ACTA MECHANICA SINICA (English Series), Vo1.15, No.l, Feb.

1999 The Chinese Society of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics Chinese Journal of Mechanics Press, Beijing, China Allerton Press, INC., New York, U.S.A.

ISSN 0557-7718

C R A C K D E T E C T I O N OF S T R U C T U R E F O R P L A N E P R O B L E M W I T H SPATIAL WAVELETS*
Wang Quan+ (=~ ~) Wang Dajun ( ~ ) Su Xianyue ( , ~ )

(Department of Mechanics, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China)

In this paper, the structure damage detection with spatial wavelets is approached. First, a plane stress problem, a rectangular plate containing a short crack under a distributed loading on the edge, is investigated. The displacement response data along the parallel and perpendicular lines at different positions from the crack are analyzed with the Haar wavelet. The peak in the spatial variations of the wavelets indicates the direction of the crack. In addition, a transverse crack in a cantilever beam is also investigated in the same ways. For these problems, the different crack positions are also simulated to testify the effectiveness of the technique. All the above numerical simulations are processed by the finite element analysis code, ABACUS. The results show that the spatial wavelet is a powerful tool for damage detection, and this new technique sees wide application fields with broad prospects.
ABSTRACT:

K E Y W O R D S : damage detection, wavelet transform, plane problem

1 INTRODUCTION Many papers in damage detection have been focused on modal analysis of vibration signals. Early investigations were conducted by Schultz and Warwick (1971) [q, DiBennedetto et al. (1972)[ 2] and Adams et al. (1978)[31. Their methodologies have also been closely followed and further studied in more recent papers, including those by Lee et al. (1987)[4], Stubbs and Osegueda (1990)[ 5], Saunders et al. (1992)[ 61 and Armon et al. (1994)[7], which mostly deal with damage detection in composite structures. The main idea of the modal based m e t h o d is t h a t damage in a structure will result in a reduction in stiffness and an increase in damping. The measures of the change in the natural frequencies and modes of the structure will give some information of damage in it. Nevertheless, there are some limitations associated with this method. First, the response of a structure before and after damage occurrence must be provided to complete this analyses. Second, a complete dynamic analysis of the structure is required, which is usually carried out by solving a finite element representation of the structure. It is not always practical to conduct dynamic analysis of a complete structure, and what is more, it is not very easy to obtain accurate material properties of a structure for a dynamic analysis. It h ~ been concluded by Banks and I n m a n (I991) Is] t h a t modal based methods are highly unreliable and inadequate for structures with Received 20 June 1998 * The project supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China + Current address: Dept. Mechanical Engin., University of South Carolina, USA

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ACTA MECHANICA SINICA (English Series)

1999

variable material parameters. Banks et al. (1996) [9] also augured that the extension of the methods from simple structures (such as uniform beams) to more complicated structures may not be possible in some cases. To overcome the disadvantages of the modal based method, Banks et al. (1996)[9] proposed an alternative method of damage detection with smart structures. Unlike modal based method, this alternative method does not extract damage information from frequency and mode variations, it directly utilizes the variations in stiffness, damping ratio and mass of a structure which are derived and measured by embedded and/or surface mounted piezoceramic patches. An inverse problem, which is cast in this method as an optimization one, must be solved in order to determine the location and magnitude of a damage in a structure. However, in order to use this method, the structure must be modeled mathematically by a proper boundary-value problem and solved iteratively using Galerkin approximation techniques. It appears that some of the limitations in light of computational requirement will also exist in this method. Liang et al. (1996) [1~ advanced an electro-mechanical impedance method for the case where damage location is known in advance. In this method, an impedance probe consisting of a PZT actuator/sensor is attached to a potential damage site, which couples the internal impedance of the probe with that of the host structure in the immediate neighborhood of the probe. The impedance output of the probe will change when damage occurs near the probe. This method is restricted and may not be directly applicable to the case where the damage in the structure is unknown in advance. Newland (1993)[11] was the first to realize the potential of wavelet transform in vibration signal analysis. His work opens a new avenue of the research on wavelet application in vibration engineering although he does not specifically address the issue of damage detection. Some researches on damage detection with wavelet transform are performed by Wang and McFadden (1996)[12], Liew and Wang (1997)[13]. In their works, the time wavelet and spatial wavelet were applied to analyze the local feature of these signals respectively. ~ r t h e r investigations are necessary to demonstrate the effectiveness and reliability of these new methods. In this paper, the damage detection of structure for plane problem with spatial wavelets is approached. Two specific problems are solved hereafter: the crack detection in a rectangular plate, a transverse crack detection in a cantilever beam. The other corresponding problems are also studied. For example, how effective this technique will be when the measurements come from different positions and the crack in structure occurs in different sites. The details will be given in the next sections. 2 WAVELET ANALYSIS
2.1 W a v e l e t Transform

Wavelets are localized functions (compactly supported), in the sense that they decay to zero sufficiently far away from their locations. Besides their position characteristics, wavelets also come with various scales or levels. At a fine scale, the wavelets are small region defined and at a coarse scale, the wavelets are relative large region defined. A brief introduction of wavelet transform is given below. Let r be a complex-valued function localized in both time and frequency domains.

Vo1.15, No.1

Wang Quan et al.: Crack Detection of Structure for Plane Problem

41

A mother wavelet is so defined that wavelets are generated from this mother wavelet by translation and dilation, r162 b) (1) where a and b are real-valued parameters, and p usually takes value of 1/2. The parameters a and b are used to characterize the dilation and translation features of wavelets. When a is very small, the interval in which the wavelet is non-zero contracts around b. The wavelet transform of a signal defined in the time domain (-c~, +c~) is expressed as

Ca,b= /?f f(t)(ba,b(t)dt

(2)

where the overbar denotes the complex conjugate of the function under it. ca,b is the wavelet coefficient for the wavelet Ca,b. The signal f(t) can be reconstructed by the inverse wavelet transform

f(t) = /+__Sf ~176 Ca,br dadb a2

O0

(3)

The mother wavelet must satisfy the admission condition, /+5 [r (w)[2-~-~2 < OC (4)

where ~b*(w) is the Fourier transform of r If the wavelet coefficients are independent, then the concept of orthogonal wavelet is involved, Orthogonal wavelets have the following properties

f+f Cj,k(t)~bm,n(t)dt = 0

if

m 7~ j

or

n k

(5)

so that the wavelet coefficients can be uniquely determined from the wavelet transform of the signal

f ?f(t)r S
If in addition the wavelets satisfy

(t)dt

(6)

ICj,k(t) 12dt

+5 r

=1

if

m=j

and

n=k

(7)

then the wavelets are orthonormal. The simplest 0rthonormal wavelet which will be used in the next example is Haar wavelet (Hmur, 1910)[14]. The mother wavelet is defined as 1 0 < t < I/2

-1
0

1/2<_t< 1
otherwise

(s)

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ACTA MECHANICA SINICA (English Series)

1999

and the wavelets are generated from the mother wavelet according to

~)j,k (t)

----

2J/:r

- k)

(9)

Wavelets are usually used to analyze signals in the time region. The concept of spatial wavelet comes from the idea that it can equally be presented in signals along spatial region at a certain measuring time. Without loss of generality, consider a spatial signal f(x) defined on [0,1], where x refers to a spatial coordinate. It is usually used as a displacement or strain measurement on a region of interest for a structure. Here, the region of interest is normalized on [0,1]. 2.2 D a m a g e D e t e c t i o n by Wavelet Analysis of Spatial Signals The Haar wavelet is introduced in the wavelet coefficient of Eq.(6), and a new expression used to damage detection in structure with Haar wavelet is derived as

cj,k =

J'(x)r

(10)

The wavelet coefficient Cj,k can be considered as successive touch-ups that begin from a gross view of the signal, Co, to finer and finer details of it. Thus, local perturbations in a signal can be identified by fine-scale (j index) and translation (Index k) characteristics of wavelet because of this multiresolution property. In light of tile above observation, it is proposed by authors that wavelet transform can be used for structural damage detection as long as the spatially distributed signal contains the information of local perturbations by the presence of damage in the structure. A sudden change in wavelet coefficients will indicate a local perturbation in the signal in the region spanned by the corresponding wavelet. If a perturbation detected is not due to a known source (such as a known geometric or material discontinuity), then damage at or near the site of the perturbation is presented. Following the above procedure, the damage detection of structure for two plane problems is examined by application of spatial wavelets. 3 C R A C K D E T E C T I O N OF S T R U C T U R E F O R P L A N E P R O B L E M In the abovesection, a general strategy to detect damage with spatial wavelets has been presented in Eq.(8)~(10). In this section, the feasibility of the wavelet-based damage detection method will be presented with simulated structural response data. The simulated signals will be analyzed with wavelet transform to determine whether the local features can be observed near damage sites. The effectiveness of this novel technique is further demonstrated in the crack detection of structure for plane problems. First, a plane stress problem, a rectangular plate containing a short crack under a distributed loading on the edge, is investigated. The displacement response data along the parallel and perpendicular lines at different positions from the crack are analyzed with the Haar wavelet. The peak in the spatial variations of the wavelets indicates the direction of the crack. Second, a transverse crack in a cantilever beam is also investigated in the same ways by analyzing the deflection on the bottom of the beam. The studies for different crack locations are also examined to testify the effectiveness of the technique.

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Wang Quan et al.: Crack Detection of Structure for Plane Problem

43

C r a c k D e t e c t i o n in a R e c t a n g u l a r Plate We consider a rectangular steel plate with length b and width c containing a through-thickness crack of length 2a and subjected to stress a on the edge, which is shown in Fig.1. Under plane stress condition, the displacement response for whole plane is simulated by ABAQUS code. Just for illustration and without particular meaning, we let the physical parameters be chosen as a = 0.02m, b = 0.4m, c = 0.4m, a = 5.0 106 N / m 2, and the Young's modulus E = 200 GPa, Poisson's ration v = 0.3 and p = 7.87 kg/m 3.

]'-

2a

--*

b
(7

Fig.1 A schematic diagram of a rectangular plate containing a short crack

We select displacement response data, U~ and U~, of this plate along lines at given distances away from the crack tip in the vertical and horizontal direction in order to detect the p h e n o m e n o n of the crack. The displacement responses along the vertical line segment, d = 0.1a, and 1.5a, are plotted in Fig.2(a) and Fig.3(a) respectively against the line coordinate in y direction. The crack can not be revealed clearly only through these responses, although there exists a visual change in Fig.2(a) around y = 0 which is the crack location. Now, we will transform these deflection signals with Haar wavelets according to the procedure outlined before. The wavelet (Haar) coefficient values are plotted against positions along the line segment in Fig.2(b), Fig.2(c) for Uz and Uy respectively in the study when d = 0.1a and in Fig.3(b), Fig.3(c) for U~ and Uy when d = 1.5a, where the numbers outside the plots are scale indicators to the wavelet transform. It is shown that a peak around y = 0 in these plots for wavelet coefficients indicates the local perturbation at the position of the crack. d=O.la 6.000E-6 4.000E-6 2.000E-6 -4.235E-22 -2.000E-6 -4.000E-6 -6.000E

Uy

:6.20o ' - o I

10

0 00 Y

'

'

'0.100 ' ' '

0.200

Fig.2(a) The displacement response data, U~ and U~ along the vertical line segment, d = 0.1a

44
Scale

ACTA MECHANICA SINICA (English Series) 3E-08 1.5E-08 0 -1.5E-08 -3E -08
Scale

1999

4~-~

}.2-.

0.1

::;:L
3 8
~
|

~
~

3E-o8[ 7 1"5~-~
-~'~-~08 ~ 3E
9E-09[ 6E-09[ 3E-091 0 -6E-091 -9E-09

1.5E-08 7.5E-09 0

0
-7.5E-09 -1.5E-08
4.5E-09[ 3E-09 I-

]~ "

10

0 - 1 . 5 E - 0 9 ~

_i~:o9t

'

Fig.2(b) The wavelet coefficient values of scales from 5,,,10 for displacement U~ of Fig.2(a) Scale 0~3.2-01.1 0:0 0]1
0I,~2 Scal~ s

_~-0~~ -6~-0~~ -9~-~

_1.2E_071

~ ~

_~-0~

6 I
I

_~-0~
-6E-08
01 I I I I/ -p.~-o.~ o.o o.~ o.~

-3E-08 [ .4.5E_08 r 0 -3E-09 -6E-09 -9E-09 -1.2E-08

U I

o~.~-o:~ o:o o:~ o.12

10 -4E-091 _6E-091 W J

Fig.2(c) The wavelet coefficient values of scales from 5,,,10 for displacement U~ of Fig.2(a)

Voi.15, No.1

Wang Quan et al.: Crack Detection of Structure for Plane Problem

45

d=l.5a 6.000E-6 4.000E-6 2.000E-6 -4.235E-22 -2.000E-6

-4.000E-6

"6"000E-60

2O.

0'

'-0:

10

(} '

'

' ' 0.000 Y

0.100

'0.200

Fig.3(a) The displacement response data, U= and Uy along the vertical line segment, d = 1.5a

Scale 1E-08

Scale 6E-09

5E-09 5 0 -5E-09 -1E-08 3E-091 1.5E-091 0 -1.5E-09 -3E-09 9E-10 6E-10 3E-10 , A 0 _0.2 -0-1 0 : ~ -3E-10 -6E-10 -9E-10 6

3E-09 0 -3E-09 -6E -09 1.5E-09 7.5E-10 0 -7.5E-10 -1.5E-09 4.5E-10 3E-10 1.5E-10 10 0 -1.5E-16 -3E-10 -4.5E-10

~.z -o.1

oZVo:l~'-~

T'' 0.1 --0

J.2 -o.~ o:V

o'.~~.

Fig.3(b) The wavelet coefficient values of scales from 5--,10 for displacement U= of Fig.3(a)

46

ACTA MECHANICA SINICA (English Series) Scale -5.5E-08

5 -6E-08 -6.5E-08 -7E-08
I 0i 0.2 -0.1

1999
I I ] {

I ).2 -0.1

0'.0

~ 0.1

0 I

Scale -2.4E-08_
6 -2.8E-08 -3.2E-08

3.2 -0.1

0.0

0.1

0.

x_._.t-

-3.6E-08
I I

0.0

0.1

0.

).2 -0.1

0.0

0.1

0.

-6E-09
-1.2E-08 -1.8E-08 -2.4E-08 0 -2E-0! -4E-09 -6E-09 0.2 -0.1
J

-3E-09

-6E-09 -9E-09 -1.2E-08

0.0

0.1

0l

).2 -0.1

0.0

0.10.

-6E-1G 10 -1.2E-09 -1.8E-09 -2.4E-09

Fig.3(c) The wavelet coefficient values of scales from 5.~10 for displacement Up of Fig.3(a) Similar analyses are made again for the response along the horizontal line segment, h = 0.2a and 1.2a. The displacement responses Uz and U~ along these horizontal lines are plotted in Fig.4(a) and Fig.5(a) respectively against the line coordinates in x direction. Again, the wavelet (Haar) coefficient values are plotted against positions along the line segment in Fig.4(b), Fig.4(c) for Uz and Uy respectively in the study when h = 0.2a and in Fig.5(b), Fig.5(c) for U= and Uy when h = 1.2a. Furthermore, the sudden changes around x = 0 are investigated, which indicate again the location of crack tip in y direction. h=0.2a 2.000E-6 1.500E-6 1.000E-6 5.000E-7
0200

-5.000E-7 -1.000E-6 -1.500E-6

' -0.100 '

Ux-'-"'~
0,'ood'
X

' 0.100

'' 0.200

Fig.4(a) The displacement response data, U= and Up along the horizontal line segment, h = 0.2a

Vol.15, No.1
Scale 3E-08[

Wang Quanet al.: Crack Detection of Structure for Plane Problem Scale 2.1E-08[

47

2E-08 I 6
I I I

1.4E-08~_,~ 7E'0~I ,

~-~ .,----'-'--"" , 0.0 0.1 0.2

-0.2 -0.1 1.5E-08 /

0.0

0.1

0.2

-0.2 -0.1 9E-09

5E-09 ~ - - . . ~ [ I -0.2 -0.1 3.6E-09[ 9

I}1~..----~ 0.0

3E-09 -0.2 2.1E-09 1.4E-09 10 7E-10 -0.2 -011 0.0

1

01

0.1

0.2

-o:1 o:o

o'.1

0.2

-0.2 -0.1

0.0

0.1

0.2

011

0.2

Fig.4(b) The wavelet coefficient values of scales from 5,,,10 for displacement U= of Fig.4(a)
Scale 1.6E-07 Scale

1E-07 5E-08

8E-08 0 -8E-08 -1.6E-0; 7E-08 3.5E-08 0 -3.5E-08 -7E-08 1.4E-08 7E-09 9 0 -7E-09 -1.4E-08 ).2 -0.1 ' ).2 -0.1 0.1 6

0 -5E-08 -1E-0~ 3E-08 1.5E-08

0 L2 -1.5E-08
-3E-08 8E-09 4E-09 0 -4E-0 -8E-0'

-0.1

0.1

0.1 ~

0*

10

~.2-o.1 ~o

o.1 d

Fig.4(c) The wavelet coefficient values of scales from 5,~10 for displacement Uu of Fig.4(a)

48

ACTA MECHANICA SINICA (English Series)

h=l.2a 2.000E-6 1 . 5 0 0 E - 6 1.000E-6 5.000E-7o.000

1999

_ - J ~ ~

Uy

-5.000E-7. -1.000E-6_ -1.500E-6 -2.000E_:~ .20 o'

' ' 0.100 ' ' 0.200 ' ' x Fig.5(a) The displacement response data, U= and U~ along the vertical line segment, h = 1.2a ' '-o.'~ 0 ' 0.000 ' '

Scale 3.6E-08[

Scale 1.8E-08[

4 ?.____
-0.2 -0.I 9E-09 I 7 0.0 0.I 0.2

6E-09[
o I i

U
i i

-0.2 -0.1 4.5E-09]

0.0

0.1

0.2

,v,
-0.2 -0.1 2.4E-09[ 1"8E-091 0.0 0.I 0.2 -0.2 -0.1 1.2E-09 I A 10 0.0 0.1 0.2

~:~ o ~ _ ~ / / ~
-0.2 -0.1 0.0

9E-l~

"

~ ~o~--~ 1 [ ~ - ~ -

-0.2 -0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2 Fig.5(b) The wavelet coefficient values of scales from 5N10 for displacement U= of Fig.5(a) 3.2 T r a n s v e r s e Crack D e t e c t i o n in a Cantilever B e a m In this example, a steel beam of length L = 0.5 m, height H = 0.075 m, and width B = 0.075 m containing a transverse crack of length a = 0.025m at the middle in the length direction was modeled as a plane strain problem in Fig.6 under a static loading F = 8.78 x 105N at the right end. The physical characteristics of this beam is the same as the above plate. The displacement is also calculated using ABAQUS code to detect the crack tip location with wavelet analysis. The deflection w at the bottom line of the beam is plotted in Fig.7 against the beam coordinate x in the direction of beam length. No enough

0.1

0.2

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Wang Quan et al.: Crack Detection of Structure for Plane Problem

49

Scale 4E-08

Scale 2E-08

2E-08
5

1E-08
6

0 -2E-08 -4E-08 1E-08[ 5E-09 I

9

0 -1E-08 -2E-08
6E-09

7 -5E-09 -1E-08 3E-09 1.5E-09

-0'.

3E-09

'

0:I

s
-3E-0

o
-6E-0'

1.5E-09 10

3 o9
0.~.2 -0 -1.5E-09 -3E-0 0.1 0

-1.5E-0 -3E-0

Fig.5(c) The wavelet coefficient values of scales from 5,~10 for displacement U~ of Fig.5(a)

Fig.6 A schematic diagram of a cantilever beam containing a transverse crack evidence is observed to identify the perturbation of the crack through the displacement response. Next, the Haar wavelet is applied to analyze this spatially deflection signal, and the wavelet coefficients are obtained in Fig.8 for wavelet scales 5,-,10. It is observed that the local perturbation induced by the crack is clearly identified by the peak of wavelet coefficients at the location around crack site, especially at the higher scales. From the above examples, it is clear that the wavelet transform is an alternative and effective tool for damage detection of structure for plane problems.

50 0.0000 -0.0005

ACTA MECHANICA SINICA (English Series)

1999

-0.0010 -0.0015 -0.0020 -0.0025 -0.0030

i i

response along this line is used

i I i i i I i i T I I i t I , i i

0.0

0.1

0.2
X

0.3

0.4

0.5

Fig.7 Deflection at the bottom os the beam

Scale 1.2E-03[

Scale

6E-04[

t
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 2AE-04 1.6E-04 8E-05
I 0 0.0 0.1 I I I I

I
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 1.2E-04 8E-05 4E-05
J I I 0 ' 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 I

0.5

0.2 0.3

0.4 0.5

0.4 0.5

6E-05 4E-05 2E-05

3.2E-05

I I I i 0 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

2.4E-05 10 1.6E-05 8E-06

0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

f
I

Fig.8 The wavelet coefficient value of scales from 5,~10 for the deflection in Fig.7

4 CONCLUDING

REMARKS

Based on this multiresolution property of wavelet transform, it has been shown that a spatially response signal can be analyzed with wavelet transform and may be used for structural damage detection purposes, provided that the signal picks up perturbations induced

Vol.15, No.1

Wang Quan et al.: Crack Detection of Structure for Plane Problem

51

by the presence of damage. The effectiveness of this application of wavelet for detection of damage is proved by some simulations of plane stress and strain problems. The crack detection of a rectangular plate containing a crack and that of a cantilever beam with transverse crack are studied with Haar wavelet. All the results indicate that damage can cause structural response perturbations near damage sites with inherent local features, and these local features can be detected with a desired resolution by the wavelet transform. Therefore, wavelet transform provided an alternative tool for damage detection of structure. This novel technique holds high promise for structural integrity monitoring, and it does not require any analysis of the complete structure and it does not need any knowledge of the material properties and prior stress states of the structure. A lot of further work is needed to advance this damage detection methodology. For example, the control problem for the local defect of a structure is a key point after the damage detection, and actual test signals are also desired to demonstrated the usefulness of this technique. All the issues will be further addressed in the future researches. A c k n o w l e d g e m e n t The first author would like to thank some comments from researchers of the University of South Carolina.
REFERENCES 1 Schultz AB, Warwick DN. Vibration response: A nondestructive test for fatigue crack damage

in filament-reinforced composites. Journal of Composite Materials, 1971, 5:394~404 2 DiBennedetto AT, Gauchel JV, Thomas RL, Barlow JW. Nondestructive determination of fatigue crack damage in composites using vibration tests. Journal of Materials, 1972, 7:211,,,215 3 Adams RD, Cawley P, Pye C J, Stone BJ. A vibration technique for nondestructively assessing the integrity of structures. Journal of Mechanical Engineering Science, 1978, 20:93,-,100 4 Lee BT, Sun CT, Liu D. An assessment of damping measurements in the evaluation of integrity of composite beams. Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites, 1987, 6:114N125 5 Stubbs N, Osegueda R. Global damage detection in solids--Experimental verification. International Journal of Analytical Experimental Modal Analysis, 1990, 5:13~23 6 Saunders DR, Kim YI, Stubbs N. Nondestructive evaluation of damage in composite structures using modal parameters. Experimental Mechanics, 1992, 32:240,,,251 7 Armon D, Ben-Hain Y, Braun S. Crack detection in beams by rank-ordering of eigenfrequency shifts. Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing, 1994, 8:81~92 8 Banks HT, Inman DJ. On damping mechanisms in beams. Journal of Applied Mechanics, 1991, 58:716,,~723 9 Banks HT, Inman D J, Leo D J, Wang Y. An experimentally validated damage detection theory in smart structures. Journal of Sound and Vibration, 1996, 191(5): 859~880 10 Liang C, Sun FP, Rogers CA. Electro-mechanical impedance modeling of active material systems. Smart Materials and Structures, 1996, 5:171,,,186 11 Newland DE. Random Vibrations, Spectal and Wavelet Analysis. 3rd Edition. New York: Longman, Harlow and John Wiley, 1993 12 Wang W J, McFadden PD. Application of wavelets to gearbox vibration signals for fault detection. Journal of Sound and Vibration, 1996, 192(5): 927,~939 13 Liew KM, Wang Q. Application of wavelet theory for crack identification in structures. Journal of Engineering Mechanics, 1998, 124(2): 152,,~157 14 Haar A. Zur theorie der orthogonalem funktionensysteme. Math Ann, 1910, 69:331,-~371