the of was Norse land

evidence

derived

from

the

Norse. administrative the taken Norwegian over,

homeland, adopted and

ounceland, called a 1952,208;

a taxation davoch, Barrow

measure

known 1973;

eastern

Scotland B Crawford

(Marwick 1987,89). and

The ounceland district land the

was also the

church

organisation, pre-Norse

may have involved chapels which pett,

revitalisation 178). in.

an older

system of unit of

(Lamb 1983a, made grants

Davochs are the smallest Further, unit it looks perhaps of (equivalent

magnates the of at basic

as if

socio-economic one davoch

consisted

least

(Bannerman

an estate), Pit 1974,59-60,269).

-248-

- Chapter names, if by Norse -may have expression the Scottish five they in Orkney names of area

11 and Caithness, any nature for

ever the

existed

were obliterated A davoch commoner, an

names (few Celtic been nominal

survived). a free

necessary

of agricultural tech. hides translating (Duncan otherwise 1952,249), by the and

hide and capacity analogous to the English When Bede referred to Iona as being 'an island of to English reckoning' term and/or that of Egbert). (HE 111,4) his source he was was an for LIA of

about

according an 1981,23 scarce;

probably Englishman estates Norse (Marwick renamed Caithness, of levying is

equivalent it is

suggests In the

Evidence

suggested

the distribution ancestral In If exist dignity'

boer names, placed Norse taxation

'highest LIA

scale taken

marked

estates these

over

entirety of Orkney in

(Thomson such

1987,27-28). as did

units

and land and

apportionment

and were well tax

administered, such Dalriada is

they as the

could provision

constitute of the for ships the in

a means for a Fer

and service,

navy.

Such a scheme for

described

Senchus

nAlban where units of furnishing of

of 20 houses were grouped (Bannerman 1974). two vessels forms Itself. some suggestions A system of levy local the level by of tribute is

together

purpose for the

Such a system for

collection

all

essential of LIA land related secular kings. to

an hierarchical on the

system to maintain basis

There are thus of estates. at the of

organisation this

may have been ecclesiastical of in to these is the the known

administered representatives local not north authority since 1979.18). extended assuming been their the

and/or

southerly which

Pictish

The size been matched subject

territories, known. by the of early

some of is

may have been multiple which may have of

estates,

A multiple shire, the overlord medieval It is power right in thus

estate, a or his in

hierarchy

estates England

representative, Wales that and into

an arrangement Pictish and thus kings Caithness

times

(Glanville-Jones had by

possible authority property. and local, this or

southerly Orkney

and

to grant stone

These new transactions writing which of

may have enabled and over the

recorded the distances.

structured longer might

production At the some of

and reproduction level land to their

social

relations elite

the political

undoubtedly and thus

have granted

inferiors,

transformation

of relations

was extended.

-249-

- Chapter
11.2

11 -

TRANSFORMATIONS IN AGRICULTURAL PRACTICE Driscoll (1987) practice of both has and kinship I shall and more its and discussed relationship clientship here of systems the the in the to general the Early belief nature structuring Historic that are changes concomitant Certainly of is to controlling the direct Study this one's one's through for the of of (LIA) in

agricultural relations Southern agricultural with there allocative control of of domestic a move must

Pictland. practice towards have rather material space between might of been than

argue intensity

production of clientship.

extended

a shift

towards

importance that than

authoritative and

resources, rather has

goods

commodities 10)

people. charted whilst under

(chapter the

already less,

transformation power-or control status the

MIA and LIA. in that

None the of the was

be measured effecting resources. control

terms control It

people ultimately

-means of

manipulation ultimate daily the local.

physical to

was still but not at

necessary the

authorities level. Society which

people,

face-to-face of the the

became each

increasingly had particularly that tenure at

structured his or her

by management disposal level. at At structured ties nature such

resources

individual more

intra-regional, level relations but would would at the also I

but

regional was its

inter-regional by changing

propose of local have most land

society and

largely attendant level the

of of a

clientship, clientship change agricultural would stuffs) would hides primarily and have or

and

intra-regional but been region non-durable long in in

intensified, probably each around over whether simply

this

case In of (such

4have, practice. have services,

Within revolved whereas important, or

ex plicit * relations goods

changing clientship as foodtribute (such as

distances the form of or

durable goods military

been metal), the

most

loyalty ultimate local but

administrative delegated whose was to

might. for the

Effectively regions from to, the,

authorities representatives whose such at any the duty loyalty, time

responsibility reward administer and other in the was the these

their land,

tribute areas as 10,

effectively, their I of that 1988). superiors

providing might

manpower demand. of

services chapter

As outlined Birsay was

support one

arguments local

that

Brough (cf for been

establishment 1983,52) sites and (Lamb

representative centres

example established

A Ritchie on broch

further

may have

-250-

- Chapter It is that Orkney

11 have been made

possible

and Caithness

could

up of a number of individual each of which was independent, estates, but regulated by ties of obligation to king and/or regional overlord. Whilst these are the very each unit need not have been specialised circumstances agricultural specialisation In and social (1978) developing these factors 1. in in which developments be expected, within in with the organisation degree of of

production

might

a variable

and Intensification entitled in three Agrarian

each unit. settlement the Iron history Age, Myhre to

a paper

development, Norway in in the

organisation

southwest

has related agricultural

major practices, With

changes and further

settlement manners

record in

suggests elaboration would

which scheme,

may be recognised. to examine In Orkney of stability of of food. to the The degree

on his this availability

and Caithness in the land

include: pattern; relates of

settlement

part

quantity

unsettled

and

the

alternative 2. for

sources

The analysis example, and of

of pollen, allows the

seeds and faunal possibility ard of and (Hillman and

remains.

Seed analysis, distinguishing between mould board ploughing, in can food be

producer what time processing similarly 3.

consumer year a crop

settlements, was sown 1974). Pollen

1981) faunal

and stages analysis

(Dennell revealing;

Changes in

agricultural determine the

technology, amount of

such as the land which differing

introduction

of into

mould boards, cultivation 4. Changes in the

can be taken

and its field

productivity. layout of may integrated reflect between boundaries. the the practices. might indicate For a boundaries fields

example, relatively would may

absence

unsystematic by their system. factor in the manuring

shifting

leave suggest

few or no permanent

and meadows, which Well-defined boundaries introduction use of fallow of as forms Different from an a

configuration perhaps regime. practice might with

infield/outfield stablising 5.

Changes in

allow

more intensive of lynchets.

of

agriculture, manuring phosphate littoralis, inland

perhaps practices, survey

leading and their

to the degree

formation of intensity snails. frond

are detectable For of example a seaweed

and the snail,

analysis lives the

of

littorina and its (Evans

a sea presence

on the

either

denotes

use of

seaweed as manure

-251-

- Chapter 1977,22) introduction required 6. for Its use as food for

11 (Fairhurst suggest 1984,170). that The

or

sheep

of byres crops, in in

to settlements

may also from

manure was data, as but

and in some quantity; may be seen structures to environmental (such the for

Changes

processing

archaeologically houses), It LIA Is

storage

earthkilns. in

and of course not and it degree of It the is as yet is of

in milling possible to

equipment identify is

and grain-drying any of known the of these the of pattern. were a

trends settlement unsettled

Orkney that

Caithness. impossible shifting evidence not system yet in and

So little assess the field

pattern land

quantity

-and limitations 911,1.3. infield/outfield combination relate

in for

settlement systems to of

The in

discussed prehistoric although

possible any larger part

recognise Scotland, at

the may.

of

to this

-0 (Hallidneet

smaller

enclosures

some places

al 1981,62):

the Our of structure and understanding development systems of agriculture of early ... and coordinated awaits concentrated more fieldwork, survey aerial and programmes of 63). (ibid, excavation Environmental important Differences information. mouldboard on the late basis part between There plough of at In whether b) found as in or its data in are scant, modern is this but usually have an increasingly research there the for designs. is more the

archaeological cannot in Scotland

settlements

be gauged until Manning It ard was in could

no evidence period, shares

use of England

although that the

(1964,65) use in for

argues in

asymmetrical

Roman times. tool, forth is

the meantime pulled beast. If

be a very for be so the

effective

ploughing Mercer plough between Knowledge are

by man (as suggested early will the the vague, that in evidence not of least team of not Recognition the wags of degree

Cnoc Stanger: mouldboard in its

significance but to

much to

effectiveness people of It

a tool, order

cooperation animals because of byres

needed draw It. IA fields is also

supply is

manuring has

practice or

so rarely

excavated

sampled.

limited. implication These towards which are the

Peen suggested the to rectangular be LIA in of

Caithness, are

and by byres.

some of presumed seasonal

buildings date, cattle

elsewhere.

and may suggest during this

a movement

enclosure

may be related

to a postulated -252-

decline

period, a trend in climate at the period

- Chapter

11 -

towards 1982,31). for could that

the

end of Whilst

the

Roman Empire the yards

(Parry

1978,64-65; sites in

HH

Lamb been which and except

some of of animals as

on brochs

may have structures storage

the enclosure be

there

are no associated General with the changes MIA/LIA

described cannot

byres.

processing there

be associated

transition,

may have been a move from underground to more above ground facilities. Albeit few earth-houses that storage are dated, none have produced evidence for a LIA II date. It can be suggested that upstanding ground In changes stones at Howmae (fig 57) represent the posts the for above

storage

units. there might pattern base; is little expect of future evidence to have for agricultural major due largely significant issue. field to and to for

conclusion, which one In the data input of they the

accompanied This with is a

transformations to a limited

land-holding. excavation

environmental A programme systems. investigate associated material indicate the for if

can be expected photography as will of

to shed some light could produce the fieldwork. It

on this

aerial exist,

evidence also

future

remains systems to

relationship which

some of of

known field IA date:

settlements environmental

are

presumed to undertake

collect survey

analysis; if

phosphate and to

where certain of plots

activities to determine

were taking they used.

place;

excavate

interior

were used for

cultivation

and what sort


11.3

of implements

were being

INTRODUCTION OF THE ROMAN CHURCH Bede relates how in to the architects which was about Abbot Pictish to 715 AD the of southern Pictish king, seeking to Roman

Nechtan, advice

sent in

messengers changing and for

Ceolfrith church build fortunate was treaty

Monkwearmouth Celtic in the

from

observance, Ceolfrith position the border' enforced placed apostles' those who form of of

a church for

Roman style. who, backing southern Nechtan to of of be the in a in

complied, political a

Nechtan political vulnerable instructions nation blessed the

insecurity,

'seeking on of his his

non-aggression 1984,138). Easter, of

(Smyth the under

On receipt and 'the

Catholic the

reformed the In most 717,

was glad prince

direction 21).

Peter,

(HE V, had not

Subsequently, to the

'familia was

Iona', (A 0

converted

Roman ways,

expelled

-253-

- Chapter Anderson introduction Orkney 1922 of 1,217). this Before Roman church some mention in this the northern Columban nor save the Saint Columban in the

11 discussing to Pictland the for bearing evidence the on for that

evidence and its the

and Caithness,

must be made of area, because Picts.

an earlier

Columban presence

Bede asserts Roman church king to a

St Columba converted Neither any records for in the

the

early is

medieval thus

left list. few

Scotland, the details

possibly church

an unprovenanced confined Gentis Anderson to Eccleslastica and

Evidence uninformative Adomndn's sources inferred

Historia

Anglorun; Irish from an and iron Birsay, in need

Life about

of

(Anderson are

1961), derive

Scotland,

some of which record at which 1 to the Iona in

believed

annalistic Bourke

(Bannerman Orkney the of

1974,9-26) of three from

archaeological bells. Saevar this

evidence, (1983,466)

consists Iron the bells

attributes interest the But none of

Howe and Burrian part of the for Scotland. eighth an earlier century 464). cemetery possible

Columban church sites not is

known Christian bells very are loosely

pre-date witnesses with

century, church. cross Morris from

and

these Although the

reliable associated possibly the a Saevar

an eighth Ubld,

slab,

Burrian

example

cow-bell Thus eighth Stack

(1983,141) which of the bell

suggests bells, Christianity the locations from the

that

Howe long-cist with the

came may be late-Norse. there in of eighth that into they the in is no prearea. this

exception

these for

century sites

archaeological which were once

evidence probably

eremetic to tenth are in

communities, or part eleventh a result QG Irish to

sometimes century, of the

substantial, it although expansion of

may date cannot Irish

be excluded anchorites

northern Caithness Maddan St Tears

Atlantic are

Lamb 1973,78-86). Saints St Trustan and (Kirk may be

Several early St

dedications foundations:

St

(Freswick). (Ackergill); Wick) (Head interest in close

(Brabster);

Cuthbert

(Hauster); and St Fergus

St Duthoc Wick) in this

of Moss, Skitten) Account, 1845). to four or a twelfth

<The New Statistical of probably saint. to

A dedication century

of to St Ninian revival of are multi-

(Kirk

relates At least broch sites,

of these to

proximity

early A areas of that been

dedications attested

phase occupation. There Columban are several in this reasons area for believing have the impact of the Adomn6n

church

may not -254-

strong.

- Chapter to Columba's his miracles to the 'but

11 East , it is the the Spine little Britain, for one 1970, in Yet by the within to some But

refers

visits there,

of

of

describing

suprisingly Picts' Columba that Pictish

who was supposed 12). making Adomndn seventh fifty extent Certainly

to have converted

northern

(Hughes

there is little widespread conversions does century state his East that there 12), the Mid, death of the

suggestion among the were and the

succeeded

aristocracy. in must Pictland be that

monasteries inference

years to

of the

Columban church of Britain some Christians Pictland,

was established (Smyth 1984,112).

Spine

there whilst were undoubtedly . in seventh communities century Christianity activities Class II of was exterting Nechtan stones this is Bridei safe but bells the been in

and first

some Christian evidence comes with appearance documentary that the of and

the

any influence southern (Hughes is the first 1979,15).

on society and In that the

Pictland

symbol

archaeological for Christianity king request 1,56-57),

terms

time

conclusive in

evidence 561 AD, he

seen in

Caithness

and Orkney. court in their is

When Columba was about (A 0 Anderson save the

visiting had to 1922

mac Maelchon conduct the for

at. his his for

people

Orkney

evidence

presence, slight.

aforementioned for doubting has Pictland

and a few dedications significance expressed of the by Duncan of the

Another church

reason

Columban (1981,27). Columban

throughout

Bede exaggerated because Egbert rights thereby

the

importance fed

He argues that , church in Pictland his sources, to Egbert. the and

he was being the

propaganda English had to deal

by one of in the

was an influential which to Picts

monk who wished affairs the upon it.

emphasize of Iona,

impose Roman doctrine in Prior effecting to this the

He personally of the same In been

instrumental Nechtan.

introduction did

was probably Roman church by (HE 111,4;

he probably there

Iona

Duncan 1981; In activity suggested Picts east

Lamb 1988). whilst including the early of Britain may have some as Columban possibly the and the the the Caithness dedications we should their active (Hughes foundation were minor and Orkney, in Caithness, think of ...

conclusion', In Pictland, by some of of the

'among a king until With

spine

not

aristocracy beginning exception seventh of of

giving the Iona

Christianity eighth and century'

support 1970,16). at

Maelrubails foundations -255-

Applecross,

century

Columban

cells,

established

- Chapter

11 little of influence the law, late

without Ubid, century need not

royal 15). was not be Ubld,

patronage Further, totally

and exercising the Irish church

on society sixth/seventh period it their

adjusted that the

to secular aristocracy century to the

so in this the this

expected 15-16).

gave all the

church changed.

support

In the eighth research dedications contacts dating

Recent unpublished network are the of St Peter of the

by Lamb suggests between Picts

the existence century, and Northumbria Legend credits in

of a which in St

eighth

a product early

eighth with

century, in a St

as described Orkney Boniface have of is

above.

Boniface The St Whilst conflated, instrumental

building dedications of does the

one hundred

and fifty symbolise and the not St

churches conformity Curitan

Pictland. with Rome.

Peter

traditions there In

are Curitan to

obviously who was the North. saint

seem to

somebody called

introduction a St Boniface

Roman church surprising;

The confusion of the

with to

a Devonian Germany, Scottish

same name led appears thus

a famous mission some similarity Egbert parallels. an even over these might that

to

central with the in

a mission scenario. which

which

share these

Lamb (1988) might definite Sanday

contends explain

was involved

both missions, distribution (in rather Evie, than

Lamb (1988)

identifies Peterkirks Each of

geographical the have have Orkneys kirk been

of

and possible and Stronsay). are

Westray, chapel and with are the were of how

appellations, sited Irish gifted on the practice by the

grander IA

than mounds. or ruler central in in

expected, a parallel the

top of broch where secular in

Lamb suggests Christian the church, where

Early to

defensive or

sites pattern we see places,

missionary monasteries existing (Parsons donated Life of

activity were 1983). to the Patrick Saint, are sited

Germany, strategic, under example, king,

again

established but Ireland, by the and in In

elevated royal the

settlements,

areas for

ownership rath to notably at the

, preor control was

Ardbacha Tripartite

local several

according hill-forts

monasteries, cashels,

Nendrum. and (Thomas

Downpatrick 1971,32-34).

earlier

or raths

The St Boniface intimate suggests island an awareness the fairly bishopric central

and Tredwell of for for the the both

dedications

on Papa Westray It is here that

again Lamb on an

Roman church. Northern Orkney -256Isles

was intended, At the

and Shetland.

time

of

- Chapter its foundation in Frisia Mn the

11 the St

mid-eighth

century) known.

martyrdom

of

Boniface

may have been well Triduana According to to the Pictland, the

The Juxtaposition

of a large

St Tredwell is and highly

(otherwise relevant.

or Trolla)

and St Boniface

dedication

legend a holy

of St Boniface's virgin, St

successful the Orkney,

mission saint. are (Thomson in there

Tredwell,

accompanied with and Caithness century At settlement and to broch, back

Whilst also

legend to

contains this saint there

no association in Sutherland was a twelfth of these the the

dedications

1987,10-11). in

Whilst the

revival St

interest

St Tredwell,

association the

two saints

on Papa Westray Tredwell' s

may be presumed to be early. may be site in is a broch situated. buried opinion very at core of the to At St Boniface's under of likely the

there

mound on which applies of it.

name Munkerhoose the west field-evidence with

structures the

churchyard, the present on a

Here,

Lamb,

suggests occupation Christian Kirk is

an IA settlement, continuing into

centered the

the LIA period. are associated to the

A Norse hogwith area. the N other with

and early

cross-slabs sometimes

The name Binnas of the churchyard, parish than the

applied

farm mound to of a church associated be better

and this church.

may be a recollection was specifically 79)

and which (fig

the mound. The representing Juxtaposition 1988). between monastic The the life P3Pa7 name element clergy places Columban is can than seen as as the (Lamb

pastoral of term Irish papay

rather with fertile

eremetics, land to may confirm draw

'pastoral' and

used church

here with

a distinction on the to the was and may

their

emphasis in contrast the

and the where

prime bishops

authority held with

of the abbot most power,

Roman church structured preaching have

and

church dioceses the

around

dioceses, people. the

a heavy emphasis Some of the north lasting

on adminstering British into to

amongst the (Thomas is

been a legacy

from

Roman period, further to in the the is

seventh All in

century but all

1971,20), known of

and new dioceses continued any of their

be formed,

nothing the

sub-divisions. introduction of

Orcadian with

evidence for

points

a Roman The only and the may

church possible potential share

a pastoral

structure sub-divisions at with St the

eighth the

century. Peterkirks, The Orkney

evidence episcopal

centre

Boniface's. system of

system

some similarities

territorial

parishes

-257-

- Chapter served in the by secular early Peter the earliest twelfth dedications structural dedicated which are item at can to be

11 introduced to Scotland

priests century

which

was otherwise

(Donaldson'1985,23). are not are of This with date is is a item so common. the At Crosskirk chapel, Peter known

in Caithness remains St Peter. associated but their

a twelfth broch.

century only known Other

originally dedication dedications Burn Ubid), It Christianity LIA burial

Thurso no 154),

(RCAHMS 1911a,

no 418)

and Olgrimbeg for

unknown. evidence 8 the be pre-Norse for with be

now remains in

to review

the rest

of the In

Orkney

and Caithness. some of and it

chapter may that sites broch

evidence

practice, was reviewed, with broch

which

associated this can often Stromness

Christianity associated for Warebeth Monkers association. in cist this area,

was noted The

sites. is in

Abandoned broch purposes. an area tradition physical (98.3) also to

were also at

reused or or

non-burial Green,

ecclesiastical

(SMR no 1461) a is the but There

known as Monker-house, an older for two this pieces from of the ecclesiastical establishment is of area in this the

name

pointing

a local only discussed

of a religious evidence and

long

cemetery

already is

Insular in the

metalwork. nineteenth origin could Bakka they of

The metalwork, century, VD. very

which fine

was recovered and possibly of Insular between

an ecclesiastical area that number In and Northumbria. suggestion large

(appendix thus reflect

The presence the contacts

metalwork

Scotland interesting a suprisingly

(1963,61), might

however,

makes the and Insular is to the case, suggest these

come from Norse graves, late If Saxon this

because

contemporary graves.

objects then there

have is

been found only

Norwegian

the placepresence at a

name and un-dated graves this Alternatively site. Christian ecclesiastical broch item 667). Class them probably of the church. examples Caithness I symbol stones derived There is site but secular associations has a church

an early objects Additional

Christian have broch where

might Harray of it

come from sites with

context. are Kirk, and cemetery

Overbrough, on top

a possible SMR no for

(RCAHMS 1946 11, no 300;

no 139) and St Mary's

Isbister

Ubid,

item

tend

to indicate with to

burial. via

and the idea the the Orkney

from contact the

literacy

intermediary and

no reason

assume that of. the

post-date

establishment

Roman church;

-258-

- Chapter the idea for the II stones century reflect of them probably idea for their combine not

11 with

stems

from

earlier then with,

southern

contact

literacy, class eighth they

erection a cross solely from

diffusing symbols markers.

north. are dated In their

However, from the design a patent Pictland of Birsay (RCAHMS 1959, It II Is

which

and are artistic the closer (Allen

burial

inspiration relationships have

Northumbria, which found existed at the

and are between Brough

indicator

and Northumbria. 08.1.1), 1911a, 40), Skinnet item but

Examples

been

and Anderson Ubid,

1903,30-33), item with number evidence no 299; a of for would a gauge

U16ster Stevenson

no 444) never to despite None the in

and Latheron direct the paucity Hughes is

association larger of taken church,

broch. Class the argue of the less

interesting in Caithness, church. number influence of

observe the less, stones

stones if the of

contemporary that

(1970,11) as it

Class of the

II

extent

Northumbrian

was obviously for to the

apparent

in the north. So far Roman-style noted sites. being that I I have documented church the therefore land to Orkney, for the evidence and this (after king, lords. of ways: its an possibly is often in introduction of a broch was Caithness, and have with church his

evidence by

associated that for the

suggest the

Lamb 1988) return

granted acted area

which

clerics power or of and written

effectively into this

as secular a number the king;

The king the

thus

extended acted was

in of

church

as agents a means the

representatives extending because word the and

pastoral the

system which was

establishing it

ideology over

pro-state; of

church

had a monopoly

resource

(see 11.2) Nieke

matters.

in administrative may even may have been involved (1988) suggests that the Senchus fer nAlban may have clerics (Bannerman as Driscoll role in the and others (1988a the and b) appear to Even if, such suggests, of the the in for time of

been written evade writing stating did

by Dairiadan this). not play in

an important as the

establishment

new relations symbol class stone. stones II ' Class

Pictland

elsewhere, church, between

inspiration

may have come from the relationship II

and by the two is

stones

the

manifested

stones

administrative at which the royal mark the point and the church has has been established system are become a political where power disputes arena the of royal through patronage contested -259-

- Chapter
(Driscoll secular is nobility in

11 1988a, 230) mutually interdependent, proximity Is as that the classic secular rich Other of secular sites, former of some site, or

establishments. The church, state and

were the of

a relationship of their it

which

expressed The to is

physical Birsay it

establishments. is impossible and also Broch it

Brough describe most

where

either a one. elements as

ecclesiastical. establishment such secular been former effectively authority much from class both that secular important attempt authority. pastoral consolidate form of to of the as the and

probable

encapsulated of Burrian

an ecclesiastical Juxtapose confusing Sites their to the own such

ecclesiastical of sites estates

activity. with

these or

may have or were their enjoying

nucleus domestic

churches

chapels,

donated

church. men to of Some

Ecclesiastics who derived

-ideologically from the their control and

endowed of

nobility, access

Christianity, secular the of

life-style ultimately stones

advantages stemmed. upon the

their of

equivalents, on

whom many I and II

ornamentation design 1967). church, still in

draws

repertoire

common to It seems and have part be the been an of its to was in a

secular some

and ecclesiastical brochs of sites may have

metalwork been sites,

(Henderson to the may may new the as church. authority the the same far-flung

donated which

reuse

-important of estates and the can power

MIA or

centres legitimise Similarly organisation secular ideological

territories, the of

enforce

network with effort

Introduction be interpreted the

Roman church a conscious Christianity resided and and it the

through

power its

whose and Whilst

the of of the appeal extend and those up the AD

correspondence the converted

between (Mann was

doctrine

motivations appeal time

needs

1986,302). yet

influence

Christianity standing of and the of

universal, extant to secular a king

at

the

reinforced obvious to stones to

the

authority such The

and hence

Roman church his for where the the

as Nechtan,

who wished of symbol points closely extension few

ramify

authority. ecclesiastical interests Pictish and possibly date to the this of

distribution reuse of sites elite state. within of

evidence sites with church 715 power, stones

thus were The a

the church

social and

tied of of

the to may in

developing Orkney, effectively real terms, that

Caithness, extension area (Lamb already

years

southern although made to

Pictish the realign

royal class the I

1988),. being

suggest

moves

were

-260-

- Chapter land

11 In 878 when new Scottish the first to give time liberty after up to that after king to the he had

Organisation Giric, the Scottish

of

and

society. MacAlpin

nephew of

Kenneth which of

'was

church,

was in servitude (king list,

custom and fashion may also

the Picts

Smyth 1984,188) structure which

have been undermining with

the ecclesiastical Pictish

worked symbiotically

the former

leaders

(Lamb 1988).

*ff*f

This the Pictish and both

chapter

has investigated or kingdom final time chapter but far

some of extended presents

the its

many means by which authority into of Orkney these were of

proto-state The By the

Caithness.

an overview the not

conclusions. thoroughly

the Norse arrived removed takeover, state of Norse infra-structure a Norse Pictish system

Orkney from

and Caithness prime sources

Pictish,

authority. to the

The regional against of the

was thus

adequate at

enough It

make a stand powers a

particularly were diminishing. both

a period was and in

when

however

well-oiled onto

administration, grafted 1987,168).

secular (as

ecclesiastical, Ireland, England

which

the

themselves

and Normandy:

B Crawford

-261-

CHAPTER 12:

OVERVIEW AND COMYENTS

- Chapter

12 -

CHAPTER 12:

OVERVIEW AND COMMENTS

The stated a social theoretical not why

aims of for

this IA

thesis Orkney extent an can

were ambitious, and Caithness has this overview of to

namely from a

to write defined and if and from its the

synthesis stance. not? then of In its the

To what presenting failings

been achieved, this topic largely

findings, inadequacies here briefly.

be seen record.

stem

archaeological these

These will the

be examined time

Aconsiderable in their preparation, record of

part the

of

volumes, Province, stems from

and of

occupied of the Orkney and pins for reand IA

has been spent Atlantic of this and little Much

on empirical

examination

settlement, and

more particularly an data the up-dating base of C-14 the

Caithness. of

examination combs. Scotland, the basis centuries in the data, date,

a substantial and original does

important of to

- This,

analysis

record period

unfortunately

document

between On the

MIA and LIA II, of what of to

which was one of my original from the be extracted could research, the the settlement way in which if

aspirations. records evidence of

several

previous

was examined structured time. To as good as its

an attempt reproduction -and it will

understand of need society. the

architecture model is

The resultant not the from were of on

emendation, shift

rejection, based to

with society the

documents ultimate

MIA where

was ranked LIA whilst II when local is the

and the there devolved

authorities

locally ultimate a new

were

more remote

sources

authority, footing. satisfactorily were the by them. Scotland It

-authority the extent of chart from extent to the

continued to

This

model address is Is

undoubtedly issue large possible evidence these transition To a large other on the of

over-generalised, which

and does not these

changes

norm and how not yet little between how the

a part to to

population this.

was affected Throughout

assess the but

there transition

chronological some suggestions to extensive

and physical forms

two models,

have been made as to of

intensive

power was achieved. and models broadly Notably used by

I have had to chart

draw on evidence similar, Europe. forth)

scholars which work

and understand throughout (1987,1988. -262-

contemporary I have drawn Pictish

changes

were occurring of - Driscoll

which

examines

- Chapter society theoretical complementary of society of In and the in the I

12 from our

evolution to so far Pictish changes at the

of

Pictish like to

proto-state think the that

a similar

stance the

my own.

work may be the and

as he discusses heartland, from northern, to these the if

evolution I

and structure at Orkney

whereas point not of

am looking of

effect

these areas

view

Caithness, extremes

effectively and how it but

northernmost been to explain was maintained seen elsewhere along in these

of Pictish

authority. I do not

My task

has therefore

how authority and reproduced. were exactly lines might The changing

was extended in

areas,

assume that the study have land about,

the developments area,

replicated

something the

have happened. penultimate chapters practice, brought Military, discussed tenure or could ways which of a the

agricultural church I posit.

and the

introduction about,

Roman pastoral changes which resources I have not the degree an attempt between

have brought economic in

political,

and ideological this, although because in fig 80

have all broken

been alluded between present

to as instrumental under too these great. the each is

down my discussion

sub-headings However,

of overlap is made to resources

graphically practicalities this

potential of their

relationship utilisation.

these

and the

There are three I.

principles

underlying

model:

control

of literacy

control resources

of political

and adminstrative

2.

control control control

of ideology) of land) of political and control of people

administrative 3.'

resources)

control this

of people is as

= control then manner into suggest

of economic the in this. that of

and military of the this

resources model can be in

Once

accepted can the

workings which

understood, chapters'10

evidence

presented

and 11 fitted I by intermediate church or

Essentially, maintained locally-based

long-distance authority, Both the

relations via either

are the and

sources nobility. -263-

ecclesiastics

- Chapter may be loyal and this nobility is to there

12 implanted Whilst each the

nobility church excesses, under force alluded relations probably the local between of

natives that

or

outsiders. check

some measure both the dialectic

probably gain to which

others'

no doubt Such is forces, This early with important

enormous

power and wealth refers decentralising the conflict of was at by

system. its

Mann (1986)

centrallsing agent in the the or the church, most to

such as a state, may be the source of

and the Within

some of this

historic its

sources. of Aside society relations people

network

monopoly component. level.

literacy from

and ideology, this, whether to

long-distance of I

continued which

revolve

around the

the

reproduction

social have

were structured resources. the for the is

inter-relationship However, whilst Orkney the

between land,

and economic a model

presented

social based on the by IA the land

synthesis from limited relationship excavation organisation efforts MIA/LIA extent world, the

of

and Caithness, LIA, this simple work Future the

more particularly model is must and investigate (for

transition

MIA to evidence.

one which

closely example of In

between of a and

church and

society our

Peterkirk), changing

amplify

picture the

agricultural detect I have

practices.

particular, of is of late the the our here part

should to in

be made to the

and investigate not Norse history will

nature

settlement. which contrast record to its to

One issue subsequent southern Orkney but

addressed of this have of that

Pictland.

coloured these

archaeological areas. for a long

and subsequent LIA it is

perceptions will important similarities the

relative an enigma potential

Effectively while of it a

and Caithness and its

remain the with

come, society not worth

sophistication southerly Caithness areas Finally, as

other

more

should is

be overlooked. considering suitability the by only Whilst Province, the fact of Orkney that they stretch share fact is and are of that Despite separated identical. Atlantic

study similar,

area. and is of not the

topographically water, because presented the their

a short they the

archaeology other areas known of

more in I have

common than

more is

the Orkney to fit

evidence, Caithness

model which focal had

may be too

specific it

exactly. have

Orkney would position a different are easy, is in

seem always Atlantic development.

to have been pre-eminent seaways, Today, and when long

because of its

may therefore distance


-264-

communications

- Chapter the time for future to rectify

12 this imbalance in

scholars

and poverty

our understanding

and knowledge

of these

areas.

-265-

PART IV:

APPENDICES

APPENDIX I.

A CATALOGUE OF SCOTTISH IRON AGE AND EARLY NORSE RADIOCARBON DETERMINATIONS

- APPENDIX I-

APPENDIX I:

A CATALGOUE OF SCOTTISH IRON AGE AND EARLY NORSE RADIOCARBON DETERMINATIONS.

The

following

list

of

Scottish

Iron

Age and early collected from

Norse

C-14 (not site is 2: 7

determinations published), reports largely and based

has been compiled and enhanced that by

from those details

by Ralston respective Presentation

further

complementary on lists

unpublished suggested dates by

data. Lavell

(CBA Newsletter,

119873,66). Appendix is followed of Ia all of In order (1978). of laboratory number. using included it the in

by a list of data at one

weighted

means (a-v),

calculated

technique each field deviation (d13CO/,, ); respectively; its context; indicated

Ward and Wilson base is sigma (1-a) date

The information the determination isotropic at the the

as follows: level; ranges event

BP; standard value levels sample; of 0 is a dated 2-a the

fractionation 1-a nature all and of

calibrated site and finally value the then of

name; the

dated;

references. unless is indicated

Note that otherwise; information. relates the

dl: 3CO/,,o readings where a value of entries The event

have a negative is

the value available excavators, the

unknown.

The standard

reflection is as given

published and often of dated

by the

only

to a structural between by all the those numbers have the been

phase; sample extracting with

further taken

critical and found dates, from

analysis event this list.

relationship

must

be undertaken of

data is the to

A concordance Ib. routine and 2-a or

laboratory

sites All

in Appendix whether the (Stuiver 1-a

high-precision using Pearson the

calibrated calibration 1986) in

both

levels 1986; using In

Trondheim and Stuiver

curve the 20 curve multipliers' and Pearson dates a properly In the

and

Pearson record Included would

year

atmospheric have been

high

precision

calibration 'error Stuiver calibrating is not However,

programme (1986,807) to the 2-a

(Revision

2.0,1987). these the

No laboratory calculations. necessity sigma of value

argue

against the in

level

because deviation of

original

defined absence of

standard knowledge -266-

many circumstances. laboratory error

individual

APPENDIX I-

all quoted dates have been subjected to exactly the same to use 2-a (95% tend to prefer Most archaeologists be used if serious always certainty) should which values, and Pilcher 1983,60). misinterpretations are to be avoided (Baillie multipliers treatment. of these C-14 dates and the calibration are found throughout the main body of text, 3.1.3 and 7.2.2-3. Further discussion problems specifically of

-267-

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APPENDIX II:

CATALOGUE OF SCOTTISH PINS AND COMBS (BY RECORD NUMBER)

- Appendix

II

APPENDIX II:

OF CATALOGUE SCOTTISH PINS AND COMBS (BY RECORDNUMBER)

Appendix combs. field is Its

II format

contains In listed its

details general

of

most Scottish nature 9. of the In

Iron

Age pins of first

and each

and the 94.2.1-2 in form.

contents the

described is of mm.

and figure of its

appendix can is

each artefact be found are cited here in

order

record

number and details stated, all II and III

Unless

otherwise between

measurements

Cross

referencing

appendices 9, the object material, as being jet,

done by using . of either

the site

and record on 4.2.1-2 material, further bone,

number. and figure organic recognised cetacean, themselves pottery or (QUALIFIER may be made or ceramic silver, or

To recapitulate metal, which iron,

skeletal are

stone either

(MATERIAL), copper pottery field 1), alloy,

antler,

wood, are

a mould, The qualifier ce

(CATEGORY). comb, pin whether or teeth the

The objects a comb is double-sided

either

a comb blank, (QUALIFIER in of the

comb case,

or pin-impressed

(OBJECT). single-pie 2), the

records single-sided of decoration

composite

difference details on qualifier 11, shaft 3), of

thikcness the

on each side 4) and In

(QUALIFIER 3), details the the case the of of head

general decoration pins, the

(QUALIFIER

connecting fields

plates the of to the

(QUALIFIER 5). classification the shaft of on the the head

record

of

(QUALIFIER of the

the in the the to

classification comparison details decoration these pins head is pottery, the pins of

(QUALIFIER 2), shaft (in

width

width

mm) (QUALIFIER and details for loose type

decoration on the of shaft

(QUALIFIER 4) There are

(QUALIFIER 5). fields, for

some exceptions

contents or

qualifier ring-heads

example

ring-head of ring-

projecting recorded the type

(QUALIFIER 1),

where the is

under QUALIFIER 2. of pin used is of the

Where the object and the

pin-impressed

recorded combs,

in QUALIFIER I. overall groupings of

The classification are recorded

under CLASS.

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ASPECTS OF THE LATE ATLANTIC

IRON AGE

Sally

M Foster

VOLUMEII

Thesis Doctor Glasgow,

submitted of

in

accordance in 1989. the

with Faculty

the of

requirements Arts of the

for

the

degree of

Philosophy September,

University

APPENDIX III:

CONCORDANCEOF APPENDIX Il

BY SITE

- Appendix

III

APPENDIX III:

CONCORDANCE APPENDIX II OF

BY SITE

In defined, context, published

appendix and the

III

the of

data its

base is context,

ordered the

by site,

the

object for of

is that the

details artefact's

dating number

evidence and a list are text. in this

museum accession are cited. listed bases Published

references

references been has between number.

preceded. About here. made of II

where applicable, one sixth of all (as Throughout abbreviations and III is both

by a reference the data listed). the

to illustrations objects extensive have

illustrated been

use

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appendices

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APPENDIX IV:

SUMMARY OF MIA AND LIA PROVINCE

SETTLEMENT IN THE ATLANTIC

- Appendix

IV -

APPENDIX IV:

SUMMARY MIA AND LIA SETTLEMENTIN THE ATLANTIC OF PROVINCE

The following and LIA settlement the form MIA/LIA Norse encircling II ritual I his settlement for

tables in the

summarise Atlantic summarised. sites: LIA II for

by region Province.

the First

evidence the

for

MIA

non-broch for Roman,

each area is broch

Subsequently presence or

the evidence absence of

and use of

the finds;

I and distinctively cemetery; the brochs of stones grateful evidence

subsequent

external by the

use as a LIA or defences, passageways for the LIA I/LIA of symbol to

and outbuildings; a site, to either

and evidence

use

presence me free

stones/sculpted am very

or ecclesiastical of data

reuse. allowing access

E MacKie for

extensive

collection

on broch sites.

Evidence

for

non-broch,

pre-Norse the site

activity

in Orkney in the course

A preceding that * indicates of this research project.

has been visited

KEY: x evidence for 1-5 ? possible evidence for 1-5 - evidence for 1-5 not recognised I LIA I activity 2 LIA II activity 3 Christian/ecclesiastical presence 4 sculpted stone 5 burial RCAHMS RCAHMS1946 11 = SMR = Sites and Monuments Record for

Orkney

SITE - -- ------------- - --- --- 3pool Shill, Sandwick

Benni Cull
FinyirhooseBrae Beaffeld Monkhouses

Unga Hole

SMR RCAHMS REFERENCES OTHER 1 2345 NGR ------ - - - --- --- -- --------- - ----- - ----- - ------ - ----- - ---------- - -- - -----290 2 NY619378 x x-x 23 MY to - x1 ? ---162 - 968 NY671217 NYsle 189 ? ---1098 761 ? ?--MY 540 220 206 ? ?--NY686405 329 ? ?--NY674 163 931 1001 NY676 159 ? ?--1001 935 NY671 169 ? ?--959 NY532091 ? ?635 7 616 MY 271 ? ?--968 -74-

- Appendix Pirk Hall IStrooness How IStenabreck Wave of Nesthouse Kirk of Howe 3HOVAII ISaevar Hove laroughof Birsly Buckquoy ISkaill, Deerness Breit Ness Red Criig Gililee St Peter's Queenifjold fireens Ness lWestness NY312269 761 MY 513 NY660 392 NY77 52 NY279 256 NY493530 NY758522 NY246270 NY239 285 NY248282 NY589064 397 MY 332 NY28 24 NY75 45 ND 908 470 MY 264 372 NY541 031 NY544093 MY 29 37 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? w w ? ---1 ? x x x x ? x ? -?-xxx -x-? -wxx wx -x -x w-

IV 1575 216 103 1677 812 218 1663 1669 468 296 1816 1192 le 1102 1543 28 158 26 530 195 Figs 57,66f 40 I Fig 40 25 Figs 41c, 421, o Fig Alk 810; 842 651 Fig 4IJ Fig Alb

x ? x x x

Evidence

for

activity

on brochs

in Orkney

KEY: X evidence for 1-9 ? possible evidence for 1-9 evidence for 1-9 not recognised broch passageway does not completely encircle 5 outerwall earthworks as opposed to substantial # radiating outbuildings A symbol stone/sculpted stone I Roman artefacts 2 MIA/LIA I artefacts 3 LIA II artefacts 4 miscellaneous-non-Norse burials 5 Nor se burials 6 external defences 7 passageway encircling broch 8 pre-Norse outbuildings 9 ecclesiastical use of site RCAHMS RCAHMS1946 11 = SMR = Sites and Monuments Record for Orkney

'-, I

SITE ---- ------ - ----- - -- --Burriln 2 Netlater 38roch Ayre of XL&aaness Deerness 38roch Borvick of lerochof Burriln Burray East Hove Lingrow

KGR - -----296 NY 183 323 NY 174 NY 013 470 613 NY 379 58 NY 06 223 NY 167 763 MY 514 NO 988 490 NY 109 275 NY 088 435

1 234 5 67 89 SMR RCAHMS REFERENCES OTHER ------ ---- - --- -- - --- --- -- -------- ---- -- ------------------ --------- --1600 14 Fig 448 x x 1-x --1638 13 Fig 44C x x ?-x -?? ??? 360 Figs44A,41g,a 87 -- x #180 x-x -- ? ?x 629 x--- I ?1237 679 Figs42b,450 x- ?-x x ?42r 217 201 Figs46C, x x xx -x x-862 Fig 468 ? xx x-x 1495 921 Figs411,48 # xx x-? X 1534 406 Figs48-49 I x xx --- 75-

- Appendix XMidhowe SGurness NY372 306 NY381 268 NY352277 NY685 421 NY713436 NY251 129 NY250 028 NY48 52 NY326 283 NY224092 NY391 127 NY289 154 NY254 268 NY270 152 NY496 509 NY361 141 NY237082 NY283222 MY 399 187 NY44S492 NY250 028 NY375 297 NY540 210 NY508059 NY323 193 NY443211 NY42S494 285 NO 879 NY301 156 No338 890 NY276 176 NY414 272 NY401 229 NY642392 NY449330 NY475 100 NY514090 NY690214 NY432429 NY58 04 NY616242 NY400 274 NY632301 NY308 168 NY378 171 NY426 199 433 NO 888 425 RD 940 NY400274 493 MY 497 NY27 09 457 NO 854 NY501 163 NY318300 NY388 155 NY282 103

IV # # A - - ? - x ? ? x A x x x ? I x 631 1183 639 109 276 105 847 641 1459 575 1270 1675 1270 850 553 263 261 458 460 941 379 520 266 920 322 680 11 677 $23 Fig 48 Figs 42a, c-e. 48,66d Fig 44J

x-x xxx --x --x --? --------------x---------x---------------------------------------------------------------

- - xx - x xx x 1 x x x I 1 1 I x ? 1 x ? ? ? ? ? 7 -x-x x -I x K-

Burgar IColli Ness Veterkirk 1, Sanday Castle Bloody Green 2 Hill Ut Bonifice's Vinquin 38reckness Ingshowe Burrian 5 loxtro Stackrue ISt Tredwell'i gNess Ork of IHillock/Finstovn Strainess/Warebeth Taft St Mary's Kirk Knollof Skulzie Green of Quoyness Hill Knove Swandro of 38urroughston Have Lingskiill of 3 Burrian Ness Boray of IK, of Queen Howe a' Skeo The Kirk of Cletton Hill of Hestifieo Scarritiing Wave of Hunclett Tingwall 38ackaskaill Taft a' Faraclett 38erstane Vowieof the Manse Lamb Head Unove Burristae of lQuoyboring Hillock of Baywest SDingieshave Green I Hill Knove Burrian of Redlind
Knowe Dishero of Weeas Castle IHowe Hoxa of Knove Burrian of Rastle of Bothican Buof Uirstan I Cairn a' Flaws ISteiro Iverron Chapel Knove Cummi Have

Fig 446 Fig ASA

536 NY 223 ---

I ?
! ? 1 ? 1 ? 1 ? I ? 1 ? ? ? - - - - - - - -- -, - - - - - - - - - - - --------------- 76 -

? -

1087 777
323 492 1461 940 1714 15 667 300 1072 105 379 579 Figs 46A,66c 1123 778 627 2 1633 12 1758 313 690 1043 1933 1009 1615 23 1944 1008 1297 681 516 555 711 268 100 159 Fig 45C 611 554 1545 405 626 3 419 947 Fig 44E 718 1034 1177 133 949 1 625 948 156 1603 21 346 576 1774 265 Fig 458 1836 816 Fig 44F 1791 815 551 514 Fig 440 522 853 $57 708 1077 779 260 321 574 1359 872

---xx xx xxxxxxxxxx?????????x?xx??-x -------

- - - x x x x x ? ? ? ? ? ? x x ? I ? I ? ? 1 - A - A - - - - ? x x x x ? A

- Appendix NY549061 NY511 159 425 NY 209 NY464447 NY363267 NY252 165 370 NY 307 591 NY 074 NY391280 NY712380 337 NO 900 NY372303 NY313 179 NY650287 NY337287 NY499400 NY343 147 485 NO 987 NY716425 314 NO 909 NY660392 318 191 NY 433 NO 962 NY291099 NY412219 NY27 09 NY631370 NY772434 NY653411 NY693399 230 197 NY NY353050 NY265 138 NY436093 306 162 NY NY263234 NY400248 NY213052 424 NO 940 NY485 158 NY653275 NY528041 442 NO 833 31 17 NY NY665454 NY308200 NY274202

IV 1167 1070 1766 1186 1262 523 1150 458 150 1956 475 1636 128 650 724 579 1779 348 1952 103 1632 1764 98 279 328 344 1256 1437 1488 1533 1602 1730 1763 1912 1792 1107 122 16 1871 1649 142 1594 1219 624 780 270 1035 262 678 557 628 SS6 Fig 441 438 1018 652 139 960; 974 257 1031 350 861 Fig 44H 439 1007 158 20 $63 ?892 269 160 437 475 682 486 939,943 430 22 16 264 380 Ole 806 980 648 851 138 182 19

lEye's Have lHowe Hill Hall of Rendall Hodgalee Knove Stenso of Lochof Cluely INarth Hove Riggan Kaii of Viera Lodge Wasso Green Hill of Scarton SouthHave Overbrough/Harray Peterkirk 2, Stronsay Peterkirk 3, Evie Peterkirk 4, Vestray Lochof Wasdale BurrayVest Newark Green Hill 3 Fire How Havan Brough Island Hunda TheCairns VassVick Buof Cairston2 Croosof Nebister Buryan MirygarthHouse Houll Knove Verron of Hillock of Breakna Knove Redlind of Warbuster Knove Gullov of Knove Skogar of Ness Woodvick of Brough Braebister of Little Have Helliar Hole Hunton Clapston

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

----? ----? ----? ----? ----? ----? ----1----? ----? ----? ----? ----? -----x -----x -----x -----x -----? -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Summary of non-broch,

pre-Norse

activity

in Caithness

Key as for a RCAHMS RCAHMS19118 =


-77-

- Appendix 12 NER SITE ------ ---- -------- --------------------------------St Peter's, Thurso NO116686 - -? St Peter's, OlgriabegBurn NO111536 - -1 St Maddan's, Fresvick 37 NO 67 - -? St Drostan's, Bribster 2 NO 6-1 St Drostan's, Canisbay ND34 72 - -? 06 St Trostan's, Westfield NO 64 - -? St Trothan's, Olrig NO18 67 - -? St Ciaran's, Halkirk - -? 32 NO 50 - -? St Cuthbert's, Hauster 383 NO 508 - -? St Ninian's, Head Vick of 29 NO 56 - -? St Outhac's,Kirk of Ross 365 NO 51 - -? St Fergus,Kirk of Wick NO 56 - -? 36 St Tear's, Shorelands 24 NO 36 - -Lybster 339 NO 584 - -Birkle Hills NC952651 - -Sandside Latheron NO198331 - -NO12S687 - -Ulbster Reay NC96 64 - -348 NO 549 - -Links of Keiss 311 NO 407 - -Vatenan 348 NO 549 - -Ackergill

IV -

REFERENCES OTHER RCAHMS 345 --------- ---------------------------------------------------418 -154 -xxvi -57 -23 -159,175 -317 -176 -593 -xxvi -592 -493 -595 -297 x577 x406-7 x1959,40 Stevenson 299 x444 x340 x587 xficurlay 1984 538 xx 1984,7 Close-Brooks xx -

--

Evidence

for

activity

on brochs

in Caithness

in A preceding that the relevant 4 indicates site was visited About 37% of the broch sites in the course of this research project. but these include the best preserved and those Caithness were visited, and evidence for LIA activity. with excavated outbuildings Key as for b RCAHMS= RCAHMS1911a SITE ---------------------Bovereadden tEverley lNess Fresvick Sands Waster Crosskirk lElsay lHillheid Vester lKeiss Vest INybster lKeiss South Green Tullochs OTHER 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 RCAHMS REFERENCES KER ---- -------- --------- ---- ------- ------ - ---- -- --- --- --- --- ------------ ---------------------254 KO 635 - 22 - - - - - -x 057 Biley 1984,CAN 370 NO 683 xx - - - - - ? - 36 Figs fle, 62A 381 NO 667 -x - - - x - x - 33 074 Bitey 1984,CAN 060 Fig 58F; Batey1984,CAN 376 NO 676 x -3 x - - - -? Fig 598 323 NO 566 x ? ? x x x - 507 -x Figs 59C,60a 025 1 x ? x ? x X4 347 NO 701 xx 327 Mercer1981,MON Fig 61C;Batey1984,VIC 152 387 NO 520 x - - x - I - 521 -Fig 61A; Bitey 1984,VIC 161 376 NO 514 x - - - ? x - 520 -Fig 59A. Batey1984,VIC 120 ? ? ? I - x ?a 513 ' 338 NO 583 -Fig 620; Batey1984,VIC 108 349 NO 615 x ? x ? 517 x- - Figs 42k, n, p-q, 618,66g 370 KO 631 x - x - 518 x- - Bitey 1984,VICo9l Fig 62C;Bitey 1984,VIC 103 354 NO 612 x - x - 515 xFig 580, Mercer1981,MON 348 326 013 ND 696 x x -- 78 -

- Appendix

IV ?? 609 Figs 42g-h, 60b, 62E 13 Mercer1985,WAR

Virrows
BurghRuadh Murkle 3Achavir AchyarisdalLodge 48urnof LatheronWheel Dale2 301dStirkoke Halcro Achies2 Hay Thruester Hill of Yorks Achingale Ousedale Burn Brounabon t0unbeath ILatheronWheel Kettleburn Castlehill tscottag lHouselCairn ISkirza Read I IWesterdale AcharoleI Tulloch Appnag Thing's Vi OorvalI -, IWatenan North Ballachly Rheaullen 18ruanI ITiantulloch Toftgun Borgue $Upper Tulloch Bada'Choilich Tulloch of LybsIer Vatenan $Loch Iminerl Sallantrith Berriedale I Cairn of Huester CassterI Ciester 2 Golsary Hal of Durin XSserril 2 ITulloch Turnal Warehouse 3Achnagoul AchbuiliganTulloch ISmerralI Achow IAchorn Caester 3 Cnoc Donn Greysteil Castle

308 NO 440

x-x-

116 NO 285 162 NO 688 262 ND 370 983 NC 647 No187 326 130 NO 523 NO 493 328 NO 612 239 140 ND 551 142 NO 606 ND 451 332 290 NO 626 230 NO 566 071 ND 188 323 NO 435 155 ND 304 176 NO 325 349 ND 519 NO 687 193 257 ND 570 ND 596 119 394 ND 685 133 ND 510 228 NO 517 212 NO 3S9 081 ND 682 No327545 318 NO 415 442 No192 153 ND 310 310 NO 395 152 NO 352 280 NO 424 124 ND 271 101 ND 240 027 NO 695 317 NO 412 156 NO 346 144 ND 307 103 NO 249 3S3 ND ASS NO 4S2 2S2 256 NO 456 206 NO 375 195 ND 636 177 NO 340 090 NO 229 303 NO 413 163 NO 323 989 NC 657 178 NO 338 230 NO 362 136 NO 305 No209610 140 NO 533 180 NO 417
-79-

?x? ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ?xx ? ? ? x
xx

207 319 199 353 212


499 1 436 ?502 3 473 204 W 215 211 see 320 470 115 35 105 466 218 432 Soo 524 192 84 193 196 525 206 202 346 526 197 213 203 506 189 522 220 436 210 200 190 350 209 208 214 to 103 222

1981, 516 Fig 638;Mercer MON


12 Nercer1985,FOR Batey1984,LAT261

Fig CE
Satey1984,LAT313 Fig 64C;Mercer1985,WAR 230 Batey1984,LAT261 Fig 61F Mercer1981,MON 530

x? x x? x ?-xx

Biley 1984,CAN 050

Fig 588
Batey1984,LAT239 Fig 58A; Mercer1981,MON 461 Fig 628 Fig 63E; Mercer1985,WAR 184 elley 1984,DUN 018
Fig 63Fl Batey 1984, LAT 218

xx xx XX xx
XX

xx
XX

xx XX xX
XX xx

Fig 59D
Mercer1981,MON 337 Fig SSE:Mercer1985,WAR 177

XX x?

x
x

x? x? x? X
X

x x? x
x ? ? x x x x

76 Fig 63A; Mercer1985,WAR Fig 64A, Mercer1985,FOR 14 ' Fig 61E

- Appendix

IV -

Knockgliss I
Knock Urry lKnockinnon INybster Old Hill of Dunn I Scirfsferry Scribster 2 Tullach MarI Tulloch of Steaster twatten lWesterdale 2 Tullach of Achivirn Coghill 3KeissNorth tUpperLatheron lUsshily Tulloch Auchunabusi Berriedale2 Barrowston Roster 38allentink I Wester Witten IThruister Little TulachGore Tota in Dranndain ; Lybster Achkeepster lAcharale2 lHespriggs Tullach Nor 2 Tannach Gansclet Brieside Tulloch Occuester

ND 636 055
NC984663 ND176311 NO162528 No204561 ND256742 NO 697 087 NO149494 NO 654 040 NO 540 241 NO130519 NoDes596 NO 571 267 No354612 NO182317 ND208355 NC994646 ND115233 NO 436 329 NO 399 266 NO150313 ND229550 NO 456 338 042 NO 571 ND037579 253 NO 360 NO167517 231 NO 524 3SI NO 471 NO146498 330 NO 474 336 NO 444 050 NO 670 No269356 NO 701 377 222 NO 696 208 KO 674 221 NO 704 324 ND 415 NO 635 049 KC898640 280 NO 424

..

...

xxxxx-

--W ----w ----..-xxxI11I??---------------------

117
349 216 96 461 62 429 108 344 469 221 112 469 516 217 221 351 205 510 191 261 464 389 391

Mercer 1985, 235 FOR

----xw--w ww ---x----x----x----x----x-----x -----? ----------1--------------------- - -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Bitey 1984,DUN 021 Fig 64E;Mercer1981,FOR 449 Mercer1985,FOR 179

Fig 58C Figs 610,66h Bitey 1984,WIC 099

Mercer1985,FOR 24 Fig 648; Mercer1985,WAR 232

Fig 63C;Mercer1985,FOR 333 Fig 630,,, Mercer198S, 312 FOR

504 500 $01 434 198 66 318 523 171

Satey1984,UIC183

Sitey 1984,WIC 192 Mercer1985,FOR 173 Sitey 1984,LAT232 Fig 640; Bitey 1984,CAN 044a Mercer1981,MON 552 Mercer1981,MON 547 Mercer1981,MON 657 Mercer1985,WAR 194 Mercer1985,FOR 171 Mercer1980,BIG27 Mercer1980,TOF 2

Evidence

for

non-broch,

pre-Norse

activity

in activity

in Shetland

Key as for a RCAHMS RCAHMS1946 111 = SITE Hillswick Sands Bracon,Yell of Sandwick NfiR 282 NU 770 53 NU 05 HP62 02 12346 1! -x---x--x -80RCAHMS 1388 1726 isel

- Appendix

IV -

f Evidence 1985,81-84)

for

activity

on brochs

in Shetland

(Refer

also

to Fojut

Key as for b RCAHMS RCAHMS1946 111 =

SITE NGR 1234567 ---------- - --------- ------------- ------ ---------- - ---------Clickhiain KU 409 xxx--x464 Jarlshof NU 096 -xx--x399
Aith selsont Burraland HU 435 515 HPSse006 NU 232 448 HU 958 557 NU 424 521 253 HU 448 RU 408 157 KU403 113 HU 778 438 KP539 051 HU 780 472 416 198 NU 213 HU 793 HU457237 NPS68029 -----x-----x-----x-----x-----x-----x-----x-----x-----K-

69 RCAHMS REFERENCES OTHER ---- - ----- --- ------------------- - --------------1246 Fig 67 x1149 Fig 68 x?111106 1143 1397 1146 1148
1115

Burra Weis
Cullingsburgh Culswick Dalsetter EastshoreFuglaWeis Greenbank Holeof Copister Levenvick Lochof Houlland Mausa Snabrough

?!111-

1716

Vatsness
VestSandwick Burravge Housabister Aithsetter Brough Halt BurgarStack Burland Burraland Head Brough of Houbie Sound Noss Sie Ereck Stoura Tumlin Underhoull uadbister Brough Lodge Brough Burrian
Kannavoe Syabister Gossabrough Clevigarth Feil Southvoe sousta Clutlie

175 NU 507
HU440888 518 793 NU HU 578 487 447 NU 304 566 HU 059 HP611 143 NU 361 447 , NU223497 NU 860 446 620 HU 904 HU528 410 210 HU 781 208 152 NU 345 HU 539 HP574045 447 HU S04 Sel 927 HU 519 HU 412 NU477s45
HU240 807 HUs39 627 HUS34 834 HU407 130 HU629 901 NU401 149 KU223 574 HU404 tal

-----x-----x-----x-----x-----x-----x-

1????-

1715 1720 1144 1352 1206 1546

-----x-----x-----x -----x -----xx-----x-----x-----x-----x-----x-----x-----x-----x-----x - -- ---x------x-----x-----x-----x------! ---------------------1---

?7x x ----------

1609
1722 1745 1282 1141 1548 1544 1247 1607 1721 1212 1085 1361, 1674 1547 1499 1239

-x - ---

---- x .--

1107 1308
1343 1342 1718 1147 1211 1142 1610 1145

-----

1!t?-

Halta Brough Burgan

HP660 090 KU379350 344 HU 775

---------------81-

---

--

----

1596 -

- Appendix IV Burravoe EastBurrafirth Footabrough Ravks Ness Huxter Lunabister


Noonsbreugh Virkie weit Burrafirth WestRoulland Windhouse

HU358671 KU358 579 200 HU 495 KU461489 HU173s70 378 164 RU


HU294 676 HU390 107 NU257 573 HU275 503 HU488 922

-------------------------------------

--------------------------------------------

1395 1608 1500 1605 1152


1394 1393 1398 1723

Inf ield Lochof Durraland Musselbrough BarraHolg Burland Burwick Gord Heglibister Hol&of Senston Islesburgh Lochof Brov Lochof Kettleiter Mail Scousburgh Skelberry Vidlin ClodieKnove

454 RU 748 NU344 7S0 KP589009 386 HU 458 NU 370 390 HU 406 390 HU 295 438 387 NU 498 NU S37 463 338 HU 692 HU383 157 HUSll 806 NU433278 377 178 HU HU 393 166 HU 665 479 HU441293

---------------------------------------- --- -------

----------------------------------------------------- -----------

1116 1387 1582 1529 1535 1528 1150 1501 1283 1354 1153 1719 1187 1190 1151 1306 1750

Evidence

for

activity

on brochs

In Sutherland

Key as for b RCAHMS RCAHMS1911b = SITE ---------------------Uarn Uith lKintradvell Icarrol 8ackies Clachtoll Achcoillenaborgie Allt an Ouin I CarnOrin ISkelboVood Skail HAL 39 Castle Cole Castle Spynie' DunCreagh Scotsburn Housel Areadale Burn Coill Achi'Chuil Ounrobin Vood
Eldrable

667 1234 NGR ---------------- ------------- -------870 NC 014 x--x -x929 NC 081 -----x KC$46 06S ---x -xKC835026 ----x037 MC 278 ----xKC714594 ----xKC72457S ----x942 NC 122 xNC783933 xKC720473 ----x891 NC 575 x-Ime795 134 x---541 NH 420 ----- XKC606356x w-m 715 NH 762 -x799 NC 627 ----x659 NC 382 XKC841018 ----xKC983 182 x-82-

A9

RCAHMS REFERENCES OTHER ------- -------- ------------------ - ------ - ------ ---270 #Fig 69a Fig 69b x ?A 467 27 x 1 272 7 ? 183 ? 1 182 ? 468 ? 106 -175 -190 176 271
309

W 25

Mercer1980

----

- Appendix

IV -

Killin
Kilphedir Dun Maigh ni suisgill Dun Viden Achanets 2 Allt in Ouin2 Alt VChair Nhoir BargieBridge Dalchork Cheilay Dun Eist Kinnauld 2 Kilbrite Dalchork Achaneis I Dun Carnichaidh Kylesku TheBorg Duchary

NC 076 867
NC 994 189 $52 NC 530 KC888 253 NC 519 727 NC 027 469 kc 810261 NC 922 189 NC 587 670 NC 573 112 NC 514 720 NC 014 745 MC 099 823 KC573 112 NC 025 470 NC721527 NC 341 217 NC 509 899 . NO 05 es

--------------------

---x-----x-----x-----x-----x-----x-----x-w---X-w---x-----x-----x-----x-----xw---wx-----? ---? ---? -----1 -----?

26
307 527 308 181 51 313 312 185 394 179 479 24 --W ---

Mercer1980

50 ISO 168 186 Mercer1980 28 215 387 314 174 392 184 Mercer1980 Mercer1980 Mercer1980 Mercer1980 Mercer1981

Dun Aliscaig
tOunbeith Dun Phail Feranich GruaMore Sillachidh DAL 256 LEO 15 I HAL 2 HAL 7

KH 868 657
NoIss 304 NO 139 015 844 NC 273 611 NC 370 549 NC 092 NC 591 104 NC 246 134 NC 523 894 892 MC 533 MC 610 697

------------

---------------------------------------------------------------ft --

Evidence

for

LIA non-broch

activity

in Sutherland

KEY: I presence 2 presence

3 for evidence RC-AtIMS= PCAffMS

of LIA I pin/comb(s) of LIA II pin/comb(s)


LIA activity 1111b on basis of pottery (after Lane 1983)

SITE ------------------60SIpie ,

N6R 123 - ----- - ----------------------NH 998 824 -x--

RCAHMS - ---------------------

- -------------------------------------

Evidence

for

LIA non-broch/-wheelhouse/-dun

activity

in the Western

Isles

Key as for h RCAHMS RCAHMS1928 = SITE 123 OTHER RCAHMS REFERENCES KGR ---------- - ------ - ------ - ------ - ----- - ------- - ----- ----------------------83-

- ---------------------

- Appendix Udal(US) Boverly Vallaquie eerneriy Pibbay NF$25 783 Ne1 9 KF864 754 NF909830 NF7 2

IV 273 274 Fig 44

x x x ?

x x ? - x ? x x x x x X x x x x x

Sleit, Smig
6eirisclett BeilachBan Berner& Sands 6alson Kildonin Rudha Chiisteal Sithean Nor

MG 00 59
NF767 753 NF78 76 Ne1 9 ka 437594 NF726286 NF87 76 278 20 337

Borvesore
Howsore Knap OldCittlefold Skellor SlocSabhail South Vist Tati Ounaig Dun Toloian Gress Lodge Northton Unival Tungadale

Ka1 9
NF75 36 MF77 76 XF806 756 NF8 7 NF7 3 KF772760 NF820 749 No493418 NF987902 KF800668

- ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? -

367 294 so 228 497

Evidence

for

activity

on broch,

dun and enclosure

sites

in the Western

Isles

KEY: I= presence of Roman artefacts 2= presence of LIA I pin/comb(s) 3= presence of LIA II pln/comb(s 4= evidence for LIA activity on basis of pottery artefacts 5= structural use of site evidence for prolonged RCAHMS RCAHMS1928 = SITE ------------------Dun Ardtreck Dun Fiidhiirt Dun Beag Dun Cuier Eilean Olabhat Lochna Berie Dun Carlowly
Dun8harabhtt

(after

Lane 1983) and other

12345 NGR -------------- ----- ----------------335 NG 358 xx--233 NG S04 x---Ne340386 -x--? 664 MF 034 --xxx NF750753 --x-x NB103352 --x-x N8190412 ----x
N8 099 353 -? ---

RCAHMS OTHER REFERENCES -----------------------------------------------------484 608 479 Fig 70a 441 180 69

--

68
72

-84-

- Appendix k Evidence for LIA Activity

IV in the Western Isles

on Wheelhouse Sites

Key as. for j RCAHMS RCAHMS1928 = SITE NGR 12 3 4 ---------------------------------- - --- --- - -- --- -BacNhic Connain KF708762 xx x x Garrylodrach NF772742 xx x ? Garrylodrach NF772743 -x x x Foshigarry NF742 763 -x x ? Dun Cnoc Cothdhalach NF770741 -x ? ? a Sitheana Phiobaire ? NF734214 -? Bruthach Tigh KF734207 -? na I Cheirdach Mhor NF75 40 -x x Bruthach Sithein NF733 738 -a x x Clettrivil NF749713 -- x Eilean Maleit NF772742 -- ? Machair Leathann NF80 75 -? Dun Scurrival ? NF695081 -OTHER REFERENCES 5 RCAHMS - --------------- --------------------- -...... 271 x x ? xIii ? 269 Fig 70b x ? 178 ? 270 7 272 449 -

- - -------- ----

Evidence for Isles and Inner

LIA

activity

on non-brochl-dun/-fort/-crannog

sites

in

the

CO Sfgk West A

KEY:
I= 2= 3= 4= presence of LIA I pin/comb(s) presence of LIA II pin/comb(s) for LIA activity evidence on basis for LIA activity other evidence

of

pottery

(after

Lane

1983)

SITE --------------------Ardnave Arnabost Bruach Druieein an Clichan Crinan Machrins,Colonsay Kerrert Coll Foill, Coll Acurrach

OTHER REFERENCES 123 4 HARMS NfiR -------- --- ---- --------- ----- ---------- ----------------------------------- - - ---------- --288 1984,no 242 NR 745 x-209 1980,no 231 NM 600 -? - 820 NR 972 --1988,no 350 x NR79 58 --1988,35 x NR79 93 --1988.35 x 357 NR 933 --1984,no 300 Fig 41f x W KM 298 -x1975,22 -

1 NM 5

NN1 5 NN112204

xxx-

in Evidencb Isles Key as for

for

Possible

LIA Activity

on Broch Sites

in the West Coast and Inner

-85-

- Appendix

IV -

12345 NGR SITE ---- ------------- - ------ - -----------------------------042 Dun Vaul NN 493 x? --? nor

RCAHMS - ----- - ------ - ------------- -------- - ------ -----1980, 167 no

n Evidence for Coast and Inner Key as for

activity Isles

LIA activity

on dun,

fort

and crannog

sites

in the West

1234 NGR SITE --- - --- -- - ------- - -- ---- = -- ---- ----- -- ------- -NR$37935 x-xx Ounadd 852 Ounollie NN 314 --xx NR 925 ---X 916 LochGLashan N" 046 492 -? conBegVaul -RK824266 xxxDon Fheurain an 780 NR 277 x--x KildonanBay NR789969 x--x Ardifuar I Dun 657 NR 306 x--x Dan Fhinn NH142913 -x-Dun Lagiidh Kildalloig NR745 190 ---K Chonallaich N" $54 036 ---x Dun Eilean Righ I NN803021 ---x NR785285 ---x Ugadale 803 NN 021 ---? Eilean Righ 415 NR 976 ---Oanan Nighein nan Ibrig NK025444 ---677 176 ---NR salloch

5 RCARMS ---- -- --- --1988,no 248 x 1975,no 286 x X 1988,no 354 1980,no 196 1975,no 164 1971,no 220 x 1988,no 270 1971,no 203 1971,no 219 x 1988,no 250 1988,no 320 1971,no 238 1988,no 320 1984,no 203 x 1980,no 210 ? 1971,no 158 ?

-86-

APPENDIX V:

DETAILS

OF SPATIAL

ANALYSES FOR INDIVIDUAL

SITES

- Appendix

V-

APPENDIX V: DETAILS OF SPATIAL ANALYSES FOR INDIVIDUAL SITES

This access

appendix are in with where

describes in

in detail the

the

use of space and routes Here

of

which

found figs

each of

buildings/settlement 10). site

complexes plans of access are are used

illustrated superimposed illustrated, refers

76-77

(chapteraccess with

unjustified applicable,

maps and the routes photographs.

Any lettering

to the excavators'

original

plans.

EARLY IRON AGE


i

BU (fig

75):

refer

to 10.2.3.

MIDDLE IRON AGE

GURNESS (fig by the

76.78; of

figs

81-92):

Spaces are (with with or

generally without jambs into

distinguished pivot stones),

presence or Exceptions

a threshold via

stone

a low, kerb, space.

entrance

a doorway

an, enclosed

are described. As seen, today, to the, coast. and give the line the is

The Outworks from a flat rampart, curve (fig 82), is Entrance

and Outbuildings: open area out adjacent in from the the the eye

site

approached the inner

The arms of the effect of the the

entrance

of a, forecourt, broch tower. by inner ditch, the

drawing through

towards ramparts not

inner

and over immediately (which been

means of the and outer the site), if

guardhouse. but they are

Access is

through totallytheir

middle

ditches

and middle actors joined would to had walked

rampart have around E and of

do not of

encircle presence, that their, from

aware

especially these independent analysis to Indicate is

the enclosed W does ramparts of between a possible after doorways not in the

area. detract this

The fact

outworks

existence.

Inclusion

and subsequent in order boundaries. two terminals chamber 6 and 7, than of to to Im

an archaeological the presence ('Great') ditch.

appropriation (almost)

technique

of these There

circuitous the

The gateway the the which Inner left. it

straddles

a causeway is was built Ahe -87-

internal

The gatehouse abuts,

outbuildings

and originally

were 2m rather

- Appendix wide leads widens of (Hedges directly around (f ig to 1987 11,37). to the the From the of the

V-

gatehouse broch

a passage

1.7-2m

wide

entrance guard is 6,7

tower,

where the a different intial slight

passage sense of to the

exterior

chambers gained broch

to create from the this

space

83).

Access

section forecourt side of

passage broch

outbuildings the (figs N the extant are in into of or to

and 8, the bifurcates

and from itself. to give

outbuildings entrance To the many of result especially outstructures on the one done easily f ig hearth, kerb. example of a the there 1-4 and 10-14

5 and 9 and to passage 84-85). outbuildings features problems outbuildings buildings hearths apartment for buildings

To either access to

outbuildings

have suffered are not defining 10-12 on the (for and basis the

serious with MIA spaces

disturbance the in MIA. this

and As a area, the which be been

contemporary 14.

in

Hedges

divides walls, It

of load-bearing divisions fig 86). This other contain

evidence

and internal example 1-6,

more than would

dwelling

superfluous

describe

each room by feature. and the plans into

has already buildings

by Hedges interpreted

can

be

on the

basis is

of their divided

(Hedges 1987 11,39-41, more areas and/or hearths the with (for means several From to a a

2.10).

Each building a sub-circular tanks

one or

usually fig 87).

area defined often have hearths

by orthostats with

a low

Stone-lined

are

associated involved circulate

The areas and the areas such with

with

were usually crossing around

entere&by over this area.

passageway,

may

thresholds. these series which

Sometimes and/or

passages with as

passages of

hearths,

access

could

be gained and deciding chambers in the

features,

cupboards, than

earth-closets The falling

chambers what were 1.7and by

were defined a box-beds their also is

an entrance. rather with 1.2-1.5m, on some. seem to

There are problems a cupboard. commonly Some of are

constitutes probably the 2.1m range, roofs an entrance, floor area the those

chamber

(neuks), widths

lengths wide.

them were paved, also distinguished stones,

survive do not

Cupboards

but

have had threshold

and their

much smaller. and bins the broch, broch off the in but fittings

There are a large bay area. those in the outbuildings that the There

number of indeterminate can be assumed scale for have been better any

compartments that to

In generalit

internal in

were on a similar broch is

preserved of the

by the

superstructure. having

no evidence -(Hedges

outbuildings

ever

had an upper -88-

storey

1987 11,

- Appendix 41). A highlighting: 1. Building to 4: a double of the pl is entrance units 2.35). these two few aspects of the

V-

individual

outbuildings the the

are

worth

from within

passage one set there and

gives of their

a separate load bearing an

threshold walls interior passages, 2.

each

(Hedges wall

1987 11, dividing it

Presumably entrances to lobby.

was originally respective

otherwise

difficult

understand through is

why two entrances their usually is in load--

were needed to a single Buildings wall, bearing 3. is

interior

5 and 6 are which part the of building

interconnected

shared

unusual, was too not

as each building 14 is a blank for or area. they

discrete. very curious, by the

A large

This

but possibly internal excavators. The Broch: main access the broch 88). These

area did

narrow survive,

Incorporation were

a building,

features

missed

The broch passage,

is

entered

from the I forecourt' a couple the of

at the end of the external it to (fig by Each access This

between

low apartments the broch

tower

entrance,

and which extend doorway

have been built entrance 4.5m from from of the

up against

effectively is

passage one.

some 2.5m and add an extra, of the door behind compartments inwards the is gained this to the original and

original

accessible broch could

the passage. a tunnel-like with

From here entrance.

door via

opened

be secured

a bar.

Immediately

passage widens and access can be gained to the two From these access can be made to the basal and a tall guard cells. the lower gallery that It is probable mural gallery. superimposed Entry into the way around (Hedges 1987 11,19). never extended all the upper it does blocked be to intramural not connect the gallery with if with the -just over must have been difficult, any it the other at features the foot in of the at the and as seen now this'level. stairs It (which is may

S by the and

chamber

secondary),

continued present is the

opposite

direction

presumably 35 >., There it of

connected

aumbry. not all of one period (fig of the 88) is interior in three, Ubid, very 28late.

, As seen today, The staircase are problems levels,

interior inside the exact planned Hedges

entrance being 28)

arrangement before Ubid,

because search main

was only earlier

perfunctorily but

dug through suggests

-89-

- Appendix the third is

V-

alternatives, 1. a triangular a triangular

of which lobby

favoured: into the southern compartment

giving leading

directly apartment. to a tiny apartment into

with access 2.

to a north-western lobby

square could

access

zone from which

a southern 3.

and north-western lobby

be entered. access zone from

a triangular division without lobby..

leading

a rectangular apartment

which a southern northern Thus, right

apartment, could the

and northwestern intrusive the sill the

and rectangular to turn a

be entered. staircase of lobby which one was forced be seen, zone, access like to and the into a short three

even through

a doorway,

can still access

triangular corridor, areas

The conjectured from

central the

was entered outlined were above.

and gave

Presumably but a wall

southern

northern To the E

compartments and W access the broch

separated,

was not leads to this area the and

recorded.

was gained

from the access division adjacent hearth the

zone to compartments. into a chamber against northwestern compartments presumed 29), of to and led surviving Similar two is was the with

The northern wall. which it.

rectangular Immediately had

compartment leading off large

a central to the

Entrance over with the also pl

southern to hearth to

compartment well a W (fig Ubid, series

have been directly into a area

entrance

central wall

chambers 1.8m level reach this (ibid. fig

against Obid, doorway, 2.8).

broch existed 2.26).

E and

89-91).

chambers probably

to the S, underneath There was no permanent

the doorway at the stairs it by which to

or the

conjectural

gallery

to which

gave access

Access was presumably floor levels (fig of

by means of a ladder. Hedges broch a floor the height if

First around of not

and second much of Ubid the 1.8m

92): the

conjectures at the is

circumference fig higher 2.8). level, level.

interior were in lead

32-34, at a

Obviously as

there

structures, northwestern unknown,

floors,

stairs

compartment presumably from these that the

lead

up to this related led was not floor to

To what they floor

but

structures stairs it first

to the height a small area to gain of

of the scarcement. at 1.8m. from this

Access Walling

suggests rest from level. of

possible gallery. at

access

area to the led the down 1.8m

To the SW intramural level to to

steps at

unknown structures From here access

scarcement can be gained -90-

a landing

a 0secondary)

chamber or

- Appendix the to be at

V-

onto three

gallery of

conjectured the way a ladder

the

1.8m level

and to Access to

extend this

quarters gallery

around

the

interior.

probable

via floor.

is a possibility

from virtually

anywhere

on the ground 77;

HOWE(fig earliest out. interior divisions; especially

fig

93):

Spatial

analysis nucleated

is

based on the settlement

site

in

its laid over

phase 7 stage, that its the the

when the

was first of the site the the

There was little'significant outworks loses and domestic

change in the plan ceases but to function

the MIA, except

be maintained; retains become less

broch

same internal ordered,

outbuildings is

potentially

to the W., based entirely with on published B Smith descriptions with and the

Access analysis plans, Gurness years personal before for of this

communications

and by analogy

and Midhowe' standing research Gurness, the and it

structures. was begun. is However.

Howe was destroyed The principles necessary of applied

several are as be

described every singled 1.1 step

not therefore

to go through should

structure. a ladder

a couple

points

out: assume that would have allowed upper stairs be entered access between the'broch interior and its could

ground floor 2.

and cell interior

an earth-house 77; -fig but

from the broch

LINGRO (fig at Gurness, only the a site

94). "Spaces are distinguished problems and the the of definition are sketch

onthe particularly of the,

same basis acute excavations

as as

the

plan

occasional

survives. obvious

Not all

buildings of is G and

exceptions analysis is of it,

although with need be contemporary, 49) they may be (58.2.10). H (fig but arbitrary. that there may have ignored. of the been outworks Otherwise plan (most it must-be emphasised that

Access analysis a large part

attempted,

of necessity, is

The outbuildings: surrounding analysis ambiguities The sets broch: of is the fairly arise the

It site.

assumed Buildings

G and F).

H are basis

straightforward, in room/complex broch is

on the

entered side.

through Little

an extended is

passage of

with the

two exact

guard

cells

on each

recorded

-91-

- Appendix form the interior of the tank, Gurness). feature it F, took (an

V-

which

illustration to if not clarify three for

in the main

Petrie picture). areas The a of

MS f, In with western a

ORD/182/12, plan central example there

probably are in a (cf

does little of of in In two,

suggestions line and

break had

orthostats; its the is

access. corner corner

northern southernmost

triangular this irf else of least of court the is the one short of (but

compartment another manuscripts divulged. court, cupboard projections compartments, looks later). and

triangular

indicated. area, this

Conventions but nothing the E half at

may suggest An orthostatic orthostatic MS f, the from (Petrie

was a paved wall divides from the

W from

projections ORD/182/7). possibly

suggests N are the former

To the indicating

a couple

wall, is

presence chamber

-and Nothing

a length

of, walling

creates

a small

The resultant Gurness to the interior.

known of any upper levels. access map is thus not so deep as those of the poor quality of the data

at

Howe,

and Midhowe because

applying

MIDHOWE: (fig basis

77;

f igs

95-106).

Spaces are distinguished are of the

on the

same

as at Gurness, but problems of definition because of both the degree of modernday manicuring original quality of the excavators, (fig broch land recording. 95): being

much more acute site and the

The Outworks from the two series

and Outbuildings site, geos. the the The

The settlement on a thin the rampart spit geos (fig is of

is

approached land between by a the

landward

substantial of

between a large

bridged 96).

outworks, between

most notably walling

A hollow through

way leads outer None of with at the

which

marks

an entrance

rampart the

(Hedges outworks features of entry to narrow

1987 111,114) completely complete through it This through

and a causeway over the ditch. but in combination the site, encircle The outer 97). rampart is widest (fig which has been an entrance had at least one doorway. (and sensing their to up the this

natural point

a circuit.

narrowed Upon

by later

walling. walk

entrance the into

starting the left the

ramparts

presence) the

entrance is

widens a series

a subrectangular steps. (thus far

space, These led forming side of

hand side

of which

of short entrance

over the and probably onto ramparts, by Lamb 1980a, 90). blockhouse suggested -92-

On the

- Appendix chamber there passage a series lower (J) of is

V-

a narrowing into

and a set straight

of bar-holes. way (fig in in date, of the the 98). first

Consequently To the left

the are down the

widens

a long to different vertical area,

entrances a virtually in this passage

areas, break

two cases of

the edge of buildings the entrance choice of

slope. is broch

The nature problematic. where directly is known there

and their the the S side broch, entrance. might front or for

Shortly is a one any the

meets around the

direction reaches structures

Proceeding Nothing

west of is

eventually contemporary

broch which In broch

have been encountered. of the broch entrance the there passage into of left into is

Standing choice encircles of radial H, figs these belong survives into is its of

immediately the 99),

entering it (fig

veering which example

which

and from (see is

access various the

gained prospects

a series building within

outbuildings 100-101). Little

known of later can

original Thus

divisions

structures, to of this these

although rather buildings spaces.

some of the extant than phases. only

orthostatic the

chambers may little which divided and it absence to

be very H is how it the

approximately large, in is the

constituent

Building imagine

particularly was roofed broch it

particularly

difficult supports.

to

of known internal relate The

To the E of by steps The 102). the is

difficult scheme. through of apply threshold to

two spaces interconnected Broch (ground long floor entrance cells level): (fig

to the overall broch is

entered do not

an

impressive, stones. period, pivot the into

and over doorway

a series

The guard and the stone in

flanking entrance by later

this the is a of 103).

original

had been covered part created From this compartment takes by a line

no longer apparent Immediately paving. which is extend choice C the

because inside the of length

vestibule, entrance.

by orthostats vestibule D, or half there southern

entrance (fig divided (fig of The are

northern

compartment interior,

Each compartment from the 103-104). chambers, interior worth 1. in narrow other

up exactly of

of the the (for fig

and is (c2.4m) into fig

orthostats divided cupboards as in

up to 8 feet interior example but

high

Further

orthostats and

a series 105). points

compartments

has been interpreted highlighting: compartment gap permitting C the

106,

several to

monumental to it -93-

chamber

Calcove')

the

S has a

entrance

from the adjacent

chamber

- Appendix 2. in is D the

V-

compartment raised

arrangement outer the

is

most is

unusual, lower. focus

as the In effect directly

central this to the

area

whilst

the around corner.

perimeter main

creates stairs

a corridor in the western

domestic

(First

and

Second D access

Floor

Levels):

From via in

the

northernmost raised doorway

part

of

compartment the level which to the lower

can be gained gallery (mainly stairs

a small the

to. both

intramural

blocked

now) and an intermediate this compartment, access can as at Gurness,

gallery. it is

From the

W end of blocks

assumed once reached to an Intramural gallery. a gallery floor

the ground cell which

now be gained upper the

off

further

entrance

As at Gurness sector ladder of

has been postulated and it it is this if for to

to have run around the the

southern the ground

compartment,

must have been reached contemporary gallery for the (at with about

by a upper

from

intramural level) (fig

cell.

The evidence of the and rooves roof wall. the

1.8-2m. 'alcove' chamber gain to the

consists 104-105), to to the the

the chambers adjacent From this gallery,

to the

supports

westernmost one

adjacent access E, although stairs might

dividing

gallery including

could

intermediate

intramural

a cell

led have

lapsed. The intramural blocked/col passage was partly It is not known how, access up to 'an unknown structure. the been gained to the scarcement level cells above the main

doorway and guard chambers.,


LATE IRON AGE

BUCKQUOY (fig the (see with partial below). a hearth

77;

fig of

107):

The very similar cells phase Ib

earliest to the

structural 'Shamrock' off

evidence at

is

remains It (house

a house In

Gurness chamber similar an area led very is

has, rectilinear 6). with three

opening a smaller cells was the

a central (5) of off

house

form was constructed, with central and it focus. phase II of four the In consists hearth. for from the small, domestic

rectilinear side 1,3m beyond. with

opening entrance.

On the fourth a distance of

Paving

house

This

structure but

must have

been associated was levelled

a larger,

discrete

site

and house rooms,

4 constructed.

it

aligned

and interconnecting
-94-

the whole complex

- Appendix being entered into Entrance to by the of

V-

small the

vestibule

to the SE or via and then the main living there

a paved pathway had the hearth. a as of may or

the SW side the

largest

and main chamber which a sill, 'In

SE was over furniture). on either

was probably had functioned

doorway into a part of

the second room (if

a whalebone the hearth

socket

the door kerbing

room the remains that the there wall, building, lining area. of the

low stone

side

of

suggest

have originally alternatively been treated leading structures from

been wooden or as minor as the sub-divisions spaces.

stone At

platforms the

of the internal NW end chamber.

These have

separate main

room,

was a circular with this house,

Two incomplete was a paved

can be associated by fencing.

one of which

area enclosed GURNESS(fig

78;

f ig

108):

This

description the

follows only late

closely building To the

that

of the

Hedges (1987 11,65-67) at Gurness broch where to which

and describes analysis 2 and 3 had from the

complex S of

access

may be applied. formerly stood, 'Annexe'

outbuildings 'Shamrock')

a polyventral constructed. entrance with hearths, and an to

structure flanking

(the

and associated W through

were

The Shamrock was entered orthostats. which an This were area

an extended

gave access U2. there

to a central each Further was access with to

area with the E,

surrounding each covering

four of

compartments, about

thresholds, from

additional an earlier be gained Basically

compartment/passageway broch to the it period Annexe, apartment. which of is three

over

a threshold

From the multiphase compartments one.

passageway access could understood. and not fully aligned N-S, floor with two

consisted off

chambers leading paved. Elements vicinity widespread, of the

the southernmost

The original found the in

was not immediate of more fig

of

similar Shamrock not

structures and Annexe,

were giving

the

impression activity

although

necessarily

contemporary

Ubid,

HOWE (fig structures then the

78; of

fig phase I to

109):

Access

analysis et It is

is al

only 1984, not

possible fig 5),

for

the

8 stage very take the it

6 (Carter informal. to

and even

doorways was;

are

main entrance with the

be the

entrance

where the even clear to the W connecting into the main

pathway

broch.

From here -95-

one enters

- Appendix a long hearth. At the smaller

V-

room with chamber, functioned entrance nature into area into of

end of

this into

room was a sub-circular the wall which might a but the have SW is area, lintelled exact be N the another via two divided chambers of the

and to the Na as leading this of a sleeping into

one set

compartment.

To the and paved seem to access off leads it. to

a semi-enclosed possibly damage. There

enclosure, plough

a yard

or open vestibule be two exits is To gained the

cannot to to E,

seen because

a sub-circular with a is hearth a long to

compartment and

whence

compartments which

thresholds,

passage

a paved larger the

area,

two by a series is gained broch.

of orthostats. an earth-house

From the built

of these rubble

access collapsed

into

POOL: The data

from this

site
It

is

not as yet

available
to

for

analysis.
if An most

HOWMAE (fig any, was

78; ever

fig the the S site

110): main into is

is

not to 0

possible this

establish

which, complex. seems are

entrance area unphased order to

settlement a courtyard) features were A and not

entrance likely. discussed 1890; each

from As in

(probably the as salient they

this much

therefore U the Traill south, B was From the access SE can the

the

same Access

excavated B is from

W Traill having

1885). a separate

buildings They two are

entrance. into a large buildings (2-3 two of

interconnected. wall. from where

possibly access

originally can be gained to

divided into of

by a partition (0)

courtyard and feet one

be gained E. L is C is

a number

cupboard-like into that east D, several is access to (2-4 To M, in here irregular at least of the two

cell

to

divided by

by orthostats crossing in here (F) to over front the

high)

divisions. seems gained to to

entered

thresholds, it. to To the room

there is

be a small room shaped the E, -and

vestibule from

south by

north

an irregularfeet the high W of into corner. Q. at F

wheelhouse of is areas

divided into a

numerous

paritions compartments.

time

excavation) to low

different

access four

gained by

sub-rectangular and probably from form room this a raised access F into

compartment platform from a large

divided the to E

kerbs, was left

Originally Alternatively (0). of In eight its feet

there one original or

passage compartment orthostats roof

room contained

over, might

which have

gives been

some indication From

how the extant

of and

such

a building

supported. -96-

plans

- Appendix it is totally

V-

sections divided. the floor.

not

clear

how the interior set slightly

of this lower than a cist

building the rest

was of

To the This divisions there. that is this

W was a recess substantial may have acted no mention of all of to its the

compartment a hearth a long

contained in

and other supports. is rooms it internal was not S an was this

internal Whilst obvious this

both as cupboards any of must have contained rectangular form area

and roof these one.

chambers in

To the E of

room access and

was gained W of the

room with this room

recesses partitioned. paved, wall. entrance blocked area.

aumbries; To the between

original main complex

K, N and M were all E end of this to the had (P)

and access To the on its up,

K and M is complex side, but all

suggested cell

at., the

E of is

a small

orignally

northern not

at the time clear

of

excavation was gained

and it

at

how access

STENABRECK(fig 1883 (Traill finds of the of the suggest structure phasing The threshold key for which Several

78:

fig

110):

Excavations outline of

took its

place walls

at Stenabreck were traced. and the Nothing may have doorway this

in The form

W 1885)

when the

a prehistoric is of also the

horizon, compatible site, to to but

IA at the with the

earliest,

an IA date. whole structure by

is known been

semi-subterranean main

or had a turf/soil entrance stone the the

outer settlement N of

cladding. was this a with the Near to

and pivot a tumblelock

the complex. that

was found, There to the

suggesting immediate

was a wooden door access by a

could

be secured. vestibule the B (Traill

was a second S of intramural

means of the

rectangular of

main

rooms but area

contained fig the less than

presses. about

entrance. One, in high was

compartment in front of

1885, none

1) had a low stone, its dimensions area. living

a foot it

it,

suggest

probably

a storage

rather

One small

chamber to

the E (H on Traill's UDAL (fig structures The following report 1986). is that and 78): at Only the is

plan)

showed no obvious

means of entrance. for the LIA

schematic Udal

access they

maps can be created have not been fully derived (for

because

published. from interim

therefore given

based on information by the excavator Buckquoy. entered

lectures

The spaces are assigned as for the sites here are all initially -97-

example Crawford The main distinction an encircling

through

- Appendix The

V-

enclosure. posters,

resultant

yards

contain

two

buildings,

the

four

and the main houses.

-98-

APPENDIX VI:

METALWORK FROM WAREBETH CEMETERY

- Appendix

VI -

APPENDIX VI:

METALWORK FROMWAREBETH CEMETERY

Bronze 111a) In covered

and

gold

mount

with

celtic

pattern

from

Honker

Green

(fig

about with

1889 a cast gold on the

bronze upper

mounting

with

a celtic at

pattern, Monker

surface,

was discovered

Green, Stromness (RMS acc no FA. 44; Donations 1892; Grieg 1940,200, f ig 95). The f ragment has been crudely truncated on three sides, although sharp raised, one edge has a clean implement. decorated of the The border plaque design cut, achieved of by several two major blows from a a

consists

elements: towards to a thinner by

(9 mm wide) where it vine on

which decreases

in depth

the centre The borders, 1987,97). of a single

steps scroll. each

down diagonally

area of inhabited edge is inbetween

continuous outlined which

of the vine its which

its

long derived of

sides motif three

plain (Wamers

runs

an egg-and-dart contains

The lower inhabited in inhabits its and minor

field

vestiges scroll, long

elements but bird-like to the bite plant in a

continuous

each

similar,

differing animal one of scroll small circular

detail.

A contorted craning hind-limbs,

forward-facing neck forward

each scroll finally The beast and pouched

outstretched

both

embrace beak, are

entwine has

around a long

themselves hooked, Only

and terminate limbs

lobe. eye

hatched

a beady indicated,

cheeks. is point. circle, jointed animal. long and curls

three

each extending slender emanating evolving oblique support division, from the the neck. from from nicks. the

from an elaborate One triskele a a central central the in

triskele-form simple, The further foreleg It clawsP its other

hip

at the is

base of the lines

three

swirling more by three

elaborate, small to linear emanates leaf are ' fig it at two as if

enhanced extends has 'A long the

The single weight of

backwards

a longitudinal thin spur there

and terminates back of, the each scroll. lines. V-shaped heel

around

spear-shaped

end of This

Where each scroll

bifurcates

parallel

object by

has been discussed (1960,254, an fig 64).

by Bakka

(1963,60-61,

63)

and Bruce-Mitford manufactured Mitford

Both authorities Northumbrian late

agree

eighth-century second half -99-

craftsman, century

was Bruceon the

preferring

the

of

or

eighth

- Appendix basis

VI The Stromness (Bakka may be the birds

of analogies and from fig 23-27) the

with

the Croft-Ormside-Kells pails bear from Birka

group. and vine

example, 1963, derived

bronze-bound which

Hopperstad scrolls, of

bird-inhabited art group

Mediterranean of

independently group

and bird-friezes associated vine-scroll Northumbrian the vines

the Lindisfarne 60; contra

manuscript

because of their 1960,254). version the is The of the of no

Ubid,

Bruce-Mitford a celticised through 1983).

was a popular vine-scroll, in this

Pictish

motif,

undoubtedly

spread

influence however

Roman church to attribute

Scotland object derived

(Henderson

There

reason

to the Picts. motif is may be related bronze filled to the 'crescent Crieff

The egg-and-dart and almond-shaped where each section darts (Allen An part of it Insular a highly of two,

prominences' 1903).

on two

mountings by a single

from

of shaped border

egg and two have been a edge has the by

and Anderson object ornate possibly

such as this book mount or three

may originally box, and the impressed top

remains which

shallow, with and the interesting view of the

indentations

would have been attached context Norse late in of this makes the graves Saxon in and

clasps,

c 14 mm apart. mount are that large objects unknown, might number which could not but

The exact have come from of contemporary come from have been found have

following

but Bakka (1963,61)

suggestion suprisingly

they

Insular/Northumbrian

Norwegian Christian

graves. Insular

But a mount such as this context, probably,

any

exclusively, Dimensions depth

ecclesiastical. (in mm): length 2. 46; 28; maximum depth border 6;

width

of

of main plate decorated In

Circular

bronze

and gold mount (Cursiter

1887 a decorated some time ago at Stromness in the Hunterian in the of facsimile It consists

mount froin Stromness (fig 111b) as having been found was reported 1887,346). The original but there is now is a (acc no B. 1914.863), Edinburgh plate surface with of

Museum, Glasgow

Royal Museum of Scotland, a cast A fine mount circular 5mm), the bronze upper runs (height

(acc no FC. 160). a thin raised has been

vertical covered the

edge with of

which edge, From

gold. the

cable are

around

the upper

although a central

edges

somewhat -100-

corroded.

- Appendix has two They lost wide its arms boss, of

VI three filled devolved

setting, triskele, decoration. lentoid

which the

swing are in smoothly

arms with bird

of

an fine heads

ornate linear with and part is

which

possibly

terminate

eyes.

The third

arm tapers the taper

to a constant Its its

width final circuit

then swings is destroyed,

around but A similar

to encircle appears triskele to

edge of the disc. to a point once

complete. the foot

of the Ardagh chalice 1984,120). Bruce-Mitford 1960, art

can be seen on a panel at the top of (Rynne 1987, pl I. B) which dates to c Lindisfarne Both these Gospels works (f are fig of this 46). period

700 AD (Wilson 139r:

or the contemporary

representative the Ardagh intermediate carved very

of Insular chalice fields in to

(Bruce-Mitford ibid, 251). of this

even sees The three fine chipis 5; fig

as possibly are

Northumbrian: with Harr*ay Grieg various In

decorated

forms

interlace similar

a moderate from

relief.

technique

piece

a brooch

(Cursiter 1940,200,

1887,344, fig the as 96). other the

Hunterian

museum acc no B. 1914.864; This Insular mount, probably Green, of has variously

contemporary been brooch (Cursiter

with

mount and the The it has is is are

from

Monker

described

circular

terminal remains

portion of the very its

a penannular portion and it

1887,346) 1940,200).

central corroded

of is

the

same (Grieg to individually.

edges are either the case,

difficult

see whether If the

been cut

from a brooch

or cast filigree the

latter brooch insets

form as an individual finer Note panels for of

mount for etc, blue

a penannular

most unusual; more typical. glass in the

or glass/amber glass and other of the penannular On the to do

example (Wilson

coloured brooches are two

used in circular St Ninian's protruberances it could cover, Anderson a book (S mounts. (in

settings hoard

on certain 1973,98). have

reverse with in

small

which possibly chalice, 1881,

may

attachmeni. an object The Monymusk similar

Alternatively such as

have been incorporated paten or reliquary.

reliquary circular Dimensions

frontispiece)

incorporates

mm): maximum diameter

29mm; maximum depth

5mm.

-101-

FIGURES

1, V.
ORKNEY

4
A, 40
ATLANTIC 0

;D

GAITHNESS

1 14 k%ore 44

It

\, \

(V,

9 THE

rk"

NORTH EASTERN

ATLANTIC PROVINCEV 0
majorforts 0 2.5-8ha
0 TYNE-FORTH

@) 8haandover SOLWAY-CLYDE 0 50 100 150km

Figure after

Britain The boundaries 1. of north Piggott 1966; Ralston 1979) with the

in study

the

Iron

area

Age (modified in black.

FIELD SURVEY
LAMB BATEY MERCER F q MORRISON

BY:

ir

t3

Orkney

.6

Caithness

Sutherland 0 II 30km

Tne distribution Figure of 12Scotland. Morrison in northeast

field

work

by Lamb,

Batey,

Mercer

and

(0

11250

-4-,

1000
zI

2 cr co
ui

-o

(LI

Z
LU

Soo
11
250

Co .i cn U) LLI F--

w
0

...::

w > cr

D C) z
< ir M -i <

LI)

El :I::.

Q
w < -a ei 41 K L :1 u

250

L'i CL 0 -J w 70

500

Co u

(D

U)
c

z 0
750 LLJ

-0

0
LLI < co -0 u) C) -0

LL 0 0 -

1000

LL

T) no: 0 w U) -j
Cc < =
Ln (D

I
250

2 -

A\ 0

LJ) 0

90

nN ao v4

08-

07

06

05-

0,4

03

02

01

00

850

650

450

250

50 BC

150 AD

350

550

750

950

1150

05

04 _D

c3 -n 03

02

0.01 -. -1200

III1 1000

800

600

400

200 BC

0 AD

200

400

600

800

-1 1000

1, jt 1200 1400

(c a

ORKNEY CAITHNESS WEST CENTRAL COAST & SUTHERLAND & ISLANDS

MAINLAND

Figure The distribution A 4. Scottish C-14 dates, of uncalibrated by area, B The distribution at the I-a level; Scottish of calibrated C-14 dates, by area, PDF = prooablility t= time, at the 'I-a ievel. density f unction. The diagram by cumulatively has been produced boxes representing the date summing the height box span; of each to ensure being adjusted that the area remains constant.

A
CHARACTERISTICS 0; 465 SLOPE OF THE TRONDHEIM 46-64' C-14 SLOPE will CAL113RATION E] U;::: 1 CURVE 4 45' SLOPE 11F: 11.11 I1 .1 11' 11 INVERSION 111m 11 11

4a

Cal a

CT.

&I AD

1200

1000

800

600

400

200 BCADt

200

400

600 (cal)

800

1000

1200

1400

Figure in

5.

comparison decade each of 50 years. f ig 4.

C-14 Trondheim calibration of the 5 distribution the calibrations of C-14 with 3000-950 bp, between standard a constant with B has been compiled in the as the same manner Characteristics

curve (! -or) for deviation graphs in

Ah

1234
12

89 0

10

..... 13 14

.... .

------

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

25

26

27

10cm

date, bronze 6. 'Roman' 1-4 and bone: pins of post-Roman 5-16 Broch Crannog (7,15-16,697,694); of Burri. an (1316, 17-19 Broch of ! 396,1389,1350,1,353,1331,1376,134-6,1339); 13115, Sands 20 Culbin (749); 21 RosemarKie Burray (.1095,1.082,1084); 26 Brough Freswick Sands 22-25 (774,787,759,758); (750); of 27 Brough of Birsay Stevenson Birsay Globular (after (183-1). pin: 11955a). Figure Buiston

An, A: . 10 T

I
14

TTT I
8
10 11

916

c12
10cm

Crook: Figure 7. Ring-headed 1 Abernethy Fort (iron). pins. 821); Law 2-3 (-, 4-11 Covesee Projecting-head: Traprain (10 11 'ibex') (646-47,649-50,653,651,648,652); 12 si I ver, Bowermadden Broch Hand-pins13 Bruathach ('372). 14 ('620); a Tuath Loose-ringNorrie's (1264). Law (silver); Reay 15 Dunadd 16 Stevenson f1566) (after 1955a).

ATLANTIC

IRON AGE. west north


Mol

.m

OF STAGES ATERIAL CULTURE

V. 0c
300

D-

C. 1,,

ED
WHI1111OUSES .........

WHEELHOUSES

03 BROCH A.D B.c,


70

....... BAOCHS

-SEMIBROCHS-'
b

evi ,

FOR S FORTS ILL(

1'..

Aq. A'

. oc>

FORTS r

ROUND HUTS

LOA ;% HOUSES
600

Figure 8. MacKie's in the development suggested stages of Atlantic : ron Age material. (after MacKie 1973), culture where the black arrows the possible transfer represent traits from one region of cultural to the white another, the apparent arrows in one continuity of traits area,

MOM

MUM

WECT a IFIL?I

fuAlfrM I

OVAL $ Ifla

GAIMERI

emna

aAss

Figure 9. Summary of nature II, for which entry varies material, category and object.

of entries according

data fields in appendix of to the prior combination of

(n -0

E 0

-0 E 0

ozi CL

E v 0 C\j
V

41
c
CL U) (0 ---

c: 0 0

Q) r_ m

'0 -0 rccc Co

a Co

c3 M

0-

(D

U) Co (n cn Co Co 0m

U)

CO Co cn

vi

[je

0m<

[-*_--r ONE
oj

(0 ,0 Ei

t. CL.

10

c >, 0, lu C to to

c: 0

(0

(0

eg
0

,nC

z<

(0 Ci. la Q) 0 Jr: 10

(1) 4) c:

-A c U- u

3 lzz;:

(n

z<
-0 Cd

E 0
G) co
_O

ci
0 Cw c: -0 r -0 c: -0 r-

0 la

06 U)
r_

(0

>,

0
Z
LL z

CD

r_
r-L

od 0
(Z 4(D

-0
06
-

--

(0 Co Co
cn u) (n

CO 90

CY)

celo q:2
a) 00

$- 0. CO 0 ,0

CO cn

(n

cn

V&
E V
"

10

-41

12 52 0

a4 -4

Co Z
c: 0 CLI (0

t.

0
. (0

,5

bo (0 4) 4 :x (X-

-0

- de

db _C) . -(D --

- -40

2
799

37

4
1834

61 6A
1246 485

6C
609

1A 291
1B272U -in -,

ic v 744

3E
575v

1129

8B9A 8A
965 398 621

637

9D
904

6D 302

9B It 9131

M
9E
1027

1 9F 993
9H 149 91 27V

11A
1350

-0
14A 336 13

11B
917

1590

14B 907

a0 5cm 15A 605 158


1119

15C
630

Figure

1.2.

Summary of classification

of bone and antler

stick

pins.

24A 18 I
16E ** 739 Y'
--O 1047 19A 1840 571

23
300

24B
791

20
570

16 A
940 v

'!7.1,. .S

26
17699P

25
1122

27
324

21
1033

28
472

29
479

36
V 1852

5cm

30
1672

lens-hd
1079

-0 astrag
328

discfillet d
728

open disc
1695

AS spiral-in IC lo oed
320

bu tterfly
1215

loz fillet
397 -0

mush
868

spiral-out
proi j
1764 19 sq pi proj 1188

disc
663

spiral roll 421

spiral 775

wheel

hd
1925

Figure 13. pin forms.

Summary of

classification

of

stick

pins

and metal-only

UI
26I

1.
V

Ii

10 8

I Fowler E pins from Figure 14. (679.678p 680,677,681,8-11 . _, (after Kilbride-Jones 1980a). Traprain Law. 1-7 proto-zoomorphic zoomorphic, (682-83,816,835)

0
C"4 ) C.

rCo

___

DIII

r_ 0

10

.0

to 10
to r.

(1)

,44. U

do g Fi so U)

Z00

cl. ca.

-4

10

T5

16

Din an Fheurain Figure Projecting (1294); 1 16. ring-headed pins Sands; 3 4 Laws of Monifieth (555); 5,7 2,10 Culbin Angelsey; Dunacd Ness (801 ); 11 Midhowe 6,9 Traprain Law; 8 (185-86); (1265) (after Kilbride-Jones 1980b).

!'

U
10 10cm

Figure Semi-corrugated 17. Rosette type 3-6 pins (646); 9 Traprain Law type 8 Traprain pins Kilbride-Jones 1980b).

Kf-8(--Oy, Co Armagh; 1 Gurness (154); pins TrapraJ. ri Law (817,822, 7 Covesea -, -); Northumberland; (8611); Aesica, 10 Beaded Law (821); Tentsmuir (903) ii (af ter

% dwil,

CS516

(n

C94)
k

2A

CIQQ

CIQU

TI
6

Semi-beaded 18. Bowermadden 1 (620); 6 pins similar Lydney, Glos; Proto hand-pin 2-3 Traprain Law (864,825); plain, Covesea (647); 5 Corbridge, Northumberland; 7 no locality; irelland; 9 Handpin Traprain Law (826) (after Kilbride-Jones silver, 1980b).

Figure

but 4 8

12

'I
1 8 T7

5cm

pT fl
13

2 Degenerate Bruathach (-172); ibex Figure 19. 1. a Tuath North 3 Co Waterfora; Corrugated (1763); Balevullin and beaded 4 "0 Glos; 652,651,650); Covesea (648, 5-7,9 Berwick; -, -Iydney, (after ireland KilbrideBedfordshire; 12-13 Sandy, 8 Ibex-headed Jones 1980b).

BONE POSSIBLE METAL ANTLER GROUPS FORM 1-36

METAL-ONLY

20

10

0 0
ID co CD CD to CD

0M
(D W (D

CD

10
to

Co
length of complete

Co

pin

(mm)

20. Figure material.

Comparison

of

pin

length

for

different

categories

of

0
0 01 100

BONE METAL

ANTLER POSSIBLE ANTLER

80

0 1

60

40

C.

C,

0
(D Co (D

0
0
CD

C)
(D (o

co
to

10
10 W 11) ID

length

of

complete

pin

(am)

Figure each

21. range

Comparison of of pin lengths.

proportions

of

category

of

material

within

ED SHAFT ED SHAFT SHAFT

SWOLLEN LLEN 25-

SHAFT

20

0, 10-

N 8

ca

ih

(A

0
#D

--4
40

CI)
0 Co

Co Co 0

Co Co
I*ngth

of complet*

pin (am)

Figure 22. Comparison swollen shafts.

of

lengths

of

metal

and skeletal

hipped

and

(114P Ad

753 297 JA IA

74 3 IA
151 IA
- 4w

9 79 JA

278 JA

314 t8
.0

1088 IA

1-410 -1

1591

IA

1143 IA

316 A

AL

304 18

1196 1El

315 )A

1204 18

289 113*-

307 I C,

TO

-0

2 76 Ic

1067 31F 290 1C-

1642 3ro

301

981 1C.

286 Ic

288 I(,

5cm

Figure

23.

Pins

of

groups

1-3.

Ab

1480

14 82 ro A

808

268 4489 6A

1123

GA

Ab

1078

(o A
1485 GAle 924 rDA

75 9 raa 0

569 ro El IIN 17

395 491 615 r. 13 v 761 60 349 -. Ab

1483 Co 0*

1492

1603 68

14 94 roB

758 6B

771

Ell-0 -

-de
1592 C.D

j
1502 6c 495 6D 3 1761 1670

5cm 1

321 74

1176 ipA

Figure

24.

Pins

of

groups

4-8.

Am

1162 eA 994 SA 969 SA

9 74 ErA

73 3

10 73

964 FA 975 8A X

966

967

SA

1 IA -0

971 8A

-;;

7-

46

1513

SA*
1491 8A 1068 16''0 2

1175

1166 990 OB 1479 1593 1484 1261 1608

' 30 6

838 es

298 -lb 303 IA

1769

482

283

991

1597

394

5crn 1

ff'f

eEk

es

28*

gib*

Figure

25.

Pins

of groups

8-9.

-i

279
296 294 9A 293 IA 1060 19A

309 904
403 ')A

1486 q4

305 qA

19A

634 98

-vom-

-1
1. 1487 1488

37 91

1605

15 15
lis 919 1017 98 1620 9 C, 752 9c, 379 l7c 1516 1) B Ila -0

914

913
PZq

----*

15 14 1113

0-(D
865 9 92 );2 C A' 788 i! rA

a
866 15 274 12. 1693 14 1641 1 857 19

(D
603 KA 629

731

5cm

604 ITA

ITA

Figure

26.

Pins

of

groups

9-15.

7r,

-1 U-40

vi 952 612
16 F-

1548 17A 1064 ISA

1018 16E

1025

1-i FE

1024 A

1746 574 Z+A lt 2-48

1495 Il A 1063 1493

54-

1248 2+ Bt

1673 787 248*

899

1531 13-A

Y'

15'96 20

1016 21

850 26-

925

1139 SO*

1598 S+

Figure

27.

Pins

10cm

of

groups

11-34.

zMX

1804 foaft"

-0
1619 loose r-kd

72 1 2002 Fowler 9 32 8 729 dig-fille t 330 discf; lie t-

1640 loost V'-114

1159 lofe,CA

329

alisc6lief5

-0
5FA

-4

1271 9 v 17 68 lo bed 17 62 1767 ", m is C, 1 75 M; sf be y 1756

1668 mok.

1249

lotwc( 10 61 lo be4

175

i
1694 m i's(- fe o

lobe4

F-.,
.0
1758

-4

T
1757 sf; V, -0 . Ai 809 r- kA 667 sry, dowe

1669 MW5iN 319 niosk 1764

128 Sol 410mr-

VF>j #At rAl-

5cm

Figure

28.

Meta--only

pin

forms.

u 'r, 0 .0 0- "--j Cl)


cw

000
0

bo

Q>

M -4 (., ix to L0 0

Cl- :50 71 0 Cb

:50: 1 * L

(D
IC\j (\]

bO =5 0 0

bO . : o t(0
-4

Z3 r_
CI-

-4
.

-UI-. lip,

Lc)

Ojo

'3
Lo
1mk. - wo

> to

u-

cl- ol :3-

IN 1 >1 LO (a (0

CX 0

U)

t. Lr')

Co

m
.10

ID

Lrl

oc

o
bo 0 -3 o -0 4) cn "C\j
bo rD

IW>t. Cl. co :5 (-) 0 bO. 0

cc)

--

ce)
e
L)

-t

L-

co

2iel 03
0V0

cL.

:::: iii

ci
x um

1\3

co
4

0 bo
L.

0 r

C'. -

U bO --0u 0-" ,4 "J

bO 0

(1)

j -,

5-,

tuDot

07. W..

CD 0 0 C\l 0) C\j
-

-MMQW

bb

0 C\j

L 0

L. U a. --,

0,

r. a0a0., .

-a
0 0

co

99

FiI
-7

E
in

.. OMWA -RMIW

IC)

0 cn
C\j m 0 C\j

LO .0 19 0 u 0

0 C\l

"

dmI
(0 x fi)

cl)

Lo

A.

:A

I.,
CY) It LO

Cl) 0 C14

W boo :5

C\j

C\j
C\l

(1)
C\j

IJI

-- zum

N (0 -4-u

E Q

Qj

CY) CY)

C)
(0

lu

C)

00
C\j

ik 0 .
- -.0 ..;

00
C\l

..
(0 x ril

II

LO

bo Co
CQ ------

LE, -

LU0

: T-T-T7=

Q)
C

E C) r
77=

E 0
w 0 U Lf) 75 0

ILI

Ln 0

-0

co - Q) bo
0

').

Ij

V T47
CLASS
t7

A AC? B
a 8 al

I
0
Figure 33.

I
The distribution of pins of classes A, AC? and B.

CLASS

C (pin)

C (mould) D

4
0 In .'

40

0%r

I
0 Figure pins. 34. The distribution of class C pins and moulds, and class D

)
CLASS a 0
47

da

Iav

19

Figure

35.

The distribution

of class

E and F pins.

Figure 36. Comparison of the distribution of class McNeill (redrawn after symbol stones and Nicholson and LIA combs of groups 4-6.

I and II Pictish 1975, figs 8-9)

23

67

89

10

12

13

14

15

16

17

18 111111 IT7&

19

20 Cj

21

F-26

22

23

24

25 E-EEJ

27 (=, 1 34

28

29

30

31

32

33

35

Figure 37. Selected depictions symbol stones. of combs on Pictish All figures Allen stated after and are redrawn, unless otherwise Anderson 1903. Class 1.1-2 Clynekirkton 4 nos 1-2; 3 Benbecula; 7 Rhynie no Sandness; 5 Collace (Henderson and Small 1962); 6 Daviot; 5; 8 Park House; 9 Newbigging 10 Easterton Leslie; 11 of Roseisle; Inveraron 13 Clynemilton no 3; no 2; 14 no 2; 12 Kintradwell Dunnichen; 15 Sandside House; 16 Golspie 1943); 17 no 2 (Davidson Dunrobin Castle; 18 Upper Manbeam; 19 Drumbuie no 2; 20 Inveraron no 23 Aberlemno; 24 Bourtie; 1; 21 Drummies; 22 Keith Hall; 25 Cuillaird (Ritchie 26 Nether Corskie 1915); 27 Covesea. (Stevenson 1959); 29 Kingoldrum no 1; 30 Kirriemuir Class 11: 28 Hilton of Cadboll; no 1; 31 Meigle no 7; 32 St Vigeans no 1; 33 Monifleth 1; 34 Meigle 1; 35 Maiden Stone. Not to scale.

co)

IHIPPED

SHAFT

-1300

0 Z'
D cm

-1200

-1100 -1000

40
c) ) C.
i

r00000
CO 0

0Z2

-900
(3

Co ,Z
( ,

in r.

(1)

-f -, :>

-800

-700 -600

.T co c",

cc -500
-400

38. The distribution for contexts LIA of C-14 dates producing level). to the 2-sigma and combs (calibrated pins y= weighted mean for Dunollie GU-1398); phase l(GU-1395-97; z= weighted mean for Pool from GU-2001-02). Unpublished dates provisional phase 4g (GU-1809; Dr J Hunter; Pool kind incorporated with permission of author's calibration.

Figure

A-(0

Co Co

It

-t 1 I ui
41 -

<

U) X
0

cIn

,'

-0

LLJ cl a
., to

0 z Cl0 0

06

Ul

0-

CL

0 -i

-0

BROUGH OF BIRSAY
PRE-NORSE FEATURES
4 < 20 !o

19 VII

site

Is

putative monastery.... ..........11 we

4 Pictish tis '.s

zone s

IN 3 site IX llo site VIII

/* /* 0 30m

Pigure features 40. Summary of pre-NOrse (compilec Crucen 1965, after and modified 986).

at CL

oi the Brougn Curie 1982 and

birsay Hunter

Q)

N,

bO a) 'cG CO Lr)
-A 41 co 00

bO :: I o

) QwL.
r. L (0 L

JQ)

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al

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cc

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41

cc
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0 0

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0 a)

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(0 " 0

00 CY)

C.

>:

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a, r ,: < CY) (D

00)

4'

C. a)

4 (D

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.
z

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r(a

cl ul
'7

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in

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U>
W -4

U
X,

U)

-)

E 0 (3)

: , n, -N4 0 Ln u

a -, 0V
0 M

U,
au -, 4 -0 _0 ., tx.

'

"/

I!

--

-0 Q)

Ln

(o U) bO CO C> S- :1 J) o0 fl. fD

F-

Figure 43A can be seen

St Boniface's, Papa Westray. in section eroded by sea.

Broch

wall

Figure

43B

Midhowe.

Internal

W wall

of

outbuilding

H.

4000,

Z*"41

r,

gz

lom

;r
D EF

A--

ure44. 191.4); B 1890); D

P"ans Burrian Castle

1946 11); F Dxtro 1890); H (Petrie Wasso (RCAHMIS ! 946 11);

Orkney of 2 (Petrie Bothican of Howe of Hoxa K

brochs (al 1 redrawn): A Ayre C Netilater 1890); (RCAHIMS 1946; E Lamb Head (RCAHMS 1946 ID; G East Burray (Thomas 1.852); Burray West 1 (RCAHMS 1946 1890); Burgar (Thomas 1852).

(Graeme Petrie (RCAHMS (Petrie J 11);

/
/

'N

/ /

\\\

lom

I
A

fi I,

/ / /

___

1,

1'

1-11

/*

Figure St Tredwells Plans 45. A brochs (a-, of Orkney redrawn): -, (modified (RCAHMS 1946 ID; RCAHMS 1,946 -1); B Weems Castle after Backaskaill (RCAHMS 1946 17). (RCAHMS 1946 ID; D Broch of Borwick

41 Yz yp-,

-Z -

100004 %

Z sL -=::.

$\\\iI/t//////,,
-=
-IIz-

'I\-

(I

lom

'

"---2 -/

-EEE z=.
-

/ / I

//

: --

jD
, 72", J, :., ,

'"

I II'iq,,,

tn IIIII It MO.111,11I I,It /14/ 11/t, , 1//hA


"I, Al
AN JA I

Figure 46, Plaris brochs (all of Orkney (RCAHMS 1946 :. D; B Burray East (Petrie CyacGregor 1,974; RCAHMS 1,946 ID.

redrawn): C 189o);

Burroughston A Broch of Burrian

PERIOD

PHASE ----------------N

8 A "I//I/i
f

Cal 8C750-380 Cal Re780-300 ------------- - ----IV Cal PC510-200 V

III

AREA EXTERNAL DEFENCES CENTRAL -- ------------stalled cairn ---------------Oaes-hove-fype stalled cairn ---------------ditch isolatedhearth andfink
ditch recut clay-cored raspart roundhOUSO Md J rock-cut ditch

AREAS PERIPHERAL

05-200 CalPC --------------------P/V1 BC Cal 751-200 372 Cal8C332-AO 210 CalBC10040 extension of rampart

MO-350 Cal PIC

i sef fleiren - -------------filnor seffle'vent J earth-house

liter roundhousel early broch


6ff IEVELLIN5---------------TtIL78011

(vestigal seffleivent re, tains only)


) -------------------------

----

------------------------

- ---- -- ( --------------

/f
A

VII Cal BC332-AO 20 IJO Cal BCIIO-40 Cal VC50-0 212 120-3YO 40 Cal

ramparts maintained

broch

nucleated 'village'

230-510 40 Cal

--------------VII later phase 20 Cal BC390-AO Cal AOSO-31S Cal 40 80-M Cal AV110-373 Cal 40 130-110 F

----------ditches fill up

---

toper collapses -----------------)


reoccupation as wo4shops newbuildings, some continuity of Ivillage, tarth-house

L A I A

-------------------------------------------------- T --------------------------------------------- growth VIII Cal Bc 100-100 sose abandonsent,


3.99-00 Cal AO $30-60 Cal AO M-580 Cal AO industrial horizons in other areas, industrial activiiv decline in population

Figure Summary of structural 47. sequence at Howe (based et al 1984 and personal communication with B Smith).

on Carter

/
:'-

4-trn: sl
'T
V

LINGRO
UNPHASED

GURNESS
BROCH PERIOD

lom

/
/
/ /

N4

HOV
PHASE

MIDHOWE
PERIODS 1,2 & UNDETERMINED

Figure redrawn): Petrie); 1934).

48.

Plans brochs of Orkney A Gurness (Hedges 2987 ! D; C Howe (Carter et al 1984);

(all with nucleated settlement B Lingro (Anderson 1883; after D Midhowe (Callander and Grant

Figure Plan 49. Lingro of lettering Dryden added after text are emphasized.

Anderson (after MS a. and Petrie

fig 220) 1883, with Features in mentioned

/ /

Th

Figure 50. Original sketch of buildings RCAHMS, NMRS). and Dryden MS c, 26-27;

U and

Ei at

Lingro

(Petrie

LA

d I-!:

.I,:

Al,

V- J "t

Figure (Dryden

51.

Original of area outside sketch MS a; RCAHMIS, NMRS). and Petrie

broch

entrance

at

Lingro

44 4

Z,, t

--

11

W-z -6,7,, -7-7

Tt7,

Figure the

52. oresent I

Original writer

sketch of as depicting

excavations the outwork

interpreted at Lingro, and its relationship

by with

'later

outbui-dings

(Petrie

and Dryden

MS c,

24-25;

RCAHMS, NMRS).

CL

L. U)

TO 41
U 0 140

Q cx

Q)

41

bO >

00
u

Ck to 0

U) LO 4' x
u o -4 41

-4

bo 0 'o C a)
f-cli

El.

41

0 u

0 I. -

r_ 0 -H 41

C: 0 U

a) LTj a) 41

n LP

C)

bo

ba .1 ." u- cc

Cl)

12m

_UU------- 0-(modified Callander 1934): at Midhowe after and Grant the construction H; B prior to the collapse of building the construction storeys of the broch, of building after internal features are omitted.

A of

to prior the upper H. Broch

IV

[HYlC IND

0 A

sculptured burial

: stone

V 0 \' , 0

ecclesiastical reuse of MIA site land over 60m

20 Km

Figure activity

56. in

Comparison Orkney.

ot - the

distribution

of

recognised

MIA and

LIA

LLI

j3

uj z 0
CO LLJ

z 0

Iz 0 0)

.0

cc w 0 z D
CO

(1) 10 9

Co

r
LO

bO

46

--l

F 'N > ii %: Z---

lom

wl %I %
. 1' 'I "

Ir
.

"

(_-;

.--

'

-...:

-"

--

. "'*

\'t\\i14
1ft \
&
I. '

VUTf, ';

(
h'i -'

I1

V 1\
. %%%-

" %i

Vy

Figure A Thing' s Va 58., Plans of Caithness brochs (all redrawn): (Mercer 1981); B Acharole (RCAHMS 1911a); (RCAHMS 1911a); C Coghill D Green Tulloch (Mercer 1981); E Loch Watenan/Watenan South (Mercer 1985); F Freswick Sands (RCAHMS1911a).

-.

-.

-.

--.

---

1 (:
/ I I
..

I /

I I

4'"C

i'

Ni

/
lom

oo

q:

\'
--

'I,
-I\
--

\L/
I I'
. -' -I 's "'
-

1 ':V
-I. -%-.-___-. .

""-

\<
/'
E

Vi
.3-

',

\\

I\
I

\\\
F

figure 59. Plans of Caithness brochs (all redrawn with the exception (Calder C Kilmster 1948); 8 A Wester (RCAHMS 1911a); of D-E): forth); E Crosskirk D Upper Borgue (Morrison (Fairhurst 1984); Achorn (ibid); D and E planned by SMF, (Rhind 1853). F Kettleburn GS, and KW; drawn by DL.

(0

J*
CD m
r >
0-

df

so
I..

cu

(10 ci

C) c

S..

F%
%II * 00
M

L -4

(0 (0 0 L 0

so to
CLI bO 0 to MO

0)
4) V W f-

4. X

90

04-

x
C13

40 L.

0
So 0L

4)

(D

LL. -4

1.01,, ls:
.I-

I
B/y
-.

-'

L. _.

TL

I----

lom

Hillhead A (all brochs Figure 61. Plans of Caithness redrawn): (Anderson 1901); C Elsay (RCAHMS 1911a); QCAHMS 1911a); B Nybster D Keiss North (RCAHMS1911a); E Hill of Works (RCAHMS1911a).

oj

Aj

"I-,

13

. -.

. -.

. -..

I?,.
/

___w

Fill)
/

lom

Figure 62. Plans of Caithness brochs (all A Ness (RCAHMS redrawn): 191 1a); B Norwall (RCAHMIS1911a); C Keiss South (RCAHMS 1911a); D Keiss West (RCAHMS1911a); E Yarrows (Anderson 1901).

In IllIllIlsi.

aa

"

I'll

"-_

/ // _; iIi:

//f
=

I11 OYi'71
?.
VIP..

;r. * -w-

=* Z5;

lom

\Wl

jq III

mI

1ILLF11 D

-1

63. Plans of Caithness -Figure brochs (redrawn after Warehouse; B Murkle; C Tulach Gorm; D Tota ; Watenan North; F Bruan .

Mercer 1985): an Dranndain;

A E

zzzi

mA 0 lom

171 ,

7 -, /,

\\ z- -V -,

Figure 64. A Achbuiligan Plans of Caithness brochs (all redrawn); Brounabon Tulloch (Mercer B Borrowston (Mercer 1985); C 1985); 2 (Mercer (Mercer 1985); D ND 377 701 (Batey 1984); E Scrabster 1981); F Watenan West (Mercer 1985).

eb

MIA

site

ACTIVITY

x0
,& NV 0

sculptured
burial ecclesiastical reuse land of over

stone

MIA 60m

site

20 Km 11
Figure aCtivity 65. in Comparison Caithness. distribution MIA LIA

of

of

recognised

and

("

to@
lggo

c.
/ / /
00 *0 0) t.
Ze

"a 0 Co CM -4

(0 c -4 ?Z .e

3;
bo
r.

u<L.
..
Co w

bi V
=0 (0
V

"0

-4 40

r h-A

Iti

o 0
9)
V-t

4.
0

b (_
0

tio
-4 CJ

w0

1.0 gj c&. r Co tio 0 40 ba M Dc s. 10=M j2 C. -, CM


4 :j

0-4 0 g. --4 w

-. 0% (0

0)

4)

s .
(f) X > Z 49 n

to

IV

0-

wr

q"

-4-

w 0

L.
:J

t-.
(0 41

IU

gi X 0) C

1-1

ei

ca (I

(D C

0 tK) tn :1 -3 bo 4 -od CJ cu 0 to Z) 0 1-

"M

co

c2. ei -X

im

Co Co

Co

1;

r_ Co

z
iZ Tu< co

o
2-

Co
LLI

0 <
LLI

C) 0
0

c2 < LLJ

ui F-W

2
LU LLJ

2
LIJ

0
O

0
-. *-z

m 0
X
u

:i 0
Z
ui V)
LL)

u
Z

r-:
ui

+-

Ui

:
Co

LU

U)

bo

B fNE-39 L, L-''

Ic.

0 cc)

0---

w cc u D cc

aa

iii
lei
00

"0

-z x

u 0 cc
0

.
u 0 L

0 cc

0 LO

0 U) (1) Q :5 L
41 -3 0

cl

Br

o0-

-r...

2 -

(o

-o

-4

00 UD (V bO -,A rl-

1.

J-

s 0)
In
(1) co

-0
.0

Co

H
0

11
t
41

,4

U) U 0 L

I;
(I)

C a,

C) ID

a) L
ti)

c1c m oo. -,

ok
41 I. to

Go's

LLJ r

uj V) Ll BOND

Co

-0
(0 U) Co

CO

10

CO rl.

C-1 (0 (11 L bo Zc

-max

-mln

to w70wvZ;
20

Is.

A 12 412

16-mir

14 THICKERWALLED
ca & h) ; 0 Z; K) ( Z Co Z; c ZzZ02;; d

L A 13 A 2

14

A 9

20

12 M

A 5
Alo

A 18

AA I17

THINNERWALLED

extended

entrance
46a 10

All

dimensions

in

metres

INTERNAL

DIAMETER

71. The dimensions Minimum and maximum of EIA roundhouses. Bu; 2 for to values the Orkney (Hedges 1987 111). 1 brochs refer Calf 2, Eday; 3-4 Howe phases 5-7 Jarlshof 5-6; of village buildings IV-VI; Little 14 8-12 Kilphedir Howe of Hoxa; ! -V; 13 2, S Pierowall; 6, level Skaill Quanterness; 145 16-17 site NB Wag of Forse. 20 Ness; Spurdagrove; Tofts 1.8 19 structure; Some dimensions are only approximate.

Figure

. -Il -

Ell
0 -J 40,

.1

0% -140

LL LL

cv
4-P

Z
% %.
CO
4) (1% (0 co

CO
1001*

-1

:3 a)
V co (1)

w
z
-0,
C=::.

0 L.

bcl

to

0 co

Rear garden

carrier space
0 0 defined transitional space space

KT-

L p

C
(Pand C

Figure 73. A Plan of a small modern house, ground floor only Hillier best room, K-kitchen, L-main living space; redrawn after Hanson 1984); Unjustified (gamma) map superimposed; B access Justified * access map with labelled spaces.

a a>

cq

C0

Figure 74. A: and distributed a and b are In a symmetric to c; B: relationship with respect a and b are in a symmetric and to c; C: nondistributed relationship with respect a and b are in a to c; D: nondistributed and asymmetric with respect relationship a to c, but d is in an and b are symmetric to each other with respect to both with d is to c; E: in a asymmetric relation respect to a and b, which still nondistributed and symmetric relation remain to d, or to c (redrawn to each other with respect symmetric after Hillier and Hanson 1984).

---

B/7
/ / /
w

Posited

access

/.

C ED carrier
0 0 0

1 14
space
space transitional

room/compartment space wlth hearth

Sm

Figure 75: A Plan of Bu indicating of access (redrawn after points (gamma) map B Bu with Hedges 1987 D; access unjustified Justified spaces. superimposed ;C access map with labelled

(D

(0 1.4 0 .0 0

CO b-

Co :3 Co

E0

(D 0 CL c: *w- 00Z 00
Co (D 0

0 Co C). 0

(0 l. 4) t w

0 x Co

(D -m 0cb.

cu
m

= (Z E (D (D 0 0 E

co E
c: 0)

1.9 (0

Z;

cu CL c

0 0
(0

*Z:
hce

t- *; cu

0E0, =,
r_ (V --

\-li a) 0 ci

;0 %-

Co CM 0 :3 %-

%l\i G) 0
t(0 (V m i. Cl. :i Co 4-

E0

CL

ED000
>-

r=

tio

c 9-

V
-4 4. 4-1 4. 0 jX)

F-, )

41

bCl

bO to .14 4 CL. lu

II

i>o 0

2:

(1) > 4) td3 0L iv Z) 90

(30 m

c .- r X; t--4

0
rn

t-,4 to x

> ei

10
C. )
C)

> u

0
(0 > me--4 X -4 03 1. ei

.'p

oj
0 .00

0 0
4CO ,4 C. .4j (4) (n

:1 Cr X LJ

.. r,

0) =0 r= q) r- .- 4)

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on

w .0
4. to -4

;i im
=O

Co

w
U U

,4 41 0Z

Ei c)

(0

' 0--*,
0-

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Q)
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to

(0

Ex. V

Papa Westray St Bonlfagel . .7 St Tred weD 110 V-W

Steeven of Papy The Kirk Ej and Kill An t

Pap I eyhoulse

v? r"on sa

i Im ..,.
. o. "-*-'"? Z *,

Isay 6, ag 9

51"SI*:

aplay

Figure 79. Place-name evidence for the early and Eccles-names are among the names most (after Thomson 1987).

church likely

Cill in Orkney. to be pre-Norse

LU CC Cl) z .0 00 U) = CC

<
LU

z< <

D
LL

CC
LU z
< 0 CO 0 C-3 0 z 40 % A, 11 14 . Z,

20
0

C. )
A, 000 NA A% ci q , 00

(P

12 ip -A V

0 q q

C-1

0
lk

0C
0
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%Z,

bO C 0
0
0

IT

A.
W I-CC o

be C: <
Aj

NOIIONVS

IVOID0103CII T

cr M IVOIIIIOd

N01133IOdd JLUOddns'(3NVI NOIIVSINVOLIO

2 1i- n w
0 CL

T 3AIIVUISINIV4C]V

w LL 1-- 0 z LU cr.

w 2 cc

0 co

0 w

0 -Z

>A
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a
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0.

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UJ
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w
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w
cr. W

C: LJ
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1-4

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1

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aT

-Z!

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40

cc
< v

I&
0
q

Ae
-Z, IT

- (n Z UJ
cc
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w
41 0

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LLJ
cc

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co 0
W LLI LL Mo

5 0

cc

r. .

r-

LO

co a)
4 Es.

4) 10 0. 1.
4

ba V 0
to

a, E Z< C2-

co -

CO .0

Co W

Cn-

-x

41wl

=3

C)

^0
C

S CL
ml, .10

cx_ c
----------CN c (0

10
.oEt 0% -V
0)

ui mx
zT
0 t, 2L

r, co

-c
-co < CE 6

Q) L. :5 bo

(Q a) biO -0

Figure 82. The approach forecourt and gatehouse.

to

Gurness

from

the

E:

the

Figure

83. passageway

The approach to Gurness the outbuildings. through

along

the

initial

Figure Gurness

84.

The S passage as seen from outside

the broch encircling the left guard cell.

at

Figure Gurness

65.

The N passage as seen from outside

encircling the right

broch the guard cell.

at

----

Figure broch

Gurness outbuildings looking SE. wallhead,

86.

4-6

as viewed

from

the

Figure current

87. Gurness outbuilding looking SSE. wallhead,

3 as

viewed

from

the

Figure outside

88. Entrance the guard cells.

to

Gurness

broch

viewed

from

89. Figure of Gurness

The W chambers broch.

of

the

S and

N compartments

rIUU1

Figure interior

90. from

Overview of the W wallhead.

half

of

Gurness

broch

fgure in the

Gurness !Jl. S compartment.

broch

interior

trom

the

SW chamber

:
INTRA

MURAL

? ? LADDER GROUND
".:. """. """. "

GA

TO FLOOR
/

""..

""

_/"_'

o#.

'c

"t

8roCh

CorVeCturOl ntef*r floorng ot 18 metres feel 6 12 1--'

A
12

B
Figure 92. basis of conjectural Unjustifed map for broch interior access level; layout reconstructed at ground flooring (base maps after at 1.8m level at Gurness: a on b on basis of Hedges 1987 11).

/ /

NW

L'
Figure (base 93. Unjustified Carter map after map for access et al 1984>. the phase 7 levels at Howe

??

-4

30

Figure Lingro

94. (base

Unjustified map after

access map Anderson 1883),

for

conjectured

MIA

levels

at

0-

to

Figure 95. Unjustified access Midhowe (base map modified after

outbuildings map for Callander and Grant

and outworks 1934).

at

L:

-Z

Figure

96.

The approach

to

Midhowe

from

the

NE.

Figure 97. the passage

The approach to Midhowe through the outworks.

at

the

entrance

to

41

Figure through

The approach 98. the outworks.

to

Midhowe

in

the

passage

Figure 99. the W.

The

entrance

to

the

broch

at

Midhowe

from

Figure looking

100. SW.

Midhowe

outbuilding

H from

the

outworks,

Figure W.

101.

Outbuilding

H from

the

outworks,

looking

Figure broch.

102.

The

long

tunnel-like

passage

into

Midhowe

ii
Figure facing 103. W. Midhowe broch interior from the wallhead,

the dividing Midhowe broch 104. interior, wall C, looking S from the 1.8m level. Note of compartment from wall for chamber roof/gallery projection support. Figure

t___

Figure looking stairway it.

105. NW at

Compartment C, of Midhowe broch interior, Note from to the entrance wallhead. level of chamber to W of gallery and roof

4m

PARTmENT D Z3 Cb TH cu

'cu

Ch IH III ?

cL cu C COMP Tq"T C CHAMBERINDETERMINATE CHAMBER CUPBOARD HEARTH T TROUGH

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j
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llll
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) 311
Figure 106. Unjustified ground 1.8m level. a reconstructed approximately access floor map for level;

EXTENT cl-8rh

OF

interior features b conjectural

at Midhowe. gallery at

/
rf tI

Figure (base

Unj ust ifi ed access 107, map f or A Ritchie 1977). maps after

phase

Ib

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II

at

Buckquoy

to

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i-

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Figure C)9. . at Howe (base

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ON EDGE

STENABRECK

lom

Figure

110.

maps after

Unjustified Traill 1885;

access 1890)

maps for

Howmae and

Stenabreck

(base

LI

cm
Figure 111. and Cursiter Two Insular 1887). metal mounts from Warebeth (after Bakka 1963

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- 135-

SCOTTISHARCHAEOLOGICAL

REVIEW
6 VOILIme (lie, )

TRANSFORMATIONS IN SOCIAL SPACE IIIE IRON AGE OF ORKNEY AND CAITHNESS Sally M Foster* This paper will examine the way architecture acted to structure the reproduction of society in Orkney and Caithnessfrom around the early centuriesof the first millennium BC to the eighth or ninth century AD, that is from the period of the Early Iron Age to the arrival of the Norse. Ile period can be divided into four phases:the Early and Nuddle Iron Ages and Late Iron Ages I and 11(henceforthEIA, MIA, LIA I and LIA II). These divisions avoid cultural ascriptions such as 'Pictish' or 'Dalriadic', or meaningless terms such as 'post-Roman'. They will now be more specifically defined below. A schemeis suggestedin outline for structural developmentswitnessedover this period (a future dating problems: complementary article will discuss this in full, along with associated Foster in prep a). On the basis of the general trendsobserved.a social interpretationis analysisis usedto investigatehow put forward. At the sametime the techniqueof access the use of space acted to structure and reproducethesechanging social relations. All quoted C-14 datesare calibrated to the 2orlevel on the 1986Trondheimcurve. Summary or Structural Development The Early Iron Age Definition of the Iron Age is rather bluffed in North Britain both chronologically and culturally, probably more so than anywhereelse in the British Isles. Its traditional rangq is from circa 600 BC-AD 400 (RCAMS 1984,20), althoughit hasbeenspeculated that it might better be ascribed to the period up to the eleventhcentury AD (Clarke 1978,76). Around the beginning of this period, with the changing metal technologies, the importance of local metalworking in defining regional traditions declines markedly. In the Atlantic Province pottery hasbeentakenas somegaugeof cultural andchronological but on the whole, in view of the impoverishedartefactualrecord,reliance has changes, beenon architecturalstudies. Lobate multi-cellular buildings, othErwise courtyard houses, represent an tradition whose origins lie in the Neolithic (such as Scord of Brouster, architectural Shetland: Whittle 1986), but which still occurs in the late Bronze Age, such as village I at larishof (Hamilton 1956,18-3 1 Fig 10). These lobatc multi-cellular structuresmay also have continued to be constructedinto the period of the EIA, suchas at Wilmnow in Shetland (Curie 1936) where a smithy is associatedwith an example. But the EIA is oval) generally characterisedhere by the introduction of a large roundhouse(sometimes tradition, which has beenrecognisedas taking two organisationalforms: isolatedhouses with thick walls sited in visually dominant situationsand smaller structureswith thinner walls which tend to exist in clusters,of which Jarlshof Il is the best example(Sharples 1984.119-20). Abrupt changesin many aspectsof the material culture at this time are In sometimesattributed to a populad6nmigration (Hamilton 1956;Hedges1987111,38). Orkney thin-wallcd roundhouseshave beenrecoveredat Spurdagrove(Ovrevik 1985, 148, Fig 7.4) and Skaill (Gelling 1984; Buteux forth) where they arc associatedwith further agricultural structures such as a byre. The late date of one of the Skaill roundhouseshighlights how late this tradition of thinner walled roundhouses continued (sometime between360 cal BC-AD 220), and demonstrated that the developmentfrom thinner to thicker walled roundhouscswas not unilineal. A seriesof five roundhouses were excavated at Kilphedir in Sutherland (Fairhurst and Taylor 1971) and the same *Departi. ofArchaeology, University, The Glasgow 8QQ G12 -tent 34

1.

number at Cnoc Stangerin Caithness(Mercer 1981.52-56). In neither case can it be proved that theserepresentanything other than a succession structureson one site. of The slenderdating evidencefrom thesesites may be used to suggesta horizon of very large roundhouse constructionin north Scotlandprior to 500 BC (Mercer 1985,73). The impression is of relatively small domestic/agricultural units, whilst the evidence from both Skaill and Kilphedir may suggest shifting of settlementwithin a small area. the haverecentlybeenrecognisedin Orkney and Caithness. Thicker walled roundhouses Exampleshive beenexcavated Bu (I ledges19871). Howe (Carter et al 1984),Calf of at Eday (Caldcr 1937; 1939),Picrowall (Sharpies1984)and Quanterness (Renfrew 1979), whilst the early broch at Crosskirk is sometimes also described as a roundhouse (Fairhurst 1984). It is clear from the evidenceof Bu, Quanterness and Pierowall that thesestructureswere establishedby about the seventhcentury BC, although a Bronze Age horizon for a large thick walled structureat Tofts Nesson Sanday,currently being excavatedby Dockrill, suggeststhat this was not purely an ETA innovation (Archaeol is Extra, 3-4). The particular importanceof theseroundhouses that they now provide a native pedigreefor the later brochs.boLhin their thick walling and interior features.At acquiredbroch-like features. severalsites it can be seenhow both typesof roundhouse Most roundhouseswere isolated save perhapsfor a few ephemeraloutbuildings, possessed probablyof agricultural function. Many both thin and thicker walled structures enteredfrom their interiors.There is increasingevidencethat sowerrains or earth-houses examples of these which now appearas isolated monuments in the landscapewere usually, if not always. ancillary to an aboveground structureof a domestic nature (for exampleat Grain in Orkney: Haigh 1983).Most probably thesenorthernexampleswere for storageof either dairy produceor grain. The direct developmentfrom the roundhouse the broch is chronicled at Howe. At to in Crosskirk the early broch resembled roundhouse manyrespects, at Cfickhimin in a and Shetlanda roundhouse the precedes broch(Hamilton 1968).In Caithnessit is becoming increasinglyobvious that the brochsare but a later addition to an underlying palimpsest of earlier settlement(Mercer 1985,98). Whilst the 'mound upon mound' profile is not one which is so commonin Orkney.the sameprobablyholds true herealso.
The Middle Iron Age Brochs represent a major monumental divergence out of an otherwise fairly continuous tradition of native architecture (cf MacKic 1987) and the NIIA is defined as the period when the broch becomes prevalent. It has to be recognised that the broch class (for want of a better term) covers a whole series of structures differing perhaps in age and form, a structure is best considered in terms of the 'social practices its plan was designed to cover' (Scott 1947,26). The date of this architectural forin is not well established, but dates from Crosskirk, flowe and Dun Mor Vaul (MacKie 1974) suggest a broad horizon of use between the fourth centuries BC and AD. but probably concentrated between the second centuries BC and AD. Many brochs in Orkney and Caithness were enclosed by outworks, sometimes incorporating a blockhouse. When the respective entrances are aligned it may suggest that the broch and outwork were conceived of as a unity and may have been planned at the same time. At Clickhimin and Crosskirk, where there is some evidence for pre-broch activity, the outworks may pre-daLe the brochs. The majority of brochs in Orkney and Caithness are situated in positions where defence was apparently not the prime rochs). A number consideration (cf FojuL 1982 for similar conclusions on the Shetland b. are in totally defensive positions. what Mercer (1985.100) calls fortalice brochs. Prontontoryforts sometimes enclose brochs. They occur in Orkney and Shetland when hillforts do not and in Caithness where there arc a few hillforts.

35

The primary internal broch fittings it Crosskirk (Fairhurst 1984,11128) and Howe (Carter et al 1984, Fig 4) suggestthat in thesecasesthe broch had primarily a domestic function, in common with the earlier roundhouseswhich had similar plans. Little is known of the earliest internal featuresat Gumcssand Midhowe, the best known brochs in Orkney. Whilst there is somesuggestionthat they may have beensimilar in natureto much of the extant features, it is obvious in the case of Midhowe that there were differences. Internal and external casing walls, which appearon many brochs in Orkney and Caithnessneed not be late; at Crosskirk their early constructionreflecteda seriesof structural weaknesses the inadequate and experienceof the builders in constructinghigh walling. Any isolated broch probably did not stand isolated for long. Outbuildings can be divided roughly into two forms: radial and non-radial. The radial examples (Fig 1) encircle the broch in a regular fashion, a passageleading through them to the broch. which is usually surroundedby a narrow encircling passage; there is a very full useof all the available spacebetween the broch and its surroundingoutworks, where theseCxiSL The non-radial form may have arisen very early in the development of brochs (as at Crosskirk where outbuildings were constructedprior to the period of Roman artefacLs, and possibly as early as 200 BC). This is in contrast to the Orcadian SitCSWith outbuildings, where Romanartefactsmay be associated with their earliestlevels. In some casesnon-radial outbuildings may precederadial outbuildings (as possibly in phase6 at Howe). Whilst the non-radial arrangementmay be early, it is virtually impossible to assess the date of many of the sub-circular and sub-rectangularbuildings which surroundthe brochs, most particularly those in Caithness which were excavated in the nineteenth by century, or whose presenceis suggested fieldwork alone. In Caithnessthere is little evidence for the radially disposed settlement seen in Orkney, despite the fact that outbuildings are equally common in c3charea.However, there is occasionalevidencefor are an encircling passage, and extendedentrances common, but the complexeson either side Of them are amorphousand tend to exhibit a wider range of building types than is seen in Orkney. It is not known if later Iron Age structures are chronologically distinctive in Caithness,and there is virtually nothing to compare the buildings around the broch with. Artcfacts are no more helpful becausethe contexts Of either Roman or suggestively MIA ariefacts have never been ascribed specifically to any of the Out structures. Returning to the examplesof radial Outbuildings,the dating evidencefor theserests almost'exclusivcly on the evidence from Howe (Carter et al 1984). Gurness(Hedges 1987 11)and Midhowe (Callander and Grant 1934)(Foster in prep a). Hedges(1987 111, 14) estimatesthat 20 out of 52 of his Orkney broch population have evidencefor well. Ordered outbuildings. On the basisof presentevidence,Outbuildingselsewheretend to be Of the non-radial type, although it is not always possible to distinguish the two on the basisof fieldwork alone. Hedges' work suggests that someof the Outbuildingsassociated with brochs in Orkney have beenbuilt in the samephaseof construction as the broch,or are near contemporaryafterthoughts.because layout of some Of the oubuildingsand the the broch is by and large Systematic.and their floor areas,fittings and furnishings arc comparable(1987 11-111). Opinion on the date of the outbuildings has vacillated from LIA (see for example summary of antiquarianactivity in Orkney: [ledges 1987 Ill, 130-51) to MIA (Childe 1946,90) to LIA (Hamilton 1966,111; Ritchie and Ritchie 1981). but in generalmore recent opinion again favours a MIA horizon (Ritchie 1988). Whilst many undatednonradial outbuildings may be LIA, the redatingof radial structuresnow generates moreof a gap in the LTA settlementrecord. Still. whateverone's stancein the debateabout how 36

soon after the construction of the broch the outbuildings were erected, it cannot be disputed that the brochand outbuildingsco-existedat somepoint. functioning as a unity. Contemporarywith the brochsare likely to have been someroundhouscs and more fragile settlement types which are not so obvious on the ground, particularly the settlements associated with earth-houses.The extent to which tile northern MIA vicinity of brochscannotbe gauged. population lived in or in the immediate

n-177-

LINGRO
UNPHASED

GURNESS
BROCH PERIOO 0 13. '00 -1 1

N4-

P"ASE

HO

E
7

PERIODS

% MIDHOWE
1.2 &

UNDETERMINED

Fig. 1. Plans of brochs with nu&ated settlements (after Hedges 1987 11. RCAMS 1946 11; Carter el al 1984; Callander and Grant 1934). 37

The Late Iron Age I The LIA I marks the time when the brochsceasedto be occupiedas anythingother than temporary workshops or for less monumentaldomestic structures.The function of the broch sites had probably beenchanging up to this time, althoughthe brochmight still be in use, for example outworks were not being maintained.Settlement eithercontinued on Often similar the broch site in a modified manner, or was createdde nova elsewhere. structural forms are found on both. The LIA I is takento end in the early seventh century when more distinctive ariefactsand buildings appear. Some mention has already been made of the problems in assessinghow long modified occupation continued on brochs. This is perhapsthe period of which least is known becauseit is very difficult to recognisein both anefacLual structuralterms. and There are few artefact types which can be specifically assignedto the fourth, fifth and sixth centuries, and post-broch horizons were always the most summarily treatedby earlier excavators. ThroughOUtthe Atlantic [A continuity is exhibi(ed in much of the material culture (for example see Hedges 1987 111,44-47). Some pins and combs (Stevenson 1955; Foster in prep b), brooches (Fowler 1963). class I storiesand art mobilier decoratedwith Pictish symbols, parallelopipeddice and pointed pebblesinay belong to this period, but unfortunately not exclusively. Where theseartefacts occur on broch sites it is only rarely possible to associatethem with specific building forms. RecentC- 14 dateshelp clarify this period (Fosterin prep a and b). Following the N11Athere is a markedabsence C-14 datesfrom Orkney,Caithness of and Sutherland which covers the LIA I (circa cal AD 230-625). In Orkney this section into comprises the post-brochlevels at Howe (phase8), which scarcelytrespass the post 600 (LIA 11)period, and a date for the abandonment a late roundhouse Skaill. Th6 of at the absenceof dates in Caithnessand Sutherlandis easily explained because sampleis too small. A large number of datesfall in this time spanelsewherein Scotland.Thereis nothing abnormal about the stretch of the Trondheim curve covering this period and it be concluded that this low point in the C-14 date spansfor Orkney,Caithness and must Sutherlandcan best be explainedby the history of previousexcavation,namelya lack of is clementof LIA I settlement samplesfrom broch or post-brochlevels. A considerable (Fairhurst probably on broch sites, as a fourth century sherdfrom Crosskirk may suggest 1984). At present there is no daLingevidencethat non-brochsites,such as Pool, extend back any further than about the fourth or fifth centuriesAD. As yet the sampleof sitesis too small, and both post-brochand non-brochsettlements may be expected fill this gap to one day. Nor need it surprise us if some broch outbuildings are found to havehad an extrem; ly extended life span - at Pool a small (probably muld-celled) unit has been demonstratedto have beenoccupiedover a number of centuries(perscomm Hunter).It is not always possible to recognisechangesin structural form on broch sitesbecause of the tendencyto reuseearlier structures,but the generalimpressionat Howe is of a series of interconnecting sub-circular and sub-rectangular rooms with yards. There is no evidencefor any more than a couple of domesticunits. A new type of settlementwas,dcvclopedde novo on some non-brochsites.At Pool excavation of a settlement mound has revealed substantial prehistoric settlement underlying Norse halls and byres of the ninth to thirteenth centuries(ArchaeolExtra; Hunter pers comm). Here, in about the fourth or fifth centuries AD a roundhouse and associatedbuildings precededby a probable souterrain and associated structure,were built into Neolithic middens underlying the site. This then developedinto a cellular settlement of adjoining and interconnecting roundhousesand smaller circular cells. Perhaps most of the site fidd eroded into the sea, but there is certainly no reasonto Suggest any broch settlementin the immediatevicinity. Indeedit seems that this cellular type of complex may be paralleledat HowMae,North Ronaldsay(Traill W 1885;Traill I 38

in 1890).This site (Fig 2) was excavated the 1880sand consistsof an unphased complex of roundhouses,one possibly a wheelhouse(unique so far in Orkney and Caithness), courtyards,and a long rectangularform which can also be paralleledat Pool (seebelow). Ilowmae is undated,but there is nothing in its artefactualassemblage contradict a date to of of about 300-600AD. The absence any distinctive LIA 11artefactsperhapsweighs in favour of this date. It thus seemsthat settlement mounds are characteristic of LIA settlement. The number of domestic units which might have been extant in any one settlementat a single time is unknown, but the presenceof iritcrconnectingcourtyards hints at a degreeof complexity not immediatelyapparentin their amorphousplans.

lom I

STONES ON EDGE

,0

IST UNDER

Fig.,2. Plan ofilowmae (ajter Traill 1890,pl XVI).

It has recently beenrecognised that certain oblong or rectangularbuildings may be of pre-Norse,most notably the oblong wagsof Caithness, which Langwell and Forseare the only excavatedexamples(Curle 1912; 1941,1946; 1948), but r6cent survey on the Dunbeathestatesuggests further examples(Morrison 1986).Wags have long beenheld to be unique to Caithness, more particularly the parishesof Latheron and Dunbcath,but an increasingnumberof vaguelysimilar structuresare now being discoveredin Orkney where thereis a growing body of evidencefor their LIA pedigree:from sixth to seventh

39

century levels at Pool, early phase8 at Howe; and possibly at the Broughof Birsay (for examplestructure 15. Hunter 1986,56). The structureat Howe with its stalls is probably domesticrather than a byre (pers comm B Smith, contra Carteret a[ 1984,68-69)and such an intepretationis not implausible for many of the other Orcadiansub-recmngular forms. If for a moment we turn our attentionsto the Udal in the WesternIsles it will be seen that here there is evidencefor different non-broch settlementforms which may date to cal AD 140-660(Q- 1131; Crawford and Switsur 1977,Crawford 1986).At this time the settlementshifts and the structureand artefact types changeso abruptly that Crawfordis compelled to think in terms of an invasion. In levels XIV-XIII (the levelsare numbered beginning from die most recent), the levels prc-dating the seventhcentury the buildings take the form of simple, oval bellied buildings with small satellite ceils, slab-lined hearthslying along the long axis, and a single internal revettedplatform. Until the site is published it is impossible to assessif these buildings bear any relationship to those around brochs in the north, or if they are indeed the by-product of an immigrant population (in addition, as the concept of the unitary broch culture province dissolves. the validity of suchcomparisonscan be queried). The Late Iron Age II
steep section in the C-14 calibration curve begins at around cal AD 625, as a result of which a disproportionally large number of C-14 dates are calibrated to within a range of a few calendrical the LIA is broken up into years (Foster in prep a). Effectively two periods on either side of around AD 625. The later bracket is henceforth described -Is LIA 11, although, in Orkney at least, Early Medieval might be equally appropriate. Thus divisions imposed upon these data, this is the one most designed of all the chronological to suit the archaeologist. None the less, from the seventh century the Atlantic Province is Starting to acquire an Early Historic mande and much of the evidence points to a rapidly developing Pictish church and state. To date the most distinctive forms are the polyventral LIA II structural cells (Fig 3) discovered throughout the Atlantic Province, primarily on de novo settlements. The main exponent of these forms occur in levels XII and XI at the Udal. In level YJI the buildings (1986) describes as a take a more symmetric, 'ladybird-like' plan which Crawford house (cf Loch na Berie: Topping 1986). In phase XI these forms were ventral house. Many of these houses hence the polyventral embellished with minor satellites, were enclosed by timber palisades, which were obviously one example very significant, going through at least ten replacements. A sequence of adjacent enclosures is strung Out along the machair ridge, but no details are available at present of their chronological intcr-relationships. At all periods since phase XIV there buildings accompanied by were minor buildings, fourposters. Ile latter have not ben recognised elsewhere. Buildings Udal have also been recovered in buildings similar to the ventral at the Orkney, as at Buckquoy 1983. Fig 6). At (Ritchie 1977, Fig 2) and Red Craig (Morris is not Buckquoy there is a greater axiality in ale arrangement of the rooms. although this seen in the example which was 6und in the upper levels at Gurness (Hedges 1987 11, Fig 2.11). The Udal dates for these particular buildings as they suggest that are interesting. this form may have a pre-seventh century pedigree. although most other evidence points to their later date (note also a dendrochonologically derived terminus post quem Of 648 AD from a timber version Ireland: Lynn 1989). Curved gullies of this form in Northern trenches of major at Birsay are best interpreted robbed foundation as the thoroughly facings and thick turf walls (Hunter cellular had internal orthostatic structures which form. 1986.37-45,111 10-14), but are otherwise fairly similar in form to the polyvcntral There is no evidence the midfor the settlement Lhe Brough of Birsay pre-dating at A lengthy

40

seventh century at the earliest (ibid. 61). It will now be obvious why non-broch of settlementand non-scttlcment moundactivity of this dateis difficult to detau, because building techniquesare such that the relative slightnessof the structures,and because robbing would leavethe formertotally unevidenced.

paving H hearth

HH

H ? #0

Ac

B0

lom

Fig. 3. Plans ofpolyventral structures: A Backquoy house 4 (after Ritchie 1977, Fig 3); B Brough of Birsay structure 19 (after Hunter 1986, ill 11); C Red Craig (afier Aforris 1983Fig 6; Hunter 1986,ill 3).

form has been recognisedon site Vill at the Brough of Birsay A roundhouse-type (!bid, structure 21,11117) which is assumedto be LIA 11.On site VII at Birsay it is interestingto notethat a drain divided two buildings from eachother (ibid, III 11), and is buildings. perhaps of suggestive further divisions between On the basisof certainpins andcombs(Stevenson 1955;Fosterin prep a and b) there was evidently Someactivity on broch sites in the LIA IL In Orkney we are perhaps for seeingthe preference selectivereuseof siteswhich haveboth massiveoutworks and surrounding settlements, sites which may by implication have been of especial importancein the NUA. At presentno suchpauememerges from the Caithness evidence. However. it remains to be emphasisedthat there has been little excavation on late occupied brochs. Tlere is little evidence that a site was used both for burial and a domesticpurpose, is themany evidencefor any LIA I activity on thesesites usedfor nor burial. `fhe implication is thereforethat a large numberof thesebrochssites weregrassy moundsby the Limathey cameto be reusedasburial sites,althoughthe former presence of LIA sealcmentin the immediatevicinity of the broch moundcan unfortunatelynot as yet be verified. Ilia collapseof broch and surroundingstructuresmight havecreatedso much debris diat it was more convenientto build adjacentto the motuid, which is not 41

degredationis where archaeologiststend to investigate,but is wheremost subsequent likely to take place (as at Howe wherethere are suggestions features runningoff into of the ploughedout areawhich surrounded mound:perscomm B Smith). the Analysis of Spatial Patterns in Buildings Ile gamma (henceforth access)analysis of Hillier and Hanson (1984) is a meansof investigatingthe relationshipbetween of spatial order andsociety.It looksat the patterns relations betweeninhabitantsandbetweeninhabitants strangers they are reflected as and in the useof interior space,in termsof the patternscreated boundaries entrances. by and Whilst one can find faults in the tenents is behind the technique, formal approach One the which can be adapted Socialinferences be can and modified for archaeological purposes. derived from the spatial order by circumspectconsideration the assumptions behind of every step of the technique, and a clear understandingof the relationship between material culture and social reproduction.All discoursehas a spatial element (Barrett 1988) and thereforeaccessanalysisis a useful tool for articulating an understanding of the part spaceplays in structuringsocial relations, and the part social relationshave in how this structuring spice (Foster 1989).The aim of the next sectionis to demonstrate technique can be used to further an understandingof our period, and to develop in tandema social interpretation. The prehistoricstructuresof Orkney and Caithness provide one of the bestdatabases with which to do this because often have informationabout the form and function of we the constituentspaces.Here, despitesubsequent of robbingand other vagaries time, the wide availability of natural building blocks has resultedin the unprecedented survival ot prehistoricstructures, prehistoricresourceunrivalledin the British Isles. a The Theory and Technique A building is madeup Of walls the which define a seriesof enclosedspaces, boundaries betweenwhich may be broken by doorways from one area to another. allowing access The importanceof doors is not only that they open, but more importantly that they can close. effectively segregating spaces and controlling the means of access to any particular point. Access analysis is based on syntactic relations, and considers the arrangementof different spacesas a pattern of permeabilities,that is in terms of the interconnections betweenspaces.This techniqueis important because its descriptive of 3utonomy,unambiguous rules of application,and its clearexpositionof how theserelate at the very lowest level to relations between inhabitants,and betweeninhabitantsand strangers.Societieswhich might vary in their type of physical configurationand degree to which the ordering of spaceappears a conspicuous dimensionof culture, can all be as comparedon a similar basis.This is particularly useful if we are trying to comparethe social practicesa building wasdesignedto cover rather thanits architecturaltraits. The technique is Bu

explained with Elie use of the example of the EIA roundhouse at (Fig 4). Each has been represented as a dot unit of space. inclyding transitional spaces, with lines between them where there is giving access between spaces (Fig permeability, 4A). Each space is usually an area which is enclosed by orthosEats, with access either through doorways (as in the case of Fig 4B x), or over low kerbs (v) where the access lines may therefore appear to be jumping walls. The central 'service area' (y) is defined by a low kerb because the and gives access to the hearth (z); it is divided into two -as smafler north Section is partly (Hedges 1987 1, Fig paved and the distribution of artefacts 1.57) may suggest that the southern half had a different function to the northern half. Area w is treated as a single space because the central orthostat was not designed to break the space into two distinct components, and because of the extent of floor deposits which are more Or less specific to this area (Ibia). The network of dots and connecting

42

lines forms an unjustified accessmap. TIN map can be justified. in this case from an outside perspective(the carrier), the stanceof the suanger (Fig 4C), although it could have beenfrom any point in the building. By justification it is meantthat all points of a certaindepth, that is the minimum numberof stepstakento reachthem from the carrier, have been positioned on the same horizontal line, subsequentdepth values on lines parallel to the first. Given the rules of construction any line will either connect with by points on the same level of depth, or two levels separated only one level of depth. The resultant map is both an aid to visual deciphermentof the pattern, and could in (an theory be combinedwith quantificationprocedures aspectwhich is not pursuedhere).

A, t

posited

access

\
\

I I I

carrier transitional

space space

room/compartment

II
0

space

with

hearth

Fig. 4. A Plan of Bu indicating points of access (after Iledges 1987 1: Fig 1.10); 8 a" with unjustified access (gamma) map superimposed(access to hearth omitted); C Justified accessmap with labelled spaces.
because open spaces cannot be so are easier to study than settlements readily separated into analytical elements (Hillier and Hanson 1984,16), and the richness in differentiation of interior structures means that they carry more social information (ibid. 154). So, once spaces are defined, the spatial order of a than exterior relations structure can be represented in part by a diagram showing the interconnections of the for analysis is therefore an accurate map with all access enclosed spaces. A prerequisite points marked. Form (the formal properties ofspace and the boundaries which dcfine it its style) and function (the purpose of buildings) must also be embraced. In practice it is Buildings

43

virtually impossibleto make a distinction betweentheseattributes(Markus 1982.4-6;cf Johnson1988,117). Hillier and Hanson(1984) minimise the interactivenatureof these becauseof their apparent belief in the analytical autonomyof the spatial dimension. if However. theseother arcWtecturaldimensionshave to be brought into consideration the full archaeologicalvalue of access analysisis to be appreciated. Social Inference From AccessAnalysis in It has been argued elsewhere(Foster 1989) that the applicationof thew techniques, combination with evidencefor architecturalform and function,can impart two levelsof Firstly it allows us to consider the reality of living in, or visiting, spatial understanding. that particular building. Interior spaces constitute commonly inhabitedlocalesof social interaction. Access analysis allows us to consider how frequently and under what architecturalcircumstances physical encountermight occur and thus illuminate the way that particular architecture structures social discourse. Secondly we may comparea number of spatial patterns to reveal the possible existenceof underlying genericrules which govern the generationof thesepatterns. In this study the designation of a space depends on the physical presenceof a doorway. or crossing a low kerb or ramparts.It is also depends, a large measure, on to the ascribedfunction of an area-, is obviously important to distinguishan enclosed it area where sleeping rather than storage might have Lakenplace. Areas with hearthsare especiallyrelevant.The recognition of functional zones,evenif only derinedby what in another period might have been described as furniture, is an obvious archaeological progressionon a techniqueevolved for upstanding'historic' structures. Orkney and Caithness c 600 BC-AD 800 In Figs 4-6 various typesof settlementhavebeendrawn asjustified gammamapswith an of extendedvocabulary of symbols to representthe different typesof spaceand means Theseaccessmaps thereforeincorporateinformation aboutthe spatialproperties access. of the settlements and the potential functionsof someareas.Moreoverby the useof open and closed symbols differing architectural types, where relevant, have also been in indicated. The result is an all-embracing considerationof the architecturepresented convenientdiagrammaticform. In the early first millennium BC the population either lived in thick-walled roundhouses, which tended to be sited in isolation or in small clustersof thinner wailed roundhouses or lobate multi-cellular structures. Gradually the thicker-walled roundhousesdeveloped into increasingly elaborate architectural forms, ultimately the broch, as competition in society led to the local pre-eminenceof certain residential groups(Hedges 1987111). Both typesof roundhousewere clearly domesticbuildings,the only difference being in scale and the amount of effort put into their construction, signifying which inhabitantswere more powerful. This distinction is almostundoubtedly the result of the ability to manipulate primary agricultural resources. indeed the appearanceof earth-houscs emphasisesthe importance of food storage at this time (Sharples 1984,121). Thus the potential for social diversification and development would always have beengreaterin Orkney and Caithnessthanother arm of the Atlantic Province because the land was fertile enough to maintain large populations and the competitive demands of production and consumption. Elsewhere the piecemeal distribution of natural discrete social units with less resources tended to produce Potentialfor development. Ile authority of this new dominating 'would be explicitly statedin the social elite ritual Of legitimisaLionand in the symbols of power displayed,but that authority would also be implicit in, amongstother things, the paymentof tribuLe'.Thus as Barrett (1981. 44

215) goeson to say. the acceptance new authority might be mobilised in the labour of of building the brochs and its enclosing ramparts. Prior to this the distinction in scale betweenthe roundhouses and the adding of extra claddings to the walls may have been equally significant. Thesebuildings were not simply constructedfor extra warmth and/or defence and/or status, but in the process of their construction actors were brought together who demonstrated their acceptanceof authority whilst at the same time ramifying or creating the basison which this power was established. Ultimately the result was the broch, the residenceof the social elite which may in of caseshave formed from the amalgamation certain social groupings.for certainly some brochsdevelopedinto fully fledged brochs, and it may have not all roundhouses/early in been necessary muster resources order to gain superiority over rival social units. to The secondarydouble domesticunits at Gurnessand Midhowe suggestthat a couple of domestic units, perhaps kin groups, might have amalgamated. The infilling of the roundhouses at Pierowall and Quanternessmay be the result of conflict between competinglineages(Sharples1984,121).Factorssuchas raiding or land hunger (cf Scott but for 1947)are not directly responsible thesechanges, could be catalystsfor changesin the rules by which discoursewas enacted,and society continued to 'beconie' (cf Pred 1985). In Caithnessa large numberof roundhouse sites existing on the ground do not exhibit later development,and thereare relatively few brochsin Caithnesswhich appear that only certain earlier sites on the surface to be new foundations.Again this suggests maintained the economic and social impetus to allow settlement to continue uninterrupted(Mercer 1985,10). A similar patternmay exist in Orkney. notably when and/or burnt mound sites occur in close proximity to each severalbroch or roundhouse other. The general picture is thus of the increasingconvergenceof land and societal control under powerful groupingswho symbolisedand accumulatedtheir power within the broch. The fact that there was continuity of developmenton particular sites may suggestmaintenanceof social networks. land organisationand territorial patterns, and communities(ibid, 10). proprietalrights with antecedent At Turning to the spatialaspects. somegeneraltrendscan be observed. the immediate from Early Iron Age single,agricultural and domestic units visual level, the development (such as Bu, Fig 4) to Middle Iron Age nucleated settlements (Fig 5) reveals the introduction of a staggeringhierarchicaluse of space.The maps becomeconsiderably deeper(more asymmetric),and the deepest, most segregated area is always the set of spaces which constitute the broch. Upper galleriesand upperstoreys,featuresnot found Their usagemay have leastaccessible in the outbuildings, are the very deepest, spaces. included storage,extra sleepingfacilities and wallheadsfrom which surveillance might be made.Unfortunately theseare die partsof the structureaboutwhich least is known as they were always the first to collapseor be dismantled,and the total numberof original floors is not known. If the majority of activities and functions was in the upper storeys then obviously their exact naturecan neverbe assessed the ground plans tell us less and (althoughit seemsmost probablethat the groundfloor was the main domesticforum). Ile larger the access maps,then the more abstractand complicated they become to analyse, and it is helpful to break them down, for instance by dividing them into distributed ('ringy') and nondistributed('tree-like') sub-systems(as Gurness: Foster 1989,Fig 6). On the veri outside,globally governingthe interior, are earthworkswhich extendthe depth betweenthe inside and outsideworlds, evenif in somecasesthey only than real rings, that is their circuit is 'completed' by natural create abstrart rather features. Access to the interior proper has to be via the 'guardhouse' or forecourt, a convex space;this is where the transition from the outside world to an inner relatively environment is sanctioned.From here ingressis made into a long thin passagefrom to which access both outbuildingsand brochcanbe made.In the casesof Gurness,Ilowe 45

. -.

--.

180

o*M

0-

en

ci

t:

E3 0=00.
-

CL

ED oo-4 *
LLJ e

Middle Iron Age nucleatedsejIlements(reversedlopen Fig. 5. Justified access(gamma) mapsjor brochfrom other structures): A Gurness, B llowe, * C MidhOlvesymbols distinguish the

46

LL

ED 0

pe

0---

(1

Fig. 6. Justified access(gamma)mapsfor LJA structures.A Ilowmae; D Howe phase8. stage6.' C Gurness 'Shamrock', D Udal level XIVAIII, E Udal level XII, F Udal level XfI, G * Buckquoy Key arfor Fig 5. phase1b.A-D are LLI 1,E. H are MA 11. phase11;H Buckquoy

47

and Lingro (as suggested an early sectionof walling: RCAMS 1946IT. Fig 230) the by entrance into the settlement and the broch entrance are aligned. which Must have From here the Outbuildings enhancedthe processionallike qualities of thesepassages. in spaces constitute a local, large and almost totally nondistributedarea of settlement, wtdCh Strangerscannot freely circulate and into which they must be invited. Such branchingoff thuscreatesthe maximum segregation spaceswith the leastexpenditure of of depth, both between and within domestic units. Entrance to and between the outbuildings is mainly by means of this passage,therefore most movementcan be monitoredby control of its varioussections. From this first narrow passage which is access gainedto the next ring, a passageway be encircles the broch (except at Howe). This ring is at the point where ingresscan gained to further nondisLributed spacesat a slightly deeper level. Ringy structures interconnectsomeapartments Accessto the broch interior is from the and outbuildings. by initial passage, about the samelevel but is deepened at as someof the outbuildings, The guard Cells,an elaboratedoorway into a long tunnel.and a seriesof vestibules. form Of the architectureis particularly relevant;the monumentalityof the broch-towerand its elaborateentrancecontrast starkly with the less substantialoutbuildings. all of which appearvery simdar in form, serving to heightenthe discrepancybetweenthesespaces. Onceinside the brochthe final from all is encountered, which is separated ringy structure the others by severaldepth levels. This is quite complex in the caseof the doubledomestic units at Hilhowe and the later levels at Gurness.The rings connectthe maindomin estic foci (the hearthareas)and the upperlevels. Cells and compartments arranged are non-distributedfashionfrom theserings, in similar fashionto the outbuildings. From the point of view of strangers, the overall hierarchical layout and the differencesin architecturalform have done nothing to encouragetheir admissionto the broch. Therefore, its interior is unlikely to have had a major role it, ringy system. articulating immediate stranger-inhabitant relations, but was probably a means of articulating the relationshipsbetweenthe different domestic units, where they existed. The ringy sub-systems the Outbuildings in have played a similar role, but here would thereis a greateremphasis the non-distributed on component. From the point of view of social structurea numberof observations be madeon can the basisof this information. Despitesomesimilarities with the outbuildings.the broch obviously standsout as the most importantareain the settlementcomplexbecause its Of spatialImportance.its Prime locationand its monumentality.If it were not for the double domesticunits, and the spaces associated with the upper levels of the broch. then they would differ little from the earlier roundhouses. Of This, in combinationwith the degree controlled accessto the Outbuildings and their apartments, which are almostexclusively segregated,may suggestthat the social structure on which thesenew relations were foundedrequiredsoict control In order to be bOLh and established maintained. Taking an overview, the observedsystemsserveto emphasise social inequalities the existing between the broch and outbuilding occupants, and the settlement and the Outsida,the latter distinction being the strongest.Local relations betweenthe internal has Cellsare basically the sameexceptfor the broch; the factor of non interchangeabilitY beenintroducedbetweenthe broch and its all surroundingunits. Thus this is more of a transPatialthanspatial system.In other words the emphasis on spatialrelationswhich is have been determined by genotypic rules and produce the required restrictions of encounter,even though eachphysical manifestationof theserules is different. What is EOin c-model is global, becauseit recurs, and as a result transpadal ration can exist between arrangements (settlement complexes) form layout and comparablepositioning may foster a conceptual of identification (Ilillier and Hanson1984,238). 48

the (1982) estimates a carrying capacity of about 100-200 people it is not possible to measure the size of a broch in Shetland. Unfortunately surrounding capacity of the land was being and the extent to which the carrying the populations but increasingly, and from early days in the history of the brochs, a realised at any stage, large number of dependents came to live around the brochs. 7be greater the authority and the larger the number of dependents they could both of the broch inhabitants wealth The most powerful leaders could muster the resources to lay out and attract and support. and on a build planned, integrated. nucleated villages. Under less formal circumstances, Early brochs are seen as being outbuildings were built. lesser scale, non-radial with various roundhouse seulements, and not all broch sites were of equal contemporary from area to area, Ile pace of this development may have varied considerably standing. was not necessarily unilineal. In a time of great change social tensions must have and been strong between different groups, and it was in the interests of the social elite to fold, and preferably them where they to accommodate attract more dependents to their could be easily accounted and provided for. Fojut
land to cultivable sited with access were as the main consideration Fojut 1982; Mercer 1985). It is presumed 1947,1948, (Scott that all inhabitants, even have been involved in the production probably would of food. craftsmen, in the broch Ultimately there was a change the result system, of a renegotiation of by extending the authority was achieved which cultural resources. of certain or relations, Most brochs

In addition the inhabitants of a single settlement may feel a strong sense of identity because they share a structured whole with others. Furthermore, the with each other code of repetitive nature of these patterns may be representing the acknowledgement ofa in this case spatially determined, by which those in the broch sustained their symboLs, the inhabitants of the outbuildings. The ordered layout of the outbuildings authority over laid out as a unity use of space further suggests that these were and the comprehensive the broch inhabitants, rather than being the result of the cumulative under the authority of basic structuring principle. lbeir construction is thus a construction of outbuildings to a the symbol by which the authority of the bruch inhabitants was both accepted and part of The emphasis is on the articulation of these relations at the intra-site level, but as created. a part of a wider society with similar values. for land

(cf Barrett forth). Certainly by rejecting the broch was once current authoritative symbols although settlement of some form occupied, seems to have continued on many no longer for which least is known but there I is the period record, of the settlement sites. The LIA in is certainly of structures on social grounds no indication which can be differentiated is not knGwn, but it would be too The exact date of this change Orkney and Caithness. interests in Scotland. Yet as the to relate this to the withdrawal of Roman easy to attempt recorded prime Romans never there was 1987,2-3). the source of authority any in the control north in exercised base a power the this period, in the area, this the cannot classical be ignored. literature Although the that suggests (I'bornson conquering worth had become clients aristocracy have been sufficient to topple

which

of their patronage might withdrawal (Macinnes 1994). brochs as is suggested was the case for the Lowland this social system, leaders of their the needs and demands local When able to satisfy were thus no longer bases to from the local power dependents, of relations the resuli was the renegodadon the social those where The only, broch distant were continued sites which ones. more broch in this new system; certain presumably to derive power to continue managed elite of sites were still the major Britain Fifth century of the withdrawal post-Romart as in centres. in general was experiencing shift as an rea time of settlement both the continent from and btland. doit the is no reason to believe there

and Romans,

the archaeology

supports

was considered this. If the broch

sult Yet

and migrations of the Romans England, Wales and north

49

earlier social structuredid not survive, albeit in modified form. Certainlythe aggression suggests of the Picts againstsouth Britain, recordedfrom the We third centuryonwards, that the individual componentsof their society were able to producebetweenthena naval force to be reckonedwith. The appearance forts. notably Burghead. with 3 coas' of a tal distribution from the fifth century onwards, not (Alcock 1980,80-81).suggests OOY concentration of resources into fort construction, but is a part of the.discontinuity in Witnessed the settlement Pictland. record throughout Very little is known of social but the term regulus wasusedto describe stratification, a sub-king or minor king of Orkney who was visiting the rex potentissiln"s near Invernessin AD 565. The picture is thus of a systemof local kings with one, presented piciland or possibly two overkings.Certainly the uniformity of symbol storiesthroughout (the majority of which probably date to the LIA U) that emphasises therewas a certain cultural cohesionthroughoutthe area(RiLchie1985,189). By the seventhcentury there is at increasingbody of evidencefor settlement this an time having been made up of individual, discrete the Birsay Bay units, such as around area (Morris 1983,132). Only one site, at the Brough of Birsay can bee forwardas a Put Particularly important centre, but then on the basisof its finds, locationand subsequent importance in the Norse (Curie 1982; distinguishing structures period, rather than any Hunter 1986). The lack of farmland on the island renders interpretation as a simple farmstead unsatisfactory (Hunter 1986,169). inhabitants must have been and the dependent a hinterland.The Perhaps on settlements aroundthe Birsay Bay may therefore be interpretedas a seriesof home farms dependent providingfor theneeds settlements or we of this establishment.They may thereforenot be totally typical of the settlements may expect to find i. re-use There was someselective scwherein Orkney and Caithness. of broch sites, but on presentevidencethis only occurredon a few sites.in Orkneythe selective reuse of sites for secular and ecclesiastical purposes which were probably particularly important in the MIA (see above) may be a means of legitimising and enforcing a new social structure(cf Bradley 1987). In the Post-broch coriod (Fig 6) the accessmaps revert to forms which are very similar to the shallow EIA examples, units exceptthat in the LIA ii someof thedomestic are enclosedby fenc.s. creatinga seriesof discreteunits which are sometimes clustered in space.In other words the basic domestic units remain very similar throughoutour Period,despitedifferent architecturalshells; evenin the MIA they do not Change. except In that they are bound togetherspatially with strongly prescribedlines of access. spatial is terms the only differencebetweenthe thin and thick walled EIA roundhouses in their degreeOf associationwith other structures and their monumentality. is In the LIA the emphasisthus changesfrom internal to externalspace,and there, a trend towards more egalitarian. less spatially prescribed. on-site relations. However. between thesechangeswere undoubtedlyaccompanied a stricter control of the spaces by sites as a result of new forms of land organisaLion.In terms of social evolution this changecorrespondsto the shift from a ranked society to the emergentstate,from local power basesto more distant 6urcesof authority. By the eighth century there are hints that Pictish kings were developing some of the organisational capacity to manage2 widespreadkingdom. which was gradually acquiring someof the appearance a state, of with a degreeof central administration and perhapsmore closely-definedboundaries, which could at times be backedby physical violence (cf Mann 1986,37). In AD 727 there is a referenceinterpretedas meaning that Nechtin had officers called exactores. Personscollecting tax or tribute (Annals of Ulster, sub anno 728; Anderson1973,178). and it is probable that such officers worked as the king's representatives throughout Pictland. Such people lived in isolation from those from whom they were exacting tribute. benefiting considerablyfrom the enhanced powerswhich they derivedfrom their 50

is Still in this case hillforts. whilst the construction architecture, of monumental a material symbol of the acceptance of authority. this power is now more physically remote. Whilst there am still regionally based sources of authority, these am seemingly few in nurnber, and their power is structured and reproduced in a different manner. There is no longer the need for tightly regulated social encounter. the existence and acceptance determined social rules, or indeed the ability to maintain such a network. of physically The relationship of dependency is no longcr cxpressed in such overtly spatial terms and enhanced personal encounter contributes to the working of this extensive social network. That the maintenance of these long-distance relations was diffiCUIL is suggested by die fact that king Brude was reputed to have destroyed the Orkneys in AD 682 (Tigernach Annals: Orcadies delete sunt la Bruidbe, Skene 1867,72). which may have resulted from Orradian dissatisfaction with the choice of overlords, or auempts to exact tributes. The secular reuse of important MIA sites may in part be an attempt to legitimise and therefore enforce this far-flung network. Similarly the introduction of the Roman church with its Pastoral Organisation to Orkney by the southern Pictish king in the eighth century (Lamb 1988; Thomson 1987,10) might be construed as a conscious effort to consolidate secular power through the church. Christianity power whose was a forin of ideological authority resided in the correspondence between its doctrine and the motivations and needs of the converted (Mann 1986,302). Whilst the appeal and influence of Christianity was universal, yet at the same time it reinforced the standing of the extant secular literacy authority: beyond face-to-face provided a stable means of communication relations, and its law and morality represented long distance regulation (ibid 337,377). The extension of the church to Orkney within a few years of AD 715 may effectively date the extension of Pictish royal power, in real terms, to this area (Lamb 1988). Ile distribution of symbol stones and evidence for the ecclesiastical reuse of sites points to those sites where the interests of the social elite were closely tied up with the developing Pictish state and church (ef Driscoll 1988). In a later eighth century or ninth century version of Bede's Ecclesiastical History Orkney was considered to be a part of the Pictish kingdom (Dumville 1976). which by the end of the century may have been consolidated under a single king (Davies 1994, 70). 'Me general absence of mention of Caithness in the documentary sources is probably a reflection of the lesser importance of this area in comparison to the Orkney Isles which were both more accessible and strategically placed in the Atlantic seaways. By the time the Norse arrived Orkney and Caithness were both thoroughly Pictish, but far removed from the prime sources of authority. The regional infra-structure, was thus not adequate enough to make a stand against a Norse takeover, particularly at a It was however a wellPeriod when the powers of the Pictish state were diminishing. both secular and ecclesiastical, oiled system of administration, onto which the Norse Crawford 1987,168). grafted themselves (as in Ireland, England and Normandy: For example, in Orkney theie is evidence that the Norse land-divisions might even have been 1952,208). Lamb suggests (pers related to a pre-Norse administrative system (Marwick comm) that it only became necessary to set up the Jarldom in the ninth century after the ecclesiastical structure ceased to function due to the dismantling o( the Roman Church by the Scottish kings.

positionas agents authority (thereis thusa dialectic betweencentralisingpowers.such of forcesof its agents:Mann 1986).Agentssuchas these as the state,and the decentralising might have levied the fleets which carried out severalrecordedsea-bome attacksin the sixth and seventhcenturies(TigernachAnnals c 68Z- Annals of Ulster c 580-81). and which was wreckedin the eighth(TigernachAnnals c 729). Thus

51

Conclusions All human action is located in both time and space.It is thus appropriatethat a Large proportion of the effort of archaeologists is spent in measuring, describing and recording these attributes. particularly those pertaining to humanly-made-space architecture.Spaceprovides the setting for all social discourse,whether it is the open landscape or an artificial environment. It is a resource with an infinite number of permutations. a cultural resource which when studied in terms of its development through time can be understoodnot only as the context, but also the structuring agent and product of acts of social reproduction. This paper has attemptedto demonstrate this and introduced accessanalysis, as describedabove, as a useful tool for furthering an understanding of the relationship between a specific material culture and social reproduction. The shift from a ranked society where the ultimate authorities were locally based to more remote sources of central authority characterises the developmentof Orkney and Caithnessfrom the MIA to the arrival of the Norse. In his account of the sourcesof social power, Mann (1986) distinguishessix different forms of organisationalpower. Here we are seeing the change from intensivepower. where there was the ability to organize Lightly and commanda high level of mobilisation or commitment from the participants, to extensivepower, where there was the ability to organise large numbers of people over far-flung territories in order to engage in minimally stable co-operation. In order to amplify our expandingpicture of ]A Orkney and Caithness, it now remains to examine how other aspectsof social reproduction fitted w! thin this framework, and to identify the resourcesthrough which this power was exercised. In particular we must examine the means by which the change from local to distant power bases was achieved and maintained, the answer to which undoubtedlylies in changing agricultural practice and land tenureand the introducLion of Christianity (Mann 1986;cf Biddick 1984). Acknowledgements This paper expandsupon the casemade in my note in Antiquity 1989,so I must repeat my thanksto thosewho helped with this, and the editor for permissionto reproduce the relevant sections. In addition I would like to gratefully acknowledtge thosewho have generouslydivulged of their unpublisheddata and ideas, let me use these,and kindly commented on various aspects of this present paper, namely Simon Buteux; Steve Dockrill; Dr John Hunter, Dr Raymond Lamb; Dr Euan MacKie; Roger Mercer Ross Samson. Dr Liz Slater, Beverley Smith; and other colleagues in Glasgow. Professor Leslie Mcock and the Editor, John Barrett, worked hard to comprehensively criticise my text, make suggestions. and amelioratethe worst of my crimes to the English language. Ultimately the final opinions and faults, such as remain,are my own responsibility.
Bibliography Alcock. L 1980 Populi bestialespictorunt feroci animo: a survey of Pictish settlementarchaeology. in WS Hanson and LJF Kepie (ads) Romanfi-ordier studies 1979 (Brit. Archscol. Rep.Ing. Ser. 7 1. Oxford), 61-95. Andersoi% AO 1922 Early sourcesofScottish history AD 500-1286 (Edinburgh). Anderson, MO 1973 Kings and kingship in early Scotland (Edinburgh Annals of Ulster Anderson.AO 1922 Archaeology Extra Bulletin produced by the School of Archaeological Sciences.University of Bradford. Bureu. JC 1981 Aspects of the Iron Age in Atlantic Scotland. A case study in the problemsof archaeologicalinterpretation.Proc. Soc.Antiq. Scot., 111 (1981). 205-19. B ffett. IC 1988 Fields of Discourse: reconstituting a social archaeology. Critique of Anthropology. 7:3 (1987-88). 5-16.

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BanCCkJC forth Food. Gender andMetal. Questions Social Reproductionin M-LStis-Soreasen of R Thomas (a&). The fransitionfrom bronzeto iron (Brit. Archaeol. Rep.. Oxford)and Biddick. K 1984 Early Medieval in K Biddick (ad), social change and resource allocation Archaeological approachesto medievalEurope (KalamazooL 105-118. Bradley, R 1987 Time regained. the creation of continuity 1. Brit. Archaeol. Assoc., 140 (1987). 1-17. Bineux, S (ad) forth Excavations SUR, Deerness.Orkney. at Carter. SP, Haigh. D, Neil. NRJ Smith. B 1984 Interim report on the structure$ at Howe, and StrOmnen,Orkney. GLasgow Archaeol.J.. 11 (1984 61-73. CaIder.CST 1937 A Neolithic double-chambemd of the stalled type and later structures On caint the Calf of Eday. Orkney, Proc. Soc.Antiq. Scot.. 71 (1936-37). 115-54. Calder.CST 1939 Excavations Iron Age dwellings the Calf of Eday in Orkney. P'"'. SOC. on of Antiq. Scot., 73 (1938-39). 167-95. CallandeT. and Grant, WG 1934The broch Mid Howe, Rousay.Oricncy.Proc. Soc. Antiq. JG of Scot. 68 (1933-34), 444-516. Childe, VG 1946Scotland before sheScots(London). Clarke. DV. 1978 Models .0 in Sc itish Iron Age studies.Scot. Arc haeo1. and researchpriorities F-um, 10 (1978176-79. C-wford. B 1987ScandinavianSeotland(Leicester). Crawford, 11986 The WestHighlands and Islands.A view of5O centuries,(Carnbridge). (1977). 51 Crawford. I Udal, Nonh 1JisL. An1iqWty,
and SwiLsur. R 1977Sandscaping and C14: the Proc. Soc. AnJiqCaithness, 1912 Excavation at Langwell. of a Sailaried structure Scot.. 46 (1911-12L 77-89. dwelling Curie. AO 1936 Account and imn smeltery and of an associated of an of an excavation Proc. Soc. Antiq. Scot.. 70 (1935Wiltrow Shetland. tumuli in the parish of Duarrossness, at 36). 153-69. building Curie. AO 1941 An at Forst in of a 'wag' or gdllenL%i account of the partial excavation 23-39. die parish of Lathemn. Proc. Soc. Antiq. Scot, 75 (1940-41), Curie. AO 1946 Ile and the caulefold at Forse. Caithness. excavation of die *wag' or prehistoric Scot., 80 Proc. Soc. Anliq. '-ass' implications brochs. therefrom. relation to of arising and (1945-6). 11-24. Curie. AO 1948 The 'Wag' Report of further excavations mide in 1947 and of Fome, Caithness. 1948, Proc. Soc. Antiq. Scot.. 82 (19474SI 275-85. 1. SCOL Monogr. Curia. CL 1982 Pictish (Soc. Antiq. Norsefindsftom the Brough ofBirsay and Edinburgh). The Dark Davies, W 1984 Picm Scots and Britons Smith (ed), 7'he making of Druain. in LM Ages (BasingstokaX 63-76. Driscoll. Pictibh symbol sumes and other ST 1988 Power and authority in Early Historic Scotland: documents, in J Gledhill, B Bander and M Larsen (eds), State and Society. The emergence and development London. hierarchy qrsocial centralisation, and political Dumville, DN 1976 A note on the Piers in Orkney. Scot. Gaelic Stud.. 12 (1976). 266. Fairhurst, 3. If 1984 Excavations Scot. Monogr. Caithness (Soc. Antiq. broch, at Crosskirk FAhnburgh). Fairhurst. Scot.. H and Taylor. Proc. Soc. Antiq. DE 1971 A hut-circle Sutherland, at Kilphedir. 103 (1970-71), 65-99. Foster. SM 1989 Analysis into social (gamma analysis) as an insight of spatial patterns in buildings Iron Age Antiquity, Examples 63 (1989). 40-50. from the Scottish Adamic structure: Foster. SM In prep a DaLing. and the Developments Iron Age: a case study of the Scottish Atlantic of Orkney and Cai Limess. Foster SM In prep b Pins, combs and the chronology Iron Age settlement. of later Atlantic Fujut. N 1982 Towards J. 9 (19S2), 38-59. of Shetland bmchs. Glasgow Archaeol. a geography Fowler. E 1963 Celtic J, 120 (190). AD, Archaeol. of the fifth and sixth centuries metalwork 98-160. Gelling. PS 1984 The Norse buildings Dearness. Orkney immediate at Skaill. and their in A Fenton and H Palsson (ads) 7he Northern Predecessor. and Western 131ef in the Viking World (Edinburgh). 124-36. Curie. AO

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Haigh, D 1983 A secondearth-houseat Grainbank. St Ola. Orkney. Proc. Soc. Anliq, Scot**113 (1983), 367-72. Hamilton. JRC 1956Excavations Jarishof, Shetland(Edinburgh). at Harnflum. JRC 1966 Forts, brochs and Rivet ed , in northern Scotland iALF wheel-houses The Iron Age in Northern Britain (Edinburgh), 111-30. 1lamilton, JRC 1968Excavationsat Clickhimin, Shetland(Edinburgh). Hedges. JW 1987 Bu, Gurness the Brochs of Orkney (Brit. Archacol. Rep. Brit. Set- 163, and Oxford). 3 volumes. Hillier, B nd Instructiwis to students Bartlett School at ofArchitecture (Typescript)Hillier. B and Hanson,11984 The Social Logic ofSpace (Cambridge). Hunter. JR 1986 Rescueexcavations Brough ofBirsay 1974-82 (Soc. Antiq. ScoL Monogr. on the 4, Edinburgh). Johnson, M11 1988 Late medieval houses in western Suffolk: new directions in the Study Of vernacular architecture,Scot.Archaeol. Rev., 5 (1988), 114-20. Lamb. RG 1988 Church and society in Merovingian times. Paper Lerwick. September1988. read Lynn, C 1989 Deer Park Farms,Current Archaeol.. 113 (1989), 193-98. Macinnes, L 1994 Brochs and the Roman Lowland Scotland, Proc. Soc. Antiq. occupation of Scot., 114 (1984). 235-50. MacKie, E 1974Dun Uor Vaul. An IronAge Broch Tiree. Glasgow. on MacKie, E 1987 Review of Hedges1987 in Antiquity, 61 (1987 492-94. Marau M 1986 The sourcesofsocialpower. IA history beginning to AD 1760 ofpowerfrorn the (Cambridge). Markus, TA (ed) 1982Order in spaceand society (Edinburgh). Marwick. H 1952 Or"farm-names (Kirkwall). Mercer, RJ 1981 Archaeological field in Northern Scotland vol 11 (1980-81) (Dept. survey Archaeol. Occas.paper 7. University of Edinburgh). Mercer. RJ 1985 Archaeological field survey in Northern Scotland vol 1111982-83 (Dept, Archaeol. Occas.paper 11, University of Edinburgh). Morris, CD 1983 Excavations around the Bay of Birsay. in WPL Thomson (ed) Orkney Heritage vol 2 (Kirkwall). 119-5 1. University)* Glasgow Morrison,
A 1986 Dunbeath Survey 1986. Interim Report (Dept of Archaeol, Pred, A 1985 The social becomes enclosures. the sociab the spatial. social the Spatial becomes SkIne in D Gregory and J Un? in the Swedish change and the becoming of of places province (eds), Social relations 296-336. (Basingstoke). andspaiial structures RCAMS andShelland 1946 Tweylh oforkney report with an inventory ofthe ancient monuments (Edinburgh). -I Colonsay Jura, RCAMS 5 Islay, and Volume 1984 Argyll. An inventory Uonuments. of the Oronsay. Renfrew, AC 1979 Investigations in Or" (London). Renfrew, Ritchie, AC 1985 The prehistory (Edinburgh). ofOrkney A 1977 Excavation of Pictish and Viking-age Scot., 108 (1976-77). Antil. 174-227. farmsteads at Buckquoy. Orkney. Proc-

Six. Ritchie, 183-204(edl A 1985 Orkney in the Pictish kingdom. in C Renfrew Ritchie, JNG 1988 Brochs ofScolland (Aylesbury). history (London). Ritchie, JNG and Ritchie, A 1981 Scotland and early archaeology 1-36. SM.. 13 (1947). Scott. WL 1947 The problem brochs, Proc. Prehist. of the PrOc. in the North, Scott. WL culture The aisled round-house 1948 Gallo-British colonies. ' Prehist. Soc.. 14 (1948). 46-125 Proc. Soc. Aniq. Scot., 114 Oierowall Westr2Y. Orkney. Sharpies, NM 1994 Excavations Quarry. at (1984). 75-125. of memorials early Skene, Picts. WF 1867 Chronicles of the Scots, other chronicles of the Scottish history (Edinburgh). Soc., 21 (1955), 282-94. brochs. proc. prehist. Stevenson. RB K 1955 Pins and the chronology of Thomsor% WPL 1987 History (Edinburgh). of Orkney Tigernach 1922. A0 Annals Anderson. Arc haeo 1nAn U& Berie interim Topping, Traigh rt sL (Dep repo P 1986 Dun Bhurabhat na and Report 1986, University Edinburgh).

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TrAill. 11890 Notes Howmae. 1890, proc. Soc. Antiq- Scot, 24 on the further excavations of (1889-90). 451-61. TTIIA W 1885 Notice Homan", in North Ronjds"Y, Odcoey, of excavationsat Stenabreckand Proc.Soc.Antiq. Sco(, 19 (1884-85), 14-33. Whittle,A 1986 Scord Brouster. An Shetland (oxford Uni. of early agricultural settlenwnt on CO-M. Archaeol.Monogr. 9, Oxford). Ovrevik- 1985'Me S secondmillennium and after in Scotland.in C Renfrew(ed), 131-49.

COMMUNITY AND SELF: PERCEPTIONS AND USE OF SPACE IN MEDIEVAL MONASTERIES RobertaGilchrist* ThisPaper Within in examines useof architectural socialdifferences the space expressing monasticsettlements.The subject of the analysis is the evolving perceptionof the conceptof community In medieval English monasticism. In its desert Origins. the monasticismof fourth century Egypt and Syria found both eremitic and coenobitic developed a expressions. Betweenthe fifth and seventhcenturies,westernmonasticism coenobitic: form which tempered individual isolationwith group living. From the extant rules followed by medievalmonastics, particular the Rule Of St in Benedict,the letters Jerome Augustine, and the Scriptures themselves,it is of and Possible glimpse the ideal internal structure of coenobiLiccommunities. Tie real to from observances a particular houseover the periodof its occupationmay be gleaned of historical documentation (account rolls. references in wills to a house, bishop's visitations), archaeological excavation and formal methods for quantifying spatial patterning. Accessand movementwithin a monasticcontextcan be approached through the study of modem contemplative monasticism.This last approachdraws on direct historicanalogy,a methodof interpretingarchaeological materialby seekinganalogues With contemporary cultures to which the past culture is historically linked. The ethnoarchaeological approachto monasticismattemptedhere refers to the study of a modern contemplative communityliving in a restored and medievalmonastery following theRule to which the housewasoriginally committed. Monasticperceptions spacearecreated the useof boundaries, by of which maybe of bothreal and ideal nature.Hence,while the boundary a medievalprecinctdemarcated of legal ownership of land, it also symbolisedthe divide betweensecular and religious domains.Spacewas (and is) used to regulateencountersbetweengroups. Inside the Precinct,the relationship betweensecularand religious was distinguishedby an outer secular court and an inner religious cloister. Within the cloister, a more subtle segregation relied on both the physicalmanipulation spaceand the conceptual spatial of divisions informed by coenobitic: ideals.Attitudes towardsspacewere createdthrough sharedknowledge, transmittedthrough sermonsand written traditions. "is codified ritual behaviourinformed attitudestoward space,which in turn reproducedthe social orderof the monasticcommunity. In the formulation of his Rule, Benedictwasstriving for a well-organised asceticlife which achievedsanctity throughthe elevationof communityby the renunciationof the individual. Equality within a group of monks was assuredthrough self-denw and spiritual humility. Renunciationof self was achievedthrough a rejection of private Propertyupon induction to the community 'thenceforwardhe will not have disposition
*Departrwnt ofArchaeology.Mickligate House, York YOI IJZ

"

9A-

'I

ANTICLUITY

VOLUME 63

NUMBER 238

MARCH 1989

Analysis of spatial patterns in buildings (access analysis) as an insight into from the social structure: examples Scottish Atlantic Iron Age
SALLY M. FOSTER*
Clearly the pattern of space in buildings can be expected to relate to the way that buildings are used to structure and reproduce social relations. As an archaeologist, wishing to infer social structure by its reflection in the building pattern, one may hope the relation may be reasonably direct. Here theformal geometrical method of access analysis is used to elucidate the pattern in a distinctive kind of prehistoric settlement form, and thence to elucidate the social structure which both produced it and was structured by it. The aim of this paper is to describe an archaeological application of accessanalysis, a means of investigating the relationship between spatial order and society. As presented below this is a technique based on the gamma analysis of Hillier & Hanson (1984), which looks at the patterns of relations between inhabitants and between inhabitants and strangers as they are reflected in the use of interior space,in terms of the patterns created by boundaries and entrances.This approach has received much criticism (see particularly Leach 1978) because of its extreme belief that spatial organization is a function of the form of social structure. The present writer believes that without taking the full Hillier & Hanson line, but by adopting more horizons, this formal and vigorous tech-modest nique can be demonstrated to be of some value to others who believe that spatial order does carry somesocial information. . There continues to be an increasing trend towards the interpretation of the archaeological remains of buildings, erstwhile architecture, in a social context, by analysis of their interior space (such as Smith 1978; Boast & Yiannouli 1986; Gilchrist 1988). To a certain extent this
follows movements in architectural circles (e. g. Glassie 1975; Markus 1982: 4 for brief summary), and the work of geographers and social (e. g. Gregory & Urry 1985). Two theorists from derived themes, ultimately common Structuration Theory (Giddens 1984), seem to lie behind much of this work: 1 The belief that space is both produced by, and in turn produces and reproduces social is seen as culturelations. Thus architecture and not just as a response rally meaningful, to certain environmental needs. However, of opinion exist as to if, wide differences how, or to what degree social relations might be gauged from archaeological remains. Leach (1978: 400) has argued that the chasm between basic space syntax and real life is wider than Hillier and his sociology colleagues suppose. Yet others using the techniques of Hillier & Hanson have demonstrated that observed spatial patterns are not and can be explained in social coincidental, terms on the basis of historic and ethnogra& Mithen 1986). A phic evidence (Yiannouli has been noted on the similar relationship basis of observed similarities between the

* Departmentof Archaeology, The University, GlasgowG12 8QQ.


ANTiQuiTy 63 (1989): 40-50

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1963. Problornes d'analyse descriptive en arch6ologie, in P. Courbin (ad.), budes arch6ologiques: 133-50. Paris: SEVPEN. Arch6ologie et civilisations 1, Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, Via section: Centre de recherche historique. 1974. Les analyses de discours. Neuch&tel: Delachaux et Niestl6. 1978. Code pour J'analyse des ornements dtablis en 1956, r6vis6 en 1973. Paris: Editions du CNRS. 1979. Une arch6ologie th6orique. Paris: Hachette. 1987. Syst6mes experts et publications savantes.

VEYNE, P. 1971. Comment Editions du Seuil.

Roux, V. 1985a. Le mat6riel de broyage: 6tude ethnoa; ch6ologique d Tichitt, Mauritanie. Paris: Editions Recherche sur les Civilisations. M6moire 58. ' 1985b. Outillage agricole et structure agraire, in H. -P Francfort (ed.), Prospections arch6ologiques au nord-ouest de l'Inde: rapport pr6liminaire 19831984: 67-93. Paris: Editions Recherche sur les Civilisations. M6moire 62, Travaux de la Mission arch6ologique frangais en Inde 1.
on 6crit I'histoire. Paris:

GLAr" VIVIVER

Nc-

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SPATIAL PATTERNS IN BUILDINGS FROM THE SCOTTISH ATLANTIC IRON AGE 41

Access analysis is based on syntactic relations, and considers the arrangement of different spaces as a pattern of permeabilities, that is in terms of the interconnections between spaces. There will never be agreement between disciplines as to what constitutes social space (e.g. compare Fletcher 1977; Piaget & Inhelder 1956; Gregory 1978; Norberg-Schulz 1971), but this technique is important because of its descriptive autonomy, unambiguous rules of application, and its clear exposition of how these relate at the very lowest level to relations between inhabitants, and between inhabitants and strangers. Societies which might vary in their type of physical configuration and degree to which the ordering of space appears as a conspicuous dimension of culture can all be compared on a similar basis. The technique is best explained with the use of the example of a small modern house, where only the ground floor has been taken into consideration (FIGURE 1A). Each unit of space, including transitional spaces such as a hallway, The theory and technique A building is made up of walls which define a has been represented as a dot with lines of enclosed spaces, the boundaries between them where there is permeability, series between which may be broken by doorways giving access between spaces (FIGURE 113).The from one area to another. The network of dots and connecting lines forms an allowing access importance of doors is not only that they open, unjustified access map. This map can be justibut more importantly that they can close, fied, in this case from an outside perspective segregatingspaces and controlling (the carrier), the stance of the stranger (FIGURE effectively the means of access to any particular point. 1C), although it could have been from any point plans of 'villas' in Britain and Gaul (Smith 1978). Total sceptics about the social relevance of spatial organization are not so vociferous. 2 It is recognized that all social interaction is situated within both time and space, thus time is emphasized as an essential component in all social analysis. Barrett (1988) has recently suggested an archaeological means of applying Structuration Theory, and taking into account the factors of time and space, which he calls Fields of Discourse. This note will discuss the theory and technique of access analysis, and the relevance, if any, of this technique to the elucidation of social structure through a medium of analysis such as Fields of Discourse. The archaeological application of this technique, with appropriate modifications, is described using examples from the Iron Age of Orkney.

Rear garden

carrier space
9 defined space space 40 transitional

T---7 L Ip

FIGURE A Plan of a small 1. modem house, ground floor only (P-best room, K-kitchen, L-main living space). (After Hillier & Hanson (1984): figure 99. )

B Unjustified access(gamma) map superimposed. C justified accessmap with labelled spaces.

---

T
42
SALLY M. FOSTER

in the building. By justification it is meant that all points of a certain depth, that is the minimum number of steps taken to reach them from the carrier, have been positioned on the same horizontal line, subsequent depth values on lines parallel to the first. Given the rules of construction any line will either connect with points on the same level of depth, or two levels separated by only one level of depth. The resultant map is both an aid to visual decipherment of the pattern, and could in theory be combined with quantification procedures (an aspect which is not pursued here). Buildings are easier to study than settlements because open spaces cannot be so readily separated into analytical elements (Hillier & Hanson 1984: 16), and the richness in differentiation of interior structures means that they carry more social information than exterior relations (Hillier & Hanson 1984: 154). So, once spaces are defined, the spatial order of a structure can be represented in part by a diagram showing the interconnections of the enclosed spaces. A prerequisite for analysis is therefore an accurate map with all access points marked. Form (the formal properties of space and the boundaries which define it - its style) and function (the purpose of buildings) must also be embraced. In practice it is virtually impossible to make a distinction between these attributes (Markus 1982: 4-6). Hillier & Hanson (1984) minimize the interactive nature of these because of their apparent belief in the analytical autonomy of the spatial dimension. However, these other architectural dimensions have to be brought into consideration if the full archaeological of access analysis is to be appreciated. value The primary data demands of access analysis create some problems for most archaeologists. The success of illuminating and stimulating studies such as those edited by Markus (1982) on the period of the Scottish Enlightenment, or by Graves (forthcoming) on the English mediechurch, is in no small measure due to the val fact that the buildings which they are studying either still stand (albeit possibly with alteror full architectural plans exist for those ations), have been demolished or whose conwhich struction was planned but never realized. In addition these are periods for which some of the ideas of society, and the nature of values and known because of docurelationships are mentary sources. One of the main criticisms

levelled at Hillier & Hanson is that their technique cannot work fully unless something is already known of the relevant social structure, when it can be seen in retrospect how the observed patterns in the spatial arrangement relate to the known social structure (Leach 1978). Prehistorians do not have historical accounts, nor can they make ethnographic studies of the populations they are studying, but they do possessa body of primary archaeological data which may provide non-spatial evidence for other aspects of social structure., It will never be possible to 'test' prehistoric social inference derived from the spatial; one can only explore its promptings from within a clearly defined understanding of the way material culture and social structure are related.
Social inference from access analysis It is suggested that examination of access maps and the application of the techniques of Hillier & Hanson (1984), in combination with other evidence for architectural form and social function, may impart social information at three general scales, the first two of which are considered appropriate here. I The variations in spatial arrangements impart social information about the realities of living in, or visiting, that particular building: where and how frequently physical encounters might be made between occupants and/or between occupants and strangers, and how these encounters might be controlled. The inhabitantinhabitant and stranger-inhabitant interfaces can be observed in terms of relations of symmetrylasymmetry and patterns of distributedness1nondistributedness (FIGURE 2) because distribution articulates relations'of boundary (the means of access to a space) whilst asymmetry reflects the importance of a space in terms of its degree of segregation or integration (Hillier & Hanson 1984: 148):

In gammatwo spaces and b will be: symmetricif a is a to b asb is to a with respectto c, meaningthat neithera nor b controlspermeabilityto eachother;asymmetricif a is not to b as b is to a, in the sensethat one controls permeability to the other from some third space c; distributedif there is more than one independentroute fi-oma to b including passingthrougha third space (Le c

--I

SPATIAL PATTERNS IN BUILDINGS FROM THE SCOTTISH ATLANTIC bdab >b babaa 0, \

IRON AGE

43

Y
cccc BcDE

FiGuRE2. Aa and b are in a symmetric and distributed relationship with respect to c. Ba and b are in a symmetric and nondistributed relationship with respect to c. Ca and b are in a nondistributed and asymmetric relationship with respect to c. Da and b are symmetric to each other with respect to c. but d is in an asymmetric relation to both with respect to c. Ed is in a nondistributed and symmetric relation to a and b, which still remain symmetric to each other with respect to d, or to c. (After Hillier & Hanson 1984: figures 88-92. ).

(eachexamplewill undoubtedly have a different This spatial network suggests patterns which phenotype,or actual physical realization of these need investigating. As a result of labelling space rules). Some of the invariant properties which in terms of use or form it is possible to observe constitute the generic rule are observable and/or whether particular labels correspond to partimeasurablein terms of relations of symmetryl cular syntactic positions and to investigate asymmetry and patterns of distributedness/ (seeabove). these patterns further. nondistributedness Interior spaces constitute one of the the most The challenge is to explain how these common locales for activity and social interacobserved topological patterns may relate to tion, the places where discourse can be sus- social factors as there is unlikely to be a one-totained. Social analysis should therefore one relationship between spatial organization consider the way architecture, and the spatial and society. For example, might these expresorganization of a settlement, intervene to struc- sions of boundary and control of space be ture some part of the cycle of social reproducreflecting the relations of physical autonomy tion (Barrett forthcoming). Access analysis and dependencebetween different sectors of a articulates an understanding of this, as community? What type of social relations knowledge of where, how frequently, and under (gender,age or social status) might induce this circumstances, physical what architectural spatial order and are these the social relations encounters occur. The information on access on which society is organized?Might the repemaps may be static, and cannot take the tempo- titive occurrence of patterns represent the ral frequency of discourse into account in its acknowledgementof a code whereby authority construction, but yet is of value in the con- was sustained? If an increased investment of sideration of potential time-space paths occu- formality into the ordering of the landscape(cf. Boast & Evans 1986) has been detected, this pied by human beings. must be explained.
2 The study of the spatial configuration of a number of patterns may reveal variant proper3 Finally, Hillier & Hanson believe that by recog-

if a spacehas more than one locus of control with ties, a set of which may be thought to constitute respectto another);and nondistributed if thereis some the genericrule underlying the spacein question, c, space throughwhich any route from a to b must pass. and which can be referred to as the genotype

44

SALLY M. FOSTER

space may vary from area to area, period to period, in prehistoric structures where the concept of an entrance or division between functional spacesmay need to be liberally interpreted. Thus the constitution of an archaeological space is not necessarily defined by the theory, but is dependent on the nature of the available evidence. Provided rules are carefully formulated and consistently applied to the data in questiofi, then analysis may proceed. In this study the designation of a space depends on the physical presence of a doorway, a low kerb or ramparts (or being aware of their existence). It also depends, to a large measure. on the ascribed function of an area; it is obviously important to distinguish an enclosed area where sleeping rather than storage might have taken place. The recognition of functional zones, even if only defined by what in another period might have been described as furniture, is an obvious archaeological progression on a technique evolved for upstanding 'historic' structures. For example, areas with hearths are especially important. All of these criteria are subjective, which is why the method can best be Archaeological application of access analysis applied to upstanding structures, preferably Examples from the Iron Age of Orkney can be with a 'full' archaeological data-set, and which to give an example of the application of have been fully recorded to modern standards. used If we take as an example the recently excaaccess analysis and to discuss its feasibility for remains. Here, despite subse- vated Early Iron Age house at Bu (Hedges archaeological robbing and other vagaries of time, the 1987(l)) then some of the archaeological pecuquent building blocks has liarities of this technique can be seen more wide availability of natural in the unprecedented survival of struc- clearly. In FIGURE 3A we see the permeabilities resulted tures, often to several storeys. In a few cases it is suggested by the excavator; in FIGURES 3B-C to walk through doors and up stairs, lie exactly the same process as adopted for the possible down in bed-neuks, and collect water from the modern building in FIGURE 1, and described wells. Remains are always only partial, and above, is run through. Each space is usually an is the product of centuries of site- area which is enclosed by orthostats, with each site formation, most recently selective destruction access either through doorways (as in the case of FIGURE 3B x), or over low kerbs (v) where the by archaeologists. Any and presentation has therefore to evaluate carefully the access lines may therefore appear to be jumping analysis the site at any one period. It is not walls. The central 'service area' (y) is defined y state of to measure symbolic divisions of space a low kerb and gives access to the hearth (z); it is possible (although artefactual distribution may some- divided into two areas because the smaller times be suggestive). Nor is it possible to recog- north section is partly paved and the distribution of artefacts (Hedges 1987(1): figure 1.57) features, such as earthworks, nize when major have acted as a frame for later may suggest that the southern half had a which may (see e.g. Boast and Evans 1986), ceased different function to the northern half. Area w is activity (Haselgrove treated as a single space because the central to be maintained conceptually 1984). Nevertheless this quality of data, and the orthostat was not designed to break the space fact that in several cases the sites can be into two distinct components, and because of the ground, is particularly signi- the extent of floor deposits which are more or examined on ficant because the definition of relevant units of less specific to this area (Hedges 1987(l)). nizing the basic syntactic generator, or organizing principle, behind a human spatial complex then different forms of social organization can be recognized (Hillier & Hanson 1984: 82). This is because they argue that although there are many different manifestations of spatial relations, there are only a finite number of organizing principles (Hillier & Hanson 1984: 54; summary in figure 23). Their rules reflect the notion of social order as suggested by Durkheim (1984), who envisaged two types of social solidarity and located their cause in different spatial variables: an organic solidarity which works best when the system is large and integrated; and a mechanical solidarity which works best when segments are small and isolated. This is the aspect of Hillier & Hanson's work which has received most criticism (Leach 1978; Batty 1985), and is of no relevance to a social interpretation involving the use of Structuration, because it treats space as a totally independent discourse. It is not considered in further discussion.

L,

SPATIAL PATTERNS IN BUILDINGS FROM THE SCOTTISH ATLANTIC

IRON AGE

45

I.
.posited access

y 7rZ ol v I:;,

/ I

C
ED carrier 0 0 0 space transitional space

room/compartment space with hearth


figure

0 Ii 1.10. )

5m

A Plan of Bu indicating FiGuRE3. points of access. (After Hedges 1987(l): B Bu with unjustified access (gamma) map superimposed. C justified access map with labelled spaces.

As there may be some uncertainty about whether or not a space was enclosed, the degree to which it was socially relevant, or when access points were valid, there will inevitably be phases in the complex history of even a well recorded site when it is impossible to produce a totaJly accurate analysis (or any form of analysis). Yet there will be phases when a clear pattern does emerge, notably when buildings are first laid out on a virgin site. When comparisons are made of these major changes then patterns begin to emerge. In the study of Iron Age and Early Medieval Orkney four or five major phases can be identified, one of which, the Middle Iron Age, the period when brochs were prevalent, is the subject of discussion here. Specific example In the Middle Atlantic Iron Age, around 100 BC, brochs first appear - thick-walled circular

buildings, many of which had at least one upper storey or gallery. This study is specific to brochs in Orkney, but its implications are significant for the Atlantic Province as a whole, especially in areas where outbuildings are associated with the brochs (primarily Caithness, northeast Sutherland and to a certain extent Shetland). The outbuildings can roughly be divided into two forms, radial and non4) radial. The radial examples (FIGURE encircle the broch in a regular fashion, a passageleading through them to the broch, which is usually surrounded by, a narrow encircling passage; there is a very full use of all available space between the broch and its surrounding outworks, where these exist. The non-radial form may be very early in the development of brochs (as at Crosskirk in Caithness: Fairhurst 1984) and may in some casesprecede radial outbuildings (as possibly in phase6 at Howe: Carter et a]. 1984). A question hangs over the relative

46

SALLY M. FOSTER

/
-0

LINGRO
UNPHASED

GURNESS
BROCH PERIOD

lom

1/
/ /

N4

HOW[
PHASE 7

MICIHOWE
PERIODS 1.2 & UNDETERMINED

FIGURE Plans of 4. brochs with nucleated settlements. (After Hedges 1987(2); RCAMS 1946(2); Carter et al. 1984; Callander & Grant 1934).

the brochs and both types of chronology of This note is essentially conoutbuildings. the radial examples, where the cerned with dating evidence rests almost exclusively on the from Howe, Gurness and Midhowe. evidence These are the best understood examples, although similar plans are suggested elsewhere in Orkney (Hedges 1987(3): 14; e.g. Lingro, FIGURE4) and northeast Sutherland. On the basis of present evidence, outbuildings elsewhere tend to be of the non-radial type. Hedges' that some of the outbuildings work suggests these brochs in Orkney have associated with been built in the same phase of construction as the broch, or are near contemporary because the layout of some of the afterthoughts, the broch is by and large outbuildings and their floor areas, fittings, and systematic, and furnishings are comparable (1987(2-3)). At

Howe the phase 7 outbuildings are contemporary with the broch, at Gurness they may be primary although little is known of what, if anything, underlies them, and at Midhowe the outbuildings are of several phases, of w4ich the earliest may be contemporary with the broch. Whatever one's stance in this debate, it cannot be disputed that the broch and outbuildings co-existed at one point, functioning as a unity, in this writer's opinion probably early in the development of the sites. In FIGURE 5 the nucleated settlements of Gurness, Midhowe and Howe have been treated as a single set of premises, drawn as justified gamma maps with an extended vocabulary of symbols to represent the different types of space and means of access. These access maps therefore incorporate information about the spatial properties of the

SPATIAL PATTERNS IN BUILDINGS FROM THE SCOTTISH ATLANTIC IRON AGE

47

KEY ED carrier
S

S 0

space open yard a 0 transitional space enclosure coll/compartment 13 first floor 0 space with hearth scarcement * guard' ceIVroom earth-house large internal hearth space-no ersed/bpen symbol for broch ----

level stairs unsure

access

C3

- FIGURE5. justified access (gamma) maps for Middle Iron Age nucleated settlements (reversed/open distinguish the broch from other structures). symbols A Curness. B Howe. C Midhowe.

brochs and the potential functions of some Moreover by the use of open and closed areas. symbols the differing architectural types have been indicated. The result is an allalso embracing consideration of the architecture in convenient diagrammatic form. presented ;3ome general trends can be observed, and be briefly described at the different scales will of inference outlined above: I At the immediate visual level, the development from Early Iron Age single, agricultural and domestic units (such as Bu, FIGURE3) to Middle Iron Age nucleated settlements reveals the introduction of a staggering hierarchical The maps become considerably use of space. deeper (more asymmetric), and the deepest, most segregatedarea is always the set of spaces constitute the broch. Upper galleries which features not found in the and upper storeys,

outbuildings, are the very deepest, least accessible spaces. Their usage may have included storage, extra sleeping facilities and wallheads from which surveillance might be made. Unfortunately these are the parts of the structure about which least is known as they were always the first to collapse or be dismantled, and the total number of original floors is not known. If the majority of activities and functions was in the upper storeys then obviously their exact nature can never be assessed and the ground plans tell us less (although it seems most probable that the ground floor was the main domestic forum). The larger the access maps, then the more abstract and complicated they become to analyse, and it is helpful to break them down, for instance by dividing them into distributed ('ringy') and nondistributed ('tree-like') subsystems (FIGURE6 for Gurness as an example). On the very outside, globally governing the

- ---------------------------

--

--

48

SALLY M. FOSTER

ck
I"

A
FiGURE6. justified access (gamma) maps for Gurness. A the nondistributed sub-system. B the distributed sub-system.

interior, are earthworks which extend the depth between the inside and outside worlds, even if in some casesthey only create abstract rather than real rings. Access to the interior proper has to be via the 'guardhouse' or forecourt, a relatively convex space; this is where the transition from the outside world to an inner environment is sanctioned. From here ingress is made into a long thin passagefrom which access to both outbuildings and broch can be made. In the cases of Gurness, Howe and Lingro (as suggestedby an early section of walling: RCAMS 1946(2), figure 230) the entrance into the settlement and the broch entrance are aligned, which must have enhanced the processional-like qualities of these passages.From here the outbuildings constitute a local, large and almost totally nondistributed area of settlement, spaces in which strangers cannot freely circulate and into which they must be invited. Such branching off thus createsthe maximum segrewith the least expenditure of gation of spaces depth, both between and within domestic Entrance to and between the outbuilunits. dings is mainly by means of this passage,

therefore most movement can be monitored by control of its various sections. From this first narrow passage access is gained to the next ring, a passagewaywhich encircles the broch (except at Howe). This ring is at the point where ingress can be gained to further nondistributed spaces at a slightly deeper level. Ringy structures interconnect some apartments and outbuildings. Access to the broch interior is from the initial passage, at about the same level as some of the outbuildings, but is deepenedby guard cells, an elaborate doorway into a long tunnel, and a series of vestibules. The form of the architecture is particularly relevant; the monumentality of the broch tower and its elaborate entrance contrast starkly with the less substantial outbuildings, all of which appear very similar in form, serving to heighten the discrepancy between these spaces.Once inside the broch, the final ringy structure is encountered, which is separated from all the others by several depth levels. This is quite complex in the case of the double domestic units at Midhowe and the later levels at Gurness. The rings connect the main domestic foci (the hearth areas) and the upper

1
SPATIAL PATTERNS IN BUILDINGS FROM THE SCOTTISH ATLANTIC IRON AGE

49

levels. Cells and compartments are arrangedin non-distributed fashion from these rings, in similar fashion to the outbuildings. From the point of view of strangers, the overall hierarchical layout and the differences in architectural form have done nothing to encouragetheir admission to the broch. Therefore, its interior ringy system is unlikely to heve had a major r6le in articulating immediate relations, but was probably stranger-inhabitant a means of articulating the relationships between the different domestic units, where they existed. The ringy sub-systems in the outbuildings would have played a similar role, but here there is a greater emphasis on the non-distributed component. From the point of view of social structure a number of observations can be made on the basis of this information. Despite some similarities with the outbuildings, the broch obviously stands out as the most important area in the settlement complex becauseof its spatial importance, its prime location and its monumentality. This, in combination with the degreeof controlled accessto the outbuildings and their apartments, which are almost exclusively segregated,may suggest that the social structure on which these new relations were founded required strict control in order to be both established and maintained.
2 Taking an overview, the observed systems serve to emphasize the social inequalities existing between the broch and outbuilding occupants, and the settlement and the outside, the latter distinction being the strongest. Local cells are relations between the internal batically the same except for the broch; the factor of non-interchangeability has been introduced between the broch and all its surrounding units. Thus this is more of a transpatial thin spatial system. In other words the emphasis is on spatial relations which have been determined by genotypic rules and produce the required restrictions of encounter, even though each physical manifestation of these rules is different. What is more, the genotypic-model is global, because it recurs, and as a result transpatial relations and integration can exist between arrangements (settlement complexes) because similarities in layout and comparable positioning may foster a conceptual form of

identification (Hillier & Hanson 1984: 238). In addition the inhabitants of a single settlement may feel a strong sense of identity with each other because they share a structured whole with others. Furthermore, the repetitive nature of these patterns may be representing the acknowledgementof a code of symbols, in this case spatially determined, by which those in the broch sustained their authority over the inhabitants of the outbuildings. The ordered layout of the outbuildings and the comprehensive use of space further suggeststhat these were laid out as a unity under the authority of the broch inhabitants, rather than being the result of the cumulative construction of outbuildings to a basic structuring principle.
Social interpretation These social inferences fit a model of ranked society where Midhowe, most probably Lingro and definitely Gurness and Howe can be interpreted as planned nucleated villages in the centre' of which lived the pre-eminent family or personages, surrounding whom were those who payed tribute and in return received pro(non-nucleated tection patronage or settlements can probably be seen as dependent settlements; this is not to exclude the possibility of other unrecognized elements in the settlement pattern for which a place could be found in this scheme). Similarities in the formal layout of these settlements and the social relations they structured, suggests that these settlements should all be seen as part of a wider society with similar values. A clientship scheme has also been suggested by MacKie (1987). Besides the different routes of inference, the major difference between our two schemes rests upon interpretation of the primary archaeological evidence, specifically the chronological relationship between the Undoubtedly brochs and the outbuildings. some brochs, particularly early examples, did stand alone, but others aggregated settlement around them, sometimes in very formal conditions where radiated settlements were the on other occasions less formally, and on result, a lesser scale, when the non-radial outbuildings may have been the result. MacKie's scheme has a tribal aristocracy living in the brochs with about 100-300 people living in 'fragile settlements' around the broch, in structures which are as yet unrecognized in the

50

SALLY M. FOSTER

archaeological record. Granted that a large proportion of Iron Age settlement may exist totally unrecorded, the present scheme proposes that a large element of the non-broch population came to live in broch outbuildings. Conclusions In the absence of examining the broch period in the context of the Early and Late Iron Ages, and considering all the evidence for discourse in which the architecture may have been relevant (the subject of a future paper), the true impact and significance of these spatial arrangements have been minimized. Nevertheless, it is hoped that some of the archaeological potential of the technique of access analysis has been successfully demonstrated. One can find fault in the tenets behind the gamma analysis of Hillier & Hanson, but the formal

approach is one which can be adapted and modified for archaeological purposes. Social inferences can be derived from the spatial order by circumspect consideration of the assumptions behind every appropriate step of the technique, and a clear understanding of the relationship between material culture and social reproduction. All discourse has a spatial element; access analysis is a useful tool Tor articulating an understanding of the part space plays in structuring social relations, and the part social relations have in structuring spke.

Acknowledgements. I am grateful to Professor Leslie Alcock, John Barrett, Pam Graves, Dr Euan MacKie, Ross Samson, and Graeme Stewart for comments on various versions of this note. Errors in content and presentation are my own, especially where I ignored their advice.

References D J. BARRETT,C. 1988. Fields of Discourse: reconstituting a GREGORY, 1978. Social change and spatial structures, in T. Carlstein, D. Parkes & N. Thrift (ed. ), Making sense social archaeology, Critique of Anthropology 7:3 (1987-8): 5-16. of time: 38-46. New York: Halsted Press. D. Forthcoming. Food, gender and metal: questions of GREGORY, & J. URRY (ed. ). 1985. Social relations and spatial structure. London: Macmillan. social reproduction, in M. -L. Stig-Sorensen &R HASELGROVE,C 1984 Comment on Hingley, Scottish Thomas (ed.), The transition from bronze to iron. Archaeological Review 3(1): 27-30. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports. J. BATTY,M. 1985, Review of Hillier & Hanson (1984), HEDGES, 1987. Bu, Gurness and the Brochs of Orkney. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports. British Sociology 19: 161-2. Series 163. BOAST, & C. EvANs. 1986 The transformation of space: R. two examples from British prehistory, in Boast & HILLIER,B. n. d. Instructions to students at Bartlett School Typescript. Yiannouli (1986): 193-205. of Architecture. HILLIER, B. & J. HANSON. 1984. The social logic of space. (ed. BOAST,R. & E. YLANNOULI ). 1986. Archaeological Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Review from Cambridge 5(2): Creating space. S. CARTER, P., D. HAIGH, N. R.J. NEIL & B. SmrrH. 1984. LEACH, E. 1978. Does space syntax really 'constitute the Interim report on the structures at Howe, Stromness, social'?, in D. Green, C. Haselgrove & C. Spriggs (ed. ), Social organisation Orkney, Glasgow Archaeological Journal 11: 61-73. and settlement: contributions from Oxford: British 385-401. CALLANDER, & W. G. GRANT. J.G., 1934. The broch of Mid anthropology: Reports. International Series 471. Archaeological Howe, Rousay, Orkney, Proceedings of the Society MACKIE, E. 1987. The Scottish brochs: Iron Age manor Antiquaries of Scotland 68 (1933-4): 444-516. of houses. Paper presented Edinburgh, January 1V7. E. DURKHEim, 1984. The division of labour in society. MARKUS, T. A. (ed. ). 1982. Order in space and society. London: Macmillan. Edinburgh: Mainstream H. FAIRHURST, 1984. Excavations at Crosskirk broch, C. Caithness. Edinburgh: Society of Antiquaries of NORBERG-SCHULZ, 1971. Existence, space and architecture. London: Studio Vista. Scotland. a J. 1956. The child's conception of R. FLETCHER, 1977. Settlement studies (micro and semi- PIAGET, P. & B. INHELDER. in D. L. Clarke (ed.), Spatial archaeology: * space. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. micro), RCAMS. 1946. Twelfth report with an inventory of the 47-162. London: Academic Press. GiDDENs, 1984. The constitution of society. Oxford: A. ancient monuments of Orkney and Shetland. Edinburgh: HMSO. Polity Press. R. GILCHRIST, 1988. The spatial archaeology of gender: a SMITH, J.T. 1978. Villas as a key to social structure, in M. Todd (ed. ), Studies in the Romano-British villa: case study of medieval English nunneries, Archaeo140-173. Leicester: Leicester University Press logical Review from Cambridge 7(l): 21-8. H. GLASsiE, 1975. Folk housing in middle Virginia: a YIANNOULI, E. & S. MITHEN. 1986. The real and random house plans architecture of Siphnos: analysing analysis of historic artefacts. University structural in Boast & Yiannouli (1986): using simulation, of Tennessee Press. 167-80. C. GRAvEs, P. Forthcoming. Social space in the English medieval parish church.

uu?ARY- j

SCOTTISHARCHAEOLOGICA

REVIEW
VOILIme6 olgl)

TRANSFORMATIONS IN SOCIAL SPACE THE IRON AGE OF ORKNEY AND CAITHNESS Sally Af Foster*
This paper will examine the way architecture acted to structure the reproduction of society in Otkney and Caithness from around the early centuries of the first millennium 13C to the eighth or ninth century AD, that is from the period of the Early Iron Age to die of die Norsc. The period can be divided into four phases: the Early and Middle arrival Iron Ages and Late Iron Ages I and 11 (henceforth EIA, MIA. LIA I and LIA 11).These divisions avoid cultural ascriptions such as 'PicUsh' or 'Dalriadic', or meaningless terms such as 'pust-Roman'. They will now be more specifically dcrined below. A scheme is suggested in outline for structural developments witnessed over this period (a future complementary article will discus3 this in full. along with associated dating problems: Foster in prep a). On the basis of the general trends observed, a social interpreLadon is forward. At the same time the technique of access analysis is used to investigate how put die use of space acted to structure and reproduce these changing social relations. All C- 14 dates are calibrated to the 2(y level on the 1986 Trondheim curve. quoted

Summary of Structural Development The Early Iron Age Definition of the Iron Age is rather blurred in North Britain both chronologically and more so than anywhereelse in the British IsIcs. Its traditional rangq culturally, probably that it is front circa 600 BC-AD 400 (RCAMS 1984,20). although it hasbeenspeculated might better be ascribedto the period up to die eleventhcentury'AD (Clarke 1978,76). Around the beginning of this period, yith the changing metal technologies, the imporuince of local metalworking in defining regional traditions declines markedly. III die Atlantic Province pottery hasbeentakenas somegaugeof cultural and chronological but on the whole, in view of the impoverishedartefactualrecord, reliance has changes, beenon architecturalstudies. Lobate multi-cellular buildings, othErwise courtyard houses. represent an tradition whose origins lie in the Neolithic (such as Scord of Brouster, architectural Shetland: Whittle 1986),but which still occurs in the late Bronze Age. such as village I Jarlshof (Hamilton 1956.18-31 Fig 10). These lobate multi-cellular structuresmay at have con6nued to be constructedinto the period of the EIA. such as at Wilmtrow in also Shetland (Curie 1936) where a smithy is associatedwith an example. But the EIA is characteriscdhere by the introduction of a large roundhouse(sometimesoval) generally tradition, which has beenrecognisedas taking two organisationalforms: isolated houses thick walls sited in visually dominant situationsand smaller structureswith thinner with tend to exist in clusters. of which Jarishof 11is the best example (Sharpies walls which 1984,119-20). Abrupt changesin many aspectsof the material culture at this time are In migration (Ilamilton 1956;Hedges1987 111,38). sometimesattributed to a populaOZin Orkney thin-wallcd roundliouses have been recoveredat Spurdagrovc (Ovrcvik 1985, 148, Fig 7.4) wid Skaill (Gelling 1984; Butcux forth) where they are associaledwith further agricultural structures such as a byrc. The late date of one of tile Skaill continued roundhouseshighlights how late this tradition of thinner walled roundhouses; (sometime between 360 cal BC-AD 220). and demonstrated that the developmentfrom thinner to thicker walled roundhouseswas not unilineal. A seriesof five roundhouses; were excavated at Kilphedir in Sutherland (Fairhurst and Taylor 1971) and the same Glasgow 8QQ G12 The *Departmerd Archaeology. University, of

34

number at Cnoc Stanger in Caithness(Mercer 1981,52-56). In neither case can it be proved that theserepresentanything other than a successionof structureson one site. The slenderdating evidence from thesesites may be used to suggesta horizon of very large roundhouse constructionin north Scotlandprior to 500 BC (Mercer 1985,73). The impression is of relatively small domcsdc/agriculturalunits, whilst die evidence from die both Skaill and Kilphedir may suggest shifting of scalcmentwithin a small area. haverecentlybeenrccognisedin Orkney and Caithness. Thicker walled roundhouscs Exampleshave beenexcavatedat 11ii(I ledgcs 19871). Howe (Carter et at 1984).Calf of Ediy (Calder 1937: 1939), Picrowill (Sharpies1984)rind Quantcrness(Renfrew 1979), whilst the early broch at Crosskirk Is sometimes also described as a roundhouse (r-iifhurst 1984). It is clear from the evidenceof Bu, Quanternessand Pierowall that thesestructureswere establishedby about die seventhcentury BC, although a Bronze Age horizon for a large thick walled structureat ToNs Nesson Sanday,currently being excavatedby Dockrill, suggeststhat this was not purely an EIA innovation (Archaeot is Extra, 3A). The particular importanceof theseroundhouses that they now provide a pedigreefor die later brochs,both in their (hick walling and interior features.At native acquiredbroch-likc features. severalsites it can be seenhow both typesof roundhouse Most roundhouseswere isolated save perhaps for a few ephemeral outbuildings, probably of agricultural function. Many both thin and thicker walled structurespossessed enteredfrom their interiors.There is increasingevidencethat or earth-houses souterrains examples of these which now appearas isolated monuments in the landscapewere usually, if not always, ancillary to an aboveground structureof a domestic nature (for exampleat Grain in Orkney: I laigh 1983).Most probbly thesenorthernexampleswere for storageof either dairy produceor grain. The direct devcloprnentfrom the roundhouse die broch is chronicled at I lowe. At to in Crosskirk the early broch resembled roundhouse many respects.andat Clickilimin in a die Shetlanda roundhouseprecedes broch (Ilamilton 1968).In Caithnessit is becoming increasinglyobvious that the brochsare but a later addition to an underlying palimpsest of earlier settlement(Mercer 1985,98). Whilst die 'mound upon mound' profile is not Unic probably holds true herealso. one which is so commonin Orkney, UIC The Alliddle Iron Age Brochs representa major monumentaldivergenceout of an otherwise fairly continuous tradition of native architecture(cf MacKic 1987)and the MIA is defined as the period th when the broch becomesprevalent.It hasto be recognised at the broch class (for want better term) coversa whole seriesof structuresdiffering ,perhapsin age and form; of a a structure is best consideredin terms of the 'social practices its plan was designed to cover' (Scott 1947,26). but The date of this architecturalform is not well established. datesfrom Crosskirk, I lowe and Dun Mor Vaul (MacKic 1974)suggest broadhorizonof usebetweenthe rourth a between second BC the centuriesBC andAD. but probablyconcentrated centuries andAD. Many brochs in Orkney and Caithness were enclosed by outworks. sometimes incorporating a blockhouse.When the respectiveentrancesare aligned it may suggest that the broch and outwork were conceivedof as a unity and may have beenplannedat the sametime. At Clickhimin and Crosskiik, wherethere is someevidencefor pre-broch activity, the outworks may prc-datethe brochs.The majority of brochs in Orkney and Caithness are situated in positions where defence was apparently not the prime consideration(cf rojut 1982for similar conclusionson the Shetlandbrochs).A number arc in totally defensive positions, what Mercer (1985.100) calls 'fortalice brochs. Prolwntoryfor(s sometimesenclosebrochs.I'licy occur in Orkney and Shetlandwhen hillforts do not and in Caithness wherethereare a few hillforls.

Ilia primary internal bioch fittings at Crosskirk (Fairhurst 1984,11128) and Howe (Carter e( al 1984, Fig 4) suggestthat in thesecasesthe broch hall primarily a doniesdc function, in common with the earlier roundhouseswhich had similar plans. Little is known of the earliest internal featuresat Giimcss and Midhowe. the best known brochs in Orkney. Whilst there is some suggestionthat they may have been similar in natureto of ilia extant features. it is obvious in the case of Midhowe that there were much differences. Internal and external casing walls, which appearon many brochs in Orkney Caithnessneed not be late; at Crosskirk their early construction reflected a seriesof and and experienceOf Ilia builders in constructinghigtr' weaknesses the inadequate stnictural walling. Any isolated broch probably did not stand isolated for long. Outbuildings can be divided roughly into two forms: radial and non-radial. The radial examples (Fig 1) the broch in a regular fashion. a passageleading through them to ilia broch. encircle by is usually SUffOunded a narrow encircling passage; there is a very full useof all Which the available spacebetween the broch and its surrounding outworks, wlic(c theseexist. The non-radial form may have arisen very early in the development of broclis (as at Crosskirk where outbuildings were constructedprior to the period of Roman artefaus, possibly as early as 200 BC). This is in contrast to ilia Orcadian sites with and with their earliest levels. In some where Romanariefactsmay be associated Outbuildings. outbuildings may precederadial outbuildings (as possibly in phase6 at casesnon-radial I lowe). Whilst the non-radial arrangementmay be early, it is viriually impossible to assess the date of many of the sub-circular and sul)-rectangularbuildings which surround the brochs. most particularly those in Caithness which were excavated in ilia nineteenth or whose presenceis suggestedby fieldwork alone. In Caithnessthere ig little century. for the radially disposed settlement seen in Orkney. despite the fact that evidence are equally common in cacti area.I lowcver. there is occasionalevidencefor outbuildings the and extendedentrancesare common, b1lL complexeson either an encircling passage, side of them are amorphousand lend to exhibit a wider range of building types than is seen in Orkney. It is not known if liter fron Age structures are chronologically dislincfive in Caithness,and dicre is virtually nothing to compare ilia buildings around Ilia broch with. Artefacts are no niore helpful becausethe contexts of either Roman or suggestively MIA artefacis have never been ascribed specifically to any of ilia Out structures. Returning to ilia examplesof radial Outbuildings.the dating evidence for ilicse resEs oil the evidence from lfo%vc(Carter et W 1984). Gurness(Itedges almost'exclusively 1987 11)and Midhowc (Callanderand Gram 1934)(Foster in prep a). lictiges (1987 111. 14) estimatesthat 20 out of 52 of his Orkney broch population have evidence for wellorderedoutbuildings. On die basisof presentevidence,outbuildings elsewheretend to be it of ilia non-radial type. UlLhOligh is not always possible to distinguish the two oil the basisof fieldwork alone. Hedges' work SU99CSIS someof die outbuildings associated that, with brochs in Orkney have beenbuilt in the samephaseof construction as the broch. or the are near contemporaryafterthoughts.because layout of some of the oubuildings and the broch is by and large systematic.and their floor areas. filings and furnishings arc comparable(1987 Opinion on die daia Of the Outbuildingshas vacillated front LIA (see for exalliple summary of antiquarian activity in Orkney: Iledges 1987 Ill. 130-51) to MIA (Childc 1946,90) to LIA (Ilaillihon 1966.111; Ritchie and Ritchie 1981). but ill generalmore recent opinion again favours a MIA horizon (Ritchie 1988). Whilst many undatednonradial outbuildings may be LIA. die rcdafingof radial structuresnow generates more of a gap in the LIA settlementrecord. Still. whateverone's stancein ilia debateabout how 36

soon after the construction of the broch the outbuildings were erected, it cannot be disputed that die broch and outbuildings co-existed at some point, functioning as a tinily. Contemporary with die brochs am likely to have been some roundhouses and more fragile settlement types which arc not so obvious on the ground, particularly the settlements associated with carth-houses. The extent to which the northern MIA populadon lived in or in die immediate vicinity of broclis cannot be ganged.

4,

//

\\ \P'i
GURNESS
BROCH PERIOD

LINGRO
UNPHASED

HOW[
PHASE 7 PEMODS

MIDHOWE
1.23

UNDEIVIMINED

Fig. 1.

Plans of brochs with nu&ated settle"tents (after Hedges 1987 1/. MIMS Carter el at 1984; Calkvukr and Grant 1934).

19-16 1/.-

37

The I. ate Iron Age I The LIA I marks die time when ilia brochsceasedto be occupiedas anydiing other than temporary workshops or for less monumentaldomestic structures.The funcdon of the broch sites had probably beenchanging up to this time, although the broch might still be in use, for example outworks were not being maintained.Settlementeither continuedon the broch site in a modified manncr, or was created de novo elsewhere.Often similar forms arc found on both. Ilia LIA I is taken to end in die early seventhcentury structural when more distinctive artefactsand buildings appear. Some mention has already been made of [fie problems in assessinghow long modified occupation continued on broebs.This is perhapsthe period of which least is known becauseit is very difficult to recognisein both artafactualand structural terms. There are few ariefact types which can be spccifically assignedto the fourth. fifth arid sixth centuries, and post-broch horizons were always [lie most summarily treated by earlier excavators. Throughout the Atlantic IA continuity is exhibited in much of ilia material culture (for exarnple see Hedges 1987 111.44-47). Some pins and cornbs (Stevenson 1955; Fostcr in prcp b), biooclics (Fowler 1963). class I stonesand art inobilier decorated With PiCdShsymbols. parallelopiped dice and painted pebblesmay belong to this period, but unfortunately not exclusively. Where theseartefactsoccur on broch sites it is only rarely possible to associate them with specific building forms. RecentC- 14 dateshelp clarify t1iisperiod (Foster in prcp a and b). Following ilia MIA there is a markedabsenceof C-14 datesfrom Orkney. Caithness and Sutherland which covers ilia LIA I (circa cal AD 230-625). In Orkney this section into die post comprises die post-brochlevels at I [owe (phase8). which scarcelytrespass 600 (LIA 11)period, and a date for the abandonment a late roundhouse Skaill. T116 of at ilia absenceof dates in Caithnessand Sutherlandis easily explained because sampleis too small. A large numberof datcs fall in this time spanelsewherein Scotland.Thcrc is nothing abnormal about the stretcljiof die Trondheim curve covering this periud and it must be concluded that this low point in ilia C-14 (laic spansfor Orkney, Caithness and Sutherlandcan best be explainedby the history of previous excavation.nalliely a lack of simples front broch or post-brochlevels. A considerableelementof LIA I settlementis (Fairhurst on broch sites.as a fourth century shardfrom Crosskirk may suggest probably 1984). At present there is no dating evidencethat non-broch sites,such as Pool, extend back any further than about the fourth or fifth centuriesAD. As yet the simple of sitesis too sinall. and both post-brocharid non-brochsettlements may be expected fill this gap to one day. Nor need it surprise us if some broch outbuildings are found to have had in extremely extended life span - at Pool a small (probably MUlti-CCllcd)unit has been demonstratedto have beenoccupiedover a numberof centuries(pcrs comm Hunter).It is not always possible to recognisechangesin structural form on broch sites because of the tendencyto reuseearlier structures.but the generalimpressionat I Iowa is of a series of interconnecting sub-circular and sub-rectangular rooms with yards. There is no evidencefor any more thana couple of domesticunits. A new type Of Settlementwas'dcvclopcdde novo on some non-brochSites.At Pool excavation of a settlement mdund has revealed substantial Prehistoric Settlement underlying Norse halls and byres of ilia ninth to thirteenth centuries(ArchaeolExtra, Ilun(cr pers comm). 11cre.in about ilia founh or fifth centuries AD a roundhouse arid associatedbuildings precededby a probable souterrain and associatedstructure,were built into Neolithic middens underlying (lie Site. This then developedinto 2 cellular settlement of adjoining and interconnecting roundhousesarid smaller circular ccils. Perhaps most of the site hdd eroded into the sea. but there is certainly no reasonto suggestany broch settlementin the immediatevicinity. Indeedit seemsthat this cellular type of complex may be paralleledat I lowniae, North Ronaldsay(Traill W 1885;Traill I

38

1890). This site (Fig 2) was excavated in the 1880s and consists of in unphased complex of roundhouses, one possibly a wheelhouse (unique so far in Orkney and Caithness), courtyards, and a long rectangular form which can also be paralleled at Pool (see below). Ilowmae is undated, but there is nothing in'its artefactual assemblageto contradict a date of about 300-000 AD. The absenceof any distinctive LIA 11artc(acts pcihaps weighs in favour of this date. It thus seems that settlement mounds are characteristic of LIA settlement. The number of domestic units which might have been cxtant in any one settlement at a single time is tinknown, but the presence of interconnecting courtyards hints at a degree of complexity not immediatcly apparent in their amorphous plans.

lom f

STONES

ON EDGE % %

Of I 141V IST UNDER

Fig.,2. Plan of Ilowmae (ajler Traill 1890,plXVI).

It hasrecentlybeenrecogniscd certainoblong or rectangular buildings may be that pre-Norse, mostnotablytheoblongwagsof Caithness, which Langwelland Forse-are of (Curle 1912; 1941; 1946; 1948),but raccrit, the only excavated examples surveyon the furtherexamples Dunbcath (Morrison 1986).Wagshavelong beenheld estate suggests to be uniqueto Caithness, moreparticularlythe parishes Latheronand Dunbcalh,but of if] an increasing numberof vaguelysimilar structures now beingdiscovered 01kncy arc wherethereis a growingbodyof evidencefor their LIA pedigree:rrom sixth to seventh 39

century levels at Pool; early phase 8 at Howe; and possibly at the Brough of Birsay (for example structure 15. Hunter 1986.56). Ilie structure at Howe with its stalls is probably domestic rather than a byte (pcrs comm B Smith; contra Carteret at 1984.68-69) and such an intepretation is not implausible for many of the other Orcadian sub-rectangular forms. If for a moment we turn our attentions to the Udal in the Westem Isles it will be seen that here there is evidence for different non-broch settlement forms which may date to cal AD 140-660 (Q-1 131; Crawford and Switsur 1977; Crawford 1986). At this time the settlement shifts and the structure and artefact types change so abruptly that Crawford is compelled to think in terms of an invasion. In levels XIV-XIII (the levels are numbered beginning from die most recent). die levels pre-dating thc seventh century, die buildings take the form of simple. oval bellied buildings with small satellite cells. slab-lined hearths lying along the long axis, and a single internal reveLtedplatform. Until die site is published it is impossible to assess if these buildings bear any relationship to those around brochs in the north, or if they are indeed the by-product of an immigrant population (in addition, as the concept of the unitary broch culture province dissolves, the validity of such comparisons can be queried). The Late Iron Age II A lengthy steep section in die C-14 calibration curve begins at around cal AD 625, as a result of which a disproportionally large number of C-14 dates are calibrated to within q range of a few calcndrical years (Foster in prep a). Effectively the LIA is broken up into two periods on either side of around AD 625. The later bracket is henceforth described 4s LIA 11,although. in Orkney at least, Early Medieval might be equally appropriate. Tbus of all the chronological divisions imposed upon these data. this is the one most designed to suit the archaeologist. None thb less. from the seventh century the Atlantic Province is sta. rting to acquire an Early Historic mande and much of the evidence points to a rapidly developing Pictish church and state. To date die most distinctive LIA 11structural forms are the polyventral cells (Fig 3) discovered throughout the Atlantic Province, primarily on de novo settlements.The main exponent of these forms occur in levels XII and XI at the Udal. In level XII the buildings take a more symmetric. 'ladybird-like' plan which Crawford (1986) describes as a ventral house (cf Loch na Berie: Topping 1986). In phase XI these forms were embellished with minor satellites. hence the'polyventral house. Many of these houses were enclosed by timber palisades, which were obviously very significant, one example going through at least ten replacements. A sequence of adjacent enclosuresis strung out along the machair ridge, but no details are available at present of their chronological inEer-reladonships.At all periods since phase XIV these buildings were accompaniedby minor buildings. four posters. ne latter have not ben recognised elsewhere. Buildings similar to the ventral buildings at the Udal have also been recovered in Orkney. as at Buckquoy (Ritchie 1977, Fig 2) and Red Craig (Morris 1983, rig 6). At Buckquoy there is a greater axiali'ty in die arrangement of the rooms, although this is not seen in the example which was found in the upper levels at Gurness (Iledges 1987 11,Fig 2.11). Tlie Udal dates for these particular buildings are interesting. as they suggest that this form may have a pre-seventh century pedigree, although most other evidence points to their Laterdate (note also a dendrochonologically derived terminus post quem of 618 AD from a timber version of this form in Northern Ireland: Lynn 1989). Curved gullies at Birsay are best interpreted as the thoroughly robbed foundation trenches of major cellular structures which had internal orkhostatic facings and thick turf walls (flunter 1986,3745,111 10-14). but are otherwise fairly similar in form to the polyvcntral form. There is no evidence for the Settlement at the Brough of Birsay pre-dating die mid-

40

seventh century at the earliest (ibid. 61). It will now be obvious why non-broch and settlement non-settlcnicnt moundactivity of this dateis difficult to detut, because of building techniques such that the relative slightness die structures, because of are and robbingwouldleavethe formertotally unevidenced.

paving H hearth

/0

1H

H? c

or

lom

Fig. 3. Plans ofpolywentrat structures: A Duckquoy house 4 (after Ritchie 1977, Fig 3); D Brough of Dirsay structure 19 (after Hunter 1986, ill I]), - C Red Craig (after Aforris 1983 rig 6; Hunter 1986, ill 3).

A roundhouse-type form has been recognised on site Vill at the Brough of Birsay (ibid, unicture 21,111 17) which is assumed to be LIA If. On site VII at Dirsay it is interesting to note that a drain divided two buildings front each other (ibid, III 11), and is perhapssuggcsdvc of further divisions between buildings. On the basis of certain pins and combs (Stevenson 1955; Foster in prep a and b) there was evidently some acdvity on broch sites in the LIA 11. In Orkney we arc perhaps seeing the preference for selecdve reuse of sites which have both massive outworks and surrounding settlements, sites which may by implication have been of especial importance in (lie MIA. At present no such pattern emergesfrom the Caithnessevidence. However. it remains to be emphasised that there has been little excavation on late occupied brochs. There is little evidence that a site was used both for burial and a domestic purpose, nor is there any evidence for any LIA I activity on these sites used for burial. The implicadon is therefore that a large number of these brochs sites were grassy mounds by (he 6me they came to be reused as burial sites, although the former presence of LIA settlement in the immediate vicinity of the broch mound can unfortunately not as yet be verified. 'Me collapse of broch and surrounding structures might have created so much debris that it was more convenient to build adjacent to die mound, which is riot

41

lend to investigate. but is where most subsequentdcgredation is where archaeologists likely to take place (as at Howe where there are suggestions featuresrunning off into of the ploughedout areawhich surroundeddie mound: pcrs comm B Smith). Analysis of Spatial Patterns in Buildings Tile gamma (henceforth access)analysis of llillier and Hanson (1984) is a means of invcstigating the relationship betweenspatial order and society. It looks at the patternsof betweeninhabitantsand betweeninhabitantsand strangersas they are reflected relations in ale useof interior space.in termsof the patternscreatedby boundariesand entrances. behind the technique,the formal approachis one Whilst one can find faults in the tenents; can be adaptedand modified for archaeologicalpurposes.Social inferencescan be which derived from the spadal order by circumspectconsideradonof the assumptionsbehind every step of the technique, and a clear understanding of the relationship between Culture and social reproduction. All discourse has a spatial element (Barrett material 1988) and thereforeaccessanalysis is a useful tool for arficulating an understandingof ale part spaceplays in structuring social relations, and the part social relations have in sulicturing space(Foster 1989). I'lie ahn of the next section is to demonstratehow this technique can be used to further an understanding of our period, and to develop in tandemasocial interpretation. Tile prehistoric structurcsof Orkney and Caithnessprovide one of -thebestdatabases which to do this becausewe often have informadon about tile form and function of with robbing and other vagariesof time, tile. tile constitucilt spaces.Here, despitesubsequent availability of natural building blocks has resultedin die unprecedented survival ot wide prehistoric structures,a prehistoricresourceunrivalled in LheBritish Isles. The Theory and Technique A building is madeup of walls which define a seriesof enclosedspaces,the boundaries between which may be broken by doorways allowing accessfrom one area to another. The importanceof doors is not only that they open. but more importantly that they can close, effectively segregating spaces and controlling the means of access to any particular point. Access analysis is based on syntactic relations, and considers the arrangementof different spacesas a pattern of permeabilities. that is in terms of the interconnectionsbetweenspaces.This technique is important because its descriptive of rules of application.and its clear exposition of how theserelate 3utonorny.unambiguous at the very lowest level to relations between inhabitants, and between inhabitants and suwgers. Societieswhich might vary in their type of physical configuration and degree to which die ordering of spaceappearsas a conspicuousdimensionof culture. can all be comparedon a similar basis.This is particularly useful if we are trying to compare the social practicesa building was designedto cover rather than its architecturaltraits. The techniqueis explained with ilia useof die cx.unple of the EIA roundhouseat Du (Fig 4). Each unit of space,including transitional spaces.has beenrepresented a dot as betweenthem where dierc is permeability, giving access betweenspaces(Fig with lines 4A). Each spaceis usually an area which is enclosedby orthostats,with accesseither through doorways (as in die caseof Fig Q x), or over low kerbs (v) where die access lines may thereforeappearto be jumping walls. The central 'service area' (y) is dcfined by a low kerb and gives accessto the hearth(z); it is divided into two areasbecausethe smaller north sectionis partly pavedand the distribution of artefacts(I [edges19871,Fig 1.57) may suggestthat the southern half had a different function to die northeni half. Area w is treated as a single space becausethe central orthostat was not designed to break the spaceinto two distinct components, and because the extent of floor deposits of which are more or less specific to this area (ibid). The network of dots and connecting 42

lines forms an unjustified access map. This map can be justified. in this case from -, in outside perspective (the carrier), the stance of die stranger (Fig 4C), although it could have been from any point in the building. By justification it is meant that all points of a certain depth, that is the minimum number.of steps taken to reach them from (lie carrier, have been positioned on the same horizontal line, subsequent depth values on lines parallel to die first. Given the rules of construction any line will either connect with points on die same level of depth, or two levels separated by only one level of depth. The resultant map is both an aid to visual decipherment of the pattern, and could in theory be combined with quantification procedures (an aspect which is not pursued here).

----

12,1

posited

access

\ /

I
Fig. 4.

carrier

space space sm

transitional

roorn/compartment space with hearth

A Plan of Bu indicating points of access (after Iledges 1987 1: Fig 1.10). B B" wish unjustified access (gamma) inap superiniposed (access to hearth omitted); C Justified access map with labelled spaces.

Buildings are easier to study than settlements because open spaces cannot be so readily separatedinto analytical elements (Ilillicrand Hanson 1984,16). and the richness in differentiation of interior structures means that they carry more social information than exterior relations (ibid, 154). So, once spaces are defined, the spatial order of a structure can be represented in part by a diagram showing the in (erconnecdons of (lie enclosed spaces. A prerequisite for analysis is therefore an accurate map with all access points marked. Form (the formal properties of spaceand the boundarieswhich (1cfine it its style) and function (the purpose of buildings) must also be embraced. In practice it is

43

virtnally impossible to make a distinction between these attributes (Markus 1982.4-6; cf Johnson 1988,117). Ilillier and Hanson (1984) minimise the interactive nature of these because of their apparent belief in the analytical autonomy of the spatial dimension. Ilowever. these other architectural dimensions have to be brought into consideration if the full archaeological value of accessanalysis is to be appreciated. Social Inference From Access Analysis It has been argued elsewhere (Foster 1989) that the application of these techniques, in combination with evidence for architectural form and function, can impart two levels of spatial understanding. Firstly it allows us to consider the reality of living in. or visiting, that particular building. Interior spaces constitute commonly inhabited locales of social interaction. Access analysis allows us to consider how frequently and under what architectural circumsLuices physical encounter might occur and thus illuminate the way that particular architecture structures social discourse. Secondly we may compare a number of spatial pattcnis to reveal the possible existence of underlying genetic rules which govcm the generation of these patterns. In this study the designation of a space depends on the physical presence of a doorway, or crossing a low kerb or ramparts. It is also depends, to a large measure,on the ascribed function of ari area: it is obviously important to distinguish an enclosed area where sleeping rather than Storage might have Laken place. Arcas with hearths are especially relevant. The recognition of functional zones, even if only derined by what in another period might have been described as fumiture, is an obvious archaeological progression on a technique evolved for upstanding 'historic' structures. Orkney and Caithness c 600 BC-AD 800 In Figs 4-6 various types of settlement have been drawn as justified gamma maps with an extended vocabulary of symbols to reprcscut the different types of space and incans of access.These access maps therefore incorporate information about the spatial properties of the settlerricrits;and the potential functions of some areas. Moreover by the use of open and closed symbols differing architectural types, where relevant, have also been indicated. Thc result is an all-embracing consideration of the architecture presented in convenient diagrammatic form. In the early first millennium BC the population either lived in thick-walled roundhouses, which tended to be sited in isolation or in small clusters of thinner walled structures. Gradually the thicker-wallcd roundliouses or lobate multi-cellular roundliouses developed into increasingly elaborate architectural forms, ularnately ale broch, as competition in society led to the local pre-emincrice of certain residential Both types of roundhouse were clearly domestic buildings. tile groups (Iledges 1987 111). only difference being in scale and the amount of effort put into their construction, signifying which inhabitants were more powerful. This disdncdon is almost undoubtedly the result of the ability to manipulate primary agricultural resources, indeed tile appearance of earth-houses emphasises the importance of food storage at this time (Sharpies 1984,12 1). Thus the potential for social diversification and development would always have been greater in Orkney and Caithness than other areas of the Atlantic Province because the land was fertile enough to maintain large populations and the competitive demands of production and Consumption. Elsewhere the piecemeal distribution of natural resources tended to produce discrete social units with less potential for development. Ile authority of this neW dominating social elite 'would be explicitly stated in die ritual of legitimisation and in the symbols of power displayed, but that authority would also be Implicit in, amongst other things, the payment of tribute'. Thus as Barrett (198 1.

44

215) goeson to say.the acceptance newauthoritymight be mobifiscdin the labourof of building the brochs and its enclosingramparts.Prior to this the distinction in scale between roundhouses the addingof extracladdingsto the walls may have been the and for equallysignificant.Thesebuildingswerenot simply constructed extra warmthand/or defenceand/or status, but in the processof their construction actors were brought together who demonstratedtheir acceptanceof authority whilst at the same time ramifyingor creatingthebasison whichthis powerwasestablished. Ultimately Vie result was the broch,the residence the social elite which may in pf haveformedfrom theamalgamation certainsocialgroupings,for certainly of somecases brochsdeveloped into fully fledgedbrochs,and it may have all roundhouses/early not in beennecessary musterresources order to gain superiorityover rival social units. to doubledomesticunits at Gurness Midhowe suggest The secondary that a coupleof and domestic units, perhapskin groups, might have amalgamated.The infilling of the roundhousesat Pierowall and Quantcrnessmay be the result of conflict between (Sharplcs1984,121). Factors suchasraidingor landhunger(cf Scott competinglineages in for but 1947)arenot directly responsible these changes, could becatalysisfor changes die rules by which discourse was enacted, and societycontinuedto 'beconie' (cf Pred 1985).In Caithness large numberof roundhouse a sites existing on the ground do not and which appear exhibit later development. therearerelativelyfew brochsin Caithness that Again this suggests only certain earlier sites on the surfaceto be new foundations. maintained the economic and social impetus to allow settlement to continue (Mercer 1985,10). A similar patternmay exist in Orkney. notably when uninterrupted and/orburnt moundsitesoccur in close proximity to each severalbrochor roundhouse of other. The generalpicture is thus of the increasingconvergence land and societal their power within and who symbolised accumulated control underpowerful groupings on the broch. The fact that there was continuity of development particular sites may of and territorial patterns.and suggestmaintenance social networks,land organisation (ibid. 10). communities proprietalrightswith antecedent turning to the spatialaspects, At trends beobserved. the immediate somegeneral can from Early Iron Age single,agriculturalanddomesticunits visuallevel, thedevelopment (such as Bu. Fig 4) to Middle Iron Age nucle3tedsettlements(Fig 5) reveals the hierarchicaluseof space. introductionof a staggering The mapsbecomeconsiderably deeper(inore asymmetric), and the deepest, areais always the set of most segregated spaces which constitutethe broch.Uppergalleriesand upperstoreys,featuresnot found leastaccessible Their usagemay have in the outbuildings,are the very deepest, spaces. from which surveillancemight includedstorage. extra sleepingfacilities and wallheads be made.Unfortunatelythese die partsof thestructure aboutwhich leastis known as are they werealwaysthe first to collapse be dismantled, the total numberof original or and floorsis not known. If the majority of activitiesandfunctionswas in the upperstoreys thenobviouslytheir exactnaturecan neverbe assessed the groundplanstell us less and (althoughit seems that mostprobable thegroundfloor wasthemaindomesticforum). The largerthe access maps.then the moreabstract complicatedthey becometo and analyse,and it is helpful to break them down, for instanceby dividing them into ('tree-like') sub-systems Gurness:Foster (as distributed ('ringy') and nondisLributed 1989.Fig 6). On the veq outside,globally governing interior,are earLhworks the which the extendthe depthbetween insideandoutsideworlds.evenif in somecasesthey only create abstractrather than real rings, that is their circuit is 'Completed' by natural features.Accessto the interior proper has to be via the 'guardhouse'or forecourt, a relativelyconvexspace;this is wherethe transitionfrom the outsideworld to an inner From here ingressis madeinto a long thin passage from environmentis sanctioned. Howe to of and whichaccess bothoutbuildings brochcanbe made.In thecases Gumess, 45

;; >
4)

e ul t, Z

O'x

4) =ic-Zc

*-- S<

0 'OT

9) 'Z Z: uE ID
r ,E Z; 00b

ir

u -5

10

Ez

. (D -*0-4 -4

T:>4
0', 1

Fig. 5. Justified access(gamma) mapsfor Afiddle Iron Age nucleatedsettlements(reversedlopen distinguish the brochfrom other structures): A Gurness; B Howe; C Afid/josve. symbols

46

LL

135DW

C,

TYa
U-.

ii2J
___

om
.i-

Fig. 6. Justified access(gamma)mapsjor UA structurts: A Ilowmae. B llowe phase8. stage6; C Gurness 'Shamrock'. D Udal level XIV-XIII, E Udal level XII, F Udal level XII; G U., 1b. Buckquoyphase 11Buckquoyphase A-D are LLA1.E-11are IJA It. Key asfor Fig 5.

47

and Lingro (as suggested by an early section of walling: RCAMS 1946 11,Fig 230) the entrance into the settlement and the broch entrance are aligned, which must have enhanced the processional like qualities of these passages.From here the outbuildings a local, large and almost totally nondistributed area Of Settlement, spaces in consdtute which strangers cannot freely circulate and into which they must be invited. Such branching off thus creates the maximum segregation of spaceswith the least expenditure of depth, both betwcen and within domestic units. Entrance to and between the outbuildings is Mainly by means of this passage, therefore most movement can be monitored by control of its various sections. From this first narrow passageaccessis gained to the next ring. a passagewaywhich encircles the broch (except at Howe). This ring is at the point where ingress can be gained to further nondistributed spaces at a slightly deeper level. Ringy structures interconnect some apartments and outbuildings. Access to the broch interior is from the initial passage, at about the same level as some of the outbuildings, but is deepenedby guard cells, an elaborate doorway into a long tunnel, and a series of vestibules. The form of the architecture is particularly relevant; the monumentality of the broch-tower and its elaborate entrance contrast starkly with the less substanUal outbuildings, all of which appear very similar in form, serving to heighten the discrepancy between these spaces. Once inside the bruch the final ringy structure is encountered, which is separatedfrom all the others by several depth levels. This is quite complex in the case of the double domesdc units at Nlidhowe and the later levels at Gurness. The rings connect the main domesde foci (the hearth areas) and the upper levels. Cells and compartments are arranged in non-distributed fashion from these rings, in similar fashion to the outbuildings. From the point of view of strangers, the overall hierarchical layout and the differences in architectural form have done nothing to encourage their admission,to the broch. Therefore, its interior ringy system, is unlikely to have had a major role in articulating immediate stranger-in habitant relations, but was probably a means of articulaLing the reladonships between the different domestic units, where they existed. The ringy sub-systems in the outbuildings would have played a similar role, but here there is a greater emphasis on the non-distribuied component. From the point of view of social structure a number of observations can be made on the basis of this information. Despite some similarities with the outbuildings, the broch lement complex becauseof its obviously stands out as the most important area in the sett. spatial Importance. its prime location and its monumentality. It it were not for the double domesLic units, and the spacesassociated with the upper levels of the broch, then they would differ little from the earlier roundhouses.This, in combination with the degree of controlled access to the Outbuildings and their apartments, which are almost exclusively segregated, may suggest that the social structure on which these new relations were founded required strict control in order to be both established and maintained. Taling an overview. the observed systems servo to emphasisethe social Inequalities existing between the broch and outbuilding occupants, and the settlement and the outside, the latter distinction bSi'ng the strongest. Local relations between the internal cells are basically the same except for the broch; the factor of non interchangeability has been introduced between the broch and all its surrounding units. Thus this is more of a transpatial than spatial system. In other words the emphasis is on spatial relations which have been determined by genotypic rules and produce the required restrictions of encounter, even though each physical manifestation of these rules is different. What is More, the genotypic-model is global, because it recurs, and as a result transpatial relations and integration can exist between arrangements (settlement complexes) because similarities in layout and comparable positioning may foster a conceptual form of identification (I lillicr and I lanson 1984,238). 48

In addition the inhabitantsof a single settlementmay feet a strong senseof identity with each other becausethey share a structured whole with others. Furthermore, the the of repetitive natureof thesepatternsmay be representing acknowledgement a codeof symbols. in this casespatially determined,by which those in the broch sustainedtheir authority over the inhabitantsof the outbuildings.The orderedlayout of the outbuildings use and the comprehensive of spacefurther suggeststhat thesewere laid out as a unity under the authority of the broch inhabitants,rather than being the result of the cumulative construction of outbuildingsto a basic structuring principle. Their constructionis thus a and part of the symbol by which the authority of the broch inhabitantswas both accepted created.The emphasisis on the articulation of theserelationsat the intra-sitelevel, but as a part of a wider societywith simikir values. Fojut (1982) estimatesa carrying capacity of about 100-200 people for the land surrounding a broch In Shetland.Unfortunately it is not possible to measurethe size of the populations and the extent to which the carrying capacity of the land was being realised at any stage,but increasingly,and from early days in the history of the brochs,a large numberof dependents cameto live aroundthe brochs.The greaterthe authority and wealth of the broch inhabitants the larger the number of dependentsthey could both attract and support.The most powerful leaderscould muster the resourcesto lay out and build planned, integrated,nucleatedvillages. Under less formal circumstances, on a and lesser scale, non-radial outbuildings were built. Early brochs are seen as being sculements,and not all broch sites were of equal contemporarywith variousroundhouse standing.The paceof this developmentmay have varied considerablyfrom areato area. and was not necessarilyunilineal. In a time of great change social tensionsmust have been strong betweendifferent groups, and it was in the interests of the social elite to to attract more dependents their fold, and preferably to accommodatethem where they and could be easily accounted providedfor. Most brochs were sited with accessto cultivable land as the main consideration , (Scott 1947,1948; Fojut 1982: Mercer 1985). It is presumedthat all inhabitants,even craftsmen,would probablyhavebeeninvolved in the production of food. Ultimately there was a changein die broch system, the result of a renegotiationof or relations, which wasachievedby extendingthe authority of certain cultural resources, by rejecting oncecurrentauthoritativesymbols(cf Barrett forth). Certainly the brochwas of no longer occupied.althoughsettlement someform seemsto havecontinuedon many sites. The LIA I is the period for which least is known of the settlementrecord,but there is certainly no indication of structureswhich can be differentiated on social groundsin 0, kney and Caithness.Ile exact date of this changeis nbt known. but it would be too easy to attemptto relatethis to the withdrawal of Roman interestsin Scotland.Yet as the prime recordedsourceof authority in this period, this cannot be ignored. Although the Romans never exercisedany control in the area, the classical literature suggeststhat there was a power basein the north which was consideredworth conqueringOlomson 1987.2-3). and the archaeology supportsthis. If the broch aristocracyhadbecomectients of the Romans,die withdrawal of their patronagemight have been sufficient to topple was this social system,asis suggested the casefor the Lowland brochs(Macinnes19&4). When local leaderswere thus no longer able to satisfy the needsand demandsof their dependents.the resuli-wasthe renegotiationof relations from the local power basesto more distant ones. The only -brochsites which continued were those where the social elite managedto continueto derive power in this new system;presumablycertainbroch sites were still the majorccntres. Fifth century Britain in generalwas experiencinga time of settlementshift as the result of the withdrawalof theRomansand migrationsfrom both the continentand Ireland. Yet as in post-RomanWales and north England, there is no reasonto believe that the

49

social structure did not survive, albeit in modified form. Certainly the aggression earlier of the Picts against south Britain, recorded from the late third century onwards, suggests that the individual components of their society were able to produce between then a naval force to be reckoned with. The appearance of forts. notably Burghead, with a coastal distribution from (he fifth century onwards, (Alcock 1980,80-8 1). suggests not only a concentration of resources into fort construction, but is a part of the discontinuity witnessed in die settlement record throughout Pictland. Very little is known of social stratification, but the term regulus was used to describe a sub-king or minor king of Orkney who was visiting the rex poientissintus near Inverness in AD 565. The picture presented is thus of a system of local kings with one, or possibly two overkitigs. Certainly the uniformity of symbol stories throughout Pictland (the majority of which probably date to the LIA II) empliasises that there was a certain cultural cohesion throughout the area (Ritchie 1985,189). By the seventh century there is an increasing body of evidence for settlement at this time having been made up of individual, discrete units, such as around the Birsay Bay area (Morris 1983.132). Only one site, at the Brough of Birsay can be put forward as a particularly important ccritre, but then on the basis of its finds, location and subsequent importance in the Norse period, rather than any distinguishing structures (Curle 1982; Hunter 1986). The lack of farmland o4 the island renders interpretation as a siniple farmstead unsatisfactory (Hunter 1986,169). and the inhabitants must have been dependent on a hinterland. The settlements around the Birsay Day may therefore perhaps be interpreted as a series of home farms or dependent settlements providing for die needs of this establishment. They may therefore not be totally typical of the selt1cments.we may expect to find ise-mliere in Orkney and Caithness. There was some selective re-use of broch sites, but on present evidence this only occurred on a few sites. In Oikney the selective reuse of mes for secular and ecclesiastical purposes which were probably particularly important in the MIA (see above) may be a means of legitimising and enforcing a new social structure (cf Bradley 1987). In the post-broch ceriod (Fig 6) the access maps revert to forms which are very similar to the shallow G[A examples, except that in [lie LIA 11some of die domestic units re enclosed by fenc.-s. zrc3ting a series of discrete units which are sometimes clustered in space. In other words the basic domestic units remain very similar throughout our period, despite different architectural shells, even in the MIA they do not change. except that they are bound togthcr spatially with strongly prescribed lines of access. In spatial terms the only difference between the thin and thick walled EIA roundhouscs is in their degree of association with other structures and their monumentality. In the LIA the emphasis thus changes from internal to external space. and there is a trend towards more eg3liLarian, less spatially prescribed. on-site relations. Ilowevcr. these changes were undoubtedly accompanied by a stricter control of the spaces between sites as a result of new forms of land organisation. In terms of social evolution this corresponds to the shift from a ranked society to the emergent state, from local change power bases to more distant durces of authority. By the eighth century there am hints that Picdsh kings were developing some of the organisational capacity to manage a widespread kingdom, which was gradually acquiring some of the appearance of a state. with a degree of central administration and perhaps more closely-defined boundaries, which could at times be backed by physical violence (cf Mann 1986.37). In AD 727 there is a reference interpreted as meaning that NechLan had officers called exactores. persons collecting tax or tribute (Annals of Ulster. sub anno 728; Anderson 1973,178). and it is probable that such officers worked as the king's representatives throughout Pictland. Such people lived in isolation from those from whom they were exacting tribute, benefiting considerably from the enhanced powers which they derived from their

50

as agentsof authority (thereis thus a dialectic betweencentrzilisingpowers.such position forcesof its agents:Mann 1986).Agentssuchas these the state.and the decentrallsing as have levied the fleets which carried Out severalrecordedsea-borne attacks in the might and seventhcenturies(TigernachAnnals c 682; Annals of Ulster c 580-81). and sixth was wreckedin the eighth (TigernachAnnals c 729). which Thus whilst the constructionof monumentalarchitecture.in this casehillforts, is sail of a material symbol of the acceptance authority. this power is now more physically remote.Whilst thereare still regionally basedsourcesof authority, theseare seemingly few in nurnber,and their power is structuredand reproducedin a different manner.There is no longer the needfor U&hLly regulatedsocial encounter,the existenceand acceptance physically determinedsocial rules. or indeed die ability to maintain such a network. of is ilie relationshipof dependency no longer expressedin such ovettly SpatialWins and contributesto the working of this extensivesocial network. personalencounter enhanced by That the maintenance theselong-distancerelitlons was difficult is suggested die of fact that king Brude was reputedto have destroyeddie Orkneys in AD 682 (Tigernach Annals: Orcadiesdeletesunt la'Bruidhe, Skene1867,72). which may haveresultedfrom Orcadiandissatisfactionwith die choice of overlords, or attemptsto exact tributes. Tile secular reuse of important MIA Site$ May in part be an attempt to legitimise and thereforeenforcethis far-flung network. Similarly the introduction of the Roman church with its pastoralorganisationto Orkney by the southernPictish king in the eighth century (Lamb 1988;Thomson1987,10) might be construedas a consciouseffort to consolidate secularpower through the church. Christianity was a form of ideological power whose between its doctrine and the motivations and authority resided in die correspondence (Mann 1986,302).Whilst the appealand influenceorChrisdanity needsof thecon%erted was universal. yet at die same time it reinforced the standing of the extant Secular authority: literacy provided a stable means of communication beyond face-to-race long distanceregulation (ibid 337,377). relations,and its law and morality represented The extensionof the church to Orkney within a few years of AD 715 may effectively date die extensionof Pictish royal power. in real terms. to this area (Umb 1988). Tile distribution of symbol storiesand evidencefor die ecclesiasticalreuseof sites points to thosesiteswherethe interests the social elite wereclosely tied up with the developing of Pictish stateandchurch(cf Driscoll 1988). in a later eighth century or ninth century version of Bede's EcclesiasticalIlistory 6rkney was consideredto be a part of the Pictish kingdom (Dumville 1976), which by the end of the century may have beenconsolidatedunder a single king (Davies 1984. 70). The generalabsence mentionof Caithnessin the documentary of sourcesis probably of a reflectionof the lesserimportance this areain comparisonto the Orkney Isles wWcfl and were both moreaccessible strategicallyplacedin the Atlantic seaways. By the time the Norse arrived Orkney and Caithnesswere both thoroughly Pictish, but far removedfrom the prime sourcesof authority. The regional inrra-structure,was thus not adequateenoughto make a stand against a Norse take-over, particularly at a period when die powersof the Pictish state were diminishing. It was however a welloiled systemof administration,both secular and ecclesiastical.onto which the Norse grafted themselves(as in Ireland, England and Normandy: Crawford 1987.168). For example,in Orkneytheie is evidencethat the Norse land-divisionsmight even havebeen relatedto a prc-Norseadministrativesystem(Marwick 1952.208). Lamb suggests(pers to necessary Setup the Jarldom in the ninth century after the comm) that it only became structureceasedto function due to die dismantling o( the Roman Church ecclesiastical by the Scottishkings.

51

Conclusions All human acdon is located in both fime and space. It is thus appropriate that a large proportion of the effort of archaeologists is spent in measuring, describing and recording these attributes. particularly those pertaining to humanly-made-space architecture. Space provides the setting for all social discourse, whether it is the open landscape or an artificial environment. It is a resource with an infinite number of permutafions, a cultural resource which when studied in terms of its development through time can be understood not only as the context, but also the structuring agent and product of acts of social reproduction. This paper has attempted to demonstrate this and introduced access analysis, as described above. as a useful tool for furthering an understanding of the relationship between a specific material culture and social reproduction. The shift front a ranked society where die ultimate authorities were locally based to more remote sources of central authority characterises the development of Orkney and Caithness from die MIA to the arrival of the Norse. In his account of die sources of social power, Mann (1986) disfinguishes six different forms of organisational power. Here we are seeing the change from intensive power. where there was the ability to organize UghLly and command a high level of mobilisation or commitment from the participants, to extensive power. where there was the ability to organise large numbers of people over far-flung territories in order to engage in minimally stable co-operadon. In order to amplify our expanding picture of IA Orkney and Caithness, it now remains to examine how other aspects of social reproduction fitted within this framework, and to identify the resources through which this power was exercised. In pardcular we must examine the means by which the change from local to distant power bases was achieved and maintained, the answer to which undoubtedly lies in changing agricultural practice and land tenure and the introduction of Chrisdanity (Mann 1986; cf Biddick 1984). Acknowledgements This paper expands upon the case made in my note in Antiquity 1989, so I must repeat my thanks to those who helped with this, and the editor for permission to reproduce the relevant sections. In addition I would like to gratefully acknowledlge those who have generously divulged of their unpublished data and ideas, let me use these. and kindly commented on various aspects Of this present paper. namely Simon Buteux; Steve Dockrill; Dir John Hunter; Dr Raymond Lamb; Dr Euan MacKie, Roger Mercer Ross Samson. Dr Liz Slater; Beverley Smith; and other colleagues in Glasgow. Professor Leslie Alcock and the Editor, John Barrett, worked hard to comprehensively criticise my text. make suggestions. and ameliorate the worst of my crimes to the English language. UlLimately the final opinions and faults, such as remain, are my own responsibility. Bibliography Alcock. L 1980Populi bestiales pictorurnferoci anirno:a surveyof Pictishsettlement archaeology, in WS Hansonand LJF Kepie (eds)Roman frontier studies1979(Brii. Atchaeol.Rep.Int. Ser.7 1. Oxford), 61-95. Anderson. AO 1922Early sources ScottishhistoryAD 500-1286(Edinburgh). of MO 1973Kingsand kingshipin early Scotland(Edinburgh). Anderson. AnnaLs Mier Anderson. AO 1922 of Universityof ArchaeotogyExrra Bulletin producedby the School of Archaeological Sciences, Bradford. Barrett. IC 1981Aspectsof the Iron Age in Atlantic Scotland.A casestudy in the problems of interpretation. Proc. Soc.Antiq. Scot..Ill (1981).205-19. archaeological Barrett. JC 1988 Fields or Discourse: reconstituting a social archaeology. Criliqut of Anthropology. 3 (1987-88).5-16. 7:

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Ballast, JC forth Food. Gentler and M,:l11l-'Qucsiiuns Social ReinoJuction hi of R Thomas (ads).The transi6onfrom bronzeto iron (Brit. Archaeol. Rep..Oxfur%J). and Biddick, K 1984 Early Medieval social change and resource allocation in K Diddick (ad), Archaeological approachesto medievalEurope(Kalamazoo). 105-118. Brodley, R 1987Time regainix]: the creation of condr.uity J. Brit. Archaeol. Assoc.. 140 (1987). 1-17. Orkney. Butcux. S (ad) forth Excavationsa(Skaill. Deerness. Carter. SP. flaigh. D. Neil. NRJ and Smith. B 1984 Interim reporl on the structure$ at IlOwe, Orkney. GWgoiv Archaeol.J., 11 (1984). 61-73. Stromness. and later structures on Calder. CST 1937 A Neolithic double-chambered cairn of the stalled " die Calf of Eday. Oikncy. Proc. Soc.Antiq. Scot.. 71 (1936-37). 11544. Calder. CST 1939 Excavationsof Iron Age dwellings on die Calf of Eday in Orkney. Proc. Sx. Antiq. Scot.. 73 (1938-39). 167-85. Callander.JG and Grant. WG 1934Ilia broch of Mid Howe, Rousay.Orkney. Proc. Soc. Antiq. Scot. 68 (1933-34). 444-516. Childe. VG 1946Scotland before the Scots(London). Clarke. DV 1978 Models and researchpriorities in Scottish Iron Age studies. Scot. Archaeol. Forum, ,10 (1978). 76-79. Crawford, B 1987ScandinavianScoilind (Leicester). Crawford, 1 1986The lVestIlighlands and Islands.A view of50 centuries.(Cambridge). Crawford, I and Switsur. R 1977 Sandscaping C14: the Udal. North Uist. Antiquity, 51 (1977). and 124-36. Curie. AO 1912 Excavation of a galleried structure at Laingwell. Caithness.Proc. Soc. Antiq. Scot.,46 (1911-12). 77-89. Curie. AO 1936 Account of an excavationof an iron smeltery and of an associateddwelling and Shetland,Proc. Soc. Antiq. Scot., 70 (1935Wilurow in die parish of Dunrussness, rumuli at 36). 153-69. Curie. AO 1941 An accountof the partial excavationof a 'was' or galleried building at Forst in die parishof Latherun.Proc. Soc.Aniiq. Scot.. 75 (1940-41).23-39. Curie. AO 1946The excavationof tile 'wag' or prehistoric cattlefuld at Forse.Caidiness, and the 'wags' to bruchs. and implications arising diciefrum, Proc. Soc. Atiriq. Scot., 80 [elation of (1945-0.11-24. Curie. AO 1948Ilia *Wag* of Forbe.Caidiness.Report of further cxcivatiuns mldc ill 19-17and 1948.Proc. Soc.Antiq. Scot.. 82 (194748). 27545. N101101; r. 1. Curle. CL 1982Pictish and Norse findsfrom the Brough of Birsay (Soc. Antirl. SCOL Edinburgh). Davies, W 1984 Picts. Scots and Britons in LM Smith (cd), The nuAing of Britain. The DarL Ages (Basingstoke).63-76. Driscoll. ST 1988 Power and authority in Early Historic Scodand:Pictisbsymbut stonesAIMUdler documents,in I Gictiliffl. 0 Banderand NI Ursen (cds).State andSoriety. T1weinergenceand development olsocial hierarchy and political ceniralisation, London. Duniville. DN 1976 A note on the Picis in Orkney. Scot. Gaelic Stud.. 12 (1976), 266. Fairhurst. If 1984 Excavations at Crosskirk broch. Caithness (Soc. Anliq. Scot. Monosr. 3. Edinburgh). Faithurst. If and Taylor. DE 1971 A hut-circle at Kilphedir. Sutherland.Proc. Soc. Anliq. Scot.. 103(1970-71). 65-99. Foster.SM 1989Analysis of spatial patterrisin buildings (garrimaanilysis) as an insight into social Examplesfrom the ScottishAtlantic Iron Age Antiquity, 63 (1989). 40-50. structure: Foster.Shl In prep a Dating.and die Developments [lid Scottish Atlantic Iron Age: a case study Of of (I kney and Caidiness. FosterShl lit prep b Pins,combs and tile Chronologyof later Atlantic Iron Age settlement. Fojut. N 1982Towards a geography Shetlandbruchs.rslasgowArchaeol. J.. 9 (1982). 38-59. of (1963). Fowler. E 1963 Celdc metalwork of the fifth and sixth centuries AD. Archaeol. J.. 1220 98-160. Gelling. PS 1984 The Norse buildings at Skafll. Dearness. Orkney and their immediate in A Fenton and 11Paisson(ads) The Northern and WesternIsles in the Viking predecessor. World (Edinburgh).

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COMMUNITY AND SELF. PERCEPTIONS AND USE OF SPACE IN MEDIEVAL MONASTERIES

RobertaGilchrist*
This paper examines the use of architectural spacein expressingsocial differences within monastid settlements. The subject of the analysis is the evolving perception of the concept of community In medieval English monasticism. In Its desert origins, the monasticism of fourth century Egypt and Syria found both efeMiLIC and coenobiac expressions. Between the fifth and seventh centuries, western monasticism developed a coenobitic form which tempered individual isolation with group living. From the extant rules followed by medieval monastics, in particular the Rule of St Benedict, the letters of Jerome and Augustine, and the Scriptures themselves, it is possible to glimpse the ideal internal structure of coenobitic communities. Ile real observancesof a particular house over the period of its occupation may be gleaned from historical documentation (account rolls. references in wills to a house, bishop's visitations), archaeological excavation and formal methods for quantifying spatial patterning. Access and movement within a monastic context can be approached through the study of modem contemplative monasticism. This last approach draws on direct historic analogy. a method of interpreting archaeological material by seeking analogues with contemporary cultures to which the past culture is historically linked. The eLhnoarchaeological approach to monasticism attempted here refers to the study of a modem contemplative community living in a restored medieval monastery and following the Rule to which the house was originally committed. Monastic perceptions of spaceare created by the use of boundaries, which may be of both real and ideal nature. Hence, while the boundary of a medieval precinct demarcated legal ownership of land, it also symbolised the divide between secular and religious domains. Space was (and is) used to regulate encounters between groups. Inside the precinct. the relationship between secular and religious was distinguished by an outer secular court and an inner religious cloister. Within the cloister. a more subtle segregation relied on both the physical manipulation of spaceand the conceptual spatial divisions informed by cocnobUic ideals. Attitudes towards space were created through shared kno wledge, transmitted through sermons and written traditions. This codified * behaviour informed attitudes toward space, which in turn reproduced the social ritual order of the monastic cornmunity. In the formulation of his Rule, Benedict was striving for a well-organised ascetic fife which achieved sanctity through die elevation of community by the renunciation of the individual. Equality within a group of monks was assured through self-denial and spiritual humility. Renunciation of self was achieved through a rejection of private property upon induction to the community 'thenceforward he will not have disposition
*Deparintent ofArchaeology. Aficklelate ]Josue, York YOI IJZ

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