HISTORY

Architecture
of the Place and Time
Shireesh A Deshpande

Igloo Village

A panorama of evolution of architecture in India over the centuries.

his is a reiteration as a compulsive teacher and a student of history of architecture. As thoughts matured, I could see that good, well known architects, anywhere in the world, indeed were good students of history! Insight in their historic past that acted as anchor beams, they were able to cantilever their vision of the future. The meaning of architecture is being taken for granted as much as to a lay tourist, Tajmahal is beautiful. Etymologically, it meant buildings

designed and constructed by a master mason. Architecture as a word also, we take for granted. But whatever was its meaning to us from our scriptures and those architects, whom we hold in higher esteem, needs to be remembered and stated, if at all, as aid mmoire. Let us see what they have to say about architecture: Architecture is the correct, masterly and magnificent play of the forms brought together in light. (Le Corbusier)

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 Instead of copying effects try and find out what made those effects and you will have your own architecture (Frank Lloyd Wright) Architecture is something I cant describe because it has no smell no touch - - but is a feeling it has a spirit in that it can be what it wants to be (Louis Kahn) Less is More (Mies van der Rohe) Architecture is ornament added to building (Ruskin) the term architecture applies only to buildings designed with a view to aesthetic appeal (quotation) Architecture is a model of the Cosmos (Vedic concept) Architecture is a rightist profession with respect to the side of the brain (Ganesh Shastry) Architecture is the matrix of civilization. (Lethaby) Architecture is a mirror that reflects the aspirations and achievements of a Society (quotation) Place in common parlance is just the location. Architecturally, it is much more than just the Latitude, Longitude and Altitude. Banister Fletcher includes Geography, Geology, Climate as the static elements; and Culture, Society and Traditions as changing. Historic events

and the trans-societal intercourse are the determinants, according to him that influence the architectural character of the buildings of the Place. Monuments are the objects whose function is to mark the Place. It can also mean a space or spot set apart or used for a particular purpose, a proper or appropriate location or position. A building could be not in the correct or appropriate position, thus out of place and unsuitable to circumstances or surroundings. Time is a dynamic, ever changing element causing visual changes in the Form. It is represented by the passage of time, development of construction methods, experiment with building material, innovation and learning from the past, especially the failures! Time is the system of sequential relation that any event has to any other, as past, present or future; indefinite continuous duration regarded as that in which events succeed one another. It is also a particular period considered distinct from the other periods or a period considered with respect to its events or conditions. Time therefore, is comparable to ever developing technology. For the instant purpose, Indian subcontinent is the Place and the time-line begins at a point as early as we know about. This time-line has no end as such

SOME IMPORTANT VISITORS A CHRONOLOGY OF IMPACTS

but the imperative constraints make me discontinue its trace beyond the British Colonial Architecture. (1936-40). The time-line commences with the Aryan Civilization and the emergence of the Vedic Social Order and Architecture. We trace the chronology of such visits from 8th Century BC to arrival of the British East India Company in 17th Century AD up to the beginning of the World War II. A rapid glance at the situation would help in finding the background to contemporary architecture of India. India that was Aryavarta, or even before when the seed of the great culture that was sown in the Indus Valley, was a civilization that had uniquely evolved and influenced other lesser cultures, until the arrival of the Aryans. (that is if you believe in the Maxmeuller Theory that the Aryans came in from the north). Geography and climate of the Place, the fertile soil that produced grain and bricks, the flora and the fauna were to harbinger a social order based on distribution of work. Food and prosperity created intellect from which were born the Vedas. Prosperity and fertility of the Place however, attracted ambitious visitors, like ants to a piece of jaggery. India is the home for one of the worlds great civilizations its social structure as it exists today, can be traced back thousands of years and empires of great size and complexity existed here far earlier than anything comparable in Europe. Yet India as an entity is a comparatively recent occurrence put together by the British. Even the mightiest of Indias ancient civilizations did not encompass all of modern India and today India is still as much a country of diversities as unities. Indias own history and development and its role as the birth place for two of the worlds great religions, Buddhism and Hinduism, is enough to ensure its historical importance. The first major civilization on the subcontinent existed for a thousand years from around 2500 BC along the Indus river valley. Its great cities were Mohenjodaro and Harappa. The major
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city sites were only discovered during the 20th century but subsequently, other lesser cities have been unearthed at sites like Lothal, near Ahmedbad. The Indus valley cities were ruled by a religious group rather than by kings but the most interesting thing about these cities was their highly developed city engineering. Four thousand years ago, a sophisticated drainage system had existed. Despite the extensive excavations conducted at the sites, comparatively little is known about the development or the cataclysm that lead to the extinction of this civilization. The Aryans, according to Maxmeuller came from the north from around 1500 BC and spread gradually across India from Punjab and Sindh and down the Ganga towards Bengal. (this Theory is now disputed by Indian scholars) Alexander of Macedon reached India, in his epic march from Greece, in 326 BC but he did not enter the main land as his troops refused to march further than the Beas river. and he returned without extending his power into India itself. A lasting reminder of his influence in the east was the development of Gandharan artistic ideals with new religious beliefs of Buddhism. The 8th century temple at Martand in Kashmir is the finest temple of the IndoGandhran school. Except for the pilasters the plan of the Martand temple confirms strictly to the Hindu tradition of the time. The ancient place of Buddhist learning at the Indo-Greek city of Taxila, dating back to the 2nd century and up to the 9th century AD, is considered as the Golden Age of temple building in Kashmir. Percy Brown (pp.190-194) has labeled it as Greco-Buddhist due to the Hellenistic attributions.[2] Two great religions have had their birth on the subcontinent Hinduism and Buddhism. The Hindu religion is one of the oldest in the world.[1] The Vedas were probably written around 1500 to 1200 BC. This also probably, refers to the revival of Brahmanism, the predecessor of Hinduism, following the Aryan influence.
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Hinduism has had a series of declines and revivals. But the greatest challenge it had to face came from Indias other great religion, Buddhism. First formulated around 500 BC, Buddhism enjoyed spectacular growth after Ashoka embraced it but it lost touch with the general population and faded as Hinduism again revived between 200 and 800 AD. India has also been the birthplace of Jainism, a religion contemporary with Buddhism and bearing many similarities to it.

the Chaityas. These were particularly well adapted to regional conditions. Cool in summers, warm in winters, cave temples and monasteries were well adapted to the Place with low cliffs and water falls, a stream through the ravine, or simply water permeating down from the table land above as at Ajanta. The concept of the cave with its elemental, uncreated (swayambhu), nature strikes a chord of simplicity. Influence of the Placedominated the form of architecture in this period.

EMERGENCE OF THE MAURYAN EMPIRE

Two centuries before Alexander made his long march, an Indian kingdom had started to develop in the north of India. Later, it expanded into the vacuum created by Alexanders departure when Chandragupta Mauryas empire came to power in 321 BC. From its capital Pataliputra, at the site of present day Patna, the Mauryan empire eventually spread right across northern India. Under the Emperor Ashoka, it reached its peak. In 262 BC, Ashoka converted to Buddhism. Throughout his kingdom Ashoka erected pillars and many rock carved edicts which delineate to this day the enormous span of his empire. Ashokan edicts and pillars can be seen in Delhi, Gujarat, Orissa, at Sarnath in Bihar and at Sanchi in Madhya Pradesh.[3] He also sent missions abroad and in Sri Lanka, his name is revered since he sent his brother as a missionary to carry Buddhism to that island. The development of art and sculpture also flourished during his rule and his standard, which topped many of his pillars, is now the seal of the Republic of India. Under Ashoka, the Mauryan empire controlled more of India than, probably, any subsequent ruler prior to the British. Yet, following his death in 232 BC, the empire rapidly disintegrated and finally collapsed in 184 BC. The principal contributions of this period mark the beginning of the Buddhist architecture, series of rock inscribed edicts, number of stupas, the monolithic and free standing iron pillars and a group of rock cut halls for worship,

GOLDEN AGE OF THE HINDU TEMPLE DURING GUPTA DYNASTY

A number of empires rose and fell following the collapse of the Mauryas. The successors to Alexanders kingdoms in the north-east expanded their power into the Punjab and this later developed into the Gandhara kingdom. While in the southeast and east the Andhras or Telugus expanded inland from the coast. Mauryan empire was directly replaced by the Sungas who ruled from 184 to 70 BC. During this period many more Buddhist structures were completed and the great cave temples of central India were commenced. This was the period of the lesser vehicle or Hinayana Buddhism where the Buddha could not be directly shown but was referred to through symbols such as stupas, footprints, trees or elephants.[4] The origin of the Torana may be taken back than the time of Buddha to the gateway of the Vedic Village.[Ref.1] The symbolic meaning is an indication of path of the sun across the heavens and relation to the Cosmos. Although this form of Buddhism probably continued until about 400 AD it was already being supplanted by 100 AD by the greater vehicle or Mahayana Buddhism.[5] The Place of Mahayana rock-cut architecture is restricted to certain areas of Western region, mainly in the hilly country of the Western ghats in Maharashtra. The brick-built monasteries in the

north were exceptions due to the alluvial Gangetic plains that offered clay for brick making. The Guptas were by religion Brahmanical. In 319 AD, Chandragupta lI founded the Gupta empire. His successors extended their power over northern India, first from Patna and later from other capitals in north India, such as Ayodhya. The arts flourished during the Gupta period with some of the finest work being done at Ajanta, Ellora, Sanchi and Sarnath and poetry and literature also experiencing a golden age.[6] Towards the end of the Gupta period, however, Buddhism and Jainism, both began to decline and Hinduism began to rise in popularity once more. The temple form underwent a change from a mere imitative one to a more creative one and application of first principles of architectural composition resulting in the evolution of a more matured form. Dressed stone masonry technique of construction and application of principles of architectural composition from the Vastushastra were the indications of the emerging form that was to remain for a very long time. Techniques of cutting and carving of rocks and rocky outcrop into architectural form reached a stage of perfection. Artisans created marvels in rocks shaped as Hindu temples as at Ellora and Mamallapuram in South. With the decline of the Gupta Empire, north India broke up into separate Hindu kingdoms and was not really unified again until the coming of the Moslems. Dynasties in South India 1. Chalukyas of Deccan 2. Pallavas Dynasty 3. Rashtrakuta of Deccan 4. Chola Dynasty 5. Hoysala & Yadava 6. Pandya Dynasty 7. Vijayanagar Dynasty 550-642 AD 600-750 AD 757-973 AD 907-1053 AD 1111-1318 AD 1251-1310 AD 1370-1565 AD

Vastness of the Place was responsible for diversity and the deep cultural roots for unity. The kingdoms that rose and fell in the north of the country generally had no influence or connection with those in the south. While Buddhism, and to a lesser extent Jainism, was displacing Hinduism in the centre and north of India, Hinduism continued to flourish in the south. Prosperity in the South was based upon its long established trading links with other civilizations. The Egyptians and later the Romans both traded by sea with the south of India and later, strong links were formed with South-East Asia. For a time, Buddhism and later Hinduism flourished in the Indonesian islands and the people of the region looked towards India as their cultural mentor. The Ramayana, is even today told and performed in various forms in many SouthEast Asian countries. Yet, outside influences also came to the south of India. In 52 AD St Thomas the Apostle is said to have arrived in Kerala and to this day, there is a strong Christian influence in this region. Great empires that rose in the south included the Chalukyas,[7] the Pandyas, the Cheras, the Cholas and the Pallavas.[8] The Chalukyas ruled mainly over the Deccan region of central India although at times their power extended further north. With a capital at Badami in Karnataka, they ruled from 550 to 753 AD before falling to the Rashtrakutas, only to rise again in 972 and continued their rule through to 1190 AD. The Hindu structural temple actually had its beginning at Aihole.[9] Further south, the Pallavas pioneered the form of Dravidian architecture with its exuberant style. In 850 AD, the Cholas rose to power and gradually superseded the Pallavas. They too were great builders as their temple at Thanjavur indicates. Although Hindu worship was more individualistic than congregational requiring a hall for the worshipers, there appeared to be an evolution of a centralplan for the Hindu temple. The garbhagruha or the sanctum sanctorum

was surmounted by the Shikhara, the Mandapa, much larger in area for dance and other rituals and an entrance porch were the typical elements.

IMPACT OF MUHAMMEDAN INVASIONS

While the Hindu kingdoms ruled in the south and Buddhism was rising and falling in the north, Moslem power was advancing towards India from the Middle East. It was in 622 AD that Arabs carrying, as Mohammed had recommended, the Koran and the sword, invaded the subcontinent. Cultural shock was strongly felt on the sub-continent with the raids of Mahmud of Ghazni. From 1001AD, Mahmud raided a number of times. His army would descend upon India destroying scores of Hindu temples and carrying off everything of value that could be moved. These early visits were no more than banditry and it was not until 1192 that Moslem power arrived on a permanent basis. In that year Mohammed of Ghori, instead of carrying the loot back, decided to enjoy where it was. The following year his general Qutb-ud-din took Varanasi and then Delhi [10] and, after Mohammed of Ghori was killed in 1206, he became the first of the Sultans of Delhi. In 1297, Alaud-din Khilji annexed some territory in Gujarat. In 1338, Mohammed Tughlaq decided to move his capital south from Delhi to Daulatabad, near Aurangabad in Maharashtra, but having marched most of Delhis population south, he eventually had to return north. From then on, the power of this Moslem kingdom steadily contracted, until it was supplanted by the Moghuls. The historic relation between Place and Time over a thousand years, appeared jeopardized. Once again, events in the south of India took a different path than the north. Just as the Aryan influence did not reach the south, so the Moslem invasions also failed to permanently affect events in the south. Between 1000 and 1300 AD, the Hoysala empire, with centres at Belur, and Halebid, was at its peak but fell to the
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raids from the North.[11] The Hindu kingdom that developed in the north of modern day Karnataka with its beautiful capital at Hampi the kingdom of Vijayanagar was founded in 1336 and was the strongest Hindu kingdom in India. While the Moslem Sultans of Delhi were dominating the north of the country [12 a & b], the Bahmani Moslem kingdom also developed. In 1520, Vijayanagar took Bijapur but in 1565, the kingdoms Moslem opponents combined to destroy Vijayanagar.

EXPANSION OF THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

Only Ashoka is as gigantic a figure in Indian history as the Moghul Emperors. These larger than life individuals ushered in another Indian golden age and spread their control over India to an extent rivalled only by Ashoka and the British. Their rise to power was rapid but the decline was equally quick; there were only six great Moghuls; after Aurangzeb they were emperors in name only. The Moghuls did more than simply rule, however, they also had a passion for building which resulted in some of the great buildings in India. Art and literature also flourished under the Moghuls. The chronology of the Moghul Emperors is as under: Babur 15271530 defeated Ibrahim Lodhi at Panipat in 1526 Humayun 1530 1556 lived in exile for 15 years and regained his throne, Akbar 15561605 acceded the throne at 14 and controlled his empire effectively. Jehangir 16051627 devoted much of his reign loving the greenery of Kashmir. Shah Jahan 1627 1658 ruled from Agra & Delhi and built to glorify Muslim architecture. Aurangzeb 16581707 extended empires boundaries and ruled tyrannically. Muhammed Shah 17091748 was Emperor in name only Bahadur Shah Zafarlast Emperor,
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puppet of British, exiled to Rangoon and died there. Babur, a descendant of both Timur and Genghis Khan, marched into the Punjab from his capital at Kabul in Afghanistan and defeated the Sultan of Delhi at Panipat. This initial success did not totally destroy opposition to the Moghuls and in 1540 the Moghul empire came to an abrupt end when Sher Shah defeated Humayun, the second great Moghul. For 15 years he lived in exile until he was able to return and regain his throne.[13] Akbar was the greatest of the Moghuls for he not only had the military ability required of a ruler at that time but he was also a man of culture, wisdom and with a sense of fairness. He saw, as previous Moslem rulers had not, that the number of Hindus in India was too great to simply subjugate them. Instead he integrated them into his empire and made use of many Hindu advisers, generals and administrators.[14a & 14b] Akbar had a deep interest in religions and is known to have discussed with religious experts of all persuasions including Christians, and eventually formulated Din-e-Ilahi, a religion of his own devising which combined the best points of all those he had studied. Jehangir followed Akbar but devoted much of his reign to expressing his love for Kashmir and eventually died while en route there. His tomb is at Lahore in Pakistan. Shah Jahan, however, stuck much more to Agra and Delhi and during his reign some of the most vivid and permanent reminders of the Moghuls glory were constructed. Best known, of course, is the Taj Mahal but that was only one of many magnificent buildings Shah Jahan constructed.[15] Aurangzeb was the last of the great Moghuls and although he extended the empires boundaries to their furthest extent, he also ensured its downfall which he had built on the foundations of temples that had been destroyed due to his

fanatical beliefs. With his death in 1707, the Moghul empire rapidly disintegrated. In sharp contrast to the magnificent tombs of his Moghul predecessors, Aurangzebs tomb is a simple structure at Khuldabad, near Aurangabad. In contrast, Aurangzeb was a penny pincher and a religious zealot. His belief in Islam was deep, austere and puritanical and the result was that he soon lost the trust and respect of his subjects and had to cope with revolts on all sides. In many parts of India, there are mosques which Aurangzeb had built on the foundations of temples which had been destroyed due to his fanatical beliefs. With his death in 1707, the Moghul empire rapidly disintegrated. Although there were Moghul Emperors right up to the time of the mutiny, when the British exiled the last emperor and executed his sons, they were emperors in name only. In sharp contrast to the magnificent tombs of his Moghul predecessors, Aurangzebs tomb is a simple affair at Rauza, near Aurangabad. The smaller states which followed on from the Moghul empire did in some case continue for some time. In the south, the principality in Hyderabad ruled by the Nizam, became one of the British-tolerated states and survived right through to independence. The Nawabs of Oudh in north India ruled eccentrically, flamboyantly and badly until 1854 when the British retired the last Nawab. In Bengal, the Moghuls unwisely clashed with the British far earlier and their rule was terminated by the Battle of Plassey in 1757.

KINGDOM OF THE MARATHAS

Moghul power was not simply supplanted by another, greater power. It fell through a series of factors and to a number of other rulers. Not least of these were the Marathas. Throughout the Moslem period in the north of India there were still strong Hindu powers, most notably the Rajputs. Centred in Rajasthan. During the Moghul

era, they were brought into the emperors army and some of their best military men were Rajputs. The Marathas first rose to prominence with Shivaji, who took over his fathers kingdom and between 1646 and 1680, performed feats of arms and heroism all over central India. Shivajis son was captured, blinded and executed by Aurangzeb. Shivajis contribution to construction was mainly defense need-based. The Place, therefore, was Sahyadri mountain peaks. He adopted and developed techniques of constructing invincible fortresses. Maratha empire continued under the Peshwas. They nevertheless, consolidated their control over central India and their region known as Malwa. They were defeated at the last battle at Panipat but were close to ruling from Delhi. Soon, however, they were to fall to Indias final great imperial power, the British.

between Place and Time was, once again jeopardized by Early Colonial architecture.[16] The British and Portuguese were not the only Europeans in India. The Dutch also had trading posts and in 1672 the French established themselves at Pondicherry, an enclave they, like the Portuguese in Goa, would hold even after the British had finally departed. India at this time was in a state of flux due to the power vacuum created by the disintegration of the Moghul Empire.The Marathas were the only real Indian power to step into this gap and they were more a group of local kingdoms who sometimes co-operated, sometimes did not, than a power in their own right. In the south, where Moghul influence had never been so great, the picture was confused by the strong British-French rivalries with one ruler consistently played off against another.

EXPANSION OF THE BRITISH POWER

The British were not the first European power to arrive in India nor were they the last to leave - both those honours go to the Portuguese. In 1498, Vasco da Gama arrived on the coast of modern day Kerala, having sailed around the African Cape of Good Hope. Pioneering this route gave the Portuguese a century of uninterrupted monopoly control of Indian trade with Europe and in 1510, they captured Goa, the enclave in India which they controlled right through to 1961, 14 years after the British had left. It was in 1612 that the British made their first permanent inroad into India when they established a trading post at Surat in Gujarat. In 1600, Queen Elizabeth 1 had granted a charter to a London trading company giving them a monopoly on British trade with India. For 250 years, British power was exercised in India not by the government but by the East India Company which developed from this initial charter. British trading posts were established on the other coast at Madras in 1640, at Bombay in 1668 and at Calcutta in 1690. That historic relation

RISE AND FALL OF THE BRITISH IN INDIA

By the early 19th century, India was effectively under British control. The British also followed the rules Akbar had laid. To them India was principally a place to make money and the Indians culture, beliefs and religions were left alone. Furthermore, the British had a disciplined, efficient army and astute political advisers. They followed the well-known policy of divide and rule with great success. British historians documented and studied the architectural contribution of preceding centuries. They attempted a synthesis in Art and Architecture of the West with that of the Orient.[17] Even under the British, India remained a patchwork of states, many of them nominally independent but actually under strong British influence. This policy of maintaining princely states governed by Maharajas, Rajas, Ranas and the Nawabs continued right through to independence and was to cause a number of problems of accession at that time. In the sphere of administration and Judiciary, England gave India a well

developed and smoothly functioning government and civil service structure. The meticulous system of bureaucracy saw India enter independence with a better organized, more efficient and less corrupt administrative system. The British, with the conclusion of the 1857 mutiny, wound up the East India Company and administration of the country was handed over to the British government. The remainder of the 19th century and the early 20th century, was the peak period for the empire on which the sun never set where India was a jewel in the crown.[19] Two parallel developments during the latter part of the century gradually paved the way that led India to independence. First, devolution of power to bring more people in the decision making process.[20] and second, democratic systems began to be implemented in India although the British government retained overall control. In the civil service, higher posts were opened up for Indians and not simply retained for colonial administrators. It is to this period that the best of the British Colonial architecture belongs.[21] The expression of power manifested through display of superiority of their culture and architecture to transform the Indian mind in its willful acceptance through so-called reforms brought in by Morley and Minto, Macaulay and others.[22] The freedom movement and the Second World War were both hostile to further contribution to Colonial Architecture of the British Raj, thus ending an era of centuries that architecture [23] faithfully recording the impact of the Place and Time. Architectural contribution of Indian architects in the pre-Independence period shows noticeable influence of Art Nouveau and Art Deco movements in Europe. Establishment of the first School of Architecture in Bombay produced architects who learnt History of Architecture under British teachers, notably Prof. Claude Batley, produced
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designs of a pastiche of European plans and Indian elements. Study of this period that marked a transition to Modern Architecture in India is a matter of independent study.

LESSONS FROM HISTORY

British historians who wrote epical books in the early decades of the 20th century about Art, Architecture, Culture and Traditions of the Indo-Aryan society, have presented views and opinions, although many times conjectural in nature, are today the only authentic and dependable resource of our history. A Hindu historian of the period Ram Raz has contributed a valuable essay on the architecture of the Hindus. His inferences were based on the Manasara Silpa Sastra texts that anticipated Vitruvius by centuries. James Fergusson, Dr. Burgess, Gen. Cunnigham, Percy Brown and E. B. Havell have all attempted to understand the complexity of the inter-relation of Place and Time of the Indo-Aryan civilization. Some of the conclusions drawn by them are analogized by comparison with European architecture. A war of opinions on the same issues, i.e. the Architecture of the sub-continent, is disturbing but interesting as well! All of them however, have to be duly credited for studying, measuring and documenting the circumstantial evidences that now help us to understand our own past more clearly. Contributions of Anand Coomaraswamy and P. K. Acharya cannot be ignored. Their postulates appear, many times, uninfluenced by the British polity of the period. E. B. Havell however, stands apart from the others due to his sympathetic view of great architecture of the IndoAryan civilization. The British polity that produced the dictum- Divide and Rule was responsible for dividing the Hindu society into Aryan and Dravidian. In his book The Ancient and Medieval Architecture of India A study of IndoAryan Civilization published in 1915 by John Murray in London, Havell propounded some postulates that startle an ill-read person who had ever since
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believed in the writings of the other more popular authors like Fergusson, Burgess and Percy Brown through their epical books, that were referred by History teachers in architecture schools in India and abroad. Only some of Havells postulates, relevant to the instant article, need quoting: 1. We must guard ourselves from the error of supposing that Buddhist Art, as westerners call it, was purely sectarian or anything else than Indian art during the ascendancy of Buddhism. Fergussons classification of Buddhist, Jain and Hindu temples as representing different epochs of art or different schools of artistic expression, is entirely fallacious. (page 5) 2. A comparison of the planning of the Taj garden with the ancient Village plans will make it clear that when Babar (later Shahjehan) began to layout his four-fold field plot at Agra (Charbagh) he was not, as evidently thought, bringing fresh ideas to revive the parched up plains of India which his ancestors had devastated; he was only unconsciously repeating the traditional Indo-Aryan village plan, which probably Indian Buddhists had been the first to teach Moguls. (Page 18) [24 a & 24 b] 3. The ancient sun windows are repeated as dormers in the roof, but instead of the screen or lattice which they contain at Karle and Nasik, they have become miniature shrines. The (bulbous or onion shaped) Dome of the Yogi cells has also become bellshaped by the addition of outward curving eaves throwing off the rain. (Page 88) [25] 4. Siva and Vishnu shrines occur in pairs at Pattadakal in the south west, at Khajuraho in central India, at Bhuvaneshwar in Orissa .. In every instance where pairs are found [26] (the other historians) have described the Vishnu shrine as Northern or Indo-Aryan, and the Siva shrine as Southern or Dravidian regardless of the locality in which

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

they are placed.(Pages 101 & 102) Iron Pillar at Delhi was one of the most extraordinary achievements of the Indian craftsman; for it was not until the latter part of the nineteenth century that Europeans were able to forge iron columns of such dimensions, and even now the quality of metal which has preserved it from rusting for many centuries seems to be a mystery to modern science. (Page194) In the Kailasa temple and the Virupaksha temple . The walls were crowned with the lotus-leaf battlement which is so conspicuous in later Muhammedan fortresses, mosques and tombs. (Page 195) thus though the style of the mosques and other buildings which now remain, is essentially Hindu and in no sense Saracenic, as understood architecturally, there is nothing left of the architecture of the place belonging to the period treated in this Volume. (p 207) ..magnificence of the irrigation works built of massive masonry, and all that was done by Mogul rulers was but a revival of the Buddhist and Hindu traditions. (Page 208) Temple building was the artistic synthesis of Indian daily life and the Sthapati was both engineer and architect a master craftsman to whom art was both religion and the science of practical work. (p208) the shikhara of the Kandarya Mahadeo temple with what magnificent imaginative power and technical skill crowned with Vishnus lotus emblem, are piled around the central tower of the shrine to give the impression of the holy mountain upholding the highest heavens.[27] The Chaturbhuja temple (at Khajuraho) a Vishnu (type) temple will explain the arrangement of the interior, is the Pancharatna type being built like (later on) the Taj Mahall, on a high platform of masonry with four smaller shrines at the corners of it. (Page 209)

11. the very beautiful marble dome of the Vimala Saha temple at Mt. Abu, a building of the eleventh century the sculptural figures, though here they serve not structural purpose, are reminiscences of the ribs of wooden domes, the ribbed dome came into practical use again in Muhammedan times. The so-called Pathan domes and all the great domes of Bijapur were entirely of Hindu craftsmanship, and were derived both as regards symbolism and structure from the domes of Indian madapams. (Page 211) 12. The Indian Mosque was the Hindu temple adapted to Muhammedan ritual. Its most typical plan, oriented like a Vishnu shrine, was like that of a Hindu temple, a rectangle with gopurams on the north, south and west sides, for both the temple and the mosque enshrined the tradition of the Indo-Aryan village. [28a & 28b] The so-called Pathan dome, like all other Indo Muhammedan domes, was the dome of a Hindu mandapam minus the external symbolism. The Indo-Saracenic arch was the arch of a Hindu vault technically adapted for the wider spans required by the different structural conditions which Muhammedan ritual imposed. No Indian mosque contains a single structural idea borrowed from the Saracenic architecture of Western Asia, Egypt or Turkey.

All authors however, agree that the Indo-Aryan civilization had produced models of Architecture of the Place and Time that truly reflected the beliefs, aspirations and achievements of the people and the artisans of a great era in the Indian subcontinent. There have been visitors from China and Persia who have corroborated in their writings which chronicled faithfully what they saw. Similarly, travelers from the subcontinent had also visited adjoining countries like Ceylon, Java, Sumatra and Siam. They carried their culture and religion along; as Buddhism to Lanka and Hinduism to the South East Asia. The spiritual transfer of the intellect was achieved not by coercive conversions but by peaceful convincing.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
ACHARYA P K, Indian Architecture according to Manasara, Calcutta, 1946 BATLEY Claude, Indian Architecture (Design Development of), Bombay, 1934 BROWN Percy, Indian Architecture (Buddhist & Hindu Periods), Bombay, 1942 COOMARASWAMY, A K Early Indian Architecture, Delhi, 1975 CUNNIGHAM A, Stupa at Bharhut, London, 1879 FERGUSSON J & BURGESS J Cave Temples of India, London,1880 HARLE J C, Art & Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent, London, 1994 HAVELL E B, Ancient and Medieval Architecture of India, London, 1915 KRAMRISCH Stella, Hindu Temple Vol. 1, Calcutta, 1946 NATH Dr. R, Mosque Architecture, Jaipur, 1994 RAM RAZ, Essay on Architecture of the Hindus, 1934 TADGELL Christopher, History of Architecture in India, 1990 TAKEO KAMIYA, Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent (English Ed), Goa, 2004 POST SCRIPT Managing a span of time from 8th c BC to

the 20th c AD in the format of an Article is actually avoidable! To restrict the coverage to the study of the impacts of Place and Time on Architecture did not, initially seem impossible. Conventional art-historical approach taken in the vast amount of literature emphasizing styles, their character, origins, development and cultural background etc. was not adopted. Instead, the Continental Comparative Method was found suitable. This method hop-step-and-jumps in the subcontinent while retaining a time-frame. A number of Time-Line studiesare based on this method. Interesting paradigm shifts have emerged but need for restricting the number of textual and visual references may have missed out the important ones. The changing cultural milleu of the subcontinent, intricate and confusing as it is even today, added to the woes of writing. As if this was not enough, the temptation of including Havells own views could not be overcome, albeit at the risk of sharp reaction to or willful acceptance of his views from some readers.

CONCLUSION
In conclusion, Havells view of the holistic nature of the Indo-Aryan civilization and its architecture indeed appears to be epigrammatic and based on his personal knowledge and experience of over a hundred years ago. He believed that the whole synthesis of Indian life and thought from times of Asoka written down in its craft traditions is a record of a great civilization to which the whole world is indebted. We have thus, before us the very drastically differing strong view points.

S A Deshpande is Professor of Architecture (Emeritus), Design Chair & Academic Consultant, LAD and PCEA Colleges, Nagpur. He developed methods for teaching design and history of architecture and is a guide for Ph D at VNIT Nagpur. He has published and presented over 50 papers at National / International Seminars. He was Past President IIA 19921994, Head Dept. of Arch & UP, VRCE Nagpur 1966 - 1992 and IIA Gold Medal recipient for Lifetime contribution to Architecture Education. Acknowledgement & Photo Credit: Photographs by Takeo Kamiya (2, 5, 7, 8, 9, 11, 13, 14a, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22) and others by the Author.

October 2007 ARCHITECTURE - Time Space & People 33