COMPUTER SOFTWARE

• It is sometimes called "firmware" to indicate that it falls into an uncertain area

somewhere between hardware and software.
A. Application Software: software that can perform useful work on general purpose
I. Custom Made Software – software designed for a particular customer.
II. Packaged Software:
1. Word processing: allows a person to use a computer to create, save edit, and
print documents.
2. Spreadsheets: used for budgets, forecasting, and other finance-related tasks. In a
spreadsheet program, data and formulas to calculate those data are entered into ledgerlike
forms (spreadsheets or worksheets) for analysis, tracking, planning, or “what if” evaluations
of the impacts of real or proposed changes on an economic strategy.
4. Graphics : enables users to present information in the form of charts and graphs or
to create complex freehand work.
5. Communications: manages the transmission of data between computers over wired
of wireless channels.

2. Windows : personal computer operating system sold by Microsoft Corporation

that allows users to enter commands with a point-and-click device, such as a mouse, instead
of a keyboard.
3. OS/2: developed for the personal computer in the mid-1980’s by International
Business Machines Corporation (IBM) and Microsoft Corporation.
4. Macintosh Operating System : runs only on Macintosh computers, made by
Apple Corporation.
5. UNIX (Uniplexed Information and Computing System): a powerful multi-user,
multitasking operating system that is considered a very powerful operating system, UNIX is
written in the C language and can be installed on virtually any computer.

Types of Programming Languages

• Programming Language in computer science, artificial language used to write a
sequence of instructions (a computer program) that can be run by a computer.
• Similar to natural languages, such as English, programming languages have a
vocabulary, grammar, and syntax. However, natural language are not suited for
programming computers because they are ambiguous, meaning that their vocabulary
and grammatical structure may be interpreted in multiple ways.
• The languages used to program computers must have simple logical structures, and
the rules for their grammar, spelling, and punctuation must be precise.

A. First Generation: Machine Language

• A low-level programming language that can be understood directly by a computer’s
central processing unit (CPU).

B. Second Generation: Assembly Language

• A type of low-level computer programming language in which each statement
corresponds directly to a single machine instructions. It provides precise control of the
computer.

C. Third Generation: High Level Languages

I. Compiler – a language translator that converts the entire program of a high level language
into machine language LATER.
II. Interpreter – a language translator that converts each high level language into machine
language and executes it immediately, statement by statement.

D. Fourth Generation: Very High Level Languages

• Often called a 4GL. It is much more user oriented and allow programmers to develop
programs with fewer commands compared with the third generation language.
I. Report Generations: also called a report writer. It is a program for end-users that is used to
produce a report.
II. Query Languages: an easy-to-use language for retrieving data from a database
management system.
III. Application Generators: a programmer’s tool that allows a person to give a detailed
explanation of what data needs to be processed. The software then generates the code needed
to create a program to perform the task.

E. Fifth Generation: Natural Languages

• Allows questions or commands to be framed in a more conversational why or in
alternative forms.

Principal Programming Languages Used Today

I. FORTRAN (Formula Translator)– The Language of Mathematics and the First High Level
Language
II. COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language) – The Language of Business
III. BASIC: The Easy Language
IV. PASCAL: The Simple Language
V. C: For Portability and Scientific Use
VI. ADA: A Possible New S
COUNTING PRINCIPLE
 If the first experiment can be performed in M distinct ways and a second experiment
can be performed in N distinct ways, then the two experiments in that specific order
can be performed in MxN distinct ways.
 Fundamental principle of counting often referred to as the multiplication rule.
Theorems
Theorem 1
Multiplication rule
If an operation can be performed in n ways, and if for each of these a second
operation can be performed in n1 ways, then the two operations can be performed together in
n1 n2 ways.
Example 1
How many sample points are in the sample space when a pair of dice is thrown once?

Solution:
The first die can land in any 6 ways. For each of these 6 ways the second die can also
land in 6 ways.
Therefore, the pair of dice can land in
(6) (6) = 36 ways.

Theorem 2
Generalize multiplication rule
If an operation can be performed in n1 ways, if for each of these a second operation
can be performed in n2 ways, if for each of the first two a third operation can be performed in
n3 ways, and so on, then the sequence of k operations can be performed in n1 n2 ... nk
ways.
Example 2
How many lunches are possible consisting of soup, a sandwich, dessert, and a drink if
one can select from 4 soups, 3 kinds of sandwiches, 5 desserts, and 4 drinks?
Solution:
The total number of lunches would be
(4) (3) (5) (4) = 240

PERMUTATION
 A permutation is an arrangement of all part of a set of objects.
 Is any ordered arrangement of a given set of objects.
Three letters a, b and c. possible permutations are abc, acb, bac, bca, cab & cba.
Solution:
(3) (2) (1) = 6 permutation
 n distinct objects can be arranged in n(n-1) (n-2)….(3) (2) (1) ways
 represent the product by the symbol n! read as “n factorial”
3! = (3) (2) (1) = 6 by definition 1! = 1 and 0! = 1

Theorem 3
The number of permutations of n distinct objects is n!
Four letters a, b, c and d 4! = 24
4 letters at a time ab, ac, ba, ca, da, bc, cb, bd, db, cd and dc using theorem 1, we can have 2
positions to fill with, 4 choices for the first and 3 choices for the second, a total of (4) (3) =12
permutations.
In general, n distinct objects taken r at a time can be arranged in n (n-1) (n-2)… (n-r+1)
ways.
We represents this product by the symbol nPr=n!/(n-r)!
Theorem 4
The number of permutation of n distinct objects taken r at a time is nPr = n!/(n-r)!
Example 4
Two lottery tickets are drawn from 20 for first and second prizes. Find the number of
sample points in spaces.
Solution:
The total number of sample points S
20P2 = 20! /18! = (20) (19) =380
Circular permutations- permutations that occur by arranging objects in a circle.

Theorem 6
The number of distinct permutation of n things of which n, are of one kind, n2 of a
second kind… nk of a Kth kind is , n !/(n 1 !n2 ! ...nk!)
Example 5
How many different ways can 3 red, 4 yellow and 2 blue bulbs be arranged in a
string of Christmas tree lights with 9 sockets?
Solution:
The total number of distinct arrangement is 9! /3! 4! 2! = 1260

Theorem 7
The number of ways of partitioning a set of n objects into r cells with n1 elements in
the first cell, n2 elements in the
second, and so on, is (n 1 !nn2 ! ...nr)= n !/(n 1 !n2 ! ...nr!) , where n1 +n2+…
+nr =n.
Example 6:
How many ways can 7 people be assigned to 1 triple and 2 double rooms?
Solution. The total number of possible partitions would be (3,72, 2)=7!/3!2!2!=210

COMBINATIONS
 The number of ways of selecting r objects from n without regard to order.
 A combination creates a partition with 2 cells, one cell containing the r objects
selected and the other cell containing the n-r objects that are left.
 The number of such combinations, denoted by (r nn-r), is usually shortened to ( nr),
since the number of elements in the second cell must be n-r.

Theorem 8
The number of combinations of n distinct objects taken r at a time is (nr)=n!/r!(n-r)!
Example 8
From 4 Republicans and 3 Democrats find the number of committees of 3 that can be
formed with 2 Republicans and 1 Democrat.
Solution:
The number of ways of selecting 2 Republicans from 4 is ( 42) = 4/2! 2! = 6

The number of ways of selecting 1 Democrat from 3 is ( 31) = 3! / 1! 2! = 3 using theorem 1,

we find the number of committees that can be formed with 2 Republicans and 1 Democrat to
be
(6) (3) =18.
It is of interest to role that the number of permutations of their objects making up each of the
( nr) combinations in theorem 8 is r!. Consequently, the number of permutations of n distinct
objects taken r at a time is related to the number of combinations by the formula
nPr = ( nr) r!.